Land Use and Transport: European Research Towards Integrated Policies

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LAND USE AND TRANSPORT

Related Books Integrated Land-use and Transportation Models Martin Lee-Gosselin and Sean Doherty Urban Transport and the Environment: An International Perspective World Conference on Transport Research Society (Lyon, France) and the Institute for Transport Policy Studies (Tokyo, Japan) Logistics Systems for Sustainable Cities: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on City Logistics (Madeira, Portugal, 25–27 June, 2003) Eiichi Taniguchi and R. G. Thompson Handbook of Transport Strategy, Policy & Institutions (Handbooks in Transport 6) Kenneth J. Button and David A. Hensher Handbook of Transport Geography and Spatial Systems (Handbooks in Transport 5) David A. Hensher, Kenneth J. Button, Kingsley E. Haynes, and Peter Stopher

Related Journals Transportation Research Part A, Policy and Practice Editor: P.B. Goodwin Transport Policy Editor: M. Ben-Akiva Land Use Policy Editor: G. Robinson Journal of Transport Geography Editor: Richard D. Knowles Transportation Research Part D: Transport and the Environment Editor: Kenneth Button

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LAND USE AND TRANSPORT

European Research Towards Integrated Policies

Edited by STEPHEN MARSHALL Bartlett School of Planning,

University College London,

London, UK

DAVID BANISTER Transport Studies Unit,

Oxford University Centre for the Environment,

Oxford, UK

Amsterdam – Boston – Heidelberg – London – New York – Oxford

Paris – San Diego – San Francisco – Singapore – Sydney – Tokyo

Elsevier The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands First edition 2007 Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: [email protected]. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-08-044891-6 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at books.elsevier.com Printed and bound in the United Kingdom 07 08 09 10 11

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Contents

Contributors

vii

Biographies

ix

1

Introduction Stephen Marshall and David Banister

1

Part I

Context

5

2

Land Use and Transport: The Context David Banister, Stephen Marshall and David Blackledge

7

3

Themes and Relationships Michael Wegener

19

Part II

Policy Perspectives

35

4

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies Carlo Sessa

37

5

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport Philine Gaffron, Uwe Schubert, Franz Skala and Tina Wagner

71

6

Promoting Cycling for Public Health Pascal J.W. van den Noort

105

7

A Land-Use – Transport Vision Ann Jopson

133

Part III

Policy Assessment

151

8

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development Kari Lautso and Michael Wegener

153

9

Urban Sprawl and Transport Sylvia Gayda and Kari Lautso

177

10

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design Linda Steg, Judith de Groot, Sonja Forward, Clemens Kaufmann, Ralf Risser, Karel Schmeidler, Lucia Martincigh and Luca Urbani

217

11

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives Eric Monami, Sander Kooijman and Hugues Duchâteau

245

vi Contents Part IV

Policy Tools

275

12

Arterial Streets: Towards an Integrated Approach Åse Svensson and Stephen Marshall

277

13

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task Kari Rauhala

293

14

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies Emanuele Negrenti

313

15

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport Anthony D. May and Bryan Matthews

335

Part V

Outcomes

363

16

Lessons for Policy David Blackledge, Anthony D. May and Michael Wegener

365

17

A Research Agenda David Banister, Stephen Marshall and Anthony May

375

Index

387

Contributors

DAVID BANISTER

Transport Studies Unit, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, Oxford, OX1 3QY

DAVID BLACKLEDGE

Transport and Travel Research Ltd (TTR), Minster House, Minster Pool Walk, Lichfield, Staffordshire, WS13 6QT, UK

HUGUES DUCHÂTEAU

STRATEC s.a. Avenue A. Lacomblé, 69–71 B-1030 Brussels, Belgium

JUDITH DE GROOT

University of Groningen, Experimental and Work Psychology, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, 9712 TS Groningen, The Netherlands

SONJA FORWARD

Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute, 581 95 Linköping, Sweden

PHILINE GAFFRON

Hamburg University of Technology, AB 1-10 Transportation and Logistics, Schwarzenbergstr. 95, 21071 Hamburg, Germany

SYLVIE GAYDA

STRATEC s.a. Avenue Adolphe Lacomblé, 69–71 B-1030 Brussels, Belgium

ANN JOPSON

Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT

CLEMENS KAUFMANN

FACTUM OHG, Danhausergasse 6/4, A-1040 Wien, Austria

SANDER KOOIJMAN

BUITEN Consultancy, Economy & Environment, Achter St. Pieter 160, 3512 HT Utrecht, The Netherlands

KARI LAUTSO

WSP LT Consultants, Heikkiläntie 7, 00210 Helsinki, Finland

STEPHEN MARSHALL

Bartlett School of Planning, University College London, Wates House, 22 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0QB, UK

LUCIA MARTINCIGH

DiPSA-Dipartimento di Progettazione e Studio dell’Architettura, Facoltà di Architettura - Università degli Studi Roma Tre, P.zza della Repubblica, 10 - 00185 Roma, Italy

BRYAN MATTHEWS

Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, 38 University Road, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK

ANTHONY D MAY

Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK

ERIC MONAMI

STRATEC s.a. Avenue A. Lacomblé, 69–71, box 8 B-1030 Brussels, Belgium

EMANUELE NEGRENTI

ENEA – ENE – TEC, C. R. CASACCIA , Via Anguillarese 301, S. Maria di Galeria - 00060, Rome, Italy

KARI RAUHALA

Asematie 14 B 9, FIN-02700 Kauniainen, Finland

RALF RISSER

FACTUM OHG, Danhausergasse 6/4, A-1040 Wien, Austria

KAREL SCHMEIDLER

Head of Social and Human Aspects of Transport Section, Transport Research Centre – CDV, Vinohrady 10, Brno CZ – 639 00, Czech Republic

UWE SCHUBERT

Institute for Regional Development and Environment, Department for Social Sciences, Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration, Nordbergstrasse 15, B/4 A-1090, Vienna

viii Contributors CARLO SESSA

Institute of Studies for the Integration of Systems, Via Flaminia 21, 00196 Rome, Italy

FRANZ SKALA

Institute for Regional Development and Environment, Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration, Nordbergstrasse 15, B/4 A–1090, Vienna

LINDA STEG

University of Groningen, Department of Psychology, Grote Kruisstraat 2/I, 9712 TS Groningen, The Netherlands

ÅSE SVENSSON

Department of Technology and Society, Lund University, Box 118, SE-22100 LUND, Sweden

LUCA URBANI

IBV – Willi Hüsler Ag, Olgastrasse 4, CH-8001 Zurich, Switzerland

PASCAL J.W. VAN DEN NOORT

Velo Mondial, Kleine-Gartmanplantsoen 20, 1017 RR Amsterdam, The Netherlands

TINA WAGNER

Hamburg University of Technology, AB 1-10 Transportation and Logistics, Schwarzenbergstr. 95, 21071 Hamburg, Germany

MICHAEL WEGENER

Spiekermann & Wegener, Urban and Regional Research (S&W), Lindemannstrasse 10, 44137 Dortmund, Germany

Biographies David Banister is Professor of Transport Studies at the Oxford University Centre for the Environment. Until recently he was Professor of Transport Planning at University College London. He has also been Research Fellow at the Warren Centre in the University of Sydney (2001–2002) on the Sustainable Transport for a Sustainable City project and was Visiting VSB Professor at the Tinbergen Institute in Amsterdam (1994–1997). He will be a visiting Professor at the University of Bodenkultur in Vienna in 2007. He is a Trustee of the Civic Trust and Chair of their Policy Committee (2005–2009). Prof. Banister has authored and edited 18 books that summarise his own research and some of the international projects that he has been involved with. He has also authored (or co-authored) more than 100 papers in international refereed journals, together with a similar number of other papers in journals or as contributions to books. David Blackledge is Corporate Director of Transport & Travel Research Ltd, UK. He is a transport economist with more than 30 years experience in public transport planning and economics. He has worked with many local authorities in UK, providing advice and managing projects involving strategic planning, concessionary fares, alternative fuels, advanced vehicle technologies, personal security, and passenger information. He has directed a number of projects for the UK Department for Transport including research into information systems, Accessible Coaches and Kneeling Buses. He has also directed a number of collaborative research and demonstration projects involving cities across Europe, including CATCH (transport and environment), EDICT (evaluation and demonstration of Personal Rapid Transit) and PLUME (land-use and transport planning). Hugues Duchâteau is Chief Executive Officer of STRATEC, Brussels. He graduated in Civil Engineering from the Faculté Polytechnique de Mons and has almost 30 years of experience in leading transportation planning, travel behaviour studies, land use and regional planning, and environmental assessment of projects in Belgium as well as abroad. He started his career in the Department of Public Economy Studies at the Société d’Economie et de Mathématique Appliquée (SOBEMAP), which he left in 1984 to found STRATEC. Judith de Groot is a PhD candidate in Department of Psychology at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. Her main fields of expertise are social, traffic and environ mental psychology. She has conducted several studies on car use, and more generally, sustainable transportation. Her dissertation focuses on the relationship between values, attitudes and prosocial and proenvironmental behaviour. Judith de Groot is interested in applied as well as fundamental research. Sonja Forward is a Director of Research at The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute. She is Deputy Chairperson at the Swedish pedestrian association and a member of TRB’s Pedestrian committee. Her main research interest includes the use

x Biographies of psychological models to predict modal choice and traffic violations but also how to modify deviant behaviours. Philine Gaffron is working as a senior researcher at the Transportation and Logis tics Group of the Hamburg University of Technology, Germany. She has moved from a degree in ecology via a postgraduate qualification as a landscape designer to a dissertation in transport planning. She has gathered research experience in national and international projects on implementation issues in (integrated) urban transport planning, interdependencies and evaluation of transport and space as well as infrastructure financing. She is also involved in teaching engineering and town planning students and is a member of the German association for regional and town planning (SRL). Homepage: http://www.vsl.tu-harburg.de/vsl_2/1arbeitsbereich/ i_mitarbeiterx?welche_id=4&liste=0. Sylvie Gayda is Senior Project Manager in the consultancy company STRATEC based in Brussels, specialised in transport planning and urban/regional development. She has more than 15 years experience in the field of trip demand modelling and demand management policies. She has developed a thorough expertise in two fields: first, stated preference surveys and discrete choice models ; secondly, land-use/transport modelling and planning. In relation with stated preference, she led among others several studies on traffic forecasts for new High Speed Lines in France, the mode choice modelling for the future Seine North Europe canal and the demand forecast study for the future Charles de Gaulle Express (dedicated rail service between the CDG airport and Paris – Gare de l’Est). On the other hand, she took part in many European research projects, among other projects in relation with land-use/transport (ESTEEM, TRACE, PROPOLIS, SCATTER). In particular, she was coordinator of the SCATTER project. Dr Ann Jopson is a Research Fellow at the Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds. Her research interests are in travel behaviour psychology, transport market ing, planning and policy (including land-use transport interactions), with emphasis on attitudinal and behavioural measures, and social aspects of transport. Specifically, her expertise are in the role of social psychology in enhancing our understanding of human reactions to land-use and transport policies, and appraisal of qualitative policy objec tives, with regard to improving effectiveness of sustainability measures. She has worked on European and UK research projects for the European Commission, UK Department for Transport and research councils. Clemens Kaufmann studied Sociology at the University of Vienna. From 1998 to 1999, he was a freelancer at FACTUM, and since 1999, he is an employee of FACTUM. He is involved in several national and international projects (e.g. communication strategies for increased motorcyclist safety, alternative public transport in Austria, Assess implementa tion in the frame of Cities of Tomorrow, implementation work in Vienna, etc.), specialist on qualitative survey techniques like in-depth interviews, behaviour observation (Wiener Fahrprobe) and workshops. He is secretary of the International Co-operation on Theo ries and Concepts in Traffic Safety.

Biographies xi Sander Kooijman, after his study of Spatial Planning at Nijmegen University, joined Buck Consultants International (BCI), a Dutch consultancy in the fields of economy, freight transport and regional development in 1989. In 1994, Sander took the position of Senior Consultant Economics, Spatial Planning, Transport and Infrastructure at BCI. He conducted and co-ordinated numerous studies in the field of freight transport, both at a national and international level. From 2004 to 2005, Sander acted as chairman of the ELITE-network, a professional network of renowned European consultancies in the fields of logistics, infrastructure and transport. At the end of 2005, Sander became partner and (co) managing director in BUITEN Consultancy for Economy & Environment, Utrecht, The Netherlands, where he is responsible for project management and co-ordination, product development and general management tasks. Kari Lautso is an urban and transport research and planning specialist with extensive experience of transport-related research and planning on international, national and local levels. At WSP LT-Consultants Ltd. he is Member of Board and Deputy CEO in charge of international operations of the company’s research activities. In addition to consulting, Mr. Lautso has been employed by Helsinki University of Technology as laboratory engineer, leader of postgraduate courses and associate professor (traffic and transport planning). He has worked on several national and international projects involving integrated land-use and transport planning research, including the EC projects SPARTACUS and PROPOLIS that he co-ordinated. Other EC projects include SCAT TER, CITY FREIGHT and PLUME. In Finland, he has worked for Rail and Road Administrations and the Helsinki Metropolitan area Council in several strategic trans port research and planning projects. Mr. Lautso has published about 70 conference papers in national and international conferences. Stephen Marshall is Senior Lecturer at the Bartlett School of Planning, University College London, UK. Dr Marshall has 15 years’ experience in transport and planning fields. He has worked on several UK and international projects involving integrated land use and transport planning research, including the EC projects TRANSLAND, TRANSPLUS, ARTISTS and PLUME; and the UK project SOLUTIONS (Sustainability Of Land Use and Transport In Outer Neighbourhoods). He has several publications encompassing urban design, planning and transport fields, and has authored or contributed to seven books, including Encouraging Transport Alternatives and Streets and Patterns. Lucia Martincigh is an architect, Associate Professor of Technology of Architecture at the University of Roma Tre, Rome, Italy. She is a lecturer at Doctorate and Post graduation national and international courses and also a National Delegate in various Actions of the EC Cost Program. Lucia Martincigh is responsible for Italian and European researches on sustainable mobility and urban upgrading and design, including PROMISING, PROMT and SIZE. She is also a scientific co-ordinator, chairperson and lecturer at several national and international conferences and exhibitions. Her works include articles in specialized magazines, essays and books at national and international level. She is also a co-ordinator of interdisciplinary groups in DiPSA for the elaboration Pilot Projects. Bryan Matthews is a Senior Research Fellow at the Institute for Transport Studies at the University of Leeds, UK. He has 10 years research and consultancy experience focused

xii Biographies on transport economics. Much of his work has been on international research projects, including the EC projects PROSPECTS, ASTRAL and PLUME; and the international Knowledgebase on Sustainable Land-Use and Transport (KonSULT). He has several publications encompassing transport economics and planning, and served as contributor and co-editor (with Chris Nash) for volume 14 of the Research in Transport Economics series on “Measuring the Marginal Social Cost of Transport” (2005). Tony May has over 35 years’ experience in transport planning and traffic engineering. His principal research interests at Leeds have focused on urban transport and sustainability. He has served as Director of ITS, Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Pro Vice Chancellor for Research. He was elected to Fellowship of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1995 and awarded the OBE for services to transport engineering in 2004. Between 1985 and 2001, he maintained a link between research and teaching at Leeds and practical experience in consultancy with MVA Ltd, of which he was a director. Eric Monami, during his 15 years as researcher, consultant and ministerial advisor in transport and environment, he has contributed to or co-ordinated several projects for the European Commission, the American Transportation Research Board and a number of ministries and businesses in Belgium. His work has centred mainly on contracting mechanisms and service quality and environmental impacts assessments in both freight and passenger transports. Dr Monami has been an advisor to the Belgian Minister of Mobility and Transport, the Walloon Minister of Transport and the Brussels Minister for the Environment. He is the author of several articles on European railway reforms. Emanuele Negrenti is Project Manager at ENEA, the Italian Agency for Energy, Environ ment and Innovative Technologies. Dr Negrenti has 14 experiences in transport impacts and planning fields. He has worked on several Italian and international projects involv ing transport planning, transport impacts, pollutant emissions modelling, evaluation of transport and transport telematic systems. The European experience is based on FP3 QUARTET and KITE Projects, THERMIE JUPITER Project, COST319 and COST 346 Actions, FP4 COMMUTE, ESTEEM, CAPITALS and CAPITALS PLUS Projects, FP5 ISHTAR (Co-ordinator), HEARTS, INTEGAIRE, ASTRAL and PLUME Projects. He has several international publications on transport impacts fields. Kari Rauhala is architect, lately Senior Research Scientist at VTT (Technical Research Centre of Finland) Building and Transport. Kari Rauhala worked at VTT from 1974 until his retirement in summer 2005. His specialities have been urban planning economics, urban energy consumption, climate and housing, urban quality, environmental impacts, urban shape and transport, pedestrian environment as well as design methods and principles. He has participated in several EC projects, the latest being PROMPT (New Means to Promote Pedestrian Traffic in Cities) and ECOCITY (Urban development towards Appropriate Structures for Sustainable Transport). He was the co-ordinator of the PROMPT project. He has written several publications and articles as well as papers on national and international conferences. Ralf Risser is an Assistant Professor and Lecturer at the University of Vienna and at the Technical University of Vienna. He is visiting professor at the Institute of Technology

Biographies xiii and Society, Technical University Lund, Sweden. He works in several EU Projects. Secretary International Co-operation on Theories and Concepts in Traffic safety; Chair ing committee member of the NORBIT group (Nordic Organisation for Behaviour in Traffic). His work involves attitude and acceptance, marketing and motive research as a basis for social management. He is a specialist on qualitative survey techniques, behaviour observation (Developer of the Wiener Fahrprobe and derivatives), heuristic procedures like workshops etc., and group-dynamics-based creative and training mea sures. Karel Schmeidler is Senior Researcher and Head of the S15 Department at CDV – Trans port Research Centre and Associated Professor for Urban Design and Planning at the Faculty of Architecture, Technical University Brno, Czech Republic. Dr Schmeidler has 30 years’ experience in transport and planning fields. He has worked on several national and international research projects involving architecture, design, urban planning, inte grated land-use and transport planning research, including the EC projects SIZE, ASI, ADVISORS, COST 616 CITIAIR, COST 349, COST 352 and COST 355 projects, Central European University Fellowships (Soros Foundation Projects) and HUMANIST Centre of Excellence and many important national CZ projects funded by the Czech Grant Agency and some Czech ministries and universities. He has dozens of publications encompassing architecture, urban design, urban sociology, planning and transport fields, and has authored or contributed to several books, including Sociologie v architektonicke a urbanisticke tvorbe (Brno 1997 and reprinted 2001). Uwe Schubert studied law and economics in Vienna and San Diego, California. Until 2006, he was chairman of the Institute of Economic Geography, Regional Development and the Environment at the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administra tion. He held the chair in Environmental Economics and Management. His main research fields are urban development and environmental economics and policy. Since 1975, he has been active in comparative development research. He served as co-ordinator of sev eral national as well as European projects (e.g. ENVINNO, EASY-ECO, ECOCITY). Now he is Professor Emeritus. Carlo Sessa was in charge of the co-ordination of the European research project TRANSPLUS – Transport Planning Land Use and Sustainability. He is president of ISIS – Institute of Studies for the Integration of Systems of Rome. Before joining ISIS in 1983, he has conducted research at NYU, where he worked with Nobel Prize winner Wassily Leontieff. He was project co-ordinator or partner in several EU research projects, includ ing ACT-VILL and ESTEEM for DGXII, and recently the RAISE Citezens Conference on EU research for the City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage. Franz Skala studied civil engineering at the Technical University Vienna (not com pleted); he is co-author of publications in the field of transport and environment – for example, Flexibility in Public Transportation (Flexibler Oeffentlicher Verkehr, VCOE Verkehrsclub Oesterreich 1996), co-operated in projects (e.g. Study for a pilot project for integrated transport in rural areas for the region Waidhofen an der Thaya) and initiated the multi-disciplinary association “Institute of Ecological Urban Development”. For the

xiv Biographies ECOCITY–project, he was employed at the Department of Environmental Economics and Management of the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration. Linda Steg is lecturer in Environmental Psychology at the University of Groningen. She conducted many studies within the field of Environmental and Traffic Psychology, and is particularly interested in studying individual and corporate behaviour related to sustainable development from a multidisciplinary perspective. Her research focuses on measuring, understanding and changing environmentally significant behaviour, like household energy use and car use. Steg is president-elect of Division 4 ‘Environmen tal Psychology’, and treasurer of Division 13 ‘Traffic Transportation Psychology’ of the international Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP). Furthermore, she coordi nates the sustainability network of the International Association of People-Environment Studies (IAPS). Åse Svensson is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Technology and Society, Lund University, Sweden. Dr Svensson’s main background is in the area of traffic safety research, validation of the Swedish Traffic Conflicts Technique and further development of the concept towards general severity rating of interactive behaviour. She was co ordinator of EC project ARTISTS and is now project leader of a doctoral student project with the aim of adapting and developing ARTISTS concepts to Swedish conditions. She is also heading a doctoral student project in the area of developing and utilising cognitive vision for studies and analysis of road user behaviour. Luca Urbani is expert in the field of transport planning, transport infrastructures and traffic safety, now by IBV – Ingenieurbüro für Verkehrplannung – Zurich. Luca Urbani has almost 10 years of research experience in the field of traffic safety with particular regard to behavioural patterns and vulnerable road users. He has worked in several Italian and international research projects, including the EC founded PROMISING – Promoting of Measures for vulnerable road users (1997), PROMPT – New means to PROMote Pedestrian Traffic in cities (2003) and ASI – Assessing Implementation (2005) as external senior researcher within the Department of Design and Study of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, University Roma Tre. On these and other topics. Dr Urbani has several publications presented at international conferences. Pascal J.W. van den Noort is Executive Director of Master Plan BV and of Velo Mondial and Velo.Info. He has vast experience in founding (inter)national and global organiza tions, projects, conferences and events. He was the founder and Executive Director of the Dutch Aids Foundation and of the Global Network of People Living with HIV/AIDS (GNP+). For Master Plan BV, he is involved in the setting up of research projects that promote sustainable urban development and specializes in making information for sus tainability better available. For Velo Mondial and Velo.Info, he initiates, promotes and organizes innovative developments with passion. Tina Wagner is working as a researcher at the Transportation and Logistics Group of the Hamburg University of Technology, Germany. Tina Wager is a younger transport planner with experiences in research and consulting on the European, national and regional level. Her research focus is on integrated planning. She has worked on several

Biographies xv projects involving sustainable land use and transportation (e.g. ECOCITY), integration of transport infrastructure into urban environments, air traffic and commercial and goods traffic. Michael Wegener was until 2003, Director of the Institute of Spatial Planning and Professor at the Faculty of Spatial Planning of the University of Dortmund, Germany. Since 2003, he is a partner in Spiekermann & Wegener, Urban and Regional Research in Dortmund. His main research fields are planning theory, urban and regional develop ment, European urban systems and trans-European networks. His specialisation is urban and regional modelling, in particular of the land-use transport interface in cities and regions and of the regional impacts of European large transport infrastructure projects.

The Projects and Initiatives Featured in This Book LUTR

Land Use and Transport Research (cluster of projects)

(http://www.lutr.net/)

PLUME

PLanning and Urban Mobility in Europe (network)

(http://www.lutr.net/)

Individual Projects ARTISTS

Arterial Streets Towards Sustainability

(http://www.tft.lth.se/Artists)

ASI

Assess Implementations in the frame of the Cities of

Tomorrow Programme

(www.factum.at/asi)

CITYFREIGHT

Inter- and Intra- CityFreight Distribution Networks

(http://www.cityfreight.eu/)

ECOCITY

Urban Development Towards Appropriate Structures for

Sustainable Transport

(http://www.ecocityprojects.net)

ISHTAR

Integrated Software for Health, Transport Efficiency and

Artistic Heritage Recovery

(http://www.ishtar-fp5-eu.com/)

PROMPT

New Means to Promote Pedestrian Traffic in Cities

(http://prompt.vtt.fi)

PROPOLIS

Planning and Research for Land Use and Transport for

Increasing Urban Sustainability

(http://www.ltcon.fi/propolis)

PROSPECTS

Procedures for Recommending Optimal Sustainable Planning

of European City Transport Systems

(http://www-ivv.tuwien.ac.at/projects/prospects.html)

SCATTER

Sprawling Cities and Transport: from Evaluation to

Recommendations

(http://scatter.stratec.be)

SUTRA

Sustainable Urban Transportation

(http://www.ess.co.at/SUTRA)

TRANSPLUS

Transport Planning, Land Use and Sustainability

(http://www.transplus.net/)

VELOINFO

The European Network for Cycling Expertise

(http://www.velo.info/)

Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 1 Introduction Stephen Marshall and David Banister

The distribution of different land uses in different locations stimulates the demand for transport, and the supply of transport enables the distribution of different land uses in different locations. In this simple statement are bound up the logic of transport geography, accessibility, land management and property markets, an implied division of labour and associated economic geography; and hence the professional concerns of various kinds of urban and spatial planner, transport planner and highway engineer, public transport and logistics operator, employer, retailer and developer; and ultimately the travel and location decisions made by every citizen. Despite the inherent logical complementarity of land use and transport – the interconnectedness of their causes and effects – each has tended to be pursued within different spheres of professional attention: in particular, land use planning and transport planning. These disciplines have not always been as well integrated as they might be. From the point of view of knowledge, there is not always a clear understanding of land use and transport relationships and the complex effects of policies on outcomes. From the point of view of action, there is not necessarily a clear consensus of how best to link the different kinds of land use and transport policy instruments, institutions and infrastructures; how to link incentives to ‘more sustainable’ outcomes with disincentives to ‘less sustainable’ ones; or what are the potential benefits of the different combinations of possible measures. The challenge of how to link land use and transport policy has existed for many years, but has remained unsolved, in part due to the inter-professional divide between land use planning and transport planning and in part due to inadequate channels of commu nication between researchers, planning officials and policy-makers. This can result in frustrated causes: state-of-the-art projects based on out-of-date research, novel research addressing old problems, new data feeding old models and generally ‘left hands’ not knowing what ‘right hands’ are doing. It is against this backdrop that there has been a recognition of the need to undertake research that fills gaps and forges new links between land use planning and transport 1

2 S. Marshall and D. Banister planning, while also disentangling and hence clarifying the complex web of issues that is currently known to bind different aspects of land use and transport planning. This book offers a collection of results from a recent programme of research into integrated land use and transport issues to contribute to this fundamental and ongoing debate. The intention is to be able to contribute to better understanding and ultimately to better land use and transport integration. The book draws from the Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR) cluster of the European Union (EU) ‘Cities of Tomorrow’ programme. In total, there are 12 individual projects in the LUTR programme, in addition a 13th initiative – a network known as PLUME (PLanning and Urban Mobility in Europe) which has served to synthesise results across different research themes and to engage with end-user cities, in order to inform the policy-making process (for more details, see Box page in Prelims; Table 2.3, Chapter 2). The 12 LUTR projects comprise the work of dozens of partners, featuring dozens of cities across almost every European Commission (EC) country, taking place largely over a 6-year period (2000–2005). This book does not attempt to provide a comprehensive summary of findings from this programme, since these are already available elsewhere. Each project has its own web site and set of reports detailing the project research, methods and findings. Additionally, PLUME provides a series of ‘synthesis reports’ on specialised themes that cut across the subject matter of the individual LUTR projects (for more details, see Chapter 3). Rather, the intention of this book is to provide an introduction to this body of research, in two principal ways. First, the book provides a general overview of the main issues and implications of the research, which draws primarily from the LUTR projects themselves and also integrates this with wider knowledge of land use and transport planning in the European context. Secondly, the book provides more detailed insights into specific issues drawn from individual projects. It is hoped that both of these approaches offer useful points of entry to the larger body of research from which they are drawn. The remainder of this book is arranged in five parts: with Parts I and V dealing with the more general issues referred to above, and Parts II, III and IV focusing on specific LUTR projects. Part I provides an introduction to the context of the topic of land use and transport, and the LUTR research programme (Chapter 2), together with a presentation of the main issues and findings from the research (Chapter 3). Part II is broadly focused on policy perspectives. Chapter 4 discusses existing best practice for integrated policies (TRANSPLUS); Chapter 5 addresses the realisation of an urban vision for a sustainable settlement based on sustainable mobility and accessibility (ECOCITY); Chapter 6 addresses planning for promoting cycling (VELOINFO), while Chapter 7 presents a future vision of a sustainable settlement in 2030, looking back on what has been achieved (PLUME).

Introduction 3 Part III then shifts to the assessment of policies. Chapters 8 and 9 present the results of modelling-based studies evaluating the results of testing different policy combinations, the former for urban areas in general (PROPOLIS), the latter focusing on urban sprawl and public transport (SCATTER). The second two chapters in this section then address some aspects that are sometimes under-represented in integrated land use trans port research: Chapter 10 addresses the assessment of ‘Quality of Life’ issues (ASI), while Chapter 11 addresses the assessment of urban freight distribution initiatives (CITYFREIGHT). We then move to look at some specific tools and methods that have been developed within the LUTR projects. Chapter 12 discusses approaches appropriate for the man agement of arterial streets (ARTISTS), while Chapter 13 discusses a particular approach to generating solutions to problems, dealing with pedestrians from a human perspective (PROMPT). Chapter 14 reports on an integrative software tool devised to support land use and transport planning (ISHTAR), while Chapter 15 reports on means of improv ing decision-making for sustainable urban transport, culminating in the development of guidebooks for decision-makers (PROSPECTS). Finally, Part V provides some final reflections on the LUTR research programme: first, providing lessons for policy (Chapter 16) and finally providing suggestions for a future LUTR agenda (Chapter 17). Part I provides a general introduction to the rest of the book, while Part V leads out from the book to address further policy and research spheres. The chapters in Parts II–IV may be read selectively and not necessarily in the order presented. Chapter 3 provides a convenient reference point relating all of the individual projects reported in the other chapters. The LUTR projects, although having the common theme of integrating land use and transport planning issues, and although covering a breadth of issues across this common theme (Chapter 3), necessarily deal with different aspects with different emphases and levels of detail. As research projects are commissioned to address outstanding research gaps, these are in effect complementary to existing knowledge, and therefore are to some extent a selective collection of topics. Accordingly, the book does not cover to any great extent the economic, fiscal, financial and land value levers available – that are associated with either the transport or land use issues in isolation – although many of these measures (particularly pricing) are embedded in the quantitative and qualitative approaches used in each of the chapters. Nor does the book address the technological futures covered by alternative fuels, new vehicle design and materials and the Information and Communications Technologies (ICT). All these can obviously contribute strongly to the City of Tomorrow; however, the main focus here is on policies integrating land use and transport planning. Just as the LUTR projects themselves are selectively focused, the issues addressed in individual chapters in Parts II–IV are also in turn selective and are reflections on and complementary to the projects’ formal outputs. Of those chapters addressing a specific

4 S. Marshall and D. Banister LUTR project, each has been prepared by the project co-ordinator and its topic selected to give the most useful focus to serve the purpose of the book, whether by summarising key findings or by focusing on details of particular interest. The editors are thankful to all those who contributed to realising this book, not least the 27 contributing authors, and Chris Pringle, Philip Tite and Zo¨e La Roche at Elsevier, and Sumi Poduri of Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd. We should also like to thank Michael Wegener for providing constructive comments on the draft manuscript. Together, we are all thankful to our colleagues from the 12 projects and over 50 cities who have provided the original material from which the research in the book draws, including all the participants in surveys and workshops whose contribution have also benefited the book. We would also like to acknowledge the funding support for this research provided by the EC FP5 Cities of Tomorrow programme, and in particular the co-ordinating role and personal support of Eric Ponthieu. Fuller details of the research programme and projects are given in Table 2.3, Chapter 2.

Part I

Context

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 2 Land Use and Transport: The Context David Banister, Stephen Marshall and David Blackledge

2.1 INTRODUCTION Across Europe, cities face common challenges relating to air quality, noise, urban sprawl, traffic congestion, waste and security, while promoting wealth creation and social inclusion and maintaining the built environment, cultural heritage and a deteriorating infrastructure. The challenge is to improve the quality of life in urban communities, maintaining economic viability while promoting sustainable development. This involves developing competitive cities that benefit from the economic advantages brought about by globalisation, increasing GDP and higher levels of personal income. But it is also equally important to address social issues relating to the distribution of wealth and opportunity and to ensure that all people are ‘engaged’ in the inclusive city. Land use and transport issues intersect with these challenges – whether as part of the problem or as part of the solution. Central here is the fundamental question of how to improve land use and urban planning and to strengthen the links with sustainable urban transport. The principle barriers are institutional, legislative, financial, social and cultural (Banister and Marshall, 2000; ECMT, 2002). The new question is how to inte grate these distinct barriers at the policy level and operationally, given the different actors involved. It is against this backdrop that this book offers a dedicated analysis of integrated land use and transport issues to contribute to this fundamental and ongoing debate.

2.2 THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE During the Industrial Revolution over 200 years ago, there was a mass exodus of people from the countryside seeking work, new opportunities and greater wealth in the cities. The social structure of these new and growing cities was not able to meet the needs for shelter, for public services (like water and waste disposal), or for the treatment of 7

8 D. Banister et al. health. The public health requirements formed the original focus for action in the cities. For example, as a result of the cholera epidemics which swept Britain in 1832, 1848 and 1866, and the high infant mortality rates that followed, a series of Public Health Acts (1848 and 1875) set up the administrative and financial arrangements, which together with the Local Government Acts of 1888 and 1894, formed the statutory basis for planning in Britain (Hall, 2002). Since that time, urban planning has continuously struggled for its own identity as it has interfaces with so many aspects of society. Early in the century, it was grappling with market forces that were transforming the city into a more complex entity. This was replaced later with the decline of the central city and the decentralisation of people and activities to the suburbs. Various problems such as housing and the homeless, the unemployed and the underclass, and the construction of new infrastructure and urban renewal have repeatedly been central to the concerns of planning, but often in different guises. In the USA, urban planning has evolved from city planning and social science, but in continental Europe, the tradition is based more on physical design, while in the UK there is a mixed approach (Alonso, 1966). The nature of planning is also different to many other disciplines as the methods and processes are eclectic, often being borrowed from other disciplines. Similarly, there is a strong desire for action, not just knowledge. More recently, the environment has become a new focus for land use and urban plan ning. This is not the slum environment of the nineteenth century which sought to provide housing, clean water and sewerage for the burgeoning industrial cities, but a new con cern over the quality of the built and natural environment. People and business are now leaving the city as the perceived quality of life has deteriorated, and as modern lifestyles and activities no longer require such close proximity of homes, workplaces and other activities. Transport, particularly suburban rail and above all the car, has had an instrumental role in this decentralisation process. The city is thus a source of concern. From the viewpoint of urban economists, the city is involved in a permanent struggle between economies of scale and scope (localisation advantages, economies of density, etc.) and agglomeration diseconomies (congestion, pollution, criminality, etc.). Urban land use is reflecting this structural conflict of interest through the patterns of residential and locational ramifications (Fujita, 1989). As a result, the city is faced with a dynamic movement where compact ways of living and working on the one hand and deconcentrated patterns of living and working on the other hand (e.g. urban sprawl, the edge city) are in turn advocated. This has also provoked new debates on optimal city size (Abdel-Rahman and Fujita, 1990; Anas, 1990; Arnott et al., 1998; Gordon and Richardson, 1997). This new urban economic discussion on the optimal pattern and size of urban activities is directly and indirectly playing a major role in the current debate on sustainable cities. This debate has been most active with respect to the crucial role that transport has in achieving sustainable development. The catalyst for the debate was the study of 32 major world cities (Newman and Kenworthy, 1991) which claimed to demonstrate clear links between transport and urban form, at least at the city level. It was suggested that economic factors, such as petrol prices and income levels, were less important than

Land Use and Transport: The Context 9 direct interventions from planners through location strategies and investment in public transport. The reaction from the USA was strong, both on criticising the quality of the empirical analysis and on questioning the implications for urban policy. The basic disagreement is whether the promotion of compact cities is an appropriate planning goal (Ewing, 1997; Gordon and Richardson, 1997). On the one hand, there are those (principally Gordon and Richardson) who are strongly in favour of market forces for the allocation of land for development, for the decisions on residential densities, for the achievement of energy resource savings, for the promotion of city centre development, for the maintenance of competition between cities, for the examination of the equity implications of compactness and for the balancing of the impacts of suburbanisation. On the other hand, there are those (Banister, 1997; Cervero and Landis, 1997; Ewing, 1997) who take a less extreme position and focus on the means to reduce trip lengths, encourage moderate concentration, the provision of local facilities and mixed land uses. The empirical evidence is complex and causality is difficult to demonstrate. There does seem to be some limited impact on land markets from joint developments at rail transit stations (Cervero, 1994), mainly in the form of slightly higher rents and lower vacancy rates. But in the most comprehensive study over 20 years of the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) in San Francisco, Cervero and Landis (1997) have not found compact, orderly growth with a multi-centred settlement pattern. Even in the longer term, the land use changes associated with BART have been localised and limited to downtown San Fran cisco and Oakland, together with a few suburban stations. Most of the growth in the region has been linked to the freeway system, not the rail system. At the city level in the UK, the links between travel patterns, energy use and urban form in terms of its physical, economic and social structure have been examined (Banister et al., 1997). It is the physical characteristics that link most closely with energy use in transport through density, size and amount of open space. Yet even here data limitations make comparison difficult, and this is further complicated by the social and economic structures of cities which are so different. The sustainable city needs to be examined within its region, to encompass its labour mar ket area and its wider sphere of influence. This is what Breheny and Rookwood (1993) call the social city region, which in turn is an adaptation of the terminology used by Ebenezer Howard, one of the early generation of great planning thinkers. Howard (1898) published his seminal text To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform, in which he advocated a polycentric social city linked by public transport (Howard et al., 2003). It has taken a century to come full circle. There is no single solution to the sustainable city, but there must be a range of policies linked to the different current situations found in the diver sity of the cities around the world – a ‘MultipliCity’ approach to sustainability (Steele, 2004). To the extent that European cities face similar challenges, research and practice in different countries can learn from each other, converting knowledge into action.

2.3 PERSPECTIVES ON LAND USE AND TRANSPORT To explore the means to integrate land use and transport, it is necessary to break with the tradition that sees them as essentially separate activities with some limited overlap

10 D. Banister et al. and move towards a richer and more varied set of perspectives on common issues that help understand the range and complexity of the interfaces between land use and transport. Table 2.1 identifies a set of seven perspectives on land use and transport. These perspectives cut across and interlink with each other, and they should not be looked at in isolation. The table can assist in understanding the similarities and oppositions between land use and transport issues within and across the seven perspectives, and each of them is now discussed in more detail.

Table 2.1: Alternative perspectives on land use and transport issues Perspectives

Land Use and Transport: Similarities and Differences

Human activities and purposes Costs and benefits

Human activities and purposes are the ultimate drivers for land use, transport and their planning Destination activities (land uses) are associated with benefits Travel is primarily associated with costs The separation and distribution of people, activities and land uses gives rise to need for travel Land uses are represented by zones Transport network represented by nodes and links

Network

Land value, location and accessibility Infrastructure and land area The professional dimension The policy dimension

Land uses influenced by location and land value Transport creates a web of accessibility that stimulates and supports value of land and location Transport seen as ‘just another land use’ Transport land uses connect up contiguously and connect all other land uses Land use planning and transport planning are distinct professions These may be integrated, fail to connect, or be in conflict Overall objectives of land use planning and transport planning are often similar, with differences in detail or emphasis Land use planning and transport planning policies may be disparate or integrated

2.3.1 Human Activities and Purposes Although often dealt with in terms of abstract elements such as land use classifications or trip matrices, land use and transport are ultimately concerned with fulfilling human needs and desires. In this respect, travel is just like any other urban activity that may be done for its own sake or as a means to an end. Shopping, for example, may be to some extent a means to an end (to access products) but may also be an attractive pastime in its own right. Similarly, work may also be seen as a means to an end (labour in return for wages) but also as an activity that directly contributes to an individual’s self-fulfilment. And although travel is conventionally regarded as a derived demand – a non-productive activity essentially undertaken for the sake of reaching a destination – travel may be undertaken for its own sake. This may be the main purpose of a trip – such as with walking, cycling or motoring for pleasure, or undertaking travel in the sense of ‘seeing the world’ – or may be inextricably bound up with another activity, such as with ‘going out

Land Use and Transport: The Context 11 on the town’, ‘going shopping’ or ‘going on holiday’ – where the ‘going’ is substantially part of the ‘doing’. In this sense, travel seen as a human activity or purpose is very similar to many other urban activities, and from this perspective, there is no intrinsic conflict, or fundamental difference in kind, between land use and transport – no intrinsic conflict between ‘going’ and other forms of ‘doing’ – but rather a spectrum of activities with different immediate and ultimate purposes.

2.3.2 Costs and Benefits Land uses are associated with productive or attractive activities that may be associated with benefits, which give rise to the desire or demand for travel. Travel itself is con ventionally associated with cost, namely the cost necessary to make a trip to access the benefit at the destination. In reality, in some circumstances (as noted above), the travel itself may be an attractive or desirable activity, in which case the travel itself would include a component of benefit in addition to the component of cost. Either way, a common cost–benefit mechanism applies: If the cost associated with the trip is less than the benefit, the trip may be expected to take place. Conventionally, the direct benefit component of travel for its own sake is often not accounted for in cost–benefit calculations. As a result, an asymmetry is created, where transport and travel are seen ideally to be minimised relative to other land uses or activi ties. Hence, the land use as benefit and transport as cost assumption are approximations which place land use and transport conceptually in opposition to one another.

2.3.3 The Network Model In conventional transport analysis and modelling, the transport system is considered as a network comprising a series of nodes and links to which are connected zones representing trip origins and destinations. From this perspective, the land use and transport components are quite distinct, although parts of the same ‘model’. Operationally, the land uses are regarded as trip genera tors – that is, they give rise to the demand for travel in the first place. The links and nodes represent the supply side that provide the essential connections between the zones representing the origins and destinations. This ‘network model’ perspective of land use and transport is integrated in the sense that both land use and transport components are represented, and may be used successfully to predict travel movements on the network, given certain land uses �LU→T�. However, this does not necessarily embody the full set of interactions feeding back from transport to land use �T→LU� – nor for that matter, land use–land use interactions (LU→LU).

2.3.4 Land Value, Location and Accessibility Land uses are influenced to some extent by location and land value. This locational or land value is partly connected to the quality and character of the land itself, the

12 D. Banister et al. buildings on it, and on the adjacent land and buildings. Land value is also supported and stimulated by the web of accessibility created by transport. This perspective recognises transport-generated accessibility as one component of the attractiveness of a location – and hence the influence of transport on land use �T→LU�. However, on its own, this perspective does not necessarily embody the full set of interactions feeding back from land use to transport �LU → T� – nor for that matter, transport–transport interactions (T→T). Note that in this perspective, transport although having an influence on land use is external to the land market per se, echoing the way that in the network perspective, land uses although represented as influencing transport are not part of the network proper. In both cases, the core focus of concern (the land market or transport network) could be analysed of itself, without necessarily considering the external mechanisms (transport-generated accessibility or land use-generated trips).

2.3.5 Infrastructure and Land Area From another perspective, transport is a land use itself. The transport land use comprises (at least) roads, streets, paths, car parks, highways, petrol stations, railways, stations, railway yards and airports. This occupies a significant proportion of urban land – perhaps a quarter or a third of the total ground level land area (the exact figure will depend on what is included in the calculation; Southworth and Ben Joseph, 2003). In this sense, transport is like any other land use, and in principle may be treated in an integrated manner with other land uses. On the other hand, transport is also a special land use in that it forms a contiguous area, the essential connective tissue of the urban fabric: the single ‘land use’ through which all other land uses are linked (Marshall, 2005). This gives transport a unique pivotal role in the spatial organisation of urban areas – which is what gives the ‘network model’ perspective its significance.

2.3.6 The Professional Dimension The twentieth century saw the emergence of separate spheres of professional concern, in particular, between the transport professionals (transport planners, traffic and highway engineers and logistics professionals) who looked after the routes, interchanges and terminal facilities, and the urban professionals (urban planners, urban designers and architects) who looked after the ‘people places’, buildings and land uses (Hebbert, 2005; Marshall, 2005). Although the ultimate objectives and societal values may be shared between the profes sions, their working methods, conceptual paradigms and institutional practices are often quite distinct and sometimes in conflict. Professional barriers need to be overcome to achieve the integration of land use and transport planning.

2.3.7 The Policy Dimension The purpose of land use and transport policy-making is to intervene in the land develop ment and transport systems for the public good. This intervention could mean provision

Land Use and Transport: The Context 13 of infrastructure, control of land development, influencing the cost of travel or influenc ing people’s motivation to travel by particular modes of transport (i.e. applying to the different perspectives set out above). Overall, there is not necessarily any great gulf, here, between what is a transport or a land use policy – these may each involve some kind of physical design, or some kind of regulation, or some kind of financial investment or incentive. These kinds of policy may often be complementary or synergistic: In principle, land use planning can support transport objectives, and transport planning can support land use planning objectives. It is true that conflicts may arise where there is competition for use of scarce urban land, for municipal resources, or conflict between incompatible activities – but these conflicts can occur within either the transport or land use policy sphere (e.g. noise or pollution concern impacting from one land use to another, or from one transport mode to another) and are not intrinsically a function of transport versus land use policy. Clearly, policy links back to human activities and purposes, since policy acts to serve those activities and purposes, for the benefit of individuals and society as a whole.

2.4 CITIES AND LAND USE – TRANSPORT RESEARCH ‘City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage’ was the title of a key action of the European Commission’s Fifth Research Framework Programme, and this forms the background to the research used in this book. The aim of this programme was to obtain practical results for cities and to include all stakeholders, and the main output consisted of were practical tools for use by cities. Four interrelated themes were covered by this programme including • • • •

Urban governance and sustainable resource management Cultural heritage Sustainable built environment Sustainable transport.

More than 140 research, development and dissemination programmes were funded, and about E170 million was committed during the period 1998–2002. Among the key features of these key actions were • A holistic approach and integration – which were absolute requirements at the proposal evaluation stage; • A strong focus on the practical nature of research and the development of afford able, effective and accessible tools for the application of sustainable development in urban areas; • Involvement of all key stakeholders – more than 1000 cities participated in the 140 projects as part of this research; • Main outcomes related to the improvement of the decision-making process. Within the Sustainable Transport theme, the PLUME initiative was a thematic network building on the work of various individual projects, which address issues of LUTR

14 D. Banister et al. (Land Use and Transport Research) together with outputs from a wide range of other national and international projects. The specific objective of PLUME was To facilitate the transfer of innovation in the field of planning and urban mobility from the research community to end users in the cities of Europe in order to improve urban quality of life.

PLUME brought together researchers and end-users operating in the field of LUTR, and the PLUME End-User Group comprised a range of cities from across Europe supported by city networks with a far wider range of members (Table 2.2). Table 2.2: Participation of cities in the PLUME network Cities or local authorities participating in PLUME Aalborg (Denmark) Athens (Greece) Barcelona (Spain) Brussels (Belgium) Clermont-Ferrand (France) Cologne (Germany) Dresden (Germany) Dublin (Ireland) Gdansk (Poland) Merseyside (UK) Naples (Italy) Rome (Italy) Southwark (UK) Stockholm (Sweden) Suceava (Romania) Surrey (UK) The Hague (Netherlands) Vienna (Austria) City networks participating in PLUME IMPACTS – representing the larger cities INSULA – representing the islands of Europe POLIS – representing cities with a particular interest in transport issues Swedish Association of Local Authorities

The individual ‘LUTR’ projects, which are reported in Parts II–IV in this book, were linked to these cities through case studies, bringing together a wide range of experience. The principal information source for PLUME has been the land use and transport cluster of research projects commissioned by DG Research within FP5. The research activities of this cluster focused on land transport, and its interaction with land use. The projects were all undertaken and completed between January 2000 and December 2004. In addition, we have drawn on other international and European research as appropriate. For exam ple, ASTRAL (Matthews, 2003) identified a large number of national projects and inter national networks, which were potentially relevant to PLUME. Another source has been KonSULT, a web-based knowledgebase maintained by ITS Leeds. It is regularly updated and covers a broad range of transport-related topics and forms an important information source for PLUME, as well as a means of disseminating PLUME outputs, as new material identified through PLUME can be used to keep KonSULT up to date (see Chapter 15).

Land Use and Transport: The Context 15 The objectives of the LUTR projects were to develop strategic approaches and method ologies in urban planning that contribute to the promotion of sustainable urban devel opment. These included issues of transport demand and related land use planning, the design and provision of efficient and innovative transport services including alternative means of transport, and the minimisation of negative environmental and socio-economic impacts. The cluster includes 12 research projects and covers a wide range of different topics. Short summaries of the objectives of these projects are presented in Table 2.3. The PLUME thematic network drew its findings from a wide range of case stud ies and research projects in Europe and worldwide. Cities can learn much from the detailed literature which is available via the gateway of the LUTR projects’ website (http://www.lutr.net/). Some of the general conclusions of PLUME are particularly rele vant to cities. A key point is that it remains important to increase the understanding of Table 2.3: Summary and objectives of projects reported in this book ARTISTS (Arterial Streets Towards Sustainability)

To improve decision-making regarding the reconstruction of arterial streets, taking into account a broad set of social, economic and environmental factors. This should enable European city authorities to redesign arterial streets to improve the physical environment of corridors while contributing to the implementation of more sustainable transport systems

ASI (Assess Implementations in the frame of the Cities of Tomorrow Programme) CITYFREIGHT (Inter and Intra-CityFreight Distribution Networks)

To improve assessment of quality of life and to make appropriate consideration of, quality of life assessment results in connection with urban transport and mobility policies. The focus of the project is on the subjective part of quality of life To identify innovations in freight transport that could contribute to a more sustainable development in European cities; to set up assessment methods; to build sustainable freight transport options for seven cities, assess these options with the proposed assessment tools, and finally propose best practices and initiate implementation in the seven cities

ECOCITY (Urban Development Towards Appropriate Structures for Sustainable Transport)

To develop settlement patterns giving priority to the requirements of sustainable transport. Necessary conditions are compactness and a balanced mix of land uses at suitable sites. The aim is to design model settlements in seven participating countries and to derive general guidelines for planning To build an advanced software suite for the analysis of the effects of short-term actions and long-term policies to improve the quality of the environment, citizens’ health, conservation of monuments

ISHTAR (Integrated Software for Health, Transport Efficiency and Artistic Heritage Recovery) PROMPT (New Means to Promote Pedestrian Traffic in Cities)

PROPOLIS (Planning and Research of Policies for Land Use and Transport for Increasing Urban Sustainability)

To promote non-motorised transport in cities with particular focus on pedestrian traffic. The project seeks to identify, discover and disseminate innovative new tools and solutions for problem identification, problem solving, and implementation of measures in order to promote walking in cities To research, develop and test integrated land use and transport policies, tools and comprehensive assessment methodologies in order to define sustainable long-term urban strategies and to demonstrate their effects in European cities (Continued)

16 D. Banister et al. Table 2.3: (Continued) PROSPECTS Procedures for Recommending Optimal Sustainable Planning of European City Transport Systems)

To provide cities with guidance to generate optimal land use and transport strategies to meet the challenge of sustainability in their particular circumstances

SCATTER (Sprawling Cities and Transport: from Evaluation to Recommendations) SUTRA (Sustainable Urban Transportation)

To study the causes and consequences of urban sprawl in order to design and to assess the efficiency of measures aiming to prevent, mitigate or control this trend that threatens most European cities

TRANSPLUS (Transport Planning, Land-Use and Sustainability)

To identify best practice in the organisation of land use and transport measures in order to reduce car dependency in European cities and regions and promote economic, social and environmental improvement

VELOINFO (The European Network for Cycling Expertise)

To support local authorities and sustainable urban planning experts by establishing a web-based expertise centre on bicycle planning policies and bicycle use. European cities and transport planners represent supply/demand for expertise; VeloInfo is sustained by these users, ensuring optimal distribution of expertise

To develop a consistent and comprehensive approach and planning methodology for the analysis of urban transportation problems that helps to design strategies for sustainable cities

the public, politicians and the media about LUTR activities by directly involving them in future research programmes. End-User regions and cities should be involved in the process from the beginning in order to achieve a more integrated approach between land use and mobility planning. Demonstration projects are an important way of achieving this. The End-User cities participating in PLUME agreed that the network was of benefit and that European cooperation, networking and benchmarking are positive aspects for improving knowledge and key to the success of achieving integrated policies. While the LUTR programme has substantially increased our understanding of the requirements for sustainable urban land use and transport strategies, the barriers to implementing them and the potential benefits from doing so, several research needs remain. It is to be hoped that new cities will be interested to participate directly in the ongoing research through the provision of case studies, so that all cities can learn from each other, and through successful examples overcome the barriers to implementation.

REFERENCES Abdel-Rahman, H. and Fujita, M. (1990). Product variety, Marshallian externalities, and city size. Journal of Regional Science 30 (2), 165–183. Alonso, W. (1966). Cities, planners and urban renewal. In J. Q. Wilson (Ed.), Urban Renewal: The Record and the Controversy (pp. 437–453). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Land Use and Transport: The Context 17 Anas, A. (1990). Taste heterogenerity and urban spatial structure. Journal of Urban Eco nomics 28 (3), 318–335. Arnott, R., Anas, A. and Small, K. (1998). Urban spatial structure. Journal of Economic Literature 36 (3), 1426–1464. Banister, D. (1997). Reducing the need to travel. Environment and Planning B 24 (3), 437–449. Banister, D. and Marshall, S. (2000). Encouraging Transport Alternatives. Good Practice in Reducing Travel. London: The Stationery Office. Banister, D., Watson, S. and Wood, C. (1997). Sustainable cities: Transport, energy and urban form. Environment and Planning B 24 (1), 125–143. Breheny, M. and Rookwood, R. (1993). Planning in a sustainable city region. In A. Blowers (Ed.), Planning for a Sustainable Environment (pp. 150–189). London: Earthscan. Cervero, R. (1994). Rail transit and joint development: Land market impacts in Washington DC and Atlanta. Journal of the American Planning Association 60 (1), 95–106. Cervero, R. and Landis, J. (1997). Twenty years of the Bay area rapid transit system: Land use and development impacts. Transportation Research 31A (4), 309–333. European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT/OECD) (2002). Implementing Sus tainable Urban Travel Policies, ECMT/OECD: Paris. Ewing, R. (1997). Is Los Angeles style sprawl desirable? Journal of the American Planning Association 63 (1), 107–126. Fujita, M. (1989). Urban Economic Theory. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Gordon, P. and Richardson, H. (1997). Are compact cities a desirable planning goal? Journal of the American Planning Association 63 (1), 95–106. Hall, P. (2002). Urban and Regional Planning. 4th edition. London: Routledge. Hebbert, M. (2005). Engineering, urbanism and the struggle for street design. Journal of Urban Design 10(1), 39–59. Howard, E. (1898). To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. London: Swan Sonnenschein. Howard, E., Hall, P., Hardy, D. and Ward, C. (2003). To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. London: Routledge. Marshall, S. (2005). Streets and Patterns. London: Spon Press. Matthews, B. (2003). Cooperation with International, National and Regional Projects. ASTRAL Deliverable 2. Available at http://www.lutr.net/astral.asp. Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1991). Transport and urban form in 32 of the world’s principal cities. Transport Reviews 11 (3), 249–272. Southworth, M. and Ben Joseph, E. (2003). Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Cities. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Steele, D. (2004). Spatial dimensions of global governance. Global Governance 10 (3), 373–394.

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 3 Themes and Relationships Michael Wegener

3.1 INTRODUCTION After the presentation of the problems of urban land use–transport interaction and the research framework of the Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR) cluster in the previous chapter, this chapter gives an overview about the themes addressed in the 12 projects and how they are related to urban-change processes and the problems of land use–transport interaction. This chapter draws from ‘state-of-the-art’ knowledge assembled within the PLUME network, which includes reference to research outside as well as originating within the 12 LUTR projects.

3.2 THEMES The co-operation between the 12 projects of the LUTR cluster was organised around 23 themes structured hierarchically into three main groups, Problems, Policies and Processes which reflect typical domains of decision-making in cities in practice: A) Problems are deviations between existing and desirable states of the urban system that may give rise to planning interventions. In today’s cities, three major problem fields can be distinguished: 1. Environmental problems 2. Social problems 3. Economic problems. B) Policies are measures, policies or strategies to solve problems, that is, to reduce the gap between existing and desired states of the urban system. In today’s cities, the following major groups of policies are available: 1. Land use planning measures 2. Infrastructure provision 3. Infrastructure management 4. Public transport 19

20 M. Wegener 5. Travel demand management 6. Information measures 7. Pricing measures 8. Walking and cycling measures 9. Urban freight transport measures 10. Vehicle technology measures 11. Innovative modes 12. Integrated strategies. C) Processes are steps or phases of the model of rational planning passed through from problem perception to implementation: 1. Setting targets 2. Strategy development 3. Strategy impacts forecasting 4. Strategy appraisal 5. Public participation 6. Strategy implementation 7. Financing 8. Institutional issues Tables 3.1–3.3 indicate which themes are addressed in the 12 LUTR projects. In the tables, the themes are further subdivided into sub-themes. An inspection of the tables shows that the 12 projects cover the field of urban land use, transport and environment quite thoroughly, although there are different levels of emphasis.

A) Problems Table 3.1 shows which problems were addressed in the 12 projects. It also shows that environmental, social and economic problems are not evenly covered by the 12 projects: 1. Environmental problems. Virtually all the 12 projects mention central environ mental problems, such as atmospheric pollution, noise, land capture and green house gas emission, as principal targets of their research. Adverse visual impacts, loss of cultural heritage and negative health impacts are addressed less frequently. Environmental problems of cities are the consequence of the increase in eco nomic activity and mobility caused by economic growth and therefore cannot be discussed without addressing the goal conflict between economic growth and environmental sustainability. However, there are also links between environmen tal and social problems because many solutions to environmental problems have equity implications. 2. Social problems. The social dimension of urban sustainability is less fre quently addressed by the 12 projects. Only ARTISTS, PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS indicate that equal access, social exclusion and equity are important items on their agenda. The close relation ship between social and economic problems is obvious. However, there are also relationships between social and environmental problems, as in many cities envi ronmental problems are highest in low-income neighbourhoods.

Themes and Relationships 21 Table 3.1: Problems addressed in the 12 projects

Economic

Social

Problems

Environmental

Air pollution

●

Noise Land Greenhouse gases Visual impact Cultural heritage Health Access Social exclusion Mobility handicaps Equity Health Congestion Accidents Financial barriers Economic activity External costs Equity Health

Major theme

○

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○ ● ● ● ○ ● ○ ○ ○ ● ● ● ○ ○ ○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ● ● ○ ○○ ●

VELOINFO

TRANSPLUS

SUTRA

SCATTER

PROSPECTS

PROPOLIS

PROMPT

ISHTAR

ECOCITY

CITYFREIGHT

ASI

Theme/sub-theme...

ARTISTS

...is addressed in project

● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ● ● ● ● ● ●

○ ● ○ ○

●

○ ○ ○ ● ● ○ ● ● ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ● ○ ○ ○

Minor theme.

3. Economic problems. Traffic congestion and traffic accidents are the most fre quently addressed economic problems in the 12 projects. The impacts of land use and transport policies on economic activity in the whole metropolitan area or parts of it are addressed in PROPOLIS and SCATTER. Economic problems in general have a strong social or distributional (equity) component. In many cases, solutions to economic problems are in conflict with the achievement of social and environmental objectives. However, economic equity aspects are considered only in PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and SCATTER. Health aspects are referred to in many projects but explicitly considered only in ASI.

B)

Policies

Table 3.2 shows which policies were addressed in the 12 projects. It can be seen that each of the projects addresses a certain group of policies: 1. Land use planning measures. Land use measures are addressed mainly in CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and

22 M. Wegener Table 3.2: Policies addressed in the 12 projects

Infrastructure management Public transport Travel demand management Information

Policies

Infrastructure provision

Land use planning

●

Settlement planning Settlement size/containment Concentration/densification Urban structure Location by accessibility PT-oriented development Car-free development Urban design Motorways Local roads Walkways Cycling lanes Public transport Freight infrastructure Parking Better public transport Park and ride Parking management Road space management Traffic control systems New infrastructure Better service Fares Travel information Mixed-mode travel Marketing Company travel plans Ride sharing Car sharing Flexible work hours Teleworking Teleshopping Radio/TV-based services Internet-based services PT passenger information Navigation systems Mobility centres

Major theme

○

● ● ○ ○

●

● ● ● ○ ● ● ○ ● ● ●

● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○ ● ●

● ● ● ● ○ ● ○

○

○

●

○ ○ ○ ●

○ ● ● ●

VELOINFO

TRANSPLUS

SUTRA

● ● ○ ● ● ○ ● ○ ●

● ○ ● ○ ● ○ ● ○

○ ● ○

●

SCATTER

○ ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ● ○ ● ○ ● ● ○ ○ ● ● ● ● ○ ● ●

● ● ●

●

PROSPECTS

PROPOLIS

PROMPT

ISHTAR

ECOCITY

CITYFREIGHT

Theme/sub-theme...

ASI

ARTISTS

...is addressed in project

○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ● ○ ○ ○ ○ ●

●

●

Minor theme (Continued)

Themes and Relationships 23

Table 3.2: (Continued)

Urban freight transport Innovative Vehicle technology modes Integrated strategies

Policies

Walking cycling

Pricing

●

Fuel taxes Car taxes Road pricing, motorways Road pricing, all roads Parking charges Rail network charges Public transport fares Walkways Pedestrianisation Safe crossings Cycling lanes Bicycle service stations Access constraints Loading zones Freight terminals City logistics Parcel delivery points Cleaner cars More energy-efficient cars Safer cars Hybrid cars Natural gas vehicles Alternative fuels Personal rapid transit Ultra-light rapid transit Cybercars Co-operative highway Infrastructure Infrastructure and pricing Infrastructure and land use Pricing and land use Infrastructure and TDM TDM and information Integrated programmes

Major theme

○

○ ○ ○ ●

● ○ ○ ● ● ● ○ ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○

● ○ ● ● ● ● ●

○

○ ○ ○ ○ ● ● ○ ○ ● ● ○ ○

● ● ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○

○ ● ●

○ ○ ● ●

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Minor theme TDM travel demand management.

VELOINFO

TRANSPLUS

SUTRA

SCATTER

PROSPECTS

PROPOLIS

PROMPT

ISHTAR

ECOCITY

CITYFREIGHT

ASI

Theme/sub-theme...

ARTISTS

...is addressed in project

○ ○ ○ ○

○ ● ● ○ ● ○ ● ●

24 M. Wegener

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

TRANSPLUS. It is recognised that land use measures strongly interact with the provision of transport infrastructure, such as roads or public transport routes as well as with travel demand management policies. Infrastructure provision. Infrastructure provision measures are dealt with in ARTISTS, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SUTRA, TRANSPLUS and VELOINFO. With respect to transport policies, PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS are similarly comprehensive. VELOINFO, not surprisingly, focuses on measures related to cycling. All projects emphasised the need to co-ordinate infrastructure provision with appropriate land use planning measures and also refers to travel demand management, transport pricing and urban freight measures as necessary accompanying measures. Infrastructure management. Issues of road and public transport infrastruc ture management were considered in ARTISTS, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS. ARTISTS focused on road space management, whereas the other projects addressed management mea sures, including public transport service provision, walking and cycling facilities and travel demand management. Public transport. Public transport was addressed in virtually all projects. How ever, public transport strategies are explicitly addressed in PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS. Improving public transport is one of the main policy fields of sustainable urban planning and is to become even more important with the prospect of rising energy prices and increasing car costs. Such measures are closely linked to infrastructure provision, pricing and travel demand management. Travel demand management – attitudinal and behavioural measures. Only a few projects looked into the potential of attitudinal and behavioural transport measures. PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS are the most comprehensive in this respect; VELOINFO suggests marketing as a means to promote cycling. It is stressed that successful travel demand management depends on a not-too-dispersed land use system and needs to be accompanied by appropriate transport pricing policies and a well-developed network of public transport, walkways and cycling lanes. Information measures. Information measures, such as traffic or public trans port information systems were treated in ARTISTS, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, ISHTAR, PROSPECTS, TRANSPLUS and VELOINFO. Providing relevant and timely information on travel opportunities to travellers before starting a trip and en route is important for mitigating road congestion and attracting new passengers to public transport. Pricing measures. Only PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER, SUTRA and TRANSPLUS looked into the impacts of pricing policies, such as fuel or car taxes, different schemes of road pricing, parking charges or changing public transport fares, impacts on mobility and environment and in some cases, impacts on land use and the spatial distribution of population and economic activities. This is surprising as these policies have been found to be by far the most effective in reducing car travel and the related environmental impacts. More than other policies, pricing measures depend on supporting measures in the field of land use planning, infrastructure provision, travel demand, walking and cycling and urban freight.

Themes and Relationships 25 8. Walking and cycling measures. Walking and cycling were dealt with in infrastruc ture provision and in this separate group of policies. Measures promoting walk ing were considered in ARTISTS, ECOCITY, PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS. Cycling was dealt with in ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, TRANSPLUS and of course in VELOINFO. Successful promotion of the slow modes, walking and cycling, cannot be done in isolation but requires a high-density mixed-used land use system, supporting travel demand measures, taxation of car travel and a well-developed network of walkways and cycling lanes. 9. Urban freight measures. Only four projects explicitly dealt with urban freight transport. CITYFREIGHT dealt exclusively with urban freight transport. In ARTISTS, loading and unloading was considered as a function to be accommo dated in the street space. ECOCITY considered city logistics, and PROSPECTS discussed various freight-related policies. Sustainable urban freight transport is connected to land use planning, as well as infrastructure provision and management. 10. Vehicle technology measures. ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, SUTRA and TRANSPLUS considered the impact of cleaner cars on air quality or of more energy-efficient cars on greenhouse gas emissions and air quality. However, as these developments cannot be influenced by local government decisions, they were not generally con sidered in the projects. More energy-efficient cars become economically feasible only if fuel becomes more expensive. 11. Innovative modes. Innovative modes were not explicitly addressed in any of the 12 LUTR projects but were addressed in NETMOBIL, a sister research cluster. The EDICT, CYBERCARS, CYBERMOVE and STARDUST projects of NETMOBIL were devoted to these themes, although they addressed some of the issues of interaction of new modes and land use planning. New ways of using and combining travel modes are becoming more and more important to achieve synergies between modes and to maintain quality of access in low-density areas. 12. Integrated strategies. Only a few projects studied integrated land use and trans port policies: CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and SCAT TER. However, in PROPOLIS and PROSPECTS, integrated strategies were a major concern.

C) Processes Table 3.3 shows which processes were addressed in the 12 projects. This table reveals the distinction between ‘What’ projects and ‘How’ projects. ‘What’ projects are mainly interested in finding solutions to problems, that is, to find out what should be done. ‘How’ projects, on the other hand, are predominantly interested in how policies can be implemented. 1. Setting targets. CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and SCATTER paid attention to the process of goal setting as a political and partici patory process. PROPOLIS and PROSPECTS developed their own goal systems, partly in co-operation with their client partners in their case study cities. Setting targets is closely linked to the subsequent steps of strategy development, strategy impact forecasting and strategy appraisal.

26 M. Wegener Table 3.3: Processes addressed in the 12 projects

Strategy appraisal Strategy implementation Public participation Financing Institutional issues

Processes

Strategy impact forecasting

Strategy development

Setting targets

●

Defining objectives Defining indicators Soliciting preferences Updating targets Decision-making Public participation Specification of objectives Defining indicators Understanding barriers Combining policies Theoretical foundations Forecasting techniques Scenario building Simulation Policy optimisation Definition of sustainability Cost benefit analysis Multicriteria analysis Equity Presentation of strategies Barriers to implementation Overcoming barriers Implementation Monitoring Stages of participation Levels of participation Organisational aspects Participants Current practice Cost analysis Sources of funding Financing techniques Overcoming barriers Levels of government Vertical co-operation Horizontal co-operation Public–private partnerships Privatisation

Major theme

○

Minor theme.

VELOINFO

TRANSPLUS

SUTRA

SCATTER

PROSPECTS

PROPOLIS

PROMPT

ISHTAR

ECOCITY

CITYFREIGHT

Theme/sub-theme...

ASI

ARTISTS

...is addressed in project

Themes and Relationships 27 2. Strategy development. In a certain sense, all 12 projects developed strategies. But only ARTISTS, ASI, ECOCITY, PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCAT TER and TRANSPLUS paid attention to the process and methodology of how strategies are developed. CITYFREIGHT, PROMPT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS explicitly addressed the potential of combinations of policies, or policy packages. Strategy development is intrinsically linked to strategy appraisal, and in many cases, involves public participation. 3. Strategy impact forecasting. Only a few projects addressed issues of forecasting the impacts of land use and transport policies, as this is a task of extreme com plexity and, because of the many factors and interactions to be considered, of great methodological difficulty. CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, ISHTAR, PROPO LIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS reviewed the state of the art and developed innovative methods in this field. With the prospect of imminent energy shortages and climate change, long-range forecasting of economic, social and environmental impacts of planning policies becomes more important, in particular for integrated strategies. 4. Strategy appraisal. ARTISTS, ASI, CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, ISHTAR, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and SUTRA explored different types of strategy appraisal, such as cost–benefit analysis or multi-criteria analysis or, as ISHTAR and PROPOLIS, combinations of both. Only ASI, PROPOLIS and PROSPECTS addressed issues of measuring social and/or spatial equity. Strategy appraisal is intrinsically linked to strategy development. 5. Strategy implementation. Implementation issues were represented in CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, PROSPECTS, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS. Barri ers to implementation were addressed in CITYFREIGHT, ECOCITY, SCATTER and TRANSPLUS. Presentation of planning alternatives was considered in CITYFREIGHT, PROPOLIS, PROSPECTS and SCATTER. There is a strong link between strategy implementation and participation. 6. Public participation. Public participation was explicitly treated by only few projects. Only ARTISTS, ASI, ECOCITY, PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS dealt extensively with public participation. Public participation addresses all aspects of urban planning. 7. Financing. Financing problems and methods were addressed only in a few of the projects. CITYFREIGHT, PROPOLIS and PROSPECTS addressed methods of cost analysis and TRANSPLUS looked into different financing methods. Financ ing of policies applies equally to land use planning and infrastructure provision, and pervades all phases of the planning process. 8. Institutional issues. Institutional issues of policy implementation were addressed in many of the projects, most notably in PROSPECTS and TRANSPLUS. Urban problems have long exceeded the jurisdictions of individual local governments. Therefore issues of centralisation/decentralisation and the role of public and private actors have to be reviewed. In summary, the projects of the LUTR cluster addressed an impressive range of themes related to land use and transport planning. The coverage of planning problems was quite comprehensive. Among the policies, conventional engineering, regulatory and manage ment policies, such as infrastructure and pricing, received more attention than attitudinal

28 M. Wegener and behavioural policies, or information. Integrated strategies were analysed in only a few projects. Among the different phases in the planning process, the early stages, such as strategy development and appraisal, were treated more extensively than the latter phases, such as implementation, public participation and financing.

3.3 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN URBAN CHANGE PROCESSES Policy-makers are interested in knowing which policies or measures are most effective for achieving the objectives of land use and transport planning, that is, to provide attractive living conditions and high accessibility to all groups of society, to enhance the competi tiveness of urban economies and to protect the natural environment. However, in order to forecast which policies are most effective, one needs to have a clear understanding of how urban systems work, that is, about the manifold interactions and feedbacks occurring in urban systems. Understanding these interactions and feedbacks is necessary to assess the secondary and indirect effects of policy measures, which in some cases reinforce the effect expected from a policy measure but sometimes also act as negative, undesirable side effects. This section therefore summarises the main interactions between urban change processes found in the projects. Table 3.4 visualises the interactions between urban change processes that need to be taken into account when long-range impacts of planning policies are considered. In the table, rows and columns contain the most important change processes occurring in urban systems over time, where the rows represent causes and the columns effects – each process can be both cause and effect. The processes are ordered by speed of change: (i) Transport networks are the most permanent element of cities; they change only very slowly and have a lifetime of decades or centuries (although policy instruments applied to influence the way networks are used can have more immediate impacts). (ii) Buildings are the second most permanent element of cities; their lifetime can be hundreds of years, but they can be adapted to changing user needs through refurbishment. (iii) Agents, such as firms, households and individuals have life cycles counted in decades, but their needs change through events, such as growth or decline or birth, marriage or death. (iv) Location decisions of the firms, workers and households occur more frequently, such as very few years. (v) Transport decisions are much faster; they are made from every few years (vehicles) to daily (trips). (vi) Environmental impacts are the most rapid, but some have long-term irreversible consequences. Each entry in the table represents an impact (from row to column) based on a cause– effect relationship. To keep the table simple, only direct impacts are indicated. However,

Themes and Relationships 29 Table 3.4: Interactions between urban change processes ...causes change of...

Land

Noise

Air quality

Environ ment

Energy, CO2

Travel

Freight transport

Vehicles

Transport

Housing mobility

Office location

Retail location

Slow impact.

Industrial location

○

Labour mobility

Location

Person lifecycles

Agents

Firm lifecycles

Housing

Office buildings

Retail buildings

Industrial buildings

Buildings

Household lifecycles

Environ ment

Transport

Location

Agents

Buildings

Net work

Change of...

Public transport

Road network

Net work

Road network Public transport Industrial buildings Retail buildings Office buildings Housing Firm lifecycles Household lifecycles Person lifecycles Industrial location Retail location Office location Labour mobility Housing mobility Vehicles Freight transport Travel Energy, CO2 Air quality Noise Land

●

Fast impact

○

Medium-speed impact

secondary and indirect impacts can be deduced by following the circular structure of the table, as every effect (column) is also a potential cause (row): • Transport supply represented by the road and public transport networks affects location and travel decisions and also the environment. • Buildings, that is, the existing building stock, affect location decisions about new development and are the origins of environmental impacts. • Agents, such as firms and households, affect each other and generate the need for vehicles, goods transport and travel.

30 M. Wegener • Location decisions affect the location of buildings, work places and households and influence other location decisions. • Transport decisions about vehicles, freight transport and travel affect each other and the environment and also have impacts on transport supply in the form of congestion. • Environmental impacts affect location decisions of firms and households but have little impact on freight transport and travel decisions. The secondary or indirect effects implied by the table are sometimes more important than the direct effects shown. For instance, extensions of the road network permitting faster access to the countryside may initially lead only to more car trips into the city from rural locations at the expense of rail or bus. In the medium and long term, however, they will make the countryside more accessible and attractive for households as a place to live and so accelerate suburban housing development and urban sprawl and lead to more energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and loss of open space. This will attract new retail developments on suburban greenfield sites at the expense of inner-city locations, which will in turn generate more traffic, mostly by car.

3.4 IMPACTS OF POLICIES Table 3.5 shows the relevance of particular policies for particular problems. Problems and policies are subdivided as in Tables 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. The symbols indicate a strong or weak impact of a policy on a problem. It would have been desirable to indicate also the direction of impact, that is, whether the impact is positive or negative with respect to urban sustainability. That would have required an even finer differentiation of policies. For instance building new roads relieves congestion and also induces more traffic and so in the long run increases congestion. However, because of the selection of policies in the list, it can be assumed that in most cases the impact is positive with respect to urban sustainability. As in Table 3.4, only direct impacts are indicated in Table 3.5. To include also indirect impacts would imply impacts in almost all cells of the matrix, as in a sense all elements of the urban system are connected. However, this would be of little value. Therefore, when using Table 3.5, the interactions between urban processes shown in Table 3.4 should be considered. If a policy has an impact on one problem in Table 3.5, it can be expected that it will produce indirect desirable or undesirable side effects as indicated in Table 3.4. The first impression from Table 3.5 is that land use planning, infrastructure provision and management, pricing, vehicle technology and integrated strategies stand out as the most efficient measures to improve urban sustainability (policies are numbered as in Section 3.2). 1. Land use planning. Land use planning, in general, affects all three dimensions of urban sustainability, that is, addresses environmental, social and economic problems, such as atmospheric pollution, noise, land capture, greenhouse gas

Themes and Relationships 31 Table 3.5: Impacts of policies on problems ...have impacts on problems

Information

Travel demand management

Public transport

Infrastructure management

Infrastructure provision

Land use planning

Health impacts

Equity

External costs

Economic activity

Financial barriers

Accidents

Congestion

Economic

Health impacts

Equity

Mobility handicaps

Social exclusion

Access

Social

Health

Cultural heritage

Visual impact

Greenhouse gases

Land

Policies/measures...

Noise

Air pollution

Environmental

Settlement planning Settlement size/containment Concentration/densification Urban structure Location by accessibility PT-oriented development Car-free development Urban design Motorways Local roads Walkways Cycling lanes Public transport Freight infrastructure Parking Better public transport Park and ride Parking management Road space management Traffic control systems New infrastructure Better service Fares Travel information Mixed-mode travel Marketing Company travel plans Ride sharing Car sharing Flexible work hours Teleworking Teleshopping Radio/TV-based services Internet-based services PT passenger information Navigation systems Mobility centres

●

Strong impact

○

Weak impact

(Continued)

32 M. Wegener

Table 3.5: (Continued) ...have impacts on problems

Integrated strategies

Innovative modes

Vehicle technology

Urban freight transport

Walking cycling

Pricing

Fuel taxes Car taxes Road pricing, motorways Road pricing, all roads Parking charges Rail network charges Public transport fares Walkways Pedestrianisation Safe crossings Cycling lanes Bicycle service stations Access constraints Loading zones Freight terminals City logistics Parcel delivery points Cleaner cars More energy-efficient cars Safer cars Hybrid cars Natural gas vehicles Alternative fuels Personal rapid transit Ultra-light rapid transit Cybercars Co-operative highway Infrastructure Infrastructure and pricing Infrastructure and land use Pricing and land use Infrastructure and TDM TDM and information Integrated programmes

●

Strong impact

○

Weak impact.

Health

Equity

External costs

Economic activity

Financial barriers

Accidents

Congestion

Economic

Health

Equity

Mobility handicaps

Social exclusion

Access

Social

Health

Cultural heritage

Visual impact

Greenhouse gases

Land

Policies/measures ...

Noise

Air pollution

Environmental

Themes and Relationships 33

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

emissions, equal access to all groups of society and congestion. Specific land use policies, such as allocating development at locations with high accessibility, at commuter rail stations, or car-free residential areas, have much less impact but are efficient with respect to noise protection and providing equal access. Neighbourhood-scale urban design can be important for a pleasant and safe urban environment as well as for the mobility of physically impaired people. Infrastructure provision. Infrastructure provision has in many cases ambiguous effects. To build new roads may relieve congestion but may also induce more traffic and so in the long run increases congestion, pollution and noise. Building new public transport routes may attract riders, but many of these may be former pedestrians and cyclists. Also new radial public transport lines tend to accelerate decentralisation of residences and jobs, and so promote urban sprawl. Building walkways and cycling lanes have no negative side effects but will do only little to reduce car traffic unless supporting push measures make car driving less attractive (see integrated strategies). Infrastructure management. Better public transport, park-and-ride schemes, inner-city parking management and efficient traffic control systems reduce innercity and motorway congestion. Better road-space management serves other objec tives by making inner-city streets usable by pedestrians. Public transport. The policies addressing public transport have close links with those of infrastructure provision and infrastructure management. Like these, pub lic transport policies in general have positive effects on environmental indicators, accessibility, equity and accidents. However, public transport infrastructure, in particular rail infrastructure, reduces and fragments open space and can con tribute to further suburbanisation. Travel demand management. Travel demand management measures have become more popular in recent years as a way to make urban transport more sustainable. Marketing efforts, company travel plans, ride sharing (also known as car pools, or car sharing in some countries) and car clubs (confusingly referred to as car sharing in some countries) have been shown to contribute to at least slowing the increase of car travel. Flexible work hours contribute to decreasing peak-hour congestion but not to vehicle-kilometre travelled overall. There is recent evidence that teleworking, due to its interaction with residential location choice and other trip purposes, contributes only little to reducing vehicle-kilometre travelled per person per day, but on a weekly basis, teleworkers do travel less than non teleworkers. The effects of teleshopping (e-commerce) on urban sustainability are as yet less certain. Information. Radio, TV or Internet-based traffic information systems or on board navigation systems enable drivers to avoid congested areas, however it has yet to be ascertained whether the high expectations put into these technologies are justified. Public transport passenger information systems and mobility centres serve a different goal, to improve access to public transport also for people without local knowledge or mobility handicaps. Pricing. Making car travel more expensive, either by fuel taxes or taxes on car purchases, is the most effective way of reducing car travel and so congestion, road accidents, pollution, noise and greenhouse gas emissions. Road pricing on all or selected roads is equally effective but suffers from the risk of displacing rather

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8.

9.

10.

11.

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than suppressing car trips if applied selectively. Parking charges in inner-city areas are very effective in increasing pedestrian access and in no case have been found to endanger the vitality of city centre retailing. Reducing the cost of public transport through subsidies attracts more travellers to public transport but only a few of the new passengers are former car users. Only where there are simultaneous measures to make driving more expensive is there a notable modal switch from driving to public transport use. Walking/cycling. These policies have been already treated under the headings of infrastructure provision and travel demand management. The importance of slow modes regarding their contribution to reduce pollution, noise and greenhouse gas emissions seems to be underestimated. Reasons for that are methodological issues (unclear definition of trips made by slow modes, inadequate travel survey designs, etc.) and the lack of consideration of slow modes in existing transport models and transport strategies. Urban freight transport. Access constraints for heavy goods vehicles have positive effects on pollution, noise and pedestrian access in city centres. More compre hensive efforts to make urban freight transport more sustainable in the past have been less successful because of fragmentation and competition of both shippers and carriers. Vehicle technology. Cleaner cars (three-way catalysts) have in the past greatly contributed to reducing atmospheric pollution in cities. More energy-efficient cars are available on the market but have a small market share because fuel is still relatively inexpensive. The role of vehicle technology may become more important as fossil fuels will become more expensive in the future. Rising oil prices will also likely facilitate the market penetration of hybrid-propulsion cars, natural-gas cars or alternative renewable-energy cars. Technological advances making cars safer have contributed to reducing the number of fatal accidents. However, they tend to benefit those inside the vehicle more. Innovative modes. Personal rapid transit systems combine the advantages of public and private mobility, that is, offer some of the advantages of the private car without its environmental costs. Advanced driver assistance systems or automated vehicle guidance systems reduce congestion and accidents and to a certain extent also emissions. Integrated strategies. It has been shown that integrated land use and transport strategies are most successful in achieving sustainable urban development. This is based on the synergies between individual policies exploited in integrated strategies. In addition, integrated strategies serve the broadest range of efficiency and sustainability goals and are best suited to make rational trade-offs between conflicting objectives.

In summary, the projects of the LUTR cluster have revealed a wide range of land use and transport policies that can be applied to achieve sustainable urban development. In general, transport policies have been shown to be more effective in the short to medium term; however, land use policies are essential for achieving a settlement structure that is not too dispersed as a prerequisite for less car-dependent cities.

Part II

Policy Perspectives

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 4 Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies Carlo Sessa

4.1 INTRODUCTION As stated in the general introduction, “the intentional integration of transport and land use planning may achieve synergies between policies and their outcomes, and this in turn may optimise operational performance, efficiency and sustainability”. Finding empir ical evidence concerning the planning and implementation of intentionally integrated land use and transport strategies, the barriers to effective integration in different cities and regions across Europe as well as best practices and their impacts on sustainable urban development was the aim of comparative research undertaken by the project TRANSPLUS – TRANSport Planning, Land Use and Sustainability. The mission of TRANSPLUS was indeed to identify best practices in the organisation of land use and transport policies in order to reduce car dependency in European cities and regions and promote economic, social and environmental improvement. The findings are based on comparative research and analysis of a number of case studies of cities and regions in Europe: Vienna in Austria; the Brussels Capital and “Flemish Diamond” regions in Belgium; Aalborg in Denmark; Helsinki in Finland; Nantes and Orléans in France; Cologne, Dresden, Münster and Tübingen in Germany; Brescia and Rome in Italy; La Valletta (Malta); Warsaw and “Tri-city” in Poland; Evora and Lisbon in Portugal, Bucharest and Ploiesti in Romania; Barcelona and Bilbao in Spain; Bratislava in Slovakia; Amsterdam and Groningen in the Netherlands; Bristol, Merseyside and Croydon in the United Kingdom. The chapter will present a qualitative description of integrated land use and transport strategies and policies, based on the TRANSPLUS findings. 37

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4.2 EVIDENCE OF INTEGRATED LAND USE AND TRANSPORT MEASURES ACROSS EUROPE 4.2.1 Integrated Land Use and Transport Measures The focus in the TRANSPLUS project was on integrated land use and transport measures, and it was soon revealed that many of these measures are also substantiated in the “transit village” approach, mostly considered in the US literature (Bernick et al., 1996). The transit village brings together ideas from the disciplines of urban design, transportation and market economics. It is partly about creating a built form that encourages people to ride transit more often. However, equally important, it embraces goals related to neighbourhood cohesion, social diversity, conservation, public safety and community revitalisation. Besides the transit village, which in the European context is better named “Public Trans port Oriented Development,” TRANSPLUS considered other two urban development perspectives, related respectively to walking and cycling – the “Short-Distance Struc ture Development” – and to regulation of space and infrastructure for car circulation and parking – the “Car Restriction Oriented Development.” These “perspectives” may be seen as ways to seek integration of Land Use and Transport (LUT) policies taking respectively Public Transport (PT), walking & cycling, and regulation of space for car use as pivotal elements.

4.2.1.1

Public Transport Oriented Development

Public Transport Oriented Development includes several mechanisms to intensify the location of housing and other activities near urban rail transport, subways and tram stations, in the inner cities, as well as in the metropolitan area to catch commuter flows. According to the case studies analysed, many present policies refer to the mobil isation of building land nearby rail corridors within urban areas. Furthermore, effec tive PT systems in conurbation areas are mostly based on the rail system. This may support high-density urban corridors which, compared to the areas of more diffuse settlement, are usually served by bus networks. The following are the most inter esting practices investigated in TRANSPLUS. They are presented by means of single case study results, which are however deemed to be representative of a more general typology.

4.2.1.1.1 Improving Public Transport Accessibility in Existing Settlements in Orléans, France At the core of this measure there is the revitalisation or extension of light rail lines and tramways – or the continuous development of bus systems in smaller cities. New stops with good transfer options are provided within walking distance of the existing settlements, to facilitate modal shift, although this is not always sufficient to change the consolidated habits of the population. The revival of a tram as well as the establishment of a new station can revitalise and enhance the function of city centres and smaller sub-centres, as well as create new development site opportunities in the periphery.

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 39 Orléans new tram service: In Orléans, public transport development and the redesign of the bus network are used as a stimulation for the conurbation’s planning policy in an existing settlement (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: The tram route in Orleans

Land Use and Transport vision: The public transport network was based on bus services organised radially from the town centre. The number of journeys per inhabitant and per kilometre travelled was decreasing. Consequential the town’s various neighbourhoods were developed without any tram or light rail connections between them. The context to develop mobility policies has changed with the obligation to develop an Urban Mobility Master Plan (UMMP) for conurbations with over 100 000 inhabitants with

40 C. Sessa the compulsory objectives to reduce car traffic and improve public transport. Also the French state provided two billion French Francs in 2001 in support of actions to develop public transport. In Orléans, a polycentric structure of “support centres” to provide everyday services has been created, and this has become the main issue of the mobility policy. The urban development plan intends to establish a tram service as the main means of transport between each of the support centres and Orléans’ city centre. Urban reconstruction with a new tram layout—creation of a town centre in Fleury lès-Aubrais: Fleury-lès-Aubrais is the development’s second largest town, due to size and population and the main rail services located there. This commune with 20 000 inhabitants has no historical centre. After the Second World War, and during the rush of the reconstruction period, the projects in Fleury-lès-Aubrais were rather disorganised and without a vision of real harmonisation. The town’s various neighbourhoods were developed without any connections between them, and no trace of communal identity. The new tramway route goes through some of these areas bringing together sub-centres with central functions and supporting the creation of a true centrality near the town hall, the main shopping centre and public amenities. The new tram is meant to support the spatial development and sustain the adjacent sub-centres. To create a real centre, social and cultural amenities and dwellings are being put in place. Connection of main urban areas: The provision of a tram service to the “La Source University” campus, which is 10 km from the centre, is just one of the aims. The connection of the ring boulevards to the Aubrais railway station, which will be a future high-speed train (TGV) station, and the construction of university amenities, housing and sites for economic development are further objectives. A redesign for the Fleury-lèsAubrais is also involved in the future plans. Larry mixed housing development: The initial project comprised only of a housing development unit. The tramway routing has made it possible to go back over the layout plan and organise an area with a few small collective buildings, individual dwellings and amenities. Installations will be organised around the tramline, with a wedge of open space, public areas, etc. Timescale and financing: The new decision for the North–South tramline was made in 1995. At the end of 2000, the new tram was opened to the public. About 20% of the costs were financed by state subsidies, the remainder entirely by the Urban Community.

4.2.1.1.2 New Public Transport Oriented Settlements in Vienna, Austria This measure aims to concentrate urban growth and sub-centre development around PT nodes and corridors. Already existing centres are enlarged or new centres created only if a PT transport system is being developed simultaneously in the immediate vicinity. Existing rail networks are often recognised as important corridors for axial development, aiming to reduce the continuing urban sprawl and provide higher accessibility to collective transport modes. Activities are mostly focused on the revitalisation of undeveloped spaces in inner cities and also on the development of sub-centres in the urban regions. A new urban development strategy is to improve the accessibility of the means of PT by opening up new stations or reactivating former ones in combination with the

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 41 revitalisation of tramways or bus lines. These measures frequently go hand in hand with the improvement of possibilities for passengers to change from one means of transportation to another (passenger intermodality). However, in order to co-ordinate new residential and commercial settlements with PT networks, co-operation between adjacent municipalities is becoming a key factor. Two different approaches for sub-centre developments in Vienna: The strategy in Vienna is to reach a polycentric development. The basic principles for the cities future outlook were defined in the Urban Development Plan, which is prepared simultaneously with the Traffic Concept. As various locations seek for different strategies, two different approaches can be described in Vienna. One is the development of an existing area, while the other is a new development on a former industrial site. a) The Metro extension for the densified Eastern-Donaustadt (Vienna): In Eastern Donaustadt, a Master Plan Programme combines the creation of a higher density and a vital functional mix of the dwelling structure with an extension and upgrading of city rail lines. The situation of Donaustadt before the Master Programme: Donaustadt, the 22nd dis trict of Vienna, is the largest district of the town. Until now, the majority of the popu lation is living in the west of Donaustadt while the east is predominantly rural. Hence, Eastern Donaustadt is now an urban extension area, where it is planned to develop settlement axes together with polycentric structure. Settlement structure: In the past, the settlements were developed in a non-densified dwelling structure. Now, these new neighbourhoods will be implemented with a higher density, and it is tried to include and densify the old structures. The new areas should offer a vital mix of functions. The settlement should focus on existing local centres and new developed public transport nodes and lines. Extension of public transport: A prerequisite for future developments is the extension and prioritisation of public transport. It is planned to establish a high-standard public transport network there. Therefore, the metro line U2 will be extended, by 2008, from the city to Stadlau. The commuter train line S80 is to be upgraded to increase its capacity. The tramway line 25 is to be extended from Aspern to Essling. Bus lines will be established in addition to the rail network (Figure 4.2). b) The Gasometer City in Vienna: A former industrial site in Vienna is restructured into a sub-centre with exemplary accessibility. An axial development along existing public transport lines: The “Gasometer City” is one initial part of a project that aims at a revitalisation of a former industrial area, the “Erdberger Mais.” The “old” and the “new” are brought together on the historic ground of the Gasometers which are 102 years old and 70 m high. The “Gasometer City” offers a functional mix of housing, working, shopping, culture and entertainment. The complex consists of 615 new apartments, a dormitory for 230

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Figure 4.2: The extension of U2 and S80 students, a day care facility, the Vienna National Archive, office space, a shopping mall, an event hall and a cinema. The whole area has attracted approximately 1500 residents and 3500 jobs. Most of the population lives and works in Gasometer City and in the neighbouring offices of the immediate vicinity (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3: The extension and reconstruction of railway and the Gasometer

Town in Vienna

Accessibility: The Gasometer City can be reached by all means of transport. Since December 2000, Gasometer City has its own subway station on the U3 line, that is, it takes only 8 min from the city centre (Stephansplatz). For motorised traffic, there are

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 43 1200 parking spaces in underground garages with a direct access to the motorway A23. With such a good car accessibility, city planners missed currently the opportunity to set an example for a sustainable development. A close connection for non-motorised traffic to the nature area of the Prater is provided by the “Gaswerksteg,” a reconstructed bridge for pedestrians and cyclists. Evaluation: The “Gasometer City” concept as a whole was assessed by a survey among residents and visitors. The good accessibility in terms of traffic and transportation connections and the combination of multi-functionality were regarded positively. So far no specific evaluation has been made to illustrate the impact of the public transport accessibility for residents and visitors. However, the use of public transport is yearly investigated by the Viennese public transport company (Wiener Linien).

4.2.1.1.3 Renovation of Railway Stations and Surrounding Areas in Münster, Germany Railway stations are centres of mobility and gateways to the city, and these should no longer be poor and ugly backyards. In order to renovate the railway station, several measures are to be combined. First, the transparency and functionality of the station as a transport node must be ensured. Easy access to trains, and increasingly to other means of transport, for instance tramways, buses, bicycles and park-and-ride (P&R) facilities, has to be provided. In addition, the environment of stations, including the exterior appearance, has to be revalued. An appealing design of the station building, containing preservation of historic building structures, may enhance the integration into the urban environment. This includes, for instance, the creation of attractive public streets and squares between the station and the urban surrounding, as well as the establishment of a mix of functions around the station in order to concentrate urban life in the immediate surroundings. The station must provide good accessibility for pedestrians and cyclists. The quality of the immediate environment around the stations has to be completed with an attractive offer inside the stations. A functional mix with several public and private services and shops is desirable. With these facilities located around a station, the area gains more attractiveness and vitality for inhabitants of the adjacent neighbourhoods. Furthermore, the development of cheap housing may contribute to better mobility of people with lower incomes who are often dependent on good PT accessibility. In addition, a reduction of parking require ments in building regulations, or the introduction of maximum rather than minimum parking standards, related to the quality of PT supply can contribute to a higher degree of public transport utilisation. Another innovative accompanying strategy might be organ isational measures such as the inclusion of a public transport pass within the price for new housing in the vicinity of the station (Figure 4.4).

Munster-Mecklenbeck: Development of housing estates along a reactivated rail ¨ station: Munster’s approach if integrating land use and transportation in the ward of Mecklenbeck can be considered as exemplary. Removal of the station to the centre: In order to achieve adequate accessibility and an appropriate design and equipment of the station, the reconstruction has to be removed

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Figure 4.4: The axial system of Munster. Munster-Mecklenbeck: development of housing estates along a reactivated rail station

to another place near the centre of Mecklenbeck. Being abandoned already in the 1960s, the station of Mecklenbeck is not going to be reactivated before the completion of development in 2005 because extensive measures for infrastructure are delaying the process. 1000 new flats near to the railway station: In the ward of Mecklenbeck, which is accommodating around 80 000 inhabitants, approximately 1000 new flats – one-third realised as detached houses to supply housing for young families, the rest as multistorey housing, including a share for low income dwellers – are going to be built on two new development sites in direct vicinity to the railway line to Coesfeld and Recklinghausen. Projection from the 1970s, completion in 2005: With the emerging need for housing development in the beginning of the 1990s, plans for a new urban development dating back to the 1970s were taken into consideration again. With the preparatory land acquisition of most of the plots, the new development of the area could be processed according to the ideas of the city council without too much debit for the council’s treasury. These plots, still privately owned, have been included in the planning process by concluding an urban development contract in public–private partnership. The first building phases are realised meanwhile, the completion of the project was in 2005.

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 45 Removing a main road to smooth traffic organisation: Apart from this, new retail and community facilities will further improve the service quality within the ward. With the purpose of facilitating a smooth organisation of traffic, an important main road is going to be removed. All measures taken for transport improvement are subsidised by the federal state government of North Rhine-Westphalia. Preparatory acquisition of land slowing down the increasing land prices, in particular in public transport oriented sub-centres: A basic condition for the implementation of hous ing projects within the designated development areas was the preparatory acquisition of land from the city council of Münster. The real estate city administration was able in many cases to buy ground at moderate price, before the prices rise because of planning provisions. Because of this preparatory acquisition of land, the city was then able to offer sites at moderate prices and to develop them according to the demand and to the integrated land use and transport strategy. The results are clear: In the last year, the city was able to double its share of the sales of land. Over 50% of currently developable sites are in the ownership of the city. Thus it was possible to slow down the increasing land prices within “right locations.” The gains from the disposals are used to finance necessary infrastructure – like kindergartens, etc. – and purchase new sites linked with sustainable development priorities. Evaluation: In order to evaluate the policy focusing on urban development at railway stations, the mainly used indicator is the part of the city population living within a certain distance of a railway station. In Münster, because of the importance of the bicycle – which is frequently used to get to the railway station - the influence radius is 1.5 km. A similar kind of indicator, but easier to calculate, is the amount of the new housing built around the station. In Münster as a whole, the distance from planned housing estates to local railway stations was therefore investigated. About 75% of the planned housing areas are within 1500 m of the next railway station, and, in addition, 75% of the new residential areas are within a radius of 800 metres around a sub-centre.

4.2.1.2

Short-Distance Structure Development

Short-distance Structure Development aims to create a pedestrian and cycling friendly site development and to facilitate “door-to-door” travel without using the car but drawing on a mix of alternative transport modes. Short distance development may facilitate in particular walking and cycling, which are the most environmentally friendly, healthy and sustainable means of transport. Walking and cycling may represent a real alternative to motorised modes for many journeys (typically about 50% of urban journeys are less than 3 km). Promoting these modes is a way to reduce the negative impact of transport and, at the same time, increase citizen well-being and health.

4.2.1.2.1 Short-Distance Mixed-Use Development (The “Compact City”) in Aalborg, Denmark This measure recognises that, as short journey distance is a main reason for choosing non-motorised modes, the urban structure is of prime importance to promote walking

46 C. Sessa and cycling. Empirical evidence shows that in some of the large European cities bicycles are the fastest mode of transport for distances up to 3 km (door-to-door travel). In existing districts, density can be increased by building up top floors for dwellings and offices, filling up empty sites with new buildings, shopping areas, leisure facilities, and so on. However, this kind of option must mainly take place in cities with a continuously growing population. Additionally, high-density mixed-use structures can lead to positive social conditions as they are in most cases used throughout the whole day, reducing feelings of insecurity for people using non-motorised modes. Aalborg – compact city structure for the future development: The Master Plan is the core document of the land use planning process in Aalborg and indicates the main structures for the future development (1998–2009). In this document, activity centres and self-maintained living areas up to a certain level are described as main elements to build a “compact” city, which contributes also to promote non-motorised modes. Activity centres and increasing density in inner city areas: The Master Plan for Aalborg gives a definition of a clear typology of the activity centres in Aalborg and the whole surrounding region. The main goal of this is to obtain a good match between the functions of each area and the services located there in order to reduce the need for trips in the region. For each type of centre therefore a list is made containing services that should be present (e.g. schools, retail areas, industry, offices, etc.). This typology of activity centres acts as a backbone to planning new housing and to see if such areas can accommodate extra housing. As it is planned to increase the accessibility of sustainable modes and find a balance between placing new residential and working areas together to reduce the need to travel, new houses can only be constructed in the actual residential areas. The total number of residents is strictly defined up to 2009 in order to avoid the sprawling of houses, and the number of households should go together with the typology of the centres. New residential areas should be developed in areas accessible by bike or in walking distance to train stations. Measures concerning non-motorised modes: These efforts are supported by improve ments of the entire cycle network. Establishing a cohesive network should encourage people to use the bicycle between home and work. Furthermore, public institutions co-operated with private companies that provided company cycles as an alternative to company cars. The public transport structure has a clear link to the development of the city as new residential areas, shopping centres and working zones are to be designed and located with easy access to public transport in mind. There have also been physical infrastructure improvements at nodal points on the new public transport network including bike and ride facilities. Car-free central place at Østerågade: Østerågade is an area with attractive traditional buildings, shops and others, but traffic volumes and wide road space had led to a poor visual impression. The reconstruction of Østerågade was the most important part of the Traffic Circulation Plan, and in 1997, the reconstruction project was approved by the City Council. Among other things, the reconstruction of Østerågade comprised the

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 47 extension of the space available for pedestrians as well as the establishment of a highquality urban environment. Since the Traffic Circulation Plan for the city centre had already been approved when the Østerågade reconstruction project was started, many issues regarding the project had already been debated and settled. Therefore, the debate did not focus on the principles of how the traffic in the city centre should be organised, but on the future design. Thus, topics featured in the debate were cycle safety, access to shops in the area, blind and visually impaired persons’ requirements. and so on. Finally, it was decided to start out with minimal restrictions for private car traffic and to tighten them if the results were not satisfactory. The reconstruction works were finished in 1998. Compared to old Østerågade the most significant changes are a major reduction in the width of the traffic lanes, which have been converted to wider pavements and the use of high-quality granite surface materials. The whole Østerågade area is signed as a 30 km/h zone with limited access for private cars and distribution vehicles. The attractive pedestrian area is now completed and well used. Evaluation: The reconstruction of Østerågade is now completed and the area is attractive and well used. Concerning the aim to reach a compact urban structure, activity centres with the required mix were implemented. Unfortunately, no information is available on whether the objectives mentioned before have been achieved.

4.2.1.2.2 Usage of Inner City Brownfield Sites in Tübingen, Germany This measure gives priority, in urban development planning, to city areas that have lost their original function. Inner city locations provide short distances to the city centre as well as to existing cultural and public facilities. In addition, the usage of inner city brownfield sites influences the general image of the city and improves its attractiveness. Although it will hardly be possible to implement a sufficient number of working places for inhabitants in a quarter, shops, schools, green spaces, and others, should be offered within walking or cycling distance. A pedestrian and cyclist friendly urban redesign of these inner sites is recommended. This consists of various measures supporting each other. Green corridors (e.g. trees between streets and cycle tracks/footpaths) help to improve both the visual and the climatic situation reducing negative impacts of motorised modes. Tracks in an attractive urban environment may encourage people to walk or cycle even if trips are over longer distances. Altogether, planning for pedestrians requires high creative quality in a confined space and thus, conscious dealings with buildings, places between buildings, colours, vegetation, and so on. The promotion of walking is often combined with measures restricting car accessibility, such as traffic calming and limitation of speed. Redevelopment of a military area in Tübingen: Currently, a 60 ha covering area in the south of Tübingen is reused in an innovative way. The area is called Südstadt, and it is located within 5 km from the city centre. The area was formerly used by military. In 1990, the departure of the French garrison became known, leading to first reflections about the redevelopment of Tübingen Südstadt (Figure 4.5). In 1991, the city declared the intention to establish an urban development, and currently, the Südstadt is the main development area in Tübingen, and its conversion is based on several innovations, for instance strong participation of new inhabitants, narrow mixed use, a new parking concept, and so on.

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Figure 4.5: Time table of the project Tübingen Südstadt

Step by step implementation: The redevelopment did not start at once in the whole Süd stadt, but areas within the district are fixed to be redeveloped gradually according to the timetable. At the moment, the area “Stuttgarter Straße/Französisches Viertel” is coming into being and sites are offered to interested citizens. This step by step implementation ensures easily comprehensible development. Priority to pedestrians and implementation of mixed use: In the framework plan for the redevelopment of the area “Französisches Viertel/Stuttgarter Straße” various objectives are established of which a main aim is to provide short distances by implementing mixed use. A balanced ratio of working places and accommodation units is established in this plan offering the possibility to work and live in the same district. In the Südstadt, short distances for trips in the leisure time are offered as cultural and sports facilities, attractive open space, and others, are integrated in the vicinity of houses. Altogether, the aim is to create a living district and to include also social aspects such as the integration of minorities. Further, the public space is devoted to pedestrians while motorised individual traffic is restricted. Pedestrians are given priority and the needs of disabled persons are considered. It is aimed that as many daily trips as possible be undertaken by non motorised modes and therefore a corresponding walking and cycling infrastructure is provided (Figure 4.6). Co-ordination and implementation of the project: The whole project is co-ordinated by the urban redevelopment department. To facilitate the implementation of mixed use, the Südstadt is revealed as a mixed-use area and the planning tool “Städtebauliche Entwicklungsmaßnahme” is used in an innovative way. This tool offers the possibility for trying innovative procedures in town planning, especially for reusing areas, and provides a number of measures that can be combined. If certain objectives of the planning tool (e. g. re-using of an area, providing additional living space, etc.) are met, planners are less restricted by this tool in comparison to other tools of German building law.

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 49

Figure 4.6: Varied architecture and mixed use in buildings in Tübingen Südstadt

Further, to finance the infrastructure, the municipality purchases the sites at the value attached to the sites before the development. Afterwards, the sites are disposed at the current market value which is fixed by an expert committee and include increases in value due to the development. The development and infrastructure are mainly financed by these proceeds. Additionally, the project is also supported by the state (redevelopment programme). Evaluation: As it was supposed to be useful to start with the evaluation of impacts on the modal share when the multi-storey car parks as important elements of the project were finished there were no elements like planning indicators or elements of evaluation at the time of TRANSPLUS investigation. However, a qualitative appraisal of the overall process highlighted successful elements. Citizen participation was particularly effective, as the citizens were involved in a comprehensive way exceeding the legal participation and leading to high acceptance. Altogether, the project is regarded to be quite successful and mainly problems arise only because of the multi-storey car parks being not realised as planned. By the end of 1999, ca. 3000 persons got or created living space in the development area on their own. Additionally, about 40 000 m2 space for trade and social/cultural facilities were opened and users are still interested in getting suitable sites in the Südstadt. A variety of housing forms as well as narrow mixed use have already been realised, although the project is not finished yet. According to subjective assessment of the local department of urban redevelopment, there are less cars in the Südstadt than in other parts of Tübingen while non-motorised modes are represented more often than in other districts.

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4.2.1.2.3 Development of a Walking Strategy in Bristol and a Cycling Strategy in Merseyside, UK Specific strategies to promote a better awareness of walking and cycling opportunities in the city environment is to be considered, as the provision of short travel distances is on its own insufficient to encourage people to use non-motorised modes. The measures already mentioned have to be completed by an attractive network for pedestrian and cyclists, and the development of a comprehensive marketing campaign to influence mode choice. A hierarchical city-wide cycle network should be created in an attractive envi ronment connecting different locations and facilities. Cycling and pedestrian networks on a quarter level must be linked to networks of higher hierarchies. Simultaneously, conflicts between cyclists, pedestrians and motorised modes must be reduced to improve the safety and attractiveness of cycle tracks and footpaths. Improvement of information and orientation is also an important accompanying measure. Pedestrians and cyclists should feel that they are respected and welcome as travellers. Public relations work can help to make people aware of the advantages of walking and cycling, increasing the acceptability of these mobility options. Besides, as walking and cycling are very sensitive to detours, people should be informed how to reach destinations improving their navi gation in the city. Improved information systems can link together the different parts of the city and encourage people to walk, cycle or to take the bus. Bristol “Legible City”: In Bristol, walking is promoted providing clearer way finding and information by means of the project “Bristol Legible City,” which is an important element of the Local Transport Plan. Indeed, Bristol Legible City is one of the main priorities of the city council and its partners over the next 10 years. It is a unique concept that seeks to integrate a comprehensive programme of transportation, information, identity and arts projects to improve people’s understanding, experience and enjoyment of the city. The initiative is based on the relation between urban design and movement. A new sign and information system should provide a unified identity for the city being user-friendly to all, including those who are disabled. It targets linking together diverse parts of the city with a flow of consistently designed information. Further aims are to provide a cleaner greener environment and to encourage people to walk, cycle or to take the bus. Improvement of the legibility: Legibility of the city is considered to be important in terms of its use. However, in Bristol, there is a feeling that the city currently lacks a strong visual identity and that the situation fails to give people comfort or guide them to the wealth of attractions the city has to offer. Post-war development has broken up traditional neighbourhoods and eroded the legibility of the city. Low levels of information mean that visitors find it difficult to enjoy travelling within the central area. Therefore, the initiative should help to improve the legibility of Bristol, and people should enjoy the city using non-motorised modes. In the first phase of the initiative that aimed at pedestrians in the city centre, a new signage system and a large number of map panels have been arranged along key routes to help identify nearby attractions, public transport routes, and so on. The typeface of the signage has been designed to be clear, and interactive information points have been installed in the city centre providing online information about the city as well as a free internet and e-mail facility.

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 51 Future developments: In the future, the scheme will be extended to other areas of the city, including bus stops, information booths, telephone kiosks and markers at transport interchanges. It is anticipated to extend the signage system to cater for the needs of cyclists too. The interactive information points will be upgraded to provide a journeyplanning facility which is already available in some other cities. In addition, a public arts programme will integrate artists’ work into the community, creating areas with their own identities using sculpture, architecture and street furniture to provide easily recognisable navigation points. Management of Bristol Legible City: The initiative Legible City Bristol is developed by the City Council in partnership with a wide range of local business organisations and national government initiatives. The initiative is backed by the major partners in Bristol’s regeneration strategy: the South West Regional Development Agency, Bristol Chamber of Commerce and Initiative, Broadmead Board (representing the interests of the central shopping area), the Harbourside Sponsors Group and Bristol Tourism and Conference Bureau. The current partnership involves therefore both the public and the private sector and is facilitated by the City Council. The initiative is co-ordinated by a consultancy, City ID, on behalf of Bristol City Council. Staff from the city council, who have been involved in the initiative, come mainly from within the department of environment, transport and leisure. These include officers involved in urban design, planning, trans port engineering and arts development. However, because the initiative is cross-cutting different sectors, staff from other departments have also been involved (such as the department for neighbourhood and housing services). Furthermore, since the initiative is a partnership, it also involves collaboration with a number of external agencies, such as public transport operators, bus shelter manufacturers, car park operators/managers and tourism organisations. Evaluation: Evaluation was limited but the initiative co-ordinators recognised that this needs to be done. It is, however, difficult to quantify many of the benefits of the individual elements of such an initiative and identify how much of an impact they had for changes in, for example, walking and cycling. In the Local Transport Plan (July, 2000), a prospective monitoring programme was outlined. Accordingly, 30 new Automatic Traffic Count sites had to be installed and the size of the Automatic Cycle Counter network increased. Cycling data will be collected at a number of key workplaces three times per year. The city-wide programme of journey time surveys undertaken in 1993 and 1996/1997 will become biennial. Further, a programme of household interview surveys was starting and three study areas will be surveyed in a rolling programme, covering one area per year. Merseyside cycling strategy: Over the past 20 years the economy of Merseyside in the UK has undergone a period of structural decline in high employment industries which has contributed to a persistent negative image of the area. Due to the high rate of unemployment, a lot of people do not own a car and are dependent on low-cost modes of transport. Linking main residential areas and main employment sites by a cycle network: It is mainly planned to extend the cycle network of main routes to areas in the outskirts to

52 C. Sessa improve the accessibility to industrial and residential areas by non-motorised modes and to increase the share of cycling on working trips. There are also going to be District Cycling Strategies for each of the five districts of Merseyside. The implementation of a cycle network across Merseyside by 2012 is a target of the Local Transport Plan which aims to create a fully integrated and sustainable transport network for Merseyside. The core cycle network connects the residential areas to the main employment sites, and it was completed by the end of the first period (2001–2006), the remainder of the network by 2012. The measure aims to link the Special Investment Areas, which are the new focal points for employment initiatives, to the Pathway Areas being areas of social need. The network is dependent partly on funding through the Objective 1 Programme and is supported by the Single Programming Document. The Merseyside’s Objective 1 Programme contains a wide range of initiatives which aim to create 56 500 additional jobs over the Programme period (2000–2006). A main aim of the Local Transport Plan, therefore, is to ensure that transport provision is of the highest quality to serve these areas, and the cycle strategy will consequently focus on linking the Pathways and the Investment Areas. Development of the Merseyside Cycling Strategy: At the time of TRANSPLUS inves tigation, the Merseyside Cycling Strategy was undergoing a review of content. The Merseyside Cycling Strategy drawn up by the Transport Policy Group at Merseytravel (passenger transport executive) has got to be approved by the Merseyside Transport and Engineers Group comprising the Transport Managers from the five district authorities and Merseytravel. Afterwards, it had to be adopted by the district authorities; these authorities will each adopt a strategy based on the Merseyside Cycling Strategy but adapted to local circumstances. The measures target on increasing the share of cycling to 4% by 2006 and to 8% by 2012. Parts of the cycling network are already imple mented but altogether it was noticed that cycling by comparison receives a very low proportion of personnel as well as financial resources as compared to funds allocated to other modes. This causes the potential danger that the project will be “underdone” due to lack of resources, with a scaling down of the original cycle network. Evaluation: As the implementation has not been finished yet, there are no results by now. The target is to quadruple the modal share of cycling by 2012 which means an increase of the share to 4% by 2006 and to 8% by 2012. Concerning the monitoring of the modal share, currently, the baseline is taken from the countywide survey which is carried out every 5 years. This is thought to be too small a base (around a 1000 households), and there is a real problem in getting a monitoring framework and a baseline. The last results available showed that the levels of cycling were very small and had fallen, but this figure was not thought to be statistically accurate. Difficulties also occur due to insufficient resources. So far, a lack of personnel and financial resources has caused late delivery of the strategy and also a scaling down of the original cycle network. As money is allocated to other modes, cycling receives a very low proportion of the available resources.

4.2.1.3

Car Restriction Oriented Development

Car Restriction Oriented Development aims to limit the intrusion of cars in the urban environment and reduce by this way their negative impacts on noise, pollution, safety

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 53 and aesthetics of towns and neighbourhoods. The development of transport corridors within and between urban regions should avoid exclusively car-oriented developments. However, it is well known that corridor developments have grown in a very cardependent manner. Main road corridors always attracted activities and stores and other car attractive services due to their specific advantages (e.g. availability of space for build ing and car parking at low prices compared to urban centres). An integrated land use and transport management policy is therefore necessary to control the development of large car-oriented structures along main roads. At the town level, car restriction policies mainly aim to limit the extent of public and private parking space, and in particular, the use of parking places by non-resident user groups. Taking into account the findings of the TRANSPLUS case studies, two main approaches related to car restriction oriented development can be distinguished: projects related to new urban developments and projects dealing with reallocation of existing urban space.

4.2.1.3.1 New Car Restricted Developments in Vienna, Austria This measure, popularly known as “car-free developments,” is one of the more radical forms of car space restriction. The assumption behind this measure is that for non-car owners it is more attractive to live in an environment where the impact of cars on noise, pollution, safety or aesthetics is reduced or absent. There is also some evidence that a potentially wider market segment for car-free housing exists, despite the absence of an adequate offer by conventional housing development. However, there are also less radical forms of car-restricted neighbourhoods, ranging from the simple unavailability of parking places within the quarter to articles in the lease contracts prohibiting the dwellers to own their own car (sometimes this is coupled with a car sharing scheme). In any case, mobility in these new developments should be mainly based on PT, car sharing and on a good infrastructure for pedestrians and cyclists. A comprehensive environmental concept is often associated to this type of development (e.g. low-energy buildings, high proportion of green area, etc.), which is generally supplemented by the emphasis on the social aspect (e.g. high number of facilities of common use, increment of the living standard, etc.). Car-free settlement Vienna Floridsdorf: The car-free neighbourhood is an ecological estate development project in the first place. The total number of flats is 245. Although Floridsdorf is not connected to the underground lines, it is linked very well to tram and cycle routes. Neighbourhood services and infrastructure facilities such as kindergarten, schools, surgery and shops are located on the vicinity and are accessible by foot. The only problem is that the project lies on the eastern side of the river Danube. It carries a slight stigma of being on “the wrong side of the river” (Transdanubien), which for too many Viennese is a psychological barrier. The selection of real estate developer started in 1996. The erection of the project was finished in 1999 (Figure 4.7). Car restriction measure: The project was conceived as a car-free settlement. The usual erection of garage buildings was left out. Where the usual relation of car boxes per flat is a ratio of 1:1, in the project, it is only 1:10. These car boxes are installed exclusively for the use of cars of the car-sharing company that is linked to the project. The inhabitants can only use these cars. The settlement is clearly addressed to inhabitants who prefer to

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Figure 4.7: Pictures of car-free neighbourhood Vienna – Floridsdorf

(© 2001 Murdoch University)

live without a car. Therefore, inhabitants must sign a binding declaration not to own a car while living in Floridsdorf. This declaration includes all members of a household. Evaluation: The left out garages led to possibilities of alternative land use. The freed up space is used for installing more facilities for leisure and for common use, which goes far beyond the average amount. First, a large green area could be realised, not only because there was more space for it but also because leaving out garages saved financial resources that could be invested in another way. Second, the planning was orientated towards bicycles and public transport. An optimal connection with the cycle-route-network and the PT-network were the basic conditions concerning traffic planning.

4.2.1.3.2 Parking Regulations in Location Policy and in Building Codes (ABC-Like) This may be seen as ancillary to planning new car restricted developments or as an independent measure. The well known ABC-principle can be quoted as a major example of a location policy including parking regulations. According to this principle – invented and implemented on a large scale in the Netherlands – when an area can be reached by an optimal way through PT, the parking space will be reduced (A-locations). When

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 55 PT is available and car accessibility is good, parking space can be reduced to a limited extent (B-locations). Finally, PT is almost absent and car dependency is at a maximum for C-locations. The policy works both ways. It tries to allocate companies that are looking for a new place of business to locations with matching accessibility profiles. At the same time the policy tries to improve the accessibility of locations according to the mobility pro files of the present companies. In general, the parking policy is included in the spatial plans, but the ABC-parking norms are rarely fully implemented. At the local level, the parking policy isn’t as rigorously implemented as subscribed by the national author ity. Municipalities fear that a stringent parking policy will prevent companies from establishing themselves in the territory of the municipality and move to other locations in the neighbourhood with a less restricted policy. However, not all experiences are negative. The movement of Dutch Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and the Envi ronment to an A-location very close to the central station of The Hague was successful. While before the removal, about 40% of the employees used their car to commute, after the removal this percentage was only 28%, a decrease of 12%. The use of public transport grew from 30% to 65%. In total, around 70% of the employees changed their mode. Reallocation of existing urban public space includes several measures, such as private car accessibility regulation, parking policy or reallocation of road space.

4.2.1.3.3 Accessibility Regulation in Tübingen, Germany This measure allows only certain types of vehicles to enter in a specific area. Here, a selective restriction is usually made considering the characteristics of individual vehicles and/or their usage, such as time of day/week, vehicle type, user type or duration of stay. Application of such measures over a sufficiently large area is facilitated if traffic management tools are also used. Tübingen – Traffic policy for the historical city centre: In 1977, the council set up a framework plan concerning the redevelopment of the historical city centre. Among other things, this plan includes a new traffic policy for the city centre. An aim was that traffic disappears from the centre and is kept at the edge of it. Around the city centre, a circle of off-street parking facilities was planned which should catch car flows. The concept has been realised in a long period, completed by a Parking Space Management System. Although the plan was set up in 1977, the realisation was just finished in the 1990s. The city centre was planned as a pedestrian area with improved cycle facilities. Now the historical centre is divided in parts that are purely pedestrian zones and parts that are traffic restricted. The access for private cars is only possible in the early morning. Parking places are offered to a limited extent only. The off-street parking facilities have been realised in the form of an underground car park. An evaluation carried out in the 1990s has shown that the Parking Space Management System led to a reduction of 11% of cars entering the city centre. The Parking Space Management System covers the entire city centre, including the adjoining districts to avoid push-aside-effects within parking

56 C. Sessa behaviour. The concept includes short-time parking lots (between 15 min and 2 h) and long time parking as well, at appropriate areas.

4.2.1.3.4 Parking Control Measures in Vienna, Austria These measures are another way to reduce car traffic and the number of cars on the street in commercial or residential areas. Here, a number of different approaches have been identified, for example, reducing the supply of spaces, restricting the duration of parking or the opening hours, regulating their use through permits or charging and/or promoting the pre-booking of parking. Special measures may be adopted to target the needs of different groups such as local residents. However, the impact of this kind of measure depends very much on a gradual implementation, the coordination over time and space of parking restrictions, and the coupling with complementary measures (e.g. park and ride). Vienna Parking Space Management: Parking space management is an important priority measure of the Vienna Traffic Concept. The Parking Space Management of Vienna consists of the limitation of parking time. Beginning in the 1960s, the City of Vienna established the first time-limit parking zones in the city centre. Since then nine further city districts have become included in the Parking Space Management System as the picture shows (Figure 4.8).

Figure 4.8: Picture of boundaries of restricted parking policy – Vienna (© GEWOG)

The main objectives concerning car restriction are reducing motorised individual traffic by reducing long-term parking by non-residents, as well as enhancing the appeal for PT use by giving it priority over individual motor traffic. Another important objective is to

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 57 improve traffic safety for pedestrians by reducing illegal parking and opening additional public space for pedestrians and cyclists. Evaluation: The results of the implementation of parking control in Vienna were as follows: • Noticeable reduction of slot capacity utilisation on public streets from 109% to 71%; • Marked decrease of illegal parking; • Noticeable reduction in the time spent to find a slot due to lower capacity utili sation; • The number of parking vehicles not registered in Vienna was decreased by over two-thirds in the daytime hours; • The somehow sceptical attitude of the population before the introduction of the system was transformed into a largely positive one.

4.2.1.3.5 Reallocation of Road Space in Bristol, UK This measure involves giving back space formerly used by car traffic to other uses (e.g. PT, cyclists, pedestrian). This can be realised through the removal of on-street parking located in key transport corridors and the introduction of further bus lanes, cycle lanes or pedestrian facilities. The aim is to reduce long stay parking spaces within or near the city centre, usually replacing them by parking at park-and-ride sites. Bristol – Road Hierarchy Review – “Scope Route”: The basis of Bristol’s plans for reallocating road space is the Road Hierarchy Review, which proposes two among five road categories to be featured as arteries for public transport, walking and cycling – rather than private vehicular traffic, especially through traffic – and the consequent reallocation of road space. The two categories are the roads within “Environmental Cells” and the so-called “Transport Greenways” for non-motorised modes. Based on that Bristol is promoting the idea of “environmental cells” combined with “home zones.” The idea of environmental cells is that main roads would form a strategic network and the spaces in between these routes would be termed environmental areas, where priority is given to pedestrian and non-transport urban functions. Home zones are residential streets in which the road space is shared between drivers of motor vehicles and other road users, including pedestrians and cyclists (Figure 4.9). An example of the re-prioritisation of part of the road network is seen in the case of the historic “Centre” area which is surrounded by the City Centre Loop – the “Scope Route” – which diverts traffic around the city centre. This is an example of the positive outcome of the Road Hierarchy Review. Six months after the opening of Bristol’s remodelled centre, a survey showed collectively a 15% fall in the traffic passing through. Further work will be required to ascertain whether traffic has really “evaporated” or whether all or most of it has diverted onto the City Centre Loop and elsewhere. The various land use and transport measures are summarised in Table 4.1 below.

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Figure 4.9: Picture of scope route – part of the road hierarchy review (© city of Bristol) Table 4.1: Land use and transport measures: summary table LUT Measure

TRANSPLUS Case Studies’ evidence Diffusion Across Case Study Cities

Improving Public Transport accessibility in existing settlements New PT oriented settlement

Nearly all the case study cities

Amsterdam, Bilbao, Cologne, Ghent, Groningen, Helsinki, Lisbon, Merseyside, Orléans, Vienna Renovation of Lisbon, Orléans, Ghent, railway stations and Croydon, Helsinki, surrounding areas Amsterdam, Bristol, Rome, Cologne, Munster Short-distance Dresden, Bristol, mixed-use development Helsinki, Bilbao, Aalborg

Main Example

Orléans new tram service

Likely Results or Potential Impact Modal shift towards PT, although good accessibility is not always sufficient to change users’ behaviour Concentration of residents and jobs in the vicinity of PT stops

Vienna Metro extension to the densified Easter-Donaustadt and the Gasometer city Munster-Mecklenbeck: Concentration of residents development of and jobs in the vicinity of housing estates along a railway stations reactivated rail station Aalborg: compact city structure for future development

Mixed-use developments provide the inhabitants of the districts the possibility to avoid long-distance car trips (Continued)

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 59 Table 4.1: (Continued) LUT Measure

TRANSPLUS Case Studies’ evidence Diffusion Across Case Study Cities

Main Example

Likely Results or Potential Impact

Usage of inner city brownfield sites

Lisbon, Vienna, Bilbao, Tübingen

Tübingen: redevelopment of a city area

Development of walking and cycling strategies

Ghent, Dresden, Croydon, Nantes, Rome, Brescia, Vienna, Helsinki, Munster, Bristol, Merseyside

New car restricted developments (“car-free neighbourhoods”)

Amsterdam, Cologne, Tübingen, Vienna

Bristol “Legible City” initiative (walking strategy) Merseyside cycling strategy Vienna: Floridsdorf car-free settlement

Parking regulation in location policy (ABC-like) and building codes Accessibility regulation

Amsterdam (more generally in Netherlands), Tübingen, Cologne

The Netherlands case

Decreasing shares of car commuters, increasing shares of PT use

General access limit for the city centre in Rome, Bilbao, Ghent and Helsinki; selective access limit only for certain streets and places in Aalborg, Amsterdam, Barcelona, Bristol, Brussels, Croydon, Evora, Groningen, Munster, Tübingen Lisbon, Evora, Rome, Brescia, Brussels, Bilbao, Amsterdam, Groningen, Ghent, Helsinki, Tübingen, Vienna

Tübingen: traffic policy for the historical centre

Reduction of cars entering the limited access zone and their external impacts (congestion, pollution, noise)

Vienna: parking space management scheme

Reduction of slot capacity utilisation on public streets and related time saving in searching a slot; decreasing illegal parking; reduced number of commuters from outside the regulated area using their car and increased PT use (especially if combined with park and ride facilities) Decreased traffic passing through the target areas

Parking control measures

Reallocation of road Aalborg, Bilbao, Brussels, space Cologne, Dresden, Ghent, Munster, Orléans, Rome, Nantes, Tübingen, Bristol

Bristol: Road Hierarchy Review

Inner city locations provide short distances to the city centre as well as to existing cultural and public facilities Increasing modal share of walking and cycling

Saving of car boxes/parks space for other uses; reduced car ownership; increased safety for the children; increased social interaction

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4.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF LAND USE AND TRANSPORT STRATEGIES So far we have presented examples of integrated land use and transport measures. How ever, to be effective, the single measures have to be combined into coherent strategies. This is more easily said than done, because there are numerous barriers to the integration of different policies as needed, due to local circumstances and barriers which have been analysed in the TRANSPLUS case studies. These case studies also illustrate important processes and key factors of success for the implementation of integrated land use and transport strategies. In short, the basis for good implementation seems always to require: • the presence of a broad strategic concept for the city which integrates sectoral policies in a comprehensive strategy; • a high relevance given to co-operation between the different administrative depart ments within the city and across different tiers of government (municipal, regional, in some cases even national), and increasingly between public and private actors; • the involvement of stakeholders and inhabitants in the development of a vision for the City of Tomorrow or into planning processes. In addition, experiences in various case studies teach us that creating successful PT oriented and/or short distance urban developments hinges to a large degree on the kinds of supplementary regional policies that are introduced – those which, on the one hand, target public resources at creating high-quality station-area living environments throughout a region and those which, on the other hand, eliminate hidden subsidies to motorists. Any effective linkage of transportation and urban development is inher ently a regional enterprise. A decision to open a shopping mall in one jurisdiction, for example, will invariably have mobility repercussions on neighbouring jurisdictions. It is therefore essential that the planning and implementation of transport services and urban growth occur across multiple political boundaries. One or two locally developed PT or short distance developments within a region of almost exclusively automobileoriented growth will not only add up to very little but the developments themselves might be unsustainable. There is the need to achieve a critical mass of integrated land use and transport measures to reduce car dependency and stimulate alternative transport. Based on the TRANSPLUS case studies findings, the following are some key elements that may ensure the successful implementation of integrated land use and transport strategies. Integrated strategic concepts as a basis for policy implementation: The main goals and principles for the city development, for example, land use decisions, are usu ally agreed upon and presented in a structural plan. In some cases, this repre sents the main driver to co-ordinate the process between different departments (e.g. urban planning, traffic and environmental departments) and, in a number of cases, to combine the views of different authorities where responsibilities overlap.

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 61 Thus, the agreement on strategic concepts is achieved between the relevant administra tive and political authorities. Definition of a vision for the city development becomes a cornerstone to create common awareness of the main problems the city has to cope with, to focus goals before project realisation and to develop a comprehensive strategy. This was a huge motivational factor for some cities. On the contrary, in several exam ples of “bad practice” consensus on a common strategic concept was not achieved. In this case, a narrow approach to planning was taken, leading to the isolated treatment of some land use and transport issues, and not enabling a timely management of side effects.

4.3.1 An integrated strategic concept for Amsterdam: the Structure Plan The municipality of Amsterdam is currently realising a new “structure plan.” This is one of the main planning instruments of local authorities in the Netherlands to present and integrate their spatial and sectoral planning policy. It outlines the chosen future developments, is descriptive and general, and has significance as a guideline for all spatial policy of the municipality. The plan serves as the framework to evaluate the more detailed and local land-use plans. It has a strategic function and mainly focuses on the long term. There are two important changes in the land use and transport policy of Amsterdam outlined in the new structure plan 2001/2002, “Choosing urbanity.” The first is the change of perspective on the integration of land use and transport that is made in the Netherlands nowadays. The second is the change of desired urban form. Indeed, Amsterdam is known for its starshaped “fingerstructure” and has for years adopted a rather monocentric compact city vision. New residential areas were to be realised inside or attached to the current built up area (infilling and expansion locations). From monocentric to polycentric structures: The new vision on the preferred urban form makes a shift from the compact monocentric agglomeration with one multifaceted urban centre to a polycentric region with a varied set of multi-functional urban centres. The main goal is to develop a limited number of good accessible, multi-functional urban centres, with a concentration of activities and high density settlement. The new plan outlines a large number of policies and spatial principles for the realisation of the new urban centres, amongst which the most important are: • Intensifying existing urban areas: a number of the new urban centres should be located inside the central city. Due to scarcity of development land, this requires imaginative solutions. The city has set out a range of measures to intensify current built-up area and especially the current mono-functional sub-centres. • Mixing functions within existing and new centres: The intensification of the existing sub-centres should include different functions. The local land use plans will allow residential, recreational and other functions within these new centres, and the city will actively pursue the inclusion of these functions in the project plans made for the several sub-centres. • Selective development/hierarchy in centres: The city has chosen to determine the size and function of the centres based on the position of the centre in public trans port networks (international, national, interregional and regional). The profile of the centres will be described in terms of specialisation, characteristics, and level

62 C. Sessa of ambition. The urban network should offer a metropolitan mix of functions, with differentiated centres (financial, leisure, tourism, etc.). • Policy integration between different sectors and/or tiers of government: Policy integration concerns the management of cross-cutting issues in policy-making that transcend the boundaries of established policy fields, and which do not correspond to the institutional responsibilities of individual departments. Integrated policymaking refers to both horizontal sectoral integration (between different depart ments and/or professions in public authorities) and vertical inter-governmental integration in policy-making (between different tiers of governments) or com binations of both. Interdisciplinary co-operation is a basic requirement to cope with the impact that any integrated, comprehensive concept may have upon the areas of responsibility of different departments. Further, several planning hier archies can be involved in the definition of measures requiring administrative co-operation on different spatial levels, as well as with the stakeholders. The creation of interdisciplinary working groups can help to co-ordinate administra tive tasks and to ensure the realisation of projects. The main reason for their establishment is to clarify objectives and to obtain mutual consent in the pre liminary stages of project realisation. It is also a useful instrument to give new objectives and more power of enforcement. Further, new forms of co-operation as partnerships between the public and private sector (Public–Private Partnerships) can serve the purpose of delivering a project or service traditionally provided by the public sector. Finally, integrating land use development, urban and regional transport in large agglomerations is strongly dependent on the development of the whole region, and this claims for a stronger regional cooperation. Experience shows that official instruments at the state or regional level have few impacts on the land use and transport policies implementation, since that is very dependent on the interests of each municipality in the surrounding of the agglomeration. Most of the land use and transport policies investigated in the TRANSPLUS case studies aim to achieve regional co-operation, but co-ordination between different territorial jurisdictions (including adjacent municipalities) is still insufficient. In particular, the quality of PT is often not the most important aspect for land use decision-making in suburban municipalities, in the way that it is for the central city. However, an integrated land use and transport strategy intending to affect mobility behaviour towards sustainable modes is almost mandatory and needs to be supported by co-operation contracts across community borders.

4.3.2 Regional cooperation in Dresden In 1996, the federal government passed an initiative researching mobility with the aim to preserve mobility and at the same time to reduce the unwelcome effects of traffic. In this context, the protection of mobility in agglomeration was considered to be of high importance. The project “intermobil region Dresden” is part of a national research programme concerning the mobility in the whole region (Figures 4.10 and 4.11). Intermobil region Dresden: With the project “intermobil region Dresden,” the Dresden city administration provides in co-operation with other partners a very comprehensive policy package to promote sustainable urban development. The strategy is not only

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 63

Figure 4.10: Intermobil region Dresden

Figure 4.11: Promotion of sustainable transport focused on Dresden but includes surrounding municipalities too. The concept consists of seven modules based on a mix of soft and hard policies to promote sustainable transport and urban development. Besides providing a lot of innovative projects in the field of transport (for instance “flexible light rail,” “electronic ticketing in public transport”), the soft policy modules of “intermobil region Dresden” are of main interest for integrated transport and land use planning. Integrated regional management of land use is an important element of the project. In this context, the investigation is about how to avoid spatial developments which generate traffic. After German re-unification in 1990, Dresden was an interesting

64 C. Sessa example of how the choice of locations for living and working affects the success of environmental friendly modes of transport. When choosing a new location for living, people are often not aware of the fact that the new location will have influences on their mode choice, for instance because the new location is not connected to public transport. Therefore, the module “demand management” consists of different work packages such as integrated regional management of land use, location and mobility management for private households, mobility behaviour, and so on. It supports the usage of the public transport system while giving advice for choice of locations and mode choice. Interdisciplinary co-operation: In the project, several partners – city of Dresden, local transport operators, the German railway company, universities and research institu tions, consulting enterprises, industrial partners – are involved working on different modules. As the project at the time of TRANSPLUS investigation had only just started, its implementation is still unsure and there are no results yet. Step by step implementation process: Often relevant policy changes cannot be imple mented at once in the whole city. This may be caused by a number of reasons, and thus only a step by step implementation process seems to be an effective way to proceed. Usu ally, the measures can be limited to a specific area where more favourable circumstances enable (or more stringent needs require) the implementation of land use and transport integrated concepts. For example, in some of the TRANSPLUS case studies, inner city areas lost their original function and are considered as suitable sites to implement com prehensive regeneration projects. These brownfield sites combine a lot of advantages and can be reused paying due consideration to the needs of pedestrians, cyclists and PT, and so on. Furthermore, redevelopment of these areas can be seen as pilot projects to highlight the advantages of compact structures and to try out new planning forms. Another positive aspect of a step by step implementation process is that it safeguards stakeholders from being confronted with extensive projects that substantially affect their usual patterns of mobility and, thus, their acceptance can be increased.

4.3.3 Successful realisation of the “Hinge project” (“Scharnierproject”) in Ghent The department of urban and spatial planning of Ghent has elaborated a process plan to restructure the former industrialised urban area around the railway station Dampoort, situated on the frontier between the city centre and the harbour. The strategic position of this area provides unknown opportunities to create a second city centre. Urban redevelopment of a working-class district: The urban development project is situ ated between the inner urban area and the port area and functions thereby as a “hinge” between both areas. The area encloses the environment of the “Handelsdok,” making part of the nineteenth- and early twentieth-century port. The area also encloses the working-class district “De Muide” which was and still is the home for many port labour ers. Because of its strategic position nearby the city centre and close to the Dampoort station and making part of the nineteenth century expansion zone around the centre, the area offers a great potential for revitalisation.

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 65 Proceedings and objectives: In this case, an integrated vision of urban redevelopment and upgrading of a railway station was in place, but no attempts were intentionally made to come to a “one-block” implementation plan for the entire project. The realisation of the project depended instead on the permanent attention of the administration for partial realisation whenever opportunities occurred. The project fits within the objectives of the “Spatial Structure Plan for Flanders,” aiming at qualitative housing (along the water), good accessibility with public transport and bicycles, high (or medium) density and proximity of and mixing with non-polluting industries. The project implementation started with the development of the environment of the railway station Dampoort and of Houtdok, the old part of the harbour and the building of the new bridge across the dockyard between Muidenlaan and Afrikalaan. High public transport accessibility of the future mixed-use area: For the restructuring of the former industrialised city part to a residential and retail area, a number of important infrastructure measures needed to be taken, including road projects and the upgrading of railway stations. In the Hinge project also some experiments with new transport systems, for example, people movers, can be considered. This connection will relieve pressure on the inner city ring way R40. Together with the development of the Dampoort station as a regional node, a number of tramways will be extended. Citizen and stakeholders participation, communication and information: Participation and communication issues are becoming more and more important in the field of public policies and, in particular, in land use and transport planning. Since citizens and stake holders are affected by or can influence decisions, thus it is crucial to consider them during all the stages of the planning process. A well-conceived and well-implemented public involvement programme can bring major benefits to the policy process and lead to better decision outcomes. But the authorities promoting communication and partici pation processes must be well aware of the objectives they pursue and the impacts they expect. In this regard, the scheme in Table 4.2 synthesises, the main pros and cons that can be assigned to LUT planning with and without participation processes. Empirical evidence from TRANSPLUS case studies shows that the benefits of promoting participation in LUT planning processes overcome the drawbacks that could be fore seen. The development of citizens’ ideas, the greater openness and transparency of the processes are major advantages. The main drawbacks are related with the delays caused by the time consuming public engagement process. Nevertheless, consultation and partic ipation are now becoming more widespread and expected as part of normal procedures in planning, development and implementation of integrated projects. Some examples of participation processes observed in the TRANSPLUS case studies are described below.

4.3.4 Processes to include citizen and stakeholders in policy development in Vienna In Vienna citizens and stakeholders can participate in the planning and policy develop ment process both at the overall urban level and at the single project level.

66 C. Sessa Table 4.2: Advantages and disadvantages of participation and non-participation processes in LUT planning

Disadvantages

Advantages

Non-participation

Participation

Low costs Relatively quick Clear leadership of the process Raises few conflicts Can be done with routine procedures Generates few expectations Easy management Enables high distribution/coverage Good very first step to get the attention for a policy/project

Strong understanding Strong commitment Increased acceptability Increased credibility of authority More transparency More equity Direct influence of stakeholders on decision-making Stronger identification with a policy/project Integration of end-users in development and design

Limited understanding of objectives by the public Limited commitment to implement Weak process for development Missing of important elements Risk of “information overload”

Higher costs Slower Leadership problems Difficult management Generation of conflicts and difficulties in reaching consensus generation of fatigue in actors Decreasing of credibility of authorities in case of failure Risk of increased inequity if only groups participate

The Urban Level: At this level, citizens and stakeholders are the target of several infor mation tools: • Exhibitions of the so-called Viennese Planning Workshop: These exhibitions deal with topics of urban development and transport planning of Vienna, its districts and environs, and of other European cities too. • Publications: Viennese urban development department publishes three different series of publications that provide visions and projects of urban development. • Citizens’ service office: There exists a central service office where citizens get all information about urban development. This service offers information about special projects and the possibilities of participation, about current land use and building regulation plans. The high acceptance of this service is proved by the high number of users. • Internet: The urban development is an important topic of the Viennese web service “Vienna Online”. Beside statistics and projects, there is information about tools and planning processes and explanations on how to understand for instance land use plans. Within the working process of the traffic concept 78 citizens’ initiatives and several individual citizens were included in several discussion forums and workshops and also in the development team. The Project level creation of a common consensus: On the project level, there exists a tool of citizen participation called “Bürgerbeteiligungsverfahren.” For projects co-ordinated by the municipality, this tool became a formal part of the planning process. The

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 67 preparation phase consists of information campaigns, opinion polls and interviews, dis cussion forums and workshops about the planned project. After that a planning group is formed which integrates planners, politicians, people from city and district adminis tration, single citizens or citizens’ initiatives and representatives from the local economy. This planning group discusses the project in several meetings moderated by independent chairmen and develops solutions as a basis for policy decisions. Meeting minutes are published with the aim to inform all citizens and stakeholders about the progress of the planning. A common consensus can be found in this way on the project level.

4.3.5 Processes to include citizens and stakeholders in policy development in Amsterdam The development of a vision for the new structure plan of Amsterdam entailed a large participation process, as depicted in the following figure taken from the draft plan which shows the entire process (Figure 4.12).

Departments

Political

1st research report

Workshop

2nd research report Publication: Hub Amsterdam

3rd research report

Discussion rounds Decisionmaking

Design and research

Capita Selecta

City Congres

Discussion paper

Individual reactions

Elaboration for each district

Discussion meetings

Regular meetings

Political approval of central choices

Concept structure plan

Concept provincial plan

Figure 4.12: Preparation of the structure plan in Amsterdam

68 C. Sessa Organisation of three discussion platforms: First, there were three rounds of explorative investigations into trends, preferences and interests. The material was published and opened for discussion. At the same time, the political level made a draft of their vision on Amsterdam (Hub Amsterdam), initiating three discussion platforms: a discussion among organised groups in the society, a discussion among experts and a discussion among polit ical entities. These discussions are synthesised in a publication called “Capita Selecta” and presented at a congress. After three years of explorations and discussions, the depart ment of urban planning made a discussion paper which included three alternative visions and a preference of the department itself for one of the three. On basis of this paper, a new participation phase started. There were large gatherings across the city, presenta tions on all regular meetings with other institutional bodies, expert meetings and so on. Final discussion on the district level: In the end, the department outlined a new concept paper with the central choices that have to gain political approval. This paper has been published in February 2001. It was then open for discussion with emphasis on co-ordination among the partners involved (neighbouring municipalities, etc.) at the district level.

4.3.6 Tübingen Redeveloping the former military area in Tübingen, new concepts such as providing short distances, restriction of private cars and others were implemented. However, the implementation was discussed pragmatically with the people concerned. Particularly in the beginning, the local newspaper was used to make the project well-known. The urban redevelopment department described the Südstadt development plans as a supplement in the local newspaper (received by every household) and added a questionnaire that the citizen should send back commenting their opinion. The response was predominantly positive. There were workshops on different themes. Altogether, the discussion was good, and all problems were mentioned and not circumvented. The people knew what they got involved in (e.g. that it is not possible to park in front of the house), and as a result, the inhabitants of Südstadt are proud of their quarter. Altogether, the participation of citizens led to higher acceptance. A committee consisting of representatives of the city council as well as informed citizens has been established. The citizens are not entitled to vote but can discuss in the committee.

4.4 POLICY IMPLICATIONS Integrated land use and transport planning is considered one of the instruments to promote a more rational use of private cars and sustainable land use and transport in European cities and regions. The selected case studies showed that there is a transport problem and that integrated land use and transport is needed to make a city sustainable in the longer term. While scholars often separate the transport and land use fields of research, practitioners have to deal with the many interdependencies between them. Also citizen participation matters. Moreover, politicians, decision-makers, citizens and the different categories of stakeholders shall become fully aware of sustainability concerns, of how integrated land use and transport policy need their active and durable support and of the extent to which these policies may help to achieve urban sustainability goals.

Achieving Sustainable Cities with Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies 69

4.4.1 Main Lessons to Deliver Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies The following are lessons learned from the TRANSPLUS case studies, which provide some basic insights on how to design and put in practice integrated land use and transport approaches: 1. Integration is only realised when it is applied to policies, planning methodologies and organisation of processes or structures. Therefore, not only the different land use and transport policies, but also the supporting tools and supporting organisational structures of town planning and transportation engineering need to be integrated. However, the integration of supporting models, monitoring indicators and institutional structures, is poorly developed. Extra effort is needed to make the current advancement in modelling techniques more applicable for local practitioners. Efforts should be concentrated on making models more dis aggregate, simpler to use and more flexible in the range of issues capable of being addressed. 2. The “door-to-door” travel concept shall be extended to travel modes alternative to private car use. Whenever the access of cars shall be limited to reduce conges tion and adverse environmental impacts, land use and transport measures should be undertaken in parallel to ensure higher accessibility and a better connection of public transport and non-motorised modes, creating attractive, environment friendly alternatives to compete with the private car even for long-distance trips. Here, various possibilities are given and should be applied in the future (e.g. trans port of cycles on trains, bike and ride facilities, good conditions for walking or cycling to PT stations, short-distance structure developments etc.). 3. Attention has to be given to the implementation process. The following recom mendations emerge from the case studies: (i) be aware of the barriers which hinder the implementation of the policy (output barrier) or the realisation of the sustainability goals (outcome barriers), and consider the solutions needed to remove those barriers that are contingent (i.e. they can be removed); (ii) adopt broad strategic concepts and visions for the city development which will help to integrate single measures in a comprehensive strategy; (iii) strengthen the co ordination between the different administrative departments within the city (with formal or informal of interdisciplinary co-operation) and across different tiers of government (municipal, regional, in some cases even national) and increasingly between public and private actors; (iv) Follow a step by step implementation process. 4. Citizen and stakeholders participation is increasingly important. Although this task may seems optional, it is really needed to achieve full policy integration. The “external” perspective provided by the engagement of citizens and stakeholders in the decision process may help to find the key issues on which the manifold sectors of local administrations, and even of higher level of governments when needed, can integrate their efforts. Public involvement processes must be carefully managed they should have enough financial resources and a clear mandate to achieve results that must be taken into account in forming the local policy agenda and in the deliberation of final decisions. A feedback effect of participation

70 C. Sessa may be to increase the acceptance of more controversial policies by the side of participants. 5. Transferability of good practice by means of transnational networking activities should be fostered, involving the policy makers and practitioners who have the power to take decisions at national, regional or local level and aiming to: (i) recognise the policy options available and examples of good practice realised elsewhere that might be applied to new contexts, by eliciting their objectives, implementation modalities, compatibility issues and likely impacts; (ii) identify ways to remove barriers and apply/adapt the good practices to the local con texts. TRANSPLUS case studies have shown so far only anecdotal information on transfers of ideas, concepts, policy instruments triggered by the access to pub lished data sources, or by participation in networks and co-operative projects. More specific mechanisms to foster transferability of good practice in the future shall be recommended.

REFERENCES TRANSPLUS Deliverable D3 – Assessment of implementation strategies – Technical Report – ILS, SOCIALDATA, LV, ISIS, TUW, April 2002 (www.transplus.net). TRANSPLUS Deliverable D3.1 – Public Transport Oriented Development: Significant Practice in Europe – ILS, April 2002 (www.transplus.net). TRANSPLUS Deliverable D3.2 – Pedestrian and cycling friendly structure development: Significant practice in Europe – SOCIALDATA, April 2002 (www.transplus.net). TRANSPLUS Deliverable D3.3 – Car restriction oriented development: Significant practice in Europe – LV, April 2002 (www.transplus.net).

Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 5 Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport Philine Gaffron, Uwe Schubert, Franz Skala and Tina Wagner

5.1 CHALLENGES AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF EC DIRECTIVES The challenges in urban development differ somewhat with the size of the settlement, but one problem is common to all: During recent decades, urban growth usually happened in ways contradictory to the concept of sustainable settlement development, although this concept is theoretically agreed on in many of the relevant policies. Suburbanisation produced spatially diffused and functionally segregated settlement structures – sprawl – around cities and towns, while the population of the generally more compact historic parts declined. This continuing trend causes growth in traffic volumes, resulting in increased pressures on the environment (such as pollution from exhaust fumes or climate problems due to carbon dioxide emissions). It also compromises the effects of many measures aimed at promoting sustainable transport modes. (Gaffron et al., 2005, p. 7)

The structure of sprawl and the resulting problems are described in more detail in a Communication from the European Union (EU) Commission: The siting of employment, retail and leisure centres outside urban areas, for instance around motorway junctions, undermines the economic viability of the city centre as a commercial district, encourages car use and excludes citizens who do not have access to a car from these jobs and services. (Commission of the European Communities, 2004, p. 26)

As a result of these growth patterns, resources such as land and energy, which should be preserved for future generations, are used excessively. Large areas are occupied by the structures of sprawl, and the consumption of limited fossil fuels continues to increase, especially for transport. The environment, which should provide a basis for the life of 71

72 Ph. Gaffron et al. future generations as well as human health and overall quality of life are impaired by the effects of this excessive use of resources. In contrast to these trends, the objectives of the EU for the development of sustainable settlements and for the improvement of urban environments specifically call for ‘support [for] a polycentric, balanced urban system and promot[ion of] resource-efficient settle ment patterns that minimise land-take and urban sprawl’ (Commission of the European Communities, 1998, p. 6 and 15). These issues lay at the core of the project ECOCITY, which was defined as a vision of a sustainable and liveable city or town to be implemented in a smaller settlement unit, that is, a model quarter or neighbourhood as an example for the desirable future development of the community as a whole. The overall objective was to plan sustainable urban neighbourhoods with an emphasis on the requirements for an environmentally compatible transport system. Sustainable solutions for other relevant sectors – energy, material flows, socio-economy – were also to be designed to generate an urban envi ronment promoting sustainable lifestyles – implying higher quality of life and reduced consumption of resources. The solutions were to be in accordance with ‘the favoured vision of high-density, mixed-use settlements with reuse of brownfield land and empty property, and planned expansions of urban areas rather than ad hoc urban sprawl� � � ’ described in the Commu nication from the Commission ‘Towards a thematic strategy on the urban environment’ (Commission of the European Communities, 2004, p. 30) and in other EU policy docu ments on this topic. The resulting ECOCITY vision and the benefits of its implementation as well as the sec toral ECOCITY objectives and the principles of integrated participatory planning, which were recommended for planning the model settlements, are described in Section 5.3. In contrast to other Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR) projects, the emphasis in the ECOCITY project was placed less on research and analysis and more on bringing together solutions and measures in the plans for the model settlements, that were in part already tried and tested in other good practice projects but had previously not been combined in concepts spanning all the relevant sectors of urban development (as detailed above). These concepts for model ECOCITIES thus represent the main project output (see Section 5.5), which together with the experiences made during the planning process (see Sections 5.6–5.8) can provide input for decision-makers dealing with similar planning tasks. First, however, the next section will provide a short review of the links between urban patterns and transport.

5.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF URBAN PATTERNS FOR TRANSPORT In their studies, Newman and Kenworthy provided many arguments underscoring the importance of designing urban patterns, which are favourable for sustainable transport (e.g. Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). They compared annual travel demand and the

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 73 resulting transportation energy use per capita (which is a key indicator for sustainability) for cities with different land-use patterns and found large differences between compact European and Asian cities on the one hand and dispersed American cities (where the key figures were 2–3 times higher) on the other hand, showing a correlation of density with the degree of car dependence. There is a rather long list of constraints acting upon automobile-dependent cities in the areas of economic efficiency (costs), environmental responsibility (impacts), social equity (access) and human liveability (loss in quality of life), which defines a need for action. One of the main (impending) constraints seems to be the availability of oil – several studies show that the time of increasing oil production is almost over, and a decline is about to begin (e.g. Campbell, 1991). The currently common approach of dealing with these constraints through incremental, largely tech nological adaptations appears to be insufficient – the increased energy efficiency of cars, for example, is counteracted by increasing travel distances and heavier vehicles, while attempting to increase social equity by promoting car-ownership increases environmen tal impacts. Thus more fundamental long-term changes in the urban system and urban patterns will be necessary (e.g. to decrease travel distances, thus reducing costs, impacts, losses in quality of life and the dependence on cars).1 The goal should be to provide facilities and services in close proximity to where people live, preferably within walking distance or a short journey by bicycle or public transport because ‘it is not possible to solve sustainability in cities without addressing automobile dependence’ (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999, pp. 42–47, 334–335). There is a particular urgency to instigate such strategic and long-term approaches as soon as possible – especially for new develop ments – because the long lifespan of (newly) built structures perpetuates their effects for a long time. In planning for land use and transport, it is important to differentiate between means and ends to produce solutions which are appropriate to the purpose. Transport, for example, is generally a means while accessibility and mobility – as defined in the project (see Box 5.1) – are the end (just as insulation and heating installations would be means where warm rooms are the end). Box 5.1: Definitions of Mobility and Accessibility as Used in the ECOCITY Project In the ECOCITY project, mobility and accessibility were seen to describe the same state of affairs from different points of view: High mobility – as a characteristic of people – is determined by the ability to reach a great number of destinations within the shortest possible time while covering the shortest possible distance (rather than covering long travel distances at high speeds to reach the same number of destinations). Good accessibility – as a characteristic of urban structures – is understood as the provision of destinations that are close to origins in space and in time, complemented by the availability of high-quality, environmentally compatible transport links (direct, barrier-free pedestrian and cycle routes and attractive public transport routes).

1 The mutual dependence between land use and transport and the advantage of complementary measures in both sectors to maximise synergies towards a ‘more sustainable’ outcome are also addressed in the introductory Chapter 2 to this book.

74 Ph. Gaffron et al. Thus there is only an indirect demand for cars and roads, while the direct demand is for the accessibility of destinations. This demand should be met through the most appropriate and efficient means. The priority for a truly sustainable city would thus be a combination of urban patterns of proximity (short distances) and attractive networks of pedestrian and cycle paths. In the ECOCITY project, the overall aim was to keep sight of the ends and design the most sustainable means to meet them. Model settlements (urban quarters) were designed for specific sites in the seven municipalities involved to intensify the implementation of agreed principles and to demonstrate the feasibility and desirability of future urban liv ing compatible with sustainability requirements. While the chosen municipalities differ in size, the focus lay on small to medium-sized towns and cities, which is where the majority of people in Europe is still living. Where favoured by the location, the option of linking smaller urban centres by high-quality public transport and concentrating fur ther development along the transport axis was considered. Additionally to the different sizes, the diversity in climate zones, site location and urban contexts (greenfields, brownfields, etc.) contributed to showing the possibility of sustainable solutions under different circumstances.

5.3 SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT TOWARDS AN ECOCITY – VISION, BENEFITS AND OBJECTIVES 5.3.1 The Vision of an ECOCITY Considering the long lifespan of built structures, settlement patterns for the future (ECOCITIES) need to be sustainable in the original sense, in order not to jeopardise the basis of existence for future generations. This includes ensuring the availability of the resources land, energy and materials, as well as the preservation of the natural environ ment – thus impairment of the environment and resource use have to be minimised. But settlement patterns fit for the future also need to provide a high quality of life for the present generation – in other words, the liveability of ECOCITIES should be maximised. To illustrate the vision of an ECOCITY, the features of a community, which would fulfil these goals, were brought together in Figure 5.1. Agreeing on such a vision of the final aim is helpful when discussing and agreeing on the steps and measures that need to be taken along the way. It can also help in promoting overall awareness of the idea of an ECOCITY. The building blocks of this vision are not ranked in any particular order of importance, as all are required to reach the goal while their relative contribution varies from case to case. Due to the close interrelations of transport with other sectors, especially the urban struc ture, minimising transport demand is a key element in fulfilling the vision: It contributes to minimising material and energy consumption (for motorised means of transporta tion) as well as to minimising the impairment of the natural environment and also the impairment of people’s health and safety (caused by transport, predominantly car traffic).

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 75

City of accessibility for everyone

City of minimised demand for land

City with public space for everyday life

Vision of an ECOCITY

City of balanced mixed use

City in balance with nature

City with integrated green areas

City of bioclimatic comfort

City for pedestrians, cyclists and public transport

City of reduction, reuse and recycling of waste

City contributing to closed water cycles

City of health, safety and well-being

City of sustainable lifestyle

City for strong local economy

City of citizen participation

City integrated into global communication networks

City of cultural identity and social diversity

City of short distances

City with new balance of concentration and decentralisation

City as network of urban quarters

City of qualified density

City of human scale and urbanity

City of development concentrated at suitable sites

City integrated into the surrounding region

City as power station of renewable energies

City of minimised energy consumption

Figure 5.1: The vision of an ECOCITY

This in turn increases human well-being. The city of short distances – the appropriate urban structure for minimising transport demand – is thus a central feature of the ECOCITY vision. It is a main requirement for maximising the accessibility of various destinations and thus maximising mobility for everyone (see definitions in Box 5.1). The most important characteristics of ECOCITY patterns can thus be summarised as follows: An ECOCITY is composed of compact, pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use quarters or neighbourhoods, which are integrated into a polycentric urban system in publictransport-oriented locations and mainly composed of solar-oriented buildings. In combination with attractively designed public spaces, that integrate green areas and objects of cultural heritage to create varied surroundings, an ECOCITY should be an attractive place to live and work. Such sustainable and liveable structures contribute to the health, safety and well-being of the inhabitants and their identification with the ECOCITY.

76 Ph. Gaffron et al.

5.3.2 Benefits of an ECOCITY2 Along with agreeing on the vision of an ECOCITY, it is important to realise the benefits an ECOCITY can bring on a number of different levels. These can provide arguments in decision-making and help to keep the momentum going during the development, as this can be a very complex process, which involves many actors: the public sector (municipalities, regional planning bodies), the private sector (private businesses, includ ing developers, urban planners and architects), the residents (people living in the direct neighbourhood of the planned ECOCITY as well as its future inhabitants) as well as the (natural) environment as the most important ‘counterpart’. All these actors can gain from an ECOCITY: The benefits range from personal convenience to global sustainabil ity. To get support for realising an ECOCITY, the challenge is to convince the relevant actors a priori of the benefits to be expected. Table 5.1 outlines the most important benefits that can be derived from creating appropriate patterns for sustainable transport such as Transit Oriented Development (one of the main aims of the ECOCITY project).

Table 5.1: Benefits for different actors from land-use and transport aspects in an ECOCITY Benefits from

Benefits for The Public Sector

The Private Sector

Residents

The (Natural) Environment

Appropriate patterns for public transport (linear polycentric structure)

Less subsidy demand for operating costs of public transport

Increased cost recovery for the operating company due to higher passenger potential

Attractive timetable of public transport with short intervals

Lower energy consumption and emissions (gases, noise, particulates)

Appropriate patterns for pedestrians (compact high density, mixed-use structure)

Less spent per capita on infrastructure and utilities than typical suburban development

More customers in the nearby catchment area

Good accessibility of necessary facilities; liveable environment

Less land demand; lower energy consumption and emissions (gases, noise, particulates)

Due to the interdependence of land use and transport, there is also positive feedback between both: • A linear polycentric structure of an ECOCITY with higher urban densities increases the passenger potential for public transport. Thus enforcing a beginning axial development by concentrating new construction in appropriate sites along a 2 The text on benefits is based on subchapter 2.1 of ECOCITY Book II, ‘How to make it happen’ (Gaffron et al., 2007)

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 77 public transport axis can promote an upgrading from bus to local rail transport, which tends to provide better service quality and attracts more riders than a bus. • A rail track acts as a catalyst promoting the linear development of more compact patterns, constituting a visible alternative to car-oriented development. Looking at the whole range of benefits to be derived in all sectors of an ECOCITY (including energy, socio-economy, etc.), a large proportion of them can be related to two different aspects: liveability and costs. Most benefits concerning liveability can be experienced as soon as construction is completed. The benefits of cost savings usually operate on a different time scale – savings in infrastructure investment arise short term, but savings in operating costs and life-cycle costs are experienced on a more long-term basis. Important examples are listed in the following sections.3

5.3.2.1

Benefits Related to Liveability

An ECOCITY offers reduced air and noise pollution and a lower risk of injuries by traffic accidents. There is more space for people in an attractive, quiet, safe and healthy environment (car-free streets and squares, a great variety of green spaces), promoting a slower-paced, more relaxed, healthier, sustainable lifestyle. This allows more personal interaction with neighbours, resulting also in the presence of more people in public space day and night, thus creating a greater sense of community and possibly resulting in lower crime rates. Close proximity to most necessary facilities in mixed-use areas provides shorter com mutes to jobs or to school, for shopping, recreation, to public transport stops, and so on, thus saving time. A variety of green areas (an important factor for residents’ satis faction), integrated into as well as in the surroundings of compact settlements, are easily accessible. A balanced social mix and social services for all groups of the inhabitants fosters their well-being, and solar architecture provides convenient temperatures and good levels of daylight for high indoor comfort. These benefits can be experienced by all people, but they are of greater importance for some individual groups: ECOCITY patterns privilege non-drivers (who are disadvan taged by car-dependent transport and land-use patterns), increasing their mobility and accessibility options. An internal pathway system free of private cars and barriers but with sufficient social control combined with the short distances creates an attractive, safe environment for children (to play safely outdoors and travel on their own) as well as for the mobility of seniors and the handicapped. Many features of an ECOCITY also contribute to promoting health: Building materials include less harmful substances, and better air quality reduces the risk of exhaust-related 3

Important references: CarFree City USA, Benefits, Berkeley, CA (http://www.carfreecity.us/ benefits.html). NewUrbanism.org, Benefits of new urbanism, Alexandria, VA (http://www. newurbanism.org/pages/416429/index.htm). Todd Litman (2005), Rail transit in America, a com prehensive evaluation of benefits, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Victoria, BC, CANADA (http://www.vtpi.org/railben.pdf).

78 Ph. Gaffron et al. respiratory ailments, while more walking or cycling is an effective way to increase physical activity among otherwise sedentary people. For the municipality, all these aspects of liveability of an ECOCITY are an important marketing factor to increase its attractiveness to citizens and investors as well as for eco-tourism: • Liveable urban patterns, especially public spaces, and more involvement of the inhabitants in their design increase people’s identification with the municipality. • The standard of accommodation in adjacent built-up areas is increased due to improved transport connections and availability of supply facilities in an ECOCITY. • ECOCITY patterns are also favourable for meeting the challenges of demo graphic and socio-economic changes (e.g. small-sized households, increased share of seniors).

5.3.2.2

Benefits Related to Costs

In many categories, the costs of an ECOCITY are lower than in conventional urban development. ECOCITIES have lower investment costs • for infrastructure (streets, sewers, water pipes, etc.) because of compact develop ment and • for parking facilities due to reduced car dependence and thus a lower level of motorisation. ECOCITIES also feature lower operating and usage costs • for heating and lighting because of more compact building structures and due to solar gains and high insulation and • for transportation due to minimised trip lengths (short distances), the resulting higher share of walking and cycling trips as well as an efficient public transport system (lowest costs for car-free households). ECOCITIES create lower life-cycle costs due to • the use of more durable materials (which may increase up-front investment costs but require less maintenance and/or repair or replacement) and • the use of materials that are reusable or recyclable. ECOCITIES furthermore create less costs for the general economy, as they result in • less environmental damage and harmful emissions and their negative side effects (e.g. flooding, damages to human and environmental health, depletion of natural resources) and • lower insurance costs due to low crime rates and better general health of popu lation.

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 79 However, these latter effects will be less pronounced in just a single ECOCITY develop ment, as they generally manifest themselves above the local scale. For a municipality, additional inhabitants and businesses (of a new ECOCITY neigh bourhood) increase the tax base, and the more a city commits itself to public transport infrastructure, the less will be spent on transport overall. Conversely, the more a city is built around car dependence, the more of the city’s wealth is wasted on just getting around (Newman et al., 2001). Business also benefits from lower household spending on transport as the money saved can be spent on other shopping. Providing appropriate, liveable public space means local retail trade can benefit from resulting increased sales due to increased pedestrian traffic – an effect often encountered in pedestrian precincts even in non-ECOCITIES. For developers, the risk of balanced mixed-use projects is lower than in mono-functional residential or commercial developments. Better utilisation of an area (more leasable square footage) due to higher density allows lower selling prices for space, attractive for residents and business.

5.3.2.3

Benefits for the (Natural) Environment

Besides actively involved human actors, there is another passively involved actor – the natural environment reacting to human interventions. It benefits from an ECOCITY, especially in the two main aspects of sustainability – the rates of resource use and of emissions: • Less land demand and sealed-up area due to compact dense urban patterns (avoid ing urban sprawl) allow the preservation of larger self-contained undisturbed natural green areas and agricultural lands. • Saving energy due to minimised and efficient motorised transport as well as solar architecture and low energy housing results in decreased consumption of fossil fuels (and decreased environmental damage in oil-producing regions). • This contributes to climate protection through reduced CO2 emissions as well as improved regional air quality due to fewer exhaust emissions. Finally, but most importantly, humankind benefits from the long-term protection of the natural basis for life. Due to knock-on effects, the various benefits do not generally affect one group of actors. Ultimately and when ECOCITIES become implemented on a larger scale, residents for example benefit also from the advantages to the community (e.g. lower costs allow lower taxes), to business (e.g. more economical operation of public transport allows lower costs for passengers) and to the environment (an intact environment provides the basis for a healthy and enjoyable life).

80 Ph. Gaffron et al.

Recapitulation An ECOCITY provides a better quality of life for almost all inhabitants and helps to sustain this in future. This quality need not be expensive, but it requires setting appropriate priorities.

5.3.3 Sectoral Objectives for an ECOCITY Having agreed on a vision for an ECOCITY and knowing, which benefits one wants to attain by creating such a settlement, it is important to clarify how to reach this aim. This section thus provides an overview of the objectives, which need to be fulfilled in the different planning sectors.

5.3.3.1

Urban Structure – Patterns Appropriate for Sustainable Transport

The main aspects to be considered – location and size of the area, qualified density and mixed use – are explained below in more detail. The location of urban development is of great importance for the efficiency of a sus tainable transport system on two levels. First, the selection of an appropriate site for a new development area (quarter, neighbourhood) is essential for ensuring efficient public transport – new developments should be integrated along an existing main axis of local public transport or into an axis of urban development, where a new public transport track could be established or an existing one extended (linear polycentric development). It is also important to consider the quality of the entire public transport system existing in the town and region as a basis for connecting the site into its urban and regional setting. Secondly, the location of particular buildings and facilities within ECOCITIES is important for their accessibility by pedestrians and cyclists and for the distribution of goods. Concentrating the necessary facilities (shops, services, etc.) in a central area creates short distances from all parts of a neighbourhood (this holds especially true for locating a public transport stop in the centre) and allows for easier trip chaining. The following priorities should be considered, when deciding between different locations favourable for sustainable transport: • Prefer reuse, renovation, retrofitting and revitalisation of favourably located exist ing structures. • Secondly, reuse favourably located brownfields for re-urbanisation. • Lastly, carefully and sparingly use favourably located greenfield sites for urbani sation.4 4

These priorities should hold when sustainable urban development is ‘standard’. For realising ECOCITY ‘model settlements’, another aspect is important: Developing new urban quarters (on brownfields or greenfields) is advantageous compared to adapting existing ones, because new quarters allow more optimised structures to be designed, and these can be implemented in a shorter time span.

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 81 A further important location requirement for future urban development is the preven tion of disturbance through, for example, noise or pollution, concerning in particular the mode of transport making the site accessible. Sites on main supra-regional roads with heavy car traffic are not suitable for locating ECOCITIES because of their huge negative impacts, which are intolerable especially for residential areas. But as sustainable development should be based on mixed use, this implies that other facilities (including public transport stops) should also not be located close to such roads. The size of the area for an ECOCITY settlement should be limited, concentrating urban development (e.g. a new neighbourhood) within a radius of walking distance around one or several public transport stops and providing easy access to the surrounding landscape. On the other hand, the area must be large enough to enable an attractive mix of facilities and a proximity of living and working and thus to achieve a high share of short internal trips. Qualified urban density can be achieved by balancing the requirements for • reducing demand for land • achieving short distances (minimising transport demand) • promoting the viability of attractive infrastructure facilities (e.g. district heating systems) and public transport services, reducing the cost of their provision with the requirements of • sufficient distance between buildings for daylighting and utilisation of solar energy (and/or shading, depending on location and climate) and • sufficient open and green spaces for social contact and recreation near the dwellings, minimising the area taken by the transport infrastructure. Mixed use is achieved by organising a balance of residential, employment and educational uses as well as distribution, supply and recreational facilities on all different levels – from buildings5 and blocks to neighbourhoods and quarters, city and region. Space needs to be provided for the following facilities: • at the level of neighbourhoods and for basic daily needs: grocery, pubs and restaurants, kindergarten, primary schools, general practitioner, community and leisure facilities • at the municipal or regional level and for medium- and long-term needs: for example, specialised retail and gastronomy, higher schools and further education institutions and hospitals. The size, number and variety of such facilities should be in balance with the size of the neighbourhood. Ensuring their availability needs careful location management similar to 5

Mixed use on the building level refers to combinations such as shops or other commercial uses on the ground floor, offices on the middle floors, and residential housing on the upper floors.

82 Ph. Gaffron et al. that of shopping centres. Experiences from these also show the importance of ‘attractors’, which serve the entire community (such as special shops, educational or leisure facilities suitable to an ECOCITY). The urban and building structures should offer sufficient variability and flexibility to allow adapting the uses to changing demands. However, new development accounts only for a small part of the total building stock. Thus the main challenge to urban planning will be to adapt existing quarters to an ECOCITY concept. In this case, optimised structures can only be achieved in steps and over longer periods of time. The example of model settlements should help to achieve greater acceptance for the necessary regeneration of existing settlements. Generally, both processes – changes in existing urban structures and new urban development – are currently occurring (though often in an unsustainable way) and should further occur (though with commitment to sustainable solutions) in parallel. In the long run, a sensible local combination of both approaches will help to prevent sprawl. Patterns, which could be summed up as ‘elements of sprawl’ are definitely not compatible with an ECOCITY and must be avoided: for example, detached, single-family houses or large shopping and leisure centres on greenfield sites. Their negative impact on the ecological quality of an urban structure is immense.

5.3.3.2

Urban Patterns Favourable for Solar Energy Applications

Besides the influence of transport, solar architecture is the second important factor influencing urban structure: One of the most important considerations is the orientation of buildings towards the sun to optimise (passive) solar gains for space heating and daylighting and to also facilitate active (thermal, electrical) use of solar energy. This requires optimising the distances between buildings in relation to their height while also bearing in mind considerations of urban climate (avoiding heat pockets or wind funnelling but allowing the flow of cold air) and considering the requirements for short distances. In hot climates, maximising shading in southern aspects should also be a consideration.

5.3.3.3

Public Spaces for Urban Comfort and Liveability

Public spaces provide the connective tissue between the built structures of a settlement, which allows people to meet and promotes communication in the neighbourhood. To provide a high quality of life, they should meet the following requirements: • Public areas must form a network of various types of squares, streets and green spaces among a well-balanced variety of building typologies and facades. Plants (trees, hedges, lawn, green facades and roofs, terraces), water elements (ponds, watercourses, fountains) and ‘urban furnishing’ (benches, lighting) should be appropriately located and of high aesthetic quality and durability. • Existing green areas (forests, hedges, grassland) should be integrated into the urban structure and connected within the city as well as with the surrounding landscape by maintaining or creating ‘green corridors’. • Bioclimatic conditions (wind, sun, rain, snow, etc.) must be considered and, for example, wind protection and exposure to the sun should be possible in

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 83 winter, while protection from the sun and cooling air currents are required in the summer. • Within the built-up structure, the provision of public space should be in balance with semi-public areas (e.g. courtyards) and private spaces (e.g. gardens). • A clearly arranged network of pathways with distinct hierarchies and clear signposting should enable easy orientation. Key parts of the public areas should be kept free of cars or only allow limited access and speeds to avoid disturbance (especially regarding safety, noise and exhaust fumes) and maximise the attractiveness of outdoor spaces. The size of car-free areas should be sufficient to allow experiencing all the advantages of living and moving without a car. By maximising urban comfort, there are greater incentives to spend time within the ECOCITY thus also helping to reduce distances of leisure time transport.

5.3.4 Transport Infrastructure and Systems The proportion of urban land occupied by the transport infrastructure needs to be balanced with other needs for public space, considering the requirements for qualified urban density. In allocating this transport area, priority should be given to the sustain able modes (pedestrians, cyclists, public transport), planning pedestrian paths as the main network for the internal neighbourhood traffic, complemented by a net of cycle paths as well as direct public transport lines for the connection with other parts of the municipality. All these networks must be integrated into the existing local and regional networks. Barrier-free pathways designed as high-quality public spaces (e.g. providing weather protection in arcades, passages or roofed pavements) make walking convenient and especially promote the mobility of children, seniors and the handicapped. Optimis ing public transport connections and thus maximising their attractiveness requires the coordination of railway, light rail, buses and demand-responsive transport services in an integrated system. Favourable urban patterns should result in a larger share of internal trips within an ECOCITY. For trips out of or into the area however, people also depend on transport services and infrastructure, which already exist in the town and region. Therefore, it is important that the transport concept for an ECOCITY can build on a good existing system of public transport, while simultaneously attempting to ‘fill the gaps’. The area reserved for motorised traffic should be reduced to the necessary minimum, prioritising non-motorised modes within a neighbourhood6 and concentrating parking spaces in collective car parks and district parking garages located at the edge of the development. To cut back car ownership, car sharing and other alternatives should be offered. The delivery of goods should ideally be coordinated via a neighbourhood logistics system that includes, for example, a neighbourhood logistics centre (where external deliveries are collected for further distribution), shopping boxes or multipurpose trolleys for internal goods transportation. 6

Including squares and streets allowing access to motorised traffic but giving priority to the non motorised modes and featuring low speed limits.

84 Ph. Gaffron et al.

5.3.5 Energy Energy is a key factor in sustainable development. The energy consumption for human activities needs to be minimised to make them sustainable. The objectives for the trans port sector are discussed above – the focus of this section lies on the contribution of building design and supply systems. Two strategies should be combined to minimise the energy demand (mainly for heating) of buildings: • reducing energy losses through compact design (due to a smaller surface in relation to the volume, multi-storeyed buildings require noticeably less heating energy compared to single family houses), high insulation standards for walls, roofs and basements and airtightness combined with a ventilation system that include efficient air–heat exchangers (aiming for low-energy houses or passive houses – i.e. buildings, which require no external input of energy) • maximising passive solar energy gains through a high ratio of windows and glass elements with high-quality glazing on south facades (depending on the climate) as well as active solar gains by installation of collectors for water heating. Additional solar protection devices (e.g. shading, reflective roller blinds) reduce cooling demand and good daylighting conditions improve comfort, reducing electricity demand for lighting. The efficiency of energy supply systems and equipment and the share of renewable energy sources should be maximised – for instance, through small-scale co-generation plants producing heat for district heating networks and electricity, based on renewable energy sources (wood pellets, wood chips or sawdust). Further means of electricity generation can be solar-, wind- or small-scale hydropower, depending on their local availability. It is important to consider that photovoltaic- or wind power installations require back up systems for periods without sunshine or wind (though this is usually the national grid, which in most countries predominantly provides electricity from non-renewable sources).

5.3.6 Material Flows Among the most relevant material flows, water and waste movement occurs during the whole life cycle of a settlement, while movement of soil and building materials are concentrated in the construction and deconstruction phases. The latter two types of flow can be influenced to a large extent at the planning stage, while the amounts of water used, of the resulting wastewater and of waste, depend more on the behaviour of inhabitants. Excavation for construction sites generates large volumes of material (soils, sand, gravel), which should preferably be reused on the site (for refilling, landscaping, etc.) or as nearby as possible to minimise the necessary transport distances. The design of buildings can also influence the amount of excavation needed and should aim to minimise this parameter (e.g. by refilling foundation areas).

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 85 Building materials must fulfil the requirements of solar architecture, concerning espe cially thermal conductivity, and should also make a low demand on non-renewable energy and other non-renewable resources in production (giving priority to renewable and recycled materials). They should create high indoor comfort (avoiding the use of substances that are harmful to human health or the environment) and be sourced as locally as possible to minimise transport demand. The recyclability of building materi als should also be maximised, which requires avoiding use of compound materials and providing for easy deconstruction. Water management concepts, based on an investigation of the natural water cycles of the area (precipitation, surface water and groundwater), should include • measures to minimise the overall quantity of water extracted from the water cycle for human utilisation (through efficient appliances) and thus the connected production of wastewater (also considering the treatment and reuse of grey water7 on site) • measures for sufficient purification of wastewater to avoid negative environmental and health impacts (wastewater treatment) when it is recirculated into the water cycle, as well as • measures to minimise the change in the natural water cycle, keeping the rate of infiltration of rainwater into the groundwater bodies and the rate of run off from the area as it had been before construction (through green areas, perme able surfaces, drainage systems, etc.), while also providing rainwater for human utilisation (rainwater management). Concerning waste, the focus should be on minimising the volume generated and opti mising the reuse or recycling by providing the necessary infrastructure as well as keeping the transport distances to treatment facilities short (on a municipal or regional scale).

5.3.7 Socio-economic Issues The main urban development objective in the social sector is achieving diversity and integration of population groups with respect to income, age, cultural background and lifestyle concepts. Though this cannot be achieved through planning alone, important contributions are the provision of • a variety of living environments, accommodation types (flats and terraced houses of different sizes, including subsidised housing) and ownership models (owner occupied, rented or building cooperatives) to promote a balanced population mix and • accessible social infrastructure for all generations (from child to senior care), including health, educational, leisure, cultural, spiritual and administration facilities. 7

Grey water is household wastewater that is not contaminated by human sewage – for example, from showers, washing machines or kitchens. After on-site treatment, it can, for example, be used for watering gardens and public green spaces.

86 Ph. Gaffron et al. A diversified and crisis-resistant local economy should provide an appropriate number of workplaces in balance with the population, considering the qualification of the available labour force. This requires attracting ecologically and socially compatible businesses (with a focus on economically viable small- and medium-sized enterprises), by providing information on regional and local economic strengths (including the availability of com mercial space and financing instruments) as well as on access to markets for goods and services, to communication and to sustainable transport networks. Alternative financing models for the ecological infrastructure (e.g. the sale of shares for energy facilities, public private partnerships) as well as for operating the technical infrastructure (e.g. contract ing) can promote the implementation of an ECOCITY project – if the agreements are well thought out to ensure the safe guarding of public interests.

5.4 FROM THE VISION TO PLANNING IN A MULTIDISCIPLINARY AND PARTICIPATORY PROCESS The complexity of urban development, including a multitude of sectors and especially the consideration of ecological and sustainability aspects, requires an integrated planning process, in which a multidisciplinary planning team, incorporating experts from all the relevant sectors, needs to cooperate. Continuous communication in meetings and via information technologies is important to exchange information and coordinate the work. It is also important to enable the interaction and participation of the wider community in the planning process. This should accompany the work from the beginning of planning and continue beyond the implementation of the project (to involve the inhabitants in further necessary decisions) to achieve both the best possible sustainable urban design quality and the broadest possible consensus. Different community planning tools are available for this process of interaction and citizens’ participation, for example: • Community Committees consisting of key representatives of the local administra tion (planners from the municipality), political parties and members of the city council as well as other important interest groups and stakeholders • Community Planning Events (such as Community Conferences or Community Planning Weekends), starting with listing problems, proceeding with developing ideas for potential solutions (turning criticism into constructive dialogue) and ending with the discussion of possibilities for realisation. Possible steps include pre-interviews with people from key interest groups for preparation, topic based ‘Future Workshops’ for the collection of ideas or planning sessions for designing plans on a collaborative basis in groups of ‘non-professional’ participants assisted by experts. Community Planning Events, which also aim to create an atmosphere of trust and confidence between the key actors and informal supporters, can be applied as an instrument at various stages of a project: during the first design phase to support the development of the basic concept; to create a consensus vision (for a final master plan) and later on to achieve quality improvements in the urban design.

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 87 The exchange of information and opinions in a consultation process is considered a minimum requirement for planning an ECOCITY, but the goal is comprehensive par ticipation, including actual influence on the planning process or even direct influence on decision-making. Resources spent on an efficient participation process are offset by avoiding delays, improving the quality of the plans through the input of local knowledge and/or by creating benefits for all participants in win-win situations.

5.5 DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS DEVELOPED FOR THE SEVEN ECOCITY MODEL SETTLEMENTS The vision and the objectives for an ECOCITY formulated above are very ambi tious. They set standards and describe a target state, for which urban development should head. The concepts for the model settlements developed within the ECOCITY project (see Figure 5.2 for their location) meet these standards to different degrees, but each have their own specific strengths and show possible steps towards an ECOCITY. The seven concepts are described in further detail in ECOCITY Book I (Gaffron et al., 2005). The obstacles encountered during the planning process are summarised in Section 5.7.1. Solutions, which in the plans conform best to the standards, are introduced as key elements of the particular cases below. However, whether these solutions fulfil the expectations can only be found out after the implementation of the plans.

Figure 5.2: Location of ECOCITY case studies (by: Rolf Messerschmidt)

88 Ph. Gaffron et al. Bad Ischl

ECOCITY site

Municipality: 14 000 inhabitants

Planned for about 2000 inhabitants, greenfield development

The site for the ECOCITY model settlement was selected to reinforce the development axis between the centre of Bad Ischl and the neighbouring communities, Strobl and St. Wolfgang.

As an alternative to urban sprawl, a new compact sub-centre for the community was arranged within a radius of 300 m around the stop of the public transport line planned on the axis.

Further key elements of the concept: • location of facilities necessary for a balanced mixed use in a central area to create short distances from all parts of the sub-centre and to allow easy trip chaining • locating facilities, which are connected with transport of goods (supermarket, business yard, logistics centre), near the access to the main road passing by the edge of the site • design of a liveable public space, providing a barrier-free network of pathways and squares by keeping car traffic in garages on the edge of the settlement • conserving sensitive parts of the greenfield site (e.g. a small stream and its typical vegetation, green corridors, small forests) and integrating them into the settlement pattern • giving priority to attractive multi-storeyed residential and commercial buildings with high insulation standards, most of them oriented to the South to promote the use of solar energy, thus minimising heating demand

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 89 Gyoer

ECOCITY site:

Municipality: 130 000 inhabitants

About 11 000 inhabitants, brownfield development

The availability of an abandoned industrial area offers the opportunity for a long-term urban development adjacent to the historical city centre, but also to the green belt of the Danube river.

‘Green fingers’ bring nature into the site – corridors planted with trees lead directly from the residential areas to the green banks of the Danube.

Further key elements of the concept: • design of a dense mixed-use structure of multiple storey buildings with court yards • preservation of some existing industrial buildings, converted to other functions (e.g. canteen→library, power plant→museum) and symbolic structures such as the water tower to commemorate the history of the site • priority for pedestrians and cyclists in a dense network, urban avenues with low driving speed for cars (continuous flow of traffic)

90 Ph. Gaffron et al. Tampere

ECOCITY site Vuores:

Municipality: 198 000 inhabitants

16 000 inhabitants and employees, greenfield development

The Vuores greenfield area was selected to concentrate urban devel opment in an area at the edge of Tampere (with parts also in the neighbouring municipality) instead of quite uncontrolled sprawl all around the city.

Key elements of the concept: • linear structure of the new site, favourable for the planned light rail connection between the neighbourhoods of Vuores and the city centre • concentrating the built structure around the public transport stops in the mixed-use centres of the neighbourhoods (with everyday basic services and workplaces) • sensitive incorporation of the fragile natural environment into the neighbour hoods (considering the varied topography and shape of the terrain, the valuable natural features of the area and the existing water system), creating access to green areas within short distances from dwellings • management of stormwater on the site by retention, infiltration and wetland systems to maintain the present hydrology of the area

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 91 Trnava

ECOCITY site:

Municipality: 70 000 inhabitants

3000 new inhabitants, urban renovation and brownfield development

An existing part of the historical core was selected as site for an improvement of urban structure and the trans port system combined with redevelopment of a neighbouring industrial site (brownfield).

Key elements of the concept: • transformation of a main street from a barrier between the historical core and the new brownfield development to a connecting factor (slowing down car traffic), creating better conditions (more space) for pedestrians and cyclists • respecting the compact urban structure of the historical city centre when filling in blocks there, as well as for new development in contact with the historical structure, continuing the axes of the streets in the historical part within the new part • combining greenery and linear water features in corridors connecting the city with its surroundings as well as reintroduction of water elements into the public space of the historic centre (restoring a stream)

92 Ph. Gaffron et al. Tübingen

ECOCITY site:

Municipality: 70 000 inhabitants

About 3300 inhabitants, densification, brownfield and greenfield development

The ECOCITY site encloses three different types of areas (see above) at medium distance from the town centre. In a participative planning process two scenarios were developed and brought together in the final master plan.

Urban development around stops of a light rail-line planned on existing tracks as part of a region-wide network, which will connect the site with the town centre

Attractive underpass under the railway tracks connecting the densification area with the car-free area on greenfields, forming an axis along which mixed use facilities are located

Further key elements of the concept: • defining a city growth boundary to prevent future extensions, which contains ecological infrastructure for water purification and infiltration and green zones for the residents • distribution logistics including a local delivery service for the carfree area (using an electric delivery vehicle) and pick-up boxes (equivalent to large post boxes) in the houses, for depositing delivered goods • restoring a creek in a green spine connecting all the ECOCITY areas combining high density with high-quality landscaping, public spaces and water design • reduction of energy consumption through an energy-efficient urban structure and the use of renewable energy systems • detailed concept for building materials, soil excavation and water management (innovative: grey water purification in densely populated area)

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 93 Umbertide

ECOCITY site

Municipality: 15 000 inhabitants

1350 inhabitants, urban renewal project

The project focused on the potential of the local railway and on the development of an urban district around the station linked with the historical city, in order to create a central node for the modern city and its mobility needs

Specific for this project is a system of buildings of different types arranged around common courtyards (‘corte’), which is derived from the typical ancient Roman townhouse, using passive solar heating and cooling systems

Further key elements of the concept: • reconversion of the existing inefficient local railway into an ‘efficient sustain able electric light train for persons and goods’ • design of a new multifunctional ‘bridge’-station as a core of the new urban development linking the (today marginal) project area to the medieval and the contemporary city • considering the climatic aspect by planning pathways in the direction of biocli matic wind corridors and for the design of hierarchical open spaces (ventilated urban square, private courtyard, vegetable garden systems, etc.)

Barcelona takes a special place, because only the part ‘urban and environmental planning’ was worked on within the ECOCITY project (elaborating studies as a basis to adapt the existing master plan).

94 Ph. Gaffron et al. Barcelona

ECOCITY site Trinitat Nova:

Municipality: 1.5 million inhabitants

1045 new housing units replacing 891 ones to be demolished; urban renewal project on a brownfield site Trinitat Nova lies on the north-eastern outskirts of Barcelona. It is one of the areas of social housing created in Barcelona during the 1950s

Key elements of the concept: • participative and collaborative approach, initiated by the Residents Association of the neighbourhood, to seeking solutions to the complex problem of reno vating social housing in old neighbourhoods, undertaken within a framework of integrated planning and ongoing feedback in participation workshops • mobility concept including the extension of public transport network (new light rail and metro stations), car-free areas, cycle lanes and centralised car parks • accessibility of services within the neighbourhood (mixed-use medium-high density) • social concept attracting young people and families to a neighbourhood, which had been losing population, by improvements in urban quality, without exclud ing the existing older one • incorporation of sustainability concepts developed by the project into metropolitan policy • proposal to implement a management plan for demolition, reuse and recycling of existing buildings

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 95

5.6 PROJECT ASSESSMENT AT THE PLANNING STAGE The main output from the ECOCITY project were the master plans for the seven European sites and the accompanying sectoral concepts. These were sketched out in Section 5.5 and readers interested in further detail are referred to the project website8 and the ECOCITY books, which can be obtained from there. A further goal of the project was an assessment of the schemes for the ECOCITY sites at various stages of the project to achieve improvements during the planning process and to draw both sectoral and general conclusions at the end. The methods developed for these assessments and the experiences made with them are described here. The detailed results of each individual assessment, though, are very specific to the individual projects and thus not discussed here in detail. The more general conclusions, which are of wider interest – including obstacles for sustainable urban development and possibilities for overcoming them by activating success factors – are discussed in Section 5.7.

5.6.1 The ECOCITY Assessment Approach For assessing the ECOCITY schemes during the planning phase, two types of tools were developed and tested: checklists on the one hand and a set of criteria with associated indi cators on the other. Both are structured according to the relevant sectors of urban develop ment: urban structure, transport, energy and material flows, and socio-economic issues. The checklists are appropriate for self-assessment during the entire planning phase. The main list is structured according to the ECOCITY objectives, which were detailed to define more concrete targets for realising the ECOCITY vision. For each objective, concrete tasks are presented, which should be considered (see Table 5.2 for an example9 ). This list can be used for several purposes: providing an input during the planning phase, checking if the planning results (e.g. master plans or sectoral concepts) include all elements essential to meeting the requirements for an ECOCITY in a first (qualitative) assessment, and also for monitoring during the implementation phase. Table 5.2: Example of tasks associated with mobility management in the

ECOCITY checklist of objectives

Objective: Provide Mobility Management Measures to Support Modal Shift to Environmentally Compatible Modes Establish mobility centres with comprehensive support/provision of transportation requirements and information (e.g. mobility help desk and sale of public transport tickets, ride-share agency, car-sharing garage, car hire system, bicycle hire agency) Provide comprehensive and easily accessible information on all travel options (Internet platform on travel options, public transport schedules including inter-modal options, etc.), including real-time information on timetables (arrivals, departures, connections, and schedule changes) Facilitate public relations on transport issues and awareness-raising campaigns

8 9

www.ecocityprojects.net/

The full checklist is available in ECOCITY Book II, ‘How to make it happen’ (Gaffron et al., 2007).

96 Ph. Gaffron et al. Another tool for self-assessment is a list of questions asking for a reflection of how the plans and concepts meet the main requirements for an ECOCITY (e.g. ‘What makes the urban structure appropriate for pedestrians and cyclists?’). Involving the planning team in discussing the answers helps in (re)considering the appropriateness of the solutions envisaged. The criteria and indicators selected in relation to the ECOCITY objectives are a tool for a more precise, partly quantitative assessment of plans and concepts (including also the planning process) after their completion. The 21 criteria are listed in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Criteria for the ECOCITY evaluation scheme Ecocity Evaluation Criteria Context Location of settlement Urban Structure Building density Mix of uses Public spaces Landscaped area Transport Infrastructure for private travel Accessibility of public transport Quietness Provision of parking spaces Energy Energy efficiency Energy demand Greenhouse gas emissions

Material flows Building materials Soil movement Water management Socio-Economic Issues Social infrastructure and mix Economic infrastructure Labour-related issues (employment) Profitability (costs) Processes Integrated planning Community involvement

Up to three qualitative or quantitative indicators were assigned to each criterion (34 in total), such as accessibility of basic facilities (mix of uses), a conviviality index (public spaces), or the share of excavation material reused on site (soil movement) (Gaffron et al., 2007).10

5.6.2 Experiences Made with the ECOCITY Assessment Tools Assessing an urban development project during its planning phase is a challenge because of the lack of important information. Many aspects relating to the sustainability of a development (e.g. use of resources, transport behaviour) are dependent on the behaviour of residents and users, and this in turn does not solely depend on the measures planned for the site but also on external factors. Nevertheless, it is important to control the quality of the solutions before their implementation and when change is still possible, 10

For a full list, see ECOCITY Book II ‘How to make it happen’.

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 97 because urban structures should be built for a long lifespan, and it is difficult to correct errors ex post. The evaluation of the plans and concepts for the ECOCITY model settlements showed that the criteria were most useful for checking the quality of the urban patterns designed (e.g. quantitative indicators for a qualified high density or the annual energy demand for heating and cooling). But those indicators concerning issues influenced by the behaviour of future inhabitants and users were harder to measure reliably. The modal split of transport with its resulting CO2 emissions as well as the socio-economic aspects – some of the most important criteria to evaluate the impact of an ECOCITY on the natural and social environment – can only be estimated very roughly a priori. It was found that for many criteria – such as the infrastructure provided for private travel – no reliable data were available indicating to what extent such infrastructure actually influences the transport behaviour of the future users and inhabitants of a development. It doubtlessly makes a difference for example, whether cycle paths and lanes and safe shared traffic areas are provided or not – but how many metres per metre of transport network (or per head of the population?) are optimal and how does this parameter interact with other factors? Noise from traffic on the other hand or the energy demands of a building can be predicted more easily and there are known values, which can be aimed for.11 However, a significant problem in planning phase assessments is a lack of benchmarks for several indicators, which would provide a reliable scale for assessing the degree of sustainability indicated by a certain value measured for any one indicator. In part, this is due to the complexity of factors influencing the sustainability of relevant ECOCITY issues (e.g. the economic infrastructure depends on choices made by the private sec tor, the general economic climate, the interaction of taxes and subsidies, etc.). Thus, rather than defining absolutely, how sustainable certain solutions were in the ECOCITY projects, in many cases, the levels of sustainability of different solutions were assessed comparatively.

5.7 CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS The political relevance of the ECOCITY vision arises from the accordance with the policy objectives of the EU for the urban environment. However, such objectives must be put into practice in order to have an effect. The ECOCITY project took some first steps towards these goals. As stated before, though, conclusions can only be derived from planning experience rather than from completed development. They include both challenges for planning and implementation (i.e. obstacles for sustainable urban devel opment) and success factors. 11 Such as the European Environmental Noise Directive 2002/49/EU or the low-energy house standard in Germany (Niedrigenergiehaus).

98 Ph. Gaffron et al.

5.7.1 Planning and Implementation of an ECOCITY – Obstacles and Success Factors As the ECOCITY concept is a new paradigm in the field of urban planning, challenging traditional planning principles and questioning conventional behaviour, it is likely to meet with scepticism or even resistance. On the other hand, ECOCITIES have many benefits to offer and comply with most of the current public policies for urban develop ment – which can make them attractive to decision-makers as well as potential inhab itants. Thus, factors supporting or complicating the implementation of an ECOCITY concept may often be encountered simultaneously and which ones prevail depends to a great extent on the local situation and the local actors. The following sections serve to share the experiences made with obstacles and success factors in the ECOCITY projects with others intending to embark on this kind of integrated planning. Where possible, the obstacles (labelled O) encountered during the ECOCITY planning have been cou pled with success factors (labelled S) associated with preventing or overcoming them. Additionally, important success factors are discussed, which are not directly linked to a specific obstacle. Readers should also note that not all issues are specific to ECOCITIES but can also be relevant to urban planning in general. The issues are mostly relevant to both planning new urban quarters and when adapting existing quarters (except where otherwise stated): O The complexity of an ECOCITY project requires the agreement of many stake holders. However, there may be insufficient awareness among these of the idea of and need for sustainable development and the values connected to it. Further more, the benefits of sustainable urban development will only be recognisable after the implementation and advantages compared to conventional solutions become increasingly visible in the medium to long term, while practical politics focus on short-term success. Thus, resistance might be encountered from both citizens and politicians alike. O Sustainable urban development is based on a holistic way of thinking and acting. This integrative approach is rewarding but also demanding and labour-intensive and thus not always popular among all actors. This problem can be aggra vated, for example, by fragmented administrative structure or actors’ inability to understand the issues or the role of other parties involved. S Comprehensive information about the requirements and benefits of an ECOCITY development as well as the involvement of citizens, politicians, and other stake holders in the planning and decision-making process from the start to the implementation phase are helpful to avoid these obstacles. The aim is to form win-win-win coalitions. This means that all parties involved (planners, policymakers, the local administration, landowners, investors, citizens, etc.) can benefit from their involvement – and perceive this to be the case. O One vital condition for being able to construct any building project is the availability of land. Under the prevailing framework conditions, this can be prob lematic for an ECOCITY, especially if entire new quarters are to be planned since sustainable urban and regional development at this scale implies rather large projects. The necessary mix of uses and the establishment of an attractive public transport link require an adequate potential of customers and passengers

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 99

S

O

S

O

S

12

respectively, and thus larger plots of land.12 ECOCITY type developments also depend on sites in appropriate locations which are easily connected to good quality public transport networks – this limits location choices and can imply significant increases in land-prices. These needs may cause the problem of having to deal with a considerable number of landowners (with different degrees of willingness to cooperate) or with resistance against major projects from nearby residents. In completely new ECOCITY quarters, a related challenge is the need for a minimum size of the first implementation phase to provide critical mass (of inhabitants, public transport customers, etc.). To overcome these problems, a framework of incentives and legal/administrative instruments is needed, which encourages, supports, and promotes sustainable urban development and design, while discouraging the development of (not really urban) sprawl. This should include instruments of land-use planning to regulate the market such as public funds for the early acquisition of plots or regulations limiting the price of land used for sustainable urban development projects.13 To ensure the availability of suitable areas before the start of planning of projects at the latest is most important. Other instruments, such as legally binding devel opment and master plans, the definition of redevelopment areas, or additional contractual agreements on higher development standards (if the land is property of the community) should contribute to a consistent implementation. The ECOCITY needs to be embedded in existing structures (e.g. roads, water supply and sewage systems, and food production chains), which may compro mise its sustainable development. These factors are outside the direct sphere of influence of urban planners. One of the intentions of an ECOCITY is also to provide an impulse for initiating local and regional improvements necessary for the effective operation of an ECOCITY and creating an impetus for similar efforts nearby. This, however, will be a medium to long-term process. The initial investment costs for sustainable urban development can be higher compared to conventional projects, in which case break-even points are only reached in the medium or long term (through low running costs due to efficient operation with reduced need for maintenance). This may scare off potential investors, although the life-cycle cost balance is clearly in favour of ECOCITY concepts. Other benefits of an ECOCITY, such as lower emissions or a better quality of living are not directly profit-related items and hence often disregarded by economic and financing experts. Subsidies, which are in some places already available for specific elements of ECOCITY development (e.g. solar energy generation, upgrading insulation stan dards of existing buildings, etc.) should be extended to all elements promoting sustainable urban development.

Being, however, significantly smaller than the total space demands for a comparable sprawl devel opment consisting of many small projects in dispersed locations (detached single family houses) or of greater projects located elsewhere along a highway (shopping or leisure centres). 13 An example for a useful legal instrument to promote the implementation of new urban developments in parts of a town is the ‘Urban Development Measure’ (Städtebauliche Entwicklungsmassnahme) in Germany, which helps regulate the prices for buying and selling plots of land.

100 Ph. Gaffron et al. O There is a danger that the labels ‘ECOCITY’ or ‘sustainable’ are misused as ‘green wash’ to reduce criticism of disputed projects in ecologically sensitive areas, but without any real commitment to the idea. S This problem could only be fully prevented if there were fixed standards which regulate the use of such labels. However, with such a complex issue, these are not likely to arise in the near future, and the best protection against such misuse is again a comprehensive and objective communications policy. Some additional factors promoting ECOCITY ideas and fostering project implementa tion can frequently be found in connection with successful and innovative projects in this field (though just as encountering obstacles does not automatically result in failure, the presence of one or several of the following factors cannot offer a guarantee of success, which always depends on specific local situation). S One or more key actors, who may be individuals (e.g. a politician, an activist, a civil servant or an entrepreneur) and/or other parties (e.g. a municipality, a community organisation, a political party or a company) with a strong vision, commitment and ambitious thinking are often a key feature. S Community building and involvement calls for identification of citizens and plan ners with the area/municipality and helps to create an innovative climate. The free flow of information and a high level of trust among governmental and non governmental actors as well as between these two groups are essential. S Overall political support for new and unconventional methods and approaches and the ability to form alliances and to agree on compromises is another important success factor. S Scenarios showing different alternatives support consensus-finding and decisionmaking as well as, combined with sectoral good practice examples, the recognition of benefits. S The participatory aspect of ECOCITY planning is easier to put into practice if successful community involvement processes in the field of urban development have already been experienced in the past (building on existing social capital14 ). S Successful projects are often located in surroundings or an environment which is considered worthy of protection by the actors involved. In order to maintain a high quality of life and to avoid a higher burden for the biosphere than is absolutely necessary, more efforts than usual are made to achieve ECOCITY goals.

5.7.2 Further Research Needs In the ECOCITY project, some questions remained unanswered, and it would be useful to consider these in future research activities. Some of the main ones are • What are the minimum and optimal sizes of an ECOCITY site – that is, what is the number of existing and new inhabitants required to live in and around the area to allow the implementation of the core ECOCITY principles (mixed use, attractive public transport)? 14 In the case of urban sustainable development, social capital can be both an important precondition and a valuable result of a holistic and successful planning approach.

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 101 • Which of the indicators initially chosen for the assessment could be adapted (and in which way) to provide a set of core indicators that are reasonably easy to evaluate and suitable for assessing a development project during the planning phase? Which indicators might need to be added to the ECOCITY list? • What is the feasibility of integrated local logistics systems for in- and outgoing goods and cargo that bundle loads and trips at the neighbourhood level through local distribution centres, delivery services and temporary storage facilities to prevent frequent and inefficient delivery traffic while providing an alternative to car-based shopping trips? These questions might – at least in part – be answered by accompanying research during and after the implementation of the ECOCITY model settlements and similar developments. This is in fact a vital next step to enable the development of further recommendations based on concrete implementation experiences.

5.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS By developing urban structures appropriate for sustainable transport for the variety of the model settlements in terms of their character, size and setting, as well as their situation in different climatic contexts (Scandinavian, Central European and Mediterranean), the project ECOCITY set out to pave the way towards a broad acceptance of these solutions. Their implementation is intended to demonstrate that taking ecological constraints into consideration can actually improve the quality of life and health of the inhabitants of an area. The benefits include, for example, cost saving through lower investment needs for supply networks, less demand for motorised transport and reduced energy consumption. However, overall the process of change towards these urban patterns will be slow, as existing structures largely do not conform to requirements of sustainable urban living. Compromises will thus be necessary for the foreseeable future – though they should not be pre-empted when setting out to achieve sustainable urban development. A strong vision of an optimal solution should always be the starting point. And finding good compromises between different values and interests should not be left to professionals and academic experts (as the result is most likely to be a technocratic solution). In the end, it is the inhabitants who have to live in the developments, and it is they who have to feel comfortable and thus should be involved. Even in the seven model settlements, it was difficult to meet the ambitious standards set by the ECOCITY vision and objectives. Compromises were necessary – for instance, in the provision of the transport structure: Car-free housing is desirable from the ecological point of view, but often local conditions are considered to be inappropriate to reaching this goal (the dependence on cars, e.g., is larger in smaller settlements). Thus, the achievable interim solution may be to plan a reduced provision of parking spaces and to concentrate these at the edge of a settlement to allow a high quality of car-free public spaces within the settlement. Overall, in some of the ECOCITY cases, the provision

102 Ph. Gaffron et al. for the private car was still too strong even as an interim step, though, showing the status quo’s inertia to change. This realisation makes swift action even more necessary to prevent the further establishment of undesirable urban patterns and their resulting long legacy of economic, social and environmental problems. The ECOCITY model concepts have created the potential for achieving an optimal eco logical performance. However, the realisation of this potential depends on the consistent implementation of the plans as well as the behaviour of the future residents. The model settlements meet the policy objectives for Sustainable Urban Development in the EU15 aiming at the protection and improvement of the urban environment so as to improve people’s quality of life, safeguard human health and protect local and global ecosystems. Thus, they can help the favoured vision of high density, mixed-use settlements, which has been repeated in each Community policy document on the urban environment, to become reality. The ECOCITY approach should thus contribute to directing European urban development towards sustainability. But the challenge to get the development of the fast-growing agglomerations in Asia, Latin America and Africa under control (by strengthening small and medium-sized towns as alternative) is by far greater. Good European examples would be helpful.

REFERENCES The main sources for this chapter were the deliverables of the project ECOCITY, especially: Gaffron, P., Huismans, G., Skala, F. (Eds.). (2005). ECOCITY Book I ‘A Better Place to Live’. Hamburg, Utrecht, Vienna. Gaffron, P., Huismans, G., Skala, F. (Eds.). (2007). ECOCITY Book II, ‘How To Make it Happen’. Hamburg, Utrecht, Vienna.

FURTHER REFERENCES Campbell, C. J. (1991). The Golden Century of Oil, 1950–2050: The Depletion of a Resource. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Commission of the European Communities. (1998). Sustainable Urban Development in the European Union: A Framework for Action. Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Brussels. Commission of the European Communities. (2004). Towards a Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment. Communication from the Commission to the Council, the Euro pean Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Brussels. 15

For example, Sustainable Urban Development in the European Union: A Framework for Action; Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Brussels 1998.

Planning Urban Structures for Sustainable Transport 103 Litman, T. (2005). Rail Transit In America, A Comprehensive Evaluation of Benefits. Victoria, BC: Victoria Transport Policy Institute. Available at http://www.vtpi.org/ railben.pdf. Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1999). Sustainability and Cities, Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Washington, DC: Island Press. Newman, P., Kenworthy, J., Laird, P., Bachels, M. (2001). Back on Track: Rethinking Australian and New Zealand Transport Policy. Sydney (NSW).

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 6 Promoting Cycling for Public Health Pascal J. W. van den Noort

6.1 INTRODUCTION Cycling as a daily mode of transport has widely recognised positive impacts on cities: It improves the environmental performance by reducing pollutant emissions, increases road safety and helps traffic management, supports equity and accessibility; it is beneficial to health and improves the overall quality of life. Despite these many advantages, cycling is still underused in many cities, and its effectiveness is too often under evaluated by national and/or local transport policies. Current and projected levels of car use in cities are undesirable and unsustainable. Nowhere is this more evident than in urban areas, where the problems resulting from motorised transport are becoming more apparent. Urban congestion, pollution, accidents, reduced mobility and loss of quality of life are all partially blamed on rising car use (Alayo et al., 1998). There is increasing recognition that something must be done to alleviate these problems and that the solution to transport problems in cities must no longer simply increase transport supply in line with demand, but must instead focus on managing travel demand on the transport system, and in particular, reduce the need to use the car (Richardson et al., 1993). Richardson et al. (1993) noted that there is a significant “need to consider the way in which to plan urban transport to achieve a vital and sustainable future” and help cities evolve in a more ecologically sustainable fashion. The European Commission (EC) is supportive of the concept that cycling contributes to the improvement of urban quality of life and increasingly supports cycling projects. European Union Commissioner Barrot has underlined this support in the 2005 Dublin Velo-City conference and has reconfirmed his continued support for cycling projects, such as Spicycles, Bypad and Astute. Also wider projects integrate cycling, such as the Urban Transport Benchmark Initiative and (Land Use and Transport Research) LUTR/PLUME in which cycling plays an important role. 105

106 P.J.W. van den Noort Velo.Info – partner in (Land Use and Transport Research) LUTR/PLUME – is a DG Research supported research project and gives access to expertise on cycling, essential to a local authority that wishes to increase bicycle use. A dozen entry points to cycling planning knowledge have been developed by Velo.Info, of which the purpose is to discuss a topic of concern to municipal authorities and to consider how action to support cycling may lead to benefits in this area. The entry points are designed to present a short summary of the subject and to suggest ways of thinking about the topic. More information can be sought from the sources referenced in the briefing and from the Velo.Info Toolkit. Reading the briefing is also likely to prompt the reader to recognise and seek out further possible sources of information for themselves. In the context of this book, we have chosen to go deeper into two of the entry points that were developed in Velo.Info: health and cycling promotion. Health is of growing concern in many countries, and cycling is one of the solutions to improve health. It has benefits for individuals and also for wider society. But that does not mean that everybody takes up cycling immediately. Sections 6.2 and 6.3 describe the types of interventions that can be distinguished for promoting physical activity and what characterises their effectiveness. Section 6.4 details a format for the promotion for cycling. To conclude this chapter we have selected three best practice cases of interventions, each has its own specific strategies to enhance physical activity through cycling. There are two annexes “Best Practice Interventions” and “Possible Actions in Bicycle Plans”. The Velo.Info entry points that have not been highlighted here can be accessed on www.velo.info. They are accessibility and mobility, young people, economics, transport, environment, planning, safety, education and training, urban efficiency, leisure and tourism.

6.2 CYCLING AND HEALTH A modal shift from motorised transport to cycling could have significant public health benefits. Increased cycling has the potential to directly improve the health of the indi vidual, in terms of fitness, reduced risk of certain diseases, self-esteem, longevity and quality of life, while also indirectly improving the health of the society as a whole by reducing atmospheric and noise pollution (BMA, 1992; Shayler et al., 1993; I-ce, 2000) and reducing road danger. For the individual, cycling is an excellent way to develop physical fitness and reduce the risk of health problems. There is a need to raise awareness of the health consequences of individual travel choices and of policies on transport and land-use planning. Both cycling and walking are moderate physical activities that can be easily incorporated into everyday lives. Compared with walking, the health benefits of cycling are somewhat greater because the intensity of effort is greater (Oja et al., 1998). Cycling provides an opportunity for regular exercise, with potentially significant health benefits, if people use bicycles as a daily means of transport.

6.2.1 Health Is of Growing Concern in Many Countries People living in affluent countries particularly do not take enough exercise and lead relatively sedentary lifestyles: “Obesity rates have increased in all OECD countries over

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 107 the past two decades due to poor eating habits and lack of physical activity� � � more than 20% of people in Mexico, the United Kingdom and Australia are now considered obese” (OECD, 2003). An alarming escalation in the levels of obesity among children and adults is adding to the costs of health care (National Audit Office, 2000). The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends at least 30 min of daily moderateintensity physical activity, while for young people (2–16 years) an hour is recommended (WHO, 2002a). At least 60% of the global population fails to achieve the minimum recommendation of 30-min moderate-intensity activity daily. Overall physical inactivity was estimated to cause 1.9 million deaths globally in 2002 (WHO, 2002b). The decline in physical activity has impacted negatively upon public health (Cavill and Davis, 2003). Physical activity is clearly connected with reduced rates of death and ill health from various causes (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Particular groups are more at risk from illness, for example, older people and men under 30 in lower income groups experience the greatest combination of disease risk factors, and hence, it is important for their future health that they engage in physical activity (Pearce et al., 1998). For many young people, the opportunities to be physically active as part of daily life are becoming increasingly restricted due to parental concerns over safety (European Heart Network, 2001).

6.2.2 Cycling Is One of the Solutions to Improve Health The health benefits of cycling concern not only gains for an individual’s health but also contribute to reduce the costs of health care in society as a whole. A total of 30 min cycling or brisk walking on most days of the week, even if carried out in 10—15 min episodes, is effective in providing the following health benefits: • 50% reduction in the risk of developing coronary heart diseases (i.e. a similar effect to not smoking); • 50% reduction in the risk of developing adult diabetes; • 50% reduction in the risk of becoming obese; • 30% reduction in the risk of developing hypertension; • 10/8 mmHg decline in blood pressure in hypertensive subjects (i.e. a similar effect to that obtained from anti-hypertensive drugs) (WHO, 1999). Several recent field experiments have included cycling to test the effects of physical activ ity on health. For instance, research in the Netherlands (Hendriksen, 1996) has demon strated that cycling as part of normal daily activities can yield improvements in physical performance similar to those of specific training programmes. Also, Carnall (2000) men tioned that walking and cycling every day is much more likely to be sustainable in the long run compared to gym-based exercise programs. Besides offering opportunities for health and physical fitness by regular exercise, cycling can have many advantages as a short-distance means of travel in urban areas: It is environmentally friendly – without emissions and noise nuisance and provide cost-effective mobility (OECD, 2004). Cycling is a simple, convenient, yet effective way of incorporating exercise into everyday life (Pearce et al., 1998; DfT, 1999). It is likely to be much more sustainable than tar geted exercise initiatives in encouraging individual behavioural change in the long term.

108 P.J.W. van den Noort Cycling has a functional role which means that it does not rely wholly on self-motivation. It also allows independent travel for children, which is critical for their development (Hillman, 1992). The availability of cycling infrastructure can contribute to higher levels of physical activity (Haines et al., 2000). Over half of the daily trips that are made by people are short in distance and therefore provide an opportunity to undertake physical activity that is both accessible and free (Dora, 1999). The WHO (1999) has recognised the importance of cycling in achieving greater sustainability and mobility and improving public health (WHO, 1999 in Cavill and Davis, 2003). Indeed, in comparison to other common exercising activities, cycling is perhaps one of the most ideal forms of exercise, which could contribute to health (Morris, 1991, p. 14 in CTC, 1991). Cycling may also delay the ageing process by extending mobility later into life and gaining valuable life years (Shayler et al., 1993). Cycling is a non-weight bearing form of aerobic exercise and does not tend to strain muscles, joints, limbs or ligaments, while still providing the benefits of improved fitness and stamina (Hillman, 1992); it avoids problems that are often associated with activities such as running.

6.2.3 Individual Health Benefits from Cycling The World Health Organisation’s Global Burden of Disease Study (Murray and Lopez, 1996) highlights that cardio-vascular disease (CVD) is the main cause of death in Europe (accounting for 49% of all deaths) and also of years lost due to early death. It states that an average of 31% of all years of life is lost due to CVD in developed market economies. CVD is common but largely preventable. An inactive individual has approximately double the risk of getting coronary heart disease than someone who is active (Cavill and Davis, 2003). Estimates made indicate that 36% of all coronary heart disease can be attributed to lack of physical activity (National Cycling Strategy, 2003). Compared with those who do not cycle, cyclists who cover at least 40 km each week can halve their risk of heart disease (Morris et al., 1990). Regular exercise reduces the risk of all-cause mortality (overall risk of dying prematurely from any cause). The Copenhagen Heart Study observed that cycling to work decreased the risk of dying prematurely by approximately 40% (Andersen et al., 2000). Physical activity has been shown to have a protective effect on colon cancer, with an average risk reduction of 40–50% (Lee and Blair, 2002). A lack of physical exercise can increase the risk of developing type-II (adult onset diabetes) diabetes by up to 50%. An overall reduced risk of dying from cancer can also be associated with physical inactivity. Notable evidence of this exists for cancer of the colon (National Cycling Strategy, 2003). Cycling increases leg strength and bone density (which offsets osteoporosis) (Hillman, 1992; Cavill and Davis, 2003). Between 10% and 20% of Europe’s population are classed as obese (IOTF, 2003) with some countries having experienced a tripling of levels of obesity in the last 20 years (WHO, 2002b). Physical activity like cycling reduces body fat and the risk of weight problems and obesity (Pearce et al., 1998; National Cycling Strategy, 2003). Cycling improves psychological and mental well-being and self-esteem as well as reducing the risk of stress, depression and anxiety (Shayler et al., 1993; Pearce et al., 1998;

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 109 DETR 1999; National Cycling Forum 1999; Cavill and Davis, 2003; National Cycling Strategy, 2003).

6.2.4 Wider Benefits of Cycling to Society It is not only the individual but also the wider public that benefits from cycling and the reduced adverse impacts associated with motor traffic, as the following examples show: (a) Lifelong cycling may benefit individuals by reducing health costs incurred due to medical treatment and absenteeism caused by illness from lack of exercise (VNG et al., 2000). If one-third of all short car journeys were made by bike in the UK, heart disease rates could drop by 5–10% and in doing so, could save the National Health Service (NHS) approximately £50 million (E75 million approximately) annually (CTC, 1991). (b) An increased level of cycling could have a major beneficial impact upon public health through the reduction in the use of motorised transport – one of the main sources of atmospheric and noise pollution. “Millions of Europeans live in air pollution severe enough to cause each year thousands of premature deaths and many more chronically ill and disabled” (CTC, 1991). Cycling is a pollution-free, environmen tally sustainable mode of transport (Cavill and Davis, 2003). (c) The National Cycling Strategy (2003) states that reducing the level of motorised traffic can help to improve levels of road safety for pedestrians and cyclists. Through a reduction in motorised traf fic levels, the general accessibility of areas for all can be improved. (National Cycling Strategy, 2003).

6.3 PROMOTING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY In the sections below, we describe the types of interventions that can be distinguished for promoting physical activity and what characterises their effectiveness. Behaviour towards physical activity is dynamic, which means that the motivational stadium of the target group should be taken into account when implementing intervention programmes. Proschaska’s (1992) “stages of change” model describes the different phases of peoples’ motivation. In Appendix A we have selected three best practice cases of interventions, each has its own specific strategies to enhance physical activity through cycling.

6.3.1 Stages of Change in People’s Behaviour One of the major challenges in the prevention of non-communicable diseases and in the promotion of physical activity and other healthy lifestyle choices is the importance of action now in return for future benefits (WHO, 2006). Conventional interventions to promote physical activity relied on the recommendation that physical activity should be enhanced through structured exercise programmes or recreational activities focusing on intense physical activities. However, these have failed to impact on the trend of increasing physical inactivity and its health-related risks. The reasons for this failure are complex; however, a common factor identified in studies of voluntary physical activity is that these programmes tend to exclude the most needy groups who fail to become engaged because of barriers to participation (Booth et al., 1997).

110 P.J.W. van den Noort Today’s more innovative interventions have a predominant focus on integrating moder ate physical activity into people’s everyday lives. For instance, active transport promotion is an increasingly important focus of recent health promotion initiatives addressing the major public health concerns of car dependence, decreased levels of activity and envi ronmental health. Using active transport that relies less on the use of private cars and more on alternatives such as walking, cycling and public transport has the potential to increase population levels of physical activity and to improve the environment (Wen et al., 2005). The success of health enhancing interventions is likely to be increased by a personalised approach, environment interventions, multi-sectoral cooperation and capacity and knowledge of the organisations involved. In addition, the success of inter ventions can be reinforced if they are subject to an integral approach, such as combining strategies to enhance physical activity with improved nutrition behaviour. Literature reviews stress the importance of multi-sectoral responsibility for health to achieve the benefits of health-enhancing strategies. Actors like national, regional and local government authorities, the health sector, industries, media, parents, schools and the sports sector play an important role in the success of intervention strategies. Policies or strategies to successfully promote cycling require coordination among various levels of government and sectors, with input from cycling stakeholders – including national, regional and local government bodies, non-governmental organisations, cycling associa tions and the bicycle manufacturing industry. The following overview shows examples of innovative directions for integrated interventions. Important assumptions include partici pation of the population, multi-sectoral cooperation and policy interventions (Table 6.1). Table 6.1: Important characteristics of innovative interventions Type of Intervention

Participation

Multisectoral Co-operation

Integration into daily activities

Inventory of wishes and possibilities

Cycling policy, employer sports card

Sports setting

Participation of adolescents with special needs

Sports sector and private companies (company fitness, cycle premium) Sports, health and well-being sectors, local authorities, police Sports, education, local authorities

Sports supply

Local authorities, urban planning, local residents, pressure groups

Planning and design of public space

Physical activity consultant Park and square policy

Inventory of local resident wishes

Policy Intervention

Sports canteen policy, sports leader course

Source: Peters (2001)

An important condition for successful health-enhancing strategies is an optimal mixture of promising intervention measures. Kahn et al. (2002) developed a classification for interventions with a particular focus on physical activity (Table 6.2).

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 111 Table 6.2: Classification of interventions to enhance physical activity Informational approaches to change knowledge and attitudes about the benefits of and opportunities for physical activity within a community Behavioural and social approaches to teach people the behavioural management skills necessary both for successful adoption and maintenance of behaviour change and for creating social environments that facilitate and enhance behavioural change Environmental and policy approaches to change the structure of physical and organizational environments to provide safe, attractive and convenient places for physical activity Source: Kahn et al. (2002).

Among the preventive measures recommended by the WHO are moderate physical activ ities for up to 30 min every day, tobacco cessation and healthy nutrition. In addition to individual lifestyle changes, governments and policy-makers are also recommended to “move for health” by creating a supportive environment for people. Among the mea sures recommended are (1) implementing transportation policies that make it safer for people to walk and ride bicycles; (2) legislating tobacco-free public buildings and spaces; (3) building accessible parks, playgrounds and community centres; and (4) promoting physical activity programmes in schools, communities and health services. In a recent Cochrane review, the effectiveness of interventions for promoting physical activity in sedentary adults aged 16 years and older was studied (Hillsdon et al., 2005). The review – in which 17 randomised clinical trials with a follow-up period of at least 6 months were included – suggests that strategies for enabling persons to achieve an increase in physical activity have a moderate effect on self-reported activity and cardio-respiratory fitness, at least in the short- to mid-term period. Despite heterogeneity between the studies, it suggests that a mix of professional guidance when starting an exercise programme and then self-direction plus on-going professional support leads to more consistent effect estimates. In a review of Ogilvie et al. (2005) that consists of 31 studies (controlled and uncontrolled), strongest evidence of positive effects were found in targeted behaviour change programmes (i.e. on motivated groups of volunteers). Ogilvie et al. (2004) performed a systematic review to assess the effectiveness of inter ventions in promoting a population shift from using cars towards walking and cycling. They retrieved published and unpublished reports from several sources and found 22 studies (from all over the world) that met the inclusion criteria. Their review concludes that the best available evidence of effectiveness in promoting a population shift focuses on changing behaviour of targeted populations. The health effects of such interventions are, however, unclear. In addition, the effectiveness of other types of interventions is inconsistent, of low validity or not known and should therefore be rigorously evaluated.

6.3.2 Stages of Change For implementing intervention programmes, one should know the motivation for change of the group. The “stage of change” model (Proschaska, 1992) describes the different

112 P.J.W. van den Noort phases of peoples’ motivation. Behaviour towards physical activity is dynamic. According to the model, changing behaviour implies going through different stages, which often require time and effort. People can only change their behaviour persistently as they successfully pass through the successive stages. Each stage is characterised by its specific change-facilitating processes (De Bourdeaudhuij et al., 1999). These stages are repre sented in Fig. 6.1.

5. Preservation

1. Precontemplation

Healthy behaviour

Unhealthy behaviour

2. Contemplation

4. Action

3. Preparation Source : Proschaska (1992)

Figure 6.1: Evolution stages of behavioural change

6.3.2.1

Pre-contemplation

In this stage, people do not have the intention to engage in physical activity in the near future, which roughly refers to about the first 6 months. The primary reasons are often lack of knowledge and motivation. The negative effects of a sedentary lifestyle are not clearly visible and lie far in the future.

6.3.2.2

Contemplation

In this future, people have the intention to change their behaviour in the near stage (within 6 months). They are aware that not engaging in physical activity is unhealthy. A distinction can be made between people who are rather passive in solving their problems as opposed to those being more active in changing their behaviour by weighing the pros and cons of becoming more physically active. Barriers to physical activity are in fact an aspect of the attitude towards physical activity. An extensive range of international research concludes that the primary barriers for engaging physical activity are a lack of time, inflexibility (fixed training schedules), discomfort with the sport setting and lack of social company to exercise. Perceived advantages of physical exercise are social contacts, fun, competition, health, physical

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 113 appearance and psychological advantages (feeling less depressive, higher self esteem, etc.). Once the balance between perceived advantages and barriers inclines to the advantages, people are more willing to take action. Table 6.3 describes the specific barriers and attractors for cycling from the perspective of cyclists and car drivers. Table 6.3: Barriers and attractors for cycling for cyclists and car drivers Road Users

Barriers for Cycling

Attractors for Cycling

Car drivers

You cannot transport heavy things You depend on the weather Cycling is dangerous The cycle network is incomplete Badly signed cycle routes

Cycling is fun Cycling is healthy Cycling is environment friendly You make exercise

Cyclists

Height speed of car drivers The cycle network is incomplete Lack of secure parking Car noise and fumes

Cycling is healthy You feel flexible and independent You are fast Cycling is environment friendly

Source: EU research project WALCYNG, Proceedings Velo-city 1997 Barcelona 15–19 September, 1997.

6.3.2.3

Preparation

People have the intention to undertake action in the near future, mostly within a month. In general, these persons have made important steps forward to engage in physical activity during the previous years, and they mean to change their lifestyle. Either they have plans (e.g. subscribe to the gym, consult a doctor, etc.) or they make themselves the promise to change their behaviour on a certain moment. These persons would be the target group par excellence for action-oriented health promotion programmes and health contracts. Traditional campaigns for health promotion mainly focus on people in the preparation phase while a large share of the target group might still be in one of the previous stages. Hence, a lot of campaigns are overreaching their goals. Therefore it is important to determine the motivational stage and their perceived barriers for physical exercise to search for a solution or alternative. These suggestions relate to changing individual behaviour and the social and physical environment. Examples of these include health promotion by employers or safe bicycle paths for cycling to work or school. Determinants of physical exercise can vary within the different phases of behavioural change (adoption/initiation) and the intensity of physical activity. Only limited research has been conducted to the determinants of adoption/initiation of physical activity (Dish man and Sallis 1994; Dunn, 1996), which is of vital importance to combat physical inactivity. In addition, the physical environment is also of influence whether or not people are intending to perform physical activity. Moudon and Lee (2003) reviewed existing environmental audit instruments to evaluate the ability to walk and bicycle. It appeared that the origin and destination of the walk or bike trip, the characteristics of the road travelled and the area surrounding the trip’s origin and destination appear to be important aspects that affect walking and bicycling.

114 P.J.W. van den Noort

6.3.2.4

Action

In this stage, people have made specific changes to their behaviour in the past 6 months. However, not all these changes are considered to be a success. For this reason it important to develop a concrete plan to further integrate physical activity into every day’s life, for instance with assistance from the social environment. Compared to the preparation phase it is even more important that people believe in their own effectiveness to be able to deal with difficult situations and to reduce the risks of a relapse. Old behaviour slowly disappears for the benefit of new behaviour, which is still not a habit. This makes the action stage very unstable.

6.3.2.5

Consolidation

People having been persistent in their new behaviour over the past 6 months are in the consolidation phase. However, in difficult situations, these people are sometimes still tempted or inclined to revert to their unhealthy behaviour. Relapsing into these old habits is the rule rather than the exception. Only 20% of the persons willing to change their behaviour will be successful in their first attempt. In general, only 15% will have to restart from the pre-contemplation phase, while the remaining 85% will turn back to the contemplation or preparation phase to get ready for another attempt. Wide ranges of international experiments and health programmes have shown evidence that the greatest health gains can be achieved when the least active individuals become active (Blair et al., 1995). Changing physical behaviour implies taking peoples’ heterogeneity into account, not only in terms of physical capacities but also in terms of attitudes, intentions, belief in one’s capabilities and the ability to restructure one’s thinking and actions (De Bourdeaudhuij and Rzewnicki, 2001).

6.3.3 Best Practice Interventions There is an accumulating body of literature on interventions with a focus on general health-enhancing physical activities. However, it is difficult to summarise information on the effectiveness of different (international) projects. Reason for this is the large diversity of the interventions and the large differences in the design of the evaluation studies and their quality. In Appendix A, a selection of three best practice initiatives are presented, all share the commonality of how the concept of cycling can be used to enhance physical exercise. However, these examples vary according to their objectives, the type of interventions used and the actors being involved.

6.4 CYCLING PROMOTION In 1997, the then mayor of Bogotá, Mayor Peñalosa, started on a project to promote bicycling in Bogotá. One part of this project was the construction of infrastructure to make bicycling safe and convenient. By 2001, Bogotá had completed a 300-km network of bicycle paths. The effect of this infrastructure on bicycle use was dramatic. In 1997, 0.5% of the population used bicycles; by 2001, this percentage had risen to 5%. The experience of Bogotá is not unique. The percentage of bicycle trips is higher in coun tries with extensive and high-quality bicycling infrastructure than countries without this

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 115 infrastructure. In countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, and Sweden – countries with well-developed bicycling infrastructure – the percentage of bicycle trips is more than twice as high as the UK, Australia, or the USA (McClintock, 2002). The importance of infrastructure to encourage bicycling is now well recognised. Accord ing to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, safe and well-designed infrastructure is a prerequisite for promoting cycling (American Asso ciation of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 1999). The National Cycling Strategy of the UK explicitly mentions the provision of cycle-friendly infrastructure as the “building blocks” for promoting bicycling (Cycling England, 2006). The availability of infrastructure, however, is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for high levels of cycle use. Attention must be given to other factors, like the availability of car parking and employment sites, distances between where people live, shop, work, and go to school, and the urban environment, traffic speed on roads, congestion problems for motorists and so on. In particular, attention must be given to cultural attitudes (Jones, 2001).

6.4.1 Research In the UK, the national government has set up a new national body to promote and coordinate the development of cycling in the UK. The aim of this body is “to encourage more people to cycle more safely and more often” (Cycling England, 2006a). One of the explicit tasks of this new organisation is to promote cycling and they state “Promotion is often the key to achieving behavioural change and Cycling England is focusing its energies to achieve big increases in cycling levels”. The Australian National Cycling Strategy also explicitly recognises the importance of and need for promoting cycling. In order to promote cycling, the Australian National Cycling Strategy requires the development of a National Public Communication Strategy to raise the awareness of ALL road users on how to cater to the needs of other road users, and it required the development of a national strategy to market and promote the benefits of bicycling (Austroads, 2005). In Europe and elsewhere, the importance of measures to promote bicycling is now well recognised. The measures to promote bicycling are targeted to correct misperceptions that people may have about bicycling and to promote the positive aspects and benefits of cycling as a way of getting more people to bicycle is now clearly recognised (Litman et al., 2001; Ashton-Graham et al., 2002; Cleary 2002; McClintock, 2002; League Of American Bicyclists, 2006). Communication and education campaigns in Europe and elsewhere have targeted schoolchildren, commuters, employers, car drivers and government agencies to raise awareness about bicycling, bicyclists and their needs. For example, the city of Boulder in Colorado implemented a “Bike to Work Day”, the city of Palo Alto in California offers youth and adult bicycle education programs, the city of Eugene in Oregon has a “Bike Month Celebration”, in which bicycling is promoted as a means to enhance personal

116 P.J.W. van den Noort health, and residents are encouraged to bike to work at least one day a week (League of American Bicyclists, 2006). In the UK, several city councils have implemented measures to encourage children to bicycle to school, and in 1998, the UK government’s White Paper on Integrated Transport stated that the UK Government would take measures to encourage and make it possible for children to walk and bicycle to school (DETR 1998). What is clear from the above is that simply making bicycling infrastructure available will not by itself lead to more people bicycling and making use of the available infrastructure. Getting people to bicycle also requires a sustained campaign to make people aware of the new choices they have as a result of the new infrastructure as well the benefits of bicycling. A bicycle path when constructed should offer bicyclists a safe and pleasant bicycling experience. In this chapter, we outline a promotion plan for stimulating the use of a bicycle path when it is completed. In the remainder of this section, we will outline elements for promoting bicycling; we will discuss the need for creating an organisation with the responsibility for promoting use of the bicycle infrastructure and provide a framework for developing a promo tion plan. In Appendix B, we list a number of possible promotional actions in Bicycle Plans.

6.4.2 Planning to Promote Bicycling In developing a plan to promote use of a bicycle infrastructure, there are two issues that need to be kept in mind. First, there is not always a single agency or organization with the responsibility for promoting the use of a bicycle infrastructure, and second, the bicycle infrastructure will not always be ready. Both of these issues are addressed in the following section. Another point to note is that in the remainder of this chapter, we sometimes talk about promoting bicycling and at other times about promoting the use of the planned bicycle infrastructure. Very often the lack of recreational cycling and the absence of a bicycling culture, promoting the use of bicycle infrastructure, require thinking about how to promote bicycling. Next, we outline the need for an organisation with the responsibility for promoting the use of the bicycle infrastructure. Then we describe a framework that we use later for developing the promotion plan to promote a planned bicycle infrastructure.

6.4.3 Creating an Organisation to Promote Bicycling The importance of having an organisation dedicated to promoting bicycling is evident from the existence of such organisations in various countries and in cities. Such an organisation is necessary in order to coordinate the promotional activities and to ensure continuity in time of these promotional activities. One of the earliest examples of this was

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 117 the Greater London Council (GLC) that set up a Cycle Project Team in 1982 to design cycle schemes, liaise with the local government offices and the other GLC departments as well as making promotion. A national policy called “Masterplan Fiets” was introduced in the Netherlands in the 1990s. The work to support the development, implementation and monitoring of this policy was coordinated by the Ministry of Transport. A dedicated team within the Ministry of Transport, with a dedicated budget, was responsible for implementing and monitoring this policy and helping Dutch cities and provinces in promoting cycle use, as required by the Dutch national policy. More recently, the UK government decided to set up a new body called “Cycling Eng land”, to promote bicycling in the UK. A similar organisation called “Cycling Scotland” has been set up to promote bicycling in Scotland.1 In Australia, the first national strategy for bicycling (Austroads, 1999) set up an organ isation called the Australian Bicycling Council to coordinate all activities related to the promotion of bicycling in Australia. The new strategy to promote bicycling in Aus tralia (Austroads, 2005) has chosen to continue with the Australian Bicycling Council till 2010. While these organisations were set up in different ways and have different priorities, the primary objective in creating these organisations has been to have one organisation coordinate all activities related to the promotion of bicycling. Thus, an organisation to promote the use of the bicycle infrastructure is needed in order to ensure that the bicycle infrastructure when ready will be used. Cycling is not yet widespread in many cities in Europe. Even when bicycle infrastructure is completed, the facilities for bicycling will be limited. Thus, it may be premature to create an independent organisation similar to the organisations in the examples that have been mentioned above. This does not, however, mean that the need for coordination and continuity does not exist. Our recommendation would be to create a Bicycling Promotion Project Team and make it responsible for promoting bicycling in a city or even country.

6.4.4 The Bicycling Promotion Project Team Increasing the number of people that bicycle will, at a minimum, require that available facilities are well maintained, the safety of cyclists is ensured and cycles are available to rent and purchase. Furthermore, depending on the target population, it will require the cooperation of schools and employers. If the infrastructure for bicycling is to be expanded, it will also require the involvement of the organisation responsible for spatial planning (in order, e.g., to reserve “rights of way” in planned developments). 1

http://www.nationalcyclingstrategy.org.uk; http://www.cyclingscotland.org.

118 P.J.W. van den Noort Thus, we would recommend that the following organisations be represented in the Bicycling Promotion Project Team: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

The Agency responsible for building and maintaining public works The Planning Authority The (Traffic) Police The Bicycle User Group Department of Education The Health Authority Tourism Authority.

The representatives of the above organisations in the Bicycle Promotion Project Team would form a steering group. The primary responsibility of this steering group would be to take decisions about objectives and priorities for the promotion, guide the activities of the bicycling promotion project team and remove obstacles that exist, or may arise in promoting bicycling. Thus, the role of the steering group is to essentially make strategic choices about the objectives of the promotion, choosing target segments, setting priorities for the availability and allocation of resources and overseeing the implementation of the promotion plan. The representatives of the above organisations do not have to be available full time for the work of the Bicycle Promotion Project Team. Rather, we see them as being available on an ad hoc basis for meetings as and when necessary. In addition to the steering group, there is a need for a small number of staff to implement the decisions of the steering group. For example, if the steering group decides that a television campaign is the most effective way to promote bicycling as a healthy and fun recreational activity, they would ask the staff to put out a tender for the development of such a campaign. It is difficult to precisely estimate the number of staff members that would be needed for such a team. The number of staff needed will depend on the exact activities that are planned. Furthermore, the need for staff will also depend on the timing of the promotion activities, during some periods more staff will be needed than in other periods. Given that we do not know the exact activities, or the timing of these activities, we would suggest starting with one Full-Time-Equivalent (FTE) and secretarial support for this person and the steering group. Additional staff can be added, depending on the scale and scope of the promotion effort – and if needed – some later time.

6.4.5 Financial Questions Related to the Bicycle Promotion Project Team An important question relating to the promotion of bicycling is – who is going to finance these promotion activities? The financial requirement with respect to staffing the project team is limited, the financing of the promotional activities will, however, require significant resources. We cannot make a recommendation with regards to the level of promotional activities. This question about the allocation of resources for promoting bicycling will have to be decided upon by those who are ultimately charged with the development and use of the bicycle infrastructure.

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 119

6.4.6 When Should the Project Team be Set Up? Next, we turn to the question of when this Bicycle Promotion Project Team should be set up and for how long it should continue its activities. First the question of when it should be set up. Very often, it is not known when the bicycle infrastructure will be built and how soon it will be available for use. In terms of planning, it would be better to start thinking and planning about how to promote bicycling before and not after the bicycle infrastructure is available for use. Thus, we would recommend setting up the Bicycling Promotion Project Team as soon as the planned starting date for construction of the infrastructure is known.

6.4.7 Developing a Promotion Plan2 The promotion plan that is presented in the remainder of this document is based on the steps outlined by Cycling England (Cycle England, 2006) as being important in planning and implementing campaigns to promote bicycling. Cycling England is a national organ isation specifically set up to promote cycling in UK cities and regions. One of the tasks it has is to support the initiatives of cities to promote cycling in their cities. Thus, the initiatives and experiences of Cycling England, while not directly transferable to every other situation, are a useful starting point for developing a plan to promote bicycling. Cycling England identifies six steps in developing a successful plan to promote bicycling. We list the six steps and briefly describe each one: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

6.4.7.1

Setting objectives and turning them into actions; Finding and gathering information; Determining the audience for the promotional activities; Developing a message to promote bicycling; Implementing the plan; Communicating the message; Monitoring the results.

Setting Objectives and Turning Them Into Actions

It helps to identify clear objectives before developing a promotion plan. In order to develop clear objectives, it is useful to apply the Specific-Measurable-AchievableRelevant-Time specific (SMART) test to the objectives. Specific – The objectives should relate to specific outcomes and not the measures taken to realise these outcomes. For example, the completion of a campaign on safety of cyclists is not an objective. Instead, a percentage in the number of accidents involving cyclists is a specific objective. Measurable – The objectives should be measurable, that is, can progress in achieving the objectives be measured? If, for example, we want to measure the reduction 2

This section is based on the “Marketing Cycling Handbook” prepared by Cycling England for helping cities and region in promoting cycling locally.

120 P.J.W. van den Noort in the number of accidents, a system is needed for recording accidents involving bicyclists. Achievable – The objectives should, in principle, be realisable with the use of sufficient resources. Relevant – The objectives should also be relevant to the needs and requirements of the target population. Time-specific – Finally, the objectives should have a clearly stated date for their realisation. Once the objectives have been identified, the next step is to turn these objectives into specific actions. For example, if the objective is to raise awareness about bicycling among school children, there are several possible actions that can be taken. One action could be to prepare a short video on bicycling and its benefits and approach schools to show this video to their students. Another action could be to arrange a “bike clinic” at schools during which children can learn to bicycle. Alternatively, if the objective is to promote the use of the bicycle infrastructure among tourists visiting, one action to do this could be to provide hotels with a pamphlet on the bicycle lanes and ask them to provide their guests with this pamphlet. In formulating the objectives, it is also important to think about how the objectives will be achieved; what the different target groups want and what their expectations are, the benefits to the target group, how the benefits will be communicated to the target group and the most effective means of communicating with the target group, and ways to monitor and evaluate progress towards these objectives.

6.4.7.2

Finding and Gathering Information

Understanding the needs, expectations, attitudes and behaviour of the target group is a key part of any promotion campaign. Research on which a promotion campaign is based falls into two categories: primary research and second research. Primary research activities include, for example, conducting a survey on the attitudes of employers towards bicycling, trip surveys, and focus groups. Secondary research involves using data that has been gathered for some other purpose. For example, secondary research can draw on census data, research articles, and surveys conducted for other purposes.

6.4.7.3

Determining the Audience for the Promotional Activities

There are two parts in determining the target audience for the promotional activities, seg mentation and targeting. Segmentation involves subdividing the population into smaller groups that share certain characteristics. Targeting involves deciding which groups offer the most potential for realising the objectives of the promotion campaign and concen trating resources on meeting the needs and expectations of these groups. A population can be segmented in many different ways: according to age, socio-economic status, location, demographic factors (e.g. gender, health profile and nationality) and behavioural factors (e.g. different reasons for people choosing to cycle). In choosing a given segmentation, it is important to consider the following: Is the segment distinct, that is, are the people in this group similar to each other and yet distinct from the rest

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 121 of the population? Is the segment large enough to justify the expenditure of resources on them? Can the segment be reached?

6.4.7.4

Developing a Message (or Messages) to Promote Bicycling

Let’s assume that the bicycle infrastructure is ready for use. It is easy to imagine that initially many people would be willing to “try out” the bicycle infrastructure. A high level of initial use, however, does not necessarily mean that people will continue to use the bicycle infrastructure once the novelty of this experience wears off. Thus, a promotion plan should develop a message that convinces people to get on a bicycle, and once they have tried cycling to get them to keep cycling. An important aspect of promoting bicycling is to promote the “experience” of bicycling that is, the positive aspects of bicycling. For example, promoting the attractive views along the route, the safe environment for bicycling, or enjoying a day out with the family bicycling can help to create a positive experience for bicyclists. Another important aspect of promoting bicycling is to take away the barriers, physical or otherwise, to bicycling. For example, if people think that their clothing interferes with riding a bicycle, it could be emphasised that there are many different types of bicycles, and riding some of these bicycles is possible without clothing being a hindrance. It is also important that the message be tailored to the audience. Different people bicycle for different purposes, and the benefits they get from bicycling can be different. In promoting bicycling, it is important to think about the different segments that are being targeted and to tailor the message in a way that the benefits being promoted are relevant for that particular segment. For example, leisure or recreational bicyclists are different from children, and one message for both these segments is not likely to yield the best results. Finally, the promotion campaign needs to be something that sticks in the minds of people. Bicycling is competing with all sorts of other activities and pursuits for the time and attention of people. In order for the promotion activity to stand out, it needs to communicate a consistent message over time, it needs to be relevant to the people in the targeted segmented, it should be distinctive and it should be simple.

6.4.7.5

Implementing the Plan

It is helpful to have an implementation framework for successfully implementing a promotion plan.

6.4.7.6

Communicating the Message

As we have discussed above, most people recognise the benefits of cycling. Despite this, most people do not cycle. Their reasons for not cycling can be varied. For example, people may not cycle because they don’t know where to cycle, they don’t have the time to cycle, they are not fit enough, they don’t have the right facilities at work to cycle to

122 P.J.W. van den Noort work, are concerned about safety, or find it too warm to cycle. In order for a promotion campaign to be effective, the message should: 1. Address people’s concerns about bicycling; 2. Promote the benefits of bicycling in a positive way; 3. And encourage people to try cycling. In communicating it’s message, a promotion campaign should3 : Create Awareness – People must be made aware of the possibility to cycle Generate interest – Once people are made aware about the possibility to bicycle, their curiosity has Awaken Desire – People must be motivated to actively want to participate in bicycling activities Invite Action – A “trigger” needs to be to help the targeted take the final step to actually getting onto a cycle and start cycling. A typical promotion campaign includes a mix of different actions to reach different audiences. The techniques for reaching different audiences can be grouped into three categories: 1. Mass promotion 2. Differentiated promotion 3. Niche Promotion. Mass promotion includes local advertising, articles in local newspapers and magazines, poster and billboard campaigns, press briefings, door-to-door distribution of leaflets and the Internet. Differentiated promotion includes articles in local newspapers and magazines, leaflets and information packs, public speaking events, permission based e-mail campaigns. Niche promotion can include bicycle tours with guides, personal talks, school visits, leaflets and information packs.

6.4.8 Monitoring and Evaluating the Results of the Promotion If one is to learn from experience and improve on past actions, it is necessary to keep a record of the performance of past actions. Monitoring is the process for collecting information while the promotion campaign is underway. Monitoring is important as it can help to refine and reshape the promotion campaign as needed. Evaluation is the process of collecting and analysing information once the promotion campaign has been completed. This can be done by simply counting the number of users of the bicycle infrastructure, by carrying out a more detailed survey, monitoring the visits to relevant Web site or something similar. 3 Marketing experts have identified four stages in decision-making: Awareness, Interest, Desire and Action. In the marketing literature, this is called the AIDA model and marketing campaigns include actions to target people in each of these different phases of decision-making (Kotler, 1980).

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 123

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124 P.J.W. van den Noort Dora (1999). A different route to health: Implications of transport policies. British Medical Journal, 318, 1686–1689. Dunn, A. L. (1996). Getting started: A review of physical activity adoption studies. British Journal of Sports Medicine 30, 196–199. European Heart Network (2001). Children and Young People – The Importance of Physical Activity. At http://www.ehnheart.org/pdf/phyactivity.pdf. Haines, A., McMichael, T., Anderson, R. and Houghton, J. (2000). Fossil fuels, transport and public health, British Medical Journal 321, 1168–1169. Hendriksen, I. (1996). The Effect of Commuter Cycling on Physical Performance and on Coronary Heart Disease Risk Factors. Amsterdam: Free University Press. Hillsdon, M., Foster, C. and Thorogood, M. (2005). Interventions for promoting physical activity [Cochrane review]. The Cochrane Library, 1. Hillman, M. (1992) Cycling and Promotion of Health. Proceedings of Seminar B held at the PTRC European Transport, Highways and Planning 20th Summer Annual Meeting, Umist. Vol. p. 354. PTRC Education and Research Services Ltd. Interface for Cycling Expertise (I-ce) (2000) in association with the Habitat Platform Foun dation, VNG uitgeverij, The Hague, Netherlands. International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) (2003). Incidence prevalence and co-morbidity. At www.iotf.org/. Jones, M. (2001). Promoting cycling in the U.K.: Problems experiences by the practitioners. World Transport Policy and Practice 7 (3), 7–12. Kahn E. B. et al. (2002). The effectiveness of interventions to increase physical activity. A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 22 (4 Suppl), 73–107. Kotler, P. (1980). Principles of Marketing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. League of American Bicyclists. (2006). Bicycle Friendly Communities: Enhancing Cities Through Cycling. Washington, DC. Lee, C. D. and Blair, S. N. (2002). Cardio Respiratory Fitness and Stroke Mortality in Men. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 34, 592–595. Litman, T., Blair, R., Demopoulos, W., Eddy, N., Fritzel, A., Laidlaw, D., Maddox, H. and Forster, K. (2001). Pedestrian and Bicycle Planning: A Guide to Best Practices. Victoria, British Columbia: Victoria Transport Policy Institute. McClintock, H. (2002). Promoting cycling through ‘soft’ (non-infrastructure) measures. In Planning for Cycling: Principles Practice, and Solutions for Urban Planners (pp. 36–49), Abbington; Woodhead Publishing. Moudon, A. V. and Lee, C. (2003). Walking and bicycling: An evaluation of environmental audit instruments. American Journal of Health Promotion 18 (1), 21–37. Morris, J.N., Clayton, D.G., Everitt, M.G., Semmence A.M. and Burgess, E.H. (1990) Exercise in Leisure Time: Coronary Attack and Death Rates. British Heart Journal, 63, 325–334. Murray, J. L. and Lopez, A. D. (1996). The Global Burden of Disease. World Health Organisation, Geneva. National Audit Office (2000) Tackling Obesity in England, London National Cycling Forum (1999). Promoting Cycling: Improving Health National Cycling Strategy. National Cycling Strategy (2003) Cycling and Health. OECD. (2004). Implementing sustainable urban travel policies: Moving ahead. National Policies to Promote Cycling. European Conference of Ministers of Transport. Ogilvie, D. et al. (22 September 2004). Promoting walking and cycling as an alterna tive to using cars: systematic review. British Medical Journal 1–5. Available at: doi:10.1136/bmj.38216.714560.55.

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 125 Ogilvie, D., et al. (2005). Systematic reviews of health effects of social interventions: 2. Best available evidence: how low should you go? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 59, 886–892. Oja, P., Vuori, I., Paronen, O. (1998). Daily walking and cycling to work: Their utility as health-enhancing physical activity. Patient Education and Counselling 33 (Suppl 1), 87–94. Oregon Department of Transportation. (1995). Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan. p. 35. Pearce, L. M., Davis, A. L., Crombie, H. D. and Boyd, H. N. (1998). Cycling for a Healthier Nation. TRL report 346, TRL, Transport Research Foundation Group of Companies. Peters, L. (2000). Sportparticipatie en bewegingsbevordering. In Keijser, Vaandrager (Ed.) Rapport Gezond leven: stand van zaken en voorstel voor de programmering. NIGZ/Centrum voor Review & Implementatie. Prochaska, J. O. and Velicer, W. F. (1992). The Transtheoretical Model of health behaviour changes. American Journal of Health Promotion 12, 38–45 Richardson, E., Rice, D. and Jelley, C. (1993). Urban Transport for a Vital and Sustainable Future. Road and Transport Research, Australian Road Research Board Ltd, 2(2). Shayler, M., Fergusson, M. and Rowell, A (1993). Costing the Benefits: The Value of Cycling. A report for the Cyclist’s Touring Club, CTC, Godalming, UK. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1996) Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General Atlanta, GA, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Centre for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. VNG (Association of Dutch Municipalities), Habitat Platform Foundation, I-ce (Interface for Cycling Expertise) (2000). The Economic Significance of Cycling: A Study to Illustrate the Costs and Benefits of Cycling Policy. Pub. VNG uitgeverij, The Hague. Wen, L. M. et al. (2005). Promoting active transport in a workplace setting: Evaluation of a pilot study in Australia. Health Promotion International 20 (2), 123–133. WHO Regional Office for Europe. (1999). Charter on Transport, Environment and Health. Third Ministerial Conference on Environment and Health. WHO Regional Office for Europe. (2002a). A Physically Active Life Through Everyday Transport with a Special Focus on Children and Older People and Examples of Approaches from Europe. Bristol UK, Adrian Davis Associates (ed.). World Health Organisation (WHO) (2002b). The World Health Report: Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life. WHO, Geneva WHO. (2006). Policy Related to Physical Activity, 2006. Available at http://www.who.int/ moveforhealth/advocacy/information_sheets/policy/en/print.htm.

APPENDIX A: BEST PRACTICE INTERVENTIONS 1. Cycling and Walking Policy Programmes (Finland, 2001). Source: OECD (2004)

Objectives Reduction of car use and integration/promotion of all sustainable model of transport (cycling, walking and public transport). Reduction of environmental and health problems caused by transport (greenhouse gases, air pollution, noise, promotion of physical health and safety, etc.).

126 P.J.W. van den Noort Specific Targets Qualitative target: Improvements in the quality, attractiveness and safety of cycling, and increased weight on transport policy decisions. Cycling should be more competitive vis-à-vis the private car and should be combinable smoothly and safely with the use of public transport. Quantitative target: The amount of cycling taking place should have doubled by the year 2020 relative to the 1989–1999 level and safety should improve in the long term in accordance with general road safety target. Actors Involved Ministry of Transport and Communications, Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Trade and Industry, National Board of Tourism City of Helsinki, Association of Sustainable Transportation, Central Organisation of Traffic Safety and Road Administration, Road Enterprise and municipalities. 2. Happiness is cycling (2002, Sweden). Source: WHO (2002) Background: Aims and Objectives The purpose of the campaign is to inform people who live and work in Helsingborg, Sweden, of the opportunities available for cycling in and around the town to encourage a positive attitude towards cycling. The objectives are to increase the number of journeys made by bicycle during 2002 by 20% to achieve positive environmental effects such as less traffic noise and a reduction in levels of air pollution, to increase the space available to vulnerable members of the public in the town centre and to encourage people to participate in physical activity to reduce the risk of heart disease. Description of the Initiative Forty thousand copies of a new pocket-format cycle map have been printed. The map is free and is available at all libraries, staffed petrol stations and the Tourist Information Office, staffed by bicycle parking in other places. In this new version, distances are more clearly indicated, making it easier to plan journeys. One of the major goals of the project is to persuade people who normally make relatively short journeys (3–5 km) by car to change to using a bicycle. That is why the map was handed out to all of the customers at the Vehicle Test Centre in Helsingborg during a 1-month period. In this way, the map was handed directly over to one of the main target groups. There are ranges of initiatives to support and promote cycling in Helsingborg: • The Urban Planning Department is developing a new cycle plan, which is to be used as a basis for decision linked to the development of a network of cycle

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 127

• • • • •

paths throughout the town. The goal is to link the various paths into an as comprehensive network as possible. An inventory of all cycle paths has taken place during the year in order to provide a clear picture of the measures needed to improve the status of the paths. More than 500 signposts have been located along the 200 km of cycle paths, each of which is also colour coded to facilitate easy access by users. A free phone number has been installed so that cyclists can submit their views or give hints and ideas regarding the cycle path network. Acute problems can be reported to the Department of Technical Service fault line. There is now a campaign Web site with information, tips, links and points of view (www.cykellycka.helsingborg.se) There is much-appreciated staffed cycle parking outside the ferry, bus and rail way terminal, “Bike In”, which ensures that parked bicycles are not stolen or vandalised and that cycle maps are handed out.

There were also cycling to work initiatives. From 17 May to 15 June 2000, A Cycle to Work campaign took place aimed at the 7500 City Council employees; 20% of the employees participated and cycled 93 516 km during 12 541 person-days in the campaign period. During 2001, cooperation was initiated with a sports association in Helsingborg, inviting all the companies in the Council area with more than five employees to cycle to work during a 4-week period. Our goal is that 30% of the participation companies’ employees will participate. 3. Safe and healthy on the bike: cycle skills training for senior citizens (1996, the Netherlands). Source: WHO (2002) Background: Aims and Objectives The Fietsersbond (Dutch Cyclists’ Union) project in the Netherlands began in 1996 and is active in several provinces, training people aged of 65 years and older. In the Netherlands, the Fietsersbond, several other transport organisations and the government were alarmed by the great number of cyclists 65 years and older injured in road accidents. Many elderly people give up cycling: 60% of woman and 30% of men at about 75 years old. Many give up because of lack of skills; traffic has increased and they cannot cope with that. There are also health problems such as pain in the knees, respiratory disease, heart problems, arthritis and rheumatism. However, when people whose main mode of transport is the bicycle stop cycling, their engagement with the world beyond the home is reduced. Description of the Initiative The aim of the course is to enable and encourage older people to keep cycling as long as possible and to develop safer conduct as elderly cyclists in traffic. The course lasts for a day. It starts with the importance of elderly people to keep cycling. Then there is an interactive programme on knowledge about traffic regulations. The course checks the eyesight of the cyclists and sometimes also hearing. It also involves a local bicycle mechanic checking of roadworthiness of the bicycles. Afterwards, there are cycle exercises for 30 min and an instruction video about safe and assertive cycling. Then there is cycle skill training. This includes the best ways to start the bike, how to stop suddenly,

128 P.J.W. van den Noort one-hand driving and so on. The final part of both courses is a bike tour through the local neighbourhood. The course ends with an evaluation. How Was the Initiative Evaluated? The courses are evaluated by participants. Feedback from the participants through the evaluation indicates that the course was interesting; they learned a lot and feel more secure in traffic. Some cyclists claim that they cycle more as a result. In the Netherlands, 2% of elderly people in the provinces attend the course. What Is the Health Evidence of Its Effects? The project has not measured health evidence of its effects. However, for the organisers, the success of the course includes cooperation between organisations focusing on health, transport and elderly people. A by-product of the course is that seniors go cycling every week. A cycling club of elderly people has been established.

APPENDIX B: POSSIBLE ACTIONS IN BICYCLE PLANS Once the objectives for the Bicycle Plan have been set, they have to be turned into actions that can be taken to realise them. The actions to realise these objectives can be grouped together in four categories: • • • •

Education and training Initiation of communication/media campaigns and actions Organisation of events Creation of a support network for bicyclists

Education and Training Many people, although familiar with bicycling, do not regularly bicycle. Furthermore, most people do not use bicycles on city streets or in public spaces. We suspect that most people have experience cycling as children in confined spaces or in their backyards. Cycling for leisure in a public space, however, is very different from cycling in the backyard of one’s house or in a confined space. Safely riding a bicycle on city streets used by other vehicles and pedestrians requires some knowledge of traffic laws. A second reason for suggesting education and training courses is that sometimes the barrier to cycling is psychological, people lack the confidence to take the final step and get on a bicycle on their own. To be part of a course where individuals interact with others would help to bolster the confidence of individuals trying out something new like cycling. We suggest three specific actions: 1. Creation of a cycle training standard 2. Setting up of training centres where people can learn to bicycle 3. Development of a course on safety

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 129 Creating a training standard Creating standards for cycle training courses is important, as it will help to ensure a certain minimum quality and help people completing these courses to ride a bicycle without endangering themselves or others. A three-tier standard should be established; one for individuals who have never ridden on a bicycle, for individuals who have some experience bicycling but have not done so for a while and for regular cyclists wanting to further develop their skills. Thus, we are recommending the development of a three-tier training standard corresponding to the three types of individuals: • Level 1 for novices – conducted in a controlled environment away from roads and traffic; • Level 2 for returning riders – On-road training for those who have completed Level 1 and are ready to progress; • Level 3 for experienced riders – develop the basic skills and train riders to make journeys in a variety of traffic conditions competently, confidently and consistently. Identifying and setting up teaching centres We would recommend, as far as possible, to identify clubs, schools and existing orga nizations (e.g. hotels) that are willing to become training centres for cyclists. Once a sufficient number of potential teaching centres have been identified and have agreed to set up a teaching centre at their location, the next step is to recruit and teach the teachers. This should be done according to the standards developed, mentioned previously. Course to teach individuals to bicycle safely Within this training, materials will need to be commissioned. They could include DVDs, show cards and other material that needs to be easily-understood, non-technical and well-designed. The three different levels could include: • Level 1 – conducted in a controlled environment away from roads and traffic. Cyclists are usually trained in small groups, although individual training may be available. Provides the basic cycle control skills. • Level 2 – On-road training for those who have completed Level 1 and are ready to progress; it gives real cycling experience and makes trainees feel safer and capable of dealing with traffic on short journeys. • Level 3 – develops the basic skills and trains riders to make journeys in a variety of traffic conditions competently, confidently and consistently. Cyclists reaching the Level 3 standard will be able to deal with all types of road conditions and more complex situations.

130 P.J.W. van den Noort If the trainees have not ridden a cycle before, the training will require, based on expe rience with teaching novice adults in Tilburg (the Netherlands) and London (UK), somewhere between 3–8 h before they will be able to ride unaided.4 Communication/Media Campaigns and Actions Three specific actions should be taken as soon as the bicycle path is ready, namely: 1. Creation of a Web site to provide bicyclists with information and a platform for interacting with other bicyclists; 2. Campaign to raise the profile of cycling and cyclists; 3. Campaign to create awareness among cyclists and other road users about proper road use and safety for both cyclists and others. Setting up of a web site and a helpline A Web site should be set up, preferably even before the bicycle path is ready, to provide outreach and publicity for the training scheme.5 The Web site should include information on: • • • • • •

The bicycle path network (including some maps); Information on changes to the network; Information on upcoming conferences, campaigns and events; An FAQ and an online forum for bicyclists to interact with each other; Documentation on bicycle training and safety; Information about courses on learning how to bicycle, bicycle rentals, mainte nance facilities, purchase of bicycle and equipment; • Documentation on related topics such as health benefits of bicycling; • Links to bicycling sites and sites relevant for bicycling in other countries; • A number for a helpline that bicyclists could call for help in answering questions they may have. Campaigns The campaigns we have in mind have the overall objective of bringing about positive change in the perceptions of people about bicycling and bicyclists. More specifically, we want to: • Create a positive image of bicycling and bicyclists • Convince potential users that bicycling, when the proper infrastructure is available is a safe and enjoyable activity • Convince potential users that bicycling is fun 4

This range is indicative; teaching people to bicycle could take shorter or longer. An excellent example of a Web site to promote cycling is the Web site created by the city of Odense in Denmark (http://www.cyclecity.dk). 5

Promoting Cycling for Public Health 131 In addition to the population at large, we want to specifically target: 1. 2. 3. 4.

children young adults/students elderly Tourists

Events Bike to School Day/Bike Certificate Presentation Safe Routes encompasses the 4 E’s encouragement, education, enforcement, and engi neering. In the fall, schools could deliver Bicycle Safety and Pedestrian Safety Education, as well as an after-school bike program. They could also organise encouragement activ ities such as Walk and Bike to School Day and Walk and Bike to School Wednesdays. School team leaders, community members and city engineers could conduct walk-abouts at each school. Exhibitions The Antique and State-of-the-Art Bike Exhibition could be organised in cooperation with The VELORAMA National Bicycle Museum – the only one of its kind in Holland. This is a treasure house of information, and its collection of 250 authentic veteran cycles will delight bicycle-lovers of all ages. Countless visitors from Holland and from all over the world all agree that the bicycle is a wonderful invention – so why not take the time to find out more about its fascinating history? Together with a show of highly modern bikes, this could bring quite some interest to cycling. Bicycle design contests Designing in association with the industry, local bicycle user groups, design academies or art schools can bring unexpected new solutions to this two-wheel man-powered mode of transport. Bicycle races The Campaign Theme for events can be “Bike riding is fun”. Events may include races, including a speed race as well as a slow bike race. In a slow bike race, the last one to the finish line without falling off the bike or stopping will be the winner. Family competitions may include relay races or obstacle courses and inclines. Fancy bike displays giving people an opportunity to try unusual bikes may be scheduled and skating/skateboard demonstrations may be held. Bicycle parades can be organised with prizes for best entries. Creating buddy groups and cycling clubs “Buddy groups”, which both bring together newly trained cyclists and also pair expe rienced cyclists with newly trained ones are a simple way to support both new and experienced bicyclists. The creation of both types of groups should be encouraged. This

132 P.J.W. van den Noort will help new riders to gain confidence on the path/road and allow them to join others in a pleasurable pastime. Pool of bicycles Another option would be to create a pool or fleet of bicycles that will be provided for use on bicycle paths. This would slay the barrier to greater daily cycle use as people can get used to cycling before buying a bike themselves. The pool could well be a good idea and would also provide for a promotional opportunity. Many bike hire and free bike plans are operational in the world and many more are planned.

Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 7 A Land-Use – Transport Vision Ann Jopson

7.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter sets out to portray an overall vision of a future city in the European Union (EU) to the year 2030. It is just one vision, and inevitably, developments will vary between city types, and some readers may disagree completely with the vision presented here. However, the intention is to be thought provoking and to encourage readers to think creatively about where cities are going, what they might be like in 25 years time and beyond, and what can be done now to shape a sustainable future. This vision is based on current and potential future trends and policy measures regarding urban passenger and freight transport, as well as the state-of-the-art in land-use and transport planning as identified by the European Commission’s Framework Five Land Use and Transport Research cluster of projects. The chapter presents an idealistic, but not uncritical, vision and is structured around the key land-use and transport planning issues in an archetypical city (Futuresville), and begins by setting out the current and future trends by way of a benchmark for considering future developments. The vision is conveyed by a citizen of Futuresville who uniquely has the ability to travel backwards and forwards through time. Our time-travelling citizen looks forward from 2005, imagining what Futuresville will be like in 2030, and looks back from 2030 at changes that have taken place. Future innovations are considered to allow an assessment of what land-use and policy instruments may be in place in Futuresville by 2030.

7.2 FUTURESVILLE 2005 Futuresville is a classic, large European city with a medieval centre (the ‘old quarter’), around which various civic and economic quarters developed. Industry also became significant in the nineteenth century but much of the resulting urban fabric is now being redeveloped into modern, mixed-use urban villages. The whole is surrounded by a significant ring of twentieth-century suburban residential neighbourhoods. 133

134 A. Jopson The core road network in 2005 radiates from the city centre, having developed to link the centre to the heart of each of the civic and economic quarters and extended into the industrial developments of the nineteenth century, and beyond into the suburbs. Within the old quarter and nineteenth-century city, these radial roads are interlinked by grids of roads, including wide boulevards linking the centre of civic and economic quarters, and later industrial areas. In 2005, only the radial roads and boulevards are served by public transport; other interlinking roads have virtually no services as heavy rail and bus routes have focused on connecting suburban and more distant residents with city centre jobs. A further reason for poorly developed interlinking public transport is the traditionally dominant role of cycling within Futuresville. Topography, climate and infrastructure all favoured cycling. The grids of streets ensured that short, direct routes were available between many origins and destinations. Further, infrastructure had been developed to support cycling – through management to prioritise and guide cyclists at crossings – shared use of road space between pedestrians, cyclists and motorised modes on the minor roads – which cyclists traditionally dominated (although by 2005, the increasing car use meant that cars were dominating these routes, and there was little safe space left for cyclists) – and cycle only river crossings across the central river. The river running through the centre of Futuresville is served by a river boat service. In an attempt to reduce growing congestion, passenger services on the river were reintroduced in 2005 after successful implementation elsewhere in Europe. These run between the outer suburbs of the city and stop at key locations en route, including several peers in the centre. The service also links park-and-ride sites at either end of the route on both banks of the river. The climate in Futuresville is temperate, and relatively mild, so there is no problem with rivers freezing over in the winter. Public transport in Futuresville consists of bus, rail and tram services. Trams run along the radial routes and the wide boulevards (they are the only means of public transport on these boulevards, forming the only circular routes within the central areas of the city), but the network does not extend beyond the old industrial areas of the city into the residential suburbs. Heavy rail forms a radial network fanning out of the city with some stops in the suburbs, but mainly serving outlying towns and more distant cities. Buses radiate from the city centre using the radial routes until they reach the suburbs, where they divert off into residential areas, but the networks are not particularly dense. Trams are the only mode (apart from the new river boat services) that allow cross-city journeys without changing in the city centre. However, since the 1960s, the number of stops on tram routes has been reduced in an attempt to reduce journey times. Additionally, segregated tram tracks have been removed over this period and replaced by shared space for cars, trams, and buses on the radial routes, in an attempt to increase capacity for car traffic. Further, not all stops, stations, rolling stock, or vehicles are fully accessible to people with mobility impairments (be they physical, visual, or hearing), but conditions are improving. A ring road was built around Futuresville back in the 1980s in an attempt to remove through traffic from the centre of the city, and thus reduce congestion. However, it was not accompanied by city centre traffic restrictions, calming, or increased parking charges;

A Land-Use – Transport Vision 135 thus the net effect of the ring road by 2005 was induced traffic, and no reduction in city centre congestion. The ring road is served by a bus service, but this is the only circular bus route in the city. Within the ring road, the wide boulevards have formed natural inner ring roads for private cars, and by 2030, many of these routes have been utilised in the introduction of personal rapid transit. In 2005, there is much debate over sustainability, climate change, and increasingly, security of energy supply, and our curious citizen travels forward to 2030 to see how his city has changed. He is prone to flashbacks but says comparatively little about changes in energy supply – it seems that manufacturers, regulators, and legislators have taken this forward quietly, and successfully, but many other changes are described.

7.3 PASSENGER TRANSPORT AND FREIGHT TRENDS: 2005–2030 Like many cities in the EU, trends in passenger transport were for increased car use at the expense of public transport, walking, and cycling in 2005. However, whilst car use continued to increase, patterns of change in modal share beyond 2005 were not simple. Reductions in walking were minimal, as in relative terms, the modal share of walking was fairly stable and remains so in 2030. Cycling decreased rapidly from the later half of the 1990s, and this was of great concern to the authorities, since previously favourable conditions seemed insufficient to maintain cycling levels in the face of growing safety concerns arising from increased car traffic. Bus use on the radial routes decreased most significantly despite the introduction of luxury bus services around the city. Rail use was increasing in 2005 – due to growing commuter distances arising from urban sprawl. There were also increases in tram use for the same reason, once the network was extended to new park-and-ride developments at some of the old out-of-town retail centres. These tramline extensions were put in place along radial routes not served by heavy rail. However, increases in rail and tram use were not sufficient to counteract the overall reduction in the public transport modal share. Indeed, many bus services were discontinued as those who continued to use public transport preferred the train, tram, and river boat services, even over the improved bus services. It is also worth observing that many of the longer commuter journeys are by rail or tram and car, as use of parkand-ride facilities at tram and rail termini, and old out-of-town retail centres en route is increasing. Overall, people are travelling further, faster, more often. By 2010, congestion had become severe. The result of these passenger transport trends and those relating to freight outlined below was severe congestion across the city. How ever, by 2030, car use within the city had decreased in favour of other modes, particularly public transport, and especially the personal rapid transit system. Nevertheless, indi viduals’ total travel and total travel by car in terms of distance (including journeys to destinations outside of Futuresville) have continued to increase. For freight, trends were also for increased volumes overall, and increased road freight in particular in 2005. There are now (2030) a number of urban freight centres on the

136 A. Jopson outskirts of Futuresville, and these are fed by heavy rail and road freight deliveries utilising the largest lorries. There is concern that combined with the twentieth-century out-of-town retail and industrial developments (many of which have taken on new uses), the twenty-first century is adding a ring of ugly warehouses, transfer and transhipment centres to cities, but a solution is not clear. As in many countries, road freight dominates, as attempts to shift freight to the railways are slow due to lack of capacity on the rail network, lack of network in some areas and problems (largely concerned with planning permission) developing feeder stations for road freight to be transferred onto the rail system and vice versa. Within Futuresville, freight is moved around using growing fleets of small delivery vehicles that complete the ‘last mile’ from the freight centres to the final destination. Just-in-time delivery has spread from industry to retail outlets as a result of the trend for more frequent changes in product ranges, increasing the demand for road freight trips. Another cause of increased freight trips is the growth in home shopping, as many citizens have at least some of their groceries delivered, as well as purchasing consumer products on line.

7.4 RETAIL LAND-USE PATTERNS AND CONSEQUENCES: 2005–2030 The changes in retail outlined above also affected the nature of retail land use across the city. In the centre, there is a focus on fashion, leisure, and luxury goods, with shopping promoted as a leisure activity. This trend is supported by pedestrianisation of the ‘old quarter’ in the centre of Futuresville and development of a high-quality urban environment, including green spaces, street cafes, seating, lighting, and outdoor entertainment areas. The old quarter is now a significant tourist attraction, as well as the place to be seen at the weekend for the city’s residents. By contrast, many of the out-of-town superstores are now converting large areas of their premises to freight logistics centres for their home delivery services, with just a small area at the front of the store set aside for conventional shopping. Only the largest regional shopping malls that incorporate restaurants, cinemas, gyms and other activities have survived. Increasingly, conventional retail areas in the old out-of-town supermarkets only sell fresh produce, as people have non-perishable goods delivered on a monthly basis. These changes mean that there is now surplus parking space at many out-of-town retail centres, and this is being converted to park-and-ride use with new tram services taking car drivers the ‘last mile’ to the city centre, or other employment centres in the city. These policies are supported by the re-introduction of disused tram stops to help make journeys as near to door-to-door as possible, and increase accessibility for those with mobility impairments, as well as re-segregation of the tracks to decrease journey times and restrict capacity for car traffic, making car journeys longer and less attractive. People using the park-and-ride services are also purchasing perishable goods from the supermarkets on a daily basis in some cases, representing a return to buying fresh produce daily. This trend is also helping neighbourhood grocery stores increase their trade, with new outlets selling the full range of fresh produce opening in residential areas, where traditional outlets had previously closed. This is facilitating short walking

A Land-Use – Transport Vision 137 trips, which is helping to maintain the modal share of this mode, as well as having positive effects in terms of community cohesion, social networks, and health.

7.5 POPULATION AND RESIDENTIAL TRENDS AND TRANSPORT IMPACTS: 2005–2030 These developments in passenger and freight transport, and retail patterns are grounded in changes in the population and urban development. In several EU countries, especially those who joined from 2004 onwards, the population is aging in 2030 as wealth has increased significantly since joining the EU, and birth rates are consequently dropping at the same time as better health and health care mean people are living longer. In other countries that had aging populations back in 2005, and now have a significantly higher proportion of retired citizens than young people, the birth rate has been reversed through the introduction of considerably more family friendly tax regimes and working practices. However, the EU as a whole has a declining population, but again there is considerable variation, as the population in many cities is growing due to development centres and residential trends. One cause of this is migration, as people move from poorer parts of Europe to development centres in the more wealthy regions that have more elderly people than citizens of working aging meaning there are more jobs than people able to fill them. Certainly, there are more households across Europe due to an increasing number of single person households as people marry later and live longer, with women continuing to live longer than men. Until 2015, the residential trends favoured suburban and out-of-town living, which partly arose from and partly generated urban sprawl. This has caused the longer commuting distances that are still experienced in 2030, but land-use planning to reduce car use and internalisation of external costs in car travel, which made car use less attractive for many, prompted a trend towards densification of cities and more urban living. Whilst the suburbs remain low rise, densification is through high-rise central development. All new developments are mixed use, including day-to-day public services for all sectors of the community, as well as retail and leisure. Employment remains focused in the city and district centres. Residential development also includes a range of properties suitable for different community groups, and policies are in place to promote change in this direction within older, more traditionally differentiated areas of the city. However, it is mainly the young who are living in our cities, with those with children still preferring the more spacious suburbs and out-of-town areas. Amongst older people, there is no dominant trend. Some prefer to stay in their suburban family homes, whilst others prefer to move back into the cities where travel distances are less. Despite densification and declining populations, car ownership and use are still increasing due to more older people driving, those in cities continuing to own cars to visit friends, family, and leisure destinations outside of cities, and households living in more rural areas owning multiple vehicles, since public transport is scarce in those areas. However, in Futuresville, as in other cities, car use is growing at a considerably reduced rate as public transport experiences a revival. Trends in freight transport though have not changed significantly, although the smaller vehicles used for the ‘last mile’ reduce the visual intrusion within

138 A. Jopson Futuresville. Noise, air pollution and general disruption from freight vehicles have also been reduced by performance-related pay, based on driving standards. Driving standards are monitored through more sophisticated tacographs.

7.6 POLLUTION AND VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY As a result of the excessive car use and road freight in 2005, atmospheric pollution was a significant problem in the city, with most citizens aware of the issue due to increasing prevalence of respiratory diseases, such as asthma, and visible smog on many days. The city authorities consequently introduced car-free Sundays every week to force reductions in car use. This solution was quicker and simpler to introduce than rationing through pricing but was only a short-term fix as car use on other days of the week continued to increase, especially around the outskirts of the city – already the area naturally most polluted with ozone – as park-and-ride and freight transfer sites developed. Some argued that car-free Sundays were not sufficiently radical as other European cities had already gone much further in restricting car use, but in Futuresville, the pollution problems were bad, but not so severe that the public would accept more drastic action. For one thing, Futuresville’s relatively flat topography allowed easy dispersion of air pollutants, although high-rise densification is creating canyons that prevent dispersion. In 2030, architectural experiments are underway to tackle the canyon effect, including air purifi cation systems that suck air into the empty (of people) top floor of a building, purify it, pipe it down to ground level, and release it. This creates a convection current taking polluted air away from the streets. Some are questioning the health impacts on those living and working in the upper floors of high-rise buildings and others the costs in terms of electricity consumption and climate change, although much electricity is now derived from non-carbon based resources. Simpler experiments include ‘tunnels’ or holes built into new buildings to allow air to circulate around the city rather than become trapped in canyons. These buildings are affectionately known as the ‘Swiss Cheese’ buildings, and some of the holes are becoming installation sites for public art. By 2030, within the central areas of the city, atmospheric and noise pollution have been reduced through improvements to public transport (the tram and heavy rail systems are electric, as is the new personal rapid transit network), pedestrianisation of district centres, and other reuse of roads as public spaces. The car-free Sundays continued, despite other initiatives being more effective in terms of reducing pollution in light of increased car use on other days. Strolling around the city became the popular thing to do on a Sunday, as citizens had come to appreciate the relaxed atmosphere and contact with friends and neighbours as they walked around. Sunday street markets had also started bringing economic and community benefits to the city. Road space has also been reduced in favour of tree-lined pavements with cafes and small market stalls selling fresh produce. Introduction of an extensive one-way system has allowed this reduction in road space, and the emphasis has been on urban design for peo ple, not cars, to achieve a liveable streetscape that has resulted in increased walking and cycling. Whilst these changes have improved citizens’ quality of life, it is other changes in

A Land-Use – Transport Vision 139 allocation of road space through pricing, regulation and design, mode choice, and vehicle technology that really contributed to reductions in air and noise pollution by 2030. Adoption of new vehicle technology for private cars and the road freight fleet was brought about through EU legislation, which forced the adoption of more fuel-efficient vehicles, and eventually, alternatively fuelled vehicles and the fuel supply infrastructure to run them. In 2030, nearly all private cars are electric hybrids, using batteries and either natural gas, or more commonly biofuels. Many fleet passenger vehicles (taxis and the few car club vehicles) operating within Futuresville are solely battery powered as are the ‘last mile’ fleets of small freight delivery vehicles. Additionally, there are several combined taxi, courier, and delivery firms operating purely within small areas of Futuresville, whose fleets use bicycle rickshaws. Long-distance freight vehicles are hybrids using the same power sources as private cars. The market for hydrogen fuelled vehicles is also beginning to take off.

7.7 DECISION-MAKING To achieve the reduction in rate of growth in car use experienced in Futuresville, and other cities, changes in many policies and processes have been necessary. Significant barriers to implementation were institutional issues, as the different players in the built environment (land-use planners, transport professionals, architects) continued to operate as separate professions, and regional and local city authorities failed to co-operate. How ever, EU directives combined with the facilitating efforts of national governments forced the different professions and levels of government to work together and harmonise their decision-making processes, and at the same time, directives forced change in financing and competition regulations that resulted in harmonisation across Europe and fewer barriers to developments that are in the public interest. Further, transport authorities across Europe were given (where they had previously lost it) the remit to specify fares and service levels provided by the private sector. The most prolific result of this was true integration. Transport developments now integrate modes and interchange facilities fully in high-quality urban environments, and land-use developments are always planned with accessibility for all individuals in mind. Furthermore, land-use, infrastructure, pricing, public transport, and attitudinal and behavioural elements are properly co-ordinated so that complementary measures are implemented as packages to achieve greater benefits. The way in which targets are set and strategies developed has also developed consider ably since 2005. Use of targets and their associated indicators is compulsory to mon itor progress against objectives and supply the local data that is disseminated through Futuresville.net, and the area-nets for other regions. Objectives, and the consequent targets, and indicators are guided by EU policy on sustainability, and by local needs. In 2030, Futuresville citizens and their representatives are always involved in decisionmaking, such that local views can stop plans, even when they meet planning regulations, on the basis that local people do not want the planned development. This local involve ment also includes citizens in strategy development, which is now a combination of the pragmatic plan-led approach that dominated previously, vision-led, and of course, consensus-led.

140 A. Jopson The involvement of citizens, land-use planners, architects, and the multiple public and private actors involved in transport means that there are often multiple views on what strategy should be followed. This has forced improvements in strategy impacts forecast ing. Advances in programming mean that land-use and transport models are now able to model all (economic, environmental, and social) impacts of strategies, including unex pected and secondary impacts. Models have also been standardised so that decisions in different cities are comparable, and the human interface has been improved such that model outputs can be understood by everybody. Decision-making was also helped by state-of-the-art appraisal processes from option generation through to impacts forecasting and strategy appraisal, as well as more exten sive public participation. Extensive research was undertaken to derive realistic monetary values for appropriate indicators across all areas of sustainability in the social cost– benefit analysis, and the few remaining qualitative criteria have been properly defined to reflect citizens’ perceptions. Thus, by 2030, appraisal processes are better able to take account of social justice and equity. Further, the indicators used in appraisal were revised and weighted to more accurately reflect sustainability objectives in the face of Global Warming, and society’s needs, and were harmonised across Europe, with differ ent levels of appraisal appropriate to different scales of project – small local initiatives up to trans-European schemes. As noted, decisions that affect communities are taken with those communities who are involved through conventional discussion groups, information technology based consul tation that allows visualisation of new designs, and SIM-city-like simulations to allow experimentation and consideration of long-term effects. The ‘SIM-city’ for Futuresville contains a database of all land-use and transport policy instruments available to decisionmakers. Decision-makers can find information on the performance of these instruments, and appropriate packages of for meeting a range of strategic objectives, and achieve full integration in different circumstances. Advice is also available on strategy devel opment and appraisal. Decision-makers can experiment with innovative instrument developments and combinations through the development programming function and set parameters for public consultation uses. In 2005, a range of Internet information services were available for decision-makers, but no combined information, modelling, and appraisal sites for specific cities had been developed. All land-use and transport pro fessionals are also fully conversant with the appraisal and public participation processes as ex-ante procedures. Residents, businesses, interest groups, and individuals contribute to both understanding of problems and development of solutions.

7.8 LAND-USE PLANNING, PERSONAL RAPID TRANSIT AND CHARGING IMPACTS In terms of land-use planning, and infrastructure provision, the key characteristics are that brownfield development has become the norm in Futuresville, and this has contributed to densification of the city. However, demand by citizens for retention of green space, and relatively low-rise development, in their city, means that densification has not been as great as policy setters may have desired beyond the city centre. In large

A Land-Use – Transport Vision 141 part, this may be due to conflicting pressures on parents who want gardens for their children to play in, in light of concerns over ‘stranger danger’. One benefit of pressure to ensure that green space is preserved is that the green belt around Futuresville is now strictly enforced as a result of increasingly vocal outcry from community groups in response to Greenbelt planning applications. However, development beyond the Green belt means that the belt is becoming an, all be it large, circular park with the city. Back in 2005 and for some years after that, it was not uncommon for the local authority to grant ‘exceptional planning permission’, allowing development within the Greenbelt. Many of these decisions were as a result of lobbying from development companies that could not afford the clean-up costs associated with Brownfield developments following introduc tion of the landfill tax. By 2030, however, cleansing technology was considerably more sophisticated and had reduced in cost sufficiently to be cost-effective. Thus, development within Futuresville was concentrated in the old industrial areas, where more and more space was becoming available as labour costs forced remaining manufacturers and call centres to shift their operations overseas. Despite development in Futuresville being less dense than policy-makers had hoped for, the utilisation of brownfield sites means that the city has shifted towards maximum housing density and minimum parking standards (as discussed below), although there is still some way to go due to the slow rate at which land-use changes. High-rise development has been possible in the city centre, and prestigious mixed-use developments have appeared, some utilising old historic buildings and areas as a focal point. Many of these new high-rise buildings are also linked by an elevated personal rapid transit system. The infrastructure takes the pods (carriages for individuals and small groups that operate individually rather than in a linked chain) directly into residential, office, and retail buildings, with access/egress sites integrated with the lift areas for access to other floors of the building. Many existing buildings have also been converted to link into the personal rapid transit network, which also integrates into the conventional public transport system at interchanges. The network started by linking new buildings and development quarters in and around the city centre and spirals outwards to link residential neighbourhoods into the system. The infrastructure spirals out from the centre to help fill in the gaps in the pre-existing public transport network, which is dominated by radial routes, thus public transport journeys within the city are becoming easier. As the personal rapid transit system moves out of the city, it also begins to operate at lower elevations, so that it is at ground level or subterranean in residential areas, usually with termini in neighbourhood centres. Often these termini and sometimes part of the network are hidden underground in residential areas or where valuable green space needs to be traversed. In residential areas, the access/egress lifts serving the termini provide direct access to local shops and amenities, by taking passengers straight into the buildings they wish to access. The public network and its individual pods have become very popular with young people, families travelling into the city (as some pods can take up to six people), and those with mobility impairments since the system provides physically accessible access to many buildings. The pods can also be called from any stop at any time, allowing ‘private’ transport on demand, but without the need for individual ownership of vehicles.

142 A. Jopson Car-free developments envisaged at the end of the 1990s have generally not taken off due to need for car ownership to access out-of-town destinations. It was thought that car clubs based in these developments would facilitate short-term hire arrangements on demand, which could provide access to vehicles without individual ownership. However, these clubs were generally unpopular because demand at certain times of day (evenings and weekends, when employees were not at work) was often such that cars could not be supplied on demand without large fleets, but the overall demand was insufficient to support such fleets. Despite this, young people and older people who generally cannot afford to buy modern cars that meet new legislated standards appreciated the car clubs since they provided access to such vehicles. Since these groups of people are more able to travel off-peak, a few car clubs have survived in areas with high populations of young and/or older citizens. Generally though, the reduced cost of owning a car after taxation was transferred to the point of use when external costs were internalised through the introduction of distancebased road-user charging around 2015 also mitigated against car clubs, as owning a vehicle but only using it for some trips became efficient since a more level playing field was created between modes. Further, city charging was introduced so that all car drivers had to pay an additional charge to drive into and around Futuresville, with a further charge for the central area. All drivers heading into or travelling around Futuresville, whether using a car owned by somebody else or a car club vehicle as opposed to owning their own, have to pay the charge. Only those with disabilities that prevent use of the now fully accessible public transport and personal rapid transit system are exempt. The only means of avoiding the city charge was to drive out of Futuresville. Through GPS, vehicles taking a direct, outbound route from their base out to the green belt for all journeys were exempt from the city charge. Initially, many citizens signed up for this agreement, but over time, its impact has faded, and there is speculation that this exemption will be removed.

7.9 RECLAIMING THE STREETS: PARKING AND TRAFFIC CALMING IMPACTS The increased population brought about through densification of the city and the reduced cost of car ownership both accelerated growth in car ownership within Futuresville, and this in turn created an overwhelming parking problem around 2015. The cost of city centre parking was increased to deter car use for journeys into the city back at the beginning of the twenty-first century, and costs continued rising in line with car use but with little impact as businesses absorbed the cost of employees and visitors parking charges, including the workplace parking levy that was introduced. This did dampen the economy, but in the long term, the effect has not been significant. No stopping/parking zones and permit only areas were introduced in residential and business districts, but over time, parking became an unenforceable free for all as people refused to park miles from their destination. Some businesses even paid parking charges incurred by senior executives. This was promoted as a perk as company cars were in the past. Eventually, drastic measures were needed and funded through revenue from the roaduser charging system. Subterranean and stack parking systems were constructed around

A Land-Use – Transport Vision 143 the city, including residential areas. The residents of Futuresville have had to get used to not parking outside their door. In many areas of Futuresville, on-street parking is now illegal to make space for other road space uses outlined previously and to preserve the high-quality environment that has been created. However, charges for parking spaces are not cheap, and this has slowed the rate of growth in car ownership. Cost of and distance to allotted parking spaces is now a key residential, business and letting property sales feature. In residential areas, removal of on-street parking and traffic calming to decrease traf fic speeds helped residents reclaim their streets. Streets are one-way and tree-lined as described previously, and children are able to play in the streets again, making highdensity living more feasible. Whilst many families still prefer the suburbs as noted previously, even these are growing in density, and more people are beginning to choose inner city living. The traffic calming in Futuresville looks very different to the cumbersome physical restric tions of the early twenty-first century. By 2030, all vehicles come with integral speed limiters and route guidance systems as standard. All cars were fitted with a computerbased GPS database of road speed limits, which when combined with location informa tion was used to prevent the vehicle from exceeding speed limits. The city authorities had the ability to change speed limits, and even close streets according to local needs and lower speeds per se had become the norm. Thus, residential streets often had lim its as low as 15 kilometer per hour, and during the school holidays this was lowered on some streets, at certain times of day, or in some cases streets were closed to traffic. The route guidance system was able to respond to partial or complete access restrictions, as well as congestion, and parking availability information. This was also used to route and divert traffic during events and emergencies, as well as the GPS providing the information needed to operate the charging systems described elsewhere. An unforeseen benefit of the GPS system was also the significant decrease in car theft because it was possible for owners to monitor the whereabouts of their vehicle when not in use. Car crime was further reduced to the point of being extremely rare by the introduction of biometrics to unlock vehicles and to activate the ignition.

7.10 2030 UPDATE ON CONVENTIONAL PUBLIC TRANSPORT, CAR-FREE CELLS AND LAND-USE PLANNING In terms of conventional public transport, the tram system in Futuresville has been upgraded, as outlined previously. The heavy rail system has been slimmed down with uneconomic lines and/or services into the rural hinterland and beyond being cut. This has allowed greater investment in remaining infrastructure and services allowing more frequent and reliable services, as well as greater physical accessibility to the system, and integration with the rest of the transport network. Heavy rail is now predominantly an intercity mode. In most cases, the suburban parts of the heavy rail system that were cut have been absorbed into the tram network, with park-and-ride added at the outskirts of the city for those who need to drive in from satellite towns and villages. As with the

144 A. Jopson personal rapid transit and residential parking, some of the park-and-ride sites around Futuresville are hidden underground. The bus network has experienced most change. Patronage was declining rapidly at the start of the twenty-first century as passengers would rather sit in their own vehicles if they were going to be forced to sit in a traffic jam almost regardless of mode choice. As a consequence, segregated lanes, which on radial corridors often have guideways to facilitate faster journeys, have been created where there is no tram, or the remain ing heavy rail services suffer overcrowding. Elsewhere, bus services have been cut as the more popular personal rapid transit system that runs 24 hours a day has been phased in. Implementation of segregated bus lanes, re-segregation of the tram tracks, and intro duction of the one-way system for cars have been combined with creation of car-free cells. These often have new development quarters at their centre. These changes to the car network mean that driving around the centre of Futuresville has become more time consuming, and therefore unpopular, especially since the cost increases significantly near the centre. As a consequence, car use in the city centre is increasingly rare, although it is as prolific as ever elsewhere. Within Futuresville, the city’s taxi fleet continues to fill any remaining gaps in the supply of other modes. However, the introduction of the personal rapid transit system means that the taxi fleet is considerably smaller than in the past, and is mainly used by visitors, and for unique special needs journeys funded by the local authority to maintain accessibility for everybody. The changes to the public transport system, and land-use planning decisions discussed above, mean that Futuresville has shifted away from built-in car domination to be a more sustainable, public transport, walking and cycling orientated city. Investment in the city’s transport system from the public transport outlined here to the pricing and parking infrastructure has largely been through public–private partnerships. The diversity of arrangements and degree of privatisation is extremely complex, but overall, provision is of a higher standard than could be provided solely through public funding without unacceptably high taxes.

7.11 PROVISION FOR WALKING AND CYCLING Walking and cycling have both benefited from the changes to the public transport network. Segregated cycle lanes and wider footpaths have been installed, and green routes for cyclists and pedestrians have been created from unofficial footpaths dotted around the city. These routes also take cycle and pedestrian routes out into the satellite towns and villages. Walking and cycling routes are more comfortable with smooth, non-slip surfaces, and more space. Further, the seating, trees, and market stalls cited previously have given routes additional purpose and made them more attractive, and thus, use has increased. Consequently, perceived personal safety has also increased. Street cafes and increased late-night shopping also add purpose to pedestrian areas, increasing the number of

A Land-Use – Transport Vision 145 people out and about later into the evening, further increasing personal safety. Pedestrian and cycle routes are fully integrated into the transport system, linking all residential areas to destinations and destinations to each other, increasing accessibility in terms of ability to reach destinations. Pedestrian routes are also wide enough for wheelchair use and link with public transport access/egress points on a level, so increasing accessibility for those with mobility impairments, parents with buggies, and those travelling with luggage. Much use of cycle facilities is for leisure purposes, but there is a growing group of longer distance cycle commuters. Growth in this area has been helped by provision of secure cycle storage units, with showers and other facilities around the city centre. Many of these facilities are underground, often under key buildings or public transport termini so that employees only need take the lift up into their building, or to transport interchanges. Despite these changes, cycling remains a minority mode. The changes have really only brought back cyclists who stopped due to safety concerns when the city centre was congested with cars; it has not recruited significant numbers of new cyclists for non-leisure journeys.

7.12 PRICING AND ATTITUDINAL AND BEHAVIOURAL MEASURES Other significant policies that have been successfully implemented by 2030 include pric ing (potentially, the most significant change), information measures, and travel demand management using a range of attitudinal and behavioural measures. With regard to pricing, all car use is now paid for at point of use through road-user charging, with charges paid via GPS tracking systems and direct debit mandates to the collection agency. Transition to the system was not easy due to lack of public acceptability. Transferring costs from ownership to point of use only became widely acceptable once improved public transport provision was in place, and financial regulations were changed to allow hypothecation of revenue to transport investment (it has helped to fund the personal rapid transit system), but use of GPS tracking was unpopular due to concerns over a ‘big brother’ state. However, the system was introduced early in some EU countries, particularly the new member states who were working on upgrading their road systems anyway, and success in those countries increased acceptability elsewhere. Whilst it was possible to convince a sufficient portion of the public that road-user charg ing was essential to gain the critical mass of public acceptability to progress, convincing the business community was less easy. Leisure and tourism and retail businesses whose activities would benefit from the enhanced environment road-user charging would create through reduced congestion, pollution, and noise combined with better public trans port could be convinced of the case for pricing reforms, including workplace parking levies, but other businesses were more reticent. Consequently, legislation was also used to require the introduction of road-user charging and workplace parking levies, thus forcing change.

146 A. Jopson Legislation was initially at the EU level, stipulating a period over which pricing reform should be phased in, and consequently, some EU countries adopted the legislation and introduced the new pricing regimes before others. As with a group of people, some countries were more willing to take risks and innovate than others, who made changes at the last minute when they had no choice. Those who introduced pricing reforms first did experience economic downturn as businesses transferred their effort and activities to countries where the status quo could be maintained, thus avoiding the costs of change reducing profit margins. However, people did benefit from the enhanced environment that arose from the reduced congestion and pollution following introduction of road-user charging, and tourism-related industries bucked the economic downturn, as holidaymakers found the enhanced environment attractive as a destination. This helped to ease the pain of pricing reform. As pricing reform is now implemented throughout the EU, a new equilibrium has been achieved. Businesses have returned to countries and cities they left initially, tourism is more evenly distributed (although natural, historical, and artificial attractions assert their usual pull), and there is more local provision of goods and services throughout the EU as transport costs have become a more significant concern in business location. Businesses had been concerned that charging would make neighbouring cities more attractive to other businesses, tourists, and shoppers, believing that drivers would be priced off the road, and would not transfer to public transport (since traditionally this was perceived as a second class mode by many), even with the introduction of personal rapid transport (as many traditionalists thought this would be a white elephant), especially since they felt that traffic calming and restrictions had already worsened their competitive position. Whilst legislation was used to force change, a need to improve communication systems to provide the general public and businesses with the full set of information behind media stories was perceived. Thus, the Futuresville.net (described below) and infor mation technology systems developed to allow participation in the decision-making processes were extended and combined to take in up to date, real world business and socio-demographic data from across the EU, so that Futuresville knows how it is per forming in relation to other cities. The data allows businesses to view developments and innovate to ensure they stay ahead. The data also allows local authorities to monitor accessibility and social inclusion indicators, to spot potential exclusion problems, and take appropriate remedial action, as well as monitoring environmental data as they have for many decades. The data collection is automatically funded by the EU, national and local government, and is freely available to all. Residents, businesses, and interest groups can analyse raw data via software on Futuresville.net, or purchase analysis from the local authority. The fair, level playing field between modes created by payment at point of use for all means of transport is now widely accepted amongst the general public, who responded by engaging with personalised journey planning programmes and work/school travel plans to help them change their travel patterns to make more use of existing public transport they were unfamiliar with. These attitudinal and behavioural measures were

A Land-Use – Transport Vision 147 also used to support the implementation of new public transport facilities, especially the personal rapid transit system, to help people learn how to use the new systems. Despite this, car use does continue in Futuresville, especially since businesses started to absorb costs. For example, payment of an employee’s road-user and parking charges became a perk, and visitors’ costs were also covered. Thus, the aforementioned city charge was introduced in 2025 to reinforce road-user and parking charges. Businesses were not charged, even for employees’ business trips, since the charge was aimed directly at passenger transport, not freight. For work-related trips, employees had to pay the charge and claim it back from their employer. In this way, employers became aware of the amount of personal travel they subsidised and phased out the perk. Long-term acceptability of charging within Futuresville has been the ability to make pricing responsive. Pricing of road space, including the city charge, parking spaces, and public transport is all responsive to congestion levels, atmospheric and noise pollution levels, and the economy. Typically, road and parking space charges are raised when pollution and congestion levels are high, or when they are expected to become high, for example, during special events, summer time when levels of atmospheric ozone are higher, rush hour, etc. Charges can also be reduced as the cities’ economic performance suggests a need to attract more investors, visitors, and shoppers to the city, thus main taining a means of continued competition between locations. Revenue for projects is recouped, and pollution balanced out at other times when the economy can sustain higher charges. Walking and cycling are the only completely free modes within Futuresville, with the infrastructure provision and maintenance subsidised by road-user charging and parking charging, as well as general taxation when necessary. Public transport charges are always lower than road-user charges, and they are capped so that users know the maximum they will have to pay. However, changes to public transport charges are usually temporary decreases at times when there is a particular need to reduce car use. Those who buy season tickets are immune to price fluctuations within the period of their ticket. However, this means that season ticket holders do not benefit from price reductions, so most people buy tickets at the point of use. Since all tickets must be purchased in advance of boarding the vehicle through newsagents, market stall vendors, Futuresville.net, or ticket machines at stops and stations, purchase at time of use does not cause delays as passengers board vehicles. Negative impacts on those who may suffer social exclusion as a result of higher charges are avoided by providing citizens receiving social support with a card that caps the price they must pay for road space, parking spaces, and public transport regardless of price changes. Within this, individuals are still charged more for road and parking space than public transport, but they retain the choice of which to use. Given the reduced sunk costs of buying a car, many people receiving social support can if they feel it is essential manage to own a car for journeys when public transport is not practical, but with urban public transport improvements, such journeys are small in number, so many choose to hire a car when they need one. This has helped the survival of car clubs in some areas with a high population of residents with a low income.

148 A. Jopson

7.13 INFORMATION Information measures have also helped the transition to new travel patterns. All public transport is supported by real time audio and visual information at access/egress points in the network. The information is also available via the Internet, mobile phones, and the citywide Intranet. Futuresville.net is an Intranet that residents, employees, and businesses in the city can connect to, to obtain information on transport, and many other events, activities, and services in the city. It is also key to the new public participation systems used by planners and decision-makers. It was also hoped that Futuresville.net would reduce congestion and pollution by reduc ing the need to travel in a number of ways. Health and social services can be accessed via the net allowing online diagnosis, consultation, counselling, and booking of services in many cases. The education sector also provides online courses that reduce the need for travel, as do the shopping portals provided for local stores. These services have provided significant benefits in accessibility terms, but they have not replaced travel – they have merely changed the journeys people are making. For those who found travel difficult due to physical mobility difficulties, mental health, visual or hearing impairments, the services have brought many opportunities into their homes. For those receiving social security benefits who could not afford Internet access in their own homes, social services either subsidised or met all the costs since this proved more cost-effective than providing supported transport services. However, many now question whether those in receipt of such services now have better health (due to better access to medical services and supermarket shopping), but a poorer quality of life due to isolation if their disability means they cannot find work. Less physical transport also reduces the amount of exercise intrinsic to an individual’s life. Conclusive evidence on this has not been compiled, but it is a new problem that authorities are taking seriously, since amongst the wider population, online services have merely been used to avoid functional trips and replace them with more pleasurable activities, but these still involve getting out and about. People are naturally sociable and have an innate desire to get out and about, experience movement, be in touch with the natural environment and for some, experience new things, as well as be co-present. Thus, people spend less time travelling for functional purposes, for example, trips to obtain services, but more time visiting friends and family, getting out into the countryside, visiting art galleries, the cinema, or theatre where experiences are shared for example. This need, to be in touch with our environment and people, may go some way to explaining the development of local stores selling fresh produce that people now visit frequently whilst purchasing non-perishable goods online. Similarly, some online education services have failed as students wanted co present interaction with other students and their tutors, and consequently, social services have had to reintroduce some access to education transport services. Further, there has been a backlash against online health services as lack of co-present interaction has resulted in lack of understanding between patients and doctors, and misdiagnosis in some cases. Futuresville.net has retained an important role in information provision to

A Land-Use – Transport Vision 149 ensure patients, their friends and relatives are fully informed about particular conditions, and the options available to them, but diagnosis and treatment are face-to-face.

7.14 FUTURESVILLE 2030, BETTER OR WORSE? The combined effect of the trends and policy measures outlined here has been to solve many of the environmental, social, and economic sustainability problems that existed in 2005. Atmospheric and noise pollution in the city has been significantly reduced as car traffic has been removed (and that remaining uses quieter, cleaner technology) and replaced by the personal rapid transit system that has no point of use pollution since the system is electrical. This also makes it quiet. Electricity generation is not yet based wholly on renewable resources, so there is pollution associated with the system, but non-renewable, imported energy consumption has been reduced, which at least increases security of energy supply. Some in Futuresville believe the visual intrusion of new high-rise buildings and the elevated personal rapid transit infrastructure to be a serious problem. However, the social cost–benefit analysis indicates that the system has positive benefits, and opposition is declining. Indeed, many who benefit from the increased social inclusion, and accessibility, as well as those whose green spaces and public spaces have been preserved favour the changes that have been brought about in Futuresville. Removal of the severe congestion that pervaded the city by 2010 has also been viewed favourably by the majority, and it has positive economic benefits. For businesses, goods and customers are no longer stuck in traffic jams, and employees’ and customers’ health has improved in terms of reduced stress and fewer illnesses caused by pollution. Indeed, there has been a net benefit in environmental, social, and economic sustainability. The changes in institutional arrangements that brought land-use and transport planners together with architects, also brought these groups together with health, education, business, and leisure sector decision-makers. As a consequence, solutions to many social exclusion problems (e.g., areas of multiple deprivation, exclusion of the young, old, and disabled, as well as those with lower incomes) have been found, be they transport or non-transport solutions. Examples of successes include the personal rapid transit system drawing all areas of Futuresville into the public transport network, accessible public transport and interchange, provision of key amenities in all neighbourhood centres, and removal of food deserts through changes in retail patterns as described.

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Part III

Policy Assessment

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 8 Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development Kari Lautso and Michael Wegener

8.1 INTRODUCTION PROPOLIS (Planning and Research for Land Use and Transport for Increasing Urban Sustainability) was a transnational research project conducted in the Key Action ‘City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage’ of the Fifth Framework Programme of Research and Technology Development of the European Union (EU). The objective of the PROPOLIS project was to research, develop and test land use and transport policies and assessment methodologies in order to find sustainable long-term urban strategies and to demonstrate their effects. Indicators were developed for measuring the environmental, social and economic dimen sions of sustainability. Values for these indicators were calculated using advanced urban land use and transport models and new geographical information system (GIS) modules. A decision-support tool was developed to evaluate the indicator values to arrive at single aggregate environmental, social and economic indices describing the policy options. The system was used to analyse policy options in seven European cities using three different land use and transport models. The results showed that, with growing traffic, environ mental sustainability deteriorates in all case cities. Also, social sustainability tends to deteriorate. The aim was to find policies that could simultaneously improve all three dimensions of sustainability. This aim was best achieved by using policy combinations, that is, push and pull measures consisting of car pricing policies and simultaneous improvements of public transport through reduced fares and better speed and service and supporting land use policies. Adopting the above policy packages led to a 15—20% reduction in CO2 emissions, an 8—17% reduction in traffic accidents and often to reductions in exposure to noise, 153

154 K. Lautso and M. Wegener pollutants and time spent in traffic. Also the accessibility to the city centre and services was improved. The socio-economic benefits were Euro 1000–3000 per inhabitant for the assessment period.

8.2 STATE OF THE ART OF LAND USE, TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT MODELLING That urban land use and transport are closely inter-linked is common wisdom among planners and the public. That the spatial separation of human activities creates the need for travel and goods transport is the underlying principle of transport analysis and forecasting. Following this principle, it is easily understood that the suburbanisation of cities is connected with increasing spatial division of labour and increasing mobility. However, the reverse impact from transport to land use is less well known. There is some vague understanding that the evolution from the dense urban fabric of medieval cities, where almost all daily mobility was on foot, to the vast expansion of modern metropolitan areas with their massive volumes of intraregional traffic would not have been possible without the development of first the railway and later the private automo bile, which has made every corner of the metropolitan area almost equally suitable as a place to live or work. However, exactly how the development of the transport system influences the location decisions of landlords, investors, firms and households is not clearly understood even by many urban planners. The recognition that trip and location decisions co-determine each other and that there fore transport and land use planning need to be co-ordinated led to the notion of the ‘land-use transport feedback cycle’. The set of relationships implied by this term can be briefly summarised as follows (Figure 8.1):

Figure 8.1: The ‘land-use transport feedback cycle’

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 155 • The distribution of land uses, such as residential, industrial or commercial, over the urban area determines the locations of human activities such as living, work ing, shopping, education or leisure. • The distribution of human activities in space requires spatial interactions or trips in the transport system to overcome the distance between the locations of activities. • The distribution of infrastructure in the transport system creates opportunities for spatial interactions and can be measured as accessibility. • The distribution of accessibility in space co-determines location decisions and so results in changes of the land use system. Predicting the impacts of land use and transport policies is a difficult task due to the multitude of concurrent changes of system variables. There are three groups of methods to predict those impacts. The first one is to ask people about their anticipated reaction to changes, such as increased transport costs or land use restrictions (‘stated preference’). The second possibility is to draw conclusions from empirically observed behaviour of people (‘revealed preference’). The third comprises mathematical models to simulate human decision-making and its consequences. All three methods have their advantages and disadvantages. Surveys can reveal also subjective factors of location and mobility decisions, however, their respondents can only make conjectures about how they would behave in still unknown situations, and the validity of such conjectures is uncertain. Empirical studies based on observation of behaviour produce detailed and reliable results; these, however, are valid only for existing situations and are therefore not suited for the assessment of novel yet untested policies. In addition, it is usually not possible to associate the observed changes of behaviour unequivocally with specific causes because in reality several determining factors change at the same time. Mathematical models are also based on empirical surveys or observations. The difference is that the conclusions to be drawn from the surveys and observations are quantified. Mathematical models represent the most important causal relationships between urban change processes and how they are influenced by policy interventions in mathemati cal terms. By changing the policy variables, the models can be used as test beds to examine the likely impacts of policies before they are actually implemented. The results of mathematical models are no more universally valid than those of empirical studies but are only valid for situations which are similar to those for which their parameters were estimated. Nevertheless, it is possible to transfer human behaviour represented in mathematical models within certain limits to still unknown situations. In addition, mathematical models are the only method by which the effects of individual determining factors can be analysed by keeping all other factors fixed. The urgency of the environmental debate has renewed the interest in integrated models of urban land use and transport. A number of integrated urban land-use transport (LT) systems are in use today (Wegener, 2004). There are significant variations among the models with respect to overall structure, comprehensiveness and theoretical foundations, modelling techniques, dynamics, data requirements and model calibration. The number

156 K. Lautso and M. Wegener of real-world applications of integrated urban LT models has increased steadily over the last two decades. However, urban modellers have for a long time ignored ecological aspects of the pro cesses simulated in their models. Existing LT models are being augmented by environ mental submodels to become land-use transport environment (LTE) models. Yet today there exist no full-scale urban LTE models in the world. The first efforts to extend LT models to LTE models have concentrated on environmental impacts of land use and transport and ignored the opposite direction, the impact of environmental variables on location decisions of investors, firms and households. There are different approaches to incorporate environmental impacts and feedbacks into urban LT models. Environmental submodels require a higher spatial resolution than zone-based LT models. In PROPOLIS, the results of the land use models are spatially disaggregated for post-processing by the environmental submodels in the Raster module (see Section 8.4.2).

8.3 THE PROPOLIS APPROACH The objective of PROPOLIS (Lautso et al., 2004) was to research, develop and test integrated land use and transport policies, tools and comprehensive assessment method ologies in order to define sustainable long-term urban strategies and to demonstrate their effects in European cities. With its approach, methodologies and tools, PROPOLIS tried to answer the question of what urban policies should be adopted in order to stop the deteriorating trend of sustainability (Figure 8.2). PROPOLIS views urban sustainability from three perspectives – environmental, social and economic. Each of these dimensions was divided into themes, and each theme comprises a set of indicators (Table 8.1).

Level of sustainability PROPOLIS goal Continuation of existing policies Do nothing

2000

2020

Time

Figure 8.2: The PROPOLIS goal is to define urban policies that could maintain the current level of sustainability

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 157 Table 8.1: The PROPOLIS indicators Theme

Indicator

Environmental dimension Global climate change Greenhouse gases from transport Air pollution Acidifying gases from transport Volatile organic compounds from transport Consumption of natural sources Consumption of mineral oil products, transport Land coverage Need for new construction Environmental quality Fragmentation of open space Quality of open space Social dimension Health Exposure to particulate matter from transport in the living environment Exposure to nitrogen dioxide from transport in the living environment Exposure to traffic noise Traffic deaths Traffic injuries Equity Justice of distribution of economic benefits Justice to exposure to particulates Justice of exposure to nitrogen dioxides Justice of exposure to noise Segregation Opportunities Housing standard Vitality of city centre Vitality of surrounding region Productivity gain from land use Accessibility and traffic Total time spend in traffic Level of service of PT and slow modes Accessibility to city centre Accessibility to services Accessibility to open space Economic dimension Total net benefit from transport Investment costs Transport user benefits Transport operator benefits Government benefits from transport Transport external accident costs Transport external emissions cost Transport external greenhouse gases Transport external noise costs

Unit

Weight %

acid eq./1000 inh./year tons/1000 inh./year

216 216 225 132 93

tons/1000 inh./year

343 147

CO2 eq./1000 inh./year

per cent of area annual growth in percentage index index

111 85 216 134 82

percentage of population

376 75

percentage of population

59

percentage of population deaths/1 000 000 inh./year injured/1 000 000 inh./year justice index justice index justice index justice index GINI-index percentage of overcrowded households index index per cent/year h/inhabitant/year min/trip min/trip min/trip min/trip

Euro/capita Euro/capita Euro/capita Euro/capita Euro/capita Euro/capita Euro/capita Euro/capita

67 106 70 230 51 44 43 42 50 164 48 31 31 54 230 46 58 40 46 41

158 K. Lautso and M. Wegener Indicators under each dimension and its themes are used to measure the state of sustainability for a set of policy options. In addition to indicators, a set of background variables was defined to help understand and illustrate the impacts of the tested policies. Most of the indicators are self-explanatory. Justice indicators measure the distribution of effects between different socio-economic groups using optional theories of justice, such as Rawlsian, utilitarian and egalitarian, which have been operationalised by presenting them in mathematical form. Vitality indicators measure the relative change in number of inhabitants and services in the city centre and the surrounding region. Productivity gain of land use describes the accessibility to work places from other work places, which is related to the economic efficiency and productivity of the urban region. Detailed descrip tions and mathematical definitions for the indicators can be found in the PROPOLIS report (Lautso et al., 2004). Indicator values are based on integrated land use and transport model outputs which are further processed with tools developed for disaggregation of data, economic evaluation, decision-making support and presentation of results. This PROPOLIS system was used to identify and measure the effects of the policy options offering the most potential. The policy options examined were mainly based on a literature review and on the project partners’ experience. Policy combinations were formed from the individual policies to obtain cumulative positive effects. The PROPOLIS approach, process and system are illustrated in Figure 8.3.

8.4 PROPOLIS METHODOLOGIES AND TOOLS The analytical framework of PROPOLIS consists of the databases, models and tools of the PROPOLIS modelling system presented in Figure 8.3. Inputs to the modelling system are policy packages, GIS databases and model databases. Policy packages to be tested are transformed to ‘model language’ by changing some of the model parameters or the model database. GIS databases contain spatial data on zonal boundaries, road and public transport networks, land use categories, etc. All LT models are GIS-based, that is, each model zone and each model link is represented in the GIS database.

8.4.1 Land-Use Transport Models In the modelling part, LT models are the driving engines of the system. In PROPOLIS, there are three different LT models, each somehow different with respect to theory, issues modelled and output generated: • The MEPLAN model developed by Marcial Echenique & Partners, Cambridge, UK (Echenique and Williams, 1980; Hunt and Simmonds, 1993), • The TRANUS model developed by de la Barra (1982, 1989), • The model of the Dortmund region developed at the University of Dortmund (Wegener, 1982, 1998).

Alternative Futures

Strategies, Policies

Economic, Demographic Lifestyles, etc.

Land use, transport, pricing, fiscal, investment

Databases GIS, model

Models three types in seven cities

Indicators Environmental Social, Economic Background variables Maps, Tables, Graphs

Evaluation Decision-support tool, sustainability indices, analysis, presentation and internet tools

The PROPOLIS system

Identification of negative side effects, combination and refinement of policies

IRPUD

Raster, GIS, Internet

Replanning of policies, strategies

Helsinki Metropolitan Region

Tools/modules

Satisfactory results? Comparisons with goals and benchmarks. Inter-city comparisons yes

Evidenced Recommendations and Conclusions General and city-specific

Figure 8.3: The PROPOLIS approach, process and system

no

Client Partner input

The PROPOLIS process

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 159

Population disturbed by traffic noise 29.2 Percent of total population 28.8 Percent of SEG1 29.0 Percent of SEG2 31.1 Percent of SEG3

… < 41 dB(A) 41 – 44 dB(A) 44 – 47 dB(A) 47 – 50 dB(A) 50 – 53 dB(A) 53 – 56 dB(A) 56 – 59 dB(A) 59 – 62 dB(A) 62 – 65 dB(A) 65 – 68 dB(A) 68 < …dB(A)

160 K. Lautso and M. Wegener The LT models simulate the effects of the policies in terms of changing zonal activities such as population or employment and changing mobility pattern that result in different modal splits and different link loads. A range of indicator modules receives the output of the LT models and calculates raw values of sustainability indicators.

8.4.2 The Raster Module The Raster module provides indicators for the environmental and social component of sustainability by introducing a disaggregate raster-based representation of space for those indicators that require a higher spatial resolution. In the Raster module, the land use pattern within the zones is disaggregated to 100 m × 100 m raster cells using GIS land use information in order to permit the calculation of air quality, noise intrusion and other environmental indicators by raster cells. As the resident population of each raster cell is known, the percentage of population by zone and socio-economic group affected by environmental impacts can be calculated (Figure 8.4).

8.4.3 Economic Evaluation The backbone of the economic assessment is represented by the application of a cost– benefit analysis on the transport side, complemented by other indicators accounting for the distribution of costs and benefits and the regional change in competitiveness induced

Noise differences 000–21vs. 000–01 in dB(A) < – 12 –12 – –9 –9 – –6 –6 – –3 –3 – 0 0 0–3 3–6 6–9 9 – 12 12 < 5 km

Figure 8.4: Sample output from the Raster module: noise level differences between the reference scenario (2021) and the current situation (2001) in 100 m × 100 m cells allowing to calculate the number of inhabitants by socio-economic group exposed to different noise levels

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 161

Indicator weights Theme weights Environmental index Policy alternatives

Figure 8.5: The USE-IT evaluation tool used to assign weights for the indicators and to calculate the environmental and social indices for the policies by the adoption of a policy. The assessment is performed by the Economic Indicator Module tool, which provides a coherent set of indicators summed up to a synthetic Economic Index (EEEI), which represents the net present value of the socio-economic savings per capita.

8.4.4 Assessment of Sustainability The assessment of sustainability takes place in the USE-IT module. In the USE-IT module, the indicator values are evaluated, that is, converted to utility values, and weighted (see Figure 8.5). The evaluation and weighting process results in a single sustainability index for each dimension of sustainability. This index summarises a vast amount of data from the 100 m × 100 m raster cells. The USE-IT module makes the comparisons between policies easy and illustrative and can be operated through the Internet by different groups or by the public. To test the system, PROPOLIS used weights that were discussed and given by the city planning authorities and experts, as resources for wider discussion with the public were not available. Some sensitivity analyses showed however that – although the weights and so the values of different groups were identical – the different groups could still agree on the best policy option. The module can thus also be used as a tool for systematic conflict resolution.

8.4.5 Presentation There is a strong focus on clear, graphical presentation of data in all tools developed in PROPOLIS. The model-specific tools use GIS and three-dimensional mapping techniques to show spatial variations and to highlight patterns and trends in background variables. The high-resolution mapping in the Raster module pinpoints localised effects and inter actions. In addition, a special Analysis and Presentation tool facilitates rapid comparison between policies and between cities. The focus on graphical presentation helps to max imise productivity and to promote understanding throughout the PROPOLIS modelling and analysis process.

162 K. Lautso and M. Wegener

8.5 POLICY TESTING USING THE PROPOLIS SYSTEM The PROPOLIS system was applied to seven case cities Helsinki, Dortmund, Inverness, Naples, Vicenza, Bilbao and Brussels (Figure 8.6). The three different land use and transport model types used ensured that the results are not model-specific. All data were harmonised in order to produce comparable results. The list of policies tested in all case cities included one reference scenario, 16 individual policies and three policy combinations (Table 8.2). In addition, each test city had a set of locally tested policies defined in co-operation with national authorities. The selection of the common policies was mainly based on a literature review, the partners’ experience and the preliminary tests made. The definition of the combinations was based on the results of the simulation of sin gle policies. The policies tested were grouped under the following themes: investment policies, car pricing, regulation, public transport, land use and policy combinations. The reference scenario was defined as the most likely or business-as-usual scenario and served as benchmark for comparison between the policy scenarios.

Figure 8.6: The PROPOLIS case cities

Table 8.2: Description of policies and policy combinations, time table for implementation Policy Type

Base Investment policies Pricing

Code

222

Regulation

Public transport

Land use policies

231 232 311 321 411 412 421 511 521 541

Combined policies

711 712 713

Base year: 2001.

Reference scenario Local investment plans Car operating costs +25% Car operating costs +50% Car operating costs +100% Car operating costs +75% Parking price increase, +20/10 min time value in/around city centre

Parking price increase, +60/30 min time value in/around city centre

Cordon pricing, +20 min time value Cordon pricing, +60 min time value Max speed – 10% on all road network Max speed – 20% on other than motorway and main roads PT travel time −10% PT travel time −5% PT fares −50% Increase housing density in city centre Concentrate the expansion of the residential/tertiary at rail stations Concentrate the expansion of the residential/tertiary in Dortmund Increase car operating cost + lower PT fares = 214 + 421 Increase car operating cost + lower PT fares and PT travel time = 214 + 412 + 421 Increase car operating cost + lower PT fares and PT travel time + development at rail stations = 214 + 412 + 421 + 521

2006

2011 Intermediate year

2016

2021 Horizon year

25% 25% 25% 50% X

25% 50% 50% 75%

25% 50% 100% 75%

25% 50% 100% 75%

10% −5% −50%

10% −5% −50%

10% −5% −50%

50%/−50%

75%/−50%

75%/−50%

75%/−50%

50%/−50%

75%/−50%

75%/−50%

75%/−50%

50%/−50%

75%/−50%

75%/−50%

75%/−50%

X

X

X

X X 5% −25% −50% X X X

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 163

000 110 211 212 213 214 221

Policy

164 K. Lautso and M. Wegener

8.6 RESULTS The results of the PROPOLIS project are relevant in two respects: as methodological innovation and in policy terms. As methodological innovation, the project has demon strated that integrated LT models combined with environmental impacts and evaluation modules can produce robust and policy-relevant planning information with reasonable resources for data collection and computing. In policy terms, the project has produced insights into possible ways to achieve more sustainable cities that could not have been produced by other methods.

8.6.1 Methodological Innovation In the PROPOLIS project, the comprehensive approach and the methodology for study ing sustainable urban policies developed in the SPARTACUS project (LT Consultants, 1998) were further developed. Most of the conclusions drawn from the SPARTACUS experience were confirmed by using new types of LT models and more and new types of case cities. The PROPOLIS methodology is innovative as it takes into account important features of the urban land use and transport system that could not be considered previously. Many of the effects of different policy options are time-dependent. The PROPOLIS methodology is able to distinguish between the short-term and long-term effects and to follow the changes through time. The results of combining two or more policy options are not clear in advance. The policies may have cumulative positive effects or the policies may neutralise one another. A city also depends on and interacts with its surroundings. It is therefore important to be aware of the socio-economic footprints a policy may cause in the surrounding region. The PROPOLIS system produces large amounts of information, but it also condenses this information down to only three sustainability index values per policy. This aggregation is of great help in analysing even a large number of policies. However, some experience is needed in applying the system, especially in setting the value functions and weights for the indicators by adopting a participatory planning approach. The PROPOLIS project showed that it is possible to use urban land use and transport models as a platform for producing urban environmental, social and economic sustainability indicators for assessing policy options in search for new and effective ways to urban sustainability. The research demonstrated which types of policies are likely to produce positive results and highlighted areas in which further research is required. However, theoretical, methodological and data limitations mean that some care is required in the interpretation of the results. In addition, any policy should always be examined in relation to the local conditions before implementation. It was outside the scope of PROPOLIS to study the institutional and acceptability issues of implementing the policies. The interpretation of the results must also bear in mind that the model system can only give a partial view of reality as not all the factors affecting the urban land use and transport system are modelled. The indicator system only covers part of

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 165 all the environmental, societal and economic aspects of an urban system. The USE-IT module applies user-defined value functions and weights that do not necessarily reflect the values and weights of the whole community and which are likely to change with time. Finally, the policy testing process covers a wide range of different types of policies, but does not go into the details of any. However, many of the results in different types of cities, in different cultures and using different types of models and even differing weights and value functions point into the same direction, are understandable and confirm the underlying theoretical considera tions, thus making the conclusions reasonably reliable.

8.6.2 Results of the Policy Tests The results of the policy tests show that environmental sustainability deteriorates in all case cities compared with the current situation if no actions are taken and even if city specific reference scenarios, including local investment programmes, are adopted. This is mainly due to the deteriorating environmental quality indicators as well as the increased consumption of natural resources. Air quality indicators may improve by the assumed improvements of the car fleet composition. Also the social index deteriorates, except in Helsinki, Naples and Brussels, where old polluting cars are assumed to disappear, thus improving the health indicators. However, equity and accessibility indicators deteriorate in all cities. The deteriorating trend is related to the growth of the cities, sprawling land use and the resulting growth of car traffic. A 1% growth in population leads to more than 1% growth in car traffic (in Helsinki 1.7%).

8.6.2.1

Single Policies

The aim of PROPOLIS was to find policies that could, in the ideal case, simultaneously improve all dimensions of sustainability compared with the reference scenarios and, if possible, even compared with the current level of sustainability. This goal was reached in most of the case cities using the same type of approach. This indicates that the approach could work in other European cities as well, and that the results could thus be transferable. The local investment plans, normally consisting of an investment programme for both public transport and road, performed in the right direction. However, they were not enough to maintain the current level of sustainability, although the situation was improved compared with the reference scenario. Investment programmes should be designed to be consistent with the general goals of land use and transport planning. The test results showed that the programmes tested were not all as efficient as expected. This may be because the elements of the pro grammes encourage development towards different goals. This emphasises the need for co-ordination between different policies. If, for example, car pricing policies are consid ered, they should be supported by investment programmes, which promote the use of public transport to manage the increased demand and get cumulative positive effects.

166 K. Lautso and M. Wegener Regulating car speed policies had positive effects on traffic accidents, but they were not enough to compensate the effects of the worsening indicator values for opportunity, accessibility and air pollution. This points in the direction that instead of general speed reductions the locations for speed reductions should be considered case by case. Different types of land use policies, if applied alone, did not produce significant pos itive effects. This can be explained by the fact that the extent of the tested policies was marginal compared with the total urban system. However, land use policies have significant local and long-term effects. Car pricing methods produced positive results. However, their effects on land use depend on the type of measure. Cordon pricing and parking charge policies make inhabitants and jobs move to locations where they can avoid paying the charges. This might affect the vitality of central areas. Car operating cost increases work efficiently against urban sprawl by promoting the concentration of inhabitants and jobs in central areas and in smaller cities in the outer areas of metropolitan regions. This could jeopardise the vitality of the rural areas of the surrounding regions and lead to additional new construction. An ideal pricing system would take, as far as possible, these changes in demand into account. Thus both the time of the day (peak periods) and location should be reflected in the pricing level, with the highest levels in the most congested central areas during peak periods and lower levels in rural areas and outside peak periods. Also public transport policies, such as increasing speed and service and reducing fares, worked well. In most cases, they were environmentally, socially and economically favourable. However, also here attention has to be paid to the land use effects. In most cases, public transport policies contributed to further urban sprawl, in particular if they affect radial lines linking suburban areas to the centre. The optimum level for the public transport fares is city-specific and should be locally defined. Some measures intended to decrease travel demand could in the long term lead to increases in the distance travelled by car, even some public transport policies. Part of the reason for this is that the policies resulted in less road congestion and made it possible for households to move to more peripheral areas still maintaining their travel time budget. This resulted in increases in average trip lengths and possibly car ownership.

8.6.2.2

Policy Combinations

The combination of single policy to policy combinations (Table 8.2) was based on the hypothesis that the effects of policies may cumulatively reinforce each other, that is, that there may be synergies between policies. Synergies exist, in colloquial language, if the total is more than the sum of its parts. In the context of synergies between policies, synergies between policies in a policy package occur if the total effect of the policy package is larger than the sum of the effects of the individual policies if applied separately. Synergies between policies are easily recognised if all policies in the policy package work in the same direction. For instance, making car travel more expensive and public

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 167 transport cheaper results in more public transport trips, fewer car trips and less car-km travelled. Synergies between the two policies in a policy package containing the two policies with respect to these three indicators occur if the effects of the policy package exceed those of the individual policies applied separately. However, the two policies may have opposing effects on other indicators. For instance, making car travel more expensive leads to shorter car trips, whereas making public transport cheaper stimulates longer public transport trips. The overall effect on mean trip length of all modes therefore depends on the relative strength of these two opposing effects. In this case, the effect of a policy package containing the two policies may be different from the sum of the effects of the two policies applied separately, but it cannot be said whether there are synergies between the two policies unless a uniform measure is defined to measure the goal (e.g., minimising the total travel time). Some effects of the policies and policy packages examined in PROPOLIS are shown in Figures 8.7 and 8.8. The policies are push and pull measures, that is, increasing car operating cost and reducing public transport fares. In the first policy combination, both policies are combined, and in the second policy combination also speed and frequency of service of public transport are improved. The policy combinations show very positive results as they in most cases simultaneously improve all dimensions of sustainability in all case cities compared with the reference sce nario. Environmentally, even the current level of sustainability is maintained or exceeded in the majority of cities, in Helsinki, Dortmund, Naples, Vicenza and Brussels. Socially, the current level of sustainability is reached in Helsinki, Vicenza and Brussels. Similar or improved results were achieved also using local policy combinations other than the common combinations for all cities in Helsinki, Dortmund and Brussels. Figure 8.9 shows an intercity comparison of some of the key policies and policy combi nations in the PROPOLIS case cities.

Greenhouse gases from transport 0%

1234567

–5% –15%

0%

1 234567

0%

–5%

–5%

–10%

–10%

1234567

–10%

–20%

–25% –30% Car operating cost +50%

Helsinki

1 234 5

–5%

–10%

1

0%

–15%

–15%

–15%

–20%

–20%

–20%

–25%

–25%

PT fares –50% (Helsinki –40%) 2 3 Dortmund Inverness

Car operating cost +75% PT fares –50% 5 4 Naples Vicenza

Car operating cost +75% PT fares –50%, PT speed +5% 6 7 Bilbao Brussels

Figure 8.7: The effect of policies and policy combinations on greenhouse gas emissions

168 K. Lautso and M. Wegener Modal share in peak, private motorised vehicles 0.0%

123 4 56 7

0%

123 4 567

–2%

–2.0%

123 4 567

0%

0%

–5%

–5%

–10%

–10%

–15%

–15%

–20%

–20%

–4.0%

–4%

–6.0%

–6%

–8.0%

–8%

–25%

–25%

–10%

–30%

–30%

–10.0%

PT fares –50% (Helsinki –40%) 2 3 Inverness Dortmund

Car operating cost +50% 1 Helsinki

Car operating cost +75% PT fares –50% 4 5 Naples Vicenza

123 4 567

Car operating cost +75% PT fares –50%, PT speed +5% 6 7 Bilbao Brussels

Figure 8.8: The effect of policies and policy combinations on the modal share of private motorised vehicles

Policies

Effects on sustainability in different cities

Car operating cost +50%

Helsinki Dortmund Inverness Naples • Env Soc • Eco

PT fares –50% (Helsinki –40%)

Env Soc Eco

Car operating cost +75% PT fares –50% Car operating cost +75% PT fares –50%, PT speed +5%

NA

•

Vicenza • •

Bilbao

Brussels • •

•

NA NA NA

NA NA NA

• •

•

Env Soc Eco

• •

•

NA NA NA

•

• •

• •

Env Soc Eco

• •

•

NA NA NA

•

• •

• •

posive effect compared with reference scenario 2021/economic index clearly positive

insignificant effect compared with reference scenario 2021/economic index around zero

negative effect compared with reference scenario 2021/economic index clearly negative

not applicable

current situation improved

Figure 8.9: Intercity comparison of some key policies and policy combinations in the PROPOLIS case cities The synergies between land use and transport policies were examined in more detail in one PROPOLIS case city, Dortmund. To give an example, Combination Scenario 713 examined the combined effects of four individual policies: • Scenario 214 assumes an increase of car operating costs of 50% in 2006 and a further increase to 75% of 2001 values in 2011.

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 169 • Scenario 412 assumes a acceleration of public transport so that travel times are reduced on average by 5%. • Scenario 421 assumes a reduction of public transport fares by 50% of 2001 values from 2006 on. • Scenario 521 assumes a concentration of new housing and services at commuter rail stations in the metropolitan area. Table 8.3 shows the results of the simulation of the four policy scenarios and the combination scenario using the Dortmund LT model. The effects of each policy on selected output indicators are indicated as differences between the policy scenario and the reference scenario. In addition, the totals of these effects are compared with the combined effects of the policies in a policy package. If the combined effect exceeds the total of individual effects, the difference is identified as positive synergy effect. The table shows that there are positive synergies between the individual policies, per cent public transport, per cent car trips and car-km per capita. These synergy effects are indicated by light grey shading. However, with respect to the other indicators, number of trips, mean trip length, car ownership and CO2 emissions, there are no positive synergies, that is, with respect to these indicators the policies combined in the package achieve the same effect by different means, that is, are partly substitutes of each other. These interactions between policies are called negative synergies and indicated by dark grey shading. The positive synergies mostly affect modal choice. The increase in the share of public transport is 7% larger than the sum of the effects of the measures applied separately. The synergy effects with respect to car trips appear smaller but must be seen together

Table 8.3: Dortmund: combination scenario 713 214 + 412 + 421 + 521 Difference to reference scenario in 2021 (%) Trips

Mean trip length

Percent public transport trips

Percent car trips

−278

−1477

+649

−361

−2098

−624

−1889

Car-km per capita

Car ownership

CO2 emission per capita

214

Car operating costs +75%

412

Public transport times −5%

000

+002

+115

−006

−012

−005

−004

421

Public transport fares −50%

+075

+249

+1184

−042

−068

+195

+162

521

Development at rail stations

+001

−143

+101

−001

−046

+001

−035

−202

−1369

+2019

−410

−2132

−433

−1766

214 + 412 + 421 + 521

−193

−1156

+2745

−496

−2328

−381

−1761

+009

+213

+726

−086

−196

+052

+005

Total 713

Synergies

Positive synergies

Negative synergies

170 K. Lautso and M. Wegener with the much larger initial share of car trips. The synergy effects in car-km travelled are somewhat larger because people not only make less but also shorter car trips. The negative synergies with the other indicators occur because the policies in the policy packages work in opposite directions: for example, the number of trips goes down if car operating costs are increased (Scenario 214), but goes up if public transport is made less expensive (Scenario 421) or new housing and services is concentrated at commuter rail stations (Scenario 521). The synergy effects of policy combinations can also be seen at the level of sustainability indicators. The tests of the policy combinations led to the following general results. The combination of public transport policies with car pricing policies produced cumula tive positive results, so that the negative land use effects of the individual policies could be avoided or mitigated. With few exceptions (social indices in Bilbao and Naples), all dimensions of sustainability could be improved in all case cities compared with the refer ence scenario. Even the current level of sustainability could be improved in the majority of cities (Helsinki, Dortmund, Naples, Vicenza and Brussels). Investing the additional revenues collected from car traffic back into the transport system for providing better and cheaper public transport increased the acceptability of the policy combination.

8.6.3 Policy Implications 8.6.3.1

Towards Sustainable Urban Strategies

Best results from the policy tests using the PROPOLIS methodology were achieved by using push and pull measures consisting of car pricing policies and simultaneous improvements of public transport through reduced fares and better speed and service and supporting land use policies. Better supply of public transport services is needed to satisfy the increased demand caused by car pricing policies and the mobility needs of people. Adopting land use and investment policies that allow people to live along good public transport corridors further supports this policy line in the long term. Adopting the above line of actions led in the PROPOLIS case cities to a 15–20% reduction in CO2 emissions, an 8–17% reduction in traffic accidents and often to at least small reductions in exposure to noise and pollutants and total time spent in traffic. Also accessibility to the city centre and services was improved. The socio-economic benefits varied but were typically Euro 1000–3000 per inhabitant (net present value). Searching and defining local optimum levels for the actions could further improve these results, as demonstrated in some case cities. Reduced congestion was especially beneficial for goods traffic as travel times and sizes of transport fleet reduced. By adopting a more severe pricing policy (car operating costs up 100%), a reduction of private car mileage and CO2 emissions of typically up to 30% could be achieved. The policy tests demonstrated that it is insufficient to merely evaluate policies on a one by one basis. Instead a complete urban policy programme should be evaluated both policy by policy and as a whole in order to completely understand its effects and the

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 171 mutual interactions of the policy elements. It is particularly important to note that some combined policies reinforce each other but others may be incompatible to the extent that they work against each other. Integrated strategies are a combination of individual policies for achieving cumulative positive effects or to mitigate negative side effects of individual policies. Examples of integrated strategies are combinations of land use and transport policies. Integration is only successful if it is applied to policies, planning methodologies and planning processes and structures – it is a multidimensional task. Most cities in Europe have initiated integrated policies like public transport oriented development. However, integration of the supporting models, monitoring indicators and institutional structures, is much less developed. Urban sustainability can be improved only with the co-ordinated intervention of both local and national decision-making levels. The good results obtained by the combination policies emphasise the need of a close co-operation between the different levels of authorities, as local authorities cannot implement all the policy measures. They may need decisions at national or even European levels. The PROPOLIS project produced rich evidence that integrated strategies combining land use and transport policies have stronger effects on urban sustainability than individual policies implemented alone. A combination of transport pricing policies, such as making car transport more expensive while making public transport less expensive, and land use policies, such as the promo tion of mixed-use development near public transport stations and strict land use controls in the outer suburbs, contribute significantly to achieving a better urban environment. Land use policies alone do not produce significant positive effects on travel behaviour because land use adapts to the transport system and vice versa. However, land use policies can be used to support changes in travel demand caused by the car pricing and public transport policies. They may also have significant local and long-term effects. As a summary, a good urban policy consists of co-ordinated elements that work together to produce cumulative long-term effects that attain a balanced set of environmental, social and economic goals. These elements may include • Combination of optimised pricing policies directed at car users, with differentia tion between peak and other hours as well as congested and non-congested areas, with an appropriate level of pricing of public transport fares; • Investment programmes supporting the changes in demand caused by the above policies and especially responding to the increased demand for better public transport speed and service; • A land use plan supporting the new need for people to live near central areas, in satellite cities or along well served public transport corridors and the people’s increased need and opportunity to use public transport;

172 K. Lautso and M. Wegener This policy line is likely, as demonstrated by the PROPOLIS case cities, to improve all dimensions of urban sustainability in typical European cities compared with their reference scenarios or continuation of existing policies and, in best cases, enhance the current level of sustainability – improve our cities of tomorrow.

8.6.3.2

Outlook for Methodological Development

The main concept for further development of planning methodologies builds on the premises that urban transport and land use form one integrated environmental, social and economic system that interacts with the surrounding region without a clear border. Thus the urban system and the effects of alternative policies should be assessed by simultaneously studying the land use and transport systems and their interaction with the environmental, social and economic systems and the surrounding region on which the sustainability of the urban system is dependent. Both short- and long-term effects have to be taken into account. Integrated LT models are the only method to identify synergies between individual land use and transport policies. However, only few cities apply and regularly update integrated LT models. Extra effort is needed to make current advances in modelling techniques applicable by local practitioners. Besides better dissemination, there is also a need for technical improvement. Efforts should be concentrated on making integrated LT models more disaggregate, simpler to use and more flexible in the range of issues addressed. Optimisation techniques taking account of financial and other constraints can be used to identify optimal policy combinations meeting city-specific requirements. Good results can be achieved even under financial constraints by careful planning of integrated strategies. Theoretical research is still needed to better understand the reciprocal economic flows between land use activities and transport systems. The state-of-the-art methodology adopted for the economic evaluation is based on a cost–benefit analysis from the trans port point of view and includes all the externalities generated by the transport sector. It should be extended to internalise also the externalities related to land use. Similarly, more research is needed to better understand and model the interaction between environmental quality and land use in order to have a fully integrated land use/transport/environment/economic model. Steps in this direction were taken in PROPOLIS by modelling land-use based environmental indicators, but the feedback of environmental indicators to location and mobility decisions of firms and households has still to be developed. The ultimate solution to modelling environmental feedback is the fully spatially disaggregate microsimulation urban LTE model in which the notion of zones has been abandoned and the spatial disaggregation occurs already at the model input stage. In this type of model, the disaggregate environmental model would be fully integrated with the LT model, and this would make full environmental feedback both possible and efficient.

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 173 More efficient use of geographical information systems in conjunction with a move towards microsimulation would bring several benefits, including: • • • •

Better representation of transport and other activities in space and time Capability to model new, more detailed policy types Better inputs into environmental impact models Better environmental exposure models.

The indicator system associated with the land use and transport modelling framework should be further developed in order to include important social and environmental indicators that had to be dropped from the PROPOLIS indicator set because of lack of theory or data. For example, the relationships between urban built form and energy consumption merit further study. Operationalised theories of justice have experimentally been introduced and used as part of the assessment of social sustainability. They concentrated on the distribution of effects between different socio-economic groups. The choice of a theory of justice may affect the ranking of policy alternatives. It is therefore important for the decision-maker to define the principles of justice preferred. Justice of distribution of impacts is important for the acceptability of a policy. More experience is also needed with other features of the evaluation system. Are there systematic differences between the value functions, weights and theories of justice of different groups? If so, how significant are they and what are their effects on the policy assessment? To answer these questions, real-life tests with authentic audiences should be made. Pricing policies were identified as having the greatest potential to achieve urban sus tainability. More research is needed to define the optimum method and level of pricing and their combinations, to analyse the negative side effects of pricing policies and to determine suitable countermeasures to mitigate side effects. There are several alternative principles to implement car pricing schemes (road pricing, distance-based, time-based, tolls, etc.), and the choice is also connected to the technology of how the charges are collected, so behavioural and technical research is needed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are grateful for the permission of their PROPOLIS colleagues Klaus Spiek ermann, Ian Sheppard, Philip Steadman, Angelo Martino, Roberto Domingo and Sylvie Gayda for the permission to use material of the joint work for this chapter.

REFERENCES de la Barra, T. (1982). Modelling regional energy use: A land use, transport and energy evaluation model. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 9, 429–443. de la Barra, T. (1989). Integrated Land Use and Transport Modelling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

174 K. Lautso and M. Wegener Echenique, M. H. and Williams, I. N. (1980). Developing theoretically based urban models for practical planning studies. Sistemi Urbani 1, 13–23. Hunt, J. D. and Simmonds, D. C. (1993). Theory and application of an integrated landuse and transport modelling framework. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 20, 221–244. Lautso, K., Spiekermann, K., Wegener, M., Sheppard, I., Steadman, P., Martino, A., Domingo, R. and Gayda, S. (2004). PROPOLIS, Planning and Research of Poli cies for Land Use and Transport for Increasing Urban Sustainability. Final Report. Helsinki: LT Consultants. LT Consultants. (1998). SPARTACUS, System for Planning and Research in Towns and Cities for Urban Sustainability. Final Report. Helsinki: LT Consultants. Wegener, M. (1982). A multilevel economic-demographic model for the Dortmund region. Sistemi Urbani, 3, 371–401. Wegener, M. (1998). The IRPUD Model: Overview. Available at http://www.raumplanung. uni-dortmund.de/irpud/pro/mod/mod_e.htm. Wegener, M. (2004). Overview of land-use transport models. In D. A. Hensher and Button, K. (Eds.), Transport Geography and Spatial Systems. Handbook 5 of The Handbook in Transport (pp. 127–146). Kidlington: Pergamon/Elsevier Science.

Integrated Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development 175

HELSINKI CASE STUDY

The figure illustrates the main road and rail network as well as the land use pat terns of the Helsinki Metropolitan Area. The boxes illustrate the planned infrastruc ture investments according to the Transportation Master Plan prepared by Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council. The metropolitan area is growing as a whole because of immigration from other parts of the country. Simultaneously a city sprawl effect can be recognised where the growth mainly takes place in the outskirts of the area. Tangential car traffic in the outskirts of the area faces the most severe problems that are also difficult to solve by better public transport services. Car traffic in the city centre has not grown despite of the metropolitan growth. Cornerstones for the adapted policies have included: – a good public transport system consisting of buses, trams, metro and rail. About 50–60% of commuters use public transport on their work trips to the city centre. Subsidies to public transport cover about 50% of the operating costs; – parking policy using restrictions for the construction of new parking places in the city centre as well as parking pricing. A substantial part of parking in the city centre takes place in large underground parking facilities excavated in rock providing good connections to the street network and main commercial and service facilities; – land use development along the metro and rail lines is favoured and restricted in areas with poor municipal services. Also rebuilding of old industrial and harbour sites near the city centre for housing purposes is favoured as well as complementary construction in connection with old housing areas; – the network of pedestrian and bicycle routes is continuously developed; – speed limits in housing areas on other than main streets vary between 30 and 40 km/h.

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 9 Urban Sprawl and Transport Sylvie Gayda and Kari Lautso

9.1 INTRODUCTION Urban sprawl is a common issue encountered in Europe: many urban regions are facing an urban sprawl process due, in most cases, to networks of motorways built in the past decades. In order to reduce the congestion and the environmental damage due to that first wave of urban sprawl, authorities of many of these regions are implementing new highquality public transport services linking the suburban areas and the urban centre. But by improving the accessibility, the authorities simultaneously create an incentive for a new wave of urban sprawl. Therefore, there is a need to design and implement accompanying measures to these new public transport investments, in order to counterbalance the negative effects of sprawl. The SCATTER project tackles this issue. The first effect expected from the implementation of high-quality regional public trans port is a strong modal shift from private car towards public transport, shorter road travel times, and a reduction of fuel consumption and of emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants. However, the long-run effect could be a relaunch of urban sprawl, that is, an acceleration of the out-migration of households towards the periphery, which in turn would cause further urbanisation, lengthening of trips, re-increase of fuel consumption and emissions, and re-increase of congestion. In this context, the objectives of SCATTER were to evaluate measures aiming to control or reduce sprawl and to propose recommendations to cities facing that phenomenon.

9.2 WHAT IS URBAN SPRAWL? Urban sprawl is usually defined using three key concepts: low density, uncoordi nated urban growth, and spatially segregated land uses (e.g. homogenous single family 177

178 S. Gayda and K. Lautso residential development; shopping centres, retail and services; and free-standing indus trial areas). In terms of urban forms, a variety of forms are covered by the term “urban sprawl”, ranging along a continuum of more compact to completely dispersed develop ment: contiguous suburban growth (i.e. a contiguous expansion of existing development from a central core – this was identified as sprawl earlier but is no more classified as sprawl now), compact growth around a number of smaller centres, linear patterns of strip development, and leapfrog and scattered development (Breheny, 1992; Hall, 1993). “Urban sprawl” must clearly be distinguished from “urban growth”. The latter may and should be sustainable, while the first is considered as being not.1 Why is urban sprawl a problem? It is now commonly admitted in Europe that urban sprawl has negative effects in many aspects. The urbanisation of agricultural or open land through the development of new settlements has negative effects by itself: loss of highquality agricultural land and open space, destruction of biotopes and fragmentation of eco-systems,2 and change of the water-streaming coefficient. Urban sprawl also generates higher costs of new neighbourhood equipments, infrastructures, and public services. The marginal cost generated by a new household or a new economic activity in terms of equipments, infrastructures, and public services is higher in a low-density suburban context than in a dense urban environment, and this cost is often supported at least partly collectively (external cost). This situation even leads to an issue of equity, when the external costs are shared by urban lower-income households and suburban higherincome households. Besides, the spatial pattern, which results from sprawl, characterised by low population density and spatially segregated land uses, is unfavourable to the development of public transport and other sustainable transport modes. On the contrary, urban sprawl induces a high level of private car use, together with an increase of trip lengths, congestion on the radial roads giving access to the urban centre, increase in fuel consumption, CO2 emissions, and air pollution. Finally, urban sprawl also leads to poor access to services for those with limited mobility, such as the young and elderly (Ewing, 1994; Gordon and Richardson, 1997; Prud’homme and Lee, 1999; Cervero, 2001).3 The evolution which globally derives from the urban sprawl process is therefore wholly in conflict with the objectives of many of the European Union’s (EU) policies in the domains 1

In the United States, where the debate on urban sprawl has been ongoing for several decades, the established expression for meaning a sustainable urban growth is “smart growth”. Historically, the urban sprawl phenomenon was first a peculiarly British and American phenomenon, probably due to the relatively lower density of cities in both Britain and America and to the notion that home-ownership with a garden are core values of the Anglo-Saxon heritage. In continental European countries, the conditions for urban growth have more recently begun to mirror those in Britain and North America. Towns in continental Europe have tended to remain more compact with higher and more uniform densities. Between the 1970s and 1980s, “growth management” legislation started in several American States leading to an attempt to control the spread of urbanisation. In the same time, in European countries, there was the first important wave of uncontrolled sprawl. 2 See the programme CORINE Land Cover of the European Environment Agency which highlights the evolution of the territorial fragmentation between 1990 and 2000, in 31 countries. 3 An essential US reference on the costs of urban sprawl: The Costs of Sprawl – Revisited (1998), and Costs of Sprawl 2000 (2002), Transportation Research Board and the National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

Urban Sprawl and Transport 179 of environment protection, transport, energy, and sustainable urban development. In several documents,4 the EU has pronounced itself in favour of the compact city model and of the polycentric regional systems. On the other hand, the positive effects are mostly situated at the individual level: access to cheaper private residential developments (middle-class households have the possibility to become owners of single family housing, with enhanced personal and public open space); access to cheaper private non-residential developments (young SME and companies have more pleasant working environment than what they could have afforded in the urban centre).

9.3 ANALYSES PERFORMED IN SCATTER AND CONTENT OF THIS CHAPTER To tackle the issues presented above, the SCATTER project resorted to a range of qual itative and quantitative methods and tools, applied on various case studies: qualitative systemic analysis of the case cities, statistical analysis on time series data, interviews of local experts and local authorities, analysis of the institutional contexts, simulation of a selection of policies and evaluation of these policies through a common set of indicators, as well as a broader review of policies aiming to curb or to reduce urban sprawl. The present chapter focuses on the policy simulations performed with integrated landuse/transport models because it is the likely to be the most innovative aspect of the project, at least with regard to the method and tools. There were six case studies in all, in the project (Bristol, Brussels, Helsinki, Milan, Rennes, and Stuttgart). The simulations were performed only in three of them (Brussels, Helsinki, and Stuttgart), which had a calibrated land-use/transport model at their dis posal. The other analysis methods were applied to all six cities. Among the three case studies with policy simulations, this chapter considers only two of them, namely Brussels and Helsinki. Indeed, the Stuttgart case study was quite different in the size and extent of the considered transport services: it was the extension in one direction of one light rail (S-bahn) line, while it is a whole network in the case of Brussels (replacing an existing network but with a drastic improvement), and several extensions of an existing network in the case of Helsinki. The Stuttgart simulation results were therefore in some cases difficult to be compared with the results of the other two cities. However, the detailed analysis of the Stuttgart simulation results at local level also shows that the extension of radial transport lines accompanied with a drastic reduction of travel times to the city centre induces sprawl.

4 Among others: ESDP – European Spatial Development Perspective: Towards a Balanced and Sustain able Development of the Territory of the European Union (1997).

180 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

9.4 CASE STUDIES 9.4.1 The Brussels Case Study The challenge in the Brussels metropolitan area was to improve the accessibility between the suburban areas and the urban centre by a new Regional Express Railway Network and, at the same time, to reinforce the residential attractiveness of the centre. Brussels is a metropolitan area of about 2.9 million inhabitants (2001).5 Its central part, the so-called “Brussels-Capital Region”, is an important administrative capital, grouping a little less than one million inhabitants. The Region has lost population for 30 years (about 120 000 inhabitants), while economic activities – with a rather stable total number of jobs (about 650 000) – were undergoing an important mutation: strong decline of industrial and heavy tertiary activities and strong growth of administrative functions. The result of this evolution was an increase in the number of daily commuters and traffic congestion. The Brussels-Capital Region is an administrative entity, but the actual morphological agglomeration (as defined, e.g., by the population density and the type of urban fabrics) clearly stretches beyond the limits of the Region. The spatial structure of Brussels is quite typical. An old industrial axis along a canal surrounded by poor neighbourhoods of different ethnic communities with very few green spaces makes its way through the whole city, cutting it in two parts. Neglected during decades, this area begins to be renovated. On the other hand, the strong increase of administrative functions introduced a speculative pressure on higher status neighbour hoods making the cost of living high. Emigration of middle-class families to the suburbs encouraged urban sprawl, commuting by car, and congestion. The decline of the popu lation of the Brussels-Capital Region and the lowering of its average income increase the scarcity of the resources, essentially based on income taxes of residents, while a lot of public works must be done to adapt the Region to its important administrative functions related, among others, to the European institutions. One of the major goals of the Regional Development Plan is to reinforce the residential attractiveness of the capital by all means.

9.4.1.1

A New Regional Express railway Network

On the other hand, since the efficiency of the public transport networks is too low, especially between the periphery and the urban centre, the authorities decided to imple ment what could be called a “regional metro” on the existing railway tracks: this is the “Regional Express railway Network” (REN) (“Réseau Express Régional” - RER), linking the suburban area to the urban centre of the metropolitan area (Figures 9.1 and 9.2). 5

As defined in this study, the Brussels metropolitan area includes 135 communes, that is, municipalities.

Urban Sprawl and Transport 181

Figure 9.1: Plan of the regional express railway network (REN)

Figure 9.2: The urban zones of the Brussels study area

182 S. Gayda and K. Lautso The Regional Express railway Network (REN) project aims to be a remedy to congestion and to improve the global accessibility of Brussels by improving the rail services supply between the periphery and the city. The REN will mostly run on the existing rail tracks. Two basic principles are the guidelines of the project: 1. The new suburban railway scheme (nine new lines) will propose high capacity, rapid and frequent train services to the commuters within a radius of about 30–35 km around the centre of Brussels6 and 2. Within the Brussels Region, the new lines will serve directly most of the highdensity trip generating developments and redevelopments. The European research project ESTEEM had confirmed by simulations an issue raised by many experts: the implementation of the REN would generate a new wave of sprawl of the population and a concentration of employment. The authorities were therefore well aware about the need for accompanying measures to the REN: they were interested in testing and evaluating accompanying measures to counterbalance the accelerating effect of the REN on urban sprawl in the long term, as well as to reinforce the positive effect of the REN on the modal repartition.

9.4.2 The Helsinki Case Study In a general context of strong trend of urban sprawl, directly deriving from population and economic growth, the Helsinki Metropolitan Area (HMA) will implement a longterm Transport Master Plan. The Helsinki study area is a large region that includes both urban and rural areas. At the heart of the region lies Helsinki, surrounded by three smaller cities. Together they form the HMA. Additionally, included in the model area is a relatively large surrounding region with smaller cities and towns lying within the Metropolitan Area’s 2 commuter shed. The total land area is about 14 000 km of which the metropolitan 2 region is 743 km . The Helsinki region accounts for about one-third of Finland’s GDP. In addition to its administrative status as the capital city and home for industry headquarters, the economy of the region is based on retail, wholesale, and private services. The region, therefore, has a trade surplus with the rest of the country. While the traditional manufacturing industries have been declining, the share of high-technology industries and services has been growing. The large and concentrated traditional industries such as metal and paper are not typically located in the region. Consequently, foreign exports are not so dominant as for the rest of the country. Consistent with its high population density, the level of imports is high. The HMA and its surroundings form a region that has been the most successful one in the country, but at the same time within the region itself, certain areas are prosperous, while others are impoverished (Figure 9.3). 6

The total investment cost is estimated to about 900 millions Euro.

Urban Sprawl and Transport 183

Figure 9.3: The study area and the super-zone definitions used in the analysis of sprawl: Helsinki centre and inner Helsinki Metropolitan Area (HMA) (darkest grey), outer HMA, HMA suburbs and other urban conurbations outside HMA (medium shades of grey), and rural municipalities (lightest grey)

The population growth is supported by a strong trend of migration from rural areas towards the Metropolitan Area.7 Hence, the Metropolitan Area will face a rapid pop ulation growth from the present 920 000 to 1.1 million inhabitants by the year 2020, while population in the whole study area is expected to grow significantly to nearly two million inhabitants by year 2020. The population growth in the Metropolitan Area increases the pressures of urban sprawl as well as the use of natural and other green areas. It is expected that Helsinki can only accommodate less than one-fourth of the forecast growth, the rest being directed to the other cities of the Metropolitan Area and their surroundings. In the business-as-usual forecast until 2020, the strong growth due to the national migration towards the few urban agglomerations of high-technology employment has created a crowding effect in the Helsinki region causing the sprawling effect towards the fringes of the HMA and outside it (Figure 9.4). In this forecast, the shares of the urban areas have declined, both regarding population and employment, while the shares of the suburban and rural areas have increased. This is a clear indication of sprawl in the region (Figures 9.5–9.6). 7

This was also highlighted in the statistical analysis of time-series data (Deliverable 3 of SCATTER).

184 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

250 000

1990

Households

200 000

1995 2000

150 000

2005 2010

100 000

2015 2020

50 000 0 Hel Centre

Inner HMA

Outer HMA

HMA Oth Urban Suburbs

Rural

1990

250 000

1995 2000

200 000 Employees

2005 2010

150 000

2015

100 000

2020

50 000 0 Hel Centre

Inner HMA

Outer HMA

HMA Oth Urban Suburbs

Rural

Figure 9.4: Observed development of the population and households 1990–2000 and as forecasted by the model for 2000–2020

30% 25%

1990

Households

1995

20%

2000 2005

15%

2010 2015

10%

2020

5% 0% Hel Centre

Inner HMA

Outer HMA

HMA Oth Urban Suburbs

Rural

Figure 9.5: Super-zone shares with household and employment location 1990–2020 (observed and forecast)

Urban Sprawl and Transport 185 25%

1990 1995

20%

Employees

2000

15%

2005 2010

10%

2015 2020

5% 0%

Hel Centre

Inner HMA

Outer HMA

HMA Oth Urban Suburbs

Rural

Figure 9.5: (Continued) 30.0%

% 2005 % 2010

Households

25.0%

% 2015 % 2020

20.0% 15.0% 10.0% 5.0% 0.0% Hel Centre

Inner HMA

Outer HMA

HMA Suburbs

Oth Urban

40.0%

% 2005

35.0%

% 2010 % 2015

30.0% Employees

Rural

% 2020

25.0% 20.0% 15.0% 10.0% 5.0% 0.0% Hel Centre

Inner HMA

Outer HMA

HMA Oth Urban Suburbs

Rural

Figure 9.6: The relative development of household and employment from year 2000 in the base forecast

In the case of Helsinki, urban sprawl is a direct outcome of population and eco nomic growth and as such is a strong trend. The fighting against sprawl is therefore a particularly difficult task. Economic development in the study area is estimated to grow annually by 2% in real terms. Household living space per capita is expected to grow from 39 m2 in year 2000 to 50 m2 in 2020. Over the same period, employment floor

186 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

Figure 9.7: Map of the projects included in the Helsinki transport master plan including cost estimates space is expected to reduce from 46 m2 to 44 m2 due to structural changes in employment from traditional industry towards office work. There is one further factor in favour of sprawl: the current land use regulation in the HMA badly constrains new construction. On the other hand, it is predicted that mobility will increase faster than the population. One reason for this is the decentralising land use, but also the number of trips is expected to grow. The share of public transport has been dropping significantly during the past few decades, but this decline is now anticipated to have reached its low. If policies favouring public transport will be pursued, it is forecast that the share of collective transport will start slightly rising again. Traffic speed in the Metropolitan Area will continue its gradual downward trend unless the increase in the use of the private car can be curbed.

9.4.2.1

A Long-Term Transport Master Plan

In this context, the HMA Council has prepared a long-term Transport Master Plan, illustrated in the Figure 9.7 (and included in the business-as-usual forecast). The HMA Transport Master Plan includes both public transport investments and road investments. The public transport investments include extensions of metro lines and of urban rail lines.

Urban Sprawl and Transport 187

9.5 THE MODELLING APPROACH 9.5.1 A Family of Advanced Simulation Tools: The Integrated Land-Use/Transport Models In each case study, an integrated land-use/transport model of the metropolitan area was used in order to evaluate the envisaged accompanying measures to the transport investments. Integrated land-use/transport models are advanced simulation tools. They are quite appropriate for evaluating the effectiveness of policies against urban sprawl, as they simulate the interactions between the transport subsystem and the land use subsystem. They make it possible to assess long-term impacts of transport or land use policies on the spatial structure of activities and population and on the mobility pattern (distances, travel times, etc.) (Figure 9.8).

The transport demand: person flows from one point to another

Land use model

Transport model

Where households and companies do locate, according to:

Which mode, which path do the users use, according to:

– accessibilities – real estate market prices – regulations – land taxes

– transport networks – and their quality of service

The travel times and costs between locations

Figure 9.8: How land-use/transport models simulate interactions between land use and transport

The land-use sub-model represents the main socio-economic actors of the study area – households classified by socio-economic category and employment classified by activity sector – and represents how the study area functions socio-economically, through con sumption relationships between the actors. It also simulates the choice of a location by these actors and the consumption of land at the chosen location. The transport sub-model includes a model of the transport supply (including multi-modal networks/services) and a model of the transport demand, in the form of matrices of trips. The transport demand is forecast on the basis of the spatial economic interactions between the households and the employment.

188 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

9.5.2 Main Features of the Brussels and Helsinki Models The Brussels and Helsinki models belong to the same family of models. Both use commer cial softwares (respectively TRANUS and MEPLAN).8 Both these models are founded on the following theoretical concepts: (de la Barra, 1989; Echenique et al., 1995) • The theory of the economic base (Lowry): according to which every city or region is developing starting from an economic driver which does not depend on the local demand. This economic driver attracts labour force and hence households, which in turn will generate services, which in turn will attract labour force, etc.; • The input–output matrix (Leontieff): in these models, the production– consumption relationships between households and economic activity sectors are described through an input–output matrix, using elastic or inelastic consumption coefficients; • The micro-economic theory of random utility (Mac Fadden): this theory aims to model the behaviour of consumers when they have to choose between several options, for a same product or service (e.g. choice between modes of transport for a given trip or between locations); this behaviour is modelled by an utility function, the utility being roughly the level of satisfaction perceived by the con sumer as a function of the attributes of each option. This leads to the stochastic discrete choice logit models. Once the parameters of the utility function are cal ibrated, it allows estimating the market shares of the various options (e.g. the market shares of the modes of transport or of the various zones available as potential location). In models like TRANUS and MEPLAN, the various actors (households and companies) choose their locations following utility functions, each category of households and companies having its own sensitivities to prices and accessibilities; • Finally, these models are equilibrium models, that is, they describe the evolution of the urban or regional system as a series of equilibrium states; they are therefore not “dynamic models” in the sense that they do not represent the evolution of the system explicitly as a function of time. However, the effects of the transport sub-model on the land-use sub-model occur with some pre-defined delay. Hence the interactions between land use and transport are simulated as follows: • The influence of land use on transport: the trip matrices are endogenously built following the production–consumption relationships between the various actors (e.g. employers “consume” households as labour force; households consume ser vices and retail, some activity sectors “consume” products of other sectors, etc.). • The influence of transport on land use: the accessibilities explicitly intervene in the mathematical equations representing how the actors choose their location within 8

As an example of another type of land-use/transport model, the Stuttgart model is based on a different theoretical framework, namely a master equation framework. The simulation of decision processes is based on a stochastic and dynamical decision model within the master equation approach.

Urban Sprawl and Transport 189 the study area. These models are therefore quite able to simulate how transport infrastructures are spatially structuring a region.9 Table 9.1 gives some general features of the two study areas and models.

Table 9.1: General features of the study areas and modelling tools Characteristic

Brussels

Helsinki

Area covered by the modelled study area km2 Number of inhabitants Main city population

4332

743 (HMA10 ) About 14 000 (whole study area)

2 944 716 (in 2001) 964 405 (Brussels-Capital Region – in 2001)

946 000 (HMA in 2000) 546 000 (in 2000)

Population density inh/km2 Number of jobs

680 (in 2001) 1 353 426 (in 2001)

1273 (HMA in 2000) 560 000 (HMA in 2000)

Job density job/km2 Nature of zones

312 (in 2001) Commune (administrative entity)

753 (HMA in 2000) In HMA: statistical district of the municipalities; in hinterland: commune (administrative entity)

23 39 90 152 7

9 18 54 81 8

13 3 8 7 85

8 3 6 5 18

6.12 4.07 4.38 5.89

4.07 4.07 4.07 5.88

Number of zones: Urban centre Outer urban ring Hinterland Total Socio-economic categories of households Employment sectors Land and floor space types Trip types Transport modes Link types Value of time (Euro/hour): J to W School Shopping Other 10

HMA, Helsinki Metropolitan Area.

9 However, in spite of their close specifications, the Brussels and Helsinki models are not quite similar in the way they run. In Brussels, the model was calibrated against the observed situation 2001. The reference scenario at horizon 2021 was then built up exogenously (outside the model) and the new transport infrastructure (the future Regional Express railway Network – REN) and the other measures were simulated starting from that 2021 reference situation. Some measures were simulated starting from the local investment scenario. The Helsinki’s model, starting from the base year 2001, runs in a 5-year time thresholds up to 2021. For each intermediate year (2006, 2011, and 2016) and for the horizon year, the model produces the travel demand resulting from the socio-economic forecasts and the accessibility provided by the transport network and services. Of course, as the starting points (the reference scenarios) are different in the two cities, only the net impacts of the measures can be compared (the relative variations caused by the measures) between the cities.

190 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

9.6 POLICIES WHICH WERE SIMULATED The policies which were simulated may roughly be grouped into three categories: • public transport investments (supposed to generate sprawl), radial or orbital; • accompanying policies to control sprawl or reduce its negative effects, simulated on all cities (“common scenarios”); • accompanying policies simulated only in one city (“local scenarios”).

9.6.1 The Scenarios of Public Transport Investments The extent of the simulated transport services is different between the two cities: a whole network in the case of Brussels (replacing an existing network but with a drastic improvement), extensions of an existing network in the case of Helsinki. In the case of Brussels, the following public transport services were simulated: • the future Regional Express railway Network (REN); • an alternative operating scheme of the REN, with more orbital connections, to facilitate trips from periphery to periphery (so-called “goose-foot type” operating scheme) (scenario 121B). The effects of both these scenarios were assessed against the reference scenario without REN, at horizon 2021 (scenario 001B). In the case of Helsinki, the following transport supply was simulated: • the HMA full investment plan (which includes both public transport investment and road investments) (scenario 111H = scenario 004H); • the same transport plan, with additionally speeding up the rail services by 25% (scenario 116H); • development of orbital connections of public transport (scenario 121H). The effects of these three scenarios were assessed against the reference scenario which includes the HMA road investments only (scenario 002H).

9.6.2 The Common Scenarios of Accompanying Policies The common policy scenarios are as follows: • land use policies: • land tax (“impact fee”) on suburban residential developments, combined with land tax reduction in urban areas (scenarios 311–313) • regulatory measure on office location (scenario 321) • fiscal measure applied to offices (scenario 331)

Urban Sprawl and Transport 191 • transport pricing: • road pricing (increase of the car use cost per kilometre) (scenario 411) • cordon pricing (scenario 412) • reduction of the fare of public transport (scenarios 511–512) • combinations of the above mentioned policies: • scenarios 811, 812, and 813. One of the objectives of the simulations was therefore to compare the effects and global effectiveness of land-related fiscal measures and transport pricing measures. Both in Brussels and in Helsinki, several reference scenarios were defined, for the fol lowing reason: • the effects of the new transport supply were assessed against a reference scenario without that new supply • the effects of the accompanying measures were assessed against a scenario with the new transport supply. The common policy scenarios are listed and defined in detail in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Common policies Policy Code

Description of the Policies Brussels

0 001 002

003

Reference scenarios∗ 001B: Horizon 2021 without the REN (Regional Express railway Network) 002B: Horizon 2021 with the REN (=111B)

001H: Horizon 2021 without any transport investment 002H: Horizon 2021 with the Helsinki Metropolitan Area (HMA) plan for road investments only

003B: Horizon 2021 with the REN and the local investment plan (=711B)

003H: Horizon 2021 with the HMA plan for public transport investments only 004H: Horizon 2021 with the full HMA plan investments (=111H)

004 1 111

121

Helsinki

New transport infrastructures/services Main new transport project 111B: Horizon 2021 with the REN (=002B) Orbital connections 121B: Alternative operating scheme for the REN railway with more orbital connections instead of a pure radial-type operating scheme

111H: Horizon 2021 with the full HMA plan investments (=004H) 121H: Development of orbital connections of public transport

(Continued)

192 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

Table 9.2: (Continued) Policy Code

Description of the Policies Brussels

3

Land use measures

311, 313

Tax on non urban residential developments 311B: Annual tax in non urban areas: 670 Euro/housing/year (which corresponds to a one-shot tax of 13 400 Euro/housing distributed over 20 years)

Helsinki

311H: Same definition as in Brussels (same level of tax)

+ Tax reduction in urban areas: the level is

calculated to redistribute the tax mentioned

above.

313H: Same as 311 but the tax in non urban areas amounts to 1 000 Euro/housing/year 321

331

Regulatory measure on offices 321B: ABC-type policy applied to the “business services”:∗∗ obligation for all the activity sector “business services” to locate in an A-type zone; an A zone is a zone served by high quality public transport at regional level. Tax on offices 331B: ABC-type policy applied to the “business services”: tax on jobs of the “business services” sector located in a non-A zone. The level of the tax corresponds to the cost of a yearly public transport season ticket, i.e. 1 985 Euro/job.

4

Increase of travel cost/time by car

411

Increase of car use cost per km 411B: Increase by 50% of the cost per km for all drivers Cordon pricing 412B: The cordon is located just inside the Ring motorway which surrounds the Brussels-Capital Region and some adjacent communes.

412

Tariff: Euro 7.5 per day

423∗∗∗

321H: Same definition as in Brussels

Parking policy 423B: Parking capacity restriction +

increase of the parking tariff, both in the

inner city and in the urban centres of the

periphery.

331H: Same definition as in Brussels

The level of the tax corresponds to the cost of a yearly public transport season ticket, i.e. 710 Euro/job.

411H: Same definition as in Brussels

412H: Cordon pricing scheme

Tariff: Euro 2.5 per day in orbital cordons Euro 1.3 per day in radial cordons

Urban Sprawl and Transport 193 Table 9.2: (Continued) Policy Code

Description of the Policies Brussels

Helsinki

The study area is divided in 2 zones: (1) 8 communes of the inner cities + 15 urban centres of the periphery: capacity: 1 parking place for 8 jobs, long-term tariff (home-work trips): 12.5 Euro/day, short-term tariff: 6.25 Euro/day; (2) rest of the study area: capacity: 1 place for 2 jobs, long-term tariff: 6.25 Euro/day, short-term tariff: charge free Decrease of travel cost by public transport

5 511

511B: Decrease by 20% of the public transport fare for the home-work trips 512B: Decrease by 20% of the public transport fare for all users

512 8 811 812

Combinations of policies 811B = 411 + 511 + 311 812B = 411 + 511 + 331 813B = 411 + 511 + 311 + 331

813

512H: Same definition than in Brussels 811H = 411 + 512 + 311 812H = 411 + 512 + 331 813B = 411 + 512 + 311 + 331

∗

In Brussels, only one scenario (002B) was tested on 001B. Most of the other scenarios have been simulated on 002B, while some of them have been tested on 003B (local investment plan), which is indicated in the tables. The simulations on reference 003B were made to be able to select the final combinations of measures. In Helsinki, most of the policy scenarios are compared to the 004H scenario, equal to the 111H scenario. ∗∗ The ABC theory was developed in The Netherlands. Roughly, it states that there must be a good adequacy between the “mobility profiles” of the companies and the “accessibility profiles” of the locations (A, B, C profiles). A-type companies (i.e. with high concentration of employment, and/or large number of visitors, and whose activities are not very dependent on access by road) should be located in A-type sites (i.e. with high-quality access by public transport and poor access by car). On the opposite side, C-type companies (low concentration of jobs, small number of visitors, activities heavily dependent on access by road) should be located in C-type sites (with high-quality access by car or lorry). In SCATTER, we distinguished only between A and non-A zones. A-zones were defined as being served by high quality public transport at regional level (e.g. Inter-City/Inter-Region rail services). ∗∗∗ Scenario 423 is a local scenario (tested only in Brussels), but has nevertheless been included in this chapter for purpose of comparison with the other scenarios.

Furthermore local policy scenarios were tested in each city on the request of the local, regional or national authorities co-funding the research project.11

11 The definition of the local policies and the corresponding simulation results are given in the Deliv erable D5–D6 of SCATTER. All SCATTER Deliverables are downloadable from the project Web site http://scatter.stratec.be.

194 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

9.7 SIMULATION RESULTS The simulations tackle two issues: 1. What are the impacts of the rail investments in the two cities? Do the rail investments generate sprawl in all cases? And to what extent? 2. Whether sprawl is generated by the particular transport investments under study in SCATTER or by a general migratory trend, which policies are most effective to control sprawl and reduce its negative effects? The measures were evaluated through a common set of indicators, including number of households/jobs in the urban centre, number of households/jobs in the urban areas, average home–work trip distance, number of vehicle-km, public transport, modal share, average traffic speed, CO2 emission, etc. For the purpose of comparison, let us recall the definition of “urban centre” and “urban zones” in both case cities. The “urban centre” is defined as follows: • In the case of Brussels: the Brussels-Capital Region (average density: 2 2900 households/km ) • In the case of Helsinki: the city centre of Helsinki 3000 households/km2 . The zones which were considered as “urban zones” in the calculation of the indicators “number of households/jobs in urban zones” are defined as follows: • In the case of Brussels (Figure 9.2): the Brussels-Capital Region, the surround ing ring of urban Flemish communes, the other communes defined as urban in the Regional Land Use Plans, that is, 60 communes in all (average density: 2 680 households/km ) • In the case of Helsinki (Figure 9.3): the inner HMA, the outer HMA, the HMA 2 suburbs, other urban conurbations outside HMA 50 households/km .12

9.7.1 Evaluation of the Effects of the Public Transport Investments Evaluation of the effects of the public transport investments – Table 9.3 summarises the effects of the new public transport services as they result from the simulations. These figures confirm that public transport investments indeed generate sprawl if they extend to the suburban or rural areas, if they provide a significant improvement in the accessibility from the suburban or rural areas to the centre or urban zones (where most of the work places are located), and whether the network is radial or radial and orbital. 12

In the case of Helsinki, the average density of the “urban zones” is relatively low because the other urban centres outside the HMA are small old towns including large sparsely populated areas inside their administrative borders, which have been the statistical base outside the HMA.

Table 9.3: Effects of the new public transport services in Brussels and Helsinki Variation in the Number of Households in the Urban Centre (%)

Variation in the Number of Households in the Urban Zones (%)

Variation in the Number of Jobs in the Urban Centre (%)

Variation in the Number of Jobs in the Urban Zones (%)

Variation in the Average HomeWork Trip Distance (%)

Variation in the Total Car Mileage (%)

Variation in the Public Transport Modal Share (Points)

Variation in the Total CO2 Emission (%)

−36

−14

0.7

0.3

8.1

−62

8.8

−81

Brussels – alternative REN with more orbital connections (scenario 121B assessed against 001B)

−55

−28

0.8

0.3

12.4

−92

11.5

−115

Helsinki – HMA full investment plan (scenario 111H assessed against 002H)

00

02

02

00

−10

16

14

10

Helsinki – HMA full plan + speeding up the rail services by 25 % (scenario 116H assessed against 002H)

−16

−05

1.7

0.5

12.2

−08

5.3

−15

Helsinki – developing orbital connections of public transport (scenario 121H assessed against 002H)

−01

01

01

00

−13

07

15

00

Legend of shadings: sprawl of population and concentration of jobs lengthening of home-work trips positive effects of the public transport investments, which might be higher without the sprawl

Urban Sprawl and Transport 195

Brussels – future REN (scenario 111B assessed against 001B)

196 S. Gayda and K. Lautso In both cities, scenarios with significant urban–suburban accessibility improvement lead to a decrease of the population in the urban centre (−55% in the worst case in Brussels, −16% in Helsinki) and other urban areas (respectively −28% and −05%), and an even more significant increase of the average home–work travel distance (respectively +124% and +122%). In the same time, employment is concentrating in the urban centre. It is worthwhile noting that households decide to out-migrate towards suburban areas not only because of the improved accessibility by public transport but also because of the consequent better accessibility by road (the modal shift due to the public transport investments alleviates to some extent the congestion on the roads). It is indeed well known that generally, in congested areas, at short term (i.e. without change in location), the users who benefit the most from public transport investments, in terms of travel time savings, are the car drivers (because of the alleviation of congestion), rather than the public transport users. The Helsinki scenario with implementation of the HMA transport investment plan alone (111H) does not lead to sprawl, instead, because the investments are in many cases only extensions and mainly orbital (not radial) extensions. On the other hand, in the case of Brussels, the rail scheme with more orbital connections (added up to a radial scheme improvement) leads to more sprawl than the purely radial one. As it will be shown in the next section, similar sprawl effects occur in the scenarios simulating a decrease of public transport fare by 20% (scenarios 512B–512H). With regard to the use of car, the public transport investments lead evidently to an improvement of the indicators: increase of the public transport share, decrease of the car mileage, decrease of the CO2 emissions (for emissions by 12% in Brussels and by 2% in Helsinki, in the scenarios mentioned above). However, the total short-term improvement (i.e. the improvement which would have occurred if there was no change in activity location) would have been even higher. In other words, the lengthening of the trip distances (i.e. the urban sprawl) “consumes” a part of the potential benefits of the public transport investments.

9.7.2 Assessment of Accompanying Policies to the Public Transport Investments, Regarding the Objective of Urban Concentration To answer the second question “which policies are most effective to control sprawl and reduce its negative effects”, the simulation results from the Brussels and Helsinki case studies have been brought together for comparison. Each diagram illustrates the policy effects on one indicator. In these comparative diagram, each bar expresses the net effect of one policy scenario compared to the reference scenario (which includes the public transport investments). Comments and conclusions on the impacts of the individual measures and afterwards of the combinations of measures are given in the next subsections, following the diagrams (Figures 9.9–9.11 and 9.12–9.14).

Urban Sprawl and Transport 197

Variation of the number of households in the urban centre 5.00

Variation in %

4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 –1.00

311

313

321

331

411

412

423

512

813

–2.00 –3.00

Brussels

Helsinki

Variation of the number of households in the urban zones 2.00

Variation in %

1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00

311

313

321

331

411

412

423

512

813

–0.50 –1.00 –1.50

Brussels

Helsinki

Variation of the number of jobs in the urban centre 12.00 10.00

Variation in %

8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 –2.00

311

313

321

331

411

412

423

512

813

–4.00

Brussels

Helsinki

Figures 9.9–9.11: Impacts of the common scenarios in the two case cities

198 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

Variation of the number of jobs in the urban zones 3.00 2.50

Variation in %

2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 –0.50

311

313

321

331

411

412

423

512

813

–1.00

Brussels

Helsinki

Variation of the home-work travel distance in the study area 20.00 15.00

Variation in %

10.00 5.00 0.00 –5.00

311

313

321

331

411

412

423

512

813

–10.00 –15.00 –20.00

Brussels

Helsinki

Variation of the average travel time in the study area 6.00

Variation in %

4.00 2.00 0.00

311

313

321

331

411

412

423

512

813

–2.00 –4.00 –6.00 Brussels

Helsinki

Figures 9.12–9.14: Impacts of the common scenarios in the two case cities

Urban Sprawl and Transport 199 First, we consider the criteria of urban concentration: The first set of diagrams deals with indicators reflecting the urban concentration/sprawl and the variation in the length and duration of trips.13

9.7.2.1

Land Use Measures and Car Pricing Measures

Land-related fiscal measures, land use regulatory measures, and car pricing measures (increase of car use cost per kilometre and cordon pricing) are effective to reduce urban sprawl. With regard to urban concentration and land consumption, policies effective in both cities are • road pricing; • tax (“impact fee”) on new suburban residential developments. With regard to the measures addressing the location of offices (321–331: constraining regulatory measure to oblige or fiscal measure to incite offices to locate around rail stations), the potential effectiveness depends on the percentage of jobs already located in that kind of zones, in the reference scenario. For example, the percentage was 37% in Brussels versus 70% in Helsinki, which explains that the policy appears to be much more effective in Brussels than in Helsinki.

9.7.2.2

Fiscal Measure on Residential Developments Compared to Car Pricing

When looking at the indicators “number of households in the urban zones”, the tax policies (311–313) (“impact fee”) score roughly as well as the car use cost increase (411). This result of course depends on the level of the respective parameters (new tax and cost increase). In 311, the tax level tested is 670 Euro/housing/year (which corresponds to a 13 400 Euro one-shot tax distributed over 20 years). In 313, the tax level is 1000 Euro/housing/year. In 411, the car use cost increase is +50%. It is therefore an original result from SCATTER to have demonstrated through the simulations that, with regard to improving the urban concentration, a taxation policy on new suburban residential developments is as effective as the better known policies of road pricing. That kind of fiscal measure (“impact fee”) has been among others recommended by the European Conference of Ministers of Transport.14 It is used for more than 3 decades in the United States, to control urban sprawl and to “internalise” to some extent the external costs of the suburbanisation. It appeared in the 1970s and has the form of a one-shot tax imposed to the developers for new suburban developments. Roughly,

13

The travel time indicator reflects both the variation in the length of trips and the variation in the modal repartition. 14 ECMT Round Table No. 124: Transport and Spatial Policies – The role of Regulatory and Fiscal Incentives. OECD Publishing, December 2004.

200 S. Gayda and K. Lautso it aims at financing the infrastructures and equipments on the area to be urbanised and also the works to connect these new infrastructures and equipments to the existing networks. Currently, this tax exists in 23 States as a legal tool, aiming to cover in any new housing development the long-term marginal cost of the improvements to be provided to infrastructures, equipments, and services. However the jurisdictions have the power to charge the fees or not, and currently only a low percentage of the jurisdictions actually operates this instrument.

9.7.2.3

Fiscal Measure on Offices Compared to Car Pricing

It is also worthwhile comparing the effects on employment of the scenarios 321, 331, and 411. The regulatory measure 321 (obligation for all jobs of some tertiary sectors to locate in A-type zone15 ) is the most effective one, with regard to the concentration of jobs, but is difficult to be implemented. The measure 331 works towards the same objective, but through a fiscal means: it consists in a tax amounting to the actual cost of a yearly public transport season ticket (1985 Euro for Brussels, 710 Euro for Helsinki). When looking at the indicator “number of jobs in the urban zones”, the measure 331 appears to be at least as effective as the measure 411. Again, the results of course depend on the level of the respective parameters (tax and cost increase).

9.7.2.4

Measures Repulsive for Workplaces

Cordon pricing (412) and parking policies (423) are effective too. However, they were not kept in the final packages (i.e. 811–813) because they produce a repulsive effect on employment. In scenario 423 (Brussels local scenario), the parking restrictions are carefully balanced between the urban centre (the Brussels-Capital Region) and the urban centres of the two other Regions, the Flemish and Walloon Regions, so that the Brussels Region undergoes no decrease in employment. On the other hand, it is worth comparing the results of scenario 411 (increase of the car use cost by 50% on the whole study area) with those of 412 (cordon pricing – various tariffs according to the case cities). Both policies have a strong effect on the location of households, but they have opposite effects as regards employment. When the car use cost increases everywhere, the employment tends to re-centralise, because in that case, the central agglomeration, better served by public transport and more generally by radial-form transport networks, remains the most efficient place where to be. But when a cordon pricing is implemented, the employment tends to move outside the cordon, sometimes in municipalities located close to the external border of the cordon. Anyway, in both scenarios, the average home–work trip distance decreases. A final remark is that, generally speaking, the level of the variations may seem low (a few percents) because it is calculated on the total population or total employment.

15

According to the ABC land use theory developed in the Netherlands, “A-type” zones are zones very well served by public transport, at regional or even national scale (e.g. locations served by inter-city railway stations).

Urban Sprawl and Transport 201 When interpreting these results, some categories of households and of economic activities are not affected by the improvements in accessibility. For example, the retired or old people are not likely to be encouraged to move towards suburban areas whatever the improvements in travel times. In the case of Brussels, for example, this category represents 25% of the households (2001). Similarly, central administrations, universities, as well as heavy industries do not respond to a local demand, but rather to an inter-regional or national demand; their location is therefore not or little influenced by the local accessibilities.

9.7.2.5

Some Further Results from the Brussels Local Scenarios16

Further to the common results, here are a few more results from the Brussels local scenarios. First, the results show that any improvement of the transport system at regional scale is an incentive to urban sprawl. Experts agree on the fact that the main causes of the residential sprawl are the increase of household income, the inadequacy of the housing market compared to the demand, and the reduction of travel times and costs. The consequence is that any measure significantly decreasing the generalised transport cost (i.e. the travel time and/or the travel cost) between the suburban areas and the urban centre generates urban sprawl. This is illustrated in particular by the Brussels local scenarios 518 (improving the intermodality at railway stations), 519 (increasing the commercial speed of the bus services driving users towards the REN stations) and the scenarios 511–514 (decrease of the public transport fare). On the contrary, an improvement of the public transport limited to the territory of the central urban area makes this area more attractive both for households and economic activities and leads to a concentration of activities. The scenario 517 in which the public transport speed is improved only on the territory of the Brussels-Capital-Region17 leads to an increase of both households and employment in the Capital Region. Restrictive parking policies have a repulsive effect on employment. Generally speaking, the simulation results confirm that strong parking restriction measures can put to flight tertiary employment. The results of the Brussels local scenarios 421, 422, 423, 424 highlight the fact that the effects of the measures are quite different, as regards the attractiveness of the central agglomeration, according to whether the restriction measures are applied essentially to the Brussels-Capital Region or as well to the urban centres in the periphery. In the former case (scenario 421), the measure leads to a decrease of employment in the Brussels-Capital Region. In the latter case (scenario 423), the central position of the agglomeration makes it more attractive than the other urban centres, and the Brussels-Capital Region is winner in this competition (Figures 9.15–9.17). 16

The detailed definition of the local scenarios is available in the Deliverable D5–D6 of SCATTER. Increase of the speed of the surface public transport (bus and tramways) in the Brussels-Capital Region from 13 km/h to 18 km/h.

17

202 S. Gayda and K. Lautso Brussels case city: Effect of policies on the number of induced households in urban zones

Number of induced households

7% 6% 313

5%

312

4% 3%

321

813

2% 1% 0%

311 302 112113114115

811812

411 331 412 413 322

422 423424 425

421

301

516 515 517

513 511512

–1%

521

518519

–2% 121

514

–3%

Tested scenario

Figure 9.15: Brussels case study – effect of the individual measures on the number of induced18 households in urban areas Brussels case city: Effect of policies on the number of induced employments in urban zones

Number of induced employments

7% 6%

321

5% 4% 3% 812813

2% 312313

1% 0%

112113114

302311

413

322

–3%

512 511

422

115121301

423 421

–1% –2%

811

331411

425

515 513 514

517518 519

516

521

412 424

Tested scenario

Figure 9.16: Brussels case study – effect of the individual measures on the number of induced jobs in urban areas 18 The model distinguishes between two categories of households (and the same for the jobs): induced house holds (jobs) versus basic households (jobs). Induced households include active people and therefore their location choice is influenced by the accessibility to work places. The basic households instead include no or almost no worker; their location choice is supposed not to be influenced by the accessibility. Typically retired people are classified in basic households, because they are no more active and furthermore because their residential mobility is low. With regard to the economic activities, induced jobs are those generated by the local demand (households and other economic activities), while basic jobs are generated by an external demand from outside the limits of the study area. Again, the location of the induced jobs is therefore influenced by the accessibility to the service/product consumers, while the location of the basic jobs is supposed not to be influenced by the accessibility (heavy industries, central administrations, uni versities, etc.). Consequently, in the simulations, basic households and jobs do not change their location; only induced households and jobs change their location due to the effect of the policies.

Urban Sprawl and Transport 203 Brussels case city: Effect of policies on the total car mileage in the study area 5% 515 516

331

0% 302 311 301

Total car mileage (mill.vehicle.km/a )

115

–5%

121

112

322

312 313

521 413

321

425

513

511

517 518 519

421

512 514

113

114

412

–10% 411

422

423

811

812 813

–15%

–20%

424

Tested scenario

Figure 9.17: Brussels case study – effect of the individual measures on the total car mileage in morning peak hours, in the study area

In conclusion, the spatial competition between municipalities or regional entities has to be carefully taken into consideration when implementing restrictive parking policies.

9.7.3 Assessment of the Accompanying Policies Regarding the Objective of Reduction of the Car Mileage The second set of comparative diagrams deals with transport indicators (Figures 9.18–9.20). Most effective measures to achieve a significant modal shift towards public transport and to reduce the car mileage are road pricing and parking policies. However, although they were most effective with regard to these criteria, the cordon pricing and the parking strategies were discarded from the final selection of measures for the combinations because of their negative effects on employment. In both cities, land use policies seem to have only little impact on the transport indicators and especially on the CO2 emissions, except the measure 331 in Brussels, which is quite drastic (regulatory measure forcing all jobs in the business services sector to locate in A-type zones). Several comments can be made on this result. Several experts have already stated that, although land use policies are not much effective by themselves to change the mobility pattern and the level of emissions, they set up a general context more favourable for the effectiveness of transport policies. There are furthermore other potential explanations: in the case of Brussels for example, the modal share of public transport (rail) for the trips between the furthest periphery and the centre is relatively high; if the inhabitants of these areas move towards the urban centre or secondary urban

204 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

Variation of the total car mileage in the study area 10.00 5.00

Variation in %

0.00 –5.00

311

313

321

331

411

412

423

512

813

–10.00 –15.00 –20.00 –25.00 –30.00 –35.00 –40.00 Brussels

Helsinki

Variation of the CO2 emissions in the study area 5.00

Variation in %

0.00 –5.00

311

313

321

331

411

412

423

512

813

512

813

–10.00 –15.00 –20.00 –25.00 –30.00

Brussels

Helsinki

Variation of the public transport share (points) 14.00

Variation in points

12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 311

313

321

331

411

412

423

–2.00 Brussels

Helsinki

Figures 9.18–9.20: Impacts of the common scenarios in the two case cities

Urban Sprawl and Transport 205 centres, it may be that the benefit in modal shift be low (however, there will still be the benefit in terms of land consumption). Another possible explanation is that in scenarios 321 and 331, where offices are moving towards urban centres, a part of the home–work travel distances decreases and another part increases, which again would lead to only a small benefit or no benefit. Finally, some observed facts seem to confirm the fact that land use policies alone have poor impact on congestion and transport emissions: Dutch researchers have analysed ex-post the long-term effects of the very firm land use planning strategy implemented by the Dutch government during the last decades. Roughly, this strategy aimed to a decentralised concentration (through the ABC and VINEX approaches). They came to the conclusion that these strategies were not as effective as expected to reach the objectives of reducing congestion and emissions due to transport.19

9.7.4 Combinations of Policies: Integrated Strategies Combinations of individual policies were tested and these simulations confirm that the best strategy is a combination of transport policy and land use policy. Generally speaking, the objective of policy packages is to combine the strengths and best qualities of individual measures and sometimes to even out the weaknesses or negative side effects of some of the measures used. Table 9.4 presents the values of some key indicators for the combination 813, which provides the best scores on the different criteria, in both cities. The best combination recommended by SCATTER (the scenario 813) combines • congestion pricing (increase of car use cost in congested areas during congestion period) – the measure simulated in scenario 813 was an increase by 50% of the car use cost per kilometre • reduction of the public transport fare (in principle only on the territory of the central agglomeration) – the measure simulated in scenario 813 was a reduction by 20%, either for the home–work trips only (Brussels) or for all trips (Helsinki) in the whole study area • tax (“impact fee”) on suburban residential developments – in the scenario 813, this measure was combined with a tax reduction for the housings in urban areas • tax on the offices not located in areas served by regional-level public transport (i.e. around railway stations). The reduction of the public transport fare at a regional level encourages sprawl, but has a positive effect on the modal share and the emissions due to transport. In fact, the most appropriate measure should be to implement the reduction of fare only inside the central city. Indeed, a simulation in the Brussels case (local scenario 517B) has shown that a reduction of the transport generalised cost (increase of the commercial speed of public 19

Ex-post evaluation of Dutch spatial planning and infrastructure policies, K. Geurs, B. Van Wee, A. Hoen, A. Hagen, European Transport Conference, Strasbourg, 2003.

Variation in the Number of Households in the Urban Centre (%)

Variation in the Number of Households in the Urban Zones (%)

Variation in the Number of Jobs in the Urban Centre (%)

Variation in the Number of Jobs in the Urban Zones (%)

Variation in the Average HomeWork Trip Distance (%)

Brussels combination 813B (scenario 813B assessed against 003B)

26

14

30

10

11

Helsinki combination 813H (scenario 813H assessed against 111H)

02

06

12

07

−03

Variation in the Public Transport Modal Share (Points)

Variation in the Total CO2 Emission (%)

−126

55

−141

−152

122

−122

Variation in the Total Car Mileage (%)

206 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

Table 9.4: Effects of the scenario 813 in Brussels and Helsinki

Urban Sprawl and Transport 207

15 000

12 308 8 585 7 486

–15 000 –20 000

–17 725

311

331

411

511

5 445

–4 181

Combination 813: 411 + 511 + 311 + 331

–10 000

7 282 3 798

Combination 811: 411 + 511 + 311

–5 000

result of the priority measures (3)

0

priority measures (2)

3 982

5 000

Combination 812: 411 + 511 + 331

10 000

RER network (1)

Change of the number of induced households

Effect of the measures on the number of induced households in the Brussels-Capital Region

–13 743

Scenario Types of scenarios: 2021 RER network Priority measures (new 2021 reference)

Decrease of PT fare Increase of car use cost

Fiscal measure on households Fiscal measure on services to business Combination of measures

(1) The effect of the RER network is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario (2) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 RER scenario (3) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario

The effects of the other measures are calculated in comparison with the priority measures

Figure 9.21: Brussels: how the scenario 813 together with the local investment plan

(“priority measures”) compensates the out-migration of households due to

the REN20

transport, as it was) territorially limited to the central area increases the attractiveness of the central area both for population and for jobs.

9.7.4.1

Different Contexts in Brussels and in Helsinki

The conclusions on the overall effectiveness of the policies also depend on the context to what the impacts are compared. In the case of Brussels, the indicator values have shown that the combination 813B (i.e. four measures combined with the local investment plan) could counterbalance the loss of population in the Brussels-Capital Region, which would be due to the REN. This is illustrated and explained in further detail in the “case study box” on Brussels (Figure 9.21). In the case of Helsinki, the relative effects of the combination 813 on the household location are smaller, probably partly due to land use regulatory constraints; the combination 813H could however counterbalance an intensive transport investment policy (such as scenario 116H); but the overall effect of the policy 813 is small compared to the general trend of sprawl in the Helsinki region, due to the population growth and the economic growth (Figure 9.22). The population growth is supported by a strong trend of migration from rural areas towards the metropolitan area.21

20

The scenarios 511, 411, 311, 331 illustrated in this figure are defined in Table 9.2.

This does not influence the net assessment of the policies, as the policy results are compared to the

2020 situation.

21

208 S. Gayda and K. Lautso 30.0%

% 2005 % 2010

25.0%

Households

% 2015

20.0%

% 2020

15.0% 10.0% 5.0% 0.0% Hel Centre

Inner HMA

Outer HMA

5.0%

HMA Suburbs

Oth Urban

Rural

% 2005 % 2010

Households

% 2015 % 2020

0.0%

l

He

A

A

tre

M

M

n ce

n

In

H er

H er

ut

O

A

HM

s rb bu Su

n

ba

th

Ur

l

ra

Ru

O

–5.0%

Figure 9.22: Helsinki – top: evolution 2000–2020 due to the base trend; bottom: effect of combination 813

CASE STUDY BOX The Brussels Case Study – Evaluation of Accompanying Measures to The Regional Express Railway Network and Building of an Integrated Strategy by Means of a Land-Use/Transport Model Brussels is a metropolitan area of about 2.9 million inhabitants (2001).22 Its central part, the so-called Brussels-Capital Region, is an important administrative capital, grouping a little less than 1 million inhabitants. The Region has lost population for 30 years (about 120 000 inhabitants), while the total number of jobs (about 650 000) remained rather stable. The evolution of the urbanisation in the Brussels metropolitan area can be summarised as follows: between 1991 and 2000, the urbanised land has increased by 18.1%, while the population has increased by only 3.3%, the number of households by 4.3%, and the number of jobs by 12.1%.23 22 As defined in this study, the Brussels metropolitan area includes 135 communes, that is, munici

palities.

23 The amount of urbanised land is estimated from the national Land Register, from the built-up

parcels (whatever the share of the built-up on the parcel).

Urban Sprawl and Transport 209 On the other hand, since the efficiency of the public transport network between the periphery and the urban centre is too low, the authorities have decided to implement what could be called a “regional metro” on the existing railway tracks: This is the “Regional Express railway Network” (REN), linking the suburban area to the urban centre of the metropolitan area. Previous studies have shown that the implementation of the REN would generate a new wave of sprawl of the population, together with a concentration of employment. The authorities therefore launched a new study to test and evaluate accompanying measures to the REN to counterbalance the accelerating effect of REN on urban sprawl in the long term, as well as to reinforce the positive effect of REN on the modal repartition.

Evaluation of the Effects of the REN The net effect of the REN itself is an out-migration of about 12 400 households from the urban zones24 −14%, a concentration of about 4200 jobs in the urban areas +03%, and a reduction of car mileage by about 775 000 vehicle-km −62%, during the two morning peak hours, in the whole study area. Regarding the BrusselsCapital Region, the number of households would decrease by about 17 700 −36%, the number of jobs would increase by about 5300 +07%.

Evaluation and Strategy Building Process Within the study, the overall policy evaluation process comprised three steps: (1) accompanying measures were assessed individually, one by one; (2) a set of mea sures was selected as “priority measures” by the authorities; (3) additional measures were recommended by the consultant, on the basis of the simulation results, to be added up to the “priority measures”.

The Priority Measures The priority measures were selected because they are in line with the objectives of the federal/regional authorities and very probably will be implemented in the near future. As well as the individual measures, the package of priority measures and the package of “priority measures + additional measures” were each simulated and evaluated using the land-use/transport model of the Brussels metropolitan area. The priority measures were the following ones: • implementation of a new network of regional express buses (19 new lines in all) that complements the REN; • increase of the commercial speed of surface public transport services within the Brussels-Capital Region; 24 The urban zones include the 19 communes of the Brussels-Capital Region and 41 other communes, among the total of 135 communes in the study area.

210 S. Gayda and K. Lautso • increase of the commercial speed of the buses which drive the users towards the REN stations, in the periphery; • in the city-centre (five communes): improvement of the quality of life in the res idential neighbourhoods through diversion of the road through traffic, traffic calming, greening, improving the safety for children; • in the whole territory of the Brussels-Capital Region: implementation of a hierarchy in the road network, which leads to a reduction of the network capacity by about 15%. This is a necessary corollary of the previous mea sure (diversion of the transit traffic and traffic calming) and is also nec essary in order to build dedicated lanes and rights-of-way for the public transport.

The Final Package of Measures: The Priority Measures + The Measures Recommended by Scatter Finally, four further accompanying measures were recommended by SCATTER to be combined with the “priority measures” into an integrated strategy to reach the objectives of counterbalancing the wave of sprawl due to the REN and reinforcing the savings in terms of vehicle-km travelled by car. The four recommended measures are those described in the main text of this chapter, namely, increase of the cost of car use, reduction of the fare of public transport, tax on new housing developments in suburban/rural areas, tax on offices located in areas not served or poorly served by public transport. Figures A.1–A.5 illustrate • the net effect of the implementation of the REN (first bar) • the global effect of the five “priority measures” (second bar), and this effect added up to the effect of the REN (third bar) • the effect of each of the four accompanying measures further recommended by the consultant (four next bars)25 • the effect of the combination of three of the four recommended measures and the effect of the combination of the four measures together (three last bars). The total effect due to the REN + the five priority measures + the four measures recommended by the consultant is therefore represented by the sum of the two first bars + the last bar.

25

The scenarios 511, 411, 311, 331 illustrated in Figure A.1 are defined in Table 9.2.

Urban Sprawl and Transport 211 Effect of the measures on the number of induced households in the Brussels-Capital Region 12 308 8 585 7 486

–15 000 –20 000

331

311

411

511

–4 181

Combination 813: 411 + 511 + 311 + 331

–10 000

5 445

Combination 812: 411 + 511 + 331

–5 000

7 282 3 798

result of the priority measures (3)

0

priority measures (2)

3 982

5 000

Combination 811: 411 + 511 + 311

10 000

RER network(1)

Change of the number of induced households

15 000

–13 743

–17 725

Scenario Types of scenarios: 2021 RER network Priority measures (new 2021 reference)

Decrease of PT fare Increase of car use cost

Fiscal measure on households Fiscal measure on services to business Combination of measures

(1) The effect of the RER network is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario (2) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 RER scenario (3) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario

The effects of the other measures are calculated in comparison with the priority measures

Figure A.1: Effects of the selected measures on the number of induced households in the Brussels-capital region

Effects of the measures on the number of induced households in the urban zones of the study area

–15 000

8 076

7 925

–3 620

Combination 813: 411 + 511 + 311 + 331

4 917

331

411

–2 187

–10 000

511

–12 384

–5 000

result of the priority measures (3)

priority measures (2)

0

311

4 844

Combination 812: 411 + 511 + 331

6 778

5 000

Combination 811: 411 + 511 + 311

12 575

10 000

RER network(1)

Change of the number of induced households

15 000

–14 571

–20 000

Scenario Types of scenarios: 2021 RER network Priority measures (new 2021 reference)

Decrease of PT fare Increase of car use cost

Fiscal measure on households Fiscal measure on services to business Combination of measures

(1) The effect of the RER network is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario (2) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 RER scenario (3) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario

The effects of the other measures are calculated in comparison with the priority measures

Figure A.2: Effects of the selected measures on the number of induced households in urban areas

Effect of the measures on the number of induced jobs in the Brussels-Capital Region 25 000 20 781

21 776

20 000 15 000

13 178

12 047 9 640

10 000 4 298

Combination 813: 411 + 511 + 311 + 331

Combination 812: 411 + 511 + 331

Combination 811: 411 + 511 + 311

411

511

result of the priority measures (3)

331

1 284

100

priority measures (2)

0

9 442

311

5 342

5 000

RER network (1)

Change of the number of induced jobs

212 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

Scenario Types of scenarios: 2021 RER network Priority measures (new 2021 reference)

Decrease of PT fare Increase of car use cost

Fiscal measure on households Fiscal measure on services to business Combination of measures

(1) The effect of the RER network is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario (2) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 RER scenario (3) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario

The effects of the other measures are calculated in comparison with the priority measures

Figure A.3: Effects of the selected measures on the number of induced jobs in the brussels-capital region

11 518

12 000

12 311

10 000 7 447

8 000

6 193

5 490

6 000 4 154

4 000

6 550

3 293

2 000

1 021

Types of scenarios: 2021 RER network Priority measures (new 2021 reference)

Combination 813: 411 + 511 + 311 + 331

Combination 812: 411 + 511 + 331

Combination 811: 411 + 511 + 311

331

311

411

511

result of the priority measures (3)

priority measures (2)

179

0

RER network (1)

Change of the number of induced jobs

Effects of the measures on the number of induced jobs in the urban zones of the study area 14 000

Scenario

Decrease of PT fare Increase of car use cost

Fiscal measure on households Fiscal measure on services to business Combination of measures

(1) The effect of the RER network is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario (2) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 RER scenario (3) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario

The effects of the other measures are calculated in comparison with the priority measures

Figure A.4: Effects of the selected measures on the number of induced jobs in urban areas

Urban Sprawl and Transport 213

Effect of the measures on the CO2 emissions due to transport at the morning peak hours (7h–9h)

Combination 813: 411 + 511 + 311 + 331

331

–33

Combination 812: 411 + 511 + 331

11 Combination 811: 411 + 511 + 311

–1 311

411

–188

511

–200

result of the priority measures (3)

–150

–50 –100

priority measures (2)

0

RER network (1)

Variation of the CO2 emissions in tons/2h (morning peak)

50

–278

–279

–158

–179

–250 –300

–289

–350

–367

–400

Tested scenarios (1) The effect of the RER network is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario (2) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 RER scenario (3) The effect of the priority measures is calculated in comparison with the 2021 reference scenario

The effects of the other measures are calculated in comparison with the priority measures

Figure A.5: Effects of the selected measures on the CO2 emissions due to transport, in the morning peak hours

Conclusion The indicator values show that the final package of measures (five priority measures selected by the authorities + four measures recommended by SCATTER) is able to counterbalance the loss of population in the Brussels-Capital Region which would be due to the REN. Other accompanying measures recommended as well were (a) to implement an “observatory of sustainable development” covering the area which will be served by the REN, (b) to monitor and follow-up the impacts of the accompanying measures.26

9.8 CONCLUSIONS – POLICY IMPLICATIONS The final aim of the SCATTER project was to elaborate policy recommendations addressed to local and regional policies. Four recommendations were directly derived from the policy simulations described in this chapter, and the present conclusions focus on these recommendations. Some other ones were derived from case studies and other qualitative approaches.

26

For more detail on the case city Brussels and the policies which were simulated in Brussels, see the Deliverable D5–D6 of SCATTER.

214 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

9.8.1 Which Accompanying Measures to Regional-Level Public Transport Investments? The policy simulations confirmed that public transport investments indeed generate sprawl, if they extend to the suburban or rural areas, if they provide a significant improvement in the accessibility, and whether the network is radial or radial and orbital. Given the negative effects of urban sprawl (in particular environmental effects), this creates the need to design and implement accompanying measures to these new pub lic transport investments, in order to counteract the launch of a new wave of urban sprawl. The issue constitutes an excellent illustration of the need of an integrated landuse/transport strategy, as the objectives to be followed are multiple and may seem contradictory: favouring a strong modal shift from car to public transport on the one hand, counteracting the tendency to sprawl on the other hand.

9.8.2 More Generally: Which Are the Target Cities? The SCATTER recommendations are intended for any small, medium-size or large cities implementing new public transport which will improve the accessibility with suburban areas, but also, more generally, for cities and suburban municipalities involved in a sprawl process, or any cities concerned by sustainable urban development, like those who are committed in the Aalborg process.27 Some of these recommendations can be implemented at the local, municipal level; some others require coordination at a supra-municipal level.

9.8.3 Policy Recommendations Derived from the Policy Simulations The simulation results showed that • with regard to urban concentration and land consumption, the most effective policies are: • road pricing • tax on new suburban residential developments • in some cases, a tax to encourage offices to locate in zones served by highquality public transport (e.g. around rail stations) or constraining regulatory measure with the same purpose. For this type of measure, the potential effec tiveness depends of the percentage of jobs already located in that kind of zones, in the reference scenario.

27 The Aalborg Charter is a Charter about sustainable urban development and was adopted at the First European Conference on Sustainable Cities and Towns, which took place in Aalborg, Denmark, in 1994. The 4th European Sustainable Cities and Towns Conference, which took place in 2004 (“Aalborg+10”), adopted the “Aalborg + 10 Commitments”, which are seen as an important step from theory to real actions. Cities having signed the Commitments agree to make an environmental review of their city, identify targets and monitor progress.

Urban Sprawl and Transport 215 Cordon pricing and parking policies are effective too. However, they were not kept in the final packages because they produce a repulsive effect on employment; • with regard to climate change and air pollution, the most effective policies are road pricing and parking policies. In this respect, land use policies seem to have only little impact, except a drastic regulatory measure on office location in Brussels. Consequently, the first three policy recommendations of SCATTER are 1. congestion pricing (i.e. car use cost increase in congested areas, at peak hours) 2. tax on new suburban housing developments, possibly combined with a tax reduc tion for housings in urban areas 3. tax on all offices located in zones not served or poorly served by public transport (e.g. offices should be located around regional-level rail stations). A fourth policy recommendation also derived from the simulations is 4. reduction of the public transport fare territorially limited to the central agglom eration (indeed a reduction of fare at regional level encourages sprawl, whereas a reduction of fare inside the central area should increase its attractiveness – both measures have of course a positive effect on the modal share).

9.8.4 General Comments on the Four Policy Recommendations All these policies are pricing policies or fiscal measures. Three of them appeal to the general principle “polluter pays” which is considered by the economists as the most adequate means to distribute among users the external costs of transport or land uses. Besides, pricing policies can generally be more easily adjusted to the observed problems (congestion, land consumption, spatial competition, etc.) than regulatory actions, and hence can be more effective. Finally, pricing polices also provide the governments with financial resources that could be invested, for example, in public transport policies or policies of renovation of urban centres. But on the counter-side, their acceptability is generally lower. Another point is that there are close interactions between the cost of transport and the land rent. Measures increasing the travel cost (and in particular the car use cost) can have significant effects on the land market. The more costly the transport is, the more this contributes to reduce the urban sprawl, the more there will be a pressure to an increase of the urban land rent. This increase in land rent may in turn have effects on the socio-spatial repartition and the social segregation. This effect is to some extent taken into consideration in the models.28

28

This effect is to some extent taken into consideration in the Helsinki model which includes a sub-model of land market.

216 S. Gayda and K. Lautso

REFERENCES Breheny, M. (1992). The contradictions of the compact city: A review. In M. Breheny, (Eds.) Sustainable Development and Urban Form (pp. 136–159). London: Pion. Cervero, R. (2001). Efficient urbanisation: Economic performance and the shape of the metropolis. Urban Studies 38 (10), 1651–1671. de la Barra, T. (1989). Integrated Land Use and Transport Modelling. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Echenique, M., Moilanen, P., Lautso, K. and Lahelma, H. (1995). Testing integrated transport and land-use models in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area. Traffic Engineering + Control (pp. 20–23). Ewing, R. (1994). Characteristics, causes and effects of sprawl: A literature review. Environ mental and Urban Issues. FAU/FIU Joint Centre. Gayda, S., Batty, M., Besussi, E., Chin, N., Haag, G., Binder, J., Martino, A., Lautso, K., Noël, C. and Dormois, R. (2003). The SCATTER Project – Sprawling Cities and Transport: from Evaluation to Recommendations. In the Proceedings of the European Transport Conference, Strasbourg. Gayda, S., Haag, G., Besussi, E., Lautso, K., Noël, C., Martino, A., Moilanen, P. and Dormois, R. (2005). SCATTER, Sprawling Cities and Transport: from Evaluation to Recommen dations, Final Report, on behalf of the European Commission, DG Research. Gordon, P. and Richardson, H. W. (1997a). Are compact cities a desirable planning goal? Journal of the American Planning Association 63 (1) 95–106. Hall, P. (1993). Forces shaping urban Europe. Urban Studies 30 (8) 883–898. Prud’homme, R. and Lee, G. (1999). Size, sprawl, speed and the efficiency of cities. Urban Studies 36 (11) 1849–1858. SCATTER Deliverables: All the deliverables are downloadable from the project Web site http://scatter.stratec.be. Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. (1998). The Costs of Sprawl Revisited. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 10 Assessing Life Quality In Transport Planning And Urban Design Linda Steg, Judith de Groot, Sonja Forward, Clemens Kaufmann, Ralf Risser, Karel Schmeidler, Lucia Martincigh and Luca Urbani

10.1 INTRODUCTION Policies in the public space related to land use and traffic may significantly affect citizens’ quality of life (QoL). Because policy measures are generally aimed to increase QoL, it is thus important to assess how QoL of affected citizens is influenced and to examine whether policy measures in the public space do (indeed) have positive effects on QoL. QoL assessments are important for effective and efficient planning; policy measures will be more acceptable, and thus feasible, if they do not significantly decrease individual QoL. Establishing satisfying communication between decision-makers and users is an important basis for achieving co-operation from different segments of the population, which is important if they are expected to change behaviour in some way to achieve sustainability. Instruments to assess QoL may be an important tool for organising community participation, which is considered to be very important: Quality of life is not created by local professional staff acting as experts in imple mentation of a community’s vision and action plans. Instead, community quality of life is decided each day through the individual actions of a community’s residents. Therefore, these very residents are the only persons who can clearly articulate and implement the community ethos. It is the residents who must be empowered with the responsibility and luxury to frame the planning discussion. (Grunkemeyer and Moss, 2004, p. 33)

This implies that QoL issues should be considered when working on integrated land use and transport planning. All policy measures in the public space will, for logical reasons, involve at least five areas: (1) individual characteristics; (2) communication with other people or road users; (3) socialisation agents, culture, social establishment and media (summarised as social 217

218 L. Steg et al. aspects); (4) the infrastructure of the public space and (5) vehicle or mode characteristics. These areas interact, as reflected in the “diamond-shape” of Figure 10.1. This figure also underlines the necessity that several disciplines are involved in both planning and assessing effects of policy measures in the public space. The most relevant area of this diamond is related to infrastructure aspects, that is, most policy measures are infrastruc ture related. When hypothesising about how policy measures affect QoL aspects, we can start with the assumption that these changes will take place somewhere in the diamond below. Thus, aspects related to each of these themes should be taken into account when assessing the QoL of citizens.

Individual (psychology)

Communication between road users (social psychology)

Society/Structures (sociology)

Transport mode, “vehicle” (technology, psychology, sociology)

Infrastructure (technology, psychology, sociology)

Figure 10.1: Traffic system – diamond (Risser, 2004) QoL assessments do not routinely exist in the traffic and land use fields. Of course, some aspects that, according to literature, are related to QoL are taken care of – like accessibility, barrier-free environments, comfort, time-efficiency and many others. Other aspects related to QoL, such as independence, social relationships, personal values, envir onmental quality, are very rarely taken care of. As yet, no instruments are available to assess QoL issues comprehensively and systematically. The construct QoL is hardly ever applied as a holistic concept. Consequently, how QoL is affected by policies is hardly ever assessed appropriately. One may hope, though, that such assessments become more usual and are applied on a broad scale in the future. This is not easy to accomplish because of the lack of thorough knowledge about which QoL aspects should be considered when examining how policy measures affect QoL of citizens. Also, it is not known exactly which questions should be asked to assess the extent to which changes in the public space affect individual QoL. One of the goals of the European Commission (EC) Key Action “Cities of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage” is to improve QoL of cities in some respect. Whether QoL improves

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 219 or not has to be defined with the help of the involved segments of the population, given that QoL is a subjective issue by definition. Segmentation of the population is needed because various groups may have fundamentally different needs and interests. Policy measures may affect QoL of various groups differently, and conflicts of interest could result. Therefore, it should be examined how policy measures affect QoL of different user groups, for example, according to age, gender, mode choice or types of disabilities. People who have the power to shape transport and mobility preconditions should know as much as possible about what different groups of citizens perceive as supporting their own QoL and/or how to inform people on (positive) effects of behavioural changes on their QoL. Experts in the area usually indicate that, “yes of course”, they do consider QoL aspects. But we could not find any documents, either in printed literature or via the Internet, in which this is done systematically, professionally and scientifically. Accordingly, the ASI project – Assess Implementations in the frame of the Cities of Tomorrow – has aimed to find ways to define and assess QoL in relation to land use and transport planning. More specifically, the goal is to find out how issues of QoL are considered and taken care of in connection with implementation of the programme by the responsible groups and disciplines (e.g. politicians, planners, practitioners, researchers) and to develop a toolbox comprising instruments and guidelines to assess QoL effects of such policy measures. In this chapter, we discuss the main outcomes of the ASI project. The first part of the chapter discusses common practices on QoL definitions and assessments. In Section 10.2, we report results of a literature review on definitions of QoL and ways to assess QoL. In Section 10.3, we describe whether and how practitioners take into account QoL effects when designing and implementing transport and land use policies, by reviewing implementation of policies in cities that participated in the Cities of Tomorrow Programme. Also, requirements for instruments to assess QoL are discussed, as revealed from interviews and discussions with experts. The second part of the chapter focuses on the development and testing of instruments included in the toolbox to assess QoL in relation to land use and transport planning. In Section 10.4, we demonstrate the use of an instrument that enables decision-makers to assess effects of policy measures on QoL in general. Section 10.5 discusses instruments to assess effects of policies on urban QoL. Also, results of a pilot study are reported in which the instruments were tested. The practical value of the toolbox is described in Section 10.6.

10.2 QUALITY OF LIFE: A LITERATURE REVIEW 10.2.1 Defining Quality of Life QoL is a concept which in recent years has generated a great deal of interest, but it is not only a notion of the twentieth century. Rather it dates back to philosophers like Aristotle (384–322 BC) who wrote about “the good life” and “living well” and how public policy can help to nurture it. Much later, in 1889, the term quality of life was used in a statement by Seth: “We must not regard the mere quantity, but also the quality of “life” which forms the moral end” (Smith, 2000).

220 L. Steg et al. QoL has been the focus of many studies but a consensus as to how it should be defined has not been reached (Ormel et al., 1997; Lim et al., 1999; Smith, 2000; Snoek, 2000). Many definitions of QoL refer to “well-being”, “satisfaction” and “happiness”. Well being is either conceptualised as the objective living conditions of a person or the way a person perceives these conditions, that is, the subjective evaluation of living conditions (Nutbeam, 1998). Despite the lack of consensus, it is possible to discern some form of agreement. For instance, most researchers would argue that QoL is a multidimensional construct (Cum mins, 1999; Snoek, 2000; Hagerty et al., 2001) and that it reflects how well individual needs and values are fulfilled in various fields of life (Diener, 1995; Steg and Gifford, 2005). Three dimensions of QoL have been proposed (Finlay, 1997; Snoek, 2000): 1. Physical – health status; 2. Psychical – self-mastery, self-efficacy, love, satisfaction, happiness, morale, selfesteem, perceived control over life, social comparisons, expectations of life, beliefs and aspirations; 3. Social – Private: social network, social support, level of income, education and job. Public: community, climate, social security, quality of housing, pollution, aesthetic surroundings, traffic, transport, incidence of crime, equality and equity.

The three dimensions interact with each other and if one domain changes then the others may follow. The social dimension is further divided into a public and private domain. Kent (1997, in Massam, 2002) described QoL and the public domain in terms of the “public good” which he defined in terms of minimum income, social security, health and education, equity and relationships with the community. In addition to this, others have added safety from crime, low environmental pollution and reasonable house prices (Roseland, 1997); culturally desirable working and living conditions, low level of traffic (Transportation Research Board, 2001); aesthetic surroundings (Dalkey, 1972 in Andrews and Withey, 1976; Transportation Research Board, 1998); greater influence and public participation (Frankenhaeuser, 1976). Studies have found that communities who provide a high QoL have a competitive advantage when they try to attract both individuals and businesses (Winther, 1990; Transportation Research Board, 2001). However, evidence from many different studies show that the continuing urban growth and what that entails can destroy what we today value as contributing to our QoL. QoL is related to sustainable development (Burden, 2001; Steg and Gifford, 2005). Like QoL there is no definition of sustainable development that is universally accepted, but one proposed by the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission) has been cited frequently: “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs ” (OECD, 2001). Others have elaborated on the above, emphasising that sustainable development should ensure that environmental, social and economic issues are considered and sustained for an unforeseeable future (TDM, 2003).

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 221 The concept of QoL is highly relevant when considering sustainable development. It may be argued that QoL reflects the social dimension of sustainable development. This does not imply that QoL is affected by social conditions only. As described above, QoL may be affected by economic, social and environmental conditions. Since sustainability implies a balance between environmental, social and economic qualities, policies that seriously decrease individual’s QoL can hardly be called sustainable (Steg and Gifford, 2005).

10.2.2 Assessing Quality of Life How to measure QoL has been widely debated, and there is still a lack of standardised measures. Despite this, in the last 20 years, progress has been made and some form of agreement can be seen. Most researchers agree that measures of QoL should include subjective and objective indicators (Felce and Perry, 1995; Ormel et al., 1997; Kim and Cho, 2003; Marans, 2003). Objective indicators represent observable life conditions, while subjective indicators represent the individual’s appraisal of these conditions. QoL is usually assessed through the use of a set of indicators. The set of indicators should be “limited” so they can be understandable and not overly detailed, lengthy, or complex. The indicators should be “comprehensive” so that a substantial proportion of the most salient or critical aspects of society are included. (Andrews and Withey, 1976)

Transport and land use planning may affect individual QoL at different levels and in different domains. First, transport and land use planning may affect overall QoL, for example, when costs of car use would double, people may not be able to visit activ ities and locations that fulfil important needs such as social relations and leisure. In general, the intensity and way of travelling may have important consequences for QoL, since travelling enables one to fulfil various needs and goals, such as maintaining social relations, visiting leisure activities and attending classes. Thus, travel is an important element in the integration of society. Scholars from the University of Groningen devel oped an instrument to assess effects of environmental policies and/or conditions on QoL in general (see Steg and Gifford, 2005, for an overview). This instrument is based on research and theories on values and needs in relation to sustainable development and comprises 22 QoL indicators (Table 10.1). Effects of policy measures on QoL may be assessed by asking the public to what extent these policy measures would improve or deteriorate these 22 QoL aspects. The instrument proved to be successful in assessing QoL effects of environmental policies, among which are transport policies (see Steg and Gifford, 2005 for a review). This instrument may be included in our final toolbox to assess QoL effects of land use and transport planning. Therefore, we examined whether the instrument is useful to assess effects of transport policies on general QoL in different European Union (EU) countries (Section 10.4). Second, transport and land use policies may affect QoL in specific domains, such as the quality of the urban environment. For example, the quality of the neighbourhood may decrease when new road infrastructure is built due to traffic noise, local air pollution or lack of safe crossings. Various studies revealed important indicators of urban QoL, such as (traffic) safety and security, (traffic) noise, availability of facilities, accessibility of various destinations and public transportation, lively neighbourhoods, number of people around,

222 L. Steg et al.

Table 10.1: Description of 22 QoL indicators (Poortinga et al., 2004)

Indicator

Description

Comfort

Having a comfortable and easy daily life

Material beauty Status, recognition

Having nice possessions in and around the house Being appreciated and respected by others

Aesthetic beauty Security

Being able to enjoy the beauty of nature and culture Feeling attended to and cared for by others

Money, income

Having enough money to buy and to do the things that are necessary and pleasing

Partner and family

Having an intimate relation; having a stable family life and having good family relationships

Health Social justice

Being in good health; having access to adequate health care Having equal opportunities and having the same possibilities and rights as others; being treated in a righteous way

Leisure time

Having enough time after work and household work and being able to spend this time satisfactorily Having a varied life; experiencing as many things as possible

Change, variation Freedom Privacy Environmental quality Identity, self-respect Social relations Spirituality, religion Education Safety Nature, biodiversity

Challenge, excitement Work

Freedom and control over the course of one’s life, to be able to decide for yourself, what you do, when and how Having the opportunity to be yourself, to do your own things and to have a place for your own Having access to clean air, water and soil; having and maintaining a good environmental quality Having sufficient self-respect and being able to develop an own identity Having good relationships with friends, colleagues and neighbours Being able to maintain contacts and to make new ones Being able to live a life with the emphasis on spirituality and/or with your own religious persuasion Having the opportunity to get a good education and develop one’s general knowledge Being safe at home and in the streets; being able to avoid accidents and being protected against criminality Being able to enjoy natural landscapes, parks and forests; assurance of the continued existence of plants and animals and maintaining biodiversity Having challenges and experiencing pleasant and exciting things Having or being able to find a job and being able to fulfil it as pleasantly as possible

orderliness, pollution, aesthetics, availability of green areas and illumination of public spaces (Van Poll, 1997; Bonaiuto et al., 1999, 2003; Van Poll, 2003). Transport and land use planning may also affect QoL related to traffic and transport. For example, constructing a cycle lane improves cycling facilities, and thus the quality of the cycling experience. Unfortunately, no comprehensive instruments are available to assess effects of land use and transport planning on urban quality and QoL related to traffic and transport.

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 223 Because we think such instruments are highly valuable for our toolbox, we developed and tested relevant instruments within the ASI project (Section 10.5). QoL indicators may be assessed subjectively as well as objectively. When assessing how people feel about the community (subjective assessments), a survey is usually used. Survey studies may be aimed at assessing QoL in general, but also at assessing satisfaction with different QoL aspects. Typically, responses are given on a rating scale. The most common techniques use either a Likert-type scale (e.g. 1 = very satisfied 2 = satisfied 3 = not satisfied not dissatisfied 4 = dissatisfied 5 = very dissatisfied) or a bipolar scale in which the score is located on a single dimension (e.g. Delighted – Terrible). Several indices measure both satisfaction with various aspects of QoL and how important these aspects are (Ferrans and Powers, 1985; Gill and Feinstein, 1994; Felce and Perry, 1995; Cummins, 1999; Poortinga et al., 2001). The results from surveys can then be paired with objective data. Leitmann (1999) argued that objective QoL indicators should have the following char acteristics: • Measurable – indicators should be quantifiable; • Based on existing data – when possible, indicators should be derived from reliable existing information to speed up their use and minimise costs; • Affordable – the financial cost and time required to assemble and analyse indica tors should be prescribed by a predetermined budget; • Based on a time series – the same indicator should be collected over a regular interval so that change can be evaluated; • Quickly observable – indicators should change as conditions change so that they can accurately reflect reality; • Widely accepted – indicators should be understood and accepted by their users; • Easy to understand – indicators should be reported in a simple fashion so that a wide range of people can understand them; and • Balanced – indicators should be politically neutral and allow for measurement of both positive and negative impacts. Obviously, many of these characteristics are also important when considering subjective assessments of indicators. This list of requirements is quite idealistic. It may be hard to realise all requirements in practice. However, the list surely provides a standard to strive for.

10.3 PRACTICAL USE OF QoL ASSESSMENTS AND BARRIERS FOR IMPLEMENTATION We aimed to compare and supplement results of the (theoretical) literature review with ideas and conditions set by practitioners. This should facilitate the development of instruments to assess QoL that are not only theoretically sound but also feasible in practice. We examined how QoL issues are currently taken into account in land use and transport planning. Further, we studied whether practitioners think it is important

224 L. Steg et al. to consider QoL issues and their wishes and demands regarding instruments to assess effects of policy measures on QoL. For this purpose, first, we conducted a qualitative interview study among practitioners and experts who are involved in various LUTR (Land Use and Transport Research) projects (Section 10.3.1). Second, an international workshop was organised, in which experts from various fields discussed the needs and conditions for QoL assessments (Section 10.3.2).

10.3.1 Interviews with Participants in LUTR Projects In 2003, a qualitative interview study was conducted among experts participating in policy implementations connected to the LUTR programme. In total, 49 in-depth inter views were conducted. The interviews focused on ideas and definitions of QoL, relevant QoL indicators and the extent to which QoL-effects of policy measures are considered and assessed at different project stages. Five LUTR sites were selected in different European regions, that is, in North (ARTISTS in Malmö, Eskilstuna, Tierp, Sweden), East (ECOCITY in Trnava, Slovakia), South (PROMPT in Modena, Italy), West (EDICT in Eindhoven, the Netherlands) and Central Europe (ECOCITY in Bad Ischl, Austria). Only sites belonging to a LUTR project or at least a project within the City – of Tomorrow Programme were selected because these projects generally deal with the QoL of different target groups. Further, all project focused on transport issues, either on a theoretical, planning or implementation level. The most important objective of all projects is to develop guidelines or strategies to reach more sustainable cities by decreasing car use or driving speed and promoting other forms of sustainable transportation (walking included) via structural changes in the physical environment. However, the strategies followed differ for the various projects and sites. Most projects were in the planning phase; the implementation had not been realised. The Dutch project, EDICT, was just discontinued when the interviews took place. Thus, our evaluation focused on the extent to which QoL issues are considered in the planning phase of projects. At each site, in-depth interviews with about 10 experts who participated in the project development were conducted. As we aimed to get a broad overview of how QoL issues are being taken care of in LUTR projects, the selected group of experts was quite diverse, that is, they had different roles and tasks and occupied different functions within the policy-making, planning and implementation phases (i.e. city councillors, public administrators, policy advisors, traffic planners and scientists). We tried to interview experts with different disciplinary backgrounds. However, most experts appeared to have a technical professional background, such as engineering and architecture. Social and the economical trained scientists hardly participated in the five projects. The underrepresentation of economists and social scientists is remarkable because most projects dealt with QoL issues, which may be considered as the core business of economists and social scientists. As sustainable development implies balancing economic, environ mental and social costs and benefits (Section 10.2.1), multidisciplinary teams including economic, environmental and social scientists are needed. In each country, interview results were summarised and translated into English. Next, the full set of interviews was analysed. It appeared that QoL was defined quite differ

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 225 ently by the interviewees. No clear definition of QoL emerged from the data. Also, a large variety of QoL indicators were mentioned. Overall, 108 different indicators were identified. Regardless of the fact that no clear definition of QoL and QoL indicators was identified, the majority of respondents indicated QoL is specified and/or opera tionalised in their project, and in some cases even “measured” (e.g. via interviews, focus group interviews, observations, questionnaire studies or dialogues). QoL indicators were defined at different levels and focused on different domains. In most cases, the QoL indicators were related to transport (e.g. accessibility, transport services). Also, general social and environmental indicators were defined, such as comfort and a pleasant envi ronment. In many cases, respondents indicated QoL issues were considered only at the beginning of the project (before the implementation), while fewer respondents indicated QoL issues were considered during the whole project. One interesting finding is that answers of participants within a project did not correspond. Participants in the same project seem to disagree about the definition, operationalisation and measurement of QoL. This suggests that no clear procedures for assessing QoL effects of land use and transport plans are available.

10.3.2 Expert Workshop In 2004, a 2-day expert workshop was organised titled “Transport, town planning and quality of life” in Brno, Czech Republic. Participants were ASI partners, invited experts from LUTR sites (Section 10.3.1) and experts on QoL. The main aim of the workshop was to discuss the definition and measurement of QoL and QoL indicators, as appeared from the literature review and interview study, as well as from input from the workshop participants. Further, requirements for the practical use of QoL instruments to be included in the toolbox were discussed. Because some of the invited experts presented a paper on their own work as well, we had another opportunity to examine whether and how QoL is being taken care of in different land use and transport planning projects. In the workshop, some important issues were raised that are important for developing instruments to measure QoL in the urban context. It appeared that in many projects, QoL issues are being considered implicitly. The importance of considering QoL issues in transport and land use planning is widely acknowledged. Also, experts generally stressed that objective as well as subjective indicators of QoL should be considered, especially because quality is a subjective issue by definition. In accordance with the interview study, it appeared that people involved in land use and transport planning projects do not have much information about how to define and measure QoL. A toolbox comprising instruments for measuring QoL would be highly valued, because it could provide those involved in land use and transport planning with more precise information resulting in a more efficient and effective decision-making process. It was stressed that the toolbox should be highly practical, usable and very easy to understand and use for politicians and decision-makers. The toolbox should be easy to administer by relevant experts, such as town counsellors; for example, it should comprise a limited set of key indicators that could be measured relatively easily within a short time frame. More detailed instruments may be developed for expert use only, comprising a more elaborated set of key indicators. Relevant key indicators should be clearly defined because some indicators may have different meanings in different disciplines, and thus be a source of misunderstanding.

226 L. Steg et al. A toolbox should permit multiple uses, that is, the toolbox may be helpful in defining problems, in evaluating possible solutions for problems before actual policy measures are implemented and in evaluating the effects of such policies.

10.4 ASSESSING EFFECTS OF LAND USE AND TRANSPORT PLANNING ON QoL IN GENERAL As described in Section 10.2.2, an instrument was available to examine to what extent land use and transport planning would affect individual QoL in general (Poortinga et al., 2004, see Steg and Gifford, 2005). We further tested the practical value of this instrument in different cultures and contexts by conducting an Internet survey among 490 respondents in five different countries in the North, East, South, West and Centre of Europe, respectively (i.e. Sweden, Czech Republic, Italy, the Netherlands and Austria). A detailed description of the study design and results is given in De Groot and Steg (2006a,b). Here, we focus on the main results. First, we examined how a transport policy aimed to reduce car use, that is, doubling costs of car use, may affect individual’s QoL. Second, we studied to what extent respondents from the five EU countries would differ in their evaluation of expected changes in QoL changes when the policy would be implemented. Respondents indicated that this rather stringent measure would hardly affect their overall QoL. The expected changes in the 22 QoL indicators confirm this result: People expect that most QoL indicators would not change much when this policy is introduced. Figure 10.2 shows the expected consequences for QoL aspects that change most when costs of car use are doubled. Some relatively large negative changes are expected for the aspects comfort, money/income, freedom, change/variation, leisure time and work. There are only three QoL aspects

1.5

Environment

Nature

Safety

Leisure

Work

Change

–0.5

Freedom

0

Money

0.5

Comfort

Expected QoL change

1

–1 –1.5

Figure 10.2: Expected changes in QoL aspects that change most strongly when prices of car use double

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 227 that are expected to improve: environmental quality, nature and biodiversity and safety. Because respondents indicated that their overall QoL would hardly be affected by this policy, these results suggest that negative changes in QoL may be compensated by aspects that are expected to improve. Results of this study further showed differences between the five countries in expectations on changes in QoL when prices of car use would double. In general, respondents from the Netherlands and Sweden are more pessimistic about possible effects on their QoL than are respondents from the Czech Republic, Italy and, to a lesser degree, Austria. More specifically, they expect the policy to have less positive effects and more negative effects. It is important to understand why people in different countries expect different QoL effects from this policy because this may reveal how possible negative QoL effects may be prevented and/or compensated. The differences in expected QoL effects may be due to differences between the countries in, for example, spatial structure, or the availability and quality of various travel modes, which may affect car dependency in those countries. Because transport policies will be less acceptable, less feasible and less effective if they have significant negative impacts on QoL (Steg and Gifford, 2005), studies like this could provide recommendations on how to adjust or supplement policies that guarantee effective and efficient decision-making.

10.5 ASSESSING EFFECTS OF POLICY MEASURES ON URBAN QoL 10.5.1 Instruments to Assess Effects of Policy Measures on Urban QoL 10.5.1.1 Defining Urban QoL Based on the outcomes of the previous phases of ASI (i.e. literature reviews, extensive interviews and discussions with experts), instruments were developed to assess effects of policy measures on urban QoL. It was decided that the instruments should meet the following general requirements: • • • •

they should explicate the object of evaluation (what to measure); they should explicate the methodology to be used (how to measure and assess); they should include objective as well as subjective indicators; they should be as simple as possible, easy to administer, yet still be profound and comprehensive to assess the influence of land use and transport policies, strategies, plans and designs on the quality of the living environment of users involved.

The main assumption behind our approach is that QoL should be evaluated first of all by examining user perceptions, that is, what users see and care for, because this is what eventually has to be improved. Planners and technicians though can act only on objective situations. These can be regarded as the handle to be used for influencing user perceptions and satisfaction. Therefore, a key set of indicators was defined for which

228 L. Steg et al. objective data as well as subjective evaluations may be collected. Subjective aspects are related to people’s values and perception of the environment and can be investigated only via interviewing people (e.g. via questionnaires or personal interviews). Objective aspects are related to the environment in which people move, to its performances and to the way in which it is used by users. These objective aspects can be directly or indirectly assessed without any critical participation of users. To get a broader view, perceptions of experts involved in the project may also be assessed by using the instruments developed to assess user perceptions. This enables one to compare expert views with user perceptions. Based on the literature review, expert interviews and workshop, a list of “high level” enquiry fields was developed, reflecting main categories of urban QoL indicators. For each category, specific indicators were defined (Table 10.2). Measuring methods and guidelines were outlined for both subjective and objective assessments. A questionnaire was developed for subjective evaluations to administer to users and experts, before and after the implementation. Furthermore, a list of (objective) parameters to be assessed by skilled technicians including user guidelines was compiled. Each of these will be explained below.

Table 10.2: Overview of key set of QoL indicators and way to assess these indicators objectively Mobility for all (availability and accessibility) Percentage of residents with an access to the public transport network nearer than 500 m

Percentage of access points to public transport with total accessibility

Percentage of public transport means with total accessibility

Percentage of sidewalks with total accessibility

Percentage of pedestrian crossings with total accessibility

Travel time/distance ratio

A safe environment (safety) Number of accidents (considering all the possible combinations cars/motorbikes/bicycles/pedestrians) Percentage of users which witnessed, directly or indirectly, a traffic accident in the area during the last 5 years

Percentage of street-km in the network with 30 km/h (or lower) speed limit

Percentage of street-km in the network with 30 km/h (or lower)

Actual speed measured

A comfortable environment (comfort) Percentage of pedestrians using legal crossings (in comparison with the total crossing flow)

Percentage of pedestrians using sidewalks (in comparison with total longitudinal flow)

Percentage of traffic light with pedestrians’ red phase longer than x seconds

Yellow traffic-light phase

Percentage of streets with sidewalks wider than 3 m

Percentage of streets with open-air noise > 55 dBA

Percentage of streets with in-house noise > 45 dBA

Traffic flow volume and composition

A secure environment (security) Percentage of users who witnessed, directly or indirectly, a petty crime episode in the area during the last 5 years

Number of lights/m2

Amount of light lumen/m2

Number of open activities/m along the street (day/night)

Number of “eyes and ears” along the street (day/night)

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 229 Table 10.2: (Continued) A clean environment (cleanliness, no pollution) Percentage of overfilled garbage bins (just before the garbage collection)

Number of wastes left on the ground/m

An appealing environment (aesthetics) Number of interesting views present on the path

Number of green elements/m or percentage of green area/m

Number of landmarks and/or point of reference/m

Percentage of the rectilinear length of the path

A busy environment (availability facilities) Number of services per metre of path (opening times: day/night)

Number of shops per type: daily, weekly, per metre and opening times (day/night)

Number of facilities (bar, coffee shop, restaurants, kiosks, etc.) per metre of path (opening times:

day/night) A lively environment (social aspects) Number of formal and informal seats (benches, stools, sitting walls, balustrades, rails, columns) Number of squares, widening Number of elements of urban furniture/m

The overall evaluation of policies will be based on analysing the subjective data (from users and experts) as well as the objective data. Comparisons may be made between objective indicators and subjective judgements, between user and expert perceptions, and before and after the implementation.

10.5.1.2 Subjective Evaluation of Urban QoL Indicators The questionnaire is composed of two parts. The first part focuses on general information about the interviewees (gender, age, mobility habits, etc.) as well as on information regarding the context in which the interview takes place (e.g. season, hour, location). The second part, which represents the core of the questionnaire, comprises questions strictly related to relevant indicators to be investigated. For each indicator listed in Table 10.2, interviewees are asked about their satisfaction with the particular indicator and the importance they assign to the indicator. In the pilot study (Section 10.5.2), satisfaction was expressed on a yes/no basis,1 while importance was rated at a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 “not important at all” to 5 “very important”. The judgements on importance (important vs. not important) and satisfaction (yes vs. no) may be combined and plotted in a two-dimensional Cartesian Plane (Figure 10.3). The positioning of each indicator in the four quadrants helps to focus possible interventions so as to address the most urgent and relevant issues.

10.5.1.3 Objective Evaluation of Urban QoL Indicators Table 10.2 gives an overview of how to assess the indicators objectively. Objective measurements are to be made with different methods, for example, direct observations, measurements, brief interviews, surveys, map analysis or archive data collection. The 1

In the final instrument, satisfaction will be measured using Likert-type scales as well, see Section 10.5.3.

urgent intervention high relevance

importance

230 L. Steg et al.

no need of intervention high relevance satisfaction level

urgent intervention low relevance

no need of intervention low relevance

Figure 10.3: Cartesian plane method to be used depends on the aspect to be assessed. Data may be reported with general and thematic symbolic mapping. All data may be printed in a multidimensional picture of the local situation, focusing on aspects that influence urban QoL with regard to mobility. Data should be collected by skilled technicians following the guidelines provided (Figure 10.4) to ensure reliable and valid results that are replicable. For each indicator, reference values were deducted from previous research works (mainly studies A sidewalk is accessible if: • it has a minimum width of 1.50 m along 60% of its length • it does not have any passage narrower than 0.90 m • it has an access point (i.e. ramp) at the two ends and at least every 100 m • it has an even surface

Figure 10.4: Guidelines for measuring indicators objectively: how to recognize an accessible sidewalk

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 231 conducted in the LUTR cluster, such as PROMPT and ARTISTS) or from national and international standards, such as World Health Organization (WHO) indications, European norms, Italian laws and Italian National Research Council (CNR) norms. Data can be collected by using simple tools such as tape measures to determine the width of sidewalks or simply counting of traffic flows. In other cases, special equipment is needed, for example, for assessing noise or car speed. In many cases, data can be collected through direct observations of user’s behaviour. For instance, assessing the share of pedestrians “legally” crossing at signed point of total crossing pedestrians provides clear information about the efficiency of street design, in particular of the crossing points’ displacements and effectiveness. Some objective data have to be collected via brief interviews with users. Information about modal split and transportation systems’ efficiency may be assessed through inter views with arriving people, by asking them about their point of departure, travel time and transport mode used. Interviews may also be used when statistical data is not reliable because of small sample sizes or difficulties in achieving data. For example, traffic safety can be evaluated indirectly by computing the share of users who witnessed, directly or indirectly, at least one traffic accident in the area during the last 5 years. Finally, information can be achieved directly from maps and archives. These can be used, for instance, to compute the number of dwellers who have access to public transport within 500 m from their homes or to simply retrieve accident data.

10.5.2 Pilot Study The instruments to assess urban QoL were first tested in a pilot study conducted in the town of Umbertide, in the province of Perugia, Central Italy, where the town municipality planned the implementation of a new cycle path. They aimed to construct a cycle ring running around the main residential area of Umbertide (Figure 10.5). The object of the ASI pilot study was a stretch of about 1.2 km that links two parks, two supermarkets

Figure 10.5: Construction of a new cycle path in Umbertide, Italy

232 L. Steg et al. and a school. The main part of the planned stretch runs along a wide and straight road with rather fast driving cars (i.e. Via Morandi). The cycle path was planned and realised mainly on the sidewalks with the idea of avoiding interferences between cars and bicycles. The intervention was in most cases simply constituted by painting part of the sidewalks red and by adding proper traffic signs to indicate where the space has to be shared by pedestrians and cyclists. Some work has been done to guarantee the continuity of the path and to organise junctions (Figures 10.6 and 10.7). The aim of the pilot study was twofold. First, we aimed to test the instruments to assess effects of policies on urban quality that were developed within the ASI project. Second, we aimed to examine effects of the cycle ring construction on urban quality (which was especially relevant to the local government of Umbertide). Interviews, surveys,

Figure 10.6: Via Morandi, before and after the construction of the cycle path

Figure 10.7: Shared space signs and continuing cycle path after a junction

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 233 measurements and observations were conducted to test the value and feasibility of the instruments and to examine whether the first draft of the instruments could be further improved. Data were collected before (November 2004) and after (May 2005) the cycle path construction by the ASI research group in Rome with the support of Town Municipality technicians.

10.5.2.1 Analysis of Situation Before the Construction of the Cycle Path In total, 60 persons moving around in the area where the cycle path was planned were interviewed during two days (13–14 November 2004). The standardised questionnaire was used, complemented with a single question regarding the cycle path (i.e. a situationspecific indicator that was of specific importance to the local government of Umbertide). Figure 10.8 shows the mean importance and satisfaction ratings of users of the relevant indicators of urban QoL. It appeared that users were quite satisfied with the situation in the pilot study area. In general, users were less satisfied with aspects related to safety and security, traffic conditions (car speed, traffic flow, etc.) and with the lack of people and lively spots, especially at night-time. These indicators are up to improvement, especially because they are considered to be important by users. The large majority of the indicators were judged as important, indicating a proper selection of indicators of urban QoL.

Figure 10.8: Subjective evaluation of users before the construction of the cycle path: importance and satisfaction

Next, in total, 11 experts have been interviewed on 30 December 2004: two employ ees of the Technical Office of the Town Municipality, two councillors of the Town Municipality, one member of the Town Council, two policemen from Provincial and Town Municipality stations, three representatives of User Associations (Disabled People

234 L. Steg et al. Relatives Association, Elderly People Association, Caritas) and one practitioner. Each interview lasted about 40 min. Overall, the experts expected an improvement of urban QoL and social relations after the cycle path had been constructed. Figure 10.9 shows some significant differences in importance rating of indicators between users and experts. Overall, users tend to evaluate a smaller set of indicators as very important as compared to experts. In general, experts rated the availability of public transport as more important than did users.

Figure 10.9: Subjective evaluation before construction of the cycle path: differences between experts and users in importance ratings of indicators

Apparently, experts perceive public transport as a good solution to many problems, while users generally prefer private transport. Furthermore, experts differ from the public with regard to the importance of green areas, acoustic conditions and indicators related to the appeal and liveliness of the environment (urban furniture, interesting views, etc.). This may mean that users are more pragmatic and want to solve one problem at a time. Moreover, the public’s point of view seems to be more related to local conditions and personal experience, while experts are possibly more influenced by collective interests. The results presented in Figure 10.9 underline the importance of collecting user’s judgements on the importance of indicators of urban QoL, since experts may not assess users’ perceptions accurately. With regard to the objective evaluation, the majority of on-site survey data was first reported graphically and plotted on a map that constituted a basis for the subsequent

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 235 analysis (Figure 10.10). Next, different thematic maps were made, which provide more detailed information on a specific topic. Analysis of the different thematic maps facilitates the understanding of the local situation. The objective data confirmed some of the concerns expressed by users. For example, users reported concern with high traffic speeds, which may be connected with concerns about traffic safety and lack of lively spots, especially at night. Indeed, the objective data revealed that traffic speed is quite high at some locations in Umbertide (Figure 10.11).

Figure 10.10: Sample illustration of the symbolic mapping of objective indicators

10.5.2.2 Analysis of Situation After the Construction of the Cycle Path Objective and subjective measurements have been repeated after the realisation of the cycle path. Again, 60 users moving around in the pilot study area have been interviewed. This time, objective measures were made only for indicators that were expected to change due to the construction of the cycle path. Only few changes in objective conditions were registered: • pedestrian exclusive space decreased as sidewalks had to be shared by pedestrians and cyclists (i.e. the cycle path was realised on stretched that used to be sidewalks); • the share of pedestrians crossing streets at signed points increased, probably because of the repainting and partial reorganisation of some junctions. Although a reduction of car speed was expected because of the narrowing of the car riageway in some points, no changes in car speed were observed. Despite of these results, the interviews with users revealed some notable change in users’ perception, as can be seen in Figure 10.12. In general, users are more satisfied with all

236 L. Steg et al.

Umbertide: Surveyed Vehicular Speed

– Percentage of street–km in the network with 30km/h (or lower) speed limit: 19.2%

Caption Historical centre Important location Car speed: >30 km/h 30–40 km/h 40–50 km/h 50–70 km/h 0 50 100

200

300

400

500

1000 mt

70–80 km/h 80–90 km/h

Figure 10.11: Thematic map: traffic speed in Umbertide

Figure 10.12: Satisfaction ratings before and after the construction of the cycle path

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 237 safety and security indicators. On the one hand, this makes sense, since the construction of the cycle path was aimed at increasing traffic safety. On the other hand, the results are surprising since no improvements in objective indicators were demonstrated (e.g. no differences in actual car speed were observed). A possible explanation could be that the initiative taken by the Town Municipality to improve the traffic system and increase traffic safety gave the impression in people’s mind that things were improving. These results once more underline the importance of considering user perceptions because some aspects may not be captured by collecting objective data only. In current practice, subjective evaluations are hardly being considered. The instruments developed in this project may be very important to study effects of policies, by examining which objective changes take place, how these changes are perceived by the public and relationships between objective and subjective evaluations. The most significant practical results of the pilot study are reported in Box 10.1. In sum, the pilot study yielded some interesting results and revealed the potential value of QoL assessments. The instruments proved to be quite feasible and easy to administer. However, the questionnaire was probably a bit too long. Ways to reduce the number of questions without losing important information would be advisable. Therefore, we conducted another study to fine-tune and cut down the instrument.

Box 10.1: Practical Results of the Pilot Study: Effects of Cycle Lane Construction for Urban Quality

Aim Examine effects of cycle lane construction on urban quality 1. Identify user needs before construction of the cycle path (identify problems) • Users are concerned about aspects related to safety and security, traffic conditions (speed, traffic flows, etc.) and lack of lively spots at night-time. Objective data partly confirm these concerns. • Experts evaluate quality of transport-related aspects (e.g. accessibility of public transport) as more important than users do. 2. Evaluate effects of cycle lane construction on urban quality • The objective situation hardly changed, but users were more satisfied with issues related to safety and security after the construction of the cycle lane.

Conclusion • Problem definition: Objective data confirmed concerns expressed by users. Experts may not have accurate views of user needs and perceptions. • Evaluation: QoL may improve even when little objective changes take place. • Instruments proved to be easy to administer.

238 L. Steg et al.

10.5.3 Further Developing Instruments to Assess Urban QoL The results from the pilot study were analysed with the purpose to refine the instru ment used to collect user perceptions. For instance, items which correlated with each other (i.e. a correlation coefficient exceeding 0.8) were excluded to ensure that each construct was discrete from each other. This refined instrument was then tested in three different countries (Austria, The Netherlands and Sweden) to examine which clusters of QoL indicators (i.e. domains of urban QoL) could be distinguished and to examine to what extent the indicators are related to overall judgements on urban QoL. To better reflect the procedure of other studies, only ordinal scales were used. Thus, satisfaction was expressed on a seven-point scale (ranging from very dissatisfied to very satisfied), while importance was rated on a seven-point scale ranging from very important to not important at all. In total, 134 questionnaires were collected. Further statistical analysis was carried out including correlation coefficient analyses, multiple regression analyses and factor anal yses. The results showed that a general question about life quality in the community significantly correlated with most of the indicators in the questionnaire. The results also indicated that all indicators were important, although some more than others. For instance, security was seen as very important by 57% of the participants, whereas only 11% would argue that resting places were very important. A multiple regression analysis was carried out using general evaluation of QoL in the neighbourhood as the dependent variables and the 24 indicators as the independent variables. The results showed that six of the indicators explained 48% of the variance, which is more than satisfying. Indi cators which contributed to people’s satisfaction with their community included street lights, green elements (i.e. trees and flowers), a good social life, safety and ability to cross the street in a convenient way. A factor analysis of the 24 indicators was carried out to determine if the toolbox included more than one domain. The result from this exercise presented seven different factors (Table 10.3). The results presented seven different factors and the combination of items appeared to reflect some distinct areas. The first one deals with activities for offer and is therefore labelled “opportunities”. The second one is related to barriers and how easy or hard it Table 10.3: Results of factor analysis on indicators of urban quality of life Factor

Label

Variance (%)

Indicators

1 2

Opportunities Accessibility

118 102

3

Liveability

101

4 5 6 7

Calmness Recreation Protection Mobility

92 85 80 74

Activities, different facilities Barriers, crossing points, separation of pedestrians and cyclists People living and working in the area, cleanliness, aesthetics, green areas Speed, noise, volume of traffic Resting places, public places, cycle paths Security, lights, social life, safety Public transport (near and frequent) time to destination

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 239 is to move around the area and this is therefore labelled “accessibility”. The third one deals with people who live and work in the area. In addition to this, it also includes items about cleanliness and aesthetics, all of which reflect that people are not only liv ing in the area but also taking care of the area. Thus, this is labelled “liveability”. The fourth factor includes items about noise and since satisfied people also wanted low lev els of noise, this is labelled “calmness”. The fifth factor is labelled “recreation” although cycling could have other purposes. Nevertheless, in this instance, when it is combined with resting places and public places such as parks, it appears to describe an area for recreation. The sixth factor clearly deals with different means aimed to protect its citi zens. In this instance, social life can mean that the area is not deserted and other people can therefore also act as a “protection”. Finally, the seventh factor included items about public transport, and this is therefore labelled “mobility”. The results also showed that the factors labelled “opportunity” and “accessibility” explained 23% of the variance. The conclusion which could be drawn from this exercise was that a number of different aims had been fulfilled; the toolbox had been carefully tested; it was clear and reflected important components, each indicator was independent from each other and various domains that are important for urban QoL were included. The final instruments to assess urban QoL comprise four different parts. The first part focuses on general information about the interviewees (gender, age, mobility habits,etc.) as well as information regarding the context in which the interview takes place (season, hour, location, etc.). The second part assesses general satisfaction with the area. In the third part, respondents are asked how satisfied or dissatisfied they are with a number of conditions (i.e. urban quality indicators). Finally, in the fourth part, they are asked to rate the importance of the same conditions. In addition to this, additional questions may be added which concern situational specific conditions not included in the (general) instrument that are considered to be relevant for the specific situation (e.g. we included a question on the cycle lane in our pilot study). If the instruments are used to assess QoL effects of a specific policy, we suggest the selection of additional indicators together with inhabitants.

10.6 CONCLUSION, PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE QoL INSTRUMENTS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS The ASI project aimed to examine to what extent QoL issues are considered in traffic and urban planning and the way they are dealt with in projects aiming to promote sustainable transportation. Although there is great consensus among experts and practitioners in the fields of land use and transport about the importance of evaluating the effects of policies on QoL, QoL issues tend to be overlooked in current practices. QoL issues are being considered mainly at the beginning of projects, but much less during the progress of the project. Many experts and practitioners experience significant difficulties with evaluating QoL effects of policies because no general concept or operational definition of QoL is available at the moment. A complicating matter is that experts have different disciplinary backgrounds (e.g. architecture, town planning, transportation planning, civil engineering, economics), each associated with different, and sometimes divergent, ideas on and definitions of QoL. This not only hinders communication on this issue but also

240 L. Steg et al. the development of suitable instruments to assess QoL. Only a few social scientists are working in this field. This is remarkable since social scientists have studied QoL issues for quite some time now and could play an important role in developing relevant instruments. Experts in the fields of transport planning and urban design believe that tools for assessing QoL effects of policies could be beneficial for them. Common practice mainly focuses on measuring objective conditions, reflecting experts’ point of views. However, assessments of objective conditions may differ from subjective judgements, that is, aspects that are believed to enhance QoL do not necessarily improve citizens’ perceptions of QoL. Thus, measuring objective conditions only does not provide valid information on what supports or deteriorates QoL. For this reason, it is important to assess QoL subjectively as well, as this reveals to what extent people are actually satisfied with their life. The final toolbox comprises an instrument to assess effects of policies on QoL in general (Section 10.4) and instruments to assess effects on urban QoL and QoL related to traffic and transport (Section 10.5). These instruments enable decision-makers to bet ter address QoL issues in land use and transport planning, in order to secure public acceptance and promote user behaviour changes. For example, by combining users’ evaluation of the importance of urban quality indicators and their satisfaction with the particular indicators (Figure 10.8), policy-makers may identify issues that need further attention and which issues have been addressed sufficiently. Many land use and trans port planning policies are aimed at promoting user behaviour changes. Such behaviour changes will be more easily accomplished if the particular policy improves their QoL. The instruments also facilitate participation of affected (groups of) citizens in public planning and assessment, and, consequently, appropriate consideration of user needs. The instruments comprise a key set of indicators to be used in every context. Of course, such a general set of indicators may not capture all aspects relevant for a particular policy. Therefore, if needed, the general set of indicators can be enriched by project-specific indicators. Toolbox users can either select additional indicators from a list of suggested indicators or develop new ones. Clear implementation guidelines were provided on how to use the instruments in order to end up with reliable and valid assessments of (expected) effects of policies on QoL. Ideally, the QoL indicators are assessed objectively and subjectively, before and after policies are implemented, via user and expert interviews. Of course, user perceptions may be biased and based on insufficient information on the project. However, since QoL evaluations are subjective by nature, it is still important to collect information on user perceptions. Of course, perceptions may change (and become more accurate) when users are informed about the aim and (intended) outcomes of policies. To collect valid (unbiased) data, to be able to compare results of different toolbox application, to learn from previous experiences and to forecast possible effects of policies, it is important to measure at least the key set of QoL indicators and to follow the general guidelines as indicated in the toolbox. By doing so, a databank concept can be developed in which comparable data on QoL assessments are put together. This databank may improve the basis for practical work, since policy-makers can build on experiences in previous

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 241 projects. Together, these data provide a detailed overview of how various policies may affect individual QoL and what may be done to (further) improve QoL. A sufficient number of users have to be interviewed in order to derive statistically meaningful results. If disaggregated analysis (for instance by age group or gender) is desired to compare user needs and desires, larger samples are needed. Interviews with users may be made “on the spot” with people moving around in the area of interest. This may yield selective samples, but at least one will collect views of those actually experiencing the consequences of the policy at hand. In many cases, this procedure is more feasible than random selection of a sample because the latter may be too time consuming. However, if one is particularly interested in collecting opinions and perceptions of the population in general, a random sample should be strived for. It is suggested to ask respondents to fill in the questionnaire and return it in a pre-stamped envelope. Selection of experts to be interviewed should be based on their involvement and/or interest in the development and implementation of the project to be assessed. The acceptability, effectiveness and efficiency of policies may be enhanced by systemat ically assessing (possible) QoL effects before and after implementation of such policies. By administering the instruments included in the toolbox before a policy implementation is taking place, it can help policy-makers to identify which aspects of life are in need of improvement. Further, this will reveal how – and to what extent – policies may affect the QoL of citizens, and what may be done to reduce, prevent or compensate possible negative effects (and optimise positive ones). The needs of various groups in society can be better understood, including the needs of specific (vulnerable) groups. By paying due attention to the results of QoL assessments before a policy is implemented, the policy is more likely to become acceptable, effective and efficient. Employing the QoL instruments after policies have been implemented will reveal to what extent policies have improved QoL. If not, policy-makers may adjust policies or implement additional supportive policies. Comparisons can also be made between objective and subjective indicators, revealing to what extent objective improvements affect perceived QoL. User evaluations are important to supplement expert evaluations and perceptions because expert opinions may not be accurate. The toolbox can be used for benchmarking, by comparing QoL in different cities, regions and countries. This once again illustrates the need for administering all instruments included in the toolbox and measuring all key indicators listed rather than changing the list of indicators for each specific policy situation. We hope the toolbox will help practitioners to develop plans that will improve QoL of citizens in the intended way.

REFERENCES Andrews, F. M. and Withey, S. B. (1976). Social Indicators of Well-Being: Americans’ Per ceptions of Life Quality. New York: Plenum Press. Bonaiuto, M., Aielli, A., Perugini, M., Bonnes, M. and Ercolani, A. P. (1999). Mulitdimen sional perception of resident quality and neighbourhood attachment in the urban environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology 19, 331–352.

242 L. Steg et al. Bonaiuto, M., Fornara, F. and Bonnes, M. (2003). Indexes of perceived residential environ mental quality and neighbourhood attachment in urban environments: A confirmation study on the city of Rome. Landscape and Urban Planning 65, 41–52. Burden, D. (2001). Other transportation and quality of life issues, or “back to the future”. CRP 445–545. Cummins, R. A. (1999). A psychometric evaluation of the comprehensive quality of life scale – Fifth Edition. In L. Y. Lim, B. Yuen and C. Low (Eds.), Urban Quality of Life: Critical Issues and Options (pp. 32–46). Singapore: School of Building and Real Estate, National University of Singapore. De Groot, J. and Steg, L. (2006a). Impact of transport pricing on quality of life, acceptability, and intentions to reduce car use: An explorative study in five European countries. Journal of Transport Geography 14(6), 463–470. De Groot, J. and Steg, L. (2006b). The role of value orientations in evaluating quality of life consequences of a transport pricing policy. Transportation Research Part D 11(2), 160–165. Diener, E. (1995). A value based index for measuring national quality of life. Social Indicators Research 31, 103–157. Felce, D. and Perry, J. (1995). Quality of life: Its definition and measurement. Research in Developmental Disabilities 16, 51–74. Ferrans, C. E. and Powers, M. J. (1985). Quality of life index: Development and psychometric properties. Advances in Nursing Science 8, 15–24. Finlay, A. Y. (1997). Quality of life measurement in dermatology: A practical guide. British Journal of Dermatology 136, 305–314. Frankenhaeuser, M. (1976). Quality of life. Criteria for behavioural adjustment. Report 475. Stockholm: University of Stockholm, Department of Psychology. Gill, T. M. and Feinstein, A. R. (1994). A critical appraisal of the quality of quality-of-life measurements. JAMA 292, 619–626. Grunkemeyer, W. T. and Moss, M. L. (2004). The sustainable community model approach to the development and use of multi-dimensional quality of life indicators. In M. J. Sirgy, D. Rahtz and D-J. Lee (Eds.), Community Quality of Life Indicators – Best Cases. Social Indicators Research Series (pp. 29–52, Vol. 22). Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Hagerty, M. R., Cummins, R. A., Ferriss, A. L., Land K., Michalos, A. C., Peterson M., Sharpe A., Sirgy, J. and Vogel, J. (2001). Quality of life indexes for national policy: A review and agenda for research. Social Indicators Research 55, 1–96. Kim, M. and Cho, K. O. (2003). Quality of life among government employees. Social Indi cators Research 62 (3), 387–409. Leitmann, J. (1999). Can city QoL indicators be objective and relevant? Towards a tool for sustaining urban development. In L. Y. Lim, B. Yuen and C. Low (Eds.), Urban quality of life: Critical issues and options. Singapore: School of Building and Real Estate, National University of Singapore. Lim, L. Y., Yuen, B. and Low, C. (1999). Quality of life in cities – definition, approaches and research. In L. Y. Lim, B. Yuen and C. Low (Eds.), Urban quality of life: Critical issues and options (pp. 1–12). Singapore: School of Building and Real Estate, National University of Singapore. Marans, R. W. (2003). Understanding environmental quality through quality of life studies: The 2001 DAS and its use of subjective and objective indicators. Landscape and Urban Planning 65, 73–83.

Assessing Life Quality in Transport Planning and Urban Design 243 Massam, B. H. (2002). Quality of life: Public planning and private living. Progress in Planning 58, 141. Nutbeam, D. (1998). Glossary Health Support, Gamburg: Verlag für Gesundheitsförderung. Available at www.lebensqualitaet.ch. OECD. (2001). Policies to enhance sustainable development. Meeting of the OECD Council at Ministerial Level. Ormel, J., Lindenberg, S., Steverink, N. and Vonkorff, M. (1997). Quality of life and social production functions: A framework for understanding health effects. Social Science Medicine 45, 1051–1063. Poortinga, W., Wiersma, G., Steg, L., Vlek, C., Noorman, K. J., Moll, H. and Schoot, U. T. (2001). Expected Quality of Life Impacts of Experimental Scenarios for Sustain able Household Energy Use. Unpublished Manuscript. Centre for Environmental and Traffic Psychology/Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Groningen. Poortinga, W., Steg, L. and Vlek, C. (2004). Values, environmental concern and environ mental behavior: A study into household energy use. Environment and Behaviour 36 (1), 70–93. Risser, R. (2004). Philosophy of traffic calming. The Asian Journal: Journal of Transport and Infrastructure 11 (1), 1–9. Roseland, M. (1997). Dimensions of the eco-city. Cities 14, 197–202. Smith, A. E. (2000). Quality of life: A review. Education and Ageing. Triangle Journals 15, 419–435. Snoek, F. J. (2000). Quality of life: A closer look at measuring patients’ well-being. Diabetes Spectrum 13, 24. Steg, L. and Gifford, R. (2005). Sustainable transport and quality of life. Journal of Transport Geography 13 (1), 59–69. TDM. (2003). Sustainable transportation and TDM. TDM Encyclopedia. Victoria, BC: Victoria Transport Policy Institute. Available at http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm67.htm. Updated March 4, 2003. Transportation Research Board. (1998). The Costs of Sprawl-Revisited. TCRP Report 39. (Chapter 6. Quality of Life). Washington, DC: National Research Council. Transportation Research Board. (2001). Guidebook for Assessing the Social and Economic Effects of Transportation Projects. Washington, DC: National Research Council. Van Poll, R. (1997). The Perceived Quality of the Urban Residential Environment. A multi-Attributive Evaluation. PhD thesis. Groningen, The Netherlands: University of Groningen, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences. Van Poll, R. (2003). A multi-attribute evaluation of perceived urban environmental quality. An overview. In L. Hendrickx, W. Jager and L. Steg (Eds.), Human Decision Making and Environmental Perception. Understanding and Assisting Human Decision Making in Real-Life Settings (pp. 115–128). Groningen: University of Groningen, Department of Psychology. Winther, J. (1990). Planning and management of the transport system. Paper Presented at the Conference on Improving Traffic and Quality of Life in Metropolitan Areas. Gothenburg, Sweden.

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 11 Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives∗ Eric Monami, Sander Kooijman and Hugues Duchâteau

11.1 INTRODUCTION Road freight transport has increased dramatically in the past decades within cities as well as between them, and prognoses for the future indicate that this trend has not come to an end. The negative aspects of this traffic (growth), most visible in urban areas, are • • • • •

acute congestion, to which lorries and small delivery vehicles largely contribute, presence of fine particulates and other pollutants in the air, noise nuisances, accidents, aesthetic impact of (large) delivery vehicles on old city centres among others.

The problems associated with urban freight transport keep increasing even though more and more cities are imposing access restrictions for freight vehicles in their centres. In the absence of thoroughly thought out alternatives and/or accompanying measures, banning lorries is very unlikely to remedy the mistakes of the past and to adequately address the following challenges that have accumulated over the years: • lack of adequate (un)loading and parking places for goods vehicles, • fragmented goods flows increasing delivery traffic, ∗ CITYFREIGHT is a research project supported by the European Commission (EU) under the Fifth Framework Programme and contributing to the implementation of the Key Action 4 ‘City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage’, within the Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development Programme. The project ran from early 2002 to late 2004. The CITYFREIGHT project was carried out by a project consortium consisting of STRATEC S.A. (lead partner, Belgium), LT Consultants (Finland), Cybernétix (France), EURETITALIA (Italy), Buck Consultants International (the Netherlands), INECO (Spain) and Newrail: University of Newcastle upon Tyne (UK).

245

246 E. Monami et al. • negligence of freight transport issues in town and traffic planning, • lack of information and coordination on urban freight issues, etc. Urban freight distribution indeed creates a rather complex system involving several actors (logistics services providers, shippers, consignees, authorities, inhabitants), several critical interfaces of the transport chain (cargo handling, contacts with customer, and the last mile of the transport chain), numerous limitations (traffic regulations and customer demands), fragmented goods flows, which decrease transport efficiency, and the risk of conflicts with other actors (inhabitants and other traffic). Against this kind of background, the main objective of the CITYFREIGHT project was to carry out a comparative analysis of a number of urban freight distribution scenarios/initiatives in different cities and situations in Europe and to evaluate their socio-economic and environmental impacts using a common assessment methodology. The project focused on 23 initiatives in 14 cities in the seven countries represented in the project consortium. The derived objectives of the CITYFREIGHT project were • to identify and analyse innovative and promising logistic schemes in seven coun tries, as well as urban policies that could accompany and implementation in order to promote sustainable development; • to set up a list of criteria and a common assessment method for evaluating those logistic schemes and the related accompanying policies (legal framework, land use planning, road traffic regulation, pricing); • to analyse their technical and economic efficiency; • to design one or more implementation scenarios of these schemes and related accompanying policies; • to assess and optimise the scenarios according to the criteria of sustainable devel opment for a city; • to present guidelines for implementing integrated strategies that could be recom mended as ‘Best Practices’; • to disseminate and exploit the Best Practice Guidelines through collaboration with the local authorities for the design of concrete implementation plans of integrated strategies in each of the case study cities. Special attention was paid to land use aspects and their interrelation with urban freight transport. Also the interdependency of local (urban), regional and national (both interur ban) freight transport has been taken into account. In Section 11.2, a brief outline of the project’s methodological framework is given. It explains how the project team set up a common methodology for developing and then assessing the scenarios – actual or planned initiatives – studied throughout the project, with the aim of providing the local authorities with practical tools to determine what kinds of initiatives can meet their specific needs. In Section 11.3, a series of lessons are provided and illustrated with real examples from the cities studied in CITYFREIGHT. These examples of good practices are bundled

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 247 under seven key themes from the project. The idea is to provide a quick overview of the scenarios’ main pros and cons. From the start of the project, one of the main intentions was to develop a decisionsupport tool to help cities to select the initiatives best suited for the problems and challenges they are experiencing. This is the purpose of the typology of urban freight distribution initiatives presented in Section 11.4. Four synoptic overviews of the range of initiatives/solutions available to decision-makers and other interested parties coping with urban freight traffic and distribution problems are presented. Their role is to sum up the characteristics of the scenarios studied throughout the course of the project, categorising these scenarios according to different criteria: • • • •

The results achieved by each of the solutions tested/implemented; The approaches followed in each scenario; The kind of policy instrument(s) that were used; And the stakeholders directly or indirectly affected by each scenario.

Where appropriate, these classifications are also used to grade on a simple qualitative scale the various scenarios assessed in the framework of CITYFREIGHT. Finally, Section 11.5 provides and comments ten general recommendations that we believe, city authorities and other decision-makers involved in urban freight distribution ought to follow when designing and implementing new initiatives in this field.

11.2 METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK This section outlines the common methodology that was used to select and assess the various initiatives covered by the project. Work plan – The work plan used throughout the CITYFREIGHT project can be sum marised in three major phases: • The first phase consisted in the pre-selection of a list of initiatives. These were consistent with the aims of the City of Tomorrow programme and had to represent the most significant trends and driving forces in the city-logistics system. The pre-selection process was based on a number of criteria. The aim was to prepare a list of relevant initiatives in which consultants and city authorities could choose in the second phase, to develop scenarios. • The second step was devoted to scenario building. Each scenario (destined to become themselves, at some point, an initiative) aimed to improve the present situation in an urban area of one of the seven participating countries, and has been defined by a technological content, one or more distribution models and the description of their practical implementation in one of the cities or in an entire urban region of this country. Scenarios have been built in close cooperation with city authorities. The scenarios analysed in the different countries are listed in Table 11.1.

248 E. Monami et al.

Table 11.1: The CITYFREIGHT scenarios

Country

CITYFREIGHT Partner

Belgium

Stratec S.A.

City Brussels Brussels Brussels Brussels Brussels Brussels

Finland

WSP-LT Consultants

Helsinki Helsinki Tampere Vaasa

France

Cybernetix

La Rochelle Strasbourg Strasbourg Bordeaux

Italy

Euretitalia

Milano Genova Vicenza

The Netherlands

Buck Consultants International

The Hague The Hague The Hague

Spain

Ineco

UK

Newrail: University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Malaga Valladolid Preston

Scenario Implemented Urban Distribution and Storage Centre with electric vehicles Retail Delivery Stations Rail transport to the European Centre for Fruits and Vegetables Promoting rail solutions for freight transport to and from Brussels Cargo tram–train Shopping and e-commerce facilities at commuter rail stations Underground service tunnel Logistics Centre between the harbour and the airport Municipal Logistics Centre The Risö Land Transport Centre Goods delivery in urban centre by using electric car Chronocity Urban logistic Proximity delivery areas Urban road pricing for freight Urban distribution and sorting waste centre with electric vehicles Suburban eco-logistic hub with cooperation agreements between the Municipality and the freight operators Cooperation agreements on distribution and waste collection (De Schone Stad) A collective contract for waste collection Consolidation from the demand side Urban Distribution Centre Data Collection Initiative Tithebarn development, construction traffic consolidation centre

• The third phase consisted in evaluating these scenarios based on three families of criteria: • Technical feasibility: All technical aspects have been covered, including accept ability, environmental and performance impacts, cost-effectiveness, availability of technologies, safety issues, and technical risks, by a technical evaluation matrix. It has been as well used for filtering out unrealistic proposals and for quantitative in-depth assessments. • Market efficiency: This was usually assessed by looking on the one hand, at the internal costs of the different scenarios envisaged, and on the other hand, at their acceptability to the concerned economic actors;

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 249 • Environmental impacts: Assessment of the environmental impacts exploited existing urban transport models of two large European cities and the results of the most recent pollutant emission models. The use of some of these criteria is illustrated in Section 11.4. The urban freight distribution system – Logistics is defined as the management of material and related information and money flows along a supply chain consisting of several companies (suppliers of raw materials, producers, wholesalers, retailers, and logistics service providers) and the final customer, which can be a private person, public authority, company or an other organisation. Logistics consists of different processes and components, which can be, for example, strategy processes, demand and supply processes, and supply chain processes. Urban logistics concerns logistics processes and operations in urban areas, taking into account the operational, market, infrastructure, and regulative characteristics of the urban environment. Urban logistics forms an integral part of interurban and international logistics chains. CityFreight, city distribution, city logistics, urban goods transport, and urban freight distribution are different terms for the same subject. In this chapter, we will use ‘urban freight distribution’. The overall freight distribution system generates flows (goods, waste, return ship ments, money, information – Figure 11.1) between different groups of actors. The CITYFREIGHT project concentrates on inter- and intra-urban freight distribution, col lection, and reverse (recycling and returning of broken items) flows in urban areas. It also takes into account other logistics functions such as loading, unloading, consolidation, and terminal functions in nodes between long haulage transport and city distribution.

CITY LOGISTICS DEVELOPMENT MEASURES

Companies Authorities Inhabitants

Environment Land use Econ. efficiency Service level

External effects Industry Importers Wholesalers Central warehouses

Inter-city transport

Environ ment

Retail stores

Intermediary warehouses, terminals

Other companies Public sector Households

Intra-city Transport Return and recycling flows Money flows Information flows

Figure 11.1: Inter- and intra-urban freight distribution

250 E. Monami et al.

Table 11.2: Main interest of actors in urban freight distribution

Actor

Interest

Shipper The lowest possible cost while still meeting the needs of their customers Consignee (collector of goods) products are delivered at a short lead-time at low transport costs Transport company Low cost but a high level of operational transport efficiency, satisfaction of the interest of the shipper and receiver Pubic (resident, visitor, Minimum hindrance caused by goods transport and availability of tourist) high-variety goods Local authorities Attractive city for residents and visitors (minimum hindrance), strong economic development for local business and an effective and efficient transport operation National authorities Minimum external effects by transport, maximum overall economic situation

Table 11.3: Examples of public objectives related to urban freight distribution Objectives Getting freight traffic in the city under control Smoothing freight traffic Changing freight transport chain and reduction of negative effects Grouping and/or coordinating freight traffic Reorganise final delivery Improving facilities Improving coordination and/or communication between actors

Solutions From the List of Initiatives Non-time-related city centre management, traffic management (vehicle access control, ban on through traffic) Out-of-hours delivery, time-related city centre management Use of alternative modes, clean vehicles, technology, use of small size vehicles Distribution network organisation, coordination of transport solutions Distribution for last kilometre Land use, infrastructure, traffic segregation, accommodation of delivery zones on protected bus lanes Traffic management, influence behaviour of good practices

A wide variety of actors are involved in urban freight distribution. As is clear from Table 11.2, the main interests of these actors can be aligned or conflicting. Those interests translate into a wide variety of specific objectives. Table 11.3 provides a few examples of objectives that can typically be attributed to public authorities, together with the types of solutions examined in CITYFREIGHT in relation with these objectives. A more systematic typology of the range of solutions analysed in the framework of CITYFREIGHT is provided in Section 11.4.

11.3 FREIGHT DISTRIBUTION STRATEGIES IN URBAN REGIONS This section provides the best illustration of the scope and diversity of the initiatives analysed throughout the CITYFREIGHT project. These scopes and diversities are used

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 251 to provide a series of practical recommendations based on the results and data obtained, throughout the project, in the case cities. Variations on the UDC theme – A number of initiatives involving some kind of urban distribution centre (UDC) are currently implemented or planned/envisaged: • La Rochelle’s urban loading/unloading platform started with an experimental phase as early as 1998 and still runs as an experiment today. The extension of the project to a larger area in the city, which had been envisaged in 2001, has been abandoned following the poor response received from the main stakeholders, that is, from the carriers in particular. More efforts should be devoted to reaching a consensus with all the parties involved on their respective contributions as well as on how to carry the project further. • Although Brussels’ plans for a UDC were evaluated based on the environmentally favourable assumption that large electric vans could be used in conjunction with this facility for last-mile deliveries, they led Stratec to caution the region-city’s authorities against setting up a UDC without further reducing traffic in the con cerned area (Brussels’s pentagon shaped city centre). Indeed, replacing delivery lorries with their pay volume equivalent in vans would lead to an increase in the number of freight vehicle-kilometres, which could in turn increase congestion and pollution. Moreover, the possibilities to consolidate the small delivery loads destined to small and medium-size commercial cores should be further evaluated. • The City of Strasbourg is currently planning the creation of a multi-modal plat form for the distribution of urban freight originating from rail, river, and road networks. To guarantee the effectiveness of this multi-modal centre, a survey needs to be carried out in order to identify and characterise any potential problem that could arise according to the market context. • The city of Preston is planning to develop a large multi-functional area, with a mix of leisure, shopping and other business activities as well as living space in one complex, the Tithebarn Regeneration Area. In order to try and minimise the amount of freight traffic resulting from this project, the city ought to consider the installation of a transhipment centre just outside of the main centre. The centre could be used, among other purposes, to consolidate loads, to coordinate traffic flows into the site, and to reduce the environmental impact of the project.

CASE STUDY 1 Urban Distribution and Storage Centre, Brussels Truck traffic is a major contributor to congestion, air pollution, noise, and stress in Brussels’ so-called Pentagon area, the city’s historic centre. Every weekday, an estimated 2 180 trucks enter this 4 km area between 8 and 9 am alone. The Pentagon hosts some of Belgium’s most popular shopping districts as well as a vast array of restaurants and cafés, all of which depend heavily on the accessibility and conviviality of this important tourist area. Attempts to tame road traffic and regulate parking in the city centre have

252 E. Monami et al. so far been met with mixed reactions from retailers and restaurant owners who fear that such moves might deter customers and impact on their prosperity. Brussels’ regional authorities have for years been pondering the opportunity to set up an UDC just outside of the Pentagon. This project would not be run solely as a major cross-docking operation. It would come complete with a large storage facility. Brussels’ urban distribution and storage centre would be set on a fairly accessible site 1 km away from the Pentagon, in the port area (the centre for international road transport). From the evaluation carried out within the frame of the CITYFREIGHT project, it turns out that an urban distribution and storage centre would at the very best affect 15–20% of truck traffic entering the Pentagon area. That is because the system could only reasonably be made to capture the trucks serving the non-perishable consumer goods sectors, that is, the leisure goods, home equipment, and clothing and accessories sectors. Because the main benefit from a UDC would lie in the possibility to replace some of the trucks serving the city centre with electric vehicles, it is necessary to examine whether such a goal could not be achieved more effectively by simpler and cheaper means. Small vans have recently become extremely popular amongst a wide array of sectors accounting for a considerable share of urban traffic: telecommunications, energy utilities, pharmacy deliveries, postal and courier services, home contractors, restaurants and caterers, grocers etc.

Looking beyond UDCs – Is small more beautiful? – Alternatives to large and centralised UDCs have also been suggested in a few cities: • In Bordeaux, the construction of a new tramway line rendered goods deliveries in some areas of the city centre virtually impossible. This prompted the municipality to entirely rethink the supply and transport chains in this zone and to define a new freight distribution concept, the Proximity Delivery Space (PDS). The PDS mainly consists of an open-air platform from which parcels and goods are delivered, using wheeled stands and other such devices, to retailers and other receivers. As it stands now, the main users of this new system are parcel and express delivery companies. Cybernétix recommends using the opportunity that arose from the tram works circumstance to adopt a more comprehensive and far-seeing approach to urban freight distribution issues, to initiate longer-lasting changes in the organisation and use of urban spaces, and to smoothly but more permanently transform the attitudes and habits of the concerned actors in favour of more environmentally sound practices. • Malaga’s Urban Distribution Centre (CUDE) was designed to serve the shops and businesses located in the very historic heart of the Spanish city, an area currently undergoing a major renewal and pedestrianisation scheme. It is a highly focused operation based on a facility, the CUDE, that is, itself located right next to the area it is serving. • In Brussels, Stratec proposed as a possible alternative to a remote and centralised UDC, the installation of Retail Delivery Stations (RDS) on the edges of the most attractive commercial cores. These RDS, which essentially consist of a network of

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 253 dedicated micro-warehouses with an off-street or an on-street loading/unloading bay, would allow deliveries to take place at any time of the day with no or little impact on the attractiveness of the shopping area served. Moreover, the use of pallet-trucks and wheeled stands instead of small vans for the transport of goods between the RDS and the shops resorting to it averts the increases in delivery traffic typically associated with UDCs. • Tampere developed an ad hoc logistics centre destined specifically to consolidate the deliveries made to the different units of the city’s municipal services. The initiative improved their logistics efficiency and allowed city employees to spend more time on their primary missions. On the basis of the very high mark given to this initiative, WSP-LT Consultants recommend exporting it to more cities.

CASE STUDY 2 Proximity Delivery Areas, Bordeaux The aim of this project is to gradually set up Proximity Delivery Areas (ELPs) and ‘flying deliverymen’ in the pedestrian area of Bordeaux city centre and in sectors affected by the tramway construction works. The ELPs are specific delivery areas (integrated into the tramway construction sites during the first phase) where suitable personnel (‘flying deliverymen’) help carriers transport the freight to shopkeepers and place two-wheeled trolleys and other small equipment items at their disposal. This programme was motivated by the vital need to deal with problems caused by the tramway construction works in Bordeaux, which were making deliveries impossible. The targeted objectives are to • facilitate deliveries to the city centre during the works and after the tramway lines have been put into service; • facilitate (allow) the work of carriers working for themselves or for third parties; • experiment with a new service for incoming deliveries (and to a marginal extent outgoing deliveries) in the city centre; • reduce the flow of delivery vehicles in the city centre; • reduce congestion and nuisance in city centres. Project developments: • March to July 2001: preliminary discussion and consultation; • September 2001 to January 2002: meetings of the steering committee; • 2002: studies for setting up the system. Installation of an ELP on an experimental basis began on 17 February 2003. A study to monitor and evaluate its functioning was carried out throughout the duration of the experiment. An interim assessment was produced before the beginning of June 2003 for the whole of the ELP’s activity. In late June 2003, the steering committee decided to continue the experiment until February 2004. The site of the ELP was changed in early November 2003 because of the progress of the tramway construction

254 E. Monami et al. works. The project was halted from 1 March 2004 to early June 2004, to negotiate a direct financial contribution from the carriers. A second experimental phase began in June 2004 for two sites over 1 year. The initial results are encouraging. The main users are parcel delivery and express freight delivery companies. Satisfaction surveys of shopkeepers and carriers are very positive. The change of ELP site has not disrupted its frequency of use. The economic and environmental evaluation is under way. The second experimental phase starting on 9 June 2004 is continuing successfully, under the control of a steering committee chaired by the Bordeaux CCI on two sites: one in the construction works area near the Grand Théâtre, the other on Rue Ravez, outside the works area. Good collaboration has been established with the Tramway Mission. A solution has been found to solve legal problems during the experiment.

New carts on the block – Several scenarios analysed in the framework of CITYFREIGHT revolve around the use of somewhat unconventional vehicles: • One of the main problems with La Rochelle’s urban loading/unloading platform is precisely that it was initially developed as a test case for a new technological solution, that is, the use of small electric vehicles for city centre deliveries, without due consideration for the actual problems to be tackled and the volumes to be handled. As a result, the initiative that should have broken even in 2003 is still under development and operating under public support. • Chronopost International developed for the city of Strasbourg a new delivery concept based on a new type of electric trolley. The new vehicle is especially designed to facilitate last mile deliveries in pedestrian areas and historic centres where access restrictions, bad traffic conditions and/or congested delivery areas, hamper the operations of traditional vehicles. The system will later be exported to other cities (Paris and Bordeaux) for the delivery and collection of packages in the dense urban environments handled by Chronopost International. To reap the full potential of this initiative, a fresh look at the whole urban freight distribu tion system and a complete reorganisation of the supply chain would have been necessary. More should also have been done to stimulate the participation of all the relevant actors. • As clearly indicated in the assessment performed about Brussels’s plans for a UDC, the use of electric vehicles offers no guarantee that the environmental balance of a scenario will be positive. It all depends on the resulting number of freight delivery vehicles as well as on the general level of congestion in the concerned area. • Malaga’s historic centre, with its densely built urban fabric and narrow streets appears to be a good candidate for the substitution of large conventional deliv ery lorries with light electric vehicles, as is currently being tested in Malaga. It is worth noting, however, that this initiative follows a major drive to pedes trianise much of the city centre and to provide car parks at its main access points.

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 255

CASE STUDY 3

Freight Delivery in the City Centre Using Electric Vehicles, La Rochelle This project seeks to combine the creation of an urban loading/unloading platform with the use of electric vehicles for city centre deliveries. The main objectives are • to facilitate delivery activities so as to contribute to the economic development of the city centre; • to encourage the use of environmentally friendly vehicles; • to ensure the roads are shared more effectively by all transport users; • to reduce congestion and pollution in the city centre; • to support economic development of the city centre. Accompanying measures (dissuasion or encouragement) have been implemented to support (and promote) the project; in particular • a municipal decree dated January 2001 prohibits non-environment-friendly trucks weighing more than 3.5 metric tons from using city centre streets except between 6 and 7.30 am; • the platform, managed by a private sector company, benefits from indirect state support (subsidies and equipment); • in the initial planning, it was emphasised that the project, although initially subsidised, should become financially viable by the end of 2003 (end of the first experimental phase). The project began in 1998. The feasibility study was carried out in 1999/2000 and the experimental phase has been in progress since February 2001 and prolonged until the autumn of 2003. For this first phase, after a tendering process, exploitation of the concept was awarded to ‘Transports Genty’ who benefited from the financial support of the La Rochelle City (fixed amount per package) and availability free of charge of the premises (partially equipped) and vehicles (including maintenance). At present, following a new call for tenders issued in mid-2003 for exploitation of the concept, the project is continuing with the same carrier (‘Transports Genty’) and with a contribution (subsidy) from the La Rochelle City which remains substantial but is tending to diminish gradually (objective) with regard to the variable costs. It is apparently difficult to demonstrate economic viability and the involvement of the players, in particular the carriers (other than those in charge of running the operation). The following constraints were already perceived as obstacles and hindrances to the progress of the project: • the lack of clear explicit regulations concerning the use of electric commercial vehicles in an urban environment; • the fact that urban freight distribution is not a public service requiring the intervention of municipal employees or delegation of a public service; • the purely relative motivation of the economic players in the transport chain; These constraints are still present and satisfactory solutions are yet to be found.

256 E. Monami et al. Consult, propose, federate – Interesting results have also been obtained in a number of instances by essentially bringing together all the relevant actors and getting them to work on win–win urban distribution improvement projects. • In The Hague, the authorities introduced with the help of BCI (Buck Consultants International) a series of cooperation agreements for freight distribution and waste collection. Those agreements involve a variety of actors including outlet own ers, local authorities, transporters, and waste collection companies. The concept already seems to have had a positive impact. Some deviations from the agreed rules were observed during the testing period, which are probably mainly due to a lack of familiarity with these new rules. This is why BCI recommends that the communication of the rules should be a continuous process in order to avoid these problems and guarantee the success of the operation. • In the various urban freight distribution initiatives they assessed in France, Cybernétix found that these initiatives cannot be adequately designed and imple mented without taking into account all the players directly or indirectly involved. Such an approach is necessary to thoroughly understand the needs and possi ble objections of key players and is the best to avoid neglecting any significant constraint to a successful project implementation. • In Valladolid, Ineco conducted an in-depth data collection initiative and compared the data collected by direct observation on the field with the answers given by drivers and deliverymen to a detailed questionnaire. The contrasted results allowed Ineco to draw interesting conclusions on the level of information of drivers regarding loading/unloading areas and on the suitability of their locations. • In Vaasa, where a new Land Transport Centre is being planned in an area close to the airport (Risö), much will depend on the cooperation of the operators. On the one hand, their willingness to relocate will determine how much space becomes available in the city centre for other purposes and to what extent their negative environmental impacts can be reduced. On the other hand, extra benefits are expected when the companies relocated to the Risö land transport centre begin to cooperate in logistics operation and distribution.

CASE STUDY 4 Cooperation Agreement on Distribution And Waste Collection, The Hague In 2002 the local outlet owners of a certain part of the city centre of the Hague have called on the local authorities for assistance since they increasingly experienced hin drance from urban freight distribution and waste collection. An analysis of problems pointed out that the following issues characterised this area: • • • •

fragmented freight and waste flows; lack of tuning of demand and supply in waste supply and collection; hindrance from freight vehicles and decrease of quality of life; residual waste;

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 257 • time windows combined with opening hours of shops result in short period of time in which distribution vehicles can deliver their goods; • limited number of loading and unloading locations. Public and private organisations have therefore decided to join forces to diminish the problems experienced. The objective of their initiative is to improve the quality of life (living, working, shopping, recreating) and to improve the freight flow in the city. In order to achieve the objectives, an organisational solution has been set up in which agreements on behaviour have been made with all the actors involved in urban freight distribution and waste collection. Some examples: • Outlet owners do not place any objects (advertising material, flower boxes, terraces a.o.) outside that can cause hindrance to delivering vehicles before the ending of the time windows; • delivering vehicles park behind each other (on one side of the road) and not next to each other. The voluntary rules were defined in consensus and distributed to the potential partic ipants. A newsletter supports the communication on the objectives, rules and results to all actors involved. Each actor is held responsible for their contribution to the problems and solutions. Instead of implementing new regulations or laws, the actors involved are activated to stimulate their colleagues to participate and to speak up to colleagues or other actors whose behaviour is not in line with the rules. A first evaluation (March 2004) has pointed out positive results. Actors understand each other (or each other’s problems and interests) better, the participation rate is relatively high and the freight flow has improved. This all happened according to the actors who have been questioned 9 months after the start of the project. Help the consumers help themselves – Assuming that the way consumer goods are distributed in a city can have ripple effects at the customer end of the supply chain. The Brussels Region analysed the impact that the coupling of shopping centres, convenience stores, and pick-up points for e-commerce purchases could have on the propensity of commuters to drive a car or ride the train. Although the relative net impact of such ‘ride through shopping’ strategies on the modal split of commuters would be marginal, they seem worth pursuing given the large number of cars and vehicle-kilometres concerned. With e-commerce purchases gradually becoming more popular, this kind of development could limit the likely increase in individual home deliveries while at the same time reinforcing the attractiveness of rail transport.

CASE STUDY 5 Shopping And e-Commerce Facilities at Commuter Rail Stations, Brussels The Belgian authorities and railway company have been for years working on the development of a modern commuter rail system for Brussels (the so-called RER) that would extend on roughly 40 km in Brussels’ suburbs and neighbouring provinces. The

258 E. Monami et al. analysis of shopping and travel behaviours, however, indicate that a growing number of people tend to combine a number activities, including shopping, in complex, multi-purpose trips. In Belgium, an estimated 11% of combined home-work/school and work/home trips include at least one stop for shopping. And the propensity to use a car is far higher among the commuters who do stop for shopping on the way. Against this kind of background, this scenario describes the impacts that ‘ride through shopping’, that is, the coupling of: shopping centres, convenience stores, and/or grocery and merchandise pick-up points for e-commerce purchases, in and around commuter rail stations, could have: on the modal split for commuter trips; on the number of car-kilometres travelled on the shopping segment of multi-modal commutes and therefore on the emissions of pollutants in the atmosphere. The impact of retail enhanced commuter rail stations on the attractiveness of the RER can chiefly be obtained if medium-size shopping centres are located on RER lines where population and job densities are high, as well as demand for commercial diversity, that is, in suburban satellites. With their vast and, in the weekend little-used car parks, commuter rail stations often mean enviable location to shopping centre developers. But their impact can be damaging to nearby town centres and established stores. In some cases, their net impact on car usage can even be negative (i.e. leading to an increase). While influencing positively the reduction of the number of kilometres travelled by car, convenience stores at rail stations are not likely to influence the commuters modal choice. Very useful to fit the needs of a lot of commuters, their size and narrower product range cannot compete with external shopping areas and town centre stores. Unfortunately, only a fraction of commuter rail stations are likely to handle enough passenger traffic to fully support financially the presence of a convenience store on their premises. One way to lower the break-even point for shops in rail stations is to tap into the synergies that the presence of such a shop could offer in terms of tickets sales, maintenance, security, heating, etc. In the stations where the presence of a convenience store cannot be justified even on broad economic grounds, it is possible to build on a train station’s characteristics and functions to offer rail commuters special advantages. Small stations could be fitted at a relatively modest cost with remote pick-up points for e-commerce transactions. These pick-up points would consist of simple electronic lockers of the kind already used in a number of larger train stations. Commuters shopping on the Internet could have their goods delivered at any equipped station and pick them up on their way home.

Many avenues to traffic segregation – Traffic segregation, which consists in separating different types of traffic (shoppers and pedestrians, delivery lorries, through-traffic, etc.), is increasingly popular in tackling the nuisances that lorries generate in city centres. It has also come to take a variety of forms: • In the Hague, the authorities imposed stringent time windows for freight delivery in some parts of the city but this resulted in congestion problems at the end of

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 259 those time-windows and strongly reduced the ability of retailers and distributors to plan the deliveries in the most efficient way. • The concept of RDS put forward by Stratec in Brussels is based on the assumption that delivery lorries could be channelled to a series of micro-warehouses located on the edge of commercial cores, using a combination of major arteries and dedicated back streets (as one approaches the retail areas). Also, the notion that wheeled stands and pallet-trucks can be used for last-mile deliveries from the RDS depends in part on the concurrent implementation of selective traffic management measures. • In Helsinki’s city centre, WSP-LT consultants analysed the development of reserved underground delivery tunnels or what could be seen as an example of vertical traffic segregation. The objective here is to divert most motorised vehicles from part of the centre to expand the area where pedestrian streets dominate the urban landscape. One of the positive side-effects of the project is that it will also allow an extension (rather than the usual restrictions) of delivery and waste collection hours. More research and guidelines are needed on the dimensioning and technical specifications for this kind of infrastructure.

CASE STUDY 6 Underground Service Tunnel, Helsinki Delivery to premises with no underground connection is carried out from kerbside or a delivery zone at ground level. Kerbside delivery interferes with other traffic especially in the city centre. Ground level unloading zones reduce available space for retail and other business activities. Underground freight tunnels are crucial in order to allow development of pedestrian zones in densely built city centres. In tunnels, all the cargo handling takes place in an indoor environment and thus decreases safety and injury risks. Freight tunnels free kerbside zones and parking spots to other transport users. In Helsinki, the owners and leaseholders of business real estate as well as main planners and financers have been initiators of the already implemented delivery tun nel projects. Some of the current freight tunnels have been constructed as parts of underground parking facilities, which have been financed both by private and public parties. The traffic volumes on Aleksanterinkatu street are expected to increase in the western part of the city (before the entrance to the tunnel) by 23%. In contrary, the traffic will reduce after the entrance of the tunnel by 20% with 2500 vehicles/24 h from the current 12 500 vehicles/24 h. The replacing freight traffic routes connected to the planned tunnel are slightly longer than existing ones but faster according to estimates. An estimation is that approxi mately 1400 vehicles will utilise the underground delivery tunnel daily. The biggest improvement the underground delivery system brings is the possibility for the prop erty owners to up-date and enlarge their maintenance facilities.

260 E. Monami et al. To fully exploit the advantages and possibilities of underground delivery, the parties should carefully think through and plan also the logistical operations and systems used in the planned arrangement. The underground service tunnel enables unforeseen possibilities for utilising innovative technology and cooperation between the city, real estates, and different consignees.

Don’t trash the tracks yet – Finally, a series of initiatives relate to the use of rail transport in an urban and interurban context after a consolidation of goods flows from their original destination. In this context, four alternatives have been analysed during the project: • The multi-modal freight distribution platform currently being planned in Stras bourg revolves to a large extent around the role that the French railways could play in the project. As it stands now, there is even a tendency to give too much prominence to the SNCF in the preparation phase, leaving by the wayside actors who could usefully contribute to the project. • Newrail reports that the Traffic Management Unit of Preston considers the loca tion of the shopping area of the city to be close enough to the rail freight station for some deliveries to be performed directly from the train to city centre shops. • In Helsinki, the creation of a new logistics centre between the harbour and the airport will allow a concentration of logistics bases in one area nearby the new port of Vuosaari (operational in 2008). A cargo rail terminal now located in the vicinity of the city centre will also be relocated to Vuosaari so that the complex will provide excellent connections to all transport modes. • A considerable share of the produce that Brussels’ European Centre for Fruits and Vegetables imports every year could be brought to Brussels in refrigerating containers using combined road–rail transport. The use of combined transport for the majority of the loads originating from Spain, France, and Italy would generate important environmental benefits, albeit on the interurban leg of these trips.

CASE STUDY 7 Rail Transport to The European Centre For Fruits And Vegetables Amongst the major receivers of freight in the Brussels Region is the European Centre for Fruits and Vegetables (CEFL), a company jointly owned and operated by ‘local’ importers of fruit and vegetables and by Brussels City and Region (indirectly). The CEFL occupies a 13 ha wide field alongside the canal and borders the premises of its biggest client, Brussels’ wholesalers market (MABRU), where grocers and restaurant owners from Brussels and beyond (in an estimated 200–250 km radius area extending well beyond Belgium’s borders) supply themselves with fresh fruit and vegetables from southern European countries primarily. The CEFL used to be directly connected to the Belgian railway network and to get some of its fruit and vegetables supplies delivered by rail. The rail connection,

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 261 however, was dismantled a few years ago, after it had ceased to be used for some time. Nowadays, all fruit and vegetables reach the CEFL by truck, either directly from their primary origin in (mostly Southern) Europe, or from the neighbouring ports and airports for those grown in more distant countries. The Brussels Region as well as the importers themselves would like to look again into the possibility of using rail for the transport of fruit and vegetables to the CEFL. Most of the produces received at the CEFL are grown in Spain, France, and Italy, which would facilitate a geographically based consolidation of loads. The sector, however, is highly cyclical and this, in a way that differs from one production region to the other. Outgoing shipments tend to travel on shorter distances (Benelux countries) and to be spread out over a wider range of destinations. This scenario considers three rail-based options for CEFL deliveries: Full freight trains destined exclusively to Brussels’ CEFL, freight trains with two or more destinations including Brussels and combined transport with transhipment at the nearby Brussels Terminal Intermodal. As the economic viability of this project highly depends on the importance and distribution of goods flows to the CEFL, an analysis of current loads and traffic has been carried out as well as an estimation of the proportion of these traffics that could be shifted from road to rail transport. In light of the above elements, we conclude that the balance leans heavily towards the use of combined transport rather than towards the use of refrigerated wagons up to the CEFL.

11.4 MAPPING URBAN FREIGHT DISTRIBUTION INITIATIVES – A SELECTION SUPPORT TOOL The aim of this chapter is twofold. It offers a synoptic overview of the range of solutions available to decision-makers and other interested parties coping with urban freight traffic and distribution problems. It is also meant to serve as a selection support tool for those looking for relevant sources of inspiration in their search for concrete solutions to such problems. The typology used here to present the solutions/scenarios studied throughout the CITYFREIGHT project is based on four tables categorising these scenarios according to different criteria: • • • •

the results achieved by each of the solutions tested/implemented, the approaches followed in each scenario, the kind of policy instrument(s) that were used, and the stakeholders directly or indirectly affected by each scenario.

Where appropriate, these classifications have also been used to grade on a simple qual itative scale the various scenarios assessed in the framework of CITYFREIGHT (‘at a certain time, in a certain place’). This applies to the ‘results-based’ and ‘stakeholders based’ categorisations (tables).

262 E. Monami et al.

11.4.1 Results-Based Categorisation of CITYFREIGHT Initiatives The first table (Table 11.4) provides an overview of the most common results achieved (often linked to the main goals pursued) by urban freight distribution initiatives. It also indicates to what extent the different scenarios analysed in the framework of CITYFREIGHT contribute to the achievement of these results. Not all stakeholders attribute the same importance to these results or to the corresponding goals (emis sions, noise, infrastructure damage, safety, economics� � � ). The priority of transporters is understandably to lower their costs and to fulfil their primary mission as efficiently as possible. The general public, by contrast, is likely to be more concerned about noise and emissions. Some of the results mentioned are strongly correlated (e.g. a city that wants to tackle traffic emissions will often also lower the noise levels and infrastructure damage on its territory as these two results are also strongly linked to congestion levels. Some other results are more often than not conflicting with one another. The ratings given to each scenario for each of the results listed in the table are indicative of the level of success achieved or estimated in the case studies performed under CITYFREIGHT.

11.4.2 Approaches-Based Categorisation of CITYFREIGHT Initiatives The approaches-based categorisation of initiatives might also have an important role to play in the selection of urban freight distribution initiatives. Indeed, the approaches presented in this second table (Table 11.5) are highly diverse and require different resources, competences, legal and institutional frameworks, etc. Depending on the size of the problem facing urban freight decision-makers, on the time and budget available to them, and on the relationship between public authorities and the rest of the stakeholders, one approach could be more relevant than the others. Other stakeholders too might have strong opinions on the approach to follow depending on their own situation (time, budget, regulatory constraints, etc.). Regulatory solutions are the exclusive domain of public authorities, whereas operational, organisational and technical solutions may be of interest to other stakeholders as well.

11.4.3 Policies-Based Categorisation of CITYFREIGHT Initiatives The third table (Table 11.6) provides yet a narrower categorisation of the scenarios developed and assessed in the framework of CITYFREIGHT. Cities or any other stake holder could look at this table for a quick overview of the kinds of policies that have been tested in CITYFREIGHT. The range of solutions presented here will almost cer tainly include a few initiatives that could be adapted to any city, according to its spatial and socio-economic configuration. Nevertheless, some scenarios require highly specific infrastructures (railtracks, canal, etc.) that could sometimes make their implementation in a different environment difficult or impossible.

11.4.4 Stakeholders-Based Categorisation of CITYFREIGHT Initiatives People involved in or concerned with urban freight distribution belong to only a handful of stakeholder categories. The stakeholders can be associated with two important groups: those playing an active role in the transport chain and those affected by but not directly

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 263

Belgium

Finland

France

Italy

Cargo tram–train Urban Distribution and Storage Centre with electric vehicles Promoting rail solutions for freight transport to and from Brussels Rail transport to the European Centre for Fruits and Vegetables Shopping and e-commerce facilities at commuter rail stations Retail Delivery Stations Underground service tunnel Logistics Centre between the harbour and the airport Municipal Logistics Centre The Risö Land Transport Centre Goods delivery in urban centre by using electric car Chronocity Urban logistic Proximity delivery areas Urban road pricing for freight

Logistical (Transport Efficiency)

Economical

Safety

Infrastructure Damage

Noise

Emission

City

Scenario Implemented

Table 11.4: Results-based categorisation of CITYFREIGHT initiatives

Brussels

0

–

0

0

−−

–

Brussels

+

+

+

+

−−

–

Brussels

++

0

+

+

0

+

Brussels

++

0

+

+

0

+

Brussels

+

0

0

+

0

++

Brussels Helsinki

+ +

0 ++

0 +

+ ++

0 −−

+ ++

Helsinki

–

+

0

+

0

++

Tampere

+

+

+

+

++

++

Vaasa

+

+

+

++

0

+

La Rochelle Strasbourg Strasbourg Bordeaux

+

+

0

+

−−

+

+ + +

0 + +

+ + 0

0 + 0

+ – ++

+ 0 ++

Milano

+

+

+

+

NI

–

+

+

+

−−

–

+

+

+

NI

–

Urban distribution and sorting waste centre with electric Genova ++ vehicles Suburban eco-logistic hub with cooperation agreements Vicenza ++ between the Municipality and the freight operators Cooperation agreements on The The Hague Netherlands distribution and waste collection A collective contract for The + waste collection Hague Consolidation from the demand The Hague + side Data Collection Initiative Valladolid Spain Urban Distribution Centre Malaga ++ Tithebarn development, UK construction traffic Preston + consolidation centre

+ +

+

+

+

+

++ ++

+ 0

++

+

0

++

+ –

+

++

+ +

+

+

–

+

++ very positive for the criterion considered; + positive; 0 positive/negative; – negative; −− very negative; NI no information. As far as the Finnish initiatives are concerned, the amount of emission or noise level does not necessarily change but the exposure to emissions or noise will change. The scales of given impact levels should be harmonised between different countries, since some of the measures may have very notable changes but only at very local level (e.g. within a quarter of the city centre) whereas some measures may have less notable impacts but at wider area.

264 E. Monami et al.

Belgium

Finland

France

Italy

Cargo tram–train Brussels Urban Distribution and Storage Brussels Centre with electric vehicles Promoting rail solutions for freight transport to and from Brussels Brussels Rail transport to the European Brussels Centre for Fruits and Vegetables Shopping and e-commerce facilities at commuter rail Brussels stations Retail Delivery Stations Brussels Underground service tunnel Helsinki Logistics Centre between the Helsinki harbour and the airport Municipal Logistics Centre Tampere The Risö Land Transport Vaasa Centre Goods delivery in urban centre La by using electric car Rochelle Chronocity Strasbourg Urban logistic Strasbourg Proximity delivery areas Bordeaux Urban road pricing for freight

X X

Regulatory Solution

X X

X

X

X X X X

X X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X X

Milano

Urban distribution and sorting waste centre with electric Genova vehicles Suburban eco-logistic hub with cooperation agreements Vicenza between the Municipality and the freight operators Cooperation agreements on The The Hague Netherlands distribution and waste collection A collective contract for The waste collection Hague Consolidation from the demand The side Hague Data Collection Initiative Valladolid Spain Urban Distribution Centre Malaga Tithebarn development, UK construction traffic Preston consolidation centre

Operational Solution

Organisational Solution

Technical Solution

City

Initiative

Country

Table 11.5: Approaches-based categorisation of CITYFREIGHT initiatives

X X

X

X X X X X X

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 265

X

Promoting rail solutions for freight transport to and from Brussels

Brussels

X

Brussels

X X

X

X

X

Rail transport to the European Centre for Fruits and Brussels Vegetables Shopping and e-commerce facilities at commuter rail stations

"Clean" Road Vehicles

Brussels

Coordination Actions and Cooperation Agreements

Urban Distribution and Storage Centre with electric vehicles

X

Temporal Load Consolidation "Consumer Logistic Initiatives"

X

Traffic Vertical Segregation

Brussels

Spatial

Urban Planning and Design New Infrastructure Modal-shift to Cleaner mode

Cargo tram–train

Initiative

City

Table 11.6: Policies-based categorisation of CITYFREIGHT initiatives

X

X

X

X

Retail Delivery Stations

Brussels

X

X

Underground service tunnel

Helsinki

X

X

Logistics Centre between the harbour and the airport

Helsinki

X

X

Municipal Logistics Centre

Tampere

X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

The Risö Land Transport Centre

Vaasa

Goods delivery in urban centre using electric cars

La Rochelle

X

X

X

X

Chronocity

Strasbourg

X

X

X

X

Urban logistic

Strasbourg

X

Proximity delivery areas

Bordeaux

Urban road pricing for freight Urban distribution and sorting waste centre with electric vehicles Suburban eco-logistic hub with cooperation agreements between Municipality and freight operators

Milano

X

X X

X

X

X

Genova

X

X

Vicenza

X

X

X X X

X

X

X

(Continued)

266 E. Monami et al.

Consolidation from the demand side

The Hague

Data Collection Initiative

Valladolid

Urban Distribution Centre

Malaga

Tithebarn development, construction traffic consolidation centre

Preston

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

"Clean" Road Vehicles

The Hague

Coordination Actions and Cooperation Agreements

A collective contract for waste collection

Temporal Load Consolidation "Consumer Logistic Initiatives"

The Hague

Spatial Traffic Vertical Segregation

City

Cooperation agreements on distribution and waste collection

Urban Planning and Design New Infrastructure Modal-shift to Cleaner mode

Initiative

Table 11.6: (Continued)

X

involved in urban logistics. The latter group is primarily made up of the general public (comprising residents, tourists, the urban work force, etc.), businesses (hotels, restaurants and cafés, retail outlets, builders, contractors and other service providers, etc.), and public authorities. Note that businesses are often either shippers or receivers (see below). And they are not the only ones. All of the above stakeholders contribute to some extent to the demand for goods in the city and therefore command urban goods flows. But very often, they are also negatively affected by deliveries and consequently have demands that sometimes conflict with them. The actors active in the transport chain consist on the one-hand of consignees/receivers (businesses, public authorities, building sites), who demand goods, and on the other hand, of producers/shippers, who supply goods. Between those two groups, transporters and logistics providers deliver goods. The fourth table (Table 11.7) is critical in deciding which elements to include in a new urban freight distribution initiative. Indeed, it is a precious source of information on the possible conflicts of interests that might arise from the implementation of a given initiative.

11.4.5 Scenario Selection Guidelines There are many different actors involved in urban freight distribution: public authorities, transport providers, shopping public, retail outlet owners etc. As stated before, benefits and drawbacks can differ from one actor to another. An urban freight distribution solution can have a major positive impact on, for instance, the environment but can be very costly at the same time. For public authorities the environmental aspect is very important whereas for shippers and logistic service providers, transport costs tend to be more prevalent.

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 267

Finland

City

Public

Local Authorities/ Government

Receivers

Shippers

Transport Providers/ Operators

Belgium

Scenario Implemented

Country

Table 11.7: Stakeholders-based categorisation of CITYFREIGHT initiatives: outcome per stakeholder category

Cargo tram–train

Brussels

0

–

−−

−−

0

Urban Distribution and Storage Centre with electric vehicles

Brussels

+

–

0

0

+

Promoting rail solutions for freight transport to and from Brussels

Brussels

++

++

0

0

0

Rail transport to the European Centre for Fruits and Vegetables

Brussels

++

++

0

0

0

Shopping and e-commerce facilities at commuter rail stations

Brussels

++

++

++

0

++

Retail Delivery Stations

Brussels

++

0

+

0

++

Underground service tunnel

Helsinki

++

+

++

0

++

Logistics Centre between the harbour and the airport

Helsinki

++

+

+

+

++

Municipal Logistics Centre

Tampere

++

++

++

+

++

Vaasa

++

++

0

0

+

La Rochelle

+

–

0

0

–

The Risö Land Transport Centre France

Italy

Goods delivery in urban centre by using electric car Chronocity

Strasbourg

0

0

+

+

++

Urban logistic

Strasbourg

+

+

0

0

0

Proximity delivery areas

Bordeaux

+

++

++

+

++

Urban road pricing for freight

Milano

+

++

0

–

+

Urban distribution and sorting waste centre with electric vehicles

Genova

++

–

0

–

+

Suburban eco-logistic hub with cooperation agreements between the Municipality and the freight operators

Vicenza

+

+

0

–

+

(Continued)

268 E. Monami et al.

Spain

UK

Local Authorities/ Government

Receivers

Shippers

Transport Providers/ Operators

City

Cooperation agreements on distribution and waste collection (De Schone Stad) The Hague

Public

The Netherlands

Scenario Implemented

Country

Table 11.7: (Continued)

++

+

++

++

++

A collective contract for collection

The Hague

++

++

++

+

+

Consolidation from the demand side

The Hague

++

+

++

++

++

Data Collection Initiative

Valladolid

Urban Distribution Centre

Malaga

Tithebarn development, construction traffic consolidation centre

Preston

+ 0

++

++ 0

0

0

++ very positive for the stakeholders considered; + positive; 0 positive/ negative; – negative; –– very negative.

Even when looking for a solution that best meets their goals, regional and local author ities ought to analyse the various scenarios from the perspective of each of the stake holders groups identified. This is essential because the successful implementation of any new initiative in urban logistics rests on the capacity of its promoters to reconcile the objectives and expectations of all the concerned stakeholders. It is useful to know beforehand, what solutions have what benefits for which categories of actors. If a public authority is planning to implement a certain solution/scenario in a city, aiming at solving a problem caused by urban freight distribution, it can be very helpful to know which actor group is affected in a negative way and which one in a positive way. When this kind of information is available, the initiative envisaged and/or its implementation plan can be adapted so as to compensate the categories of actors negatively impacted. The other tables presented above can be used in much the same way. We suggest the reader/stakeholder to proceed step by step, using one table after the other to figure out which CITYFREIGHT scenarios are most relevant to his or her goals, challenges, resources, powers, etc. This approach comes down to using the typologies presented in the preceding subsections as a funnel, as a way to water down the range of potentially interesting initiatives in order to short list the most relevant ones as illustrated in the following examples. Example 1: City authorities intend to curb pollution and congestion due to heavy freight traffic in the city centre. Which are the most relevant scenarios given the challenge they are facing? One first selection could be made using the results-based table to

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 269 eliminate all the scenarios that have a negative impact in terms of pollution or traffic efficiency. After this first stage, the ‘approaches-based’ table could help the decision maker to make a second choice (in the remaining scenarios) according to the means available to him or her. A third step could consist in using the stakeholders-based categorisation to determine among the remaining candidates those most likely to meet the concerns of all stakeholders, or at least the best compromise. Example 2: Shopkeepers in a city centre are not satisfied with the current urban freight distribution situation because of important delivery problems resulting from heavy con gestion. They are asking the city authorities to find some solutions in order to improve their situation. The four tables could help public authorities to figure out which type of solutions are most likely to satisfy the requirements of the shopkeepers. The first step, in this case, could consist in going through the ‘stakeholders table’. Are the city authorities inclined to adopt new regulations or does a more consensual approach seem more appropriate? Depending on their answer to this question, the ‘approach’ table will help eliminate the irrelevant scenarios, etc. Example 3: A railway operator or any private operator is likely to pursue different objectives with different means than the public authorities. A rail freight carrier, for example, might take a look first at our ‘approach’ and ‘policy’ tables to quickly identify which CITYFREIGHT scenarios have pursued a modal shift from road to rail. They might then look at the other characteristics of the selected scenarios to figure out which interventions to request from their authorities and with what arguments, depending on the initiatives they would like to see implemented. The approach described in this section might seem somewhat tortuous to those who have been immersed in urban freight distribution problems for several years or those who have found the time to examine in detail each of the scenarios analysed in the framework of CITYFREIGHT. It is our hope that it will nevertheless allow all the others to more rapidly and more effectively find the ‘best practice’ and the ‘not so good practice’ examples in which to look for ideas in the design of their own solution(s).

11.5 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF URBAN FREIGHT DISTRIBUTION INITIATIVES There are a number of general recommendations that all the cities interested or involved in the design, implementation or improvement of an urban freight distribution initiative ought to have in mind. The most important ones, according to the research carried out under CITYFREIGHT, are the following:

11.5.1 A Thorough Problem Analysis and a Clear Definition of Objectives are Essential Urban freight distribution includes three main elements: the transport chain, actors, and the urban context. It is essential to combine ‘who’ (actors), with ‘what’ (the distribution

270 E. Monami et al. model), ‘where’ (the urban or interurban context) and ‘when’ (certain time) in all project steps. A thorough problem diagnosis that includes the interrelations between all the relevant elements (benefits/drawbacks, actors, urban context (and national context), distribution model/transport chain, time) is important to define sustainable objectives and solutions. Quantifying drawbacks and benefits per actor category can help in identifying prob lems and defining objectives and solutions. However, methodologies for quantifica tion are not always available. More attention is needed for accurate and specific freight data collection and methodologies to quantify drawbacks and benefits in urban areas in order to weigh the benefits and drawbacks. Moreover, knowledge of inter ests, concerns, and motives of the various actors helps to understand how prob lems are caused. This understanding is important in defining sustainable and suitable solutions.

11.5.2 Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives Often Impact an Area Which Exceeds the City Urban freight is part of freight transport in general and part of transport chains and logistics which often involve a larger area than only one city. Therefore, it is difficult to design a policy aimed at influencing urban freight distribution without affecting the interurban leg of goods flows. ‘Think global, act local’ applies here as well. Since the transport chain covers a larger geographical area than a city, one should also consider problems, objectives, solutions, benefits, and drawbacks beyond the city’s boundaries. Sometimes, this involves hard choices and conflicts of interest. For example, some forms of interurban transport (heavy trucks) have an impact on the urban environment and vice versa. From a global perspective, freight transport and logistics produce far more emissions outside of cities than within cities, but their nuisances (noise, accidents, etc.) tend to be apparent within cities. City authorities may find it in their best interest to ban larger lorries from their territory but unless they are willing to support the development of rail freight terminals and/or transhipment facilities, their regulations can result in undesirable traffic increases on the wider road network.

11.5.3 Urban Freight Transport Requires a Systemic Approach The analysis of urban freight logistics should always be based on a systemic approach: the indispensable diagnosis stage should be approached in a systemic way, that is, by taking into account all the side effects of a problem or option. This is also true when it comes to designing a strategy or implementing a given solution. The need for a systemic approach when designing or implementing a solution to an urban freight distribution problem translates in a need to pay attention to several types of issues: technical or technological, regulatory and fiscal, market-related, etc. As urban freight distribution interrelates with a number of other policy fields, these other policies should be tuned and/or integrated in a policy on urban freight distribution: economics, land use planning, transport, infrastructure, and environmental issues. For example, coordination between cities and joint efforts in some fields can sometimes be

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 271 decisive, when it comes to imposing new standards for vehicle types or load units or when defining time windows of neighbouring municipalities, since time windows affect the routing of transport companies. More importantly, urban freight distribution cannot be isolated from passenger trans port. Congestion for instance is not caused by freight vehicles alone. It is the cumulative result of freight transport and passenger transport in a city. In fact, freight transport accounts for only a small fraction of all vehicle movements. Goods flows themselves are responsible for many other trips than those performed by delivery trucks. Consumers can sometimes be forced to travel long distances to collect a few simple goods. In designing urban freight distribution policies, special attention should be devoted to the possible spill-over effects in passenger transport (see below for further comments).

11.5.4 In Urban Freight Transport, a Long-Term Perspective is Needed When dealing with urban freight issues, authorities should keep an eye on the long term and on future challenges. They should avoid letting their most pressing concerns hide the hard realities yet to come. A long-term perspective is needed, especially because urban freight distribution involves land use planning and infrastructure planning. The development of commercial (shopping), logistical, and residential areas has a sub stantial impact on future freight and passenger flows. It is tempting to locate shopping centres and malls in the periphery in order to avoid the most congested areas, and possi bly save on the trucking time needed to supply city centre shops. However, if one looks at the number of vehicle-kilometres now driven by any mall’s individual customers, one realises that periurban shopping centres are far from solving mobility problems. There again, long-term thinking and well thought-out land use planning policies are key success factors. Furthermore, the location of shops can have an influence on the modal split. Out-of town locations are often accessible to private cars only. By contrast, city centre shops, provided they can be supplied effectively and at a reasonable cost to shippers and transporters, allow city-dwellers to shop using a wider variety of alternative modes of transport.

11.5.5 The Support and Participation of All Relevant Actors is Essential There are many actors involved in urban freight distribution (public, retail out lets/companies, shippers, transport providers, public authorities). The support of all these actors is important to achieve the expected results. The best way to get their sup port is, on the one hand, to understand and care for their needs and concerns, and on the other hand, to get them involved throughout the whole process (problem analysis, objectives definition, selection of solution, implementation and evaluation). Although this process can be very time-consuming, it is preferred over overcoming resistance after the implementation of the project has started. Communication, cooperation, and consensus-building are crucial.

272 E. Monami et al. Failing to recognise the above imperatives can lead to serious obstacles to the successful implementation of urban freight distribution initiatives as it translates into • limited demand for a solution (due to lack of information on individual and collective drawbacks of present situation); • resistance to participate if individual costs/sacrifices increase (due to lack of infor mation on possible individual and collective benefits); • resistance to provide information on individual business processes; • resistance due to top-down approach, not being involved in or informed on decisions that affect actors; • resistance as the collective interests of an actor-group (retail organisation or local authority) versus the individual interests of a representative of this actor group (retail outlet owner, an alderman of the local authority) differ. This may reduce the possibilities for single companies and institutions to change their business models or behaviour.

11.5.6 The Roles of Public Authorities: Support, Responsibilities, Arbitrate With so many actors involved, it is often difficult to tell who is responsible for what part of the problem. Freight transport operates pretty much at a private optimum, that is, it is rather efficient from an internal cost point of view. But it generates a lot of external costs. Attempts to curb the negative impacts of urban freight logistics often result in considerable costs that can take various forms: a loss of logistics efficiency for the transporters, supply constraints for the shippers or the receivers, investment costs in new infrastructures or vehicles, new coordination costs or costs related to new services, etc. Before they decide on how much money to spend on any given initiative, local authorities (and regional and national governmental institutions) ought to take the following steps: • support the possibilities for a high quality problem analysis by gathering infor mation and data on freight movements and characteristics (urban, regional, and national freight databases) and information/data on benefits and drawbacks; • bring together all the actors involved in a network/cooperation-group to exchange information and discuss the most pressing problems, common objectives and possible solutions; • define their own (financial) contribution to urban freight distribution solutions in line with their natural role of safeguarding public interests.

11.5.7 Existing Drawbacks and Theoretical Benefits are not the only Relevant Decision Criteria The solutions envisaged for urban freight distribution problems are often selected based on criteria that relate to certain benefits and drawbacks, for instance reduction of negative effects (emission, noise), funding of a particular initiative/result, the availability of a technology/technique/solution the positive results of a solution in another city. This is far from sufficient given the number of obstacles that urban freight distribution initiatives can encounter.

Assessing and Mapping Urban Freight Distribution Initiatives 273 The selection of a solution from a series of alternative options should ideally also take the following criteria into account: • the demand for each solution (rather than the desire to showcase some new technology); • the acceptability of each solution; • the support of all actors for each solution; • the existence of synergies (more likely to lead to win–win situations); • the sustainability (adaptability, flexibility to changes in interrelations) of each solution; • the financial viability of each solution. With respect to the last criterion, decision-makers should beware of solutions that are not self-supporting. Recurrent financial support is not easy to secure for the long term and this can lead to serious and possibly fatal disruptions in a project’s implementation plan.

11.5.8 There is No One-Size-Fits-All Solution Tailor-made solutions are fundamental. Because of the heterogeneity of cities, cultures, and transport organisation structures, solutions that are successful in one city can have no effect or even worsen or create problems in other cities. A UDC, for example, might seem a useful solution for criss-cross deliveries in an old medieval city of which the centre is not adapted to heavy traffic. But in a lot of other cities, a system of decentralised and easily accessible micro-warehouses might be a better idea. For this reason, case studies provide a useful source of information and inspiration. However, one should not focus too much on benefits and drawbacks of these case studies, since there is no guarantee that the same results can be achieved in another city. Not one city is alike another. On the other hand, coordination between cities and joint efforts in some fields can sometimes also be decisive: when it comes to imposing a new standard for delivery boxes or containers, for example, or in order to consolidate enough orders on a given type of vehicles to make its purchase or its later use more economical.

11.5.9 There is a Drawback to All Solutions There will always be a level of hindrance experienced by actors. The challenge is to define which situation/level of hindrance is acceptable for all actors and collectively optimal. There are no solutions which have positive consequences for all categories of actors involved. When implementing a certain solution, one should be aware of the various benefits and drawbacks for all actors. For instance, individual cities may have to think twice before banning or penalising certain types of vehicles out of fear that this might penalise their retailers or their shopping public or even lead to the departure of some of them. UDCs, for example, also need to be assessed looking at the full picture, for they could indeed reduce traffic outside of cities but then they usually come with significant increases in intra-urban traffic. In that respect, it is important to note that replacing some polluting vehicles by cleaner ones is not sufficient; it can even be harmful if the clean vehicles in

274 E. Monami et al. question are more numerous than the vehicles used till then and lead to a perceptible increase in congestion.

11.5.10 Failure and Success Stories Teach Important Lessons Instead of trying to copy case studies from elsewhere, decision-makers in the field should focus on the success and failure factors of these case studies to design and fine-tune their own solution. Understanding why a given solution was a success/failure at a certain time, in a certain place is more important than knowing whether or not it was a success/failure? With their catalogue of thoroughly assessed urban freight distribution initiatives, research projects such as CITYFREIGHT and thematic networks of the kind of BESTUFS (Best Urban Freight Solutions) can play a major role in this respect. To further facilitate the exchange of information and the successful implementation of projects in the field of urban freight distribution, public authorities should • develop a database continuously monitoring the progress made and the results already achieved by the various CityFreight distribution projects currently under way; • support the development of information exchange systems between private (and public) actors; • promote the use of cooperation models for private actors • establish urban freight distribution-centred cooperation groups with clearly defined tasks (e.g. monitoring new developments, upcoming problems, studies needed etc.); • define, at the national and regional levels, (and wherever possible) quantified objectives for the development of city logistics as an integral part of national and European Union (EU) transport policies • stimulate research on (e.g.): – the use of electric, hybrid and other so-called green or clean vehicles for urban freight deliveries; – the impact that the regulatory constraints imposed on urban freight deliveries have on the effectiveness of distribution logistics, on the availability of certain goods in city centres, and on the modal split among urban shoppers; – the development of e-commerce, hands-free shopping and other deferreddelivery services and their consequences on the field of urban logistics.

Part IV

Policy Tools

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 12 Arterial Streets: Towards An Integrated Approach Åse Svensson and Stephen Marshall

12.1 INTRODUCTION Arterial streets exhibit the most acute conflicts faced by streets in general: It is on arterial streets that we tend to see the greatest conflicts between the street as a traffic artery and the street as an urban place; between public transport and non-transport activities; between those who are trying to save time overcoming space and those who are trying to spend time occupying space; between the greatest variety of different transport modes; between the greatest variety of public and private land uses; and between strategic, city-wide interests and the interests of localities. Because of these acute conflicts, urban and transport professionals came to see the arterial more as an urban problem than an urban solution, and the arterial street fell out of the favour for several decades. However, with the urban sustainability agenda now favouring street-based urbanism, streets as social places, urban vitality, and the promotion of walking and good interchange between street-running transport modes, the arterial street is once again being considered as a potential contributor to integrated urban solutions. This chapter reports on research directed towards a more integrated approach to design ing and managing arterial streets. The chapter first outlines some of the background to arterial streets and is subsequently loosely organised according to three interlinked areas of focus which may be roughly associated with scale: • consideration of a people-oriented approach to the design and management of arterial streets, which concerns giving greater attention to people’s use of arterial streets for activities other than through movement in vehicles, and by involving the public in the street design process. This effectively is focused on the scale of individual streets under concern; 277

278 Å. Svensson and S. Marshall • consideration of the overall planning of the street network and the roles of different streets within it. This requires consideration of the whole street net work of the city – not just arterial streets – including both city scale and local issues; • consideration of the overall evaluation of arterial streets towards sustainability, which in principle includes considerations from local to city up to national and global scale. The material in this chapter is principally based on the ARTISTS project (Arterial Streets Towards Sustainability), whose findings are more fully detailed in the project’s final publication Arterial Streets for People (Svensson, 2004).

12.2 HISTORICAL CONTEXT Throughout history, towns and cities have been organised to a significant extent around their streets, and especially around arterial streets. Arterial streets are often historic transport corridors that existed before they were part of any urban area but gradually became a focus for urban activity and development. This means that arterial streets often provided a structure for movement that subsequently became an urban structure; they then assumed a variety of urban functions in addition to their original function for movement (Svensson, 2004). Historic arterial streets therefore have been very much connected with traditional urbanism and in practice have been the joint concern of both land use planning and transport planning professionals. The advent of twentieth century Modernist planning changed the attitude to streets fundamentally: High volumes of motorised traffic became increasingly incompatible with other street roles. As part of the general movement towards ‘rational’ town planning, to separate the roles of movement from other urban activities, Modernist planning wished to reinvent the city in a form appropriate for the twentieth cen tury, particularly by taking advantage of new technologies. Revolutionary new kinds of cities were dreamed up based on free-flowing lines of movement of the motor car (Le Corbusier, 1964; Hilberseimer, 1944; Jellicoe, 1961; MoT, 1963; see also com mentary by Gold, 1998; Dunnett, 2000). Streets became dissembled into their separate components – dedicated roads for movement; separate spaces for public uses and free standing buildings. There was no place for the historic urban street and in particular the arterial street: A type of street that significantly combined a transport function with being a ‘land use’ in its own right, that is, a street that is so much more than just a ‘road in an urban area’. However, the new Modernist model, as applied in practice, often turned out to have adverse consequences (demolition, blight, unfinished motorways, destruction of com munities and local shops along main streets, etc.). This urban model that was devised particularly to serve the motor vehicle was not turning out to be very ‘successful’ in creating places for people. In many cases, arterial streets remained in place, which in

Arterial Streets: Towards an Integrated Approach 279 theory were designated by city authorities as ‘strategic traffic routes’, but in practice were still continuing to serve a host of other urban functions. In recent decades, there has progressively been a return to favour of the traditional style street and street-oriented urbanism. This includes approaches from the point of view of liveability (Jacobs, 1962; Appleyard, 1981; Gehl, 1987), in particular, the citizen’s right to use the street as a public place (Fyfe, 1998; Moudon, 1987; Engwicht, 1999; Marshall, 2005). It has had specific manifestation in movements such as the New Urbanism in the United States (Katz, 1994; Hebbert, 2003) and is connected with the appreciation of the urban qualities of historic streets and boulevards (Jacobs, 1993; Jacobs et al., 2002; Southworth and Ben Joseph, 2003). In the European context, this often had to do with the revitalisation of historic streets and an original streets-oriented urban fabric, as well as ‘retrofitting’ of traditional style streets to post-war urban and suburban developments, and the creation of new streets in new development areas. Modern highways such as motorways, by-passes and ring roads around the city have a limited number of clear functions: to facilitate fast, safe and convenient mobility along the road for motorised traffic. These functions are seldom in direct conflict with each other – though their rationality can be called into question from certain perspectives. Other categories of road such as residential streets or shopping precincts also have clear priority for use by residents or shoppers, where these priorities may be clearly placed ahead of the need for through traffic movement. In all these cases, designing and management can follow a relatively simple rationale. However, the arterial street, as a multi-functional street, presents a particular challenge to sustainable urban planning. The problems of traffic congestion, accidents, accessibility, air pollution and excessive noise, that are characteristic of large parts of most European towns and cities, are usually found in their most extreme forms along these major arterial streets. These streets attempt to meet several, often conflicting functions: movement along the street, movement across the street, access to frontages, a place for public gathering and interaction, and in some cases, a residential environment. This represents a practical challenge (Figure 12.1). There is also a professional challenge: There is currently no consistent guidance on bal ancing the different functions of arterial streets hence on improving conditions through design and management. For example, the multi-functional nature of the arterial street is not necessarily reflected in existing road classification systems – systems which define the role of streets and hence their design priorities according to their traffic functions (Brindle, 1996; AASHTO, 2001; Marshall, 2002; Bartlett, 2003a,b). In short, this means that ‘arterials’ have conventionally been regarded as roads – routes prioritising through movement – rather than being also streets, that is, roads lined by buildings that serve as urban places. In effect, the conventional view has often been that an arterial is best realised in the form of a road, not a street, and the arterial street itself has become a neglected case in terms of design guidance. This represents a challenge for today’s transport and urban professionals.

280 Å. Svensson and S. Marshall

Figure 12.1: Conflicts in an arterial street

12.3 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION One of the problems of conventional, technocratic approaches to arterial streets was that decisions affecting those streets were often taken according to a process that was remote to the people who would be most affected by them. For example, in the 1960s and 1970s, city authorities would draw lines on a map unilaterally designating certain streets as arterials which would then require to be ‘upgraded’, sometimes requiring the demolition of buildings and in some cases the destruction of local communities. The result may have been a higher standard of road, but not necessarily a higher standard of urban functionality, quality or sense of place. A contemporary objective in city planning is to allow decisions to be taken closer to the public, with greater involvement by those who may be most affected by proposals and who might have a significant contribution to make in the generation of those proposals. An obvious pre-condition for a people-oriented decision and design process is to include people both as users of the street – to have people, rather than vehicles, as the starting point for the analysis and redesign of street-space – and as stakeholders participating in the redesign process. Stakeholder participation in the planning and decision-making process can be seen as a natural element in the democratic processes. The participation of stakeholders in the redesign process of arterial streets is in this respect particularly appropriate as these streets often form significant public places – they are often local shopping streets, or the location for community facilities, and locations for public trans port access, and so on, in addition to being merely corridors of movement from one place to another.

Arterial Streets: Towards an Integrated Approach 281 Local users are often more aware of the particular problems and needs connected to the local functions of the arterial street. Wide user participation in every phase of the design process can therefore ensure that the full range of problems and objectives is considered, and innovative solutions are generated. It provides users’ prioritisation of function for that street-space. It ensures a more joint ownership of final solutions proposed which also creates good conditions for a more efficient implementation process. The most frequent use of stakeholder participation in the ordinary redesign project is often restricted to a one-way communication, that is, providing information (Chapter 4). The work of the ARTISTS project has pointed at the advantages of involving stakeholders in the ‘stronger’ forms of engagement: consultation and active participation. This means that the discussions here go beyond unilateral provision of information on what the authorities have decided but involve significant inputs from the public. That said, in both consultation and active participation, the city authority still retains final control and responsibility for final decision-making. In the context of the redesign of arterial streets in urban areas, the work of the ARTISTS project has indeed demonstrated the possibility of incorporating public participation at each stage of the redesign process. Perhaps the most interesting and most innovative contribution consists of involving stakeholders in the stage of generating alternative design options. The ARTISTS project has tested the possibility of getting stakeholders involved in this stage by setting up design workshops (Figure 12.2). In these workshops, typically four to seven participants representing different stakeholder groups form design teams with the task to together produce a number of alternative design solutions for a specific street-space. A facilitator (from the project team) arranges the grouping of people, gives instructions for the work and provides the stakeholder groups with appropriate material. The material consists of a base plan of the street-space to be redesigned and the design tools, to be described below.

Figure 12.2: Design workshop

282 Å. Svensson and S. Marshall In this ARTISTS approach, three types of street-space design tools were developed to help stakeholders when generating different design options. 1) Poster montage. Three types of posters could be considered for inclusion in design workshops. • Posters illustrating how different street sections in different cities (and differ ent countries) have been redesigned. The posters contain information about the situation before the reconstruction; the immediate problems to be solved; the objectives; the chosen solutions; what the final reconstruction looks like and the effects. The purpose of the posters is to spread ideas about possible design solutions and to help break free from pre-conceived notions of what an arterial street would look like (often currently a traffic-dominated space). • Posters illustrating different street elements. The purpose is to illustrate what different types of street elements actually look like when introduced in the street. The purpose is also to make stakeholders aware of the variety of possible solutions. • Posters illustrating the actual case street that is the objective for the design workshop. It is an effective way of summarising the needs for change, prob lems, challenges, visions and constraints of the street. 2) Street Elements Information Pack (SEIP). This pack is a collection of information sheets about a number of different street elements. The information includes photos and a description of the street element, design considerations, indicative costs and likely effects on the street’s performance. The purpose is to give stake holders guidance on the variety of street elements and their properties. The SEIP has been devised for use in different European cities and is available from the ARTISTS project website (see http://www.tft.lth.se/Artists/medlemmar.asp). 3) Transparent overlays are design elements produced in a transparent material and in the same scale as the base plan. These are used to guide composition of the street-space. As the discussion in the team evolves, design elements are added and removed, to eventually end up in a final composition that everybody in the team can agree upon. The tool allows stakeholders to, in a simple way, check for space constraints and possibilities. As compared to sketching the reorganisation of the street-space directly on the base plan, the transparent overlays allow for an iterative process with several reconsiderations. This stage of suggesting alternative design options is traditionally the task for the pro fessional planner or engineer. The procedure described here to involve stakeholders in design workshops has, however, numerous advantages. Local users are usually very aware of local problems and needs and should be well suited to propose changes. A design workshop with stakeholders representing different interests also turns out to be a very important part of a mutual learning process. The professional gets suggestions of designs to solve local problems in the street-space, design options that perhaps other wise would not have been considered at all. It is perhaps not always the final outcome that is of most interest to the professional, but the taking part in the team discussions and modifications getting there. For the stakeholder, it is a completely new insight into playing the role of the professional planner for a few hours. The experience of not being

Arterial Streets: Towards an Integrated Approach 283 able to squeeze in enough design elements in the street-space, not being able to satisfy all different user interests gives a new understanding of the complexity of the planning task. Although this kind of design workshop can help generate options, those options then have to be worked up into feasible alternatives by professionals, for example, by trans port engineers who will have to ensure compliance with technical standards and legal issues. The assessment of the effects on street performance, the judging of how realistic the design options are in the city context and with regard to economic constraints, and so on, are final considerations that despite intense public participation still lie in the hands of the city authority. But the input of the public to the design option stage should ensure that those final decisions are not made without an appreciation of the local people’s needs.

12.4 STREET FUNCTION AND CLASSIFICATION The preceding section has drawn attention to the value of local involvement in the design of a particular street. However, this must be complemented by an appreciation of the wider role of a street in the urban system. For a start, streets are used by those who are not local to the area and may have no immediate business in the area. Therefore, while sensitivity to local issues is an important consideration, most roads and streets – and arterial streets especially – have a role that serves people outside the local area, who in fact may have no business in the area except to pass through from somewhere to somewhere else. While these ‘through users’ may be perceived as part of the problem of the street – by locals residents, for example – arterial routes catering to through movements are essential to a city’s functioning overall. Therefore, not all streets can be ‘local streets’; while reducing or completely removing traffic from a particular street may be the best solution as perceived by some local users, it is not necessarily the best solution for the city overall. The traffic will to some extent have to be accommodated somewhere else, and those other streets or routes need to be considered too. Therefore, the consideration of the best design solution for a particular street will depend on what is the envisaged role for the street in the wider system. This will include whether the street is to be perceived as an arterial street in the first place. This means that the design exercise is not merely a matter of measuring current flows and observing current problems on a section of street in order to redesign the space to better address these, but should require consideration of the best overall allocation of functions to different streets, and whether the mix of traffic flows and land uses currently observed might be better accommodated somewhere else. Therefore, while street function is traditionally associated with road classification and traffic engineering, taking a wide perspective of the role of streets in a city requires considering the whole network of streets and distribution of public spaces and land uses generally. This is at least as much – if not more – an urban planning consideration as it is a traffic engineering consideration.

284 Å. Svensson and S. Marshall Currently, devices like ‘functional classification’ and ‘road hierarchy’ are often popularly perceived as being traffic engineering issues, which if anything are in danger of being criticised as being ‘anti-urban’ devices – being barriers to ‘good urbanism’ – and in particular in denying the role of the historic arterial street. In this sense, functional classification and road hierarchy have often been perceived – by urban planners and designers at least – as ‘part of the problem’ (Hebbert, 2005; Marshall, 2005). But it is possible that they could be part of the solution and be improved rather than discarded completely: • First, functional classification and road hierarchy do already allow for some kinds of traditional streets, and how these relate to urban frontage and hence land use planning issues, and so this urban element could be given greater emphasis, relative to traffic issues, and a wider diversity of types of street that explicitly cater for the arterial street type could be provided. • Second, functional classification and road hierarchy – while often associated with traffic-related parameters such as flow, speed or transport mode – is typically more definitely related to network topology. For example, roads are often ranked according to geographical scale of significance of the network they belong to – for example, national, city, district, local. This means that the classification or ranking is in principle compatible with urban planning that deals with geographical scale and distribution of urban functions (Marshall, 2005). • Finally, functional classification typically refers to an intended future state – an idealised distribution of routes playing different roles in a network. In this sense, it is actually rather like conventional land use planning, which sets out a future intended distribution of land uses. So, just as ‘planning’ is more than just setting down land uses on a ground plan, ‘classification’ is more than a purely technocratic measurement of current parameters and bureaucratic allocation to categories, but is actually a professional judgement of how the city should be organised. A future version of classification could be directed more towards this latter purpose. A system of classification has been devised as part of the ARTISTS project that aims to address these issues, providing a tool for guiding decision-making on the role or function of streets. This function in turn should be the backdrop against which detailed design decisions are made for particular sections of street. The key features of the system are (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Recognising and combining both link status and place status; Considering the role of a specific street relative to others; Ranking status according to geographical scale of significance; Considering local versus area wide scale; Using classification as a decision-support tool.

Arterial Streets: Towards an Integrated Approach 285 These points may be further elaborated as follows: (1) Any street section is recognised as having a role as a link in the road network and a role as an urban place. The classification therefore addresses a combination of link status and place status, which are considered independent properties. This is different from conventional classifications in which there is typically an assumed inverse relationship between ‘mobility function’ and ‘access function’. By including place explicitly as an independent variable, it should help to better the transport-related concerns of link function with the urban-related concerns of place. (2) The link status and place status will depend not only on the immediate attributes of the street section but on their role with respect to the wider street and urban system considered as a whole. This means that deciding the function of a street and designing for this function are not merely a matter of measuring, say, current traffic flow – or current frontage use – and classifying the street accordingly, and then designing to accommodate this function. Streets are all complementary to each other, and to some extent, potentially multi-functional, and so, the classification for an individual street must in principle be a matter of considering the potential best-fitting role of this street relative to all others. (3) The ranking of link status and place status is done according to geographical scale of significance, for example, national, city, district, local. This means that both the link and place rankings have the same units: This means both are equally understandable to the professionals making the rankings and help provide a sense of balance between these sometimes conflicting functions. (4) The ranking based on geographical scale also means that the scale issue is explicitly brought into play. The design of any street typically involves some sort of balance or trade-off not just between transport and non-transport urban activities, but between local use and ‘through use’. This latter pair can be seen, partly, as a matter of scale, since ‘through’ use is associated with needs of the wider areas (e.g. district or city). (5) The classification is not a taxonomic exercise for its own sake, but is a decisionsupport tool to help guide design and interpret performance assessment of a street. It is a statement of intent for the future spatial distribution of streets of different types, much in the way that a land use plan is a statement of intended distribution of land uses. Classification is therefore not only a technocratic or bureaucratic interest; of interest only to roads authorities, but should be of concern of urban planners and ultimately all citizens. A possible expression for the presentation of a classification system with different route types is given in Figure 12.3. The basic principles and format laid out here could be adapted to suit conventions and circumstances in individual countries or cities. This could take more detailed account of networks for different transport modes or land uses. For example, an approach directed towards UK application is now being developed (Jones et al., 2007). In applying this system, each street is classified in terms of link and place status. This is used to guide design: For example, a street with higher place status (e.g. ‘city’ as

286 Å. Svensson and S. Marshall ARTISTS street classification table National

Ie

Id

Ic

Ib

Ia

City

IIe

IId

IIc

IIb

IIa

Arterial roads/ways

IIIe IIId IIIc IIIb IIIa

Neighbour hood

IVe IVd IVc IVb IVa

Non-arterial roads/ways

Ve

Vd

Vc

Vb

Va

Neighbour hood

District

City

National

Non-arterial streets Local

Local

Link Status

Arterial streets District

Place status

Figure 12.3: ARTISTS street classification system

compared to ‘district’) might give a greater proportion of street-space to place uses (e.g. pavement cafes, etc.), whereas a street with a higher link status (e.g. ‘national’ as compared to ‘city’) might give a greater proportion of space and/or time to through traffic. However, although the ‘higher’ status, the national use does not necessarily override the local use. A national route or national facility may well have more choice as to where it could be located than a local route or facility, so in some cases, the local may be given greater weight in the need to use this particular space, while the national could be located elsewhere. But either way, the decision is made in the context of the whole urban network. The above system will not necessarily make the challenges of street design and man agement disappear. However, it can help clarify the nature of the challenge. It can help provide a framework that enables a more systematic and more transparent process for decision-making. The street classification system will for instance show how different user needs and interests have been considered in relation to overarching policy plans for the city. The crucial process of balancing all these aspects will remain, but it will be made more transparent.

12.5 STREETS AND SUSTAINABILITY The holistic approach to the design and management of streets perhaps reaches its ultimate realisation in the consideration of sustainability. In other words, deciding what is best for a street takes account not only of the conditions on the street itself, nor even the urban network overall, but, in principle, by way of sustainability, extends to the best decision for the long-term habitability of planet Earth. Sustainability has become a fashionable word. The positive aspect is that sustainability definitely is on the agenda when planning for the cities of tomorrow. The disadvantage

Arterial Streets: Towards an Integrated Approach 287 is that the word often is used without any further explanation. This latter aspect is somewhat unfortunate as it is not until sustainability has been defined that it can be operationalised and thereby made useful. There are, though, many interpretations and applications of sustainability. From the perspective of the ARTISTS project, sustainable development of cities aims at promoting modes and activities that foster social and economic development while minimising negative environmental impact. While attempting to interpret the concept of sustainability with respect to streets, it became clear that is it difficult to identify or rank the ‘sustainability’ of an individual street. It is difficult to say one street is more ‘sustainable’ than the other – even if an agreement could be reached on the meaning of sustainability in this context – since streets form part of a wider system. Through the classification, the function of the different parts in the city is decided. This process can be seen as an overarching approach to make sure that the urban city system as a whole will function properly. Hence, in order to form a complementary web of streets and places that makes the whole city system a well functional entity, the different streets and places will have different functions. If streets and places have different functions, this implies that all aspects of sustainability cannot be optimised for each and every part. On the other hand, sustainability does matter for each and every part since streets form part of a wider system – an entity that may go through the process of optimisation. Some streets may be judged individually to perform better economically than others, some socially and some environmentally – just as one might say that the ‘shopping centre land use’, the ‘community centre land use’ and the ‘park land use’, all perform better in one or another dimension. Overall, then, street design and management should aim to make sure that each part of the system contributes to optimising sustainability for the whole system. Therefore, choice of sustainability indicators, their operationalisation and thresholds will depend on the individual street section in relation to its role in the wider city context. In the context of the key themes of the ARTISTS project, it was considered helpful to relate considerations of sustainability to a people-oriented perspective and to the two classification dimensions, link and place (hence we can consider ‘sustainability of the link function’ and ‘sustainability of the place function’). The following provides a series of suggestions as to how these considerations may be taken forward according to these perspectives but is not in itself a comprehensive system for sustainability assessment. Sustainability indicators relating to link function: refer to qualities associated with safe, efficient and environmentally friendly travel along the street. • Safety may be associated with the social sustainability of the link or in some inter pretations may be regarded as an economically accountable criterion (Persson, 2004). Safety is most often defined as the absence of accidents. The operationalised indicator cannot be all accidents, however, as police statistics do not include all accidents. Some categories, like accidents involving vulnerable road users are heavily underreported. Furthermore, there are no scientific studies confirming

288 Å. Svensson and S. Marshall a stable relationship between ‘damage-only’ accidents and safety. Also, from a people-oriented perspective, safety should be operationalised as the absence of injury accidents. Speed is another indicator that is highly correlated with safety (Elvik et al., 2004; Nilsson, 2004). The incompleteness of the police accident statistics makes the speed indicator advantageous as a social indicator which has the added advantage of being very easy to measure and collect. • Economic indicators on sustainability of the link are associated with efficient movement along the link. Again from a people perspective, it is not relevant to only talk about efficient movement of motor vehicle traffic, but we must consider the efficient movement of people along the link. A possible means of doing this is to define efficient movement as the ratio of flow of people (irrespective of mode of transport) to AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic i.e. motor vehicle traffic equivalents). In this way, streets with frequent public transport with high occu pancy will score more highly on economic sustainability than links transporting the same amount of people in cars. Efficient movement also means small delays for transport along the link. So another economic indicator could be the average delay of all modes of traffic. • The air quality along the link is relevant when talking about environmental sus tainability. Associated indicators are therefore the concentration of pollutants such as HC, CO, CO2 NOX and particles, for example, PM10. Here also the ‘effi cient movement of people’, mentioned in connection to economic sustainability above, must be made with environmental friendly modes. Another environmental indicator could therefore be the share of movement with environmental friendly modes (a conception that itself would have to be defined). Sustainability indicators of the place function refers to qualities associated with the street being a place, meaning that people can use the street for activities other than traffic, and that the street provides a secure and healthy environment for those activities. • Social sustainability is associated with personal security and a relevant indicator could be the number of crimes in the place. Social sustainability is also associ ated with presence of people and people being involved in other activities than traffic, that is, all those activities that are of importance to the vitality of the street. Relevant indicators could therefore be the number and types of activities (e.g. window-shopping, sitting at cafés and restaurants, chatting, etc.) and the number of people being involved in these activities. Walking is in this sense dou ble edged. It contributes to the presence of people while just walking past the place without spending time there for a particular reason does not contribute to the qualities of the street being a place. It is therefore important to distinguish between different types of walking; walking by or walking as a means of taking part in activities in the street. • Economic sustainability is associated with viability and efficient movement across the street. Relevant economic indicators could therefore be the rents of the prop erties surrounding the place in relation to rents elsewhere in the city or country. On the condition that the rents reflect the market price, higher rents indicate more attractive locations. Another relevant economic indicator is the turnover for the businesses in the area. As well as delay being an indicator for economic

Arterial Streets: Towards an Integrated Approach 289 sustainability for movement along the link; delay for crossing the street could be an indicator for economic sustainability for the place. Here the average delay for all modes crossing should be estimated. • Environmental sustainability for the place is associated with air quality, excessive noise and presence of greenery. Relevant environmental indicators could therefore be the concentration of pollutants (the same as for link qualities), the level of noise in terms of dB(A) Leq and the proportion of greenery m2 /acre in the street-space. Again it should be emphasised that the final choice of relevant sustainability indicators, their operationalisation and thresholds will depend on the individual street section in relation to its role in the wider city context.

12.6 POLICY IMPLICATIONS This chapter has reported on some key strands of research relating to arterial streets, within the context of wider research programmes on the treatment of street design and management and street-oriented urbanism. As a result of the particular research findings presented in this chapter, the following policy implications may be suggested.

12.6.1 Rethinking Streets and Street Functions The first implication is a need to rethink the way in which streets feature in the general professional frameworks of transport and land use planning. If arterial streets are to be promoted as part of a streets-oriented urban design agenda, then we need a new conceptual framework to underpin new design guidance addressing the arterial street. This chapter suggests a possible approach, by explicitly recognising both the ‘link’ function and the ‘place’ function of a street, independently and simultaneously. This system, it is suggested, could be used to assist the creation of a new generation of design guidance which could promote arterial streets – among other kinds of street – as part of an urban planning package. In particular, the ARTISTS classification system provides a way of thinking about the relative priority of the ‘link’ and ‘place’ functions of a street, as a guide to decisionmaking about the relative allocation of roadspace and detailed design of streets. The system set out here is a general proposition – more detailed guidance on a procedure for classification is found in Arterial Streets for People (Svensson, 2004) – but for application to practice, it is expected that the system would be adapted to local conditions (e.g. individual countries or municipalities). In turn, it is likely to require some adaptation or revision of national local guidance or regulations.

12.6.2 A People-Oriented Approach This chapter has suggested a people-oriented approach in terms of: • Focusing on individual persons as the basic unit for design and performance assessment, rather than vehicles. This means that there needs to be a shift away

290 Å. Svensson and S. Marshall from simply ‘counting cars’ when considering the current use of future priorities for use of space and allocation of time; rather, we should ‘count people’. This in turn means developing appropriate indicators and consistent means of evaluating throughput of people along streets, the use of street-space for a variety of activities, and taking account of vehicle occupancy. This can help to ensure that appropriate weight is given to the most efficient users of space (e.g. high occupancy public transport vs. low occupancy cars) and the more diverse uses of space (e.g. various kinds of ‘static’ pedestrian behaviour as well as pedestrian through movement). • Involvement of the public in street design. This includes not only contributions to the generation of ‘visions’ for a street, or suggestions for redesign of a street – both of which are increasingly forming part of current practice – but also handson participation in design processes, and even contribution to strategic decisions about the function and classification of streets.

12.6.3 Sustainability Evaluation It is suggested that considerations presented in this chapter (and more generally in the ARTISTS project) may assist in the refinement of approaches to sustainability – in its social, economic and environmental dimensions. These include • Operationalisation of sustainability considerations by considering evaluation from a people-oriented perspective (already discussed above); • The idea that streets have complementary roles within a wider system, and that there is a need to consider the system as a whole, and not just an attempted improvement of some absolute measure of ‘sustainability’; • Street-space and time allocation can be seen as part of the wider themes of social and environmental justice. In other words, these are not just a matter of global treaties or social services responsibilities, but are about who is allowed to do what on particular patches of urban ground. So public authorities – whether planning or roads authorities – can tangibly affect this balance between different users, in the decisions they take, which may be traditionally associated with technical exercises. For example, installing a bus lane is not merely a matter of measuring bus width and bus flow, but considering which people use buses for which purposes, relative to other street users, and how much space they ‘deserve’ to be allocated, to promote the kind of city desired; • Sustainability indicators can be grouped together under the link and place themes to help clarify the balances and trade-offs between these different kinds of activity. This does not necessarily alter the weight or relationship between indicators, but may help ensure that due attention is given to the place-related ones, in a climate where much of the quantification of indicators relates to traffic issues.

12.6.4 Land Use and Transport Professions All of the above considerations imply changes to the way that land use and transport professions operate. In terms of street classification, the system presented implies and indeed requires that urban planners and transport professionals will both have inputs to the classification.

Arterial Streets: Towards an Integrated Approach 291 For example, transport professionals would be expected to attend to (at least) the designation of link status, while for place status, it is envisaged that the urban planner (at least) will be involved. In terms of the people-centred approach, this implies a greater role for new and recently developed techniques for assessing the use of space by people. These go beyond the ‘counting vehicles’ and even the ‘counting pedestrians’ approaches conventionally carried out by the transport professionals, but requires a range of social science based approaches to observing and quantifying the use of streets by people. Finally, in terms of sustainability, both urban and transport planning professions are already in collaboration towards this common goal. This perhaps provides an indication of how the different components can work together: It is understood that improvements to one part of the system (e.g. higher speeds) may lead to both benefits (e.g. greater eco nomic performance) and disbenefits (e.g. higher energy use or accidents). This necessary intertwining of causes and effects, already seen in the case of sustainability evaluation, where land use and transport planning professions typically work together towards common goals, needs to be extended to encompass the overall setting of objectives, the relative priority of different street functions, street activities and street users, and hence the design and planning of streets.

REFERENCES AASHTO. (2001). A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. Washington, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials. Appleyard, D. (1981). Livable Streets. With M. S. Gerson and M. Lintell. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bartlett, R. (2003a). Road hierarchy. Highway design notes 1–102. Unpublished working paper ([email protected]). Bartlett, R. (2003b). Road classification. Highway design notes 1–103. Unpublished working paper ([email protected]). Brindle, R. (1996). Road hierarchy and functional classification. In K. W. Ogden and S. Taylor (Eds.), Traffic Engineering and Management. Melbourne: Institute of Transport Stud ies, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University. Dunnett, J. (2000). Le Corbusier and the city without streets. In T. Deckker (Ed.), The Modern City Revisited. London: Spon Press. Elvik, R., Christensen, P., Amundsen, A. H. (2004). Fart og trafikkulykker: evaluering av potensmodellen. Report no: 740/2004. TransportØkonomisk institutt, TØI, Oslo. Engwicht, D. (1999). Street Reclaiming. Creating Livable Streets and Vibrant Communities. Gabriola Island, British Columbia: New Society Publishers. Fyfe, N. (Ed.) (1998). Images of the Street. London: Routledge. Gehl, J. (1987). Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space. Wokingham, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Gold, J. R. (1998). The death of the boulevard. In N. Fyfe (Ed.), Images of the Street. London: Routledge. Hebbert, M.(2003). New Urbanism: The movement in context. Built Environment 29 (3) 193–209.

292 Å. Svensson and S. Marshall Hebbert, M. (2005). Engineering, urbanism and the struggle for street design, Journal of Urban Design 10 (1), 39–59. Hilberseimer, L. (1944). The New City, Principles of Planning. Chicago: Paul Theobold. Jacobs, J. (1962). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. London: Jonathan Cape. Jacobs, A. (1993). Great Streets. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Jacobs, A. B., Macdonald, E. and Rofé, Y. (2002). The Boulevard Book. History, Evolution, Design of Multiway Boulevards. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Jellicoe, G. (1961). Motopia. London: Studio Books. Jones, P., Marshall, S. and Boujenko, N. (2007, forthcoming). Link and Place: An Approach to Street Planning and Design. London: Landor. Katz, P. (1994). The New Urbanism. Toward an Architecture of Community. New York: McGraw-Hill. Le Corbusier (1964). The Radiant City. London: Faber and Faber. Marshall, S. (2002). A First Theoretical Approach to Classification of Arterial Streets. ARTISTS Deliverable D1.1. London: University of Westminster. Marshall, S. (2004). The Street: Integrating Transport and Urban Environment. In K. Button and D. Hensher (Eds.), Transport and Environment. Oxford: Pergamon. Marshall, S. (2005). Streets and Patterns. London: Spon Press. MoT (1963). Traffic in Towns. London: HMSO. Moudon, A. V. (Ed.) (1987). Public Streets for Public Use. New York: Van Nostrand. Nilsson, G. (2004). Traffic safety dimensions and the power model to describe the effect of speed on safety. Doctoral Thesis. Bulletin 221. Lund: Lund University, Department of Technology and society. Persson, U. (2004). Valuing reductions in the risk of traffic accidents based on empirical studies in Sweden. Doctoral Thesis. Bulletin 222. Lund: Lund University, Department of Technology and society. Southworth, M. and Ben Joseph, E. (2003). Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Cities, 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Svensson, Å. (Ed.) (2004). Arterial Streets for People. Lund: Lund University.

Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 13 Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task Kari Rauhala

13.1 INTRODUCTION Promotion of walking can improve the sustainability of urban mobility as well as upgrade the liveability of urban environments in general. In particular, increased walking has the potential to avoid the costs and abate the harmful impacts of transport on the environment, improve the health of the citizens and social equity and inter-generational solidarity in the fields of mobility and access to urban opportunities. The promotion of walking can be achieved through three different ways: by transport planning, by land use planning and by the design of urban space. The best results are accomplished through a proper combination of all these three ways. By transport plan ning, one can improve the basic conditions for walking. This means mainly provision of safe, well accessible and continuous pedestrian routes between trip origins and des tinations. It also means minimisation of conflicts with the motorised transport. On the other hand, it also means good opportunities for interchange with and between other modes of transport, especially with the public transport. By land use planning, one can minimise distances between the most frequently used trip origins and destinations. In other words, it means a proper distribution of housing, work places and services. It also means taking carefully into account various terrain conditions in the disposition of facilities. It is clear that transport planning and land use planning must be considered here simultaneously. The planning process must be comprehensive. Transport and land use planning do not yet suffice for promoting walking. Equally important issue is the design of the public urban space itself. The walking environment must also be comfortable and attractive. This requires good urban architecture, good space design and good design of the urban furniture. The design of good pedestrian environments concerns both large-scale and detail-scale issues. 293

294 K. Rauhala This chapter outlines various aspects of promoting walking, with particular reference to walking from a ‘human experience’ point of view, and the generation of integrated solutions in response to problem clusters. The chapter reports on research carried out as part of the PROMPT project.

13.2 METHODOLOGY The PROMPT project, overall, was set out to find effective means and guidelines for promoting walking in cities. The objective was to offer a variety of best practice exam ples, new tools and new generic solutions to the decision-makers, planners and designers for that purpose. The general research methodology of the project was based on case studies. The first phase was to detect problems impeding walking by analysing existing pedestrian environments at several different situations. The second phase was to find out solutions to these problems. The share of walking in transport is very difficult to predict because so many different factors have an influence on whether one walks or uses some other transport modes. The main approach of the project was to consider walking from the individual’s point of view. The Hermeneutic Phenomenological Philosophy (Husserl, 1973; Gadamer, 1979; Heidegger, 1986; Merleau-Ponty, 1994) gives an interesting background for this. In considering relations between the ‘objective’ reality and the subject perceiving it, it starts from the individual experiences (phenomena) and considers how one makes an interpretation of the reality from these. The decision to walk instead of using one’s own car, for example, is based on how one understands his/her present situation. It is a kind of scheme of choices with favourable and unfavourable consequences. Essential aspects are the ease of the trip, the distance to the target, the available means of getting there, the trip purpose, safety, comfort and the pleasantness of the itinerary, as well as the accessibility of the target. Furthermore, one also usually considers the possibilities of combining several different purposes to the same trip. Other decisive factors are one’s personal health and fitness, and whether the journey involves carrying anything. This means considering many different issues simultaneously in the decision-making. Some of these may be mandatory, some merely optional. Some may be hindering, some repugnant, some tempting and so on. The key question is how to put all these issues together. Many interesting studies have already been made of how we perceive the physical and social environment in urban and traffic contexts (Lynch, 1960; Norberg-Schulz, 1980; Branzell, 1995; Knoflacher, 1995 and 1996; Gehl, 2001). We may consider the actu`al human Being (Heidegger, 1986) as an interaction process bringing about the personal ‘I’ and its environment (world). This environment can be divided into two main categories: physical environment and social environment. Man interacts in various ways with his/her environment. Man affects it by his/her actions and on the other hand, the environment affects him/her through sensations. The environmental impacts can be further divided into impacts on body and impacts on mind. Thus, we get the following diagram (Figure 13.1).

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task 295

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

MAN body mind

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

Figure 13.1: Interactions between ‘man’ and his/her environments Regarding particularly the choice of the mode of transport, it suffices to consider from this whole system only the impacts of these both environments on the human body and mind. On the other hand, the human has specific, desired or undesired, expectations about these impacts depending on his/her choice of transport. The more favourable these expectations are for a certain transport mode the more inclined man is to choose just that mode to go. The principal desired expectations concerning the pedestrian environment can be defined, for example, according to Table 13.1. Table 13.1: Various desired expectations concerning pedestrian environment Physical Environment

Social Environment

Body

Body

Safety of walking Protection against pollution and noise Health Accessibility of places Accessibility of other transport modes Chaining of trips Walking distances Bioclimatic and sensory comfort Mind

Security against criminality Safety against other road users Accessibility of social activities Organisation of social functions Distribution of social functions Social visibility Possibility for privacy

Perceptivity, understandability Orientation Sense of safety Variety and beauty Self-identification

Cultural habits Social acceptance Social contacts and relations Participation to social life Withdrawal from social life

Mind

In general, to promote walking means to improve all conditions for it. It is important that most of the factors affecting the decision are in favour of walking at the same time. For example, it is not sufficient that the route is short if it is not safe. Nevertheless, the research on walking has usually concerned only the impacts of the physical environment on the body, concentrating mostly on safety problems (ADONIS, 1998; WALCYNG, 1998; PROMISING, 2001). In PROMPT, the ambitious objective was to take a much more comprehensive view about walking considering all these impacts and corresponding expectations simultaneously as an integrated totality. By doing so, the contradictory and common interests of different pedestrian groups, as well as those between pedestrians and the other road users were expected to become evident.

296 K. Rauhala The project started with the definition of relevant analysis themes. Five main themes were finally specified. These were safety, accessibility, comfort, attractiveness and intermodality, corresponding to the impact expectation (Table 13.1). Lack of safety is one of the key issues impeding walking. Poor accessibility is another general impediment to walking. Comfort issues – that is, a feeling of security and good walking conditions, like good lighting and surface, freedom from traffic or noise, sufficient provision of benches and other necessary facilities, and so on – are most important for people with mobility problems and for elderly people. Promotion of walking requires that the pedestrian envi ronment must also be attractive. The environment must positively respond to the needs and desires of the pedestrians. The linking of walking with other modes of transport – that is, intermodality, especially with the public transport system – is also essential for promoting walking in cities. Because safety and accessibility have already been topics in several other pedestrian projects, their share in the PROMPT project remained smaller compared to the other themes. A total of 22 case areas in six different countries (16 cities) were analysed according to these themes (Table 13.2). All the case areas were at first analysed separately under each theme. The methods used in the analyses included mappings, measurements and calculations of several relevant indicators, questionnaire studies, interviews, expert anal yses, round tables and local workshops. The aim was to find out individual perceptual experiences about the pedestrian environment in different situations and to determine objective physical indicators of the environment corresponding with them. The results of

Table 13.2: Case areas Country Finland

City Helsinki Jyväskylä

Italy

Kuopio Frascati l’Aquila Modena

Switzerland

Geneva Sursee Zurich

Norway

Lillehammer

Case area Myllypuro Töölö City Centre Kortepohja City Centre San Rocco La Villa Saliceto Panaro

Belgium

Ans-Rocourt Eupen Liège

La Cluse Sursee Mitte Langstrasse Schwamendingen Mitte Centre Vingrom Lade Midtbyen Tillerbyen – – –

France

Nantes Amiens

Bellevue Saint Leu

Trondheim

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task 297 the separate case area analyses were furthermore condensed to theme-specific summaries. A large set of several different existing problems concerning walking was achieved by these analyses. One basic idea of the project was to find out integrated solutions, which will solve several problems at the same time. This is important because solutions to just one problem may sometimes even aggravate some other problems. For example, an underpass can solve the safety problems of crossings at once, but, on the other hand, can make the accessibility issues more difficult, especially for the disabled people. It can also render the crossing uncomfortable and unattractive. To avoid that, the crossing should be on the same level as the pedestrian route, which normally leads to zebra crossings with lesser safety. In this case, the solutions are contradictory. However, in many cases, several problems can be solved simultaneously by one solution. For example, reduced car speeds make at the same time the streets safer, more accessible, more comfortable and more attractive for the pedestrians. On the other hand, this usually is in conflict with the desires of the car drivers. Also several solutions can be concordant regarding certain problems. Because of the possible discrepancy of partial solutions, all the thematic problem analyses were completed before starting the search for the solutions to the revealed problems. This search was boosted by a brainstorming workshop after all the case area analyses. The main purpose was to find out existing best practices and to discover completely new solutions which are not contradictory as regards the revealed problems and which could even solve several problems at the same time. However, the resources for improving walking environment are often very limited and mostly subordinate to the improvement of the motorised transport. Because of this, many good measures and initiatives remain very often unrealised. Consequently, also the local conditions and impediments of implementation must be considered for avoiding unrealistic plans or designs. This problem field was tackled separately in the PROMPT project by considering implementation possibilities of various means to promote walking. These were at first considered on the national level of the six participating countries. For this purpose, a questionnaire was sent to several stakeholders in order to get their opinions about these issues. After analysing these questionnaires, a common summary was condensed from them.

13.3 CASE AREA ANALYSES The case areas were chosen so that they would represent different urban situations. The main features distinguishing the case areas were climate, topography, building density, location in the city structure and the cultural context. All these features create their own walking-specific problems and solutions. For example, winter causes certain specific problems in the northern countries, as does the hot summer season in the southern countries. Topography is a significant issue as regards accessibility. Urban

298 K. Rauhala density is a crucial issue affecting the liveability of the pedestrian environment and the walking distances in general. The location of the area in the city structure has similar impacts as the urban density. Furthermore, it usually correlates strongly with the public transportation service and, consequently, affects the intermodality. The situation is quite different in city centres and in suburbs. Especially the suburbs give a challenge to the promotion of walking. Cultural contexts create different walking habits, differences in the maintenance of outdoor spaces, different parking habits, differences in the respect of other road users and so on. Besides the different situations regarding the case areas, an important categorisation was also the scale of considerations in the analyses. These range from the whole urban level to the street level considerations. The urban level relates mainly to the planning issues and the street level to the design issues. The time span of the solution considerations can vary from even few decades at the urban level to only few years at the street level. This concerns both the implementation of the measures and their impacts. Before the actual analyses of the case areas, all the five analysis themes (i.e. safety, accessibility, comfort, attractiveness and intermodality) as well as the procedures to assess the case areas according to these were defined more closely. It is obvious that all the analysis themes are more or less overlapping. It is not possible to make a sharp distinction between them. Especially comfort and attractiveness are very close to each other. The main difference between them is that while comfort refers more to physiology, attractiveness refers more to psychology. Nevertheless, even in the actual analyses, this distinction was not always clear. Another problem with the analyses is that these issues are impossible to convert exhaustively to strictly measurable units. It is a question of interpretations with personal biases. Consequently, the assessments can never be exact but only suggestive. However, because of their human and soft approach, such analyses should always be a necessary complement to the exact assessment methods, when human beings are involved in the considerations. All the assessments were intended to be made from the point of view of different user groups. This was most systemically carried out in the pedestrian interviews of the comfort analyses by defining the profiles of the interviewed persons. This also led to a statistical definition of various typical pedestrian types with their own specific desires concerning walking (Ovstedal and Ryeng, 2002). However, also in the other analyses, the user aspect was more or less considered, especially from the point of view of children and disabled persons. Safety considerations were mainly limited to accident risks with the motorised transport. However, also ‘fall accident’ as well as possible conflicts with cycling were considered. The consideration of pedestrian safety was rather limited because it has already been the subject of many previous research projects. Main issues measured were median car speeds, crossing provision compared to crossing needs and crossing arrangements like zebra crossings, crossing signalling, underpasses and overpasses, median refuges and visual obstructions. The mappings and measurements were complemented by a school questionnaire directed to the primary school children of the case areas. Also the

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task 299 practicability of the Walcyng Quality Scheme (WALCYNG, 1998) was tentatively tested in the case areas. Accessibility was defined to refer to easy access and short and passable ways by walking to various facilities. The urban level is most influential in this consideration. The service structure of the city, situation of facilities, integration of functions and segregation of traf fic are important planning issues at this level. However, street details like kerbs, pavement materials, smoothness of the routes as well as maintenance of the streets and entrances to facilities also affect accessibility. The measurements and mappings considered obstacles on pedestrian routes and mean distances between homes and various service facilities. The questionnaire to the school children also concerned accessibility issues. Comfort was mainly understood in PROMPT as a bodily comfort depending on the bioclimatic and physical conditions and the corresponding sensory or muscular stresses. However, the feeling of social security was also included in comfort issues. The division between bodily and mental impacts was not very strict, meaning that the difference between comfort issues and attractiveness issues was not always very strict. Comfort issues at the urban level deal, among other things, with the situation of services and facilities, noise levels and topography of the area. At the street level, comfort concerns pavements, vegetation, facilities, street furniture, and so on. The measurements and map pings concerned lighting conditions, sunshine, vegetation, street furniture and facilities, noise levels and unpleasant odours. Street interviews constituted a very important part of the analyses. Attractiveness of the outdoor places is the most complex issue and impossible to assess merely by some measurements. Its assessment must be based on users’ and experts’ interpretations. Attractiveness also necessarily overlaps with the other analysis themes. Attractiveness depends on several characteristics of the physical environment itself and also on the social life it creates. At the urban level, attractiveness refers to the urban design in general, to the image of the city. At the street level, it deals with the design of the build ing facades, pavements, vegetation, street furniture and so on, that is, the street architec ture. Measurements and mappings concerned geometrical features of the spaces, visual continuities, situation of services and facilities, landmarks, significant buildings, other structures and places, estimated crowd of streets and squares, and so on. The analysis method used was very comprehensive including several assessment phases. The attractive ness analysis was complemented by workshops with the local people for finding out their opinions and ideas about their own pedestrian environment. It was important to find out the possible differences between expert views and the opinions of the local people. Walking should be promoted also as a part of longer trips, and not only as single trips. Consequently, also the intermodality of walking with other transport modes was separately considered in PROMPT. Especially the connection of walking to the public transport services was the subject of this analysis theme. Well-functioning intermodality requires a good public transport service within short, safe and comfortable walking connections. At the urban level, intermodality deals with the public transport system (bus, tram, metro, etc.), its routes and service frequency and allocation of stops in the city structure. At the street level, intermodality concerns access to the stops, stop

300 K. Rauhala arrangements and facilities, safety, security and the changeover between platforms and vehicles. Mappings and measurements of intermodality consisted, among other things, of statistics about service frequencies, allocation of stops and their access radius, descrip tions of stop arrangements and main access routes to stops. The intermodality analysis was complemented by expert observation of the use of some selected public transport stops, interviews of the users and finally by a round table of experts dealing with the question of a proper platform height. All the assessments were at first made separately to each case area. After that, these ‘national’ assessments were condensed to theme-specific summaries. In the summaries, it was important to find out the common features in all the case areas as well as the case-specific features, depending on different situations as regards climate, topography, building density, location in the city structure and the cultural context. The result was a set of problems inherent to each of the analysis themes. Finally, over 140 different problems were detected along the analyses. New types of problems were especially identified about comfort, attractiveness and intermodality issues of walking.

13.4 FROM PROBLEMS TO SOLUTIONS The gathered problem sets were grouped according to the different analysis themes. In most of the case areas, too high car speed was the main safety problem, with few exceptions. Speed reducing devices were not systematically used to lower the spot speeds enough at pedestrian crossings. Other safety problems were also detected, mainly con cerning interference with other traffic modes. However, ‘fall’ accidents caused by poor maintenance of the pavements were also registered. As regards accessibility, the lack of suitable crossing facilities for pedestrians was the most common problem at the case areas. Another significant shortcoming was isolation, and border effect caused by high-volume and high-speed car traffic was present in most of them. Other shortcomings were caused by, for example, segregated land-use, urban sprawl, centralised shopping malls and by car-oriented city planning in general. Feeling of insecurity caused by people or traffic, other disturbances caused by traffic, and poor walking conditions, like poor lighting and surface, presence of traffic and noise or insufficient provision of benches and other necessary equipment and facilities, were the most prominent comfort problems at the case areas, especially for people with mobility problems and for elderly people. Poor maintenance of the pedestrian routes was also a common problem concerning comfort. Other inconveniences related to the geographical situation, topography or climate of the area, to the user type or to the social or cultural settings of the area. An intensive physical and visual impact of vehicular traffic and a shortage of appropriate pedestrian spaces were found as common attractiveness problems causing a reluctance to walk in most of the case areas. Other such problems related to the poor visual and functional quality of the environment, to its lifelessness and to the lack of natural elements in it. In addition, the street furniture could have been generally better.

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task 301 The main problem of intermodality was a poor supply of public transport. One reason for that is too low an area density value. Other intermodality problems stemmed from long or not very pedestrian friendly walking paths to stops, from poor stop facilities, or from a feeling of insecurity at stops, especially at night. In order to grasp better the problem entanglement and to find easier good integrated solutions, all the gathered problems were at first grouped into six more or less coherent problem clusters where the problems seem to be mostly interdependent and mostly independent of the rest of the problems (Table 13.3). Christopher Alexander (1964) suggested already some decades ago such regrouping in connection with complicated design tasks, which further led him to his famous idea of ‘Pattern Languages’ (Alexander et al., 1977). After this regrouping, general solutions were searched for these clusters of problems. These general solutions were further split into increasingly detailed partial solutions. All the solutions gathered, about 200 in all, were grouped into 12 solution families (Table 13.3; See boxes 13.1–13.6: Tables extracted [with minor modifications] from: ‘PROMPT, WP7: Solutions Report, Part 1: Introduction and Summary’, edited by Lucia Martincigh and Luca Urbani, drawings by Lorenzo Urbani and Mario Tashi, DiPSA, UniRomaTre, Italy).

Table 13.3: Problem clusters and corresponding solution families. Problem Clusters A

Lack of or scarce provision of physical and social space

Solution Families A1

A3

Give priority to pedestrians in transport planning Each Municipality should have a pedestrian policy Living streets day and night

B1

Public space as a living room

B2

A2

B

Lack of equipment and services in outdoor spaces

C

Interference with motor vehicles

C1

Implementation of policy regarding localisation of facilities In each development, consider that you have to move as a pedestrian and not only as a car driver

D

D1

Public transport for all

E

Poor support by and connection to other modes of transport Poor natural, architectonic and psychological features of the environment

E1

A green network in every city

F

Poor environmental performance

E2 F1

Pedestrians always have to feel at home Integrate pedestrian scale in the city design Noise control standards for outdoor spaces A clean and healthy outdoor space

F2 F3 See Boxes 13.1–13.6.

302 K. Rauhala

Box 13.1 Cluster of Problems A A

Lack of or scarce provision of physical and social space • Shortage of physically and socially appropriate pedestrian spaces • Poor maintenance and management of open spaces • Poor infrastructure for the most vulnerable pedestrians (hindrances and barriers)

Families of solutions A A1 Give priority to pedestrians in transport planning • 50% of public space for pedestrians; priority to pedestrians • A continuous and dense pedestrian network • Good architectural design of the public spaces A2 Each Municipality should have a pedestrian policy • Establishment of favourable walking policies • Training, education, dialogue, awareness of users’ needs • More investments in public spaces • Follow-up of implementation processes

A3 Living streets day and night • Mixed use in districts, public facilities along the streets, multiple use of public spaces • Private and public spaces: appropriate continuity and separation • Loose borders between buildings and streets

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task 303

Box 13.2 Cluster of problems B B Lack of equipment and services in outdoor spaces • Lacking or inappropriate lighting • Lack, deficiency or long distances of daily services, facilities and commercial activities • Lacking or unsuitable urban furniture and equipment

Families of solutions B B1 Public space as a living room • Appropriate high-quality pavements • Sufficient and appropriate urban furniture with good design and maintenance • Differentiated and appropriate lighting • Easy orientation • Weather protection B2 Implementation of policy regarding localization of facilities • Shops, other services and meeting points at close range • Set-up promotion of daily shops and services near the homes • Prevent establishment of supply competition in city peripheries

-

304 K. Rauhala

Box 13.3 Cluster of problems C C Interference with motor vehicles • Cars invading the pedestrian space • Poor pedestrian network: discontinuity of paths and inappropriate crossings • Physical, visual and psychological interference with vehicular mobility: speed and flow inconsistent with the pedestrian pace

Family of solutions C C1 In each development, consider that you have to move as a pedestrian and not only as a car driver • • • •

Avoid through traffic Minimise traffic around schools Car-free residential areas Zones with traffic limitations, parking restrictions, use of urban tolls • Speed control by design • Mixed-use zones • Give pedestrians general priority over traffic

-

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task 305

Box 13.4 Cluster of problems D D

Poor support by and connection to other modes of transport

• Poor public transport services • Poor and unsafe crossings to bus/tram stops

Family of solutions D D1 Public transport for all • Dense network of stops within short walking distances • Direct pedestrian access to stops from all directions and for all users • Secure and comfortable bus stops, day and night • Attractive public transport supply

-

306 K. Rauhala

Box 13.5 Cluster of problems E E Poor natural, architectonic and psychological features of the environment • Insufficiency or lack of features enhancing the feeling of identity and orientation • Inappropriate or monotonous material use, detail or finishing • Lack or insufficiency of natural features • Unfriendly or overwhelming built environment

Families of solutions E E1 A green network in every city • Built spaces mixed with green nodes densely interconnected • Connections between green nodes by comfortable pedestrian paths • Water and green elements, with their seasonal variation, integrated in the design • Search for variety in design and utilization of green spaces E2 Pedestrians always have to feel at home • Design, materials, furniture and use of public spaces should enhance the local identity • Sequentially varied views • Diurnal variations by lighting • Essential and entitled pedestrian space

Box 13.6 Cluster of problems F F

Poor environmental performance • Poor environmental response • Insecurity

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task 307

Families of solutions F F1 Integrate pedestrian scale in the city design • City plans for people on foot • Human scale and attractive detail design and lighting • Manifold use of signs

F2 Noise control standards for outdoor spaces • Urban planning and strategic measures • Traffic management • Creative design and land use planning for mitigating noise problems: barriers, low-noise materials, design of facades, disguise annoying sounds behind pleasant ones, and so on. F3 A clean and healthy outdoor space • Standards and strategies for controlling air pollution • Separate waste disposal for dog faeces • City planning and traffic management that promotes cleanliness and healthiness • Appropriate waste collection and street cleaning • Maintenance programmes and strategies • Utilisation of water and green elements

13.5 THE COMPLEXITY OF THE SOLUTION FAMILIES Generally, one individual problem can have several good solutions. On the other hand, one solution can address several problems simultaneously. Thus, there is a “many-to many” mapping between the problem and solution sets (Figure 13.2).

308 K. Rauhala

PROBLEMS

SOLUTIONS

Figure 13.2: Many-to-many mapping between problems and solutions

First, this complex situation means that none of the defined problem clusters is totally independent of the other problem clusters. In fact, their clustering already presupposes a certain set of solutions. This set is also usually obvious because the problems are already interpreted as causes to actual subjective problems. For example, ‘car accidents’, the actual subjective safety problem, was already expressed in the problem groups as a too heavy car traffic, too high car speed or lack of safe crossing facilities. Thus, the obvious solutions here are simply to reduce car traffic and speed and to provide safe crossing facilities. Nevertheless, these interpretations to subjective problems can be too hasty and the immediate solutions to them may even hamper the revelation of totally new creative solutions. This means that for radically new solutions, the problem–solution mapping and the corresponding problem clustering can be quite different. Secondly, this mapping means that none of the solution families or even individual solu tions is totally independent of the others. This becomes even obvious in the naming and description of the solution families. They are sometimes quite overlapping, which some times caused difficulties to choose, to certain individual problems, their most appropriate family. However, when one solution was seen as a member of two or several families, it was defined only once and merely referred to in the other families. Generally, one may better consider the solution families more like different viewpoints to the same big issue than as just more or less separate families. The solution families can also be considered as certain chains of ‘what-to-dos’ and ‘how to-dos’. This means that a general level solution can be broken down into more detailed and more practical solutions as means to implement it. These detail level solutions, in turn, can again be regarded as general level solutions to be implemented by still more down-to-earth solutions and so on. This hierarchy of the solution groups explains their naming as ‘families’ of solutions having ‘parent solutions’ and ‘child solutions’. However, as it already became clear, these families are not isolated. As well as the case that one solution can have several children, it also can have several (more than two) parents. This means that solutions actually create intertwined family trees (Figure 13.3).

13.6 IMPLEMENTATION IN PRACTICE Implementation of even good measures and initiatives can encounter different types of resistance from the community, politicians or officials. For example, a solution can

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task 309 PARENT SOLUTIONS

CHILD SOLUTIONS

Figure 13.3: Intertwined solution families be judged as inefficient, too difficult or too expensive to implement. The objective of the PROMPT project was also to provide means to the decision-makers for avoiding inadequate or uncoordinated interventions, but focusing instead on reachable goals, taking account of the local political and technical environment. For this purpose, various possible intervention types were at first defined within the fields of research, planning, operation, legislation, incentive and communication. A questionnaire was then sent to several stakeholders of the participating countries for getting their opinions about the profitability of these intervention types. Besides that, their opinions on the usefulness of various policy fields were also sought. Two things were questioned about the listed intervention types: their efficiency in promoting walking and the easiness to implement them. The received answers were then statistically analysed. According to the results, it seems that in general, the most effective fields of interventions are the planning and operational fields and the least effective the incentive and com munication fields. On the other hand, it seems that it is easiest to implement measures in the communication, research and operational fields, while this seems to be generally most difficult in the planning field. Consideration of both the easiness and efficiency together suggests that, in the first place, one should concentrate on the operational and research fields.

13.7 POLICY IMPLICATIONS One basic idea of the PROMPT project was that the solutions to the problems should be holistic. They should solve several problems at the same time. This idea led to the defi nition of solution families. One should ‘attack with a wide front’ in promoting walking by considering the whole families of solutions at the same time and by developing good and effective strategies to implement them. Instead of some single measures, one should implement a group of several different measures, which are mutually consolidating and aiming at the same target. Such measures can range from wide planning issues to small street-scale details and from research to education, communication, stimulation, legis lation, planning and actual operation (construction and maintenance). Very often, this will lead to a step by step policy.

310 K. Rauhala The PROMPT research suggests that for promoting walking, several small-scale improve ments in the pedestrian environment are easier to implement and even more efficient than expensive big-scale measures. For example, street calming in residential areas, easy and short zebra crossings, more space to pedestrians, better control of car parking, easy access to buildings, more benches, bushes and trees and more activities to enliven the pedestrian environments are not expensive measures and can also be implemented step by step. On the other hand, aiming at a totally isolated pedestrian network alongside with the motorised network can become very expensive, especially in existing urban areas, and its implementation probably will encounter resistance. Of course, the situation must be considered case by case. What can be an excellent solution in city centres (like pedestrian precincts) is not always a reasonable solution in suburbs and vice versa. Fur thermore, research and planning in order to promote walking are much easier to carry out than the actual operative measures. Nevertheless, they will considerably facilitate subsequent operative measures, although in a longer run. Finally, it may be pointed out that childhood is the crucial time, when we learn and adapt to the ways of mobility that we will likely continue in adulthood. This means that the promotion of walking should begin already during the childhood at home and at school by taking the lead in supporting walking and by a considerate education towards sustainable ways of mobility.

REFERENCES ADONIS. (1998). Analysis and Development of New insight into Substitution of Short Car Trips by Cycling and Walking. EU 4.FW – DG VII Transport RTD Programme. Copenhagen, Denmark, Danish Road Directorate. Available at http://www.vejdirektoratet.dk/dokument.asp?page=document&objno=7134 Alexander, C. (1964). Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard Univer sity Press. Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S. and Silverstein, M. with Jacobson, M., Fiksdahl-King, I. and Angel, S. (1977). A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford University Press. Branzell, A. (1995). Något om� � � Liten skissbok om det upplevda rummet. Göteborg: Chalmers tekniska högskola. Gadamer, H-G. (1979). Truth and Method. London: Sheed and Ward Ltd. Gehl, J. (2001). Life Between Buildings. Using Public Space. 4th English edition. Copenhagen: The Danish Architectural Press. Heidegger, M. (1986). Sein und Zeit. Tübingen. Max Niemeyer Verlag. Husserl, E. (1973). The Idea of Phenomenology. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Knoflacher, H. (1995). Fu�geher- und Fahrradverkehr. Wien: Böhlau-Verlag. Knoflacher, H. (1996). Zur Harmonie von Stadt und Verkehr. Wien: Böhlau-Verlag. Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1994). Phenomenology of Perception. Translated from the French by Colin Smith. London: Routledge. Norberg-Schulz, C. (1980). Genius Loci. Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture. London: Academy Editions. Ovstedal, L. and Ryeng, E. O. (2002). Who is the Most Pleased Pedestrian? WALK21 3rd International Conference, Donastia-San Sebastian 8–11 May 2002. Conference paper.

Promotion of Walking: A Complex Interdisciplinary Task 311 PROMISING. (2001). Planning Mobility And Safety. EU 4.FW – DG VII Transport RTD Programme. Leidschendam, The Netherlands, SWOV Institute for Road Safety Research. Available at http://www.swov.nl/en/publicaties/index.htm?/en/swovschrift/ 17/promising_planning_mobility_and_safety.htm. PROMPT. (2003). New Means to PROMote Pedestrian Traffic in Cities. EU 5.FW: Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development, Key Action 4: The City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage. Otaniemi, Finland, VTT Building and Transport. Available at http://prompt.vtt.fi. WALCYNG. (1998). How to enhance WALking and CYcliNG Instead of Shorter Car Trips and to Make These Modes Safer. EU 4.FW – DG VII Transport RTD Pro gramme. Lund University, Sweden, Department of Traffic Planning and Engineering, and FACTUM Vienna, Austria, Chaloupka, Praschl and Risser OHG. Available at http://www.cordis.lu/transport/src/walcyngrep.htm.

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 14 Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies Emanuele Negrenti

14.1 INTRODUCTION Worldwide, cities face common challenges concerning their quality of life: degradation of the urban environment, significant risks for citizen’s health, traffic congestion causing stress and economic inefficiency, progressive damage of the artistic and monumental heritage. Additional difficulties derive from the lack of integrated tools that allow cities to make balanced decisions on a wide range of issues. In this context the European Commission (EC) co-funded in 2001 the ISHTAR Project (Negrenti et al., 2000) aiming at building an Integrated Suite of software models for assessing the impacts of urban policies and actions on the quality of life of citizens, and in particular, on traffic congestion, air quality, citizens’ health and the conservation of monuments. The ISHTAR Project (Negrenti et al., 2001) had several objectives. • The integration of a large number of software tools and the creation of specific modules for the simulation of key processes such as transport behaviour and its direct impact on the urban environment. • The achievement of a high spatial and temporal flexibility in the use of the tool, for maximizing the possibilities of application from local short-term actions to widespread long-term policies. • Development of specific modelling areas such as the representation of policies effects on citizens’ behaviour, the 24-h simulation of traffic emissions, noise and safety, the analysis of air pollution effects on health and monuments. The development of integrated methodologies and tools for the prediction of policies’ impacts, and therefore for their improvement and optimisation, will spontaneously bring improvements in each of such areas, whose social significance is evident. In the global economy successful cities are not simply those which attract ‘export indus tries’, but those which are able to supply the best services and resources which enhance 313

314 E. Negrenti the overall productivity of the economic activities performed in the urban area. Among the most basic services which make a city attractive, for citizens and business, are those related to mobility. Sustainable transport may be regarded as a goal to enhance both the productivity of economic and social activities, reducing the waste of time caused by congestion, and the quality of life, because unsustainable transport patterns are a main cause of current urban environmental pollution. Integrated urban planning is an essential pre-condition to obtain a sustainable transport in the city of tomorrow, and this aspect has been addressed in depth by the ISHTAR project research, with the aim at creating a new awareness of the issues at stake among the national, regional and local administrations in charge of urban management and planning and regulation in European countries. Furthermore the ISHTAR Suite will allow the analysis of the impacts of various kinds of short-term actions and long-term measures/policies on some fundamental indicators of urban quality of life. • Environmental quality (air pollution, noise); • Health risks due to air and noise pollution and • Traffic accidents causing victims at various level of severity. The social burden of urban pollution health effects and urban road accidents is huge, and becoming more and more evident to the citizens, both in human and economic terms. By giving a contribution to reduce such problems, the ISHTAR Project provided a social impact of high potential significance. Given the increasing relevance perceived by the public opinion to these issues, it can be concluded that – as for the mobility paradigm – an improved ‘environmental’ condition in a city is nowadays a crucial factor for attracting people and activities. The social effect is twofold: we might observe the improvement of the ‘environmental conditions’ followed by a positive feedback providing economic opportunities. If such development will follow a ‘sustainability’ pattern, a virtuous process spiral can start to evolve. Integrated planning of urban policies can and must contribute to this process: the ISHTAR project has provided a prototype of tool to be used for planning activities in years to come. While many projects in the LUTR (Land Use and Transport Research) sector aimed at identifying best practice in terms of ‘what to do’, the ISHTAR Project played a horizontal cross-cutting role in trying to define how to plan and assess ‘whatever we will do’. This chapter reports on the key aspects by which the ISHTAR system can contribute to integrated transport and land use planning.

14.2 METHODOLOGY 14.2.1 Integration of a Relevant Number of Modelling Tools The ISHTAR Suite is based on a high number of software tools whose aim is the modelling of various aspects of the impact analysis of short-term actions and long-term

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 315 policies. Standard model suites normally include only a few of those models. It also represents a strong enlargement of the applicability area, since with this kind of ‘multi impacts’ suite the users are able to analyse in an integrated and ‘coherent’ way the various aspects of ‘global’ urban policies, without having to perform separate studies relying on different input data. The wide scope of applicability offers the potential of easing the cooperation between different departments in municipal authorities: in fact the tool promises to be of interest for planning and assessment work in the transport, environment, health and artistic heritage sectors.

14.2.2 Evolution of Modelling Techniques in Crucial Impact Areas The scientific core value of the Suite is largely linked to a few crucial modelling develop ments on which the accuracy and the significance of the results deriving from the Suite application strongly depend. These areas are as follows: (a) prediction of the effects of citizens’ reaction to postulated measures; (b) improvement of the modelling of vehicle emissions, particularly concerning the consideration of speed variability along the network links and the spatial– temporal distribution of ‘cold start emissions’; (c) development of an urban road safety model, which can take into account the variable flow levels in the network and (d) disaggregated estimate of pollution effects on citizens health based on the anal ysis of population groups movements.

14.2.3 Realisation of Integrated Specific Modules Inside the Suite The ISHTAR Suite aims at the highest flexibility of use: this is reflected in some of the tools. The choice of building an ‘Integrated Transport Module’ which makes use of different models, having complementary characteristics in terms of applicability field, is of key significance. Also relevant is the consequence of this flexibility in transport modelling: the downstream models (emission, noise, safety, exposure models) will have to be flexible in their input characteristics in order to give the proper accuracy whichever transport model is used. This implies the use of ‘advanced’ emission, noise and safety models capable of treating flexible input data. Also the module dedicated to the overall evaluation of the policy scenarios includes parallel elements: in this case Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is complemented by Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) software.

14.2.4 Space and Time Flexibility Among the crucial characteristics of the Suite, a large flexibility in space and time plays an essential role. The starting point for the achievement of this goal was the realisation of the so called ‘24 h capability’: traffic flows, vehicles speed, emissions, noise levels, pollution levels are calculated (when needed) hour by hour thanks to the characteristics of the citizens behaviour, transport, emission, noise and dispersion models that have been selected or developed. This flexibility greatly enhances the scope of applicability of the tool.

316 E. Negrenti

14.3 PROJECT RESULTS The ISHTAR Suite (Negrenti et al., 2002) was built over the following software mod ules including one or more software tools. The modules exchange a number of data, schematically represented in Figure 14.1.

14.3.1 Citizens’ Behaviour Model: The Cellular Transport Methodology The Cellular Transport Methodology (CTM) is a new software tool developed by ISIS (Italy) that simulates the effects of policies and measures on the behaviour of citizens in terms of movements, thus producing the modified Origin–Destination matrices. This tool is considered as an ‘ancillary element’ of the suite, because it is likely that the city teams wishing to use the ISHTAR software will already have a local ‘mobility demand model’ or alternative techniques for estimating the modification of the trip matrices.1

14.3.2 The Transport Toolbox The second link on the chain is the transport model, which, on the basis of the OriginDestination matrices provided by the CTM or by any other tool available to the user, simulates the movement distribution within the city network. After an analysis of the available transport models, the new VISUPOLIS model has been selected as the best tool to integrate in the suite. This model has been developed by PTV (Germany) integrating the well-known VISUM model and the innovative tool ‘METROPOLIS’ by Prof A. De Palma from the University of Cergy Pontoise (France). However, the potential users are free to continue to use their own traffic model (as most of the cities participating in ISHTAR Project did). VISUPOLIS was tested in the Paris case study (the Car Free day).2

14.3.3 The Transport Direct Impacts Module The direct impacts model chosen for the suite is TEE2004, developed by ENEA and ASTRAN (Italy). This tool is particularly flexible in terms of space and time, includes advanced modelling of kinematics and cold start effects on the emissions and feeds several downstream suite elements by calculating the emissions of pollutants and noise and the occurrence of accidents. The tool is compatible with most of the traffic models output. In fact the large number of options about the description of vehicle kinematics, the definition of the local fleet at link level and the approach for estimating the fraction of cold vehicles guarantees an easy coupling with the upstream used traffic model.3

14.3.4 Noise Propagation and Pollutants Dispersion Module The pollutants dispersion can be calculated with one of the two tools provided by ARIA Technologies depending on the spatial and time scale. For urban scale and long-term analysis the suite will rely on ARIA Impacts, while for meso scale and short-term events ARIA Regional will be the future reference, not yet fully integrated in the suite. For the 1

For further information see http://www.isis-it.com.

For further information see http://www.ptv.de.

3 For further information contact the ENEA and ASTRAN authors.

2

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 317

GLOBAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE SOFTWARE TOOLS AND DATA INPUT AND OUTPUT FLOW IN THE ISHTAR SUITE

INPUT DATA

Network fleetdata

SOFTWARE TOOLS C.T. M. : Citizens behaviour

OUTPUT DATA

OD matrices trips

Visum: Transport Population Traffic parameters Specific transport data

TEE 2004: Transport direct impacts

Specific impact data

Road charact.

Meteo

Buildings

Specific dispersion data

Aria impact : Dispersion soundplan: noise

Pollutant & noise emission, accidents

H.I.T.: Health Risk Assess. T.E.X.: Exposure Pollutant concentrat. noise Moda: Impacts on monuments

Specific health data

Specific monument data

Overall evaluation (MCA & CBA)

Overall evaluation data

Figure 14.1: Main data flows and input–output data in ISHTAR suite

318 E. Negrenti noise propagation the Soundplan software (by Braunstein and Berndt GmbH, Germany) has been integrated. These software tools operate on a common and harmonised set of input data.4

14.3.5 Exposure and Impacts on Health Module For assessing population exposure to pollutants and noise, a completely new software denominated TEX (Transport Exposure) has been developed by World Health Organi zation (WHO). Such a tool provides exposure of population groups in their residential areas or along the trips in the city network. The evaluation of the health risk related to the exposure to pollutants, noise and accidents is run with software developed by WHO. This tool provides estimates of life years lost due to air pollution, noise annoyance and effects of the accidents.5

14.3.6 Impacts on Monuments The air pollutants’ impact on monuments is simulated by a software developed by ENEA (Italy) and PHAOS (Greece). This software named MODA (Monuments Damage) can assess the loss of material and the deposition of crust and the money needed for maintenance. The model provides estimates of damage for specific monuments or for types of monuments and buildings in a given area.6

14.3.7 Overall Scenarios Analysis Tool For the overall analysis of the policy scenarios two methodologies and software pieces are available: the cost benefit analysis (CBA) and the multi criteria analysis (MCA). These tools gather the data from the upstream models and give the results of the comparison of the scenarios considered. In any case the MCA takes into account the results of the CBA. Both of them were developed by TRaC – LMU (UK).7

14.3.8 Software Integration The integration of the modules is made by a software manager that launches the ‘software connectors’. The connectors upload the data needed by the single tool in the appropriate format, launches the tool and then downloads the results of the run in the ISHTAR Suite. A database making them available for other tools or for the output through the geographic information system (ARCGIS) is used for managing geographic data. An overall scheme representing the integration architecture of the ISHTAR Suite is reported in Figure 14.2.

4

For further information see http://www.aria.fr or http://www.soundplan.de.

For further information see http://www.euro.who.int/transport or contact Dr Pierpaolo Mudu at

[email protected].

6 For further information contact [email protected].

7 For further information contact Dr Farhi Marir at [email protected].

5

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 319 U S E R I N T E R F A C E

ISHTAR SUITE MANAGER-

commands

Policies Module

Transport Module

SW connec tor

Directs Impacts

SW connec tor

AQ and Noise

SW connec tor

SW connec tor

ISHTAR DATABASE

input – output

Health Effects

Monuments Damage

SW connec tor

Overall Analysis

SW connec tor

SW connec tor

ISHTAR GIS

Figure 14.2: ISHTAR suite integration architecture

14.4 CASE STUDIES The suite was tested with seven case studies involving the sites of ISHTAR Project: Athens, Bologna Province, Brussels, Graz, Grenoble, Paris and Rome. These studies can be summarised as follows.

14.4.1 Athens New Attiki Odos Motorway The Athens Case Study focused on the recent construction of the ‘Attica Road’ motorway in the Athens region. As in the cases of many large projects, as well as all the great advantages offered to the city, some disadvantages might occur. Therefore the objectives of this case study was to record the situation existed prior to the construction of ‘Attica Road’ motorway and compare it to the environmental (air quality and sound pollution), traffic and health conditions altered due to the operation of the motorway. This new toll highway was assessed in terms of traffic, toll strategy and pricing, environmental conditions (both noise and air quality) on the highway and all of its accesses and exit points. For the specific case study, due to the length of ‘Attica Road’ motorway and due to the fact that the entire project did not begin to operate at the same date, but in several stages, they have selected three main parts of ‘Attica Road’ and the entire Western Peripheral Road (DPLY) (Figure 14.3). Many extremely useful outcomes were produced by this case study, helping the actors involved to mitigate part of the impacts and improve the majority of the disadvantages caused by the motorway. Therefore, ‘Attica Road’ motorway had a great benefit from this case study and managed to improve its operation status.

320 E. Negrenti

Figure 14.3: An analysis of the noise dispersion before (left) and after (right) the operation of the DPLY (western peripheral road)

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 321

14.4.2 Bologna Province Alternative Infrastructures The Bologna Provincial Authority case study concerns an environmental impact assess ment of a new infrastructure for the City of Imola, a municipality belonging to the Province of Bologna. The ISHTAR modules used to carry out the case study are the Direct Impacts Module (TEE2004), the pollutants dispersion module ARIA IMPACT and the noise propagation module SOUNDPLAN (Figure 14.4).

emission (kg/h)

0.860 0.840 0.820

0.837

0.800 0.780 0.746

0.760 0.740

0.761

emis_ PM10

0.720 0.700 PM10_alt5 PM10_alt6 PM10_def

emission (kg/h)

145.000 140.000 141.95

135.000 128.63

130.000

emis_co 128.79

125.000 120.000 CO_alt5

CO_alt6

CO_def

Figure 14.4: PM10 and CO emission for three imola scenarios

The goal of the simulation procedure was to estimate the impact on air quality of a new infrastructure framework for the City of Imola, in order to provide for a high level of protection of the environment. Different infrastructural scenarios have been considered aiming at supporting the decision-making process to choose between the alternative which is likely to have less significant effects on the environment. The scenarios were built up with reference both to direct interventions of traffic management (new paths, roadway adjustment, intersection regulation) and to indirect

322 E. Negrenti interventions (public transport services, etc.). The air concentration of NOx, CO and PM10 from road emissions has been modelled. These pollutants were chosen because they are the most critical ones for the Province of Bologna and because of their impor tant contribution to the photochemical smog and to ozone formation. The simula tion of some of the different scenarios offered the opportunity to test the suite as an integrated tool for supporting decision-makers in adopting environment-conscious actions.

14.4.3 Brussels Region Traffic Banning Options The Brussels Capital Region (BCR) decided to prepare a set of traffic banning actions and related accompanying measures to be implemented when air pollution forecasts exceed specific thresholds. Various scenarios describing traffic banning measures were investigated and the benefits for reductions in congestion time and improvements in emissions described. ISHTAR Suite modules for traffic have been applied. Brussels acted as a ‘demo’ location for the new traffic module VISUPOLIS by PTV (Germany). The aims of the case study were the following: • Analyse the pollutants’ concentrations records available for the Brussels area; • Design crisis scenarios with different severity degrees; • Forecast the behaviour of travellers facing the scenarios, through preliminary surveys; • Design accompanying measures such as parking provision, intensified public transport etc.; • Estimate traffic impacts, noise and pollutants emissions in the Brussels area (Tables 14.1 and 14.2).

Table 14.1: Scenarios characteristics in terms of fleet and traffic features Scenarios

Fleet Composition Year

Road Traffic Flows Simulations

Banned Vehicles Light Vehicles Trucks

Buses and Coaches and Taxis and Emergency and Public Services Vehicles

Reference Euro 1

2002 2002

2002 2002

No Euro 1 not conform

No Euro 1 not conform

No No

Euro 2

2002

2002

Euro 2 not conform

Euro 2 not econform

No

Euro 3

2005

2002

Euro 3 not conform

Euro 3 not conform

No

Diesel

2005

2002

Diesel

No

No

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 323 Table 14.2: Scenarios pollutants reduction in comparison with the reference scenario Emission Reduction in Comparison with the Reference Scenario CO2 CO VOC NOx PM10

Euro 1 (%) −25 −43 −47 −35 −32

Euro 2 (%) −35 −49 −60 −53 −61

Euro 3 (%) −31 −66 −66 −68 −73

Diesel (%) −29 −21 −53 −65 −82

The results were that a car free day appears to be efficient to reduce pollutant concentrations such as NOx, CO and particles but is useless for decreasing ozone levels in short-term. Other conclusions were: • The most efficient scenario was the scenario banning all EURO 3 not-conformable vehicles. • The diesel banning scenario got a very significant impact in terms of PM10 emissions reduction. The reduction, in comparison with the Reference scenario, is about 80%. • The fleet evolution has at least as much impact as the traffic reduction in itself. • Weekday car free days can be organised according to the environmental conditions by providing transport alternatives.

14.4.4 Graz New Tunnel for Protecting a Residential Area In the city of Graz the historically grown road network lacked, in a certain area, a good connection between two major roads, leading to an increased traffic in residential areas between these roads. In order to improve that situation a new connection was built in the form of a ‘cut and cover’ tunnel. As one of the portals of this tunnel is situated very close to residential buildings the concern about local environmental impacts was very high. ISHTAR Suite traffic emission and dispersion modules have been applied. In addition, a detailed comparison between different emission and dispersion tools has been performed. The modules used were the emission module TEE and the dispersion model ARIA IMPACT, which were checked against the Austrian standard emission calculation tool (Handbook of Emission Factors) and the dispersion model GRAL. The tests proved that with TEE software reliable emission estimates are to be expected (Figure 14.5). The following figures show the results of the dispersion calculations using ARIA Impact and GRAL. As it can be seen, the overall effect of the measure on air quality is not very high. There are no major changes at a first glance. Only if looking at direct differences the local effects can be depicted (Figure 14.6). The overall effect of the measure on air quality is not very high. The difference between ‘before’ and ‘after’ regarding NOx, calculated with ARIA Impact, is shown in Figure 14.7.

324 E. Negrenti

Figure 14.5: Location of the tunnel project and view of the east portal Mean concentration NOx mcg/m

3

3

Mean concentration NOx mcg/m

Before Situation

After Situation

[µg/m3]

[µg/m3]

Color shades

0

400

800 m

Color shades

70.0

70.0

60.0

60.0

50.0

50.0

40.0

40.0

30.0

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20.0

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10.0

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0 Min : 0.0660 mcg/m3 South West Point X: –70 km Y:

215 km

Max : 69 mcg/m3 Scale 2.99 km 2.99 km

400

800 m

3 Min : 0.0676 mcg/m3 Max : 77 mcg/m

South West Point X: –70 km Y:

215 km

Scale 2.99 km 2.99 km

Figure 14.6: ARIA impact model’s output visualising NOx dispersion episodes ‘before’ (left) and ‘after’ (right) situation The main effects of the measure on the noise pollution can be reported as follows: • In the central part of the residential area a strong noise reduction was achieved. • At the boundaries of the study area, no remarkable changes were achieved. • The accompanying measures at the main arterial road lead to a very strong decrease in noise pollution. • The traffic increase at that location due to the implementation of the measure does not counteract the benefits gained due to the noise barriers.

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 325

4

4

5

3

5 6

4

3 –2

3

–3

–2

0m

250 m 500 m

Figure 14.7: NOx difference between ‘before’ and ‘after’ situation calculated with ARIA impact; The two areas at the end of the broken line, representing the tunnel, indicate an increase in NOx concentrations, the below area indicates a reduction

14.4.5 Ville de Grenoble Measures for Public Transport Enhancement Set at the crossing of three alpine valleys, Grenoble (150 000 inhabitants) is the major city of the Grenoble urban area (470 000 inhabitants). The city has a high density of population and there many urban streets have heavy traffic; the population is exposed to noise and air pollution. The case study was intended to monitor the effects of the installation of reserved lanes for public transportation and new traffic lights on boule vards with heavy traffic in Grenoble centre. The specific objectives of these measures were • to test the possibility of reducing the number of lanes dedicated to car traffic (from six to four), • to improve the average speed of public transport, • to reduce car speed and monitor the impact on traffic flow. The objective of this case study was to compare the results of the simulations done with the modules of the suite to the measurements done before the measures implementation in 1999 and after in 2000 (Figure 14.8). The implementation of the measures (reserved lanes and improved traffic lights) led overall to a small reduction in emissions (∼3% for CO, NOx and VOC). The monitoring programme concerned noise measurements at one locations and air quality at two

326 E. Negrenti Emissions 6000

before situation

kg/24h

5000

after situation

4000 3000 2000 1000 0

CO

NOx

PM10

COV

before situation 5449.94 592.28

50.09

626.72

after situation

48.81

609.74

5291.77 573.11

Figure 14.8: Pollutants emissions simulation in grenoble

locations. Referring to noise pollution, a reduction of 2 dB is reported for one part of the domain, while in a second part no changes could be found. The following ISHTAR modules were used: (1) (2) (3) (4)

the the the the

full ISHTAR interface as a module manager, ISHTAR GIS module, emission module TEE, dispersion tool ARIA IMPACT.

The general trend of the changes due to the action could be followed in the emission calculation as well as in the monitoring values.

14.4.6 Paris Car Free Days Every September 22nd, the City of Paris takes part in a car free day. In 2002 and 2003, the experiment was implemented in the historical centre of Paris (area concerned: 3 × 2 km). Between 7 a.m. and 7 p.m., this central area was only accessible to public transport, taxis, ‘green’ vehicles (LPG and electric cars) and professional users. The temporal and spatial scale of the experiment focuses the assessment on the shortterm roadside air quality impact. The background pollutant concentration, which is a regional parameter with strong weather dependence, sets the context. Airparif’s expe rience prior to ISHTAR has shown that the modelling tools must take into account detailed road geometry and traffic characteristics, in particular fleet composition and traffic congestion. The objective was to test the enhancements in the tools contained in the ISHTAR Suite (Figure 14.9).

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 327

Figure 14.9: Case study area for ‘ma ville sans ma voiture’ (22nd September 2002)

The traffic and pollution dispersion modules were applied during the case study. The ISHTAR project has given the opportunity to make a first assessment of traffic sim ulation in congestion with a new tool called VISUPOLIS by PTV. This software uses hourly origin–destination matrices which keep the total traffic volume, but allows better modelling of congestion by allowing to distribute demand over time at peak hours. The traffic model estimates that the traffic decreases by 11.5% in volume over all of Paris. Figure 14.10 gives an estimation of saturation and shows that congestion shifts from the centre to surrounding Boulevards. Impacts on emission were estimated for six pollutants (NOx, CO, COV, SO2 , PM and CO2 ) on each traffic link. Global assessment given by simulation resulted in a decrease of 13.6% in emission of NOx (12.7 tonnes of NOx vs. 14.7 tonnes one week before). The car free day impacts directly on the concentration of pollutants in the central area. For example, the concentration of NO2 measured at Quai des Célestins monitoring station strongly decreased compared with the one-week-before situation and reached the background concentration of pollutants over Paris (Figure 14.11). The ARIA IMPACT dispersion model was tested as well. Figure 14.12 shows the com parison between measurement and calculation for a roadside monitoring location. ARIA Impact is able to depict the general trend of the air pollution. It is not able to follow the peaks as in these cases local influences (near source location and buildings) dominate. However, the agreement between calculation and measurement is good.

328 E. Negrenti

Figure 14.10: Differences in degree of saturation (volume/capacity): base case 2001 data (left) and car free without modal shift (right)

Globally, an evaluation of Car Free Day 2003 impact on air quality in the central area could be estimated as ∼ 60% decrease for the roadside pollution. On the boulevards, the enhanced traffic model pointed clearly to increased congestion.

14.4.7 Rome Traffic Banning Policy An access restriction for non-catalysed vehicles has been implemented within the ‘Rail Ring’ area, which surrounds the historic centre, and is densely populated with a high

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 329

NOx (emission in tons/hour)

1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Monday 15th Sept. Monday 22th Sept.

0.0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

hours 4.5

NOx emission (kg/km)

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

Monday 15th Sept. Monday 22th Sept.

0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

hours

Figure 14.11: Hourly emission of NOx in Paris, comparison with the one week before situation: all Paris (left) and for the ‘Quai des Celestins’ (right) concentration of activities making it one of the key areas in the city for measures to lower emissions caused by road vehicles. This measure had as main effect a change in the fleet composition, and no major effects were expected on traffic flows (Figure 14.13). A simulation of the ISHTAR Suite was prepared to test the input–output connections among different software modules of the suite, data exchange with external software, modelling factors and clarity of output comprehension. The analysis carried on is based on a comparison between two simulated scenarios. • Do nothing scenario; • Actual scenario (based on the traffic measures described above). The suite ran the simulated case study with the traffic, emission, dispersion (air and noise), exposure and health effects modules. Traffic data from O/D matrices, elaborated by software external to the suite, were already available at the Rome Municipality (Figure 14.14).

330 E. Negrenti

Elysées: Roadside concentration calculated by ARIA Impact 160 Measurements ARIA Impact

140

[NO2] (µg/m3)

120 100 80 60 40 20

17/08/2004

16/08/2004

15/08/2004

14/08/2004

13/08/2004

12/08/2004

11/08/2004

11/08/2004

10/08/2004

09/08/2004

08/08/2004

07/08/2004

06/08/2004

05/08/2004

04/08/2004

03/08/2004

02/08/2004

01/08/2004

31/07/2004

31/07/2004

30/07/2004

29/07/2004

28/07/2004

27/07/2004

26/07/2004

25/07/2004

24/07/2004

23/07/2004

22/07/2004

21/07/2004

20/07/2004

20/07/2004

0

Figure 14.12: Comparison between measurement and calculation of NOx concentrations

Via Olimpica

River Tiber

Villa Ada

Via Salaria

Historical centre Via Nomentana Paizza Bologna

Figure 14.13: The HEAVEN area considered for the application of the ISHTAR suite

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 331

Figure 14.14: Soundplan output; noise levels at the loudest facade (Lden) and number of residents Pollutants modelled both by the Emission and Dispersion modules were CO and PM10. Noise emissions were calculated by TEE, while noise propagation and exposure for a smaller area were calculated by Soundplan. The PM10 dispersion modelling output was used to generate an exposure and health effects assessment (Figure 14.15).

Home indoor exposure > 0.0 – < = 10.5 > 10.5 – < = –24.2 > 24.2 – < = 40.9 > 40.9 – < = 66.7 > 66.7 – < = 124.9

Figure 14.15: Exposure simulation output

332 E. Negrenti The simulation gave a small difference between the two scenarios in terms of health impacts of the tested policy. The low difference between the scenarios, and between the scenarios and the background, can be explained with the small dimensions of the area under analysis that is strongly affected by the surroundings and that includes sources that have not been modelled. The case study of Rome can be considered as the most comprehensive ISHTAR Suite application so far and was managed directly at ENEA.

14.5 CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS The ISHTAR Suite has the potential of becoming a reference tool for the future planning of urban policies in terms of transport, environment, health and monuments protection (Negrenti and Hoglund, 2001). The integrated tool is aimed at easing the cooperation among planning departments of municipalities and will be of interest also for environ mental agencies, consultants, transport companies and ministries. The ISHTAR Project conclusion in May 2005 has been followed by a precommercialisation phase allowing the involved partners to progressively turn a research project prototype into a ‘marketable tool’ or an ‘in house software’ system for running calculation services. Future users of the suite are expected in a fully international envi ronment, having assessed several times so far the high interest by audiences worldwide (Negrenti, 2003; Negrenti and Agostini, 2004). The remarkable flexibility of the tool, due to the possibility to receive input from mobility and traffic models of many different types, will allow future users of the suite to analyse, plan and assess many different policies and measures for land use and transport. The suite offers one specific tool for the analysis of transport but allows also users of different transport models to extract their own output and launch the suite from the module dedicated to the transport direct impacts. This elasticity of use means virtually the possibility to analyse any kind of transport policy. While keeping transport as a central focus of the suite, it must be noted that also other sources of pollution can be considered since the ARIA dispersion model(s) allow to input emission factors for industrial and residential activities. Under this perspective the ISHTAR Suite can be regarded as a first prototype of planning tool implementing the so-called ‘full chain approach’ from sources to health effects, to be followed in the design and assessment of policies for the Environment and Health Action Programme (CEC, 2003 and 2004) The availability of the ISHTAR Suite will be also of support to the implementation of the Thematic Strategy on Urban Environment and particularly of the Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution (CEC, 2005). Such an implementation will in fact require the availability of tools capable of modelling accurately the effects of urban and regional policies on the air quality and the consequences of air pollution on health and monuments. The first prototype of the suite, ‘frozen’ at project end in May 2005 would already allow this

Software for Assessing Environmental Effects of Policies 333 kind of evaluation. Moreover the ISHTAR partners involved in the future exploitation have agreed to upgrade periodically the tool for keeping it up-to-date in order to be of interest of the potential users. The ISHTAR Suite will provide support to the development of the Thematic Strategy on Urban Environment due to the overlaps of disciplines involved in the project and in the anticipated ‘Environmental Management Systems (EMS)’ and ‘Sustainable Transport Plans (STP)’ to be developed in near future by European cities. The Suite will include software modules of clear applicability in these two contexts. In fact we expect that exhaustive and efficient EMS will include modelling tools describing the environment and the improvements achievable through the measures that can be implemented. Similarly STP are supposed to include a complete and accurate analysis of the effects on the urban environment of transport policies. ISHTAR case studies applications in the seven involved cities were really useful for the understanding of the city planner needs and for the testing of the tools. In particular the need of a better integration among planners and experts of all the areas involved during the planning phase (policies, land use, transport, air quality, noise, health, monuments) was considered as a priority in order to avoid the incoherent planning work that is normally the result of having several departments working in parallel without being inserted in a common and harmonised policy framework. With the ISHTAR Suite, and its capacity for considering many effects of the ‘land use and transport’ planning task, the local authorities, experts and planners will be pushed and helped to work together, thus enhancing the capability to design and assess successful urban policies. The case studies have highlighted on one hand the general good or satisfactory performance of the tools in the suite and on the other hand have allowed the developers to take note of bugs or features to be improved that will be the basis of the work for the production of the second prototype of the tool. Such a step is expected to be achieved in the frame of a large demonstration activity in the Italian metropolitan areas. Such work is currently being planned and defined in detail by ENEA and APAT, the Italian Agency for Environmental Protection that is in charge of a major project on the quality of the urban environment. The demonstration work will include both the running of a relevant number of case studies (up to 14 cases in 14 different metropolitan areas) and the upgrading of the tools on the basis of the problems likely to emerge during such huge application activity. Furthermore an ENEA spin-off project for the creation of new advanced technologybased SMEs8 based on the development and marketing of decision-support tools (such as the ISHTAR Suite) has been approved and funded by the Italian Ministry of Industry, and is now in the incubation phase, expected to be concluded before the end of year 2007 with the creation of a new enterprise.9 Such a new company will define commercial agreements with the other software providers involved in the ISHTAR Suite product. 8 9

See http://www.consorzioimpat.it – IMPACTS proposal.

For further information contact Dr E. Negrenti ([email protected]).

334 E. Negrenti The setting up of a public–private partnership for the commercialisation of the Suite will ease the exploitation of the product.

REFERENCES Commission for the European Communities (CEC) (2003). European Strategy for Environ ment and Health, Brussels, COM(2003) 338. Commission for the European Communities (CEC) (2004). The European Environment and Health Action Plan 2004–2010, Brussels, COM(2004) 416. Commission for the European Communities (CEC) (2005). Thematic Strategy on Air Pollu tion, Brussels, COM(2005) 446. Negrenti, E., et al. (2000). ISHTAR Project Proposal to EC DG RES (Issued by ENEA as Project Coordinator), pp. 1–99. Negrenti, E., et al. (2001). ISHTAR Contract EVK4 CT-00034 (Issued in Brussels by EC DG RES). Negrenti, E., et al. (2002). ISHTAR web site. Available at http://www.ishtar-fp5-eu.com. Negrenti, E. and Hoglund, P. (2001). ISHTAR: An Integrated Models Suite for Sustainable Regional and Town Planning. Paper presented at the Cities of Tomorrow Conference, Goteborg (S), 23–24 August. Negrenti, E. (2003). ISHTAR Project: Building a Model Suite for Urban Sustainability. Paper presented at the 21st ARRB/11th REAAA Conference Transport – Our highway to a sustainable future, Cairns, Australia, 18–23 May. Negrenti, E. and Agostini, A. (2004). ISHTAR: Integrated software for health, transport effi ciency and artistic heritage recovery. Paper presented at the Conference on Transport induced Air Pollution, Boulder, Colorado, September.

Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 15 Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport Anthony D. May and Bryan Matthews

15.1 INTRODUCTION 15.1.1 Context The process for decision-making in transport has come under increasing scrutiny over recent years. There is an increased recognition that the procedures for making decisions on transport policy have an impact on the robustness of the policy formulated, which in turn has an impact on the ease and practicality of implementation of that policy and the likelihood of it achieving actual change. This interest in improving the decision-making process in transport has come from both national and international agencies, focused on promoting sustainable and implementable transport policy. At the international level, both the European Commission (EC) and the European Con ference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT) have been active in seeking to promote improved decision-making. The EC has funded a number of major research projects on decision-making and implementation in land use and transport policy – notably those forming the Land-Use and Transport Research (LUTR) cluster of projects featured in this book. It has also published guidance on the development of Sustainable Urban Transport Plans (EC, 2004) and was for some time considering making such plans mandatory for cities of over 100 000 inhabitants. It has now stepped back from this, but retains the position, in its Thematic Strategy for the Urban Environment (EC, 2006), that there is value in the Commission providing guidance to national governments on the pursuit of sustainable urban transport and, through them and directly, influencing the thinking of local government and communities. This is in marked contrast to the assumption, even a few years ago, that the subsidiarity principle precluded the Commission involvement in local issues. The Commission’s guidance focuses principally on the process of formu lating strategies and on the most appropriate policy instruments for inclusion in such strategies. It says little about the institutional structures which would best facilitate their development. 335

336 A.D. May and B. Matthews The ECMT, in its 2002 report Implementing Sustainable Urban Travel Policies (ECMT, 2002), reported on its efforts to understand the procedural and other factors which form barriers to effective transport policy implementation. It concluded that whilst there was widespread agreement on the most appropriate policies for increasing the sustainability of urban travel, a number of institutional and procedural barriers to the implementation of such strategies were experienced widely throughout the developed world. The principal barriers identified were: • • • • • • • • • •

lack of a national policy framework for sustainable urban travel; poor policy integration and coordination; inefficient and counterproductive roles and procedures; public, political and media resistance to policies; unsupportive legal or regulatory frameworks; weaknesses in the pricing and fiscal frameworks; misguided financing and investment flows; analytical obstacles; poor data quality and quantity; and wavering political commitment (ECMT, 2002).

These barriers relate both to institutional structure and to the process of strategy formulation. At the national level, the UK government has required all local authorities in England to produce 5-year Local Transport Plans covering both urban and rural areas; these plans provide the basis for capital funding from central government. In France, the larger conurbations are required to develop Plans de Deplacement Urbains. These and other national initiatives offer the potential to meet the Commission’s requirements and overcome some, at least, of the ECMT’s identified barriers and have been studied in some detail (Steer Davies Gleave, 2003; EC, 2004; Atkins et al., 2005).

15.1.2 The Focus of PROSPECTS At the time that the LUTR programme commenced in 2000, few of the developments outlined above had taken place; indeed some of them drew directly on the programme’s early results. There was, therefore, a pressing need to understand how urban transport strategies were formulated across Europe, what problems arose in this process and how they could be overcome. The Procedures for Recommending Sustainable Planning of European City Transport Systems (PROSPECTS) project, which forms the main body of this chapter, was devel oped with these challenges in mind. It was designed to provide cities with the guidance which they need in order to generate optimal land use and transport strategies to meet the challenge of sustainability in their particular circumstances. This guidance covered three areas: • decision-making processes – focusing on the multi-agency, multi-level and multi dimensional interactions involved in developing effective land use and transport policy;

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 337 • methodological issues – in particular focusing on modelling and appraisal; and • policy issues – in particular focusing on the impacts of individual policy instru ments and the potential for synergistic policy packages. The starting point of the PROSPECTS project was the expectation that there is, across Europe, a wide range of different contexts for, and approaches to, decision-making. If the recommendations from the project were to be of value to all European cities, they would need to be relevant to all these styles of decision-making. Therefore, a survey was undertaken to investigate, and catalogue, that range of decision-making processes. To explore these, the project conducted a survey of 60 European cities regarding their decision-making processes in relation to land use and transport policy. The remainder of this chapter details the findings of the survey and illustrates the con tribution of these findings to the development of the PROSPECTS guidebooks, that are key outputs from the project. Section 15.2 provides the background to the survey, whilst Section 15.3 provides the key results. Section 15.4 describes the development of the Decision-Makers’ Guidebook, the Methodological Guidebook and the Policy Guide book, all of which are now available for use. Section 15.5 sets out our overall conclusions.

15.2 BACKGROUND TO THE CITY SURVEY Having undertaken a literature review, a series of detailed, semi-structured discussions were conducted with six selected cities: Edinburgh, Oslo, Stockholm, Helsinki, Vienna and Madrid, which were referred to as the ‘Core Cities’. The discussions focused on: • • • • •

their approaches to decision-making; the objectives and indicators which they used; the scenarios which they considered in planning for the future; the range of policy measures which they employed; and the barriers to the use of those policy measures.

Two rounds of interviews were held with officers from the city authorities responsible for transport and land use planning, while a third one covered all stakeholder and interest groups. Initial findings from these interviews were then used to produce a questionnaire survey which was circulated via fax and email to 109 cities drawn from across Europe. The city survey was designed to assess how transferable the results from the Core Cities were and to obtain a wider range of views of cities throughout Europe. To this end, a structured sample was selected of cities in all the European Union (EU) countries, together with Norway, Switzerland and what were at that time the Accession Countries. The intention was to select a sample of cities in the population range 20 000 to 2 000 000, thus excluding only the very largest cities, which can be expected to have rather different needs. The sample size was related broadly to the country’s population, with between three and ten cities, depending on size, for EU members, Norway and Switzerland, and between two and five for the Accession Countries. In practice the upper bounds were relaxed in a few cases where other cities were keen to contribute. An attempt

338 A.D. May and B. Matthews was also made to provide a geographical coverage of each country and to include both economically buoyant and economically deprived cities in the sample. For completeness, the questionnaire was also circulated to the six Core Cities with whom the detailed discussions had initially been held. In total, questionnaires were sent to 115 cities and responses obtained from 60, as shown in Table 15.1.

Table 15.1: Coverage of the city survey Country group Eastern

Northern

Southern

Country

Questionnaires sent

Bulgaria Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Latvia Lithuania Poland Slovakia Slovenia Austria Belgium Denmark Finland Germany Ireland Netherlands Norway Sweden Switzerland UK France Greece Italy Portugal Spain Total

Responses received

3 5 2 5 2 2 5 2 2 6 2 3 3 10 2 3 5 6 2 11 9 4 4 5 12 115

2 1 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 1 0 3 3 2 0 4 4 2 8 9 0 1 2 11 60

Table 15.2 summarises the details of the 60 cities from whom responses were obtained, by size and location. The respondents represent a cross-section of sizes, with 23% from small cities of under 100 000, 33% from medium-sized cities and 42% from larger cities of over 250 000 (one city did not report its population). Most of the responses Table 15.2: Characteristics of survey cities Country group Eastern Northern Southern

Population (‘000) Less than 100

100–250

Greater than 250

Not stated

2 8 4

1 10 9

4 12 9

0 0 1

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 339 were from western cities (the EU15 plus Norway and Switzerland), with 50% from northern countries and 38% from southern ones. The further 12% were from eastern countries (the then Accession countries and candidate countries). Figure 15.1 illustrates the distribution of the survey cities.

Figure 15.1: Location of cities surveyed The questionnaire was designed to be answered relatively quickly by the respondents and was therefore kept to a set of 20 questions, addressing in turn each of the issues considered in Section 15.3 below. Six questions focused on approaches to decisionmaking, four focused on objectives and indicators, two on trends and scenarios, two on policy instruments and four on barriers, with a final two questions relating to past and future changes in the policy and decision-making environment. To limit the problems of interpreting text answers in a range of languages, questions were, where possible, designed to be answered by ticks and crosses, with a range of responses typically running from ‘very important’ to ‘not at all important’. To serve as a common background, a three-page summary of the results from the consultations with the Core Cities was provided, with the sections in the summary presented in the same order as, and crossreferenced with, the survey questions. The questionnaire, which was initially composed in English, was subsequently translated into French, German, Italian and Spanish. The results of both the interviews and the questionnaire survey are presented together in Section 15.3.

15.3 SURVEY RESULTS 15.3.1 Decision-Making Processes 15.3.1.1 Approaches to Decision-Making From the literature, we identified three distinct approaches to decision-making which may be adopted in any particular city:

340 A.D. May and B. Matthews 1. Vision-led: an individual or committee has a clear vision of the measures needed to improve transport and land use in the city and focuses all action on imple menting them; 2. Plan-led: objectives are specified and the measures which best satisfy these objec tives are determined, usually by analysis; the resulting plan is then implemented; 3. Consensus-led: discussions take place between the stakeholders involved in trans port and land use, and the measures implemented are those which attract the greatest support. In recognition that these three approaches are necessarily simplified, cities were asked to state whether their decision-making process tended to any of the above approaches or was some mix of them. Table 15.3 shows the results obtained. It can be seen that the most common approach amongst surveyed cities was some mix of plan-led and consensus-led decision-making and that the least common approaches were those which tended towards either vision-led or plan-led decision-making. Table 15.3 also shows that amongst northern and eastern European cities there was a higher preponderance of cities that adopt approaches which are a mix of plan-led and consensus-led. Overall, 70% adopted a plan-led approach, at least in part. Table 15.3: Approaches to decision-making (number of cities) Country group

Tending to 1

Tending to 2

Tending to 3

A mix of 1 and 2

A mix of 1 and 3

A mix of 2 and 3

Not stated

Eastern Northern Southern

0 1 1

0 2 0

0 2 5

2 5 5

1 3 3

4 12 7

0 5 2

Total

2

2

7

12

7

23

7

1, Vision-led; 2, Plan-led; 3, Consensus-led.

Closer scrutiny of responses, disaggregated by size of population, reveals that 14 out of the 19 larger cities (those with population greater than 250 000) adopted an approach which was a mix of plan-led and consensus-led, whilst there was more variation in the type of approach amongst medium-sized and smaller cities.

15.3.1.2 Responsibilities Table 15.4 shows the distribution of responsibility for policy instruments in different policy areas amongst surveyed cities. This categorisation of policy areas was based on those used in earlier work (May and Still, 2000), and expanded upon in response to our discussions with the ‘Core Cities’ so as to draw distinctions between road policies and public transport policies. It can be seen that in all surveyed cities there was some division of responsibility across the different policy areas. Significant proportions of cities had exclusive responsibility for land use (67%) or for traffic management (50%) and had joint responsibility for road building (62%), for public transport infrastructure (59%) or for information provision (54%). Almost half of the cities (48%) stated that public transport operations were not their responsibility, whilst a significant minority

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 341 Table 15.4: Responsibilities in survey cities (number of cities) Policy instrument

Your responsibility

Land use Road building Public transport infrastructure Traffic management Bus and rail operation Information provision Pricinga a

Joint responsibility

40 12 14 30 8 15 11

Other’s responsibility

17 37 37 24 24 33 24

3 11 9 6 28 12 22

Three cities did not respond.

of cities (34%) stated that pricing measures were not their responsibility. However, when considering the policy areas together it is apparent that there was much diversity in the precise mix of responsibilities amongst cities, making it difficult to identify any particular pattern. The pattern of responsibilities was very similar for different sizes of city. However, smaller cities appeared more likely to manage their various responsibilities within a single department than did medium-large cities. Across the whole range of cities, only 35% of cities managed all of their responsibilities alone.

15.3.1.3 Influence of Other Authorities Different decisions are made at different levels of authority. We distinguished between the EU, national, regional and local decision-making levels. In this context the regional level covers both county and region levels and local level refers to municipality and metropolitan area levels of decision-making. Although decentralised, the decision-making at the regional and local levels may to some extent be regulated or supervised by authorities at a higher level. An important question is the extent to which local authorities have autonomy in their decision-making or are subject to higher level verification. Table 15.5 shows the level of influence on decisions in the surveyed cities from other levels of government. All surveyed cities considered that their decisions were influenced to some extent by other governmental authorities. However, significant minorities stated Table 15.5: Authorities and their influence in survey cities (number of cities) Influence Very much Adjacent authorities Regional authorities National government The EU

20 13 16 0

Quite a lot

A little

Not at all

13 23 22 6

24 18 19 30

3 3 3 21

Not stated 3 3

342 A.D. May and B. Matthews that adjacent, regional and national authorities influenced them only a little, whilst 85% of cities stated that they were influenced only a little or not at all by the EU. The strongest influence, judging by the number of cities stating that they were influenced very much, appeared to come from adjacent authorities. The pattern of responses for neighbouring authorities and the EU was very similar by city size, with around 50% of each group saying that they were influenced by neighbouring authorities and only 10–15% saying that they were influenced by the EU. The influence of regional authorities was greater for smaller cities, with over 70% of smaller cities reporting that they were influenced, as against approximately 50% of larger cities. Conversely, the smallest cities were influenced least by national government, 30% of them were influenced very much or quite a lot, as compared with 70% of larger cities and 80% of medium cities.

15.3.1.4 Planning Horizons Table 15.6 shows the planning horizons amongst surveyed cities. It can be seen that the vast majority (82%) of cities had a medium-term plan. The time horizons for these ranged between 6 months and 15 years, with most (65%) being between 5 and 10 years. Table 15.6: Planning horizons in survey cities (number of cities) Years

Four or less 5–10 10–15 15–20 20+ No horizon specified No plan No response

Planning horizons Medium term

Long term

12 32 1

2 1 15 16 4 2 14 6

4 5 6

Over 60% of the survey cities have long-term plans. The time horizons for most of these plans ranged between 10 and 20 years, though three were for less than 10 years and four were for more than 20 years. Disaggregating the responses by size, medium-sized cities appeared less likely to have medium-term plans than did small and large cities. Also, large cities appeared noticeably more likely to have long-term plans than did small- and medium-sized cities.

15.3.1.5 Models and/or Other Planning Methods Given the focus of PROSPECTS on enhancing decision-support tools, we sought to find out how common the use of models is and how the results are used in the decisionmaking process. Models are considered as a good aid to decision-makers. In general, they are considered objective in their nature, though the users of the model must also remain

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 343 objective so that they do not unduly influence the interpretation of the model outputs. All of the Core Cities had their own models of the transport system and in many cases they had land use models as well, whilst only half of the wider survey cities had their own models and few stated what type of model they had. The models were operated by the cities themselves or by consultancies or even both. In some cases the municipalities operated their own simpler models and then the results were used as inputs to more complex or special-purpose models operated by the consultants. Although model results were used to inform decision-making, they were not used alone, expert judgement was also very important. Notably, approximately 20% of surveyed cities did not use models at all.

15.3.1.6 Participation – Persons Involved Officially/Unofficially Participation is an area in which practices are known to differ greatly between countries. It was acknowledged from the outset that some cities are required to consult with the public and business interests; some do so informally and few do so intensively (Flyvbjerg, 1998). Consultation can also take several forms, from comprehensive participation in decision-making to public inquiries into specific proposals. Wilcox (1994) distinguishes five levels: providing information, consulting, deciding together, acting together and supporting independent stakeholder groups. Many cities limit themselves to the first two of these. Table 15.7 presents the assessments of the surveyed cities on the level of participa tion and degree of influence of five different interest groups. Three quarters of those responded involved business interest groups formally in decision-making; 60% did so for environmental and transport user groups and the general public. Conversely only 40% involved the media formally. A substantial majority considered that business interests and the general public had a strong influence on decisions. Over half considered that environmental groups and the media did, but only a third thought that transport users had much influence.

Table 15.7: Participation and influence of interest groups in survey cities (number of cities) Interest group

Participation

Influence

Not stated

Formal Informal Not stated Strong Weak Not stated

Business interest groups Environmental pressure groups Transport user pressure groups General public

29

12

16

36

12

9

3

23

16

13

21

20

11

8

22

15

20

17

30

10

3

25

14

18

33

12

12

3

Media

13

21

23

27

22

8

3

344 A.D. May and B. Matthews Larger cities were more likely to involve business, environmental and transport user groups in decision-making and less likely to involve the media; there were no differences for involvement of the public. Similar patterns were found for the influence of each of these groups, with the exception that smaller cities thought environmental and user groups had much less influence (at around 20%, compared with 45% for larger cities). In addition to the stakeholder groups identified above, survey cities highlighted associ ations of local transport operators, health institutions, academic institutions and ethnic minority, disability and women’s groups as being involved in and having an influence on decision-making in their city.

15.3.2 Objectives and Indicators 15.3.2.1 A Definition of Sustainable Urban Transport and Land Use One of PROSPECTS’ tasks was to set out objectives for integrated transport and land use planning to achieve sustainable urban development and to develop indicators of goal achievement. We started by developing a working definition of sustainability, following that of Chichilnisky (1996) and Heal (1998); see Minken (1999). This became: A sustainable urban transport and land use system • provides access to goods and services in an efficient way for all inhabitants of the urban area; • protects the environment, cultural heritage and ecosystems for the present gener ation; and • does not endanger the opportunities of future generations to reach at least the same welfare level as those living now, including the welfare they derive from their natural environment and cultural heritage. This definition was developed following our discussions with the Core Cities and hence was largely accepted by them. Our survey cities were then asked to consider how appro priate this definition of sustainability was to their circumstances. Whilst a relatively small proportion (24%) considered the definition to be ‘very appropriate’, the major ity of cities (61%) considered the definition to be ‘quite appropriate’. Only two cities considered that the definition was ‘quite inappropriate’, the remainder either stating neutrality or no response. No alternative definitions of sustainability were offered by the survey cities. Therefore, whilst the survey suggested that there might be scope for identifying a definition of sustainability which was more appropriate to the circum stances of European cities, there was a good general degree of consent with our working definition.

15.3.2.2 Objectives Contributing to Sustainability Such broad definitions of sustainability are, however, difficult to apply to strategy for mulation. As a result, policy documents have increasingly expressed the broad concept of sustainability in terms of a series of underlying objectives to be achieved. As an example,

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 345 in parallel with our own work, the EC has developed a definition of a sustainable urban transport system as one which: • • • • • • • • •

provides for basic access and development needs; supports safety and human and ecosystem health; promotes equity within and between successive generations; is affordable, fair and efficient;

offers choice of transport mode;

supports a competitive economy and balance regional development; limits emissions and waste within the planet’s ability to absorb them; uses resources at a rate which permits renewal or substitution; minimises impacts on the use of land and the generation of noise (EC, 2001 in EC, 2004).

We developed a list of six objectives in consultation with the Core Cities, which we considered covered the principal elements of our definition of sustainability. These were: • • • • • •

economic efficiency; liveable streets and neighbourhoods; protection of the environment; equity and social inclusion; safety; and contribution to economic growth.

This list, which was subsequently expanded, as discussed below, formed the basis of the questionnaire. Table 15.8 summarises the assessment of the importance of these sub-objectives to the surveyed cities. In all cases over 90% of respondents considered these sub-objectives of some importance. Economic growth received the highest scores, followed by safety and economic efficiency; liveable streets and the environment received slightly lower scores. The equity sub-objective received the lowest assessment, with only 67% considering it important or very important. There were very few differences by city size; the only ones of note were that economic growth was slightly less important for medium-sized cities and liveable streets was of most importance to the smaller cities. Table 15.8: Importance of objectives to survey cities (number of cities)

Economic efficiency Liveable streets Environmental protection Equity Safety Economic growth

Very important

Important

Quite important

Not at all important

Not stated

29 20 21

22 30 26

8 5 10

0 3 2

1 2 1

19 27 33

21 25 23

14 6 3

3 1 0

3 1 1

346 A.D. May and B. Matthews

15.3.3 Trends and Scenarios Understanding the past trends and their use to formulate possible future scenarios can be important components of the planning process. Our consultations with Core Cities found that scenarios were constructed to help address uncertainties in planning land use and trans port strategies, though there were no clear views on the number of scenarios required, their use for identifying future problems, generating strategy options or testing their robustness. In the survey, we sought cities’ views on the relative importance of a selection of trend variables, and their responses are given in Table 15.9. It shows that employment location had been important (or very important) for approximately 70% of cities, whilst population growth, economic growth and car ownership had been important to approximately 70% of cities and employment structure had been important to 43%. In addition, survey cities had suggested a number of other variables which had been important in their city, including location of schools, urban and social structures and the development of environmental legislation. Smaller cities placed more emphasis on population growth, less on employment location and much less on employment structure than did medium and larger cities; medium cities placed less importance on employment growth and car ownership than did small and large cities. Table 15.9: Importance of principal trends for survey cities (number of cities)

Population growth Economic growth Car ownership Employment structure Employment location

Very important

Important

Quite important

Not at all important

Not stated

27 18 25 10 15

15 24 17 16 29

12 11 12 25 10

4 6 5 8 4

2 1 1 1 2

Cities’ views were also sought on the relative importance of a selection of variables which might be used to define future scenarios and their responses are given in Table 15.10. Seventy-eight per cent identified economic growth and changes in employment location as important or very important and 68% population growth and size of the urban area. The lowest score was for car ownership, which only 60% considered important. Smaller cities placed less emphasis on employment and car ownership than medium and large Table 15.10: Importance of principal scenario variables to survey cities (number of cities)

Population growth Economic growth Employment location Car ownership Size of urban area

Very important

Important

Quite important

Not at all important

Not stated

26 27 26 21 26

15 23 21 15 15

14 6 8 16 9

3 2 4 7 8

2 2 1 1 2

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 347 cities. Medium cities placed greater emphasis on population growth and large cities greater emphasis on economic growth.

15.3.4 Policy Instruments Our consultations with the Core Cities, which developed an earlier elaboration of pos sible policy instruments referred to above (May and Still, 2000), led to a catalogue of some 80 types of policy instruments which are available to cities. The full listing, with selected assessments, can be found in May and Matthews (2001), whilst May and Still (2000) provide a brief assessment of performance for those which were in the original list. Table 15.11 shows the survey cities’ assessment of the importance of the 10 policy instruments identified by our Core Cities as being most important to them. In general there was a good level of agreement between our Core Cities and the survey cities as to what policy instruments are important. Over 80% identified bus priorities and bus and rail frequencies and parking charges as important or very important and for most of the other instruments at least 60% did. However, only a third of cities considered road pric ing important and only 20% flexible working hours. Smaller cities placed less emphasis on awareness campaigns, rail provision, bus priorities and real-time information than did medium and larger cities. Medium cities placed greater emphasis on parking charges but less on road pricing. Larger cities were less concerned with development patterns or with fares. In addition, the survey cities identified a number of other policy instruments which they believed to be important, including park and ride, supplementary housing construction, mobility management and pedestrianisation.

Table 15.11: Relative importance in survey cities of the 10 key policy instruments (number of cities) Policy instrument

Very important

Important

Quite important

Not important

Not stated

Development pattern Awareness Flexible hours Rail infrastructure Bus priorities Service frequencies Real-time information Parking charges Road pricing Bus/rail fare levels

21 9 0 15 23 26 8 17 6 12

25 26 13 21 26 25 30 32 14 26

10 16 27 7 8 6 15 7 14 11

3 8 19 15 3 2 7 3 21 8

1 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 5 3

There has been growing interest in the last decade in integrated transport and land use strategies, in which combinations, or packages, of measures are used to achieve a higher standard of performance against the policy objectives. The literature sug gested that there are at least three reasons for combining measures into packages in this way:

348 A.D. May and B. Matthews • to achieve complementarity between measures; • to generate additional finance to support the overall strategy; and • to increase the acceptability of the overall strategy (May and Roberts, 1995). All of our Core Cities accepted that they could not tackle their transport problems by using one or two of these measures alone and that they needed to use them in combination. The combinations which they used, and the reasons for them, however, differed considerably from one city to another. The key reasons for combining measures were: • • • • •

to to to to to

reinforce the effect of a measure; offset its adverse effects; compensate losers; increase public acceptability; and generate revenue.

Having obtained our Core Cities’ experience on packaging of instruments, we then asked our survey cities for their experience. In an attempt to make the answers more concrete, we took the list of priority instruments in Table 15.11 and asked respondents whether they implemented them alone or in combination with other instruments, and if so which they combined them with. This question was not answered well, with up to 40% not providing answers for specific instruments. Of those which did, the majority stated that they did combine at least some of the identified instruments with others. The most commonly combined policy instruments were development patterns, bus priorities, parking charges and bus and rail frequencies, with over 70% of those responded stating that they combined them with other instruments. It was clear that further guidance was needed on this aspect of strategy formulation.

15.3.5 Identification of Barriers A barrier is an obstacle that prevents the coming-into-force of a particular measure or causes delays in its implementation. Barriers can be rigid or flexible, the latter being able to be overcome given sufficient time or resources. Based on discussions with the Core Cities, we grouped the barriers under three headings: • Legal and institutional: lack of legal powers to implement a particular instrument, and legal responsibilities which are split between agencies, limiting the ability of the city authority to implement the affected instrument; • Financial: budget restrictions limiting the overall expenditure on the strategy, financial restrictions on specific instruments and limitations on the flexibility with which revenues can be used to finance the full range of instruments; • Political and cultural aspects: lack of political or public acceptance of an instru ment, restrictions imposed by pressure groups and cultural attributes, such as attitudes to enforcement, which influence the effectiveness of instruments.

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 349

15.3.5.1 Legal and Institutional Barriers and Constraints The survey cities were asked about the extent to which legal barriers imposed con straints on instruments in different policy areas – the same policy areas as referred to in Section 15.3.1.2 above. The results are shown in Table 15.12. Our survey suggested that land-use, road building and, in particular, pricing were the policy areas most commonly subject to legal constraints, with between 30% and 40% of cities stating that there were major legal barriers. Road building, pricing and land use instruments experienced the greatest legal constraints, while information instruments were substantially less con strained than the other instruments. A greater proportion of small and large cities than of medium-sized cities viewed legal barriers as imposing major constraints. Large cities were more likely to perceive legal barriers on road building and pricing instruments. Table 15.12: Policy areas in which legal barriers are a constraint in survey cities (number of cities) Instrument Land use Road building Public transport infrastructure Traffic management Bus and rail operations Information provision Pricing

Major constraint

Minor constraint

No constraint

Not stated

19 20 12 9 16 0 26

27 28 29 29 25 16 22

11 9 15 18 15 42 10

3 3 4 4 4 2 2

15.3.5.2 Financial Barriers and Constraints Table 15.13 summarises the severity of the financial constraints on instruments in the different policy areas for the survey cities. It suggested that road building and public transport infrastructure were the two policy areas which are most commonly subject to financial constraints, with 75% and over of cities stating that finance was a major barrier. Information provision, again, was the least affected. The only differences by city size were that small cities were less likely to perceive financial constraints on land Table 15.13: Policy areas in which financial barriers are a constraint in survey cities (number of cities) Instrument Land use Road building Public transport infrastructure Traffic management Bus and rail operations Information provision Pricing measures

Major constraint

Minor constraint

No constraint

Not stated

19 45 49 17 33 7 24

25 10 8 32 17 27 22

13 1 1 8 6 24 12

3 4 2 3 4 2 2

350 A.D. May and B. Matthews use policies and large cities were even less likely to identify financial constraints on information instruments.

15.3.5.3 Political Barriers and Constraints Table 15.14 provides the summary information on the severity of political barriers for the survey cities. It suggests that road building and pricing were the two policy areas which were most commonly subject to acceptability constraints, with over 50% of cities stating that acceptability was a major constraint on road building and pricing measures. Public transport operations and information provision were the least affected by acceptability constraints. Generally, large and small cities were more likely than medium-sized cities to identify political barriers. Large cities were much more likely to perceive such barriers for road and rail infrastructure projects; small cities were more likely to identify them for pricing measures. Table 15.14: Policy areas in which political barriers are a constraint in survey cities (number of cities) Instrument

Major constraint

Minor constraint

No constraint

Not stated

26 32 24 16 8 1 35

27 18 23 27 35 14 16

3 5 8 11 12 40 3

4 5 5 6 5 54 6

Land use Road building Public transport infrastructure Traffic management Bus and rail operations Information provision Pricing measures

15.3.6 Implications for Guidance As noted earlier, the principal objective of PROSPECTS was to provide guidance to cities on ways of developing optimal land use and transport strategies to meet the challenge of sustainability in their particular circumstances. At the outset it was anticipated that cities would differ markedly in their institutional structures, their geographical and demo graphic context, the problems which they faced and, particularly, in their aspirations. These differences were amply demonstrated in the results of the survey reported here. Despite the rich diversity amongst the survey responses, some patterns amongst them are discernable. Clearly, the most common approach to decision-making involves some mix of plan-led and consensus-led decision-making, particularly when it comes to larger cities. Hence, the majority of cities have medium-term plans in place (longer-term plans are also common, particularly amongst larger cities) and consult formally with stakeholder groups and the general public. It was therefore appropriate to develop guidance which would support this plan-based approach, while reflecting the needs of other approaches. Cities often have exclusive responsibility for policies relating to land-use and traffic management and share responsibility for road and public transport infrastructure policies

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 351 with others, whilst policies on public transport operations are often actually outside their responsibilities. In all cases, decisions of cities are influenced by other governmental authorities and stakeholder groups, with the strongest influence appearing to come from adjacent or neighbouring authorities, business groups and the general public. It was necessary, therefore, for the guidance to be relevant to all actors and stakeholder groups and to support them in working together. There was a good general degree of consent amongst cities with the PROSPECTS working definition of sustainability and with the objectives identified. Of the objectives, economic growth, safety and economic efficiency were the most strongly supported, whilst equity was viewed as the least important. However, the majority of cities considered all six to be important; at the same time it was accepted that these objectives could be in conflict. All three forms of guidance took these objectives as their starting point, to help authorities in identifying them while allowing them to reflect the priorities of their own city. It was clear that the survey cities employed a wide range of policy instruments. Bus priorities, bus and rail frequencies and parking charges were the most commonly cited as being important, whilst road pricing and flexible working hours were only important to a minority of cities. There was relatively little evidence of understanding of the ways in which these policy instruments could be combined into a policy package, and this was therefore an important element for the subsequent guidance. Most cities identified legal, financial and political constraints on their use of many of these instruments, with legal ones typically being the least severe. Road building, as a policy area, was most frequently cited as being subject to all three constraints, whilst pricing (and particularly road pricing) was seen as being subject to both legal and acceptability constraints. Public transport infrastructure and bus and rail operations were also seriously affected by financial constraints. Guidance was designed to focus both on how these barriers could be overcome and on ways of developing effective strategies within the constraints which remain.

15.4 THE PROSPECTS GUIDEBOOKS Given the differences between cities which emerged from the survey, it was clear that there would be little point in a standard specification of an approach and potential solutions which could be offered to all cities. Instead, the emphasis was on providing guidance on key principles, methods and existing knowledge, which could be used by any city to meet its particular needs. This led to the preparation of three guidebooks: 1. a Decision-Makers’ Guidebook which was designed to provide high-level advice to policy-makers, senior professionals and interest groups; 2. a Methodological Guidebook which provided more specific information on ana lytical tools for transport planning professionals; and 3. a Policy Guidebook which provided information for all users on the performance of a range of transport policy instruments.

352 A.D. May and B. Matthews

15.4.1 The Decision-Makers’ Guidebook In discussion with our case study cities, it became clear that, while the majority of those involved in decision-making on land use and transport policy understood many of the elements of the process, most had gaps in their understanding. Moreover, there was a clear need for background guidance for politicians coming new to transport planning, for members of interest groups which were increasingly being encouraged to participate in decision-making and, to a lesser extent, for young professionals. This led to a specification for the Decision-Makers’ Guidebook which was designed to be comprehensive in its coverage yet short enough to be accessible to busy politicians and professionals, and which could be read selectively or in full. The detailed design was based on a critical review of European, Australian and American guidebooks available to the study team. Particular strengths of the more successful guidebooks included the use of simple question and answer text, ample illustrations to clarify the text and to lighten the reading task and a modular structure based on multiples of two pages per topic. All these characteristics were included in the Decision-Makers’ Guidebook which, because it was to be translated into several languages, used cartoons as an internationally accessible form of illustration. The early sections of the guidebook set the scene by establishing the need for guidance, illustrating the range of decision-making contexts and approaches with the results of the city survey summarised in Section 15.3. They also provided guidance, based on the project’s research, on collaborative decision-making, forward planning and scenario setting and the range of approaches to public participation. The results of the city survey shown in Tables 15.5–15.7 were of particular relevance. The central core of the guidebook was based on a logical structure for decision-making, which is shown in Figure 15.2, in which the numbers in brackets refer to sections of the guidebook. Care was taken to stress that this was not a prescriptive structure; decision-makers should be free to decide on the process that they adopt. However, the majority of the steps in the logical structure were likely to be of benefit whether the city concerned adopted a vision-led, plan-led or consensus-led approach or, as appears to be most frequently the case, a mix of these (Table 15.3). As Figure 15.2 illustrates, it was argued that the starting point should be an agreed set of clearly specified objectives. These were based on the definition of sustainability specified in Section 15.3.2 above and the review of city objectives summarised in Table 15.8. The finally agreed set of seven objectives included the six listed in Table 15.8 together with inter-generational equity. In the second edition an eighth objective of contribution to improved health was added, reflecting the growing interest in health-related issues. This set of eight objectives appeared to cover the full range of concerns of the cities surveyed; moreover they proved subsequently to be consistent with the specification of sustainable urban transport issued by the EC which is summarised in Section 15.3.2 (EC, 2004). The Guidebook stressed that it was for the cities to decide individually on their objectives and on the priorities between them. Later sections of the guidebook were designed to illustrate how any given objective could be reflected in subsequent decision-making.

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 353 Objectives/indicators (7)

Scenarios (11)

Assess problems (8)

Barriers (10)

Possible instruments (9)

Possible strategies (11)

Predict impacts (12)

Optimisation (14)

Appraisal (13)

Compare solutions (13) Implement (15) Evaluate performance (15) Monitor (15)

Figure 15.2: The logical structure adopted for the Decision Makers’ Guidebook (Source: Decision Makers’ Guidebook)

The guidebook stressed the importance of being clear as to the underlying objectives and the problems to be overcome, before attempting to consider possible solutions. It provided outline information on the range of policy instruments available, using the six categories listed in Figures 15.3 and 15.4, which largely reflect those used in the survey (e.g. Table 15.4) but combine the two types of infrastructure measure and the two types of management measure, and add a further category to reflect the growing interest in awareness and behavioural measures. This section of the guidebook referred to the much fuller information available in the Policy Guidebook (Section 15.4.3) and summarised that guidebook’s advice with a set of tables, for different types of urban location, indicating the extent to which different categories of policy instrument might contribute to each of the set of objectives. One of these tables is shown in Figure 15.3. A crucial section of the guidebook then reviewed possible approaches to strategy for mulation, based both on the principles of synergy and the need to overcome barriers of

354 A.D. May and B. Matthews Contribution of policy instruments in city centres Efficiency

Environment

Liveability

Safety

Health

Equity

Economy

Future generations

Land use Infrastructure Management Information Attitudes Pricing Key:

minor contribution;

major contribution

Figure 15.3: The contribution of policy instruments to objectives in city centres (Source: Decision Makers’ Guidebook)

These instruments

Contribute to these instruments in the ways shown Land use

Infrastructure

Management

Information

Attitudes

Pricing

Land use Infrastructure Management Information Attitudes Pricing Key:

benefits reinforced;

financial barriers reduced;

political barriers reduced;

compensation for losers.

Figure 15.4: An integration matrix (Source: Decision Makers’ Guidebook) the types illustrated in Tables 15.12–14. This section was designed to help address the gap in understanding highlighted in the survey (Section 15.3.4) and used the concept of an integration matrix (Figure 15.4) which indicated those pairs of categories of policy instrument which might complement one another. Four separate forms of complemen tarity were identified: measures which reinforce each other’s benefits; those which reduce political barriers; those which reduce financial barriers; and those which compensate losers. These principles have since been further developed (May et al., 2006). Care was taken to stress that the tables in Figures 15.3 and 15.4 provided only broad design guidance and that the Policy Guidebook should be used as a source of more detailed advice. Finally, the guidebook includes four short case studies of Edinburgh, Madrid, Oslo and Vienna, illustrating the extent to which each of these cities had adopted the processes advocated in the guidebook. The four boxes summarise the comparisons of decisionmaking context, approaches to decision-making, emphasis on objectives and use of instruments for these four cities. These case studies highlighted several issues for future research and policy development, which are addressed in Section 15.5. The guidebook was originally published in January 2003 in English, French, German, Italian, Spanish and Swedish. It was subsequently updated in June 2005 to reflect results

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 355 from the remainder of the LUTR programme, as illustrated in this volume, and to acknowledge the guidance on Sustainable Urban Transport Plans which was then being developed by the EC (EC, 2004). This second edition is available in printed form in all six languages and is also included in the KonSULT website: http://www.konsult.leeds.ac.uk.

Decision-Making Context None of the four cities has a simple structure for decision-making. Edin burgh is notable for the number of changes in responsibility which it has experienced in the last decade. It is also alone in having little direct con trol over public transport fares and services. How ever, it has the advantage, uniquely among the four, of having direct responsi bility for both transport and land use. Madrid has an enviable degree of coordinated control over public transport, which has been central to its strategy. Management of the road network is dispersed, but does not appear to pose a serious problem. Its main weakness is its inability to control the pattern of new development. Oslo’s structure is the most complex, with a mix of responsibilities at three tiers of government and two separate counties responsible for the conurbation. Vienna has the most integrated management of its transport system but, once again, has its land use development managed separately.

Approaches to Decision-Making All four cities adopt a mix of vision-led, plan-led and consensus-led approaches. Edinburgh combines all three, but places particular emphasis on planning, fol lowed by extensive consultation. Madrid’s approach has changed over time, with a move away from planning towards a vision-led emphasis. It seeks con sensus among the agencies responsible, but has not placed great emphasis on wider consultation. Oslo’s approach is more strongly plan-led, with decisions

356 A.D. May and B. Matthews based on ten-year plans rolled forward regu larly. Increased emphasis is being placed on consensus-building among the responsible agencies, and wider consultation is a key element in its approach. Vienna has a mixed approach, with less emphasis on analytical planning and the strongest reliance on consensusbuilding and widespread participation.

Objectives, Indicators, Targets and Problems This aspect of the case studies reflects the greatest difference in cultural approaches to strategy development. Edinburgh’s approach is clearly objective-led, with objectives, indicators and targets largely selected to reflect the expectations of government. It includes most of the objectives proposed in this guide book, with the exception of inter-generational equity. Its targets are a mix of outcome (safety, pollution) and intermediate outcome (modal shares). Madrid does not have a clearly stated set of objectives, but is principally concerned with economic growth and equity, and the problems caused by traffic growth. Once again inter-generational equity is not a concern. Its indicators relate principally to modal shares. Oslo adopts virtually the full set of objectives proposed in this guidebook, with greater emphasis than the others on longer-term sustainability; conversely it is less concerned with economic growth. It uses a range of indicators, but they are not well linked to the objectives. Vienna has had an aim of reducing car use for several years, but has only recently specified its objectives. Its principal concerns are environment, health and safety, with some consideration of longer-term sustainability.

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 357

Policy Instruments, Barriers and Strategy Formulation The balance of strategies differs between cities. All stress public transport investment and have pur sued innovative solutions. Edinburgh emphasises management of road space and control of land use. Madrid has introduced information systems and some road space man agement, but places little emphasis on demand management or land use controls. Oslo has invested in road building, but is now focusing on public transport, walking and cycling, land use controls and the potential wider use of road pricing. Vienna has a similar emphasis, but uses parking controls and traffic calming as its main tools for controlling car use. Finance is a barrier in all cities; so is the mix of institutional responsibilities, which particularly limits the ability to manage land use. Public acceptability is a critical issue in Edinburgh and to a lesser extent in Oslo: (Photographer: Paul Pfaffenbichler)

15.4.2 The Methodological Guidebook A key element of the PROSPECTS project was the development of analytical tools to support the decision-making process. These were principally of three forms: improved predictive models, enhanced appraisal methods and novel approaches to the optimisation of strategies. All these were tested in each of the six case study cities, both to illustrate the methods and to draw policy conclusions. The Methodological Guidebook (Minken et al., 2003) was designed to introduce these tools to transport professionals. It was drafted at three levels: an outline of the approach, which was broadly similar to the coverage in the Decision-Makers’ Guidebook, a more detailed specification and the fuller technical content. Four of the six Core Cities already had their own land use and transport interaction models, which were used to test strategy options. However, the models differed from one another, making comparisons between cities difficult to draw, and were expen sive to develop, thus precluding the development of similar models for the other two cities. Instead work focused on the development of a simpler generic land use and transport interaction model, which could illustrate the effects of a wide range of pol icy options over time, and assess them against the full set of potential objectives and indicators. Computing requirements were reduced by avoiding the need for detailed

358 A.D. May and B. Matthews network representation, resulting in a model which could carry out a full 30-year strat egy test in as many seconds. The model, MARS (Pfaffenbichler and Shepherd, 2003) was developed for all six case study cities and used to compare policy options in them (May et al., 2002). The appraisal method was designed to reflect the full range of policy objectives identified in the Decision-Makers’ Guidebook and was based on a combination of cost–benefit analysis and multi-criteria appraisal methods (Minken et al., 2003). While many elements of the appraisal process were conventional, care was taken to reflect the differences in approach adopted in the six case study countries. The main areas of new development were in the valuation of CO2 emissions, the trade-off between benefits to current and future generations and, experimentally, the estimation of benefits from changes in loca tion of activity. These developments were tested and illustrated using the MARS models of the six cities. The optimisation routine provided a means of determining, for a given set of objectives, the policy instruments which were most likely to produce the optimum performance. The objectives were represented by an analytical objective function, which included each of the quantified objectives and a set of weights for each. The instruments were represented by a scale factor, such as fare or frequency level, which could vary within an agreed range and by location, time of day and over time. The method, which is described more fully elsewhere (May et al., 2002), was applied with the set of six MARS models to determine policy recommendations, which proved to be very similar to those from the PROPOLIS project (see also Chapter 8).

15.4.3 The Policy Guidebook The original intention was for the Policy Guidebook to be an update of the guidance on policy instruments previously available in May and Still (2000). This was produced as an early output in May and Matthews (2001). However, by then work had started on the production of a web-based knowledgebase, KonSULT (Knowledgebase on Sustainable Urban Land use and Transport), and it was decided to use this for the final Policy Guidebook, since it would be more readily updated and disseminated. The original concept of KonSULT was supported by a grant from the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, while subsequent development, as described more fully in Jopson et al. (2004), was supported by the UK Department for Transport, The Japan Institute for Transport Policy Studies and the Rees Jeffreys Road Fund. In concept, KonSULT is structured into four levels: a brief introductory and explanatory level; a level dealing with the principles of urban transport planning (which is now based on the Decision-Makers’ Guidebook); a level dealing with individual policy instruments, which is discussed more fully below; and a level, still to be developed, which will consider the principles of integrated transport strategies. The policy instruments level is designed to adopt a consistent approach to the coverage of each policy instrument and to aid the user in identifying policy instruments relevant to their needs. A total of some 60 types of policy instruments have been identified,

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 359 structured in the categories listed in Figures 15.3 and 15.4. To date, information has been completed for around 40 of these. Each policy instrument is first described in terms of its aims, its operation and variants in its design. A first principles assessment then considers how it might influence the demand for travel, the supply of transport capacity and the costs of transport provision and use. These in turn are used to identify the likely impact on each of the eight policy objectives specified in the Decision Makers’ Guidebook. This first principles assessment is complemented by a series of case studies, which use empirical evidence to provide assessments of impacts on demand, supply, costs and hence objectives. The combination of this first principles and empirical evidence is applied to assess the likely performance of the instrument in meeting objectives and overcoming problems; the contexts in which the instrument is likely to be particularly useful; the expected gainers and losers; the anticipated barriers to its introduction (based on the categorisation of barriers in Section 15.3.5 above); and the instruments which might usefully complement it. All but the last of these uses a standard 11-point assessment scale from +5 to −5. The complementary instruments are identified using the principles of integration in Figure 15.4 and thus provide further details for this integration matrix. KonSULT, which is under continuing development, is available at http://www.konsult.leeds.ac.uk.

15.5 CONCLUSIONS The PROSPECTS city survey confirmed that there is a wide range of contexts in which sustainable urban transport plans are developed and a rich mix of approaches to their preparation. It has, however, been possible to identify a range of policy objectives which are being pursued, policy instruments which are being employed; barriers to be overcome in their use; and approaches to strategy formulation. The survey highlighted the principles of strategy formulation as the area which was least well understood, and this was a major focus of subsequent work in PROSPECTS. These issues have been encapsulated in a Decision Makers’ Guidebook, designed to help cities plan effectively to meet their own requirements and aspirations. A Method ological Guidebook, covering predictive modelling, appraisal and optimisation, and a web-based Policy Guidebook, KonSULT, summarising the performance of a range of policy instruments, have been developed to support the Decision Makers’ Guidebook. These tools are already being put to good use both in Europe and more widely; for example a Commission-funded project is exploring their application to the countries of southeast Asia. The Decision Makers’ Guidebook included case studies of Edinburgh, Madrid, Oslo and Vienna, all of which offer examples of good practice in urban land use and transport planning, but none of which fully adopts all the principles advocated in the guidebook. The four boxes in Section 15.4 illustrate the differences between them. This comparison highlighted the following areas in which further improvement was needed:

360 A.D. May and B. Matthews 1. Decision-making contexts are complex and difficult to change; decision-making processes need to be designed to work within this context; 2. However, failure to plan transport and land use together poses serious threats for longer-term sustainability and needs to be addressed by city governments; 3. Visions, plans and consensus are all important elements of decision-making; in addition the public are increasingly seeking active participation; 4. Some cities are less specific as to their objectives, focusing instead on strategies to reduce car use; there is a danger that this will lead to some key impacts of transport being overlooked; 5. Few cities are currently addressing long-term sustainability; while this is under standable, there is a need for an assessment of longer-term impacts; 6. Indicators and targets tend to reflect modal shares rather than the impacts of transport on society, which could lead to the latter being overlooked; 7. Public transport improvements are a dominant element of strategy, but they alone will not control overall demand for travel or the growth in car use; greater emphasis is needed on land use and demand management; 8. A greater emphasis on appraisal could help to ensure that the chosen strategy is the most effective means of meeting the city’s current and long-term needs. While these conclusions are not as critical as those of the ECMT report (as sum marised in Section 15.1), they confirm the need to focus at least as much on the process of effective land use and transport planning as on the detail of the policies imple mented. This is the target of a UK-funded successor research programme, DISTILLATE (http://www.distillate.ac.uk), which is developing improvements to the decision-making process. Specific projects include the selection and use of performance indicators; their use, with KonSULT, for option generation; enhanced models, based on MARS, which reflect a wider range of policy instruments and their interaction; improved appraisal methods which are appropriate to the full range of policy instruments; more effective approaches to financing and phasing; and enhanced working practices.

REFERENCES Atkins, P.W.C. and University of Warwick (2005). Long Term Process and Impact Evalua tion of the Local Transport Plan Policy – Interim Report. London: Department for Transport. Chichilnisky, G. (1996). An axiomatic approach to sustainable development. Social Choice and Welfare 13 (2), 231–257. European Commission (2004). Expert Working Group on Sustainable Urban Transport Plans. Brussels: DG Environment. European Commission (2006). Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment. Brussels: DG Environment. European Conference of Ministers of Transport (2002). Implementing Sustainable Urban Travel Policies. Final Report. Report to the Council of Ministers, ECMT, Paris. Flyvbjerg, B. (1998). Rationality and Power – Democracy in Practice. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Improving Decision-Making for Sustainable Urban Transport 361 Heal, G. (1998). Valuing the Future: Economic Theory and Sustainability. New York: Columbia University Press. Jopson, A.F., Matthews, B. and May, A.D. (2004). Facilitating evidence based decision making: the development and use of an on-line knowledgebase on sustainable land use and transport. Proceedings of the 10th World Conference on Transport Research, Istanbul. May, A.D. and Matthews, B. (2001). Initial Policy Assessment, PROSPECTS Deliverable 4. Leeds: ITS. May, A.D. and Roberts, M. (1995). The design of optimal transport strategies. Transport Policy 2 (2), 97–105. May, A.D. and Still, B.J. (2000). The Instruments of Transport Policy. Working paper 545. Leeds: Institute for Transport Studies. May, A.D., Shepherd, S. and Pfaffenbichler, P.C. (2002). Optimal urban land use and trans port strategies. Seamless and Sustainable Transport, Singapore, 2002. May, A.D., Kelly, C. and Shepherd, S.P. (2006). The principles of integration in urban transport strategies. Transport Policy 13, 319–327. Minken, H. (1999). A sustainability objective function for local transport policy evaluation. In: Meersman, Van de Voorde and Winkelmans (Eds), World Transport Research. Selected Proceedings of the 8th World Conference on Transport Research. Volume 4: Transport Policy. Amsterdam: Pergamon. Minken, H., Jonsson, D., Shepherd, S.P., Jarvi, T., May, A.D., Page, M., Pearman, A., Pfaffenbichler, P.C., Timms, P. and Vold A. (2003). Developing Sustainable Urban Land Use and Transport Strategies – A Methodological Guidebook. Institute of Trans port Economics. Pfaffenbichler, P. and Shepherd, S.P. (2003). A dynamic model to appraise strategic land-use and transport policies. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research. Special Issue: Sustainable Transport. 2 (3/4), 255–283. Steer Davies Gleave (2003). Decision-Making in Local Transport, Final Report for the UK Department for Transport, London. Wilcox, D. (1994). The Guide to Effective Participation. Brighton: Partnership Books.

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Part V

Outcomes

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Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 16 Lessons for Policy David Blackledge, Anthony D. May and Michael Wegener

16.1 INTRODUCTION After the individual reports on 11 of the 12 projects in the Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR) cluster in Parts II, III and IV of this volume, this and the following chapters both review and summarise the results achieved and draw conclusions for policy-making and further research. This chapter starts the review by summarising the policy conclusions drawn from each project and synthesising them to formulate general policy conclusions with recommendations for their successful implementation.

16.2 POLICY CONCLUSIONS BY PROJECT To different degrees all 12 projects of the LUTR cluster arrived at policy conclusions and recommendations for the planning practice. This section presents the most important of these summarised from chapters of individual projects in this volume: • TRANSPLUS (Chapter 4). Integrated land use and transport planning requires the integration of policies, planning methodologies and the organisation of plan ning processes and institutional structures. Where the access of cars needs to be limited to reduce congestion and environmental impacts, land use and transport measures should be undertaken to prevent a loss of accessibility. Attention has to be given to implementation barriers. Broad strategic concepts and visions are needed to integrate sectoral policies to a comprehensive strategy. Public partic ipation is extremely important as the perspectives of citizens and stakeholders help to find key issues and increase public acceptance of projects. However, pub lic involvement needs to be carefully managed. Transferability of good practice should be fostered by transnational networks. • ECOCITY (Chapter 5). The implementation of an ECOCITY project requires the agreement of many stakeholders and a holistic way of thinking and acting. Comprehensive information about the requirements and benefits of an ECOCITY 365

366 D. Blackledge et al.

•

•

•

•

development and the involvement of citizens, politicians and other stakeholders is indispensable. A vital condition for the construction of an ECOCITY project is the availability of land with good access to public transport: a framework of incentives and legal/administrative instruments is therefore needed. The project needs to be embedded in existing infrastructures, which may be an impulse for necessary improvements. The investment for sustainable urban development can be higher than for conventional projects, therefore available subsidies for sustain able development must be used. VELOINFO (Chapter 6). Successful promotion of walking and cycling requires a high-density mixed-used land-use system, supporting travel demand measures, taxation of car travel and a well-developed network of walkways and cycling lanes. Good interchanges can encourage trips comprising public transport and walking and cycling. City administrations should actively provide space for and invest in walking and cycling lanes. One key element is the conversion of on-street car parking space to walking and cycling space. Successful promotion of walking and cycling requires a coordinated set of policies and targets from the national to the local level including transport, environmental, land use and other policies, the right structures and trained staff in place and sufficient funding. In addition a wide range of complementary measures on the physical side as well as attitudinal and promotional measures are required. PROPOLIS (Chapter 8). Sustainable urban development requires integrated land use and transport strategies. Integration is only successful if it is applied to policies, planning methodologies and planning processes and structures. Urban sustainability can be improved only with the coordinated intervention of both local and national decision-making levels. Integrated land-use transport models are the only method to identify synergies between individual land use and transport policies. A combination of transport pricing policies, such as making car trans port more expensive while making public transport less expensive, and land-use policies, such as the promotion of mixed-use development near public transport stations and strict land-use controls in the outer suburbs, contribute significantly to achieving a better urban environment. SCATTER (Chapter 9). The most effective policies to reduce urban sprawl are road pricing, a tax on new suburban residential development and tax incentives to promote office construction in zones served by high-quality public transport (or alternatively a tax on office development elsewhere) and a reduction of public transport fares inside the central area. Other promising policies include land use and land rent regulation through negotiations, exchanges and public–private partnerships and the development of alternative housing forms combining the advantages of suburban living in terms of more floor space with minimum density constraints. Accompanying measures include mechanisms for inter-institutional cooperation and symbolic and cognitive consensus-building. ASI (Chapter 10). The assessment of quality-of-life indicators before and after the implementation of land use or transport projects helps decision-makers to better address the benefits of projects, to secure public acceptance and to promote behavioural change. Quality-of-life indicators are identified by user and expert interviews. To define indicators, a sufficient number of interviews have to be

Lessons for Policy 367

•

•

•

•

•

conducted. Quality-of-life indicators can be used for benchmarking by comparing quality of life in different cities, regions and countries. CITYFREIGHT (Chapter 11). It is important to involve all elements of urban freight distribution: the transport chain, actors and the urban context. A thorough problem diagnosis is important to define sustainable objectives and solutions. Since the transport chain covers a larger geographical area than a city, one should also consider problems, objectives and solutions beyond the city’s boundaries. As urban freight distribution inter-relates with other policy fields, planning of urban freight distribution should be integrated with economic, land use, transport, infrastructure and environmental planning. Authorities should keep an eye on long-term challenges. There are many actors involved in urban freight distribution; their support through the whole process is important. Local, regional and national authorities ought to support a high-quality problem analysis, bring together all actors, define their own financial contribution and stimulate research. ARTISTS (Chapter 12). It is necessary to rethink the way in which streets feature in transport and land-use planning. The new conceptual framework cannot simply view streets as urban roads to be traffic-engineered or as urban places to be urbandesigned. A people-oriented approach focuses on individual persons as the basic unit for design and performance assessment rather than on vehicles. It involves the public in street design and applies new and recently developed techniques for assessing the use of space by people going beyond counting vehicles or pedestrians. The cooperation between land use and transport planning needs to be extended to encompass setting of objectives, deciding on the priority of street functions, activities and users and the design and planning of streets. PROMPT (Chapter 13). Walking is the main non-motorised mode of transport and must be considered as the key element towards sustainable urban transport. The promotion of walking can be achieved through three different ways: by trans port planning, by land-use planning and by the design of urban space. The best results are accomplished through a proper combination of all three. Childhood is the crucial time, when we learn and adapt to the ways of mobility that we will likely preserve also as adults. This means that the promotion of walking should begin already during childhood at home and at school by a considerate education towards sustainable ways of mobility. ISHTAR (Chapter 14). The integrated tool for traffic, environment, health, monuments protection developed in ISHTAR facilitates the cooperation among planning departments of municipalities, environmental agencies, consultants, transport companies and ministries. Due to its ability to receive input from dif ferent traffic models, it allows to analyse, plan and assess different policies and measures for land use and transport. PROSPECTS (Chapter 15). Urban decision-making processes are complex and difficult to change. However, failure to plan transport and land use together poses serious threats for long-term sustainability. Visions, plans and active participa tion by citizens are important elements of urban decision-making. Some cities are less specific in their objectives; there is a danger that this will lead to key impacts of transport being overlooked. Few cities are currently addressing longterm sustainability, but there is a need for an assessment of longer-term impacts. Indicators and targets used tend to disregard the impacts of transport on society.

368 D. Blackledge et al. Improvements of public transport are important, but they alone will not curb the growth in car use. Greater emphasis on land use and travel demand management is needed. Appraisal techniques can help to ensure that the chosen strategy is the most effective.

16.3 GENERAL POLICY CONCLUSIONS In this section, at a final level of aggregation, the policy conclusions of the 12 projects of the LUTR cluster are brought to a general synthesis. What can be learned from the research in the 12 projects of the LUTR cluster for future policy-making in the field of land use and transport planning under the perspective of sustainability? To emphasise the cross-cutting character of these final policy conclusions, they are organised only in broadest terms as land use policies, transport policies and integrated land use and transport policies.

16.3.1 Land Use Policies The research in the projects of the LUTR cluster clearly confirmed the importance of land-use patterns for sustainable urban transport. There is broad agreement between the projects that the decentralised low-density forms of settlement of most European cities made possible by the automobile are now a serious impediment to a return to more sustainable forms of urban transport. The empirical and modelling studies agree that land-use patterns affect average trip length. Low-density suburban residential areas with few job opportunities tend to have higher car ownership, long trip distances and less use of public transport than highdensity mixed-use residential neighbourhoods with a balanced labour-to-job ratio which have less cars, shorter trip lengths and a higher share of public transport. Attractive neighbourhood facilities and pedestrian-friendly urban design contribute to shorter trip lengths and a higher share of public transport, cycling and walk trips. The larger a city is, the shorter are mean travel distances with the exception of some of the largest metropolitan areas. Conversely, none of the land-use policies assessed has a significant impact on the number of journeys made. This is confirmed by the theory of travel budgets, and none of the empirical or model-based studies reported a significant impact of any factor on trip frequency. Land-use planning policies that limit urban sprawl by development restrictions, e.g. a greenbelt around the city, strengthen the economy of the city centre and lead to shorter trip lengths and more trips by public transport. Policies that decentralise employment, such as peripheral industrial estates and out-of-town shopping centres, negatively affect the economy of the inner city and produce longer and more car trips.

16.3.2 Transport Policies Impacts of transport policies on transport patterns tend to be much stronger than those of land use. Increases in travel cost and travel time lead to reductions in both trip length and trip frequency. Conversely, reductions in travel cost and travel time have a positive

Lessons for Policy 369 impact on trip length and frequency, resulting in longer work and leisure trips. Studies on changes in trip frequency are only known for travel time improvements, where time savings were found to result in more trips being made. Mode choice depends on the relative attractiveness of a mode compared to all other modes. While some modes, such as car and rail, are inherently more attractive, increasing the speed and reducing the cost of any mode increases its modal share. Offering more frequent or lower cost public transport is more likely to attract walkers and cyclists than car drivers, although there are some positive counter examples. Transport in turn affects land use by changing the accessibility of a location. Higher accessibility increases the attractiveness of a location for all types of land uses thus influencing the direction of new urban development. If, however, accessibility in an entire city is increased, it results in a more dispersed settlement structure. The impact of accessibility varies by land use. It is an essential location factor for retail, office and residential uses. Locations with high accessibility tend to be developed faster than other areas. The value of accessibility to manufacturing industries varies considerably, depending mainly on the goods produced. New road infrastructure, such as an outer ring road, may result in a short-term relief of congestion but contributes to further decentralisation of population and increasing travel distances. New public transport lines have little impact on location choices, except where new radial lines significantly improve the accessibility of suburban locations; then they strengthen the inner-city economy but contribute to suburbanisation. Introducing road speed limits results in shorter trips and increased use of public transport. The effect of higher fuel prices or increased fuel taxes on the number and length of car trips is particularly strong. Significantly higher fuel prices or fuel taxes curb the further dispersal of residences and workplaces. Higher downtown parking fees and congestion charges reduce car traffic in the centre but make out-of-town shopping centres more attractive and so may generate negative economic effects in the centre, although it is too early to draw conclusions from the few congestion charge experiments to date. Free public transport reinforces a pattern of centralised employment and decentralised residential locations, but has little impact on the volume and length of car trips.

16.3.3 Integrated Land Use and Transport Strategies One important finding of many projects of the LUTR cluster was that integrated land use and transport strategies are more successful than isolated individual policies in either field: • Land use and transport policies are only successful in reducing travel distances, travel time and the share of car travel if they make car travel less attractive (i.e. more expensive or slower) and provide attractive land-use alternatives to suburban living. • Land-use policies to increase urban density or mixed land use without accompa nying measures to make car travel more expensive or slower have little effect as

370 D. Blackledge et al. people will continue to make long trips to maximise opportunities within their travel cost and travel time budgets. However, these policies are important in the long run as they provide the preconditions for less car-dependent lifestyles in the future. • Transport policies making car travel less attractive (more expensive or slower) are very effective in achieving the goal of reducing travel distances and the share of car travel. However, they depend on a spatial organisation that is not too dispersed. In addition, highly diversified labour markets and different work places of workers in multiple-worker households set limits to an optimum coordination of work places and residences. • Large retail and leisure facilities that are not spatially integrated increase the distances travelled by car and the share of car travel. Land-use policies to prevent the development of such facilities (‘push’) are more effective than land-use policies aimed to promote high-density, mixed-use development (‘pull’). • Transport policies to improve the attractiveness of public transport have in gen eral not led to a major reduction of car travel, attracted only limited development at public transport stations, but contributed to further suburbanisation of popu lation. In summary, where there are integrated strategies in which land use and transport policies are combined, land use and transport policies reinforce each other so that positive synergies can occur. In such integrated strategies, the impacts of ‘pull’ measures, e.g. of land-use development incentives or of improvements in public transport, are much weaker than the impacts of ‘push’ measures, such as land-use restrictions or increases in travel time or travel cost or other constraints on mobility. If land use and transport policies are compared, transport policies are far more direct and efficient in achieving sustainable urban transport than land-use policies. However, accompanying and supporting land-use policies are essential for creating less car-dependent cities in the long run.

Summary of Policy Conclusions Land-use policies: high-density mixed land use High-density mixed-use residential neighbourhoods with a balanced job–labour ratio have shorter trip lengths. Attractive neighbourhood facilities and pedestrian-friendly urban design contribute to shorter trip lengths and a higher share of public transport, cycling and walk trips. Land-use policies: land-use controls Land-use planning policies that limit urban sprawl by development restrictions, e.g. a greenbelt around the city, strengthen the economy of the city centre and lead to shorter trip lengths and more trips by public transport. Policies that decentralise employment, such as peripheral industrial estates and out-of-town shopping cen tres, negatively affect the economy of the inner city and produce longer and more car trips.

Lessons for Policy 371 Transport policies: travel time and cost Increases in travel cost and travel time lead to reductions in both trip length and trip frequency. Reductions in travel cost and travel time result in more and longer trips. Faster, more frequent or less expensive public transport attracts walkers and cyclists but only few car drivers, although a few positive counter examples exist. Transport policies: accessibility Making transport faster (or slower) or less (or more) expensive changes the accessi bility of locations. Higher accessibility increases the attractiveness of locations and so influences the direction of urban development. If accessibility in an entire metropoli tan area is increased, it results in a more dispersed settlement structure. Transport policies: new infrastructure New transport infrastructure may result in a short-term relief of congestion but con tributes to long-term decentralisation of population and increasing travel distances. New public transport lines have little impact on location except where new radial lines significantly improve the accessibility of suburban locations; then they strengthen the inner-city economy but contribute to suburbanisation. Transport policies: inner-city access charges Higher downtown parking fees or congestion charges reduce car traffic in the centre but make out-of-town shopping centres more attractive and so generate negative economic effects in the centre, although it may be too early to draw conclusions from the few congestion charge experiments to date. Integrated strategies Land-use policies to increase urban density or mixed land use without accompanying measures to make car travel more expensive or slower have only little effect. Transport policies which make car travel less attractive are very effective in reducing car mobility but they depend on a not-too-dispersed spatial organisation. In integrated strategies in which land use and transport policies are combined both types of policies reinforce each other so that synergies can occur. Summary Transport policies are more efficient in achieving sustainable urban transport than land-use policies. However, supporting land-use policies are essential for creating less car-dependent cities. Therefore only coordinated land use and transport planning will lead to sustainable cities. This requires substantial changes in the institutional and financial framework of urban and regional planning.

16.4 IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES It has been shown in the previous section that only coordinated land use and transport planning will lead to sustainable cities. However, the coordination of land use and transport planning has been difficult in the past for a variety of reasons. One reason

372 D. Blackledge et al. is the competition between municipalities for tax-paying residents and firms dictated by municipal tax systems encouraging such competition in many European countries. Other reasons are conflicting interests of various groups of residents, firms and other stakeholders within cities. The successful integration of land use and transport planning therefore requires substan tial changes in the institutional and financial framework of urban and regional planning. For a better coordination between the plans of neighbouring municipalities, an efficient system of regional planning above the municipal level seems to be indispensable. Prob ably more important is a system of municipal taxes encouraging cooperation instead of competition. For the resolution of local conflicts within a community, active citizen and stakeholder participation which rewards cooperation and the mutual understanding of interests is essential. The principal implementers of land use and transport measures are city and regional authorities. Cities in particular are the key locations where sustainable development policies, measures and tools must be implemented if high-level goals are to be achieved. However, cities suffer from weak political representation in terms of their ability to influence the policy framework at national and European levels. For example, there is no European Union (EU) institution to represent the interests of cities. At the same time cities are faced with a growing number of regulations and obligations which will increase in the future, as they will have to take responsibility for implementing some of the policies necessary to achieve targets on climate change, to improve the local air quality, to promote more sustainable transport modes and to reduce the need to use the car in urban areas. The projects in the LUTR cluster have produced rich evidence that integrated strategies combining land use and transport policies have stronger effects on urban sustainability than individual policies implemented alone. However, the integrated approach should extend beyond the substantive issues of land use and transport integration through a variety of mutually supporting measures, such as: • • • • • • • •

integrated strategic concepts (e.g. an urban land use and transport plan), integrated sectoral policies (e.g. public transport and land-use policies), inter-departmental collaboration (e.g. interdisciplinary working groups), regional cooperation (e.g. regional planning bodies), step-by-step implementation (e.g. multi-year implementation plans), citizen participation (e.g. public hearings, workshops), public relations (e.g. awareness campaigns) innovative fund raising (e.g. early securing of resources).

The successful implementation of policy recommendations often depends on the ability of decision-makers to integrate the elements necessary for overcoming traditional barriers to these policies. Social acceptance is vital for the success of many transport and land-use policies and some actions need to be communicated to citizens. It is also necessary to implement frameworks which allow potential legal, institutional, financial, political and cultural barriers to be overcome.

Lessons for Policy 373 Summary of Implementation Issues Barriers to implementation The inadequate integration between land use and mobility planning has been evident for many years. The research of the LUTR cluster has substantially increased the understanding of the requirements for sustainable urban land use and transport strategies, but substantial barriers to their implementation remain. Regions and cities Regions and cities are the principal implementers of integrated land use and transport strategies. The integration land use and transport planning needs to be addressed both at the regional and the municipal level. National governments It is the responsibility of national governments to ensure that regional land use and mobility planning systems achieve vertical integration (consistency between local and regional plans) and horizontal integration (cooperation between local author ities within a region). This implies institutional and fiscal frameworks to promote a balance between healthy competition and necessary cooperation between local governments. The European Union The EU should set the overall framework and establish standards for good practice and continue to support cooperation between regions and cities. Public involvement It is important to increase the understanding of the public, politicians and the media about land-use transport interaction. A clearer and more tangible expression of trans port and land use planning concepts and issues is required. Demonstration projects Demonstration projects are an important way of gaining experience with integrated land-use transport strategies. Accompanying research and before-and-after studies are essential for drawing conclusions from the demonstrations. Communication Better communication of key findings from research to decision-makers is advanta geous. Good research draws attention to commonly understood findings as well as to identify gaps and inconsistencies in research findings. City networks Networks between regions and cities contribute to improving knowledge about land-use transport interaction and cooperation in policy decisions and so are of key importance for the success of integrated land use and transport policies.

374 D. Blackledge et al. Research The work of the LUTR cluster has significantly increased the understanding of landuse transport interaction, but several gaps in knowledge remain which need to be addressed in future research. Summary Local, regional and national governments and the EU need to work together to establish the institutional and fiscal frameworks under which integrated land-use transport strategies can be implemented as well as support the knowledge generation and dissemination needed for their successful achievement.

A key point is to increase the understanding of the public, politicians and the media by directly involving them in future research on land use and transport. Regions and cities should be involved in the research process from the beginning in order to achieve a more integrated approach between land use and mobility planning. Demonstration projects are an important way of achieving this. The cities participating in PLUME all agreed that the network was of benefit and that European cooperation, networking and benchmarking help to improve knowledge and are key to the achievement of integrated policies. While the LUTR programme has substantially increased the understanding of the requirements for sustainable urban land use and transport strategies, the barriers to implementing them and the potential benefits from doing so, many research needs remain. Some of these research needs will be presented in the following chapter.

Land Use and Transport S. Marshall & D. Banister (Editors)

Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 17 A Research Agenda David Banister, Stephen Marshall and Anthony May

17.1 THE EU POLICY CONTEXT All of the research reported in this book relates to projects set up as part of the Cities of Tomorrow Programme by the European Union (EU). This coincided with and was closely linked to the EU White Paper on Transport Policy (CEC, 2001), where three main challenges were identified – road congestion, environmental pressures, and safety and the quality of life. The main focus of the White Paper was to substantially shift the modal split from car and air to rail and water. Although there were no formal legislative proposals in this document, action areas were indicated for policy interventions, including some 60 measures to be taken at the community level over the next ten years (to 2010). Included here were measures on sustainable mobility where infrastructure charging was seen to be instrumental in taking account of the external costs of travel and encouraging the required modal shift. Little was said in the White Paper about the links between land use and transport. In addition to the primary aim of encouraging substantial modal shift, the 2001 White Paper identified the decoupling of economic growth from transport growth as a critical element in its proposals. According to the White Paper, “by implementing the 60-odd measures set out in the White Paper there will be a marked break in the link between transport growth and economic growth, although without there being any need to restrict the mobility of people and goods” (CEC, 2001 p11). It also argues that transport policy alone is not sufficient to tackle current transport problems and advocates an integrated approach with other areas of policy-making, such as economic policy, land-use planning policy, social and education policy and competition policy. The issues being addressed by the 2001 White Paper were very much concerned with mobility and with the links between transport growth and the economy. Although the environmental concerns were embedded in the policies, the focus was on reducing rates of growth in EU travel. The assumptions on economic growth were optimistic. Since then, five main external issues have arisen that have resulted in a fundamental reassessment 375

376 D. Banister et al. of the EU transport policy objectives. First, the enlargement of the EU from the EU15 to the EU25 (and the EU27 from 2007) has meant that the priority of congestion and pollution in the EU15 have to be balanced by the priority for improved accessibility in the new EU10 (or EU12). Second, economic growth in the EU has been lower than expected, and there is a concern that EU competitiveness in the global market has been reduced. Third, oil prices have doubled and seem likely to remain high, at least for the next 4–5 years. Fourth, the Kyoto Protocol has become a reality, and the EU is strongly committed to taking the lead role in ensuring that the emission reduction commitments of its member states are achieved. Finally, there is an increased risk of disruption caused by terrorist attacks, and transport networks are the prime target. There seems to be a much greater level of uncertainty within the EU, and the ambitious aims of the 2001 White Paper have been reviewed (CEC, 2006a). A series of significant changes in direction have been made and these are highlighted under three headings: 1. Modal Shift – The use of the pricing mechanism and investment in the more efficient modes of transport has been modified with the concept of “co-modality”. This is the optimised use of all modes of transport and reflects the need to identify complete journeys and the linkages between the trip stages. Such thinking has been central to the freight sector in terms of logistics chains but less prominent in the passenger sector. 2. Decoupling – The strong commitment in 2001 to decoupling transport growth from economic growth has been weakened as the concern is now over the negative effects of transport. No reference is made in the midterm review to transport demand, only to using a range of policy measures to reduce its environmental impact. The economic arguments concerning competitiveness have reemerged as dominant over the issues of resource use in transport and its impact on the environment. Reduction strategies have been replaced by mitigation of the effects and adaptation through technological advances. 3. Technological Innovation – Much greater emphasis has been placed on the role of technology in the midterm review, as a means to improve environmental quality and to make best use of the existing infrastructure. Measures include: • Reductions in the dependency of transport on oil through a programme of “green” powered vehicles (2009) and a strategy for energy use in trans port (2007). • Intelligent transport systems will be used to cut costs and provide better information, to improve efficiency through real time management systems and to provide tracking facilities for road pricing. • Smart charging will be initiated through the development of a model to assess the external costs of all forms of transport (2008). As can be seen from this summary of the midterm review, very little is said on land use and transport except to note that some of the priorities will impact on the urban environment. A Green Paper on Urban Transport is promised for 2007, together with a report on Transport Scenarios to 2030 and 2050, and the first call for the 7th RTD Framework Programme (FP) will also take place in 2007. These are all promising developments, and the remainder of this chapter will discuss the possible research agenda

A Research Agenda 377 that might take the comprehensive range of projects outlined in this book into the 7th FP. But first it is necessary to outline the thinking behind the new FP.

17.2 THE 7TH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME The Framework Programme (FP) is the main means by which the EU funds research, tech nological development and demonstration activities (RTD) within member states. The 7th FP runs from 2007–2013, and the European Parliament and the Council approved the RTD programme in June 2006 (CEC, 2006b). Two sections within this document relate to transport. 1. Transport’s Objective (Section 7) will develop “integrated, safer, greener and smarter pan-European transport systems for the benefit of all citizens and society, respecting the environmental and natural resources; and securing and further developing the competitiveness attained by the European industries in the global market” (p35). Its focus is clearly technological and operational, but links are made with the European transport policy outlined earlier in this chapter. The activities are concentrated on aeronautics and air transport, and on sustainable surface transport. Within this second activity, there are six headings: (i) Greening of surface transport; (ii) Encouraging and increasing modal shift and decongesting transport corridors; (iii) Ensuring sustainable and accessible urban mobility for all citizens, includ ing the disadvantaged; (iv) Improving safety and security; (v) Strengthening competitiveness; (vi) Supporting the European global satellite navigation system (Galileo) and The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS). For land use and transport, the main opportunities lie in the (ii) and (iii) headings, where modal shift is important as is the new concept of co-modality. Under the urban mobility heading organisational issues, clean local environments and high quality public transport are highlighted, together with the integration of town planning and transport, including their relationships with growth and employment. 2. Socio-economic Sciences and the Humanities Objective (Section 8) is con cerned about understanding the complexity and socio-economic challenges facing Europe internally and externally. This includes “growth, employment and com petitiveness, social cohesion, intercultural understanding, social, cultural and educational challenges in an enlarged EU, sustainability, quality of life, demo graphic change, migration and integration, and global interdependence” (p37). This is a huge and all-embracing agenda that needs to be transformed into a set of research projects, but the underlying thinking is the sustainable society in its broadest sense. One of the activities outlined is central to land use and transport, namely “Combining economic, social and environmental objectives in a European perspective: by addressing the two key and highly interrelated issues of continuing evolution of European socio-economic models and economic, and

378 D. Banister et al. social and regional cohesion in an enlarged EU, taking into account sustainability and the protection of the environment, sustainable urban planning, energy issues, the role of cities and metropolitan regions, and the socio-economic impact of European policy and legislation” (p38). So with the new FP, there are likely to be substantial opportunities for further research on land use and transport, albeit within a new set of priorities for transport policy as outlined in the midterm review (CEC, 2006a).

17.3 OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH IN LAND-USE AND TRANSPORT PLANNING In terms of the revised EU Transport Policy agenda and the 7th FP, there would seems to be four main policy areas within which land use and transport research (LUTR) could be structured. Two of these relate to the socio-economic sciences and humanities objective, namely new trends and human behaviour, and one of which relates to the transport objective, namely technical performance. The fourth area explicitly concentrates on land-use and transport relationships, but this set of research proposals are not located in either agenda. This may prove to be problematic as much of the most interesting and innovative transport research is carried out at the interface between areas, such as in land use and transport. So in the discussion below, the topics for research have been explicitly related to the land-use and transport issues.

17.3.1 New Trends This research concerns the influence of new trends, which arise externally to the landuse and transport system, or are adjustments unconsciously arising from within the land-use and transport system. This addresses the introduction of new technologies, the development of new practices, new societal and political trends and circumstantial tendencies – all arising externally to the land-use and transport system. It also covers new trends or tendencies regarding the way in which the existing land-use and transport system is used, or adaptation of existing behaviour to new situations (even where the same underlying human motivations or technologies continue to hold).

17.3.1.1 Trends in Wider Uptake of New Technologies Information and communication technologies such as teleworking and e-commerce (teleshopping) are already being shown to have growing impacts on urban mobility (Mokhtarian, 2003; Mokhtarian and Salomon, 2001), which can be expected in due course to influence patterns of urban land use through altered patterns of living, com muting, residential location and workplace organisation (Banister and Stead, 2004). New developments in freight logistics, such as supply chain management, just-in-time delivery and e-commerce, have resulted in complete reorganisation of the locations of distribution centres and sourcing networks for industry (McKinnon, 2007). Further work is needed to understand their impacts on congestion and the environment, and longer term changes in urban form.

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17.3.1.2 Social and Demographic Trends Although population increase is modest within the EU, there are two important changes that are taking place. The population is getting older and living longer, with the grey population (over 60 years old) often having the time, resources and interest in travelling long distances within Europe and elsewhere. Within the working population there has been a huge increase in migration, as young workers in the new member states take advantage of the single market and move to locations where better pay and conditions are offered (Banister, 2005). There is a need for more research on the impacts of social and demographic trends on urban mobility, patterns of travel and spatial location. These include the impacts of the ageing society, changes in family size and structure, the effects of population decline and the social and economic impacts of international migration on the countries from where migrants originate and in the new countries where they move to.

17.3.1.3 Political and Economic Trends There is a need to address the general historic effects of democratisation, liberalisation, deregulation and expansion of the EU15 to the EU25 (and the EU27 from 2007) on location and distribution of land-uses and travel patterns. This would include, for exam ple, effects on cross-border trade, migration, property markets, functional specialisation of different towns and cities (e.g. as tourist destination or industrial centre), as major structural changes are taking place in the distribution of work and leisure activities across Europe.

17.3.2 Human Behaviour Research here concerns knowledge of human behaviour, as applied to the land-use and transport sphere. It applies to human needs and motivations, individually and in a societal context, which may be recognisable whatever be the historical or technological context. Without a good understanding of human behaviour, the cause–effect mechanisms of policy output and public reaction will be uncertain.

17.3.2.1 Conceptual Models of Human Behaviour There are two alternative theoretical paradigms identified, regarding human behaviour with respect to land use and transport – travel cost minimisation and activity maximisa tion, subject to certain constraints. While much of the predictive modelling presented in this book comes from a tradition that assumes that travellers wish to minimise the time and money costs of their journeys (Chapters 8 and 9), there is considerable evidence to suggest that in aggregate time spent travelling varies little over time. Some of the models used in PROSPECTS (Chapter 8) have been based on the assumption that travel time is constant, and that travellers use increased accessibility to increase the range of activities which they access (Pfaffenbichler and Shepherd, 2003). This inevitably results in differ ent predictions of future travel patterns. A possibly fruitful research pursuit would be to resolve these paradigms to offer a more effective explanation of human behaviour.

380 D. Banister et al.

17.3.2.2 Human Motivations, Preferences and Societal Characterisation There is generally a need to better understand the human motivation for mobility (the psychological and physiological desire to move and travel) over and above the need for accessibility (the ability to get somewhere or access certain services). This is an area in which sociologists have been making valuable contributions, particularly in terms of the image of the car as an icon and the sociability of travel (Urry, 2006). There is a need for systematic research into the factors that make walking, cycling and travel by motorised modes (as driver or passenger) enjoyable. This may be extended to address the human factors involved in the desirability of owning and/or using novel modes of transport. More research is also needed on the extent to which people who prefer to use particular modes will choose living and working locations whose infrastructure supply matches these travel demands. This in turn is related to the ways in which information provision might influence spatial issues in terms of lifestyle choices (Anable, 2005). Research into the psychological factors surrounding decisions as to where to work and live and the ways in which information systems might influence these and assist the evolution of a more sustainable community might be valuable. The above agenda implies that land-use transport research should keep abreast of the latest findings from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, behavioural studies and other social sciences. These issues are central to the new agenda that has been set within the EU and reflected in the 7th FP with respect to Socio-economic sciences and humanities objective but interpreted within the context of transport and cities.

17.3.3 Technical Performance This research concerns the technical operation and impacts of the transport and land-use system, and this again relates closely to the transport objective in the 7th FP. This is to do with understanding vehicle technology and performance, how vehicles interact with infrastructure and their effects on different users and non-users.

17.3.3.1 Technology and Environmental Performance More research is needed to understand the generation and the impacts of some atmo spheric pollutants by transport. While the emission rates for most pollutants are now well understood (COMEAP, 2001), their subsequent impact depends on the complexity of dispersion as affected by built form and meteorology, and the dose–response rela tionships for humans and other life forms (RCEP, 1997). For some pollutants and, in particular, fine particulates (below 2�5 �m diameter) it is difficult to suggest emission thresholds below which the health impacts are acceptable. As an extension of this, research is required to investigate the cumulative dose–response impacts of the simulta neous combination of all pollutants arising from transport. There is a need for quantification and assessment of indirect or secondary effects of noise, not just impacts on hearing, but on annoyance, interference with communication, performance by school children, effects on sleep and ischemic heart disease. Research in Germany suggests that the health impacts of excessive noise may be much higher than previously thought (Schade, 2003).

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17.3.3.2 Global Warming There is now an intensive international research programme on the nature and generation of greenhouse gases and their possible climatic, environmental, ecological and economic impacts (Haughton, 2004). Transport already accounts for over a quarter of such emis sions and its impact is expected to grow (IPCC, 2001). There will thus be increased pressure to seek both technological and behavioural solutions. The transport research community thus needs to maintain close links with this wider research arena, so that the implications of the science can be interpreted with respect to the necessary changes required in the development of transport and city planning.

17.3.3.3 New Vehicle Technologies Improved vehicle technologies have already contributed significant reductions in atmo spheric and noise emissions, as well as in the number and severity of accidents (e.g. EU CARS-21, 2005). Research into new technologies for vehicular propulsion, such as elec tric, fuel cell and hybrid vehicles has attracted increasing interest (e.g. the EU CUTE, ECTOS and Sustainable Energy and Transport Programmes; http://www.fuel-cell-bus club.com/index.php), and it will be important for land-use and transport planners to understand their potential. However, the evidence to date suggests that these technolo gies will not on their own achieve the demanding targets for reduction of CO2 emissions, and that major behavioural change will also be needed (Banister and Hickman, 2006; Tight et al., 2005).

17.3.3.4 Novel Modes While new technologies may be applied to adapt existing modes (e.g. a conventional car adapted to run on a new fuel), some technological innovations imply the emergence of new modes. A sister programme to LUTR, NetMobil (http://www.netmobil.org) has identified the leading contenders, including personal rapid transit and the cybercar, and indicated their potential development trajectories. Further research is being commis sioned to undertake full-scale trials of a range of these concepts. However, research needs to address not only technical performance but also the performance of the transport infrastructure when these modes are added (including mixing or separation of modes); performance of transport interchanges and user interfaces (including information sys tems); behavioural response and relationships between these new transport modes and their infrastructures, and urban form and structure. The above agenda implies that land-use transport research should keep abreast of the latest findings from disciplines such as mechanical engineering, traffic engineering, high way engineering and environmental sciences. All these issues have been highlighted in the description of the sustainable surface transport theme in FP7, covering the greening of surface transport, modal shift, urban mobility and safety, as previously noted.

17.3.4 Land Use–Transport Relationships This research concerns the dynamic behaviour and performance of the land-use and transport system as a whole and in its various parts. It concerns specifically the concep tual and practical relationships between the four basic components below, and it tends

382 D. Banister et al. to operate at the interface between the two objectives of FP7, rather than just being located in one: 1. Land use – that is, activities taking place in particular localities, 2. Physical form of buildings, public spaces and urban areas – that is, the “containers” of the human activities that constitute land uses, 3. Travel – that is, mobile activities, for getting from an origin to destination and 4. Physical form of transport routes, networks and infrastructure.

17.3.4.1 Urban Policies While the SCATTER project has reviewed evidence on the causes and impacts of urban sprawl (Chapter 9), there remains a lack of reliable empirical evidence to support the arguments made either for or against sprawl. Urban sprawl has negative impacts in general, but there are some interesting exceptions, such as “canalising” urban sprawl to secondary spatial concentrations along public transportation lines. The effects of antisprawl policies need more research, and this conclusion was strongly reinforced at the recent ECMT (European Conference of Ministers of Transport) Round Table on this topic (Banister, 2006; Deakin, 2006; Duranton, 2006; Kahn, 2006). Several LUTR projects have illustrated the dominant role of transport pricing policies on the performance of the transport system (Chapters 8 and 15) but there has as yet been only limited study of counterpart policies, which would change the way in which land use is charged. More research is needed to specify an appropriate set of land-use charging regimes and to understand their impacts on land use and their effects on travel.

17.3.4.2 Land Use–Transport Interactions There should be more research on the economic impact of accessibility on location, (e.g. the impact of high-speed rail stations on the prosperity of offices) and on the links between the quality of the transport infrastructure and property prices or land values. More detailed understanding of micro-scale land-use and transport interactions may be useful, for example, the influence of local environmental and urban design features on travel and influences on very short trips.

17.3.4.3 Influence of Infrastructure and Travel The effects of infrastructure provision on travel generation are not well understood (Banister and Berechman, 2000). While some evidence has been collected on road travel, there is neither a systematic understanding of the effects of provision of pedestrian and cycle infrastructure on travel nor a systematic understanding of the effect of road infras tructure provision on public transport service provision. The SACTRA report (1999) is still the benchmark analysis of the effects of transport on the economy, suggesting that transport investment alone is not a sufficient condition for economic growth. But much more detailed micro-level analysis, including investigation of causality, the scale and direction of impacts and time-based analysis, is needed.

A Research Agenda 383

17.4 CONCLUSIONS In this chapter the research agenda arising out of the previous contributions has been related to the changing policy environment within the EU. The policy agenda has changed and this means that the EU research agenda must also change. The proposals for addi tional research presented here are linked in with the new EU policy directions. This research concerns how to use the knowledge gained from research to help formulate policy objectives and strategies for the benefit of society collectively. In other words it seeks knowledge not so much about the world as it is, but on the world as it could or should be organised. This necessarily takes account of human needs, collectively, and in terms of long-term quality of life. Knowledge about political formulation here relates to the kinds of knowledge used not only by politicians but by professional and technical staff working on their behalf, and to some extent, the public insofar as they are involved in the policy-making process. The sustainability paradigm may serve not only as a means of organising evaluation of possible benefits and disbenefits of policy outcomes but also as a means of airing different facets of societal aspiration in the first place. To date, perhaps, the sustainability paradigm has been mostly a concern of the research, professional and to some extent political communities (the language of transport and planning policy often being couched in terms of sustainability). However, in order to more fully engage the public, perhaps a clearer and more tangible expression of sustainability concepts – or the key social, economic and environmental impacts that they relate to – will be required, in order to effectively generate and then resolve the necessary debates about the policy alternatives and their consequences for the City of Tomorrow. Two other issues are raised here. The researcher’s job is not completed with the end of the research itself but with the responsibility to communicate and disseminate that knowledge. This includes the specific mechanisms used in the research itself, for example, the conceptual models and paradigms used, the data collection and analytic techniques, and the communication to different end users. It also relates to the involvement of and communication with the research community in its widest sense, including academic researchers and professionals from the public, private and voluntary sectors. There is too little easily accessible information for decision-makers on appropriate indi cators with respect to approximately how much effort must be put into collecting the relevant data to make the indicator useful. There is a need for better definition and description of different settlement or land-use patterns to assist the testing of the influ ence of these factors, and hence better prescription of these in planning policies. For example, there is not yet a clear (unambiguous) and consistent use of urban form and land-use pattern descriptors (Marshall, 2005). There are gaps concerning reporting of research on management to prioritise different uses and users groups, and to assess the effects. Methods need to be devised to help technical staff get better access to research results. Methods need to be improved to inform politicians about the results of research.

384 D. Banister et al. The second issue is the growing need for public participation and their involvement through out the decision-making process. That public participation needs to involve more than simply providing the public with information or inviting comments (Chapter 4). Particular challenges include the involvement of those who are often socially excluded from active participation and those simply travelling through the area in question, all of which have an interest in the policies adopted (Chapter 10). More generally, greater effort is needed to encourage participation in broad strategy as well as detailed implementation. Work in other sectors has effectively applied GIS-based techniques to these ends (Batty, 2005). Research is required on how the techniques used in plan-led transport strategy develop ment processes (e.g. modelling, appraisal, mathematical optimisation) can be used in an overall framework dedicated to encouraging participatory democracy by stakeholders. Apart from the responsibility to communicate the results of research to decision-makers and stakeholders at all levels, and to engage fully in public participation as an active and empowering process, it is necessary to provide new tools for analysis and to encourage the adoption of best practice. While there has been a substantial growth in the range of policy instruments available to urban planners and decision-makers, many cities fail to adopt innovative approaches that take full advantage of them. A range of option generation, at both the strategy and scheme level, is available in other sectors of public policy (Kocak et al., 2005). These need to be tested in the transport sector to provide improved means of developing, expressing and evaluating alternative policies in a systematic and transparent way. Some land-use and transportation models are not sufficiently well known or used, and barriers to their use include skills shortages, lack of trust and limited input and output facilities (Shepherd et al., 2006). Further work is needed to improve their ability to reflect the full range of policy instruments, and to facilitate interactive decision-making. In particular, the relevance of land-use and transportation modelling outputs is still often hampered by an insufficient understanding of the underlying behavioural and structural mechanisms involved. Further development is needed in the range of types of predictive model and the interactions between them, so that cities are better able to use appropriate tools to answer questions at different levels of detail. Financial constraints and political considerations often hinder implementation that might otherwise proceed successfully. Much of the LUTR research has focused on the nature of these barriers and on ways of overcoming them (Chapter 4 and 15). However, there remains a lack of empirical evidence on how best to overcome these barriers, and on how transferable such experience is. An important requirement in implementation research is thus the accessible and detailed documentation of good practice case studies – as well as potential problem areas – to facilitate learning from experience. Much research is interdisciplinary and at the interfaces between the topics and activities outlined in this chapter, and to a great extent the boundaries identified are artificial. Research activity should “read across” from one to another, in order to be able to draw robust conclusions. For example, research into new modes of transport should address not just the technological aspects of vehicles and infrastructure but also the human

A Research Agenda 385 factors associated with uptake of new technology. Land use and transport research should therefore draw from the knowledge of a breadth of disciplines, including but not limited to behavioural science, economics, geography, engineering, technology and environmental science, and to identify the significant linkages between them. Regarding the issue of generation and transmission of knowledge, there would appear to be merit in closer communications between parallel research teams, and pooling of their research findings, allowing gaps and inconsistencies to be identified and corrected, and allowing standardisation of terms where appropriate and a common understanding of the key results. There needs to be a new openness in the sharing of ideas, tools and good practice. The new priorities for transport policy within the EU have helped redefine the agenda, and this has been reflected in the 7th FP RTD documents. The EU seems to have retrenched towards the economic imperatives of growth, rather than the environmental and social concerns highlighted in the 2001 White Paper (CEC, 2001). There also seems to be a strong push on technological innovation and the potentially huge benefits that this can bring to society as a whole. But the implications for transport are profound as innovation in the past has led to more demand for transport. This means that with the expected growth in incomes, the use of technology and leisure time, the demand for transport in the EU will increase at a greater rate than the levels of technological innovation in transport. To achieve environmental and social objectives in transport requires additional behavioural change of a substantial scale to reduce trip lengths and the reliance on energy intensive forms of transport (Banister and Hickman, 2006; Tight et al., 2005). This is where the interface between land use and transport remains crucial.

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386 D. Banister et al. Commission of the European Communities (CEC) (2006b). Amended proposal for a decision of the European Parliament and Council concerning the 7th Framework Programme of the European Community for research, technological development and demonstration activities (2007–2013), COM(2006) 364 Final, Brussels, 28 June 2006. Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants (COMEAP) (2001). Report on long-term effects of particles on mortality, London, May. Deakin, E. (2006). Transportation, urban form and economic growth. Paper presented at the ECMT Regional Round Table 137, Berkeley, March. Duranton, G. (2006). The insatiable demand for land: Urban change and land (re-) develop ment. Paper presented at the ECMT Regional Round Table 137, Berkeley, March. EU CARS-21 (2005). Competitive automobile regulatory system for the 21st century, Final Report from the expert committee to the EU, Available at http://www rocq.inria.fr/imara/rapport/cars21finalreport.pdf#search=%22EU%20CARS-21%20 programme%22. Houghton, J. (2004). Global Warming: The Complete Briefing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. IPCC (2001). Climate Change: The Scientific Basis, Oxford: Oxford University Press (Inter national Panel for Climate Change, Available at http://www.ipcc.ch). Kahn, M. (2006). The quality of life in sprawled versus compact cities. Paper presented at the ECMT Regional Round Table 137, Berkeley, March. Kocak, N. A., Jones, P. and Whibley, D. (2005). Tools for road user charging (RUC) scheme option generation, Transport Policy 12 (5), 391–405. Marshall, S. (2005). Streets and Patterns, London: Spon. McKinnon, A. (2007). The decoupling of road freight transport and economic growth trends in the UK: An exploratory analysis, Transport Reviews 27 (1), 37–64. Mokhtarian, P. (2003). Telecommunications and travel. The Case for Complementarity. Journal of Industrial Ecology 6 (2), 43–57. Mokhtarian, P. and Salomon, I. (2001). How derived is the demand for travel? Some con ceptual and measurement considerations. Transportation Research A 35, 685–719. Pfaffenbichler, P. and Shepherd, S. P. (2003). A dynamic model to appraise strategic land-use and transport policies. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research 2(3/4), 255–283. Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP) (1997). Transport and the Environment – Developments since 1994, Twentieth Report of the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, Cm 3752, September, London: The Stationery Office. SACTRA (Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment) (1999). Transport and the Economy. London: The Stationery Office. Schade, W. (2003). Transport noise: a challenge for sustainable mobility, International Social Science Journal 55 (2), 279–294. Shepherd, S. P., Zhang, X., Emberger, G., May, A. D., Hudson, M. and Paulley, N. (2006). Designing optimal urban transport strategies: The role of individual policy instruments and the impact of financial constraints. Transport Policy 13 (1), 49–65. Tight, M., Bristow, A. L., Pridmore, A. and May, A. D. (2005). What is a sustainable level of CO2 emissions from transport activity in the UK in 2050? Transport Policy, 12 (3), 235–244. Urry, J. (2006). The sociabilities of travel. Keynote paper presented to the 11th International Conference on Travel Behaviour Research, Kyoto, Japan, August.

Index Aalborg, 14, 37, 45–7, 58, 206 ABC-type policy, A-location, B-location, C-location, 54–5, 192 Accessibility: definition, 301 public transport, 11, 38–40, 65, 209 Accidents, 34, 166, 270, 302 Actors, stakeholders, 13, 60, 62, 64, 65–7, 70, 261, 263, 283, 284, 339, 342, 346, 352–3, 367–8, 374, 386 Air transport, 379 Amsterdam, 37, 58, 59, 61–2, 67–68 Appraisal, 27, 49, 140, 339, 360, 370 see also Assessment, Evaluation Arterial street, 3, 15, 280 ARTISTS, 15, 20, 24, 27, 283, 289 ASI, 15, 27, 219, 227 Assessment, 3, 95, 96, 161, 196, 203, 223 see also Appraisal, Evaluation Astute project, 105 Athens, 14, 317–18 Australia, 105, 113 Authorities: city authorities, 138, 139, 143, 247, 270, 281, 282, 339 city and regional authorities, 374 local authorities, 61, 106, 141, 144, 146, 171, 179, 246, 255, 266, 272, 335, 338, 343 public authorities, 62, 249, 263, 266, 268–9, 271, 272, 292 Bad Ischl, 88, 222 Barcelona, 14, 37, 59, 92 Barriers, 7, 12, 27, 69, 77, 112–13, 139, 223–6, 338, 350–2, 386 Behaviour, 24, 109–11, 145–7, 381 Behavioural measures, 24, 145–7, 355 Benchmarking, 16, 241, 369, 376 Benefits, 11, 74–86, 108, 109, 272 Best practice, good practice, 2, 37, 106, 109, 114, 246, 269, 299, 386 Bicycle race, 131 Bicycles, cycles, cycling, 34, 43, 45, 46, 54, 65, 78, 106, 110, 113, 114–16, 118–19, 120, 121, 128, 129–32

Bike Certificate, 131 Bike to Work Day, 115 Bilbao, 37, 58–9, 160, 165–8 Bogotá, 112 Bologna 317, 319 Bordeaux 246, 250–251, 260, 262–266 Brescia 37, 59 Bristol 37, 50–51, 57–60, 177 Brno, 223 Brussels, 14, 37, 59, 160, 163, 165–8, 177–80, 186–205, 209–13, 246–52, 255–9, 317–20 Brussels case study, 180, 202, 203, 208 description of the Brussels metropolitan area, 180, 211 Brussels Regional Express Railway Network, 180, 210–13 Buddy groups, 131 Budget, 117, 166, 223, 263, 370, 372 Bus, 38–9, 41, 50, 51, 77, 134–5, 144, 292, 349, 353 Businesses, 79, 86, 142, 145–7, 149, 220, 252, 263, 290 Bypad project, 105 Campaign, 50, 120, 122, 130 Car restricted development, 53–4, 142 Car, private car, 34, 46, 47, 52–4, 55, 68, 69, 102, 110, 139, 170, 177, 178, 186, 199–200, 203, 271 Carbon (CO2), 71, 79, 97, 153, 169–70, 178, 194, 196, 203, 329, 360, 383 Children, 77, 83, 116, 310 Cities of Tomorrow, 2, 3, 4, 13, 172, 218, 219, 247, 288, 377 Citizens participation, 86 City centre, 9, 34, 47, 50, 55–6, 64, 134–5, 141, 144, 145, 252, 254 CITYFREIGHT, 15, 24, 27, 247, 261, 263 Cologne, 14, 37, 58–9 Co-modality, 378, 379 Commuter, work trip, 194, 200, 205 Compact cities, 9, 45, 46, 61, 179 Congestion, 21, 24, 30, 33, 143, 146, 166, 170, 205, 215, 263, 268, 373, 281, 315–16, 328–9, 371

388 Index Copenhagen, 106 Cost-effective, 107, 141, 148, 247 Cost, travel cost, cost of travel, 11, 13, 78, 201, 215, 370–1, 372, 381 see also Pricing Costs and benefits, 11, 160 cost benefit analysis (CBA), 27, 140, 149, 160, 172, 317, 320, 360 Course, 127, 129 Croydon, 37, 58–9 Culture, cultural heritage, 7, 20, 75, 116, 165, 226, 273, 346 Cycling, 2, 34, 52, 59, 107, 108, 109, 114, 117, 126, 144 Decision guidance, 286, 291, 352–9, 360, 361 Decision-makers, 98, 140, 219, 225, 240, 261, 273, 311, 344–5, 374, 385–6 Decision-making, 15, 62, 98, 139–40 Urban transport: approaches to, 341–2 guide lines, 354–7 participation, 345 planning horizon, 344 responsibilities, 342–3 Decision-support tool, 153, 344–5 see also Tools Demonstration projects, 16, 375, 376 Density, 46, 72, 73, 80–1, 178, 299–300, 371–2 Design, 13, 16, 131, 217–41, 269 DG Research, 14, 106 Disabled people, 233–4, 299 Dortmund, 158, 160, 165–8 Dresden, 14, 37, 58–9, 62–4 Dublin, 14, 103 E-commerce, e-shopping, teleshopping, 33, 257, 380 Ecological model settlements, 87–94 Economic considerations: economic impacts, 15 economic problems, 21 Economics: economic growth, 20, 185, 347–9, 353, 377, 378, 384 economic viability, 7, 290–1 ECOCITY, 15, 24, 25, 27, 72, 73–86, 95, 98 Edinburgh, 335, 352, 355, 357–9 Education, 81, 115, 128, 220 Education campaign, 115

Emissions, 30, 79, 170, 261, 383 Employers, 113, 120 Employment, 51–2, 137, 200–201, 348, 379 End user cities, 2, 16 Environment modelling, 154–6 Environmental considerations: impacts, 20, 28–30, 73, 156, 248, 325, 367, 378 problems, 20 software for assessing effects, 126, 315–3 Environmental quality, 165, 172, 218, 227, 378 Equity, 9, 21, 73 European Commission (EC), 2, 13, 105, 218, 337, 347, 354, 357 European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT), 199, 337–8, 384 European Union (EU), 2, 71–2, 105, 133, 137, 139, 145–6, 153, 178, 221, 274, 339, 344, 374, 377–83 Evaluation, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 52, 54, 57, 173, 194, 229, 292 see also Appraisal, assessment Evora 37, 59 Exercise, 106, 112, 287 External costs, 142, 178, 215 Finance, financial, 3, 8, 45, 49, 52, 54, 62, 118, 145, 172, 350–2, 353, 374, 386 Fiscal measures: offices, 200 residential developements, 191, 199–200 Forecasting, 25, 27, 140, 154 Freight, 25, 34, 135–6, 245–7, 250–1, 261, 269–74 see also Freight vehicles, logistics Freight vehicles, delivery vehicles, goods vehicles, 34, 136, 138, 139, 245, 251, 254, 270 Futuresville, 133–5, 137–8, 140–4, 146–7, 149 Genova, 246, 260, 262–6 Ghent, 58–9, 64–5 Global warming, 140, 383 Goods distribution, 80, 261 Graz, 317, 321–3 Grenoble, 317, 323–4 Green vehicles, clean vehicles, electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, novel vehicles, novel modes, innovative modes,

Index 389 innovative vehicle technologies, 25, 34, 110, 254, 273, 274, 383 Groningen, 37, 58–9, 219 Guidance: policy guidance, 182 see also Decision guidance Gyoer, 89 Health: benefits, 106, 107, 108 care, 107, 137, 222 effects, 111, 316, 331, 333–4 Health-enhancing, 110, 114 Helsingborg 123–4 Helsinki 37, 58–9, 123, 157, 160, 163, 165–168, 173–4, 177, 180–4, 186–97, 202–205, 246, 257, 296 Helsinki case study, 175, 182 description of the Helsinki study area, 182 Helsinki Transport Master Plan, 186 Holistic approach, 288–91 Human aspects, human behaviour, human psychology, 155, 380, 381–2 Impacts, 30, 137, 140, 142, 270, 317, 318, 320 Indicators, sustainability, 160, 164, 170, 289–91, 292 Infrastructure, transport, 7, 10, 12, 24–5, 33, 65, 83, 97, 114–15, 351–2, 369, 383, 384 Inner city redevelopment, 30 Institutional and financial framework, 374 Integrated land use and transport measures, 15, 37–70, 371–3 Integrated software, 15 Integrated urban policies, 155, 279, 316 Integration, integrated policies or strategies, holistic, co-ordinated policies, 2, 16, 37, 43, 48, 62, 69, 139, 171, 315, 320, 374, 376, 379 Intermodality, 201, 298, 300, 301–303 Internalisation of external costs see External costs Internet, 66, 122, 140, 148, 161, 219, 226 Intervention, 110, 114 Inverness, 160, 165–8 ISHTAR, 15, 24, 27, 315, 316, 321, 335 Japan, 354 KonSULT, 14, 357, 360–1, 362

Land use: and transport interactions, 359, 375, 384 modelling, 156, 187, 345 patterns, 136–7, 370, 385 policies, 13, 163, 171, 190, 370, 374 Land-use/transport models, 187 Brussels land-use/transport model, 187 Helsinki land-use/transport model, 188 theoretical concepts, 188 Land use–transport modelling, 173, 317 Land value, 3, 11–12, 384 La Rochelle, 246, 248, 252–3, 260, 262–6 Leisure, 136, 387 Light rail, 38–9, 63, 83, 94, 179 Link-function, 289 Lisbon, 37, 58–9 Location, location choice, 11–12, 30, 33, 54–5, 80–1, 99, 188, 282, 292, 299–300, 348, 360, 371 Logistics, 248–9, 252, 256, 260, 266, 270, 272, 378 see also Freight London 115, 127 see also Croydon LUTR Projects: ARTISTS, 15, 20, 24, 27, 283, 289 ASI, 15, 27, 219, 227 CITYFREIGHT, 15, 24, 27, 247, 261, 263 ECOCITY, 15, 24, 25, 27, 72, 73–86, 95, 98 ISHTAR, 15, 24, 27, 315, 316, 321, 335 PLUME, 14, 15 PROMPT, 15, 24, 301, 312 PROPOLIS, 15, 20, 21, 24, 27, 156, 158, 162, 360 PROSPECTS, 16, 21, 24, 25, 27, 338, 353 SCATTER, 16, 21, 24, 27, 179, 205, 384 SUTRA, 16, 24, 27 TRANSPLUS, 16, 24, 25, 27, 60, 65 VELOINFO, 16, 24, 25 Land Use and Transport Research (LUTR), 2–4, 13–16, 19, 20, 34, 72, 105–106, 133, 224–5, 337, 367, 371, 374, 380, 384, 387 Madrid, 335, 352, 355, 357, 359 Malaga, 246, 250, 252, 260, 262–6 Management, 33, 51, 56 Managing, 105, 279, 320 Measures see Policies

390 Index MEPLAN, 188 Merseyside, 14, 37, 50–2, 58–9 Metro, light rail, tram, tramway, rapid transit, 34, 38–9, 40, 41, 43, 63, 65, 83, 135, 140–2, 144, 147, 149, 252 Mexico, 105 Mixed use/mixed use development, 45–7, 102, 137, 141, 171, 368, 370 Milan, 177, 246 Modena, 222, 296 Mobility, 2, 43, 154, 202, 383 Mobility policies, 15, 39, 40 Modal shift, 38, 106, 177, 196, 203, 205, 214, 269, 377, 378, 379 Modal split, Modal share, 49, 52, 97, 135, 137, 160, 194, 205, 231, 257, 271, 362, 371, 377 Mode, 34, 46, 371, 383 see also Individual modes – bus, car, etc Mode choice, 50, 64, 139, 219, 371 Models: modeling, 154–6, 187–9, 316–17 predictive models, 359, 381, 386 suite, 334, 335 Modes, transport modes see Individual modes – bus, car, etc. Motorised, 42, 45, 47, 50, 56, 101, 312 Multi criteria analysis (MCA), 27, 317, 320 Münster, 37, 43–5, 58–9 Nantes, 37, 59, 296 Naples, 14, 160, 163, 165–8 National governments, 51, 115, 139, 337, 344, 375 Network, transport network, road network, street network, 10, 11, 28, 39, 41, 52, 141, 144, 149, 158, 180–2, 280 Networking, 16, 70, 376 Norway, 296, 335–7 Objectives: ECOCITY, 74–86, 95 for integrated, 346–7 LUTR, 15 PLUME, 14 PROSPECTS, 352 Objectives, policy objectives, 97, 102, 349, 360, 361, 378, 385 Odense, 127n Orbital/orbital travel/orbital road, 190, 196, 214

Orléans, 37–40, 58–9 Oslo, 335, 352, 355, 357–9 Out-of-town, 135–6, 137, 142, 271, 370, 371 Paris, 252, 317, 324–6 Parking, 33, 43, 54–7, 83, 142–3, 200, 201, 349, 353, 368 Pedestrians, 33, 34, 43, 45, 47, 48, 50, 53, 55, 57, 75, 79, 80, 83, 134, 136, 138, 144–5, 235, 297–303, 312, 369, 370, 384 environment, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 301, 312

problems, 15

solutions, 15, 304

People-oriented, 289, 291–2 Physical activity, 78, 106, 107, 108, 109–14 Place-function, 289, 290 Planners, land use planners, 140–4 see also Professions Planning processes, 44, 65, 72, 86–7, 95, 171, 295, 348, 367, 368 Planning tool, 48, 86, 334 PLUME, 14, 15 Preston, 246, 248, 260, 262–6 Policy(ies): assessment, 196, 203, 315–36, 369, 370 assessment of accompanying policies to public transport investments, 190, 194–9 with regard to car mileage reduction, 170, 203 with regard to urban concentration, 196–9 car pricing policies, 153, 165, 170 combination of policies, 27, 153, 158, 162, 166–70, 172, 205 conclusions, 367–72 effects on QoL, 227–35, 237, 240, 241 fiscal policies, 215 information measures, 24, 148 infrastructure management, 24, 33 infrastructure provision, 24, 33, 384 innovative modes, 25, 34 instruments, 1, 70, 247, 261, 339, 349–50, 353, 359 integration, 2, 16, 62, 70, 171, 376 integrated strategies, 25, 34, 60, 171, 205, 373 land use, 13, 33, 166, 171, 190, 203, 205, 219, 221, 368, 370–2 planning measures, 21 parking policies, 55, 175, 200

Index 391 policies simulated in SCATTER, 24, 210, 384 pricing measures, 24, 199, 352 public transport, 24, 33, 38, 65, 170, 190 testing, 162, 165 transport, 1, 12–13, 34, 62, 69, 140, 155, 166, 170, 203, 221, 226–7, 337–9, 370–2, 378 transport pricing policies, 368 travel demand management, 24, 33, 145 urban freight transport measures, 25, 34, 246, 270

vehicle technology measures, 25

walking and cycling measures, 25

Policy-making, 12, 62, 224, 370, 377, 385 Politicians, 16, 67, 98, 219, 225, 354, 376 Pollution, 13, 34, 109, 138 Polycentric, polycentricity, 9, 40, 41, 61, 72, 75, 76, 80, 179 Pool of bicycles, 132 Population Exposure, 320 Pricing: congestion charging, 143 road pricing, 24, 33, 173, 199, 214, 349, 353, 368 Problems: economic problems, 20, 21, 30 environmental problems, 20, 102 social problems, 20 Processes: financing, 27 institutional issues, 27 public participation, 27, 282 setting targets, 25 strategy appraisal, 27, 140 strategy development, 27, 28, 358 strategy impacts forecasting, 140 strategy implementation, 27 Professions: land use and transport, 292–3 Promotion, 9, 63, 114–22, 295–312 Promotion of walking, 279, 295–312 PROMPT, 15, 24, 301, 312 PROPOLIS, 15, 20, 21, 24, 27, 156, 158, 162, 360 PROSPECTS, 16, 21, 24, 25, 27, 338, 353 Psychology, 300, 382 psychological factors, 382 Public health, 8, 105–22 promote cycling, 105–21

Public participation, 27, 140, 282–5, 386 citizen participation, 49, 66–7, 69 stakeholder participation, 281–3, 374 Public transport (PT), 8–9, 24, 33–4, 38–41, 43, 45, 46, 65, 80–1, 83, 98–9, 135, 138, 141–2 Public transport accessibility, 38, 43, 58, 65 Quality of life (QoL), 3, 7–8, 73, 74, 82, 100, 101–102, 105, 148, 217–41, 315–16, 368–9, 379 Radial, radial road, radial street, radial travel, 134, 178, 166, 179, 200 Rail/railway, 9, 12, 30, 33, 38–9, 40, 43–5, 64–5, 135–6, 143, 180 Recommendations, 210, 269–75 Redesign, 15, 283 Reduced mobility, 105 Regions/regional, 46, 53, 60, 62–4, 80–1, 83, 98, 110, 136, 139, 158, 166, 172, 177, 180, 182, 183, 188, 193, 200, 201, 205, 207, 208–209, 250–1, 266, 321, 328, 343, 344, 369, 374 Rental, 130 Research: cycling promotion, 115–16 transport planning, 13–16, 380–4 Residential/housing, 8–9, 46, 51–2, 295, 368 Retail, 136–7, 145, 149, 178, 258, 271, 272, 371–2 see also Shopping Road infrastructure, 221, 371, 384 see also Streets Road safety, 105, 109, 126, 317 see also Security Rome, 14, 37, 58–9, 317, 326–9 Safety, 50, 52–3, 117, 125–6, 135, 220, 222, 231, 237, 289–90, 298, 300, 302 SCATTER, 16, 21, 24, 27, 179, 205, 384 Scenarios: accompanying policies, 190–1 Brussels, 201–203 public transport investment, 190 School, 46, 77, 110, 111, 115–16, 120, 131, 143, 348 Security, 135, 148, 290, 298, 301, 302 see also Safety

392 Index Shopping: out of town shopping centres, 370, 371 shopping centres, 46, 82, 178, 271, 370, 371 Social considerations: social impacts, 140, 316 social problems, 20 Software, assessing environmental effects of policies, 315–23 Solutions, 72–4, 82, 87, 97, 101, 107–108, 138, 149, 161, 172, 254, 261, 266, 268–70, 272–3, 285–6, 296, 299, 302–303, 310–311, 369 Speed, traffic speed, travel speed, 115, 143, 186, 194, 235 Spicycles project, 105 Stakeholder, 283, 284 Standard, 41, 43, 68, 87, 101, 129, 270, 353, 361 Stockholm, 14, 335 Strasbourg, 246, 248, 252, 260, 262–6 Strategy: appraisal, 27, 37–70 freight distribution, 250–1 implementation, 27 integrated, 153–7, 373 transport, 24, 371 urban, 153, 156, 170 see also Policies Street classification, 285–8, 292–3 see also Roads Street-space, 283, 284 Suburbs, suburban, 8–9, 30, 62, 133–4, 137, 143, 166, 177, 178, 180, 182, 194, 196, 199, 201, 205, 209, 258, 281, 300, 312, 368, 370 Sustainability: economic, 149, 164, 290–1 environmental, 20, 153, 165, 290, 291 indicators, 146, 160, 164, 170, 289–91, 292 social, 153, 173, 289, 290 Sustainable transport, 13–14, 52, 71–101, 243 SUTRA, 16, 24, 27 Switzerland, 296, 335–7 Synergies, 13, 34, 37, 166–70, 172, 355, 368, 372 Tampere, 90, 246, 250 Tax, taxation, land use tax, development tax, 142, 147, 149, 368

Teleworking, 33, 380 The Hague 14, 55, 246, 253–6 Themes: economic problems, 19

environmental problems,

19, 20

financing, 20, 27

information measures, 24

infrastructure management, 19, 33

infrastructure provision, 19, 24,

25, 33 innovative modes, 25, 34 institutional issues, 20, 27 integrated strategies, 25, 34 land use planning measures, 19 pricing measures, 24 public participation, 27, 282–3 public transport, 19, 24, 33, 38 setting targets, 20, 25 social problems, 19 strategy appraisal, 27 strategy development, 25, 27 strategy impacts forecasting, 140 strategy implementation, 27 travel demand management, 20, 24 urban freight transport measures, 20, 25, 34 vehicle technology measures, 20, 25 walking and cycling measures, 20, 25 Tilburg, 127 Time: travel time savings, 196 travel time, 170, 179, 196, 201, 231, 370–1, 381 value of time, 189 Tools: Toolbox, 219, 221, 223, 225–6, 238–9, 240–1, 318 Toolkit, 106 Tourism, 51, 62, 145–6 Traffic model, 318, 329, 330, 334 Training, 107, 127–30 Transferability, 70, 367 Transit-oriented development, 76 TRANSPLUS, 16, 24, 25, 27, 60, 65 Transport and land use: costs and benefits, 11 human activites and purposes, 10–11 infrastructure and land area, 12 land value, 11–12

Index 393 network model, 11 policy dimension, 12–13 professional dimension, 12 Transport modelling, 173, 317 Transport planning, 1–3, 12, 149 Transport policies, 2, 34, 62, 69, 105, 153, 155, 166, 170, 171, 203, 226–7, 370–1, 372, 373, 377, 387 TRANUS, 158, 188 Travel demand, 145, 166, 171, 368, 370, 382 Travel demand management, 24, 33, 34 Trends: political and economic, 381 social and demographic, 381 Trips, 30, 34, 46, 47, 48, 52, 83, 101, 108, 113–15, 136, 142, 147, 148, 154, 166, 167, 169, 170, 178, 186, 187, 188, 203, 296, 301, 368, 370–1 Tübingen, 37, 47–9, 55–6, 59, 68, 91 Umbertide, 91–2, 229–35 United States, 8–9, 38, 77n, 113, 176n, 197, 279 Urban design, 33, 38, 50, 51, 86, 138, 217–41 Urban efficiency, 106 Urban form, 8, 9, 61, 178, 380, 383, 385 Urban pattern, 72–4 Urban space, public, 295–6

Urban sprawl, 3, 8, 33, 40, 72, 99, 135, 137, 166, 177–9, 180, 185, 199, 201, 209, 302, 370, 384 definition of, 177–8 negative effects of, 178, 272 positive effects of, 179 transport system generating sprawl, 380, 384 Urban sustainability, 171, 368 Vaasa, 246, 254, 260, 262–6 Valladolid, 246, 254, 260, 262–6 Vehicles emissions, 317 Velo-City, 105 VELOINFO, 16, 24, 25, 106 Vicenza, 160, 165–8, 246 Vienna, 14, 37, 40–3, 53–4, 56–9, 65–8, 335, 352, 355, 357–9 Vision of ECOCITY, 74–5, 87, 97, 101 WALCYNG, 297, 301 Walking, 144–5, 295–312 Walking strategies, 50 Work, 2, 7, 10, 13, 28, 86, 115–16, 118, 121–2, 127, 139, 142, 146, 148, 158, 166, 170, 171, 186, 239, 240, 247, 283, 335, 359, 371, 372, 380, 386 World Health Organisation (WHO), 107–108, 109, 111, 231, 320 Young people, 106–107, 137, 141–2

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