Klissoura Cave 1, Argolid, Greece: The Upper Palaeolithic sequence — Eurasian Prehistory 7 (2) 2010 issue 2

EURASIAN PREHISTORY vol. 7

no.2

American School of Prehistoric: Research Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Harvard University Institute of Archaeolo�JY Jagiellonian University

2010

KLISSOURA CAVE 1, ARGOLID, GREECE: THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC SEQUENCE

Eurasian Prehistory Special Issue Edited by Janusz K. Kozlowski and Mary C. Stiner

KLISSOURA CAVE 1, ARGOLID, GREECE: THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC SEQUENCE

CONTENTS 5

Introduction: history of the excavations Margarita Koumouzelis

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Geology, stratigraphy and site formation processes of the Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in K lissoura Cave l Panagiotis Karkanas

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Radiocarbon dating results for the Early Upper Paleolithic of K lissoura Cave l Steven L. Kuhn, JejfPigati, Panagiotis Karkanas, M{//garila Koumou::elis. Janusz K. Kozlowski, Maria Ntinou and M{//y C Stiner

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Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave l (Prosymna, Peloponese): the Upper Palaeolithic vegetation Maria Ntinou

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Hearths and p l ant uses during the Upper Palaeolithic period at Klissoura Cave l (Greece): the results from phytolith analyses Rosa Maria Albert

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Plant material from the Klissoura Cave l in Greece Maria Lity1iska-Zajc£c

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The birds of Klissoura Cave I: a window into the Upper Palaeolithic Greece Zbigniew M. Boche1iski and Teresa Tomek

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Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave I in Southern Greece: dietary trends and mammal taphonomy Brill M. Starkovich and Mwy C Stiner

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Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave I Malgorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Ko::lowski and Krzysztof Sobczyk

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Shell ornaments from the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic layers of Klissoura Cave I by Prosymna (Peloponese, Greece) Mwy C Stiner

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Klissoura Cave I and the Upper Paleolithic of Southern Greece in cultural and ecological context Mary C Stiner, Janusz K. Ko::lowski. Steven L. Kuhn, Panagiotis Karkanas and Mwgarila Koumouzelis Photo on the cover: K lissoura Cave I, Greece (photo. K. Sobczvk)

Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 5–14.

INTRODUCTION: HISTORY OF THE EXCAVATIONS Margarita Koumouzelis Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of Southern Greece, Ardittou 34b, 11636 Athens, Greece; [email protected]

The excavation at Klissoura was planned in 1992, as a joint-project between the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology and Speleology of the Ministry of Culture of Greece and the Institute of Archaeology of the Jagiellonian University of Kraków, Poland. Our primary goal was to investigate the circumstances under which the neolithisation of NW Peloponnese came about. For this we needed to locate a cave site with successive layers of Upper Palaeolithic–Mesolithic–Early Neolithic, so that their systematic exploration could clarify the mechanisms by which the change towards food producing societies took place, and the degree to which this modification was rooted in the previous traditions and practices of the Mesolithic and earlier forager societies. For establishing the significance of the role that the pre-Neolithic background played in the formation of the Neolithic, the Argive Plain seemed to be a promising area, since the most ancient Early Neolithic elements had been brought to light at the settlements of Dendra and Lerna. Farther to the north, initial Early Neolithic sites had been excavated at Nemea (Blegen, 1927, 1975; Wright et al., 1990) and Corinth (Weinberg, 1937; Lavezzi, 1978). Mesolithic finds were known from the Ulbrich Cave (exact location unknown), and Upper and Middle Palaeolithic have been excavated at Kephalari Cave (Reisch, 1976), near Lerna. A prerequisite for the accomplishment of our goal would be the reevaluation of the whole sequence in the network of all the Neolithic settlements in the region. The gorge of Klissoura and its caves was noted in the fall of 1992, when the geologist of the

Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology and Speleology Vassilis Giannopoulos and I undertook a very brief survey around the slopes of the mountains to the north of the Plain of Argos. Cave 1 lies at the entrance of the gorge, on the right bank of the Berbadiotis River (the ancient Asterion) at a distance of 150 m from it. It is the most conspicuous and easily accessible rock shelter. It is suitably oriented to the southwest, at a strategic point overlooking the Plain of Argos with Nauplia and the Argolid Gulf in the distance. There were many lithic artifacts visible around the edges of the rubble wall that protected the modern animal fold it housed. Many more were cemented in a layer of breccia just outside this wall. Between the cave and the river there is an orange grove, the property of Dimitris Dimas Katsaris1. Located on the eastern slopes of Mt. Euboia (modern Profitis Ilias), the rockshelter lies at a distance of 3 km NE from the Sanctuary of the Argive Heraion, which is located on the south slopes of Euboia. Further up on the same hills, Late Neolithic tombs have been excavated (Blegen, 1937). Further east, in the Plain of Argos at a distance of 5–6 km from the gorge and visible from it, lies the Mycenaean acropolis of Midea with its necropolis. At its feet, in the village of Dendra, an Early Neolithic settlement had been excavated (Protonotariou-Deilaki, 1992), which at that time was believed to represent the aceramic neolithic in the area. To the south at a distance of 8–9 km is situated the site of Lerna on the western coast of the Argolid Gulf, with its Early/Middle Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements (Caskey, 1957,

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M. Koumouzelis

1958), and the Kephalari Cave with important Palaeolithic and Middle Neolithic deposits, 2– 3 km west of Lerna and 11 km from the Klissoura Gorge. Around the area of Nauplia surveys and small scale excavations by Protonotariou-Deilaki have brought to light Palaeolithic vestiges. In the opposite direction, to the west, the gorge, which is 2.5 km long, leads to the Valley of Berbati (modern Prosymna) and through the village of Limnes to a mountain road that continues towards Corinth. Researches from the Swedish Archaeological Institute have revealed an important Early and Late Bronze settlement on the Mastos Hill (Saflund, 1965). More recently, in the years 1988–1989, this area has been explored by an Archaeological Surface Survey (Wells and Runnels, 1996) which presents the evidence of the use of the valley and the gorge from the Palaeolithic down to the Byzantine and Modern periods. From all the above, it follows that there was ample evidence about exploitation of this area in all the periods, enough to sustain our hopes for finding a site with transitional components from the Epipalaeolithic to Mesolithic and then to Neolithic. In November 1993 the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology and Speleology organized a systematic surface survey on the slopes of the mountains to the east and west of the Klissoura gorge to confirm that only the Gorge provided the cultural traces that we were looking for. The participants were the archaeologists Sissy Kontaxi and Margarita Koumouzelis, the geologist Vassilis Giannopoulos and the speleologist Lakis Kontrolozos. Indeed, archaeological finds were found in 7 caves in the gorge. To this team were then added the archaeologist Ma³gorzata Kaczanowska and the geologist Maciej Pawlikowski of Poland and the investigation was expanded in and around the gorge to include 35 caves in total. During that year some trial trenches2 in the caves 4 and 7, on the left side of the gorge, brought to light neither Neolithic nor Mesolithic layers, but strata with lithic industries produced by the microburin technique and non-geometric backed microliths of the Final Palaeolithic (Koumouzelis et al., 1996, 2004). The excavation at cave 1 by Ma³gorzata Kaczanowska, Margarita Koumouzelis, Janusz K. Koz³owski, Krzysztof Sobczyk, Marek Nowak,

Barbara Kazior and the geologist Maciej Pawlikowski began in 1994.2,3 The sediments were tested by three trenches: one, Trench A, at the interior of the rock-shelter, a second in the breccia layer outside the rubble wall, and a third further down the raised platform of the archaeological deposits, in the orange grove. In Trench A, important Mesolithic strata were found in situ, under the upper mixed layer, and provided a radiometric date of 9.150±220 BP. Trenches B and C contained mixed material of all the periods including Roman tiles. In Trench C, below the level of 1 m, some Sauveterrian elements were revealed. These two trenches were backfilled at the end of the season (Koumouzelis et al., 1996). In spite of the absence of an Early Neolithic layer with polished groundstone tools, pottery, botanical and/or zooarchaeological finds at the site (i.e. signs of a neolithic settlement), some lithic finds in cave 1 such as macroblades of “honey” flint, chips of obsidian and lithic industry techniques imply exchanges between the late foragers in the area and the Neolithic populations living on the Argive Plain. The absence of Early Neolithic is not limited to the Klissoura gorge alone. Research in the Berbati Valley has not produced but very slim evidence for an Early/Middle Neolithic settlement centrally placed in the Berbati Valley (Johnson, 1996:65; Wells and Runnels, 1996:34). Thus the transition from the Mesolithic to Neolithic remains an open question as of yet unresolved. Anthracological results (Ntinou, this issue) and the phytolith analysis (Albert, this issue) demonstrate a gradual process toward a drier climate from the beginning of the Holocene and onwards in our region. This may imply that the Berbati Valley and the Klissoura gorge were not suitable for the initiation of agriculture, due to the lack of dependable water resources. The Berbadiotis River, the ancient Asterion, is actually a seasonal stream, whose water disappears at the exit of the gorge. This situation is also reflected in the ancient local legend according to which the river Asterion, father of Prosymna, Akraia and Euboia, nurturers of the goddess Hera, was cursed by Poseidon, the rival of Hera for the supremacy over the region of Argos, to lose his waters, because he sided with of Hera. He was allowed to have some water only when the god caused rain (Pausanias

History of the excavations

cf. Papahatzis 1989:II 15.5, II 17.1-3) and thus the river flows intermittently. Only the western area of Berbati, where there are some springs, was inhabited from the Middle Neolithic times. More advanced knowledge of agricultural methods were applied in this period and rainwater agriculture could be practiced. To this day, the valley fields are irrigated by artesian wells and mostly by water coming from very deep geological drillings. In contrast, the important EN sites mentioned above (Lerna, Nemea, Corinth) are located in swampy areas or by a river or even on copious springs. The scattered Neolithic and Bronze Age material on the hills around the Berbati Valley, and in the Klissoura gorge to a lesser extent, is probably connected with pastoralism and/or small farms on marginal land. In respect to the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition our expectations were not met with success. Yet, the Mesolithic and the intriguing subsequent layers that we encountered in Trench A, presented a lot of interest and a new stratigraphic sequence that differed from that of Franchthi Cave, the only comparable site at that time (Jacobsen, 1973; Perles, 1990). In spite of the differences, Franchthi cave offered the possibility for some chronological comparisons and correlations with the sites in the gorge (Koumouzelis et al., 2003a). This made worthwhile the extension of the original trench for investigation. Indeed, the following year 1995 the trench was extended 2 × 2 m to the south, so that the total dimensions measured 2 × 4 m (squares A1-A4, B1-B4). Under the surface stratum we encountered a sequence of Mesolithic layers (layers 3, 5, and 5a) with no possibility for dating, followed by the Epigravettian layers IIa and IIb with a radiocarbon date 14.280±90 BP (Kuhn, this issue for further discussion). Although this hiatus between the Mesolithic and the Epigravettian added to the complexity of the stratigraphy, the study of the corresponding lithic industries presented a certain degree of continuity between these two cultural horizons. Later research and excavations in mainland Greece and the Aegean (Sampson, 2001; Sampson et al., 2002, 2003; Kyparissi-Apostolika, 2003; Kaczanowska and Koz³owski, 2006) offered important information pertaining to the debate as to the origin of agriculture in Greece. In the Argolid proper, another surface survey specif-

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ically planned for locating Mesolithic sites along the coastal area of Kandia and Nauplia in 2003, has shown that this area was exploited by foragers. Several Mesolithic cave sites with industries of the same lower Mesolithic type as in Klissoura and Franchthi were found (Runnels et al., 2005). The excavation of Klissoura cave 1 went on with some difficulties in distinguishing the multiple phases of the Upper Palaeolithic inhabitations succeeding the Aurignacian and preceding the Epigravettian layers (layers III’ and III’’). Besides inter-stratification, the dryness of the sediments and the layers of ashy dust and ash in various degrees of combustion produced by numerous hearths made those dense anthropogenic layers a real puzzle and caused a relabelling of the strata. Another drawback was that in spite of so many hearths structures, sufficient amounts of wood charcoal for dating was not available. As a result, initial dating attempted, on carbonates, yielded dates that clearly were too young. In addition to preliminary sorting on site, washing of the lithic and bone material and sorting and the study of the finds was done at the Primary school of the village of Prosymna, which was kindly placed at our disposal by the then Head of the Community of Prosymna, Christos Petselis, and the Commission for School Buildings of Argolid. The geologist Maciej Pawlikowski, when not at the excavation to “decipher” the sediments, was investigating the area around the cave to locate possible raw material sources. The use of the facilities provided by this school contributed to the efficiency of our work, whose duration was that of three weeks maximum in the first seasons. Preliminary study of the material in our field laboratory facilitated the handling of such a great volume of finds and simultaneously contributed to a better understanding of the issues relating to the continuity or discontinuity between the successive statigraphic layers. In the season of 1996 Prof. B. Ginter of Jagiellonian University was added to the team and we also had the pleasure to have with us Prof. Ofer Bar-Yosef of Harvard University, who participated in our work and in the preparation of a paper on raw material procurement at Klissoura, which he delivered on our behalf at the 121 Congres national des societes historiques et scientifiques held at Nice that year (Koumouzelis et al.,

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M. Koumouzelis

2003b). In 1996 a 3-year grant has awarded to the Jagiellonian University by the Polish Ministry of Science for the excavation at the Klissoura Cave 1. During excavation the two southernmost squares (A4 and B4) were abandoned as unproductive. Now Trench A measured 2 × 3 m2. The excavation reached a depth of 2 m below surface, through the multi-facetted layer III (post-Aurignacian layers III’ and III’’, Aurignacian IIIa-g), Aurignacian IV, the Early Upper Palaeolithic V, Middle Palaeolithic VI and the beginning of VII, a sequence representing what we thought to be the complete transitional phase from the Upper to the Middle Palaeolithic. Besides the lithic industries and the fauna remains, various other cultural elements were exposed, indicating that human presence at this shelter was more intense at times: in Layer IIIc, a curious round structure constructed from river cobbles and measuring 1.5 m in diameter was surrounded by a pavement of small limestone debris. It contained numerous fragments of bone and broken phalanges, flakes and other lithic waste, which might suggest its use as a place for the extraction of bone marrow (Koumouzelis and Koz³owski, 1996: fig.3; Koumouzelis et al., 1996). More remarkable are a long series of claylined and basin-like hearth structures, which were clearly cut in the floor, as shown in the profiles of our trench. These hearths were lined with successive layers of clay and their interiors baked by fires or hot embers. The majority of these hearths occur in the Aurignacian Layer IV. Maciej Pawlikowski undertook the first analysis of these structures and their composition, proving that the material was indeed clay that was brought to the cave from an external source with the intention of creating these hearths (Pawlikowski et al., 2000). Their further study was taken over by the geologist of the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology and Speleology, P. Karkanas, who joined our team in 2001 as a specialist in the study of cave sediments (Karkanas et al., 2004). The layers IIIa-g and IV are the only deep Aurignacian stratigraphic sequence found in situ in Greece. These are especially significant in that they exhibit multiple phases and several cultural and technological aspects of this early huntergatherer society, such as simple architecture, clay hearths, bone and antler tools, and shell orna-

ments (Stiner, this issue). Before the excavations at Klissoura 1, the Aurignacian was scantily known from a concentration of lithic artifacts from Eleochori in Western Peloponnese, near Patras. These were found during a surface survey, and they constituted the only remnants of the Upper Paleolithic period. They are attributed to an “archaic Aurignacian industry conserving some Middle Palaeolithic characteristics”, or to a transitional stage from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic on the basis of fragments of artifacts with bifacial retouch (Darlas, 1989, 1999). The in situ Aurignacian assemblage from Franchthi Cave is poorly represented, as is that from the Theopetra Cave in Thessaly (Adam, 1999). To this has to be added a small number of possibly Aurignacian artifacts found with a skull in Laconia (Darlas, 1995). Finally in a surface survey Aurignacian finds were noted in a cave in Epirus (Runnels et al., 2003). The most important event of 1996, however, was the excavation of Layer V, with its diagnostic industry of arched backed blades that presented affinities with the Uluzzian culture. It posed questions about the origin of its makers and pointed towards Italy rather than to the Balkans as a place of origin. The following year, 1997, we had reached layer X with a Mousterian industry produced on different raw materials, at a depth of 2.6 m in all six excavation squares. To investigate the Middle Palaeolithic strata we figured that we had to enlarge our trench, whose surface was already slightly reduced at the sides for reasons of safety. In the fall, after the excavations, the geologist E. Kambouroglou and D. Bouzas of the Ephoreia took samples with a geological borer at the base of our trench to give us an idea of the remaining depth of the archaeological deposits. This measurement went down an additional 4.2 m (6.8 m from the surface) without reaching bedrock. That same year, given the paucity of wood charcoal and the strangely young dates for our Aurignacian levels based on carbonates and one much earlier date based on wood charcoal, we turned to alternative dating methods such as thermoluminescence and multiplication of measurements on organic material. For this reason Dr. H. Valladas of the Centre des Faibles Radioactivites, C.N.R.S. of France, came to the site to plant the first dosimeters in the sediments, in October

History of the excavations

1997. Meanwhile, the rich material that had been accumulated over the years could not be studied in its entirety during the excavation seasons. For this reason, it was decided to slow down the excavation while focusing on the study of the material. Accordingly, the 1998 field season was mainly dedicated to the study of material. At the cave, we also prepared the area for an extension to the east by removing a huge pile of stones and leveling the ground, before enlarging the trench 2 × 3 m with the addition of squares AA1-2, BB1-2, CC1-2, and the removal of the surface layer. During the two following years, abiding to a regulation of the Greek Ministry of Culture for a temporary stoppage of the “systematic” (i.e. nonsalvage) excavations, we limited ourselves to the study of the material, which led to the publication of the results up to this time (Koumouzelis et al., 2001a, b). In view of the heavy workloads and depth of the Paleolithic deposits, Valery Sitlivy of the Musees Royaux d’ Art et d’ Histoire of Brussels joined our team in 1999 to participate in the excavation and the study. The excavation resumed in 2001. Trench A was now extended 3 × 3 m to the east (squares AA1-3, BB1-3, CC1-3) to cover a total area of 3 × 5 m, in order to investigate the deep deposits properly. From this time on the excavation seasons lasted for at least one month. The same complex stratigraphic sequence was again met in these new squares, with localized inter-stratifications, pits, dry pulverized ashy sediments and a very limited occurrence of charcoal remains to a depth of 1.15 m. At this point P. Karkanas, was called upon to help address stratigraphic problems with the help of micromorphological analysis. Thanks to a grant from the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP) which has been awarded to us from 2002 to today, Karkanas’ samples of sediment blocks collected from the profiles over the years could be prepared at the Lab of our Ephoreia and at the Wiener Lab of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. These were then sent to the Spectrum Petrographics Lab, Oregon U.S.A. or later at the Quality thin Sections Lab, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A. to be transformed to thin sections for the study of microstructure and the constituents of the archaeological sediments. The micromorpholgical studies have been invaluable, since they showed disconti-

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nuities in the sediments that were not visible macroscopically or by the study of the archaeological material alone. Karkanas also initiated a new series of AMS dates, which required much smaller pieces of charcoal than the conventional methods. These charcoal samples were carefully selected by the anthracologist M. Ntinou, who joined us in 2002. Before this, we had only one AMS date (Gif-99168, 40.010±740 BP) on burnt bone from layer V. According to this date, the Uluzzian at Klissoura 1 preceded in time the Uluzzian sites in Italy. In contrast, the analysis of the industries indicated affinities with the middle or even the upper Uluzzian in Italy (Koumouzelis et al., 2001b: 480–482). For this reason we urgently needed a valid radiocarbon chronology for layer V and the other cultural layers. Yet, the new dates done at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel, on wood charcoal provided reliable results for all the other layers except for layer V, the results for which still seemed too young (Kuhn, this issue). That year the excavation lasted five weeks and proceeded to a depth of 2.15 m – through the Aurignacian (Layers IIIa-g and IV), the Early Upper Palaeolithic (Layer V) and Middle Palaeolithic layers VI, VII and VIII. The most remarkable finds were located in Layer IV and consisted of an oval structure 2.3 × 2 m defined by large stones, and surrounded by a great number of red clay hearths, three of which were moved as a block and are now on display at the new archaeological Museum of Nauplia.4 The stone structure occupied the squares AA2-AA3-BB2-BB3 between the depths of 1.40–1.70 m below the surface. The stones, which were not related to the natural structure of the cave, had been transported from the outside. They were sizeable and along the southern edge lay close together, while others on the northern side lay loose as if they had rolled or shifted. The whole arrangement displayed an intentional planning and not an accidental formation. A hearth (H. 87) was attached to its eastern edge, the ashes of which spread into the structural feature by water action at an elevation 1.50 m below surface. The sediment within this structure was of a distinctly red color, while the surrounding area outside the structure was characterized by a grayish-brown sediment. In the area occupied by the shelter the majority of the ornaments,

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fragments of bone points and a high concentration of lithic items were recovered (Kaczanowska et al., this issue; Stiner, this issue). At a depth of 1.55 m in square CC1, about 1m from the stone shelter, lay the three hearths 89A, 89B and 89C that have since been removed to the Museum. They lay one next to the other, “cemented” together with compact, crystallized ashes and many lithics and bone fragments. In this eastern part of the trench many more clay hearths were well preserved. Several of these are bisected in the northern profile of our excavation. It is of significance that no clay hearth was found in the excavation of the southernmost square AA4 and BB4, despite their abundance elsewhere in Layer IV. The structure and all the red clay hearths were built behind the drip line of the cave, close to the north wall. The potential of Layer IV for behavioral studies is on par with rare cases reported elsewhere in Eurasia, such as the secondary hearths of Aurignacian I phase at Abri Pataud that were suggested by Binford to represent an arrangement of beds between the hearths. Given that at Klissoura 1 there is evidence for possible floor covering inside the structure in Layer IV (Stiner, this issue), it would be tempting to consider some aspect of Binford’s (1983) archaeological model at our site. Regarding the stone structure, larger circular habitation structures have been found in the cave of Arcy-surCure in association with the Chatelperronian (around 40,000 years BP), and in the Aurignacian level (around 35,000 years BP), where, according to Leroi-Gourhan (1976), the cave was simply a second roof over human-built habitations. The size of the stone-rimmed feature in Klissoura Cave 1 is quite small and, if truly a dwelling, was a sleeping place for just one, two or at most three individuals. On account of the great number of finds within this feature, it could also have served as a ceremonial place or even as a cache. In 2003, before the beginning of the excavation season many new dosimeters were added to the Middle Palaeolithic layers by Drs H. Valladas and N. Mercier. Starting from 2.15 m below surface our excavation grid system of 1 × 1 m2 units was modified to excavation by quarter meter quadrants to increase the precision of spatial recording. In addition to dry-sieving in the field, the sediments from all of these sub-squares were wa-

ter-sieved under the supervision of the anthracologist M. Ntinou. This procedure permitted systematica collection of all minuscule seeds, charcoal, and the smallest microfaunal remains. The excavation for that year ended at 3 m below surface. Another borehole ascertained that the thickness of the archaeological deposits below this level exceeded 3.5 m in depth. At this point, it seemed to us preferable to proceed to the publication of the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic at Klissoura without waiting for the end of the excavation of all the Middle Palaeolithic layers. Following this decision J. Koz³owski, M. Kaczanowska, K. Sobczyk agreed to conduct the analysis of the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic lithic industries and prepare it for publication. T. Tomek and Z. Bochenski would treat the bird bones and P. Wojtal the mammal bones coming from the original Trench A (squares A1-3, B1-3). The excavation and study of the Middle Palaeolithic layers was agreed to be continued by V. Sitlivy and K. Sobczyk. At this point our group was expanded to include the expertise of specialists from the University of Arizona: S. Kuhn would join in the study of lithics and organize further efforts at radiocarbon dating using new pretreatment methods in collaboration with J. Pigati, M. Stiner and their PhD student, B. Starkovitch, would study the fauna, dietary changes and economy of the site. M. Stiner also undertook the study of the shell ornaments. In the following years work continued as planned with the two teams working at their tasks. Additionally, the final publication of the Late Palaeolithic material from Caves 4 and 7 appeared in the Fall of 2004 (Koumouzelis et al., 2004). In 2005, due to some discrepancies in the succession of the upper layers and to the problematic relation between layers IV, V, and below with regard to the sedimentary transition from the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic layers, we decided to reinvestigate these strata geologically, from the Mesolithic down to the Early Upper Palaeolithic. Another reason for this investigation was to collect as many pieces of wood charcoal as possible, with the application of our finer excavation grid and the water sieving of all the sediments. The new extension was an area of 1 × 1.5 m to the south, in squares AA4 and BB4. The archaeologist of the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology and

History of the excavations

Speleology, Georgia Tsartsidou, a specialist in georchaeology and particularly in phytolith analysis, undertook the excavation of this trench for the years 2005–2006. The results were positive, as long-awaited charcoal pieces for reliable C14 dates were recovered. We were thus well equipped with a new series of wood charcoal remains from almost all the layers up to VII, to attempt AMS dating with an ABOX pretreatment at the Laboratory of the University of Arizona. This method of pretreatment had been used recently with satisfactory results at other sites containing Middle to Upper Palaeolithic industries, including the key site of Fumane Cave in Northern Italy, where a reevaluation of the radiocarbon corpus pushed back the Proto-Aurignacian to 35.000 BP and the Uluzzian to 40.1–41.6 Ka BP (Higham et al., 2009), thus surpassing the usual limits of 35 Ka BP. Once more, this effort did not resolve the age of layer V at Klissoura 1, although it did help to clarify ages for some of the other layers (Kuhn, this issue). In 2006 and 2007 the studies continued in all the fronts: the lithic industries and the shells were studied at the school at Prosymna, which served as our “headquarters” for the various teams of scholars in May–June and others in September. From 2006 to 2008 the Polish participation in the study was funded by another research grant of the Polish Ministry of Sciences and the American participation by a grant from the National Science Foundation. The faunal remains were studied at the Wiener Laboratory of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens through 2009. At the same time the sample processing for phytolith analysis continued at the Laboratory of Prehistory, Ancient History and Archaeology of the University of Barcelona and they were studied by R.M. Albert. M. Ntinou worked at the Wiener Laboratory of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens and at the Laboratory of the University of Valencia, Spain. As far as pollen analysis is concerned, although Dr. K. Kouli, a specialist of the Department of Geology and Geoenvironment of the University of Athens collected a large number of samples, only few of them were found to contain extremely low pollen concentrations, due to bad preservation in the sediments. The second volume will contain the Middle Palaeolithic and some complementary

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studies on the Upper Palaolithic, which could not be included in this volume. In June 2008 all the scholars were ready to have a meeting in Athens for a small conference leading to publication. The meeting was held on June 3rd and 4th at the Stathatos building of the Museum of Cycladic Art, courtesy of its Director, Prof. N. Stambolidis. Immediately after the meeting we were called to participate in the RESET (Response of Humans to Abrupt Environmental Transitions) project of tephra chronology by a Research Consortium of four Institutions of the U.K. Samples from the Klissoura sediments were collected in September 2008. Initial scans of the samples indicated the presence of at least one, possibly two, tephras at the site. Of particular interest is that the highest shard counts come from directly above the uppermost Uluzzian level. This tephra could be the same as has been identified at Franchthi Cave, and perhaps the Campanian Ignimbrite or Y-5, previously dated to 39.3 ka BP (Higham et al., 2009). If so, then our layer V must be older than this. Now that all the papers have been finished and the general conclusions presented in a synthesis, I am in the very pleasant position to present this volume to the Academic community, and I am confident that all the efforts of so many people for so many years have brought useful and valuable information to light. Acknowledgements The excavation at Cave 1 of the Klisoura Gorge was supported by the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology and Speleology of the Ministry of Culture of Greece and the Jagiellonian University – Kraków. From 1996 was obtained the grant of the Polish Ministry of Higher Education and Science and from 2002 to today this project has received generous grants from the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP). The research of the American team was funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation. We wish to thank the successive Directors of the Ephoreia Drs. Yannis Tzedakis for issuing the permit, and Stavroula Samartzidou and Nina Kyparissi-Apostolika for constant material and moral help. We would like to express our gratitude to Prof. B. Ginter for his participation in the excavation and in the study of the lithics for many years and to Dr. Jaros³aw Wilczyñski for his assistance in the study of lithics from the Upper Palaeolithic layers during the

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last two study seasons. The topographer of the Ephoreia Theodoros Hatzitheodorou did the plan and the profile of the cave and fixed the steady point for the elevation measurements. Besides the local workers that were hired every year, the students from the Archaeology Department of the University of Athens Christos Koutsothanassis, Vassilis Marinis, Nicholas Papazarkadas, Nicholas Konstas, Dimitris Kritharas and Dimitris Hatzilazarou participated in our project from 1994 to 1997. They did the dry-sieving of all the sediments, helped the conservator of our Ephoreia Panagiota Gioni in washing and curating the material, they did the sorting under the supervision of the archaeologists, and helped the technician Irene Provatou in water-sieving. We wish to thank the Head of the Community of Prosymna for these years Mr. Christos Petselis for assuring food and lodging for these students. Among the workers of Prosymna Panagiotis Stamatis, Giorgos Kakouros, Takis Dimas and the late Giorgos Kremmidas offered their services to us for many years and were readily available for help.at any time.Nelly Skoumi did a lot of sorting for microfauna bone and charcoal from the dry residue of the water-sieve. Thanks are also due to Ritza Tsihlakis-Koumouzelis and Nicholas Thompson for proof-reading and correcting this text and Mary Stiner for major editing. I also want to thank my brother Tassos Koumouzelis, who has stood by me through good and bad times, for multiple trips to and from Prosymna transporting material from the Storeroom to the researchers and back. Last but not least, I wish to thank Aspasia Lagopodis, the secretary of the Ephoreia, for typing all the pages of administrative and other texts concerning Klissoura over the years, including these.

REFERENCES ADAM E. 1999. Preliminary presentation of the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic stone industries of Theopetra Cave, Western Thessaly. In: G.N. Bailey, E. Adam, E. Panagopoulou, C. PerlÀs, K. Zachos (eds) The Palaeolithic Archaeology of Greece and Adjacent Areas, Proceedings of the ICOPAG Conference. BSA Studies 3, London, 266–270. BINFORD L.R. 1983. In Pursuit of the Past: Decoding the Archaeological Record. Thames and Hudson, New York. BLEGEN C.W. 1937. Prosymna: The Helladic Settlement preceding the Argive Heraeum. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. BLEGEN C.W. 1927. Excavations at Nemea 1926. American Journal of Archaeology 31, 421–440. BLEGEN C.W. 1975. Neolithic remains at Nemea. Hesperia 44, 251–279.

CASKEY J.L. 1957. Excavations at Lerna 1956. Hesperia 26, 142–162. CASKEY J.L. 1958. Excavations at Lerna 1957. Hesperia 27, 125–144. DARLAS A. 1989. I Orinakia Lithotechnia tou Elaiochoriou Achaias. Archaiologike Ephemeris 128, 137–159. DARLAS A. 1995. Ta lithina ergaleia tou skeletou LAO 1/S3 (Apedema-Mani). Acta Anthropologica 1, 59–62. DARLAS A. 1999. Paleolithic research in western Achaia. In: G.N. Bailey, E. Adam, E. Panagopoulou, C. Perles, K. Zachos (eds) The Palaeolithic Archaeology of Greece and Adjacent Areas, Proceedings of the ICOPAG Conference. BSA Studies 3, London, 303–310. HIGHAM T., BROCK F., PERESANI M., BROGLIO A., WOOD R., DOUKA K. 2009. Problems with radiocarbon dating the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in Italy. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 1257–1267. JACOBSEN T.W. 1973. Excavations in the Franhthi Cave, 1969–1971. Hesperia 42, 253–283. JOHNSON M. 1996. The Neolithic Period. In: B. Wells, C. Runnels (eds) Berbati-Limnes Archaeological Survey 1988–1990. Paul Astroms Forlag, Jonsered, 37–73. KACZANOWSKA M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K. 2006. Palaeolithic Traditions, Mesolithic adaptations and Neolithic industries (in Greek). In: A. Sampson (ed.) I Proistoria tou Aigaiou:Paleolithike-Mesolithike-Neolithike. Atrapos, Athens, 67–87. KARKANAS P., KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., SITLIVY V., SOBCZYK K., BERNA F., WEINER S. 2004. The earliest evidence for clay hearths: Aurignacian features in Klisoura Cave 1, Southern Greece. Antiquity 78, 513–525. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K. 1996. Oi Proistorikes Thesseis sto Pharangi tes Klissouras. Archaeologia 60, 58–62. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., NOWAK M., SOBCZYK K., KACZANOWSKA M., PAWLIKOWSKI M., PAZDUR A. 1996. Prehistoric settlement in the Klisoura Gorge, Argolid, Greece (excavations 1993, 1994). Prehistoire Europeenne 8, 143–174. KOUMOUZELIS M., GINTER B., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., PAWLIKOWSKI M., BAR-YOSEF O., ALBERT M., WOJTAL P., LIPECKI P., TOMEK T., BOCHEÑSKI Z.M., PAZDUR A. 2001a. The Early Upper Paleolithic in Greece: The excavations in Klisoura gorge. Journal of Archaeological Science 28, 515–539. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., ESCUTENAIRE C., SITLIVY V., SOBCZYK K., VALLA-

History of the excavations DAS H., TISNERAT-LABORDE N., WOJTAL P., GINTER B. 2001b. La fin du Paleolithique moyen et le debut du Paleolithique superieur en Grece: la sequence de la Grotte no 1 de Klisoura. L’Anthropologie 105, 469–304. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., GINTER B. 2003a. Mesolithic finds from Cave 1 in the Klisoura Gorge, Argolid. In: N.Galanidou, C. Perles (eds) The Greek Mesolithic. Problems and Perspectives. BSA Studies 10, London, 113–122. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., KACZANOWSKA M., PAWLIKOWSKI M., BAR-YOSEF O. 2003b. Contrasting Raw Materials Procurement Systems in the Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic of Argolid (Greece). In: B. Vandermeersch (ed.) Échanges et diffusion dans la préhistoire méditerranéenne. Actes de Congres nationaux des Societes historiques 121 Nice 1996. Éditions du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques, Paris, 7–13. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., KACZANOWSKA M. 2004. End of the Paleolithic in the Argolid (Greece): Excavation in Cave 4 and Cave 7 in the Klisoura Gorge. Eurasian Prehistory 2(2), 33–56. KYPARISSI-APOSTOLIKA N. 2003. The Mesolithic in Theopetra Cave: new data on a debated period of Greek prehistory. In: N. Galanidou, C. Perles (eds) The Greek Mesolithic. Problems and Perspectives. BSA Studies 10, London, 189–198. LAVEZZI J.C. 1978. Prehistoric investigations at Corinth. Hesperia 47, 402–451. LEROI-GOURHAN A. 1976. Les structures d’habitat au Paléolithique supérieur. In : H. de Lumley (ed.) La Préhistoire Française. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 656–663. PAPAHATZIS, N. 1989. Pausaniou Hellados Periegessis Book II and III. Ekdotike Athenon, Athens, II 15.4-6; II 17.1–3. PAWLIKOWSKI M., KOUMOUZELIS M., GINTER B., KOZ£OWSKI J.K. 2000. Emerging Geramic Technology in Structured Aurignacian Hearths at Klisoura Gave 1 in Greece. Archaeology Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 4, 19–29. PERLêS C. 1990. Les industries lithiques taillées de Franchthi (Argolide, GrÀce), Vol. II: Les industries du Mésolithique et du Néolithique Initial (Excavations at Franchthi Cave, Greece, Fasc. 5). Indiana University Press, Bloomington & Indianapolis, IN. PROTONOTARIOU-DEILAKI E. 1992. Paratereseis sten Prokeramike (apo te Thessalia sta Dendra tes Argolidos). In: Diethnes Synedrio gia ten archaea Thessalia ste mneme tou Demetriou R. Theochare. TAPA, Athens, 97–111. REISCH L. 1976. Beobachtungen an Vogelknochen

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aus der Spatpleistozen der Hohle von Kephalari. Archaologisches Korrespondenzblatt 6, 261–265. RUNNELS C.N., KARIMALI E., CULLEN B. 2003. Early Upper Paleolithic Spilaion: an artifact-rich surface site. In: J. Wiseman, K. Zachos (eds) Landscape archaeology in Southern Epirus, Greece I (Hesperia Supplement 32). American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Princeton, 135–156. RUNNELS C., PANAGOPOULOU E., MURRAY P., TSARTSIDOU G., ALLENS S., MULLEN K., TOURLOUKIS E. 2005. A Mesolithic landscape in Greece: Testing a site-location model in the Argolid at Kandia. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeololgy 18, 259–285. SAFLUND G. 1965. Excavations at Berbati 1936– 1937. Stockholm Studies in Archaeology 4. Almqvist et Wiksell, Stockholm-Uppsala-Göteborg. SAMPSON A. 2001. Archaeologike erevna stis Vories Sporades. Demos Alonnisou, Alonnisos. SAMPSON A., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., KACZANOWSKA M., GIANNOULI B. 2002. The Mesolithic settlement at Maroulas, Kythnos. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 2, 45–67. SAMPSON A., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., KACZANOWSKA M. 2003. Mesolithic chipped stone industries from the Cave of Cyclope on the island of Youra (northern Sporades). In: N. Galanidou, C. Perles (eds) The Greek Mesolithic. Problems and Perspectives. BSA Studies 10, London, 123–141. WEINBERG S.S. 1937. Remains from Prehistoric Corinth. Hesperia 6, 487–524. WELLS B., RUNNELS C. 1996. The Berbati-Limnes Archaeological Survey 1988–1990. Paul Astroms Forlag, Jonsered. WRIGHT J.C., CHERRY J.F., DAVIS J.L., MANTZOURANI E., SUTTONS S.B. 1990. The Nemea Valley Archaeological Project. Preliminary report. Hesperia 59, 579–645.

Notes 1. We wish to thank Dimitris Dimas-Katsaris for giving us permission to excavate on his property. In all these years he has been helpful in allowing us entrance to his fields even at times when the excavation was not going on, and in providing running water and electricity when needed. 2. These trial excavations were funded by the Community of Prosymna. The head of the Community of Prosymna (Berbati) at that time was Mr. Panos Soteriou, who kindly provided workers but also food during those days and a lot of help to our speleologists, for the investigation of the two varathra – caves high on the mountains to the south of the valley of Prosymna. Mr. Soteriou has offered constant

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help in many ways and good advice during all these years. 3. Excavation at the site was conducted by the archaeologists mainly with the use of the trowel. Only in cases of very compacted soils we made use of small hoes and handpicks. The workers did the dry-sieving and washing, the water sieving and the sorting of the material by category (bones, shells, lithics, ochre, etc.) under the supervision of archaeologists. During the field work these standardized methods were applied: – detailed topographic analysis; – establishment of the grid 1×1 m up to a depth of 2,15m below surface in all the excavation units. Starting from this depth in 2003 a new grid of quarter-meter squares was applied to the deepest Middle Palaeolithic layers and in the Upper Palaeolithic sediments of the trench AA4-BB4; – each arbitrary level, in each square meter was excavated by spits of 5 cm with systematic use of the theodolite and the stadia rod; – the stratigraphic analysis of the archaeological layers by the horizontal and vertical axis; – at the base of each 5cm spit the excavated surface was photographed and drawn. All the profiles of the trench were also drawn and photographed after the establishment of a grid system of 0.50 x 0.50 m; – macroscopic analysis while digging (texture, color, constituents etc.) and detailed drawing of the geological and archaeological stratigraphic plans; – sampling for micromorphological analysis: Blocks of

sediments were collected from all the excavated profiles with undisturbed and oriented samples, which preserve the original geometrical relationship of the constituents. Micromorphology has been shown to be an essential tool for the study of site formation processes, palaeoenvironmental changes in regional and micro-regional scale and for addressing geoarchaeological questions related to post-depositional modifications; – water-sieving: sampling from entirely undisturbed areas, ash layers, hearth units and areas with distinct archaeological features, in the original trench and all the other levels up to a depth of 2,15m. From this point on, all the sediments were dry and water sieved. Charcoal analysis (anthracology) : site sampling was applied to all the excavated units and along the vertical sequence. Once the fragments had been water sieved and dried they were examined microscopically and identified (thanks to the anatomy of the wood) normally to the genus level and sometimes even to species level was possible. 4. The conservator Panos Polydoropoulos, aided by Lakis Kontrolozos, did all the preparation of the three clay – lined hearths for their removal as a block and for their transpotatation to the Storeroom of the Museum of Argos first. Then he worked to set them up for exhibition at the new Museum of Nauplia.

Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 15–36.

GEOLOGY, STRATIGRAPHY, AND SITE FORMATION PROCESSES OF THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC AND LATER SEQUENCE IN KLISSOURA CAVE 1 Panagiotis Karkanas Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of Southern Greece, Ardittou 34b, 11636 Athens, Greece; [email protected] Abstract Klissoura Cave 1 is located in the northeastern edge of the Argive Plain, Peloponnese, at the entrance of the Berbadiotis river gorge. The cave comprises a collapsed cave chamber and a rockshelter area. The stratigraphic analysis and micromorphological study of the sediments elucidated the main processes involved in the formation of the site and its depositional history. The beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence is characterized by the appearance of minor and major hiatuses. The Middle Palaeolithic layer VII is erosionally truncated by the Aurignacian layer IV, at the back of the rockshelter. In the middle area, layer V, characterized by an Early Upper Palaeolithic technology is also truncated by the Aurignacian layers. The sedimentary content of layer V is more similar to the overlying Aurignacian sequence and, in this respect the truncation can be considered as a minor hiatus. The underlying layer VI is the result of post-depositional mixture at the contact of the Upper and Middle Palaeolithic sequence. The deposits of the Aurignacian layers are mainly the result of anthropogenic processes including constructed clay hearths and dumped, raked-out and trampled ash remains. Geogenic processes in the form of shallow rain sheet wash and wall breakdown were more important in the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic. The sequence that overlies the Aurignacian has an overall discrete ashy appearance in the field, but the contacts between the different layers are rather diffuse. The uppermost layers of this sequence are affected by geogenic processes. The Epigravettian and Mesolithic layers are disturbed by modern activities and present frequent truncations and diffused interfaces. Key words: stratigraphy, site formation, micromorphology, cave sediment, hearths, Upper Palaeolithic.

INTRODUCTION Klissoura Cave 1 is located in the northeastern edge of the Argive Plain, 4 km from the nearest village Prosymna and ca. 7 km from ancient Mycenae (Fig. 1). It lies at the entrance of the Berbadiotis river gorge (Figs 1, 2a) called Klissoura (narrows in greek). More than 30 caves and rockshelters are registered inside and around the gorge six of them containing archaeological remains (Koumouzelis et al., 1996, 2001a, 2001b, 2004). The gorge is 2 km long and up to 500 m wide and connects the Argive Plain with the Limnes plateau uplands through the Berbati valley. Klissoura Cave 1 lies at an elevation of 114 m above sea level, ca. 12 m above the Berbadiotis

riverbed. Berbadiotis is an ephemeral stream entrenched into its gravelly deposits and thus forming a ca. 5 m high terrace above which the cave is found (Fig. 2b). The cave entrance faces southeast, overlooking the Argive Plain.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY The Argive Plain is a Neogene graben filled with lacustrine, fluvial, alluvial fan and slope deposits. The hilly area around the cave is mostly made of Triassic to Jurassic limestones (IGME, 1970). The limestones are usually medium to thick bedded grayish and white, but they laterally pass to thin bedded hard limestones containing nodules and intercalations of radiolarian cherts.

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Fig. 1. Topographical map of the area around Klissoura Cave 1. The inset shows the location of Klissoura in Southern Greece

Small outcrops of the Jurassic volcanosedimentary complex are found in several places (IGME, 1970). This complex comprises shales, sandstones, radiolarian cherts, limestones and volcanic bodies belonging to the ophiolitic group. Upper

Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleocene limestones are also found in the region. Some of them are reported to contain several types of chert and flint (IGME, 1970). Flysh is found further to the south and north of the Klissoura area. Alluvial cones

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

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Fig. 2. a) The location of Klissoura Cave 1 at the entrance of the gorge; b) the front rockshelter of the cave (with arrow) above the Berbadiotis river terrace covered with orange trees

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Table 1 Layers, facies and cultural content of statigraphic sequences in Klisoura Cave 1 Sequence

Layers

Facies

Cultural content

A

1,2,3 and 5

HCS, LHW and LSS

Mesolithic and modern

B

IIa, IIb and IId

HCS, HGB and LSS

Epigravettian

C

6, 6a and 6/7

LHW and MWA

Aurignacian mixed with Gravettian

D

III, III', III'', IIIa, IIIb, IIIc, IIId, IIIe, IIIf and IIIg

MWA, HGB, RCS and LSS

Mainly Aurignacian

E

IV

MWA, RCS HGB, LSS and HCS

Aurignacian

F

V

HGB and MWA

Early Upper Palaeolithic

G

VI, VII and VIII

HCS, HGB and MWA

Middle Palaeolithic

and fans made of conglomerates are found along the margins of the plain as well as inside the Klissoura gorge. On the basis of the study of Koumouzelis et al. (1996) and the geology of the area it can be safely assumed that most of the raw materials distinguished in the archaeological findings can be located in the broad area of Klissoura. Different types of radiolarian chert and flint can be located in the Triassic limestones and in the Jurassic volcanosedimentary complex within a 3–4 km radius from the site (see Koumouzelis et al., 1996: fig. 13). Secondary flint and chert deposits are found as pebbles in the Berbadiotis gravels as well as in other stream deposits of the area. However, the study of Koumouzelis et al. (1996) failed to locate some types of black chert and flint within this radius. Nevertheless, these raw materials occur only in trace quantities in the archaeological deposits. The flints and cherts occurring in the Jurassic to Cretaceous limestones around the Argive Plain might be the source of the types of black chert and flint that were not located close to the site. In any case, further detailed studies of the geological occurrences of chert and flint, in comparison with the artefacts found in the archaeological site is needed for locating all the possible sources and confirming the one proposed by Koumouzelis et al. (1996).

DESCRIPTION AND FORMATION OF THE CAVE Klissoura Cave 1 is formed in highly karstified grayish thick bedded Triassic limestones. The excavation took place at the entrance of the cave. At this area, the steeply inclined limestone

walls form a rockshelter (Figs 2b, 3). The rockshelter area behind the dripping line is ca 50 sq. meters. The cave itself is blocked by limestone boulders due to the collapse of a chimney located close to the entrance of the cave. The cave interior chamber can be seen also from the chimney opening above the cave, and it seems that it does not extend more than a few square meters. The smoothly eroded and curved cliff of the rockshelter is the result of undercutting erosion by the running water of the Berbadiotis River, when it was flowing at this level. The cave itself at the back of the rockshelter is a karstic gallery made by dissolution of the limestone. Through gradual retreat of the cliff face by river erosion the rockshelter intersected the gallery itself.

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SEQUENCE The Upper Palaeolithic sedimentary sequence of Klissoura Cave 1 (Table 1 and Figs 4–8) comprises layers 6, 6a, 6/7, 7(a and b), II (a–d), III (III’ III’’, IIIa–f), IV and V Koumouzelis et al., 2001b; Kaczanowska et al., this issue ). Layers VI is also included in this sequence having both Upper and Middle Palaeolithic cultural elements. Layers 1 and 2 are surface layers containing Bronze Age artifacts, and layers 3 to 5 are Mesolithic. The total thickness of this sequence in all excavated areas is between 190 and 210 cm. In most areas the post Upper Palaeolithic sequence is not thicker than 10–20 cm reaching in some pit fills a ca. 60 cm thickness. Layers were defined in the field during excavation and their identifications were based mainly on texture and color differences, but cultural content was also taken into account. However, most of these layers are dis-

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

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Fig. 3. Plan view of Klissoura Cave 1 showing the excavation grid (survey made by Th. Chatzitheodorou). The dotted line marks the dripping line. The interior cave chamber is shown with dashed line. Heavy grey lines show the drawn profiles of Figures 4, 5b, 6, 7b and 8 where micromorphology sampling was conducted

continuous lensoid features with lateral variations that actually form interpenetrating wedges, causing the subdivisions of each major unit layer, particularly those of layers II and III in the study. The reason for these lateral variations is the spatial distribution of burnt features producing complex overlapping sequences of burnt remains. A discussion of these features will be presented below. It should be added that intact hearth complexes were excavated and separately labeled (Kaczanowska et al., this issue).

METHODOLOGY Field descriptions provide a framework for the finer scale observations used in this study. For this purpose, information concerning the nature of

the interfaces between adjacent layers, sedimentary texture, and degree of induration was recorded. For the study of the sediment in a finer scale a micromorphological analysis was employed. Micromorphology is the study of undisturbed sediments and soils in thin section (Courty et al., 1989). By this technique the original integrity of the deposits is preserved, allowing for the observation of depositional and post-depositional features of natural or human origins. Micromorphological samples were collected as intact blocks using different techniques depending on the consistency and degree of induration of the sediment. Excavated profiles preserving the maximum stratigraphic variability were selected for sampling (Figs 4–8). Continuous systematic

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Fig. 4. Stratigraphic section of the east profile of squares A1-A2-A3 showing the location of micromorphology samples (numbered black rectangles). Original drawings of Figures 4, 5b, 6, 7b and 8 were made in the field by K. Sobczyk

sampling was employed in most cases, in order to detect all variation within the sections. The top, relatively disturbed parts of the sequence were avoided. Five clay hearth structures were also selectively sampled. Sediments from the outside of the cave environment (e.g., modern soil and

paleosols) were also sampled. The aim of the analysis was to document the site formation processes that operated at Klissoura. The sampled intact blocks of sediment were impregnated with polyester resin under vacuum, following the methodology described by Murphy

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

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Fig. 5. Photograph (a) and stratigraphic section (b) of north profile of square B1-A1 showing also the location of the micromorphology samples (numbered black rectangles). The sharp erosional contact between layers IV and VII is clearly seen in the photograph

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Fig. 6. ples

Stratigraphic section of west profile of squares B3-B2-B1 with the location of the micromorphology sam-

(1986). Large format (75×50mm) thin sections were prepared. Some 40 large format thin sections were studied in total, using a stereomicroscope at magnifications of 5 to 40× and a polarizing microscope at magnifications ranging from 50 to 400×. Thin sections were described according to Bullock et al. (1985), as modified by Stoops (2003) and Courty et al. (1989).

STRATIGRAPHY In order to examine the sequence in a meaningful way, layers as defined by the excavators

have been combined to groups or facies (Table 1) that exhibit broadly the same sedimentological characteristics. These facies are combined into sequences (Table 1) by grouping sets of adjacent layers that due to a unique combination or occurrence of certain facies present a discrete field appearance. The sequences are separated by discrete contacts that represent minor or major depositional hiatuses (e.g., Fig. 5a). Some of the sequences comprise only one layer but for keeping a sequential numbering they are also called sequences.

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

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Fig. 7. Photograph (a) and stratigraphic section (b) of east profile of squares CC1-CC2-CC3 with the location of the micromorphology samples

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Fig. 8. Stratigraphic section of south profile of squares CC3-BB3-AA3 with the location of the micromorphology samples

FACIES ANALYSIS Facies analysis is based on micromorphological analysis supported also by field observations. Facies MWA. Massive, firm, white ash complexes In the field it appears as relatively thick (usually 10–20 cm) massive and firm ash accumulations with diffuse boundaries and normally with a semi-circular shape with a diameter up to 1 m. Charcoals are often encountered, but they are usually small, friable and irregularly dispersed inside the ash. Under the microscope the sediment appears as consisting of micritic calcite, in a microscopic layered or massive form (Figs 9–11). Calcite is predominately in the form of pseudomorphs after calcium oxalate crystals.

The ash crystals are rhombic or rectangular-shaped aggregates of micrite (Fig. 10). In addition, calcitic cellular pseudomorphs (Fig. 10), fine black charred compounds, fine charcoal, and fine reddened soil aggregates are frequent. Banding is defined by the arrangement of the clay aggregates, ash crystals and pseudomorphic cellular structures. Pockets and linear arrangements of horizontally bedded burnt bone were often observed. Some of them show signs of in situ fragmentation, possibly due to trampling (Fig. 12). Internal erosional contacts between different increments of ash accumulations were also defined. In addition, the contacts with the surrounding sediment are always sharp. It is clear that this facies represents mostly intact ashes. The frequent preservation of pseudomorphs and the layered appearance attest to this conclusion. However, signs of moderate tram-

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

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pling and some minor reworking were also identified. It is obvious that the ash accumulations are the product of several burning episodes, with some of them being clearly separated in time. Burning was intense and almost complete, hence the lack of major amounts of charcoal. Facies RCS. Reddish clay structures Clay structures are easily defined in the field as discrete dark red compact features with a basin-like shape (Fig. 13). Their diameter is about 30 to 40 cm. Under the microscope the upper and lower boundaries of the clay structures appear mostly sharp. Nevertheless, there are cases where the upper boundary is diffuse at a microscopic scale and the overlying calcitic ashes impregnate the upper part of the hearth. The body of the structures is composed of reddish clay with large amounts of evenly distributed fine sand- and siltsized chert fragments, quartz, subrounded limestone fine gravel, and rarely more exotic materials such as schist and basalt. The clay in some cases is decalcified and has a massive structure, but with frequent remnants of oriented fabrics that are attributed to soil forming processes. The pores are mainly vesicles and large vughs. Karkanas et al. (2004) has presented the main evidence that supports the intentional preparation of the clay structures. In brief, they all have a constant shape and similar dimensions. Their lower boundaries are sharp, while the upper ones are microscopically diffused and calcined. They are made of distinct homogenous clay material that is similar to red alluvial soils found in the floodplain in front of the cave, and they lack signs of natural processes that can account for their formation, such as incorporation of any burnt component inside them that would imply colluvial or rain-wash processes. It is suggested that the clay material was brought to the site and after wetting it was carefully puddled and shaped in place. In addition, mineralogical analysis with Fourier Transform Infra-red spectrometry (FTIR) and Differential Thermal Analysis of the clay structures as well as of experimentally heated soils that are thought to be the raw material, suggest that the clay structures were heated to temperatures of 400 to 600 °C. In addition to the low temperature of heating, the association of the clay structures with undisturbed, microscopically intact wood ashes

Fig. 9. Photograph of thin section KL13b showing the sharp contact between light grey in-situ ash layer and disturbed and compacted burnt remains

Fig. 10. Photomicrograph of sample KL3b in plane polarized light (PPL) showing undisturbed ashes. Ash crystals are seen as grey dots. Calcitic cellular pseudomorphs after plant tissues are labeled with A

and food remains implies that they were used as hearth structures, perhaps for cooking purposes (Karkanas et al., 2004).

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Fig. 11. Photograph of thin section KL3b showing the erosional contact (dashed line) between sequences A (upper) and C (lower). Note the overall brownish color (grey in the photo) of sequence A due to the large amounts of soil aggregates (T) mixed with ashes (light grey matrix), bone (B) and limestone fragments. Bioturbation is also evident (BT). In the lower sequence C, remnants of stratified ashes (H) represent an undisturbed burnt layer overlying light grey compacted ashes probably the result of trampling

Facies HGB. Heterogeneous gray to brownish gray burnt remains In the field it comprises tabular to lensoid layers of mainly silty material, and varying colors from pale to dark gray with or without a brownish tint. Its induration degree varies from loose to firm. They often contain fluctuating quantities of angular limestone gravel irregularly dispersed inside the matrix. Its interfaces vary from sharp erosional to diffuse. Under the microscope it consists of a chaotic mixture of micritic calcite, burnt bone, soil aggregates, coarse limestone, chert fragments, and fine charcoal pieces (Figs 11, 12, 14, 15). Calcite is predominantly in the form of

Fig. 12. Photograph of thin section KL8b showing large burnt bone in-situ fragmented, probably due to trampling. Note that bones show different degrees of burning (different shades of grey). The overlying compacted mixture of burnt remains is probably disturbed by trampling and the underlying loose light grey ashy sediment rather represent raked-out hearth remains

ash crystals, which do not retain any cellular structure but are intimately mixed with the other components of the sediment. Soil aggregates have varying sizes, shapes and roundness. When in large amounts, they give a brownish tint to the sediment (Fig. 11). They are irregularly distributed in the sediment matrix. Bioturbation is frequent, forming loose porous pockets inside generally compact sediment (Fig. 11). Facies HGB is interpreted as ash remains disturbed mainly by anthropogenic activities such as trampling, scooping and cleaning of the hearth remains. The content of this facies does not differ from the previously described facies MWA, but

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

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Fig. 13. Detail of the north profile of square BB1 showing clay hearth structures (some with arrows) inside grey ashy sediment of layer IV (Aurignacian). Note the difference with the underlying Middle Palaeolithic layers that have a brownish color (darker grey in the photo) due to the large amount of geogenic sediment

lacks any in situ feature as described above. Most of the soil aggregates have been incorporated by natural processes, their nature being more obvious in other facies discussed below. The limestone gravel component of this facies is the product of the gradual breaking down of the cave walls due also to natural processes (see below). Facies LHW. Loose homogeneous whitish ash remains with a high content of snail shells and some angular gravel Its content is not much different from that of the previous ashy facies, albeit with less soil aggregates and with a high amount of whole and or fragments of snail shells and some enrichment in angular limestone gravel. In the field it appears loose and very silty. However, its microscopic fabric is completely different from the previous facies (Fig. 16). It is finely aggregated and spongy. It is also quite homogenous in a meso-scale, with soil aggregates and fine bone fragments evenly distributed. Some elongate coarse fragments show inclined or vertical orientations. Bioturbation is also

evident and probably partly responsible the porous loose nature of the sediment. On the basis of the above features this facies is interpreted as rather dumped ashes. Facies LSS. Laminated and sorted sediment This facies occur as fine lamina and rarely as a thicker layer interspersed inside the other deposits. Only in the lower part of the studied sequence can be discerned in the field as distinct depositional laminae. However, under the microscope it is observed more often, but with different degrees of integrity (Figs 17, 18). The sediment of these facies consists of crudely sorted and bedded deposits. The content can be from a mixture of rounded silt and sand-sized soils aggregates and other material (quartz, bone, chert, limestone etc), clean and elutriated, to gravel clast-supported layers composed mainly of subangular to subrounded limestone and bone fragments. Presumably facies LSS is the result of rain sheet wash with increasing intensity of flow producing more sorted and laminated sediment.

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tic calcite makes the matrix and is partially recrystallized. This facies is probably the result of colluvial accumulation of soil material inside the cave, intermixed with anthropogenic burnt remains. However, trampling and probably aeolian reworking have eliminated some of the features that would indicate the specific type of the natural processes that are responsible for the formation of the main content of this facies. Nevertheless, the survival of the friable soil aggregates points out to rain sheet wash and generally a mixture of gravity and runoff processes. Fig. 14. Photomicrograph of sample KL11b in PPL. A mixture of light grey ashes (A), charcoal (C), angular burnt bone fragments (B), flint (F) and soil aggregates (T) in a dense fabric with few pores probably as a result of trampling

Fig. 15. Photomicrograph of sample KL7d of rakedout burnt remains consisting mainly of a loose mixture of grey ashy aggregates with some burnt bone (B) and soil aggregates (C)

Facies HCS. Heterogeneous clay-rich sediments It comprises layers with a brownish clayey and firm appearance. A subfacies of it contains amounts of gravel-sized angular limestone fragments. In a microscopic scale these layers appear as a chaotic mixture of burnt remains and soil aggregates. The soil aggregates predominate and occasionally make bands and stringers. They also have different grains sizes and forms, but the rounded aggregates predominate (Fig. 18). Micri-

SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION Sequence A It is the upper part of the sedimentary sequence ca. 20–30 cm thick. It is found in all excavated areas, but not all of its layers are found everywhere (Figs 4–8). In the field it appears as light brownish gravelly loam with locally gray tints and silty content. An organic-rich layer (mostly sheep and goat dung) is found on its top. It is of importance to note that as the layers of this sequence are actually the surface layers, they are frequently dissected by recent pits filled with animal dung, stones and clastic sediments rich in clay. These pits, together with modern surface trampling and biological activity (roots, earthworms) obscure detail observation of their sedimentary features. Layer 1 is the top recent humus and dung (not described as specific facies). Layers 2 and 3 comprise mainly heterogenous clayrich deposits (facies HCS). Layers 5 and 5a consist also of facies HSC, with intermixtures of loose ash and shell rich deposits (facies LHW), and natural laminated deposits (facies LSS). In the text below, only part of Sequence A, i.e. layers 3 and 5, regarded as of the early Holocene (Mesolithic), will be discussed. Sequence B Natural clastic sediments dominate this sequence. It has a brownish color characterized by the presence of clay rich layers (facies HSC), but facies HGB (reworked burnt remains) and LSS (laminated and sorted sediment) also occur locally. It comprises layers IIa, IIb, and IId (Table 1; Figs 4, 6, 8). It is also characterized by frequent

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

Fig. 16. Photograph of thin section KL5c showing dumped burnt remains of sequence C. The light grey matrix represents ash aggregates in a loose arrangement containing also burnt (BB) and not burnt bone (B), shell fragments (S) and soil aggregates (T)

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Fig. 17. Photograph of thin section KL17b showing laminated and sorted sediment as a result of shallow rain sheet wash

clusters or lines of rocks. Rock lines most likely represent deflation surfaces also implying depositional hiatuses. They are distinguished between different layers and one of these defines in places the contact between this sequence and the underlying one. Sequence C It comprises facies LHW (dumped, loose homogeneous whitish ash remains), but occasionally some intact burnt features are observed in it (facies MWA: e.g. Hearth 2; Fig. 11). It includes layers 6/7 and 6 and 6a (Table 1; Figs 4–6). At some spots layers 6a and 7 are reworked and disturbed by later activities related to the formation of Sequences A and B (Fig. 11). Thus layers 6a and 6/7 of Sequence C have very diffuse contacts with the overlain layers and locally it is hard to differentiate them.

Fig. 18. Photomicrograph of sample KL3a showing rounded soil aggregates (T), rounded bone (B) and limestone (L) with clay coatings overall attaining a rounded shape. Sorting is rather poor and the fabric is dense with relatively few packing voids. However, the roundness of the aggregates and the restricted range of the grain sizes between silt and sand should be attributed to very low energy water flow. Post-depositional reworking and compaction is probably due to trampling

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The deposits of this sequence are quite homogeneous with a maximum thickness of 50 cm. They are silty, loose, light gray but with lighter and darker parts, and a high amount of whole and fragmented snail shells and dispersed angular limestone fragments. The sequence forms a large pit-like feature on the back (northern) excavated part of the cave with a sharp erosional lower contact. In the profile of square A1-A2 line, it clearly truncates layers III and III’ and starting from the middle of square A2, as lateral differentiation of layers IIb and IId, it deeps towards A1 (Fig. 4). However, the relation of layer 6a with the layer II is obscure, although the latter seem to be younger in terms of its cultural content. Sequence D It is dominated by burnt features (facies MWA, RCS and HGB and LSS). It comprises layers III, III’, III’’ and IIIa–g (Table 1; Figs 4–8). It forms a complex of interfingering gray, whitish, and brownish gray silty lensoid layers, loose to lightly cemented, with some gravelly clusters. Undisturbed (facies MWA) and reworked burnt remains (facies HGB) form the main part of the sequence. In places it contains clusters of reddish clay structures (clay hearths) that were already discussed in detail (facies RCS). Some heterogeneous clay- and gravel-rich areas (facies LSS) are also present. The contacts of the different layers are in places sharp, but they change laterally to diffuse (e.g. Fig. 7a). In some of the excavated squares, it is clear that they truncate each other, but laterally this feature is obscured by secondary or post-depositional processes (bioturbation, trampling etc.). It is of major importance to note that some of the layers defined as such are in reality discontinuous, but as they exhibited the same field appearance they were labeled as the same layer by the excavators. However, they do not strictly belong to the same stratigraphic unit, because laterally what are considered parts of the same layer are not found in exactly the same stratigraphic position (i.e., they do not share the same boundaries with the other layers). In fact, the different layers of Sequence D can be considered as representing the spectrum of different facies found in this sequence, rather than chronostratigraphic entities. That is, each particular layer was not deposited during a certain time period,

but represents a unique combination of natural and anthropogenic processes deposited in different times. Nevertheless, ensemble of layers can be put in a general stratigraphic order. This way, the sequence of layers III, III’and III’’ overlie layers IIIb–d and these in turn overlie layers IIIe–g. Furthermore, in places, the uppermost part of the sequence, e.g. layer III’ in the southern profiles (squares AA3, BB3, CC3), has diffuse contacts with the overlying Sequence B (layers II) suggesting reworking and mixing of cultural contents. Sequence E It contains a mixture of almost all the facies (MWA, RCS, HGB, LSS and HCS), but burnt remains in different forms and particularly clay hearth structures of facies RCS predominate. It comprises layer IV sensu stricto (Table 1; Figs 4–8), and a lateral variation of it in the southern entrance area (see below). It consists of gray to whitish, moderately firm, gravelly silts with a high amount of discrete reddish clay structures (facies RCS), and several big dispersed stones, that in overall give a unique appearance to this sequence (Fig. 13). However, clay structures are not found in the southern part of the excavation, beyond the dripping line and close to the entrance of the rockshelter. In this area the sediment attains a more reddish brown clayey homogeneous texture (facies HCS), presumably due to the contribution of sediment from the decay of the clay structures. In the same area, layer IV is characterized by large stones in a linear or clustered arrangement. The contacts with the underlying and overlying sequences are mostly undulating, sharp or diffuse, attributed most likely to anthropogenic activities (trampling, scooping out of cultural deposits, etc.), but natural erosional processes cannot be ruled out, particularly for the lower contact (see below for details). Sequence F This sequence is of special interest and consists of layer V (Table 1; Figs 4, 6, 8). It contains the Early Upper Palaeolithic (EUP) lithic industry. Layer V is a dark gray clayey silty layer and comprises mainly reworked (facies HGB) and in situ burnt remains (facies MWA) at places. It is found only in the middle and southern part (en-

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

trance area) of the excavation. In the southern area it comprises several overlapping lensoid features. In the northern (back) area, layer IV of Sequence E truncates the underlying deposits and through a sharp erosional contact sits directly on layer VII of Sequence G; hence layer V is not present in this area (Figs 5a, b). In the middle area layer IV appears to truncate both layers V and VI (Figs 6, 8). Therefore, layers IV and V (Sequences E and F respectively) seem to be separated by a hiatus (IV covers unconformably all layers below). However, in the entrance area this unconformity is not so obvious. The contact between layer IV and V is rather diffuse and in fact layer V might be regarded in places as a vertical or lateral variation of layer IV. But taking under consideration that layer IV in the entrance area is reworked, the diffuse contact might be due to this secondary process. In any case, it is clear that layer IV (Sequence E) and or V (Sequence F) rests through a clear erosional contact on the underlying Sequence G, which is totally different on sedimentological grounds (Fig. 13). Sequence G Layers VI–VIII belong to this sequence (Table 1; Figs 4–8) which is dominated mostly by reddish brown firm layers rich in clay and angular limestone fragments (facies HCS). Locally brownish gray lenses of reworked burnt remains (facies HGB) and some in situ burnt remains (facies MWA) occur. The sediments are also weakly cemented mainly by re-crystallization of calcitic ashes. Nevertheless, this feature differentiates them clearly from the overlying non-cemented sequences, implying also some considerable time lapse for the cementation to complete before being buried by the sediments of layer V. Although it is a very distinctive sequence in the field, its upper part (layer VI) appears to be a mixture of MPL and EUP cultural components. This is to be expected given the intensity of reworking as defined for the origin of facies HCS (natural reworking) and HGB (mainly anthropogenic reworking) that build the sequence. As discussed above, its upper contact is erosional. The contacts with the underlying main Middle Palaeolithic sequence are also sharp and erosional. In profile A1–A4 layer VI seems to attain also an erosional contact with VII.

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DISCUSSION OF THE SITE FORMATION PROCESSES Natural formation processes The presence of clastic material in Klissoura Cave 1 has to be assigned at least partly to natural processes. It is probable that some of the bigger stones could have been brought in by humans. It is also probable that some of the interspersed clay in the sediment might have been brought in on their feet, or when they constructed the clay fireplaces. This should account however, for a small portion of the clastic sediments that only in some layers, consisting the facies LSS and HCS, dominate the deposit. In most cases post depositional alterations have blurred the original features that could reveal the details of the sedimentary processes responsible for their accumulation (Fig. 18). Nevertheless, the scant presence of some original sedimentary structures as described in facies LSS (Fig. 17) probably account for the deposition of most of the finer clastic component. They are mainly the product of shallow rain sheet wash. On the other hand coarse pebbles and fine cobbles of limestone are most likely the product of the breaking down of the cave walls by solution, freeze thaw, earthquakes etc. (cf. Farrand, 2000). In a later time they were probably spread by sheet wash or by trampling on the surface of the cave. The fact that the chamber which is at the back of the rockshelter has an open chimney (Fig. 3) has resulted in frequent transportation of soil material (mainly terra rossa) from above the hills and limestone fragments of all sizes. (Note: The time of the opening of the chimney in the back of the cave is well recorded in the Middle Palaeolithic sedimentary sequence). This actually can be seen even today, in that mudflows or rockfalls originated from the chimney at the back of the cave are the main processes bringing sediment onto the site. Aeolian activity has not produced any recognizable features in the sediments. However, given the dry conditions that prevailed in the past (see below) some reworking by the wind is expected. In fact some rounded soil aggregates of sand sizes could be the result of rolling by the wind. In general, most of the natural processes are of low energy and have probably resulted in slight modification of the original position of the ar-

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chaeological material, particularly in layers that are dominated by facies LSS and HCS. We should note, though, that anthropogenic activities like cleaning, scooping out of ashes, and trampling might had a greater effect on the modification of the original discard pattern, but, this new pattern nevertheless, is informative of cultural transformations, albeit secondary or tertiary (cf. Schiffer, 1972, 1983). It is also of interest to comment on the trend of the rate of accumulation of clastic sediment in the cave. In Sequences D and E it is minimum, even if in E sequence there are more discrete depositional increments clearly deposited by sheet wash. However, there is no particular mixing of the underlying sediment by natural processes and the overall anthropogenic character of Sequence E is not altered. On the contrary, the cases of Sequences A, B and G are different, since they dominated by clastic sediment (Figs 11, 13, 17, 18). There are two possibilities for this difference. Either there is a substantial increase in the rate of clastic sediment input or a decrease in the rate of anthropogenic input. An estimation of the rate of anthropogenic versus natural input can be made by the analysis of the proportion of the different mineralogical fractions of the Klissoura deposits as reported in Koumouzelis et al. (2001b). The ratio of calcite to quartz is particularly informative. In Koumouzelis et al. (2001b) it is erroneously reported that fine-grained calcite is not related to anthropogenic activities but to autogenic crystallization, presumably by pore- water precipitation. In fact, as has been shown above, the major part of calcite is in the form of calcitic ash derived from burning activities (cf. Canti, 2003). Some minor input of fine clastic calcite certainly exists, but not to the point to distort the overall picture. From the plot of the ratio of calcite to quartz (Koumouzelis et al., 2001b: fig. 4) it is shown that the autochthonous ash component (calcite) predominates over the allochthonous quartz in Sequence D and partly in Sequence E (upper part), but drops considerably in Sequences A and B and particularly layers II and 5, and in Sequences F and G. In the same figure the ratio of calcitic ash to apatite (derived mainly from bone) can account for changes in the activities (burning versus food byproducts) since both variables indicate anthropogenic inputs. The ratio generally fol-

lows the same trend as the previous ratio with the exception of the top of layer III’ which shows a very high bone contribution (although ash in relation to natural components remains high). The same picture emerges for the ratio of quartz plus clay (allochthonous material) to apatite (anthropogenic input). It shows slightly higher values constantly in Sequences A, B and gradually increasing values from the lower part of E to F and G, and lower values in Sequence D and the upper part of Sequence E. [Note that in fig. 4 of Koumouzelis et al. (2001b) the trend appears reverse, because the ratio is between allochthonous versus anthropogenic, whereas in the case of the ratio of calcite to quartz it is the opposite]. In summary, it appears that at the end of the Middle Palaeolitic (beginning of Sequence G) and up to the very beginning of the Aurignacian (lower part of Sequence E) and in the Epigravettian and Mesolithic layers (Sequences A and B) the rate of natural input was higher that that of the main part of the Aurignacian layers (Sequences D and upper part of E). In addition, during intensive occupation the increase in the input of ashes is generally greater than the input of bone with a pronounced exception of the upper part of layer III’. The environmental conditions prevailing during the deposition of Sequences D and E might be totally different from those in Sequences A and B. Sequences D and E have been accumulated during the later stages of marine isotopic stage 3 (MIS3) whereas Sequence B during the deglaciation (post last glacial maximum) and Sequence A during the early Holocene (Kuhn et al., this issue). So it might be postulated that the precipitation was higher during the deglaciation and early Holocene leading to an increase in runoff and washing in of clastic material from the hills above. However, the results of both charcoal and phytolith analysis supported also by the fauna data agree that the climate during the deposition of sequence B was cold and dry (Albert, this issue; Ntinou, this issue; Starkovitch et al., this issue). In this respect, the enhanced clastic sedimentation recorded in Klissoura during that time could be explained by the existence of a treeless environment vulnerable to erosion probably by infrequent storms. As precipitation levels were rising during the beginning of Holocene the increasing plant cover could not totally compensate

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

for this and the still vulnerable to erosion environment continued to occasionally feed the cave with clastic sediments. On the other hand, Sequence G has been deposited in the earlier stages of MIS3. In general MIS3 is characterized by fluctuating climatic conditions with stadials and interstadials regularly alternating (Bond et al., 1993; Bar-Matthews et al., 1999; Geraga et al., 2005). However, the age resolution of the Klissoura sequence is not sufficient for such a detailed correlation, although all the evidence point to that the formation of the Aurignacian sequence (corresponding with sequences D and E) coincides with an interstadial (Ntinou, this issue). In addition, sequences E and D are characterized mostly by loose sediments with an almost dusty appearance that could be only explained by low humidity values preventing any re-crystallization and cementation of the otherwise fragile calcitic wood ashes. So for the moment, it suffices to suggest that during most part of the Aurignacian period the climatic condition was quite dry in Klissoura but with sufficient precipitation to allow temperate trees to grow (Ntinou, this issue) and generally more humid in respect to the late glacial period that is presented in the cave. Anthropogenic formation processes It is more than clear that the majority of the sediments that make the Upper Palaeolithic sequence of Klissoura are burnt remains. The burnt remains in Klissoura comprise intact flat hearths (facies MWA), clay hearth structures (facies RCS), re-deposited, probably raked-out hearth remains (facies HGB), and dumped ashes (facies LHW) (Figs 5a, 7a, 9–16). It is of importance to repeat that they are mostly loose ashes with meager quantities of fine charcoal. Complete burning due to repeat use of the site and the same hearths for long times is probably the best explanation for this. In addition, the loose unconsolidated nature of most of the deposits points to the persistence of dry conditions that prevented cementation by pore water circulation. This might be an additional reason for the complete burning of the fuel used, because a moist substrate could have trapped and preserved some charcoal pieces. Nevertheless, the absence of major clastic inputs into the cave is another reason for complete burning, as clay and other clastic sediments have better potential to

33

trap and prevent previously deposited charcoal from complete burning down to ashes in a later burning activity. However, although the latter interpretation may be valid for the sequences dominated by burnt remains (i.e. D–E), it cannot account for Sequences A and B that are very rich in clay content. For these sequences a combination of complete burning and a dry environment during occupation may better explain the absence of large charcoal pieces. On the other hand, severe trampling and reworking by natural processes during non-occupational periods may have fragmented and finely comminuted the charcoal. This may also account for the general lack of intact combustion features in Sequences A and B. The high content of wood ash crystals in the sediment and the lack of major quantities of phytoliths (see Albert, this issue) suggest that wood was probably the major fuel used in the site. In any case, the high degree of calcination of the ash components and their light gray to white colors are features that can classify the burnt remains as anthropogenic combustion structures of high intensity, such as open-air communal cooking fires (Mallol et al., 2007). Karkanas et al. (2004) have suggested that the clay structures might have been used as satellite fireplaces with the fuel actually brought in the incandescent stage from the principal flat fireplaces (see also Meignen et al., 2001). In any case, it is evident that people were bringing clay materials to the site and after wetting they carefully puddled and shaped them in place. Some of the clay aggregates found interspersed within the deposits are probably byproduct of this activity. Frequent re-arrangement and modification of the fire places with cleaning and scooping out the top ashes, as well as frequent trampling, have produced thick heterogeneous accumulations of ashes (facies HGB). Signs of trampling are particularly evident in in situ or slightly modified hearth remains where bones are crashed on place (Fig. 12). In the upper part of the Aurignacian sequence a thick accumulation of dumped ashes are found towards the back of the cave in the form of an elongated shallow pit fill (Sequence C: mainly facies LHW) (Figs 4–6, 16). They are accompanied by large amounts of land snail shells dominated by Helix figulina exploited as food (Steiner, this

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issue). The way the pit was originally formed (before filling) is unclear, but any water intruded into the cave through the back chimney should have been impounded at this area, probably leading to soil dissolution and subsidence. In addition, rock falls from the chimney should accumulate at this area, and if people were using these stones as hearthstones or for other structures, an empty space could have been formed. The time of the filling seems to post-date the rest of the Aurignacian sequence as already discussed. Dumping of ash remains on the back of the cave has been reported already from the Middle Palaeolithic in Kebara Cave (Goldberg and Sherwood, 2006; Meignen et al., 1989, 2007). In the same site the presence of in situ burning, dumping and cleaning of ashes are interpreted as different activities associated with the occupants. In Klissoura, the frequent modification of the living area is particularly well depicted in the complex stratigraphy of Sequence D. Post-depositional modifications Post depositional modifications are restricted mainly to light cementation, moderate to strong bioturbation (Fig. 11) and very faint indications of freeze thaw activity. Cementation is in the form of precipitated calcite in the pores of the sediment and/or recrystallization of mainly ash calcite. It is observed only locally, in all sequences and probably is the result of water dripping or ponding. Bioturbation is more frequent and some times it leads to obliteration of the primary sedimentary structures and to the formation of porous fine granular sediment. Earthworms and insects are most likely the major agent. The intensity of bioturbation is not related to any particular time period or sequences but the uppermost Sequences A and B, as being closer to the present surface are particularly affected. Freeze thaw activity in the form of incipient local platy structure is observed only locally in the upper parts of Sequence D, i.e. layer III’. There are two possibilities that such features are not widely observed in Klissoura during the last glacial, in contrast to what is observed in other caves in Greece [e.g. Theopetra in central Greece: Karkanas (2001)]. The Klissoura Upper Palaeolithic sedimentary sequence corresponds to marine isotopic stages 3 and 2. As already mentioned, it is

suggested that generally arid conditions prevailed during most of this time in Klissoura. This in turn, should have impeded the formation of ice in the soil pores due to the lack of sufficient moisture. It is also true that Klissoura located in southern Greece is part of a different climatic regime. Southern Greece is more arid and warmer than the rest of Greece. Thus the temperature is not expected to be so low frequently in order for ice to form inside the sediment. In any case, it seems that both explanations might be equally valid.

CONCLUSIONS The Upper Palaeolithic sequence of Klissoura Cave 1 is mainly the result of anthropogenic processes in the form of constructed hearths and dumped, raked-out and trampled ash remains. This contrasts with the Middle Palaeolithic sequence immediately underlying the Upper Palaeolithic one. The former is a combined result of geogenic and anthropogenic processes in fluctuating proportions. However the change is not abrupt and geogenic processes are also important in the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic. Shallow rain sheet wash and wall breakdown was the dominant geogenic sedimentation. The same trend is also visible in the upper part of the sequence towards the end of the last glacial and the beginning of the Holocene. It is suggested that a relatively arid climate prevailed during the formation of the Aurignacian sequence, but the precipitation was sufficient to produce a plant cover that resulted in a generally stable landscape. This period was followed and preceded by even drier and probably cold periods (except for the Holocene), when the almost treeless environment was vulnerable to erosion. Nevertheless, some geogenic materials continued to accumulate in the cave during the entire Upper Palaeolithic. They are more prominent towards the entrance of the cave and have resulted in mixing anthropogenic remains and obliterating some of the stratigraphic contacts. It is conceivable that the nature of the contacts between the different cultural phases is of major importance. The Aurignacian, starting with layer IV clearly truncates the underlying layers at the back of the rockshelter and rests through an erosional contact on the Middle Palaeolithic layer VII. In the middle area, the layer V characterized

Upper Palaeolithic and later sequence in Klissoura

by an EUP technology is also truncated by the Aurignacian layers. The nature of this truncation is not so clear. From the aspect of site formation processes layer V is more similar to the overlying Aurignacian sequence, and in that respect the truncation can be considered as a minor hiatus. The underlying layer VI is probably the result of post-depositional mixture of layers V and VII. The layers that overly the Aurignacian have in overall a discrete appearance in the field, but the contacts are rather diffused. Their sediments are more affected by geogenic processes. Modern disturbances, frequent truncations and diffuse interfaces characterize the contacts of the Epigravettian and Mesolithic layers. Acknowledgments I thank my colleagues from the Klissoura Cave 1 excavation for all their help. I am particularly thankful to K. Sobczyk for his help in deciphering several stratigraphic issues in the field. This study was supported by a grant from INSTAP to M. Koumouzelis.

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Aegean Sea over the last 48,000 years. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 220, 311–332. GOLDBERG P., SHERWOOD S.C. 2006. Deciphering human prehistory through the geoarchaeological study of cave sediments. Evolutionary Anthropology 15, 20–36. IGME 1970. Geological Map of Greece, Nafplion Sheet, scale 1:50,000. IGME, Athens. KARKANAS P., 2001. Site formation processes in Theopetra cave: a record of climatic change during the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene in Thessaly, Greece. Geoarchaeology 16, 373–399. KARKANAS P., KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., SITLIVY V., SOBCZYK K., BERNA F., WEINER S. 2004. The earliest evidence for clay hearths: Aurignacian features in Klissoura Cave 1, southern Greece. Antiquity 78, 513–525. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., NOWAK M., SOBCZYK K., KACZANOWSKA M., PAWLIKOWSKI M., PAZDUR A. 1996. Prehistoric settlement in the Klissoura gorge, Argolid, Greece (excavations 1993–1994), Prehistoire Europeenne 8, 143–173. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., ESCUTENAIRE C., SITLIVY V., SOBCZYK K., VALLADAS H., TISNERAT-LABORDE N., WOJTAL P., GINTER B. 2001a. La fin du Paleolithique moyen et le debut du Paleolithique superieur en Grece: la sequence de la Grotte 1 de Klissoura. L’Anthropologie 105, 469–504. KOUMOUZELIS M., GINTER B., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., PAWLIKOWSKI M., BAR-YOSEF O., ALBERT R.M., LITYÑSKA-ZAJ¥C M., STWORZEWICZ E., WOJTAL P., LIPECKI G., TOMEK T., BOCHEÑSKI Z.M., PAZDUR A. 2001b. The early Upper Palaeolithic in Greece: the excavations in Klissoura cave. Journal of Archaeological Science 28, 515–539. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., KACZANOWSKA M. 2004. End of the Palaeolithic in the Argolid (Greece): Excavations in cave 3 and Cave 7 in the Klissoura gorge. Eurasian Prehistory 2, 33– 56. MALLOL C., MARLOWE F.W., WOOD B.M., PORTER C.C. 2007. Earth, wind, and fire: ethnoarchaeological signals of Hadza fires. Journal of Archaeological Science 34, 2035–2052. MEIGNEN L., BAR-YOSEF O., GOLDBERG P. 1989. Les structures de combustion moustériennes de la grotte de Kébara (Mont Carmel, Israël). In: M. Olive, Y. Taborin (eds) Nature et Fonction des Foyers Préhistoriques. Mémoires du Musée de Préhistoire de l’Isle de France 2, Paris, 141–146. MEIGNEN L., BAR-YOSEF O., GOLDBERG P.,

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WEINER S. 2001. Le feu au Paleolithique moyen: recherches sur les structures de combustion et le statut des foyers. L’exemple du Proche-Orient. Paleorient 26, 9–22. MEIGNEN L., GOLDBERG P., BAR-YOSEF O. 2007. The hearths at Kebara Cave and their role in site formation processes. In: O. Bar-Yosef, L. Meignen (eds) Kebara Cave, Part 1. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 91–122. MURPHY C.P. 1986. Thin section preparation of soils

and sediments. AB Academic Publishers, Berkhamsted. SCHIFFER M.B. 1972. Archaeological context and systemic context. American Antiquity 57, 156–165. SCHIFFER M.B. 1983. Toward the identification of formation processes. American Antiquity 48, 675– 706. STOOPS G. 2003. Guidelines for Analysis and Description of Soil and Regolith Thin Sections. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin.

Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 37–46.

RADIOCARBON DATING RESULTS FOR THE EARLY UPPER PALEOLITHIC OF KLISSOURA CAVE 1 Steven L. Kuhn1, Jeff Pigati2, Panagiotis Karkanas3, Margarita Koumouzelis3, Janusz K. Koz³owski4, Maria Ntinou5 and Mary C. Stiner1 1

School of Anthropology, P. O. Box 210030, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721-0030, USA; [email protected] 2 U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Federal Center, Box 25046, MS-980, Denver CO 80225, USA 3 Ephoreia for Palaeolanthropology and Speleology, Ardittou 34b, 11636, Athens, Greece 4 Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University, Golebia 11, Kraków, Poland 5 Department of Management of Cultural Heritage and Technologies, Ioannina University, Greece

Abstract This chapter reports on 29 radiocarbon dates from Middle and Upper Paleolithic layers at Klissoura 1 Cave. All but two of the dates were obtained from material identified as wood charcoal. Both standard ABA and more stringent ABOX pre-treatment protocols were used for charcoal samples. The radiocarbon dates from the Aurignacian of layers IIIe–g and IV show general stratigraphic consistency, and fit with published ages from other Aurignacian assemblages in the Balkans. Age estimates for layer V, associated with the early Upper Paleolithic Uluzzian assemblage, are ambiguous. Several samples derived from this layer provide anomalously recent ages. One radiocarbon determination, along the presence of (as yet uncharacterized) volcanic tephras in layer IV suggest that it could date to 40 kyrs BP or earlier. Dates on ABOX pretreated samples from Mousterian layers indicate that layers XVIII and XX date to 60–62 kyrs BP, although these should be considered minimum ages. Key words: Aurignacian, Uluzzian, AMS dating, ABOX pretreatment, anthracology, Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition.

INTRODUCTION This chapter reports the results of an extensive program of radiocarbon dating on the Middle and early Upper Paleolithic at Klissoura 1 Cave. Klissoura Cave contains the longest and most complete sequence of Middle and early Upper Paleolithic archaeological horizons in Greece, and one of the longest sequences in southern Europe. Radiometric dating results from the site are of considerable interest with respect to transition from Middle to Upper Paleolithic in southern Europe, as well as for understanding the chronology of the Aurignacian in the region. Table 1 shows results for 29 radiocarbon samples collected from the Upper and Middle Paleolithic layers at Klissoura 1 Cave. All but two of the reported dates were obtained on charcoal,

or material identified in the field as charcoal. In some cases the charcoal samples could actually be assigned to a genus or family of tree (Ntinou, this issue). The exceptions are two samples of land snail shell from layer 6a. A large series of dates on soil carbonates, reported in an earlier publication (Koumouzelis et al., 2001a: tab. 1), is not presented here. The carbonate dates are consistently more recent than the dates obtained from snail shell or charcoal from the same levels. The nature and origin of the carbonates dated is not entirely clear. The majority of the calcareous material in Klissoura consists of ash and some quantities of limestone clastic material from the walls of the cave (Karkanas, this issue), so the carbonates presumably derive from calcitic ash. Micromorphological studies have shown that re-crystallization of ash is generally

S. L. Kuhn et al.

38

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates on charcoal and shell from Klissoura 1 Cave material

lab

sample no.

method

pretreatment

Layer

raw C age

1s

CalPal C age

sigma

C

Gd

11546

conventional

ABA

S

Gd

7994

conventional

6a

22370

6a

23800

270

26974

611

400

28732

S

Gd

7996

conventional

6a

511

27200

500

31901

C*

RTT

4793

AMS

ABA

435

6a upper

28600

350

33058

C*

RTT

4792

AMS

506

ABA

6a upper

29150

340

33577

C

Gd

15349

400

conventional

ABA

III'

23000

540

27566

C

AA

690

73821

AMS

ABOX

III'

31460

210

35381

C

416

Gd

15351

conventional

ABA

III"

24820

520

28583

675

C*

RTT

4788+

AMS

ABA

IIIe'

22270

160

26884

579

C*

RTT

4786

AMS

ABA

IIIg

30925

420

35052

444

C

Gd

7893

conventional

ABA

IIIg

31400

1000

35979

1250

C

AA

73817

AMS

ABOX

IIIe-g

31630

250

35548

472

C

Gd

7892

conventional

ABA

IIIe-g

34700

1600

39141

1869

C

Gd

9688+

conventional

ABA

IV

22500

1000

26889

1253

C

GdA

228

conventional

ABA

IV

31150

480

35232

506

C

Gd

10562

conventional

ABA

IV

32400

600

36920

980

C*

AA

75629

AMS

ABOX

IV/V

32690

110

37225

644

C*

AA

75628

AMS

ABOX

IV/V

33150

120

37655

613

C*

RTT

4790

AMS

ABA

V upper

29660

360

33914

373

C*

RTT

4791

AMS

ABA

V upper

30774

410

34957

438

C

Gd

10714

conventional

ABA

V

>30800

C

Gd

10715

conventional

ABA

V

>31100

C

Gif

99168

AMS

ABA

V

40100

740

43841

764

C*

AA

73819

AMS

ABOX

VI

40920

580

44433

841

C*

AA

73818

AMS

ABOX

VI

41480

810

44990

934

C*

AA

73820

AMS

ABOX

VII

48990

1770

53637

3135

C*

AA

75630

AMS

ABOX

XVIII

56140

1450

NA

C*

AA

75631

AMS

ABOX

XVIII

62290

3930

NA

C*

AA

75632

AMS

ABOX

XXc

60250

2700

NA

14

14

>34930 >35098

Key: Material: C= carbon, S= land snail; samples marked with * were identified as wood charcoal. Sample no.: samples marked with + showed very low carbon content, unreliable results. Pre-treatment: ABA = standard acid/base/acid; ABOX = step-heated wet oxidation. Laboratory abbreviations: AA = Arizona/NSF (USA); Gd = Gliwice (Poland); Gif = Gif sur Yvette (France); RTT = Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel)

minimal at Klissoura but does vary locally. Stable isotope analyses of the dated carbonate samples does suggest that there was some re-crystallization of the samples dated. Values for d13C vary from –26.4 to –14.66 (‰PDB), and d18O values range from –15.99 to –4.54 (‰PDB) (Koumouzelis et al., 2001b). Two published isotopic analyses of modern ash samples gave –22.37 and –24.54 d13C (‰PDB) and –16.44 and – 17.33 d18O (‰PDB) respectively (Karkanas et al., 2007; Shahack-Gross et al., 2008). Such low val-

ues are expected during the process of ash formation and are comparable to those for more extensively studied lime mortar, which absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere in a similar way. Geogenic calcite, coming directly from limestone or chemically precipitated, would shift the original ash values higher. The reported values from Klissoura do show such a trend, implying that some re-crystallization has occurred, and/or that there has been mixing with some clastic calcite. However, because the amount of re-crystallization or mixing

Radiocarbon dating, Klissoura 1 Cave

39

Fig. 1. Radiocarbon ages from Klissoura 1 Cave. Horizontal bars = 1 sigma. Light gray hollow symbols denote problematic samples or minimum age estimates

cannot be evaluated, the ages of the carbonate samples can be only considered rough minimum age estimates. Table 1 also contains ”calibrated” radiocarbon ages generated using the CalPal online program, and calibrated according to the CalPal2007 HULU curve (May, 2009), which is based in large part on results of Fairbanks et al. (2005). These calibrated ages use the correct half-life of 14C of 5730 years (radiocarbon ages are calculated using the Libby half-life of 5568 years), and account for changes in the 14C activity of the atmosphere through time. In the absence of a universally accepted calibration curve for the period before 26,000 BP, and in the face of continuing uncertainties about severe fluctuations in atmospheric 14 C in the period between 30,000 and 40,000 years ago (Beck et al., 2001; Conard and Bolus, 2003; Fairbanks et al., 2005; Giaccio et al., 2006; but compare Higham et al., 2009), the calibrated results should be treated with caution. They are useful as estimates of the true age of samples, but close comparisons with other age estimates, especially those produced using other calibration curves, may be misleading. Thus, discussions below refer to uncorrected radiocarbon ages unless otherwise noted.

Radiocarbon ages from Klissoura 1 Cave includes dates obtained from four different laboratories, using both conventional and AMS counting methods, and two different techniques of pretreatment: ABA (acid/base/acid) treatment, and the more stringent ABOX technique. The ABOX method involves wet oxidation and step-heating of samples. The ABOX method, developed by Bird and colleagues (Bird et al., 1999) eliminates a substantially larger percentage of recent contaminants from the sample than conventional ABA treatment and promises more accurate and older age estimates from very old samples with low residual 14C. In addition, the ABOX samples were processed on an ultra-clean vacuum line dedicated to very old 14C samples with low residual activity, which reduces potential problems associated with cross-contamination between samples (Pigati et al., 2007). Age estimates from layers IIIe–g, and IV, which represent the middle and early Aurignacian are relatively consistent. They show a generally monotonic trend of increasing age, from 31–34 14 C kyrs BP in layer IIIe–g to 32–33 14C kyrs BP in layer IV (Figs 1 and 2). The entire Aurignacian sequence appears to have been created between roughly 31,000 and 33,000 14C kyrs BP, corre-

40

S. L. Kuhn et al.

Fig. 2. Calibrated radiocarbon ages from Klissoura 1 Cave. Horizontal bars = 1 sigma. Light gray hollow symbols denote problematic samples or minimum age estimates. (Note that the CalPal program does not provide calibrated ages beyond 50,000 radiocarbon years. Therefore the samples from layers XVII and XXc are plotted in the same position as in Fig. 1)

sponding with an interval of roughly 35,000– 37,500 calibrated yrs BP. As is typical of any large group of radiocarbon ages from the early Upper Paleolithic, there are some anomalies in the dates for the Aurignacian at Klissoura 1. One specimen from layer IIIe–g (Gd7892), dated using conventional counting methods, yielded an unexpectedly early age estimate (34,700 ± 1600). We note that this date has a very large uncertainty (ó=1600), and overlaps with ranges for other estimates from layers IIIe–g and IV at the 2s confidence level. Four radiocarbon dates obtained from layers III”, III’, IIIe–g, and IV are anomalously young. One of these samples (GD9688) was identified as having critically low carbon weights in the lab and another one was contaminated by fungi (RTT 4788); the age estimates are therefore suspect. However, there is no evidence that the other anomalous dates from layers III’ and III” (Gd 15349, Gd 15351) were based on problematic samples. We speculate that these unexpectedly recent ages represent small fragments of charcoal incorporated from more recent deposits. The Upper Paleolithic layers at Klissoura 1 Cave are dominated by

anthropogenic formation processes (Karkanas, this issue). Numerous shallow hearths and some pits were excavated by the inhabitants of the cave, and some localized bioturbation is apparent (Karkanas, this issue). Processes such as these could have displaced some charcoal fragments. Layer 6a is a case in point. The material from this layer, originally identified as Aurignacian, was determined to be in secondary position. The presence of radiocarbon samples with ages ranging from 22,370 ± 270 to 29,150 ± 340 in layer 6a undoubtedly reflects a mixing of materials from different deposits by anthropogenic processes. Layer V contains the early Upper Paleolithic assemblages with splintered pieces, backed crescents and other geometric forms, originally identified as Uluzzian. The age of this assemblage is of considerable interest with respect to understanding the timing of the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition in Greece and southern Europe. This is the only stratigraphically sealed EUP assemblages with geometrics known outside of Italy, and one of very few assemblages situated outside the southern extreme the Italian peninsula. Understanding its chronological relationship to similar

Radiocarbon dating, Klissoura 1 Cave

assemblages in Italy therefore is important to reconstructing the history and distribution of socalled “transitional” assemblages in southern Europe, and ultimately in assessing behavioral evolution at the interface between later Middle and early Upper Paleolithic. Unfortunately, the radiocarbon results provide ambiguous estimates for the age of layer V. Four of the five 14C ages from this layer (including two minimum age determinations) are anomalously young, in the range of 30–32 kyrs BP. These age estimates actually represent a reversal in the otherwise well-behaved Upper Paleolithic sequence, as they are younger than ages obtained from the overlying layer IV and are more in line with estimates from layer IIIe–g. The fifth date from layer V is much older (14C kyrs). However, this sample was not obtained during the excavation, but was collected while placing TL dosimeters in the site. It is derived from an area where layer V pinches out, so that layers IV and VI are in direct contact a short distance away. Thus, the precise stratigraphic origin of this sample remains somewhat uncertain. The age of this sample is also similar to two ABOX dates from layer VI, at the contact between the Middle and Upper Paleolithic sequences. It is difficult to neatly reconcile the available radiometric information on the age of layer V. Stratigraphic observations by Karkanas (this issue) show that the Aurignacian layer IV clearly truncates the underlying layers at the back of the sheltered area, including layers V, VI and VII. There is a marked erosional contact between layer IV and layer VII. Although layer IV truncates layer V as well, the processes of sedimentation and site formation in layer V are more similar to the overlying Aurignacian sequence than to the Middle Paleolithic layers. Karkanas concludes that the hiatus between layers V and IV is “relatively minor” compared with the interval represented by the erosional contact at the top of the Middle Paleolithic sequence. Layer VI meanwhile is interpreted as representing a mixture of materials from layers VII and V, probably a Middle Paleolithic deposit reworked during a subsequent early Upper Paleolithic occupation. Layer V itself is comparatively thin, and certainly does not represent an accumulation of ~10,000 years (the approximate span between the

41

earliest and latest ages). The two finite determinations of around of ~30–31 14C kyrs BP, and the two infinite (> 3114C kyrs BP) ages provide nothing more than minimum age estimates for layer V. Two alternate scenarios can be suggested. One is that the oldest set of age estimates—including the sample yielding the date of 40,100±740 14C yrs BP reported to be from layer V and the two dates of 40,920±580 and 41, 480±810 14C yrs BP from layer VI, pertain to the earliest Upper Paleolithic occupation of Klissoura 1 Cave. If so, then there is a chronological gap of 6–7000 years between layer V and both the Middle Paleolithic of layer VII and the Aurignacian of layer IV. The second interpretation is that the three dates in excess of 40 14C kyrs BP from layers V and VI actually represent fragments of charcoal reworked from the most recent Middle Paleolithic deposits at the top of layer VII. In this scenario, the age of the archaeological assemblages within layer V is constrained to between approximately 33 14C kyrs BP (layer IV) and 40 14C kyrs BP. Tephrachronology may be the best tool for resolving questions about the age of layer V at Klissoura. There is a concentration of microtephra fragments between layers IV and V (Dustin White, personal communication, March 2010). Chemical analyses of the glass shards are ongoing as of this writing. However, if these prove to represent the widespread Campanian Ignimbrite or Y5 tephra (Thunell et al., 1979; Giaccio et al., 2006; Pyle et al., 2006), then the layer V deposits are clearly older than 39.3 kyrs BP. This would in turn suggest that the early dates from layers V and VI probably do relate to first Upper Paleolithic occupations of the cave, and that there is a significant time gap between layers V and IV. Four radiocarbon ages were also obtained from clear Middle Paleolithic contexts at Klissoura 1. These range from 48,990±1,770 in layer VII, to 62,290±3,930. All four of these ages were obtained using the ABOX pretreatment technique. These results are encouraging in that they show the potential of the technique to produce reliable radiocarbon age estimates for Middle and early Upper Paleolithic samples older than 50 kyrs BP. They are also among the first reliably finite radiocarbon dates obtained from Middle Paleolithic layers in Greece.

42

S. L. Kuhn et al.

EVALUATION OF ABOX RESULTS The application of ABOX pre-treatment to the Middle and Upper Paleolithic wood charcoal samples from Klissoura 1 cave is relatively novel. The ABOX technique had not been widely applied to Paleolithic sites in Eurasia until very recently (e.g., Peresani et al., 2008; Higham et al., 2009; Kuhn et al., 2009). Results from Klissoura are encouraging in many respects, even if ABOX radiocarbon dating has not succeeded in resolving all of the problems associated with the chronology of the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition and the earliest Upper Paleolithic in Eurasia. One of the potential benefits of the ABOX technique is its potential for providing more accurate age estimates by removing more recent carbon contamination from samples than other techniques. This technical innovation promises to push the limits of radiocarbon dating significantly beyond the 50 kyrs BP boundary. To evaluate the degree of improvement using the ABOX technique, one sample from layer III’ was split into two aliquots: one was subject to ABOX pretreatment and the other to standard ABA treatment. This was the only sample large enough to be treated in this manner. The ABOX-treated fraction (AA 73821) provided an age estimate 31,460±210 14C yrs BP, whereas the fraction that underwent standard ABA pre-treatment yielded an age of 30,274±182 14C yrs BP. A recent paper (Higham et al., 2009) details an experiment with a larger number of dates from Middle and Early Upper Paleolithic layers at the site of Grotta Fumane in northern Italy. The authors report a consistent “improvement” in ABOX-treated fractions of split radiocarbon sample. Their Aurignacian samples, which are slightly older than the one obtained from Klissoura, show similar discrepancies in ages (1000–3000 years) for the split samples. The greatest discrepancies, 5000–7000 years, occur in the Middle Paleolithic layers. This is a clear demonstration of the socalled “black hole” in radiocarbon dating, where as little as 1% contamination with recent carbon can shift age estimates for even infinite-aged samples to between 35 and 40 kyrs BP (Pigati et al., 2007). The fact that finite dates as early as 62 kyrs BP were obtained from the Middle Paleolithic layers at Klissoura is a testament to the efficacy of

the ABOX method in reducing contamination to << 1.0%. Although the results from split samples from Klissoura and Fumane show the improvement in age estimates from ABOX pre-treatment, it is important to note that the age estimates for the other ABOX samples from Klissoura are not consistently older than dates on associated samples from layers III’ and IIIe–g pre-treated using the conventional method (Table 1). This result is not unexpected. As the results from Middle Paleolithic layers at Klissoura and Fumane show, the effect of more stringent sample pretreatment is most pronounced in the oldest samples. In other words, the degree of “improvement” in the comparatively recent (< 35 kyrs BP) ABOX-treated samples may not exceed the dispersal of ages or the two-sigma ranges for dates from a particular stratigraphic unit. Finally, we note that fewer than half of the 23 samples selected for ABOX processing, and none of the samples from layer V, actually survived the pre-treatment process. Interestingly, however, all of the samples subject to ABOX pretreatment had previously been identified as wood charcoal based on microscopic features such as cell structure – in most cases it was even possible to assign a charcoal sample to a particular genus (Ntinou, this issue). Sample destruction by pretreatment may therefore be evidence of in situ diagenetic alteration of graphite (Cohen-Ofri et al., 2006) in which the crystalline structure is altered while the macro-structure is preserved.

COMPARISONS TO OTHER SITES Table 2 presents a series of radiocarbon ages from selected early Upper Paleolithic sites in southern and south-central Europe. No other dated Upper Paleolithic materials from Greece is comparable to the Klissoura 1. The so-called Initial Upper Paleolithic at Lakonis Cave (Papanagopoulou et al., 2002–2004) differs significantly from both the Aurignacian and the Uluzzian at Klissoura 1 in terms of its technological and typological features. The same is true of the more recent Upper Paleolithic from Theopetra Cave. Sites in Italy and Bulgaria provide a better comparative basis, both in terms of the techno-typological characteristics of the assemblages and their chronology.

Radiocarbon dating, Klissoura 1 Cave

43

Table 2 Selected radiocarbon dates from early Upper Paleolithic layers in southern Europe Site

Industry

Grotta del Cavallo 1

Castelcivita 2

Uluzzian

Fumane Cave 3

Grotta Paglicci 4

Riparo Mochi 5

Riparo Bombrini 1

protoAurignacian

Grotta Paina 6 Fumane Cave 3

raw Layer

Temnata 9

Lakonis Cave 10

Initial UP

Theopetra Cave 11

Upper Paleolithic

CalPal sigma

14

C Age

sigma

34900

1900

39193

2084

EIII-3

32300

2700

37202

2851

EIII-4

36510

2300

40582

2246

EIII-5

29063

1500

33498

1286

rsa

32400

650

36897

1019

*

rpi

33300

430

37880

909

pie

33200

780

38114

1517

A4II

33150

600

37736

1032

A4II

33300

400

37851

857

A4II

33700

350

36921

1287

24Ai

29300

600

33587

555

24Bi

34000

900

38940

1508

G

33400

750

38496

1645

G

34680

760

39769

1000

G

34870

800

39831

1020

G

35700

850

40431

1126

G base

37400

1

42070

293

A1

32580

400

37106

790

A1

33090

400

37560

778

A2

34200

500

39586

939

9

37900

800

42500

663

9

38600

650

43038

688

A2

32343

404

36870

859

*

A2

33672

857

38693

1623

*

34600

580

39787

901

Grotte Mandrin 8

Aurignacian

C Age

EIII-2

Krems Hundsteig 7

Bacho Kiro 9

14

35000

1600

39403

1827

6a

29150

950

33417

819 1161

Base 7

32200

780

36701

Base 6b

32700

300

37219

710

6b/8

33300

820

38351

1656

TD-V-3g

>31500

TD-V-3h

>32200

TD-I-4

31900

1600

36706

1881

TD-V 4

33000

900

37795

1456

1a

38240

1160

42806

921

1a

44500

2330

48352

2759

II11

25625

500

30596

617

II11

25820

270

30858

395

*

>35400 >32265

Sources: 1 – Riel Salvatore, 2007; 2 – Gambassini, 1997; 3 – Peresani et al., 2008; 4 – Gambassini et al., 1995; 5 – Hedges et al., 1994; 6 – Broglio, 1994; 7 – Koz³owski, 2000; 8 – Slimak, 2008; 9 – Koz³owski, 2006; 10 – Panagopoulou et al., 2002–2004; 12 – Karkanas, 2001. (*) Indicates weighted average of several determinations.

44

S. L. Kuhn et al.

Generally speaking, the time span represented by the dates from the Aurignacian layers at Klissoura (27–33 KA) is consistent with the ages of Aurignacian levels at Bacho Kiro and Temnata Caves in Bulgaria. The sample of dates from Klissoura layer IV in particular fits well with results from the two Bulgarian sites. The Klissoura Aurignacian sequence as a whole appears to postdate the proto-Aurignacian from Italy, southern France, and Austria (Table 2). The proto-Aurignacian is generally considered the earliest form of Aurignacian in southern Europe (e.g., Teyssandier, 2006). It is characterized by systematic production of numerous large, straight bladelets, which are often further modified with fine, marginal retouch. Retouched bladelets are scarce in the Klissoura Aurignacian, which is instead dominated by carenated elements, retouched flakes and blade tools. These techno-typological characteristics are more indicative of local variants of classic or late Aurignacian. Thus, it is not surprising that these levels post-date proto-Aurignacian layers elsewhere in southern Europe. The age of layer V is of course more difficult to assess. Dates for Uluzzian assemblages in Italy in Table 2 provide an interesting perspective on the possible age of layer V at Klissoura. Published radiometric ages for the Italian Uluzzian sites vary between roughly 29 and 36.5 14C kyrs BP. If the dates of 40–41.5 kyrs BP from layers V and VI actually belong to the first Upper Paleolithic occupation at Klissoura, and if the microtephras between layers IV and V prove to belong the Campanian Ignimbrite/Y5 eruption, then this assemblage would predate the earliest Uluzzian from Grotta del Cavallo in southern Italy and from layer A4 at Grotta Fumane, the Uluzzian site closest to Klissoura, by several thousand years. However, this discrepancy may also be more apparent than real. The published radiocarbon dates from the southern Italian Uluzzian sites were obtained using conventional pretreatment of charcoal, or from dating of carbonized bone (RielSalvatore, 2007:94). Although the dating of apatite from burned bone is considered an acceptable procedure, it is subject to effects of contamination with recent atmospheric carbon associated with secondary calcites (Surovell, 2000). In other words, almost all of the dates in Table 2 should be considered minimum age estimates, liable to be-

ing pushed back in time as new methodologies are applied. On the other hand, we cannot at present exclude the possibility that the charcoal samples from layers V and VI dating to > 40 14C kyrs BP actually belong to the terminal Middle Paleolithic at Klissoura, and that the microtephras at the top of layer V refer to a later eruption. In this case, we can be certain only that layer V predates layer IV, which yielded radiocarbon ages between 32,400± 600 and 33,150±120 14C yrs BP. This hypothesis could place the age of layer V within the range of the recently reported results from layer A4 at Grotta Fumane, where three samples provided consistent age estimates between 33,150±350 and 33,700 ±600 14C yrs BP. At least some of the ages recently obtained for the Uluzzian at Grotta del Cavallo (Table 2; Riel-Salvatore, 2007) in southern-most Italy are substantially older. This interpretation could support a hypothesis of an early development of the Uluzzian in the south of the Italian peninsula, followed by an expansion into northern Italy and eventually Greece (e.g., Peresani, 2008). However, evaluation of this or any other scenario must await application of more stringent and accurate dating, including methodologies such as ABOX pretreatment of charcoal and ultra-filtration of bone, as well as tephrachronological analyses, to as many sites as possible. Otherwise, we run the risk of comparing dates with fundamentally dissimilar levels of reliability and precision.

SUMMARY Radiocarbon results from the Klissoura Cave 1 sequence have greatly expanded the number of dates available for the early Upper Paleolithic in Greece With the exception of a few anomalously young determinations, the age estimates for the Aurignacian layers (IIIe–g and IV) are very consistent with dates from other classic or late Aurignacian sites in the Balkans. In contrast, it has been remarkably difficult to arrive at a secure estimate for the age of layer V. The unique Uluzzian assemblage in layer V may date to more than 40 14C kyrs BP, seemingly much earlier than any comparable assemblage. This would have important implications for the origins and possible dispersal of early Upper Paleolithic assemblages with backed

Radiocarbon dating, Klissoura 1 Cave

geometrics. More secure age estimates may come from ongoing analyses of microtephras from Klissoura. Acknowledgments We are grateful to the numerous labs for their generous assistance with preparation and measurement of the 14C samples from Klissoura. These include Dr. Elizabetta Boaretto and staff of the Kimmel Center for Archaeological Sciences at the Weizmann Institute (Israel); the University of Arizona AMS Facility and the laboratory of Dr. Jay Quade; Dr. Helene Valladas and the Gif sur Yvette AMS Facility (France); and the Radiocarbon Laboratory at Gliwice, Poland. The recent radiocarbon dating efforts were supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation (to M. C. Stiner, BCS-0410654).

REFERENCES BECK J.W., RICHARDS D.A., EDWARDS R.L., SILVERMAN B.W., SMART P.L., DONAHUE D.J., HERERRA-OSTERHELD S., BURR G.S., CALSOYAS L., JULL A.J.T., BIDDULPH D. 2001. Extremely large variations of atmospheric 14C concentration during the Last Glacial period. Science 292, 2453–2458. BIRD M.I., AYLIFFE L.K., FIFIELD L.K., TURNEY C.S.M., CRESSWELL R.G., BARROWS T.T., DAVID B. 1999. Radiocarbon dating of ‘‘old’’ charcoal using a wet oxidation, stepped-combustion technique. Radiocarbon 41, 127–140. BROGLIO A. 1994. Il Paleolitico Superiore del FriuliVenezia Giulia. Atti della XXIX Riunione Scientifica del Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria. Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria, Firenze, 36– 56. COHEN-OFRI I., WEINER L., BOARETTO E., MINTZ G., WEINER S. 2006. Modern and fossil charcoal: aspects of structure and diagenesis. Journal of Archaeological Science 33, 428–439. CONARD N., BOLUS M. 2003. Radiocarbon dating the appearance of modern humans and timing of cultural innovations in Europe: new results and new challenges. Journal of Human Evolution 44, 331– 371. FAIRBANKS R.G., MORTLOCK R.A., CHIUA T., CAOA L., KAPLAN A., GUILDERSON T.P., FAIRBANKS T.W., BLOOM A.L., GROOTES P.M., NADEAU M.-J. 2005. Radiocarbon calibration curve spanning 0 to 50,000 years BP based on paired 230Th/234U/238U and 14C dates on pristine corals. Quaternary Science Reviews 24, 1781–1796. GAMBASSINI P. (ed.). 1997. Il Paleolitico di Castel-

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civita: Cultural e Ambiente. Electa, Naples. GAMBASSINI P., MARTINI F., PALMA DI CESNOLA A., PERETTO C., PIPERNO M., RONCHITELLI A.M., SARTI L. 1995. Il Paleolitico dell’Italia centro-meridonale. Guide Archaeologiche: Preistoria e Protostoria in Italia 1. UISPP and ABACO Edizioni, Forli. GIACCIO B., HAJDAS I., PERESANI M., FEDELE F.G., ISAIA R. 2006. The Campanian Ignimbrite tephra and its relevance for the timing of the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic shift. In: N.J. Conard (ed.) When Neanderthals and Modern Humans Met. Kerns Verlag, Tübingen, 343–375. HEDGES R.E.M., HOUSLEY R.A., BRONK RAMSEY C., VAN KLINKEN G.J. 1994. Radiocarbon dates from the Oxford AMS system: Archaeometry Datelist 18. Archaeometry 36, 337–374. HIGHAM T., FIONA BROCK F., PERESANI M., BROGLIO A., WOOD R., DOUKA K. 2009. Problems with radiocarbon dating the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in Italy. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 1257–1267. KARKANAS P. 2001. Site formation processes in Theopetra Cave: a record of climatic change during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene in Thessaly, Greece. Geoarchaeology 16, 373–399. KARKANAS P., SHAHACK-GROSS R., AYALON A., BAR-MATTHEWS M., BARKAI R., FRUMKIN A., GOPHER A., STINER M. 2007. Evidence for habitual use of fire at the end of the Lower Paleolithic: Site formation processes at Qesem Cave, Israel. Journal of Human Evolution 53, 197– 212. KOUMOUZELIS M., GINTER B., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., PAWLIKOWSKI M., BAR-YOSEF O., ALBERT M.R., LITYÑSKA-ZAJ¥C M., STWORZEWICZ E., WOJTAL P., LIPECKI G., TOMEK T., BOCHEÑSKI Z.M., PAZDUR A. 2001a. The Early Upper Palaeolithic in Greece: the excavations in Klissoura Cave. Journal of Archaeological Science 28, 515–539. KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., ESCUTENAIRE C., SITLIVY V., SOBCZYK K, VALLADAS H., TISNERAT-LABORDE N., WOJTAL P., GINTER B., KACZANOWSKA M., KAZIOR B., ZIÊBA A. 2001b. La fin du Paléolithique moyen et le début du Paléolithique supérieur en Gréce: la séquence de la Grotte 1 de Klissoura. L’Anthropologie 105, 469–504. KOZ£OWSKI J.K. 2000. The problem of cultural continuity between the Middle and the Upper Paleolithic in central and eastern Europe. In O. BarYosef, D. Pilbeam (eds) The Geography of Neandertals and Modern Humans in Europe and the Greater Mediterranean. Peabody Museum Bulletin

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8, Cambridge, MA, 77–115. KOZ£OWSKI J.K. 2006. A dynamic view of Aurignacian technology. In O. Bar-Yosef, J. Zilhao (eds) Towards a Definition of the Aurignacian. Trabalhos de Arqueologia 45, Istituto Portuges de Argueologia, Lisbon, 21–34. KUHN S., STINER M.C., GÜLEÇ E., ÖZER I., YILMAZ H., BAYKARA I., AÇÝKKOL A., GOLDBERG P., MARTÍNEZ K., ÜNAY E., SUATAALPASLAN F. 2009. The Early Upper Paleolithic Occupations at ÜçaÈÏzlÏ Cave (Hatay, Turkey). Journal of Human Evolution 56, 87–113. PAPANAGOPOULOU E., KARKANAS P., TSARTSIDOU G., KOTJABOPOULOU E., HARVATI K., NTINOU M. 2002–2004. Late Pleistocene archaeological and fossil human evidence from Lakonis Cave, southern Greece. Journal of Field Archaeology 29, 323–349. PERESANI M. 2008. A new cultural frontier for the last Neanderthals: the Uluzzian in northern Italy. Current Anthropology 49, 725–731. PERESANI M., CREMASCHI M., FERRARO F., FALGUÈRES C., BAHAIN J.-J., GRUPPIONI G., SIBILIA E., QUARTA G., CALCAGNILE L., DOLO J.-M. 2008. Age of the final Middle Paleolithic and Uluzzian levels at Fumane Cave, Northern Italy, using 14C, ESR, 234U/230Th and thermoluminescence methods. Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 2986–2996. PIGATI J.S., QUADE J., WILSON J., JULL A.J.T., LIFTON N.A. 2007. Development of low-background vacuum extraction and graphitization systems for 14C dating of old (40–60 ka) samples. Quaternary International 166, 4–14.

PYLE D.M., RICKETTS G.D., MARGARI V., VAN ANDEL T.H., SINITSYN A.A., PRASLOV N.D., LISITSYN S. 2006. Wide dispersal and deposition of distal tephra during the Pleistocene ‘Campanian Ignimbrite/Y5’ eruption, Italy. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 2713–2728. RIEL-SALVATORE J. 2007. The Uluzzian and the Middle-Upper Paleolithic Transition in Southern Italy. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ. SHAHACK-GROSS R., AYALON A., GOLDBERG P., GOREN Y., OFEK B., RABINOVICH R., HOVERS E. 2008. Formation Processes of Cemented Features in Karstic Cave Sites Revealed Using Stable Oxygen and Carbon Isotopic Analyses: A Case Study at Middle Paleolithic Amud Cave, Israel. Geoarchaelogy 23, 43–62. SLIMAK L. 2008. The Neronian and the historical structure of cultural shifts from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic in Mediterranean France. Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 2204–2214. SUROVELL T. 2000. Radiocarbon dating of bone apatite by step heating. Geoarchaeology 15, 591–608. TEYSSANDIER N. 2006. Questioning the first Aurignacian: mono or multi cultural phenomenon during the formation of the Upper Paleolithic in Central Europe and the Balkans. Anthropologie (Brno) 44, 9–29. THUNELL R., FEDERMAN A., SPARKS S., WILLIAMS D. 1979. The age, origin, and volcanological significance of the Y-5 ash layer in the Mediterranean. Quaternary Research 12, 241–253.

Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 47–69.

WOOD CHARCOAL ANALYSIS AT KLISSOURA CAVE 1 (PROSYMNA, PELOPONESE): THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC VEGETATION Maria Ntinou Department of Cultural Environment and New Technologies Management, University of Ioannina, G. Seferi 2, 30100 Agrinio, Greece; [email protected] Abstract Excavations at Klissoura Cave 1 revealed a long chrono-cultural sequence of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic deposits. Wood charcoal samples from the Upper Palaeolithic layers and hearths were analyzed aiming to approach the late Middle Pleniglacial and Lateglacial vegetation of the area under study and to reveal aspects of the use of firewood by the inhabitants of the cave. The wood charcoal remains reflect the presence of a mosaic of vegetation types in the broader area around the cave during the Uluzzian, the Aurignacian and the Gravettoid. Dry, parkland vegetation with Prunus covered the rocky hills above the cave while open woodland with mesophilous and thermophilous trees spread at the foothills and the valley floor. These characteristics are attributed to the favourable conditions of the late MIS 3 interstadials between 39 and 27 kyrs BP. During the Lateglacial dry parkland predominated probably as a result of the decrease of the precipitation caused by the climatic extremes of the MIS 2. The wood charcoal remains from the hearths show that the open woodland with mesophilous taxa was a regular source for firewood provisioning probably because it extended at the foothills and the valley floor and was easily accessible. A multi-purpose function of the hearths, especially the Aurignacian clay-lined ones, is postulated. Embers might have been used for the transformation of raw materials, indirect cooking, heating and probably drying and curing. Key words: Wood charcoal, vegetation, firewood, hearths, Upper Palaeolithic, Middle Pleniglacial, Lateglacial.

INTRODUCTION Excavations at Klissoura Cave 1 revealed a long chrono-cultural sequence of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic deposits (Koumouzelis et al., 2001). The ongoing project at the site aims to provide information concerning the particular characteristics of the Palaeolithic sequence of the cave and its various aspects including material culture, economy/subsistence, environment, chronology, etc., and to incorporate the relevant data within the broader context of major Palaeolithic research issues. During the course of the excavations at Klissoura Cave 1 various hearth structures and superimposed hearth layers were uncovered. The sediments from such features and from the layers in which they were embedded were systematically

sampled for archaeobotanical remains and in particular the wood charcoal. The recovery and subsequent study of the wood charcoal had a twofold aim: – the identification of the woody plant species used for various purposes (heating, lighting, food preparation, etc.) by the Palaeolithic foragers, – the reconnaissance of the local Late Pleistocene vegetation types with reference to the prevalent environmental and climatic conditions. As part of the ongoing research project at Klissoura Cave 1, the results of the analysis of the wood charcoal from Upper Palaeolithic contexts is presented in the following pages. The wood charcoal samples were obtained from the hearths and from scatters within the deposits corresponding to the Uluzzian, <40 kyrs BP), the Aurignacian and the non-Aurignacian Upper Palaeolithic

M. Ntinou

48

Table 1 Correlation between the sedimentary, facies and cultural sequence of Klissoura Cave 1, the available radiocarbon dates and the climatic and Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) sequence Layer

Facies

Cultural period

14C yr BP

Cal yr BP

Climatic sequence

MIS

IIa-d

B

Epigravettian

14,280±90

17,780–17,140

Lateglacial

2

27–33 kyrs

32–37.5 kyrs

Middle Pleniglacial

3

33–40 kyrs

37–44 kyrs

III' III''

Gravettoid D

IIIa-g IV V

late Uluzzian middle/upper Aurignacian layers

E

lower Aurignacian layer Uluzzian

Facies sequence after Karkanas, this volume, radiocarbon dates after Kuhn et al., this volume and Koumouzelis et al., 2001, MIS and climatic sequences after Lowe and Walker, 1997

(Gravettoid) (33–27 kyrs BP) and the Epigravettian (<15 kyrs BP) cultural complexes.

METHODS AND MATERIALS The analysis and interpretation of wood charcoal macroremains from archaeological sites has been used as a means for reconstructing past vegetation and ecological conditions as well as the management of woodland and the utilization of plants in domestic and/or industrial activities (Vernet, 1992; Chabal, 1997; Thiébault, 2002; Fiorentino and Magri, 2008). Charcoal analysis is one of the major contributions to palaeoenvironmental reconstruction but the following prerequisites should be fulfilled in order to achieve meaningful results: the charcoal assemblages should be the result of domestic fuel burning and should come from deposits that accumulated over a long period of time (scattered charcoal in the sediment of layers, in pits, etc.), thus reflecting long-lasting patterns of firewood gathering and woodland management. Through such means diachronic changes of the local vegetation caused by natural factors or human activities can be inferred from the identified plant taxa and the changes in their frequencies through time (Chabal, 1997; Théry-Parisot et al., 2010). The use of particular plant taxa of specific contexts and/or the function of particular features can be studied by means of the analysis of wood charcoal macroremains found in short-term deposits, namely hearths and other burning features and/or destruction layers. The composition of wood charcoal assemblages from such deposits may differ significantly from that of the scattered

material of the corresponding layer because it usually reflects a single episode of use, probably the last one (PerlÀs, 1977; Badal, 1992; Chabal, 1997; Théry-Parisot et al., 2010). The above-mentioned lines of investigation of wood charcoal analysis have been followed at Klissoura Cave 1. The study incorporated wood charcoals scattered in the sediments of the excavated layers and samples from numerous hearths. Therefore systematic sampling for the palaeoenvironmental investigations was conducted while digging the hearths of the Upper Palaeolithic levels, and obtaining scattered charcoal from the deposits of the Upper Palaeolithic layers II to V excavated in trenches AA2-4, BB1, BB2, BB4 and CC3 during the 2002 through the 2006 excavation seasons. Water-flotation was systematically applied to the content of the hearths and the excavated sediments using a stack of two sieves of 1 mm and 0.30 mm mesh. The heavy residue in the flotation machine was retained in a 1 mm mesh. Additionally, bigger pieces of charcoal were recovered by dry sieving of the sediment prior to flotation and/or were directly hand-picked during the course of the excavation. The sampling process provided 109 samples. The botanical identification was applied to the coarse fraction of wood charcoal that was concentrated in the 1mm sieves (floated and residual). In general, wood charcoal was quite scarce and the fragments were usually no larger than 2 to 3 mm. The fine fraction of wood charcoal (0.30 mm mesh) was not processed for analysis. For the botanical identification of each wood charcoal fragment we used a dark/bright field incident light mi-

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1

49

Table 2 The results from the analysis of wood charcoal scattered in the sediment of the Upper Palaeolithic layers at Klissoura Cave 1 Epigravettian Gravettoid Late Uluzzian Layer

IIa-d

III’

III’’

Taxa

n

n

n

Angiosperm

1

Aurignacian IIIe-g n

Uluzzian IV

%

n

V %

n

%

1

0.8

1

2.0

28

21.2

13

26.5

7

15.9

2

1.5

1

2.0

2

4.5

Carpinus/Ostrya

2

4.5

cf. Carpinus/Ostrya

2

4.5

Acer sp. cf. Acer sp.

Juniperus sp.

1

2.0

Leguminosae

1

2.0

cf. Leguminosae

1

2.0

Labiatae cf. Labiatae

Olea europaea

1 1

8

Prunus amygdalus

3

1

2

Prunus t. P. amygdalus/ P. webbii

8

6.1

3

6.1

7

5.3

3

6.1

1

0.8

12

9.1

11

22.4

2

4.5

2

1.5

4

8.2

2

4.5

Prunus t. P. spinosa/ P. mahaleb Prunus webbii Prunus sp.

7

1

1

cf. Prunus sp.

1

1

Quercus sp. deciduous type

1

37

28.0

4

8.2

21

47.7

4

1

0.8

1

2.0

1

2.3

1

0.8

28

21.2

1

2.0

1

2.0

Quercus sp. cf. evergreen type Quercus sp. Rhamnus sp. Ulmus sp. cf. Ulmus sp. cf. Vitis sp. Non identifiable Total

2

2

18

16

4 3

132

3.0 100

3 49

6.1 100

5 44

11.4 100

Relative frequencies are only indicative since the number of wood-charcoal fragments per assemblage is generally low

croscope with magnifications of ×50 up to ×500 times, the anatomy atlas of Schweingruber (1990) and the reference collections of the Laboratory of the Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Valencia, Spain and the Wiener Laboratory of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Greece. The wood charcoal samples were grouped together and constitute the assemblages of twentynine (29) hearths and the layers, from bottom to top V, IV, IIIa-g, III-III’ and II. Table 1 presents the sedimentary, cultural and facies sequence of

the cave correlated with the available radiocarbon dates and Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) sequence. The Klissoura deposits are generally poor in charcoal (see Tables 2, 3 and 4) and thus a quantitative presentation1 of the results would not be statistically meaningful. Therefore we considered that a possible approach for the Klissoura data would be the presence/absence analysis, a reliable method for the interpretation of the archaeological wood charcoal (Willcox, 1974), where each taxon present in each assemblage is regarded as equally significant irrespective of actual quanti-

M. Ntinou

50

Table 3 Wood-charcoal analysis results from hearths 14a, 22, 43, 52, 53, 119 and 50 of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence at Klissoura Cave 1 middle-upper Aurignacian layers Layer Taxa

n

IIIe-g

IIIg

14a

22 %

Angiosperm Acer sp.

30

37.04

cf. Acer sp.

Uluzzian V

n

%

1

1.25

60

75.0

10

12.5

43

50

52

n

n

n

%

n

100

87.7

9

1

0.9

7

1

0.9

13

11

9.6

1

0.9

Juniperus sp.

4

Prunus amygdalus

7

Quercus sp. deciduous type

31

38.27

9

11.25

20

119

n

9

Prunus sp.

IV-VI 53

Quercus sp. Rhamnus sp. Ulmus sp.

3 20

24.69

Non identifiable Total

2 81

100

80

100

11

3 20

31

114

100

15

Relative frequencies are shown for those hearths with a relatively large number of wood-charcoal fragments

ties recorded by fragments’ number. This allows us to assess the overall vegetation characteristics of the Klissoura Cave 1 area. However, a combination of presence/absence and frequency of occurrence presentation may facilitate comparison between hearths and layer assemblages and may help recording the diachronic changes of the vegetation (for example see Figs 3b and 4). The dates mentioned in the text are all in 14C years BP unless indicated otherwise. When reference to cal BP dates is made it is in relation to the pollen and/or the GRIP record.

RESULTS The plant list A total of 1302 wood charcoal fragments have been analyzed and a minimum of 17 taxa were identified. The identified taxa are the following: Angiosperm, Acer sp. (maple) (Fig. 1a, b), cf. Acer sp., Carpinus/Ostrya (hornbeam/hop hornbeam), cf. Carpinus/Ostrya, Juniperus sp. (juniper) (Fig. 2e), Labiatae (the mint family), cf. Labiatae, Leguminosae, cf. Leguminosae, Olea europaea (olive), cf. Pistacia terebinthus (terebinth), Prunus amygdalus (almond) (Fig. 2a, b), Prunus webbii (Webb’s almond) (Fig. 2c, d), Pru-

nus type P. amygdalus/P. webii, Prunus type P. spinosa/P. mahaleb (blackthorn/St. Lucie’s cherry), Prunus sp. (the plum family), cf. Prunus sp., Quercus sp. deciduous type (deciduous oak) (Fig. 1c–e), Quercus sp. evergreen type (Kermes/ Holm oak) (Fig. 2f), Quercus sp., Rhamnus sp. (buckthorn), Ulmus sp. (elm) (Fig. 1f), cf. Ulmus sp., cf. Vitis sp. (vine). Their distribution and frequencies in the assemblages from excavated layers and hearths is shown in Tables 2–4. The majority of the taxa could not be differentiated anatomically below the genus level due to great anatomical similarity of the various species included in a certain genus, as is the case of Acer, Ulmus, Juniperus, etc.. For the Labiatae and Leguminosae the identification was restricted to family level due to the great similarity of the genera included in these families and to the small size of the observed specimens. In the cases of cf. Pistacia terebinthus, cf. Vitis, cf. Prunus, cf. Leguminosae and cf. Labiatae, the prefix “cf.” indicates that the specimens bore a strong similarity to a particular genus, species or family, but the full range of criteria for the identification were missing. The species or groups of species of the Prunus genus have been identified following Schwein-

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1

51

Table 4 Wood-charcoal analysis results from hearths of Layer IV (Lower Aurignacian) of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence at Klissoura Cave 1 25

Hearths Taxa

n

27 %

n

%

29

41

44

45

46

48

87

88

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

Angiosperm Acer sp.

1 84

91.3

47

83.9

1

7

2

2

2

4

1

15

cf. Acer sp. Juniperus sp. Leguminosae

1

cf. Pistacia terebinbthus

1

Prunus amygdalus

5

Prunus webbii Prunus sp.

2

2.17

1

1.79

cf. Prunus sp. Quercus sp. deciduous type

1

1

2

6

1

1 2

2.17

4

4.35

7

12.5

1

1.79

5

1

1

Quercus sp. evergeen type Quercus sp. Rhamnus sp.

2

3

Ulmus sp.

1

Non identifiable Total

92

100

56

100

3

18

4

4

Hearths

90

91

97

101

33

38

Taxa

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

%

n

n

%

15

89

28.8

7

3

5.36

47

6

12

49

85

1

1

5

17

86

100

n

n

Angiosperm Acer sp.

1

4

cf. Acer sp.

3

Juniperus sp.

13 2

3

0.97

Leguminosae cf. Pistacia terebinbthus Prunus amygdalus Prunus webbii

4

Prunus sp.

1

3

2

cf. Prunus sp.

1

Quercus sp. deciduous type

6 3

Rhamnus sp.

10.0 33.7

14

25.0

7

2.27

3

5.36

28

9.06

31

55.4

1

2

15

4.85

32

10.4

5

8.93

1

2

2

1

1

Quercus sp. evergeen type Quercus sp.

31 104

1

1

Ulmus sp. Non identifiable

2

1

1

3

Total

3

1

2

14

1

31

309

100

8

56

100

Relative frequencies are shown for those hearths with a relatively large number of wood-charcoal fragments

1

2

7

20

52

M. Ntinou

Fig. 1. Wood-anatomy of the plant taxa identified in the Upper Palaeolithic charcoal assemblages from Klissoura Cave 1

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1

53

Fig. 2. Wood-anatomy of the plant taxa identified in the Upper Palaeolithic charcoal assemblages from Klissoura Cave 1

M. Ntinou

54

Table 5 Criteria for the identification of Prunus species or groups of species at Klissoura Cave 1 Ray-width 5 cells or less

over 5 cells, mostly 6-7

insufficient tangential section

Ringporous

Prunus webbii

Prunus amygdalus

Prunus type P. amygdalus/P. webbii

Diffuseporous

-

Prunus type P. spinosa/ P. mahaleb

gruber (1990 p. 643) and using two basic criteria: a) the distribution of the pores in the transverse section being either ring-porous or diffuse and b) the width of the rays that can vary from maximum 3–4 cells to maximum 7–8, although ray-widths of different species are usually quite overlapping. According to these criteria, the Klissoura Cave 1 Prunus specimens have been attributed to a particular species or groups of species as shown in Table 5. In those cases that the transverse section was too small to observe any annual ring and/or the charcoal fragments were too small for systematic ray-width counts we maintained the generic Prunus sp. Concerning the genus Quercus, in the majority of the cases a broader group of the deciduous species (Q. sp. type deciduous) with ring-porous distribution of vessels in the transverse section has been differentiated from other specimens that did not preserve an entire annual ring (Quercus sp.) or that showed the diffuse pore distribution of the evergreen oak species (Q. sp. type evergreen). For the Acer genus, we can only exclude the possibility of having represented A. platanoides/A. pseudoplatanus that generally show larger rays than the ones observed in the Klissoura specimens (Fig. 2b). Evidence of biodegradation, especially in the form of fungal attack, has been recorded in many of the charcoal fragments irrespective of the taxon or the context in which they were found. Fungi and invertebrate attack present in wood and charcoal from Palaeolithic contexts may be related to the use of decayed and dead wood (fallen branches, fallen trees, dry standing trees or driftwood) (Théry-Parisot, 2001). This in turn might indicate

fuel exploitation strategies focusing on easily collectable wood and/or deliberate selection of the physiological state of the wood for different purposes (Asouti and Austin, 2005; Henry et al., 2009; Théry-Parisot, 2001). However, biodegradation may present different stages and degrees of alteration, hence the difficulties in determining specific patterns of activity by means of such evidence alone (Théry-Parisot, 2001; Théry-Parisot and Texier, 2006). The vegetation Figure 3a shows the distribution and absolute frequency of the identified taxa in each layer of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence. Acer, Prunus (all groups or species), Quercus sp. the deciduous type and Olea europaea are the taxa with a constant presence in the majority of the assemblages. Ulmus sp. and Juniperus sp. are present in a few assemblages while the remaining taxa occur sporadically. The taxa with a constant presence are also the most abundant in the assemblages. The environmental preferences of these taxa and the conditions under which they grow in relation to the topography of the area and the broader Plenigalcial climatic context may help us to assess the characteristics of the local vegetation in the Klissoura gorge. The Prunus species or groups of species -almond, Webb’s almond and blackthorn-that have been identified at the cave, share common characteristics and environmental preferences. They are all sun-loving small trees or shrubs that grow on sunny rocks, dry hillsides and bushy places (Polunin, 1980) resisting well dry conditions and low temperatures, eroded soils and denudated stony terrain. The abundant presence of Prunus in all the assemblages together with that of buckthorn (Rhamnus sp.), juniper and species of the leguminosae and labiatae family, indicates the existence of open formations. Dry parkland with scattered trees and shrubs capable of thriving on poor soils and rocky places, would have probably extended along the limestone hills that form the Klissoura gorge, which is a highly karstic environment characterized by deep solution runnels and flutes that are due to runoff on bare rock surfaces. The presence and abundance of mesophilous taxa like deciduous oak, indicates that wooded thickets would have also existed in the area. Oaks

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1

55

Fig. 3. The vegetation and the wood-charcoal sequence: a. The presence and absolute frequency of the identified plant taxa in successive layers of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence at Klissoura Cave 1. Each layer includes both scattered in the sediment wood charcoal and hearth contents. b. The wood-charcoal Upper Palaeolithic sequence of Klissoura Cave 1

together with a few hornbeam/hop hornbeam individuals would have probably been confined to the valley and near the foothills, where the erosion of the hills would have caused the accumulation of deeper soils. Elms would have also grown on the valley floor on deeper alluvial soils and close to the water course.

The hypothesis that mesophilous species concentrated near the foothills and in the valley, implies that, apart from the topography, the overall environmental conditions were posing certain constraints to tree-growth. In this respect it is interesting to note that almost all the deciduous oak specimens showed narrow or very narrow growth

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rings (Fig. 2c, d), a characteristic that can be associated to environmental stress (moisture deficit, poor soils and lack of nutrients, etc.) or competition between individuals. Similarly, narrow growth rings were observed in Ulmus wood charcoal (Fig. 2f). If we take into consideration the dry habitats inferred by the Prunus presence, we may confer that the little annual growth of the deciduous oak was due to low moisture levels. Nevertheless, environmental stress and competition might have affected the growth of the trees when the former caused the concentration of the most moisture demanding species on the less poor soils, which in turn triggered the competition between individuals for the acquisition of nutrients, moisture, etc. The Acer genus might be represented in the charcoal assemblages by many different species, which grow in environments that range from woodland to bushy places and rocky hillsides (e.g., A. sempervirens and A. mospessulanum). It is probable that maple held a transitional role in the mosaic vegetation of the area growing at the edges of the wooded oak thickets and towards the dry hills of the Klissoura gorge. The constant and abundant presence of the maple in the Upper Palaeolithic hearths (Tables 3, 4) argues in favour of such a hypothesis; these trees would have grown close to the cave, at the foothills, and therefore firewood would have been readily available close to the site. Finally, some thermophilous species, represented by the olive and the evergreen oaks, were probably growing in the area during the MIS 3 (59–26 kyrs cal BP) and MIS 2 (26–11.5 kyrs cal BP). An Olea specimen from the Middle Palaeolithic level XVII has been dated to 56,140±1450 BP (AA 75630) (for discussion of the dates see Kuhn, this issue) and at face value it indicates the local presence of the species during the earliest part of the MIS 3. The continuous presence of the olive in layers IV and IIIe-g and the coeval presence of evergreen oak (layer IV) may be attributed to the local persistence of these taxa in thermophilous refugia during the later part of the MIS 3. Recent studies indicate the adaptability of the olive to diverse environmental conditions and suggest its survival during the Last Glaciation and the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in protected microenvironments, particularly riparian habitats (Terral et al. 2004, 2005), which might be the

case of the Klissoura gorge. However, the presence of the olive during the Lateglacial (layer II) is not clear. Although the species is represented in proportions similar to Prunus the date of an Olea charcoal from layer II falls within the Holocene (AA 73816–3980±70 BP) and apparently indicates taphonomic biases. This hypothesis is supported by the observation that the uppermost sequences A and B, the latter including layer II, are particularly affected by bioturbation due to their position closer to the present surface (Karkanas, this issue). Therefore, it is possible that the olive wood charcoal (or at least part of it) in layer II is intrusive from the directly overlying Holocene layers. In general, the wood charcoal results indicate the presence of a mosaic of environments and vegetation types in the broader area of the cave (Fig. 3). Dry, parkland vegetation would have covered the rocky hills and it would have been substituted by open woodland with mesophilous and thermophilous trees at the foothills and the valley floor. Thermophilous species would have grown in the most protected enclaves in the gorge. This situation would have prevailed for most part of the period from 40 to 27 kyrs BP with more diversity and relatively moister conditions during the earlier part of this interval. Gradually, open parkland would have expanded indicating drier conditions especially during the Lateglacial (Fig. 3b). Similar conclusions concerning the types of habitats in the area have been reached through the study of plant macroremains and bird remains from the Aurignacian levels (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Bocheñski and Tomek, this issue). The identified plant macroremains can be related to “dry and open habitats” while the identified bird species “indicate a mosaic habitat including open areas with rocky ground and low scrub and adjoining sparse wood” (Koumouzelis et al., 2001 p. 532). The fauna of the Upper Palaeolithic levels indicates the diversity of habitats exploited by the Klissoura hunter-gatherers as well as a shift from moister conditions (layers V and IV) to open habitats (layers III and II) (Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). Moreover, the shell ornaments found in the Upper Palaeolithic layers of the cave represent a great number of species that reflect environmental heterogeneity and a complex mosaic of habitats in the Peloponnese (Stiner, this issue).

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1

Firewood collection Hearths and fireplaces may contain archaeobotanical macro and microremains that can be very informative about the use of plant resources, the consumption of plant foods and to a lesser degree about the vegetation. Wood charcoal remains concentrated in such features mostly reflect shortterm events, i.e. the last burning episode (Badal, 1992; Chabal, 1997; PerlÀs, 1977). The analysis concerning the palaeovegetation of an area, would be complementary to that of scattered wood charcoal, especially when numerous hearths were exposed (Ntinou, 2002). Aspects of the human activities related to the use of hearths such as the collection/selection of fuel, type of fuel, intensity of use of the hearths and the discard of hearth remains is informed through the study of wood charcoal macroremains. The Upper Palaeolithic sequence of Klissoura Cave 1 is mainly the result of anthropogenic processes in the form of hearths and dumped, rakedout and trampled ash remains (Karkanas, this issue). A large number (a hundred approximately) of various types of hearths such as flat hearths, clay-lined fireplaces, stone-lined hearths, have been separately excavated in the layers that constitute the Upper Palaeolithic sequence. The hearths with a clay structure were the most characteristic of the Aurignacian levels (IV and IIIa-g). All hearth types are characterized by massive, firm white ash complexes (MWA facies) and represent mostly undisturbed, intact ash accumulations, produced by several burning episodes. The high degree of calcination of the ash components and their grey to white colours are features that can classify the burnt remains as results of human made combustion structures of high intensity (Karkanas, this issue). The high content of wood ash crystals in the ash deposits (Karkanas, this issue) and the lack of major quantities of herbaceous plant and dicotyledonous leaves phytoliths (Albert, this issue) suggests that wood was probably the major fuel used. However, wood charcoal is not abundant in any of the combustion structures (Tables 3 and 4). The majority of the hearths contained only ash (and CaCO3 crusts), while charcoal, occasionally friable and powdery, tended to disintegrate into ash. The manufacture and use of clay-lined fireplaces was an important activity during the Aurig-

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nacian (layers IV and IIIa-g respectively). Reddish clay fireplaces, approximately 50 cm in diameter, are easily defined in the field as discrete red compact features with a basin-like shape. The analysis of various such hearths has shown the intentional use of clay from the alluvial soils found in the floodplain in front of the cave for their preparation (Karkanas et al., 2004). Despite the overall large number of excavated hearths (approximately one hundred), only twenty-nine contained wood charcoal fragments (Table 6) and in the majority of the cases these were rather scarce. The results of each studied feature are shown in Tables 3 and 4. Figure 4 shows the relative frequency of the taxa identified in each wood charcoal-rich hearth (14, 22, 25, 27, 85, 47 and 53) in comparison to the assemblage of its corresponding layer. The most striking observation is that in the majority of the hearths the macro-charcoals are only a few whereas abundant remains have been observed under the microscope in ash micromorphological samples (facies MWA; see Karkanas, this issue). A possible reason for the scarcity of macro-charcoal is the repeated use of the hearths where burning was intense and almost complete. Moreover, the use of the cave was quite intensive especially during the Aurignacian period, and this would have resulted in the discard of hearth remains through deliberate or accidental activities such as cleaning, scooping out of ashes and trampling. We would expect that the clay-lined fireplaces concentrated more charcoal, given the relative protection against dispersal due to their basin-like shape. This may be the reason for a greater preservation of charcoals in a few cases such as in hearths 14, 22, 27 (Tables 2–4). Hearths 85 and 25 are stone-lined and seem to account for the in situ preservation of a relatively high number of charcoal fragments. Nevertheless, other clay-lined or stone-lined hearths do not show similar characteristics and usually their content is only ash accumulations with very few and friable charcoals speks. The qualitative and quantitative composition of the hearths may vary considerably even between structures that correspond to the same chrono-cultural context (Fig. 4). Similarly, the quantitative results from the hearths diverge from

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Table 6 Hearths with wood-charcoal remains Hearth No

Layer

14 22

Stone-lined (s.l.) Clay structure Related to stones (r.l.)

Shape

Diameter

Location

Depth

IIIe-g

oval

50-100

yes

IIIg

round

70

yes

A2, AA1

110-135

B1, B2

25

IV

round

25-30

traces

125-130

r.s.

A1, A2, B1, B2

27

IV

round

40

yes

145-175

s.l.

A2

29

IV

round

35-40

yes

150-160

B1

33

IV

oval

50

155-160

r.s.

A3

38

IV

round

40-60

155-160

r.s.

B1, B2

41

IV

oval

<60

160

traces

B1, B2

160-170

44

IV

oval

45

IV

round

50

yes

A1, B1

160-170

25

yes

B1

46

IV

160-165

round

35

yes

B1

47

160-165

IV

oval

45

A1, B1

160-170

48

IV

round

25

B1

165-175

49

IV

round

30

A1

165-170

85

IV

round

30

AA2

145

86

IV

round

25-30

87

IV

oval

60-150

traces

s.l.

88

IV

oval

60-90

yes

s.l.

90

IV

round

40-60

yes

91

IV

round

30

yes

BB1

155

97

IV

round

25-30

yes

BB1, BB2

180

100

IV

oval

70

101

IV

round

80

119

IV-VI

oval

60

43

V

round

110

50

V

round

<30

53

V

oval

52

V

round

r.s.

yes s.l.

yes s.l

AA2, BB2

145

BB2, BB3, CC2

145-160

CC1

145-155

BB3, CC3

150-165

AA2

180

AA1, BB1

170-175

BB1, CC1

180

B1, B2

175

B1

170-175

100

A1

175-180

30

A1

170-190

traces

The list includes information concerning the characteristics of each hearth, their location in the cave and in the Upper Palaeolithic sequence and the depth in which they were found

those of the assemblages of the corresponding layers. An example of the opportunistic character of the hearth wood charcoal content can be seen from the analysis of the middle-upper Aurignacian hearths 14 and 22 and their relation to layer IIIe-g (Fig. 4a). Two taxa are common in both hearths but hearth 14 includes a third taxon not identified in hearth 22 and the frequency of the common taxa is very different. Both hearths include mainly mesophilous species representing the woodland formations that probably grew in

the foothills and the valley bottom. The presence and abundance of Ulmus in hearth 14 is reflected in the assemblage of layer IIIe-g and corroborates to the importance of the taxon in the vegetation of the river valley. However, Prunus (all species) that was identified as a component of the layer IIIe-g assemblage as well as in other fill assemblages, is not present in the middle-upper Aurignacian hearths. In a similar fashion the lower Aurignacian hearths 25, 27, 85 and 47 (Fig. 4b) are very variable, especially in their quantitative composition,

Fig. 4. The hearths: a. Wood-charcoal results of Hearths 14a and 22 and comparison with their corresponding layer IIIe-g, b. Wood-charcoal results of Hearths 25, 27, 47 and 85 and comparison with their corresponding layer IV, c. Wood-charcoal results of Hearth 53 and comparison with the corresponding layer V. d. Location of the hearths in the cave

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1 59

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uncovered in close proximity to one another and in a the same stratigraphic position as hearths 25, 27 and 85 and thus could have been of the same nature sensu lato. The comparison of the wood charcoal assemblage of layer IV (Fig. 4b) demonstrates that all the hearths contain the major components of the open parkland and woodland formations although in variable frequencies, thus supporting the reconstructed characteristics of the vegetation during the lower Aurignacian (layer IV). All the above observations concerning the variability of the hearth assemblages are common among fire installations. They are related to the short-term events represented by the charcoal assemblages, probably the last or the few latest burning episodes and thus they do not reflect a long-term pattern of firewood collection and consumption (Perlès, 1977; Badal, 1992; Chabal, 1997). The range of the taxa present in a single hearth may be limited, but even if a higher taxonomic diversity is observed, the proportion in which the taxa are represented may differ considerably among contemporary hearths (Badal, 1992; Chabal, 1997). Hearths mostly reflect the specific circumstances of each firing event and thus their charcoal assemblages are conditioned by various factors: the purposes for which the fire was set, the seasonality of the occupation, the type of vegetation that grew in the vicinity of the site, the established mode of firewood provisioning (e.g., opportunistic or organized, simple gathering and/or storage), the abundance of dead wood, accumulations of driftwood, and the like (Asouti and Austin, 2005; Henry et al., 2009; Ntinou, 2002). Acer is present in the majority of the hearths and is the most abundant taxon in many of them, while deciduous oak and Ulmus are also well represented. Prunus (total) is less abundant when compared to the contents of the different layer assemblages (Tables 2–4 and Fig. 3). Taking into consideration the above observations we may suggest that the open mesophilous woodland with Acer, spreading at the lower elevations, the foothills and the valley floor, was a regular source of firewood provisioning. This area was closer to the cave and therefore easily accessible when compared to the upland limestone hills that supported the open Prunus park-

land vegetation. Moreover, driftwood carried by the river could be found on the banks where other foraging activities were taking place or in the red alluvial soils of the floodplain in front of the cave where clay for the preparation of the clay-lined hearths was collected (Karkanas et al., 2004). Indeed, it seems that the valley floor was the scenery of a wide array of everyday activities of Upper Palaeolithic hunters-gatherers. The plant taxa burnt in the hearths do not disclose the function of these installations. The modern concept of “preferred firewood” with reference to the calorific properties and the ease of ignition of individual species probably differs substantially from what hunter-gatherers would have considered appropriate for the functions of multi-purpose hearths such as lighting, heating, smoking, cooking, drying, and more (Théry-Parisot, 2002a; Théry-Parisot et al., 2010). Moreover, the calorific properties of different ligneous plant species do not vary significantly (Théry-Parisot, 2001 and references therein). It is mostly by means of controlling/selecting the rate of humidity, the physiological state of the wood (dry, green, healthy, decayed, weathered) and the calibre of the logs that different results can be achieved such as fast ignition, larger flames, smoke production, and the like (Chabal, 2001; ThéryParisot, 2001; Théry-Parisot et al., 2010). However, these parameters are usually difficult to evaluate in the archaeological wood charcoal either because the preservation of the material is not adequate (small fragments, not having the entire diameter) or because the interpretation of certain characteristics can be ambiguous. In particular when fungal attack is concerned, it is difficult to determine the time of infestation, whether before or after the burning. The state of the collected wood (fresh or decayed) can only be detected when characteristic features such as scars of the anatomical structure are present (Théry-Parisot and Texier, 2006). Moreover, the presence of biodegradation may either correspond to an opportunistic fuel exploitation strategy focusing on easily collectable dry and decayed wood or to a selective use of certain physiological state of firewood for a specific purpose (Henry et al., 2009). In line with the above, the identified taxa in the Upper Palaeolithic hearths at Klissoura Cave 1 are not very informative concerning the func-

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1

tion of the hearths. However, Karkanas et al. (2004), by taking into consideration the distribution and the firing characteristics of the Aurignacian hearths, suggested that the small and numerous clay-lined hearths would have served as satellite fireplaces around a bigger flat hearth (see Karkanas et al., 2004: 522–523 and fig. 9) fed with the embers of the latter. The fuel used would have been in the incandescent stage, a fact supported by the low firing temperature (between 400 and 600°C) of the clay-structure hearths (Karkanas et al., 2004; Karkanas, this issue). The transfer of heat from a hearth is ensured by three simultaneous fundamental physical processes: convection (that consists in a mechanical movement of air masses), radiation (due to the flames) and conduction (due to the embers) (Théry-Parisot and Meignen, 2000). The embers at an incandescent stage are involved in the energy exchange processes through conduction and convection that favour the transformation of raw materials, indirect cooking, the heating of a closed place and probably drying and curing (ThéryParisot, 2002b; Théry-Parisot et al., 2010: fig. 2). All these functions were possibly effective in the Aurignacian hearths at Klissoura Cave 1, heating being the most obvious. The important presence of phytoliths from the inflorescence of grasses in layer IIIe-g (Albert, this issue) and the identification of burnt seeds of edible plants such as Chenopodium and Polygonum in the Aurignacian layers (Koumouzelis et al., 2001) suggests that grasses and other plants formed part of the diet of the Upper Paleolithic groups and constitutes indirect evidence for the use of hearths as cooking facilities. The clay-lined hearths might have been used for roasting seeds of wild plants. Another possible use is roasting small game, like birds and hares that become abundant in the sequence since the Aurignacian onwards (Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). Drying and curing of meat, skin, etc., can also be postulated although the evidence of such activities is difficult, if not impossible, to trace in the archaeological record. The use of embers in the clay-lined hearths and the multi-purpose function of the latter might be responsible for the general scarcity of wood charcoal fragments in them. For embers to keep transferring heat it is necessary to constantly stoke them and permit the air flow to revive them.

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Stoking and constant feeding with embers leads to the complete combustion of the fuel to form ash. In those fires where charring occurred in the presence of air, the few charcoal residues probably correspond to the firewood that was added to the hearth towards the end of the fire or to embers located at the periphery of the structure (Braadbaart and Poole, 2008). In spite of the hypothesis mentioned above, it is difficult to clearly identify with certainty any distribution pattern of the hearths and even more so to attribute them to a particular function. However, the great number of clay-lined hearths in the Aurignacian layers and the intentionality in their preparation may indicate that the use of the cave was quite intense and various activities took place there. A multi-purpose function of the hearths is postulated that may indicate their all-day continuous use that required constant feeding with firewood and/or embers, hence the complete burning of wood and the abundant ash accumulations in them.

THE CHARCOAL SEQUENCE: INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION The local vegetation near Klissoura Cave 1 during the Upper Palaeolithic is described on the basis of the identified taxa, certain characteristics of the ecology of individual species and the topographic and geomorphological features of the area. In the following paragraphs we will attempt to introduce the Upper Palaeolihtic wood charcoal sequence to the broader climatic context of the MIS 3 (59–26 kyrs cal BP) and 2 (26–11.5 kyrs cal BP). During the part of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence that corresponds to the MIS 3, the composition of the assemblages indicates the existence of a mosaic of trees and vegetation types ranging between open, dry parkland with small trees and shrubs and open woodland with mesophilous and thermophilous tree taxa (Fig. 3). The Lateglacial layers are characterized by a marked decrease in the diversity of habitats and a predominance of dry vegetation types with Prunus. Prunus is an important component of the Last Glacial and Lateglacial environments at Klissoura Cave 1, other Palaeolithic sites in Greece, and the

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Fig. 5. Map showing the sites mentioned in the text. 1. Klissoura Cave 1, 2. Franchthi Cave, 3. Lakonis I, 4. Kopais core, 5. I-284 core, 6. Boila rockshelter, 7. Theopetra Cave, 8. Konispol Cave, 9. Tenaghi Philippon, 10. Megali Limni core, 11. Thera, 12. Core C69, 13. Öküzini Cave

broader eastern Mediterranean area (hereafter see Fig. 5 for the location of sites mentioned in the text). During the Pleniglacial (68–11.5 kyrs cal BP), Prunus would have been abundant around Theopetra Cave, Thessaly (Ntinou and KyparissiApostolika, 2008) while in southern Peloponesse, this taxon (most probably P. amygdalus/P. spinosa) would have dominated the vegetation near Lakonis Cave, at c. 40 kyrs BP (Panagopoulou et al., 2004). During the Lateglacial Prunus sp. is abundantly recorded in the sequence of the Boila rockshelter, Epirus (Ntinou and Kotjabopoulou, 2002), Prunus amygdalus predominates in the sequence of Konispol Cave, Albania (Hansen, 1999, 2001), while at Öküzini Cave, west Anatolia, Turkey, P. amygdalus is dominant in “steppe forest” formations that include other steppic species and some mountain and mesophilous ones (Emery-Barbier and Thiébault, 2005). At Klissoura Cave 1, the wood charcoal material has allowed for a high taxonomic resolution given that the presence of P. amygdalus, P. webbii and P. spinosa, could be specified, all are constituents of open, dry vegetation types. The presence of these species and their importance in the glacial environments of the area is supported

by the finding of P. amygdalus or P. webbii seeds at Franchthi Cave during the Upper Palaeolithic Zone II ascribed to the Lateglacial (13–10 kyrs BP), where according to Hansen (1980) the specimens more closely resemble the description of P. webbii than that of P. amygdalus. In the light of all the above-mentioned data, we may postulate that Prunus is a marker of the increasingly colder and drier conditions of the Pleniglacial. The frequency of that taxon in the wood-charcoal assemblages in relation to the presence/absence of mesophilous and/or termophilous taxa may indicate the advance of interstadial/stadial conditions. Mesophilous taxa, namely deciduous oak, Ulmus and Acer, would have been part of the flora in the Klissoura gorge during the MIS 3. Interestingly, the mesophilous taxa at Klissoura Cave 1 are present in the layers ascribed to the part of the MIS 3 between 40 and 27 kyrs BP (44–32 kyrs cal BP), coinciding with a period of subsequent Greenland Interstadials (GI 12–6) (Walker et al., 1999: 1146 and fig.2). The presence of these taxa indicates their permanence during the MIS 3 interstadials at lowland areas of southeastern Greece and to the east of the Pindus mountain range. Such areas, located in the rain-shadow of

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1

the mountains, would not be particularly favourable for the growth of mesophilous taxa, in part due to insufficient precipitation, especially during glacials and stadials (Tzedakis et al., 2002). The imprint of some environmental stress can be deduced on the basis of the narrow growth rings observed at Klissoura deciduous oak and Ulmus specimens, therefore indicating that mesophilous taxa would have probably grown under minimal availability of moisture close to the threshold of their survival even during the milder intervals of the MIS 3. The absence of these taxa from the Lateglacial layers at Klissoura Cave 1 might be associated with the marked aridity experienced in lowland areas of eastern Greece during the LGM (Tzedakis et al., 2002). The thermophilous taxa represented in the Upper Palaeolithic charcoal assemblages of Klissoura Cave 1 by Olea and evergreen oak are rare in Pleniglacial contexts. In the Aegean area, Olea remains were found in paleosols at Thera (Santorini) (Friedrich, 1978), dated to 44.5 and 46.7 kyrs BP while the Megali Limni pollen core, in Lesvos island, documents increases of Olea and Quercus sclerophyllous during the MIS 3 interstadials (Margari et al., 2009). In mainland Greece, thermophilous taxa have been identified in the I-284 pollen core, Ioannina basin, northwestern Greece during the interstadial prior to 23 kyrs cal BP (Galanidou et al., 2000). Overall in the Mediterraenan basin, Olea and thermophilous taxa wood charcoal remains are mainly reported from MIS 3 and late Lateglacial contexts located in the thermomediterraenan belt (see Carrión et al., 2010: table 1, fig.3A and references therein). The presence of these taxa in the Aurignacian layers at Klissoura Cave 1 may be considered as direct palaeobotanical evidence for their presence in northeastern Peloponnese, in the lowland areas close to the coast, during the MIS 3 interstadials between 40 and 32 kyrs BP (44 and 37 cal kyrs BP). The presence of Olea in the Lateglacial is ambiguous due to the Holocene date of an Olea wood charcoal from the Epigravettian layer II. The characteristics of the local vegetation in the gorge were probably dependent on the topography of the area and the frequent climatic oscillations (especially the precipitation) during the MIS 3 and 2. The Upper Palaeolithic chrono-cultural sequence of Klissoura Cave 1 is condensed within

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two broader chronological periods, the later part of the MIS 3 (40–27 kyrs BP) and the early Lateglacial (<15 kyrs cal BP)2. A major occupation hiatus corresponds to the LGM (24–19 kyrs BP) in the MIS 2. During the first period (layers V–III) the local vegetation (Fig. 3) would have been a mosaic of open parkland and open woodland with various mesophilous and thermophilous taxa growing in the area. These characteristics indicate the existence of interstadial conditions of the MIS 3. Although we lack a high resolution sedimentary and chronological record for the wood charcoal assemblages and taking into account the difficulties of linking archaeological and climatic records, we have attempted by following Tzedakis et al. (2007) to assess the precise climatic context of the period under consideration. For this reason, we have selected two ABOX 14C dates that chronologically delimit the sedimentary sequence between layers IV and III’. These are 32,690±110 BP (AA 75629, layer IV/V) and 31,460±210 BP (AA 73821, layer III’). In general, all other dates of the Aurignacian and Gravettoid sequence, despite some anomalies, overlap with the selected ones and are relatively consistent (Kuhn, this issue). We have attempted to map the selected dates with the radiocarbon and paleoclimate series from Cariaco Basin ODP 1002 (Tzedakis et al., 2007 and Supplementary Information) and the results are presented in Fig. 6. We may observe that the intervals are clearly set apart from the colder Heinrich events (H) and are mainly associated with the milder GI 8 and 7 for layers IV/V and III’ respectively. This correlates well with the characteristics of the relevant wood charcoal assemblages that show the important presence and diversity of mesophilous and thermophilous taxa in layers IV and III. The Uluzzian layer V deserves a special mention as the earliest within the Upper Palaeolithic sequence. The wood charcoal results show the importance of mesophilous woodland, thus indicating mild climatic conditions of an interstadial character. Following the discussion concerning the dating of the Uluzzian (layer V) at Klissoura Cave 1 (Kuhn, this issue) and from the point of view of wood charcoal analysis, we may propose that the vegetation characteristics place this context either within the GI 8 (together with or

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Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1

slightly earlier than layer IV) or with an interstadial prior to H4 that could be GI 9-11.This in turn would place layer V in a period before the Calabrian Ignimbrite Eruption (approx. 39.2 kyrs cal BP). The correlations between 14C dating and GRIP2 ages of these events and the Klissoura sequence are presented in Fig. 6. The general picture arising from the MIS 3 part of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence is that the environmental conditions were favourable for the survival of mesophilous and thermophilous tree taxa in the area (Fig. 3). Therefore, the Uluzzian, the Aurignacian and Gravettoid occupation at Klissoura Cave 1 probably took place during milder phases (GI) of the late part of the MIS 3. These results are in agreement with the I-284 pollen core, at Ioannina basin, northwestern Greece, that indicates an intermediate forest cover (70%> AP>40%) during the Middle Pleniglacial (59–26 kyrs cal BP) (Tzedakis et al., 2002). Similarly, the high-resolution paleoenvironmental results from Core C69 in the Cretan Basin indicate that no pronounced stadials occurred after 41 kyrs cal BP and before 23 kyrs cal BP while a pronounced interstadial occurred between 39.5 and 38.5 kyrs cal BP (Geraga et al., 2005). Overall, the importance of the mesophilous taxa and the presence of thermophilous ones around Klissoura Cave 1 indicate that winter temperatures were quite mild while precipitation, although low to judge from the importance of Prunus and from the narrow growth rings of oaks and elms, was sufficient for the growth of temperate trees. At the end of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence, the Epigravettian layer II (<15 kyrs BP) is differentiated form the previous layers by the missing of the mesophilous component of the

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vegetation and the open, dry formation inferred from the presence of Prunus3 (Fig. 4). Phytolith analysis of layer II samples has reached similar conclusions. The identification of C4 phytoliths from the short grass chloridoid subfamily suggests a drier environment and a more open landscape than in the underlying layers (Albert, this issue). The presence of Olea is doubtful (see above). The chrono-cultural gap between layer III’ and the Epigravettian layer II includes the LGM. During that time there is no evidence for human presence at Klissoura Cave 1. At the nearby Franchthi Cave the Upper Palaeolithic layers of Zone I are attributed to this period (25–17 kyrs BP) but still the low estimated rate of deposition and the relatively few artefacts in these levels suggest that the occupation was considerably less intense when compared to the end of the Pleistocene (after 13,000 BP) (Hansen, 1980, 1991). Zone I at Franchthi Cave is characterized by large quantities of seeds of Boraginaceae species, namely Lithospermum arvense, Anchusa sp. and Alkana sp. all of them components of steppic vegetation in rocky mountains and subalpine regions (Hansen, 1980, 1991). Some tree or shrub growth would have existed and the tentative identification of some wood charcoal fragments as Juniperus sp. is in agreement with the seed assemblage and the faunal remains (predominance of steppe ass Equus cf. hydruntinus) in indicating rather cold, dry conditions (Hansen, 1991). Moreover, the pollen data from Greece (I-284, Ioannina I, Kopais, Tenaghi Philippon) show that open vegetation communities with scattered trees prevailed during the Late Pleniglacial (26–11.5 kyrs cal BP) (Wijmstra, 1969; Bottema,

Fig. 6. a. Mapping of Klissoura Cave 1 ABOX 14C dates onto the palaeoclimate of the Cariaco basin (after Tzedakis et al., 2007 fig. 1 and caption for details). Radiocarbon and palaeoclimate time series from Cariaco Basin OPD site 1002 are plotted against depth. Heinrich events (H), Greenland Interstadials (GI) and the Younger Dryas (YD) are shown. The selected Klissoura Cave 1 dates are the following: 32,690±110 BP (AA 75629, layer IV/V, Prunus t. webbii wood charcoal) and 31,460±210 BP (AA 73821, layer III’, Prunus t. amygdalus wood charcoal). Where the dates intersect the Cariaco 14C chronology, depths can be translated into the sediment reflectance record for precise climatic context. The sediment reflectance % has been estimated after Tzedakis et al. (2007 table 1 in Supplementary Information). Values are set c. 13.5% and 14.5% for layer IV/V and layer III’ dates respectively. b. Palaeoenvironmental changes between 20 and 40 kyr cal BP (after Tzedakis et al. 2007, S1, Supplementary Information). (i) Variations in ä18O composition of ice in GISP2 (Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2) record (Stuiver and Grootes, 2000), (ii) Temperate tree pollen percentage curves from Ioannina I-284, western Greece (solid line) (Tzedakis et al., 2002) and Kopais K93, central Greece (dotted line) (Tzedakis et al., 2004)

66

M. Ntinou

1974; Tzedakis, 1999; Tzedakis et al., 2002). Palaeoclimatic model simulations from the Ioannina region for the LGM at 21 kyrs cal BP, show decreases from modern values of 10ºC, 6ºC and 545mm for Tjan, Tjul and Pann respectively (Tzedakis et al., 2002). Although in this western location (Ioannina basin) the Pann remained above 600mm during the LGM, to the east of the Pindus, at Kopais, eastern central Greece, the equivalent figure would have been 180mm, well below the 300mm that could have supported significant tree populations (Tzedakis et al., 2002). Local (Franchti) and regional characteristics (pollen sites) may help to better understand the Lateglacial (Epigravettian) charcoal results from Klissoura Cave 1. The climatic deterioration with the onset of MIS 2, would have probably caused the regression of mesophilous trees and favoured the expansion of steppic vegetation in which Prunus and Juniperus (according to the Franchthi data) would have been the arboreal component. The vegetation around Klissoura would have been similar and its dry, open character would have been prolonged during the Lateglacial. An explanation for this might be seen in the local minima of moisture availability that was rather low according to the estimates for Kopais (Pann 180 mm), a lowland area located in a broader setting similar to that of Klissoura. Continuous moisture availability and topographic variability are considered as the major factors supporting tree populations during and after the LGM in Greece (Tzedakis et al., 2002). The pollen record and the resuts of the wood charcoal analysis from Lateglacial contexts show that in western Greece precipitations of orographic origin and a mountainous setting provided favourable conditions for the survival of mesophilous and probably thermophilous trees while different situation prevailed in the eastern lowland areas of Greece where the mountains posed a barrier for the incoming precipitation (Ntinou and Kotjabopoulou, 2002; Tzedakis et al., 2002). The wood charcoal data of the Upper Palaeolithic sequence at Klissoura Cave 1 suggest that the later part of the MIS 3 and the Lateglacial were characterized by different environmental conditions marked by the presence/absence of the mesophilous and thermophilous taxa. The most important environmental factor would have prob-

ably been the precipitation regime in each period and/or the effect of climatic extremes (i.e. the LGM). The very end of the Pleistocene, when the dry conditions began to considerably ameliorate, and possible changes occurred in the vegetation as well, is not documented in the Upper Palaeolithic charcoal sequence from Klissoura Cave 1. The carbonized plant remains from Zone II (13–10 kyrs BP) at Franchthi Cave might speak in respect. Juniperus continues to predominate, but almond, pear and deciduous oak also occur while various legumes typically found in pine woods or oak scrub are present; hence an increase in tree cover is suggested (Hansen, 1991). The human presence at Klissoura Cave 1 is conspicuous at the end of the MIS 3, during the Uluzzian, Aurignacian, and the Gravettoid. The archaeological evidence shows the intensive use of the cave and the exploitation of diverse habitats. The MIS 3 interstadials would have probably created favourable conditions and ecological diversity that would have opened new windows of opportunity for hunter-gatherer groups. The numerous hearths identified at the corresponding levels together with the diversity of activities implied by various categories of remains may indicate that the cave served as a base camp. The LGM and the Lateglacial are poorly represented in all aspects. The few wood charcoal remains from the Epigravettian levels (II), when combined with other evidence are interpreted as reflecting drier environmental conditions than in previous periods and less diverse and dense vegetation cover. However, these characteristics cannot be directly correlated with the patterns of human presence at the cave as we should take into consideration that the upper part of the sequence has probably been truncated by the modern use of the cave.

CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions are reached through the analysis of the wood charcoal remains from the Upper Palaeolithic sequence at Klissoura Cave 1. – The wood charcoal remains reflect the presence of a mosaic of vegetation types in the broader area around the cave. It was a dry, parkland vegetation that covered the rocky hills and was re-

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1

placed by open woodland with mesophilous and thermophilous trees towards the foothills and the valley floor. – The end of the MIS 3 and the Lateglacial are characterized by different environmental conditions marked by the presence/absence of the mesophilous and thermophilous taxa. These taxa were present in the vegetation during the former period but the decrease of annual precipitation, caused by the climatic extremes of the LGM, was probably responsible for their limited growth during the Lateglacial. – In agreement with other lines of evidence the Uluzzian and Aurignacian contexts coincided with interstadial events of MIS 3. – The wood charcoal remains recovered from the hearths demonstrate that different vegetation types were used but the open woodland with mesophilous taxa, which probably extended at the foothills and the valley floor, was a regular source for firewood provisioning. – The function of the hearths is difficult to specify by the analysis of the wood charcoal remains alone. The scarcity of wood charcoal remains in the clay-structured hearths might be related to the burning of embers and to their complete combustion by continuous stoking. The use of embers, that is the incandescent stage of a fire, is related to conduction and convection that favour the heating of a closed place, the transformation of raw materials, indirect cooking and probably drying and curing. Therefore, a multipurpose function of the hearths seems plausible. Acknowledgements Many people have helped in different ways in accomplishing the analysis of wood charcoal remains from the Upper Paleolithic sequence of Klissoura Cave 1. My colleagues at the excavation supported my work by collecting the samples and discussing issues of the stratigraphy. I am especially grateful to Dr. Panagiotis Karkanas for all his help at the field and for fruitful conversations. Much of this work would not have been possible without the great effort at water sieving of Eleana Prevedorou, Thanos Webb, Panagiotis Stamatiss and the late Giorgos Kremmydas. The analysis of the samples was funded by a grant of the Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson and was carried out at the Wiener Laboratory of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. The SEM analysis and photographing of the specimens was funded by

67

Prof. Ernestina Badal of the Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Valencia. I thank them all for their help.

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Saddle River NJ. MARGARI V., GIBBARD P.L., BRYANT C.L., TZEDAKIS P.C. 2009. Character of vegetational and environmental changes in southern Europe during the last glacial period; evidence from Lesvos Island, Greece. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 1317–1339. NTINOU M. 2002. El paisaje en el norte de Grecia desde el Tardiglaciar al Atlantico. Formaciones vegetales, recursos y usos. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 1038. Archaeopress, Oxford. NTINOU M., KOTJABOPOULOU E. 2002. Charcoal analysis at the Boila Rockshelter: Woodland expansion during the Late Glacial in Epirus, north-west Greece. In: S. Thiébault (ed.) Charcoal Analysis. Methodological Approaches, Palaeoecological Results and Wood Uses. Proceedings of the Second International Meeting of Anthracology, Paris, September 2000. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 1063. Archaeopress, Oxford, 79–86. NTINOU M., KYPARISSI-APOSTOLIKA N. 2008. The Pleistocene–Holocene charcoal record from Theopetra Cave, Thessaly, Greece: Implications for vegetation, climate and human use. In F. Damblon, M. Court-Picon (eds) Programme and Abstracts, 4th International Meeting of Anthracology, Brussels, 8-13 September 2008. Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels, 105. PANAGOPOULOU E., KARKANAS P., TSARTSIDOU G., HARVATI K., KOTJABOPOULOU E., NTINOU M. 2004. Late Pleistocene archaeological and fossil human evidence from Lakonis Cave, southern Greece. Journal of Field Archaeology 29, 323–349. PERLêS C. 1977. Préhistoire du feu. Masson, Paris. POLUNIN O. 1980. Flowers of Greece and the Balkans. A field guide. Oxford University Press, Oxford. SCHWEINGRUBER F.H. 1990. Anatomy of European Woods. Haupt, Bern und Stuttgart. STUIVER M., GROOTES P. M. 2000. GISP2 oxygen isotope ratios. Quaternary Research 53, 277–283. TERRAL J-F., BADAL E., HEINZ C., ROIRON P., THIÉBAULT S., FIGUEIRAL I. 2004. A hydraulic conductivity model points to post-Neogene survival of the Mediterranean olive. Ecology 85(11), 3158– 3165. TERRAL J-F., BADAL E., HEINZ C., ROIRON P., THIÉBAULT S., VERNET J-L, FIGUEIRAL I. 2005. Paléoécologie de l’olivier et paléoclimats du Quaternaire récent en Méditerranée nord-occidentale: la mémoire du bois. In: P. Marinval (ed.) Modernité archéologique d’un arbre millénaire, l’olivier. Centre d’Anthropologie, Archives d’Eco-

Wood charcoal analysis at Klissoura Cave 1 logie Préhistorique (AEP), Toulouse, 5–28. THÉRY-PARISOT I. 2001. Economie des combustibles au Paléolithique. Dossier de Documentation Archéologique 20. CNRS Editions, Paris. THÉRY-PARISOT I. 2002a. Gathering of firewood during the Palaeolithic. In: S. Thiébault (ed.) Charcoal Analysis. Methodological Approaches, Palaeoecological Results and Wood Uses. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 1063. Archaeopress, Oxford, 243–249. THÉRY-PARISOT I. 2002b. Fuel Management during the Lower Aurignacian in the Pataud Rock Shelter (Lower Palaeolithic, Les Eyzies de Tayac, Dordogne, France). Contribution of Experimentation. Journal of Archaeological Science 29, 1415–1421. THÉRY-PARISOT I., MEIGNEN L. 2000. Économie des combustibles (bois et lignite) dans l’abri Moustérien des Canalettes. De l’experimentation ´ la simulation des besoins énergétiques. Gallia Préhistoire 42, 45–55. THÉRY-PARISOT I., TEXIER P.J. 2006. La collecte du bois de feu dans le site Moustérien de la Combette (Bonnieux, Vaucluse, France): implications paléo-économiques et paléo-écologiques. Approche morphométrique des charbons de bois. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 103(3), 453– 463. THÉRY-PARISOT I., CHABAL L., CHRZAVZEZ J. 2010. Anthracology and taphonomy from wood gathering to charcoal analysis. A review of the taphonomic processes modifying charcoal assemblages in archaeological contexts. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 291, 142– 153. THIÉBAULT S. (ed.). 2002. Charcoal Analysis. Methodological Approaches, Palaeoecological Results and Wood Uses. Proceedings of the Second International Meeting of Anthracology, Paris, September 2000. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 1063. Archaeopress, Oxford. TZEDAKIS P.C. 1999. The last climatic cycle at Kopais, Central Greece. Journal of the Geological Society 156, 425–434. TZEDAKIS P.C., HUGHEN K.A., CACHO I., HARVATI K. 2007. Placing late Neanderthals in a climatic context. Nature 449, 206–208. TZEDAKIS P.C., LAWSON I.T., FROGLEY M.R., HEWITT G.M., PREECE R.C. 2002. Buffered tree-population changes in a Quaternary refugium: evolutionary implications. Science 297, 2044–2047. VERNET J.L. (ed.). 1992. Les charbons de bois, les anciens écosystÀmes et le rôle de l’homme: colloque organisé ´ Montpellier du 10 au 13 septembre 1991. Bulletin de la société botanique de France 139. Société botanique de France, Paris.

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WALKER M.J.C., BJORK S., LOWE J.J., GWYNAR L.C., JOHNSEN S., KNUDSEN K.-L., WOHLFATH B., INTIMATE GROUP. 1999. Isotopic “events” in GRIP ice core: a stratotype for the Late Pleistocene. Quaternary Science Reviews 18, 1143–1150. WIJMSTRA T.A. 1969. Palynology of the first 30 metres of a 120m deep section in northern Greece. Acta Botanica Neerlandica 18, 511–527. WILLCOX G. 1974. A history of deforestation as indicated by charcoal analysis of four sites in eastern Anatolia. Anatolian Studies 24, 117–133.

Notes 1. Quantification of charcoal macroremains is important especially for the reconstruction of the palaeovegetation and requires a sufficient number of fragments per stratigraphic layer depending this on the number of the identified taxa (the floristic diversity of an area/period) and the type of the context (Chabal, 1997; Théry-Parisot et al.et al., 2010). 2. The date for the epigravettinan Layer II is 14,280±90 BP (Koumouzelis et al.et al., 2001 p. 520, table 1) and was obtained on carbonate fraction. Therefore it is possible that there is some underestimation of the date. 3. The charcoal remains from Layer II are few to support any unquestionable interpretation

Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 71–85.

HEARTHS AND PLANT USES DURING THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD AT KLISSOURA CAVE 1 (GREECE): THE RESULTS FROM PHYTOLITH ANALYSES Rosa María Albert Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Research Group for Palaeoecological and Geological Studies (GEPEG), Department of Prehistory, Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Barcelona, Montalegre 6-8, Barcelona, Spain; [email protected] Abstract The excavations of the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic layers at Klissoura Cave 1 (Peloponnese, Greece), facilitated the investigations of phytolith samples from sediments and hearths dated to the Upper Palaeolithic period. The study resulted in the reconstruction of the palaeo-landscape, the vegetation as well as the use of fire by the inhabitants of the cave. Phytoliths were abundantly identified in most of the sediment samples in relatively good preservation, especially in the uppermost layers. In contrast, phytoliths were practically absent from hearths. The dominant family identified in the course of laboratory analyses are the grasses. Moreover, their good preservation in the sediment samples permitted us to differentiate between various depositional events, due either to environmental changes and/or diverse economic activities. The relatively dry conditions in the cave during the deposition of the Upper Palaeolithic layers proved to be suitable for the preservation of the phytoliths allowing the preservation of certain fragile morphological types such as papillae cells or sedge phytoliths. Noteworthy is the presence of phytoliths from the inflorescence of grasses in some of the layers as well as the identification of sedges that points to the potential use of these plants for dietary purposes during the Aurignacian. Wood was probably the main fuel used for fires accompanied by the constant presence of grasses. Key words: Aurignacian, Fireplaces, Ash layers, Grasses, Sedges, wood/bark.

INTRODUCTION Phytolith analyses were carried out on different sediments, hearths and ash layers from the Upper Palaeolithic levels of Klissoura Cave 1. This work comprises a detailed quantitative and morphological study of phytoliths that complements and enhances the previous work carried out in the site (Koumouzelis et al., 2001). The sedimentary sequence corresponds chronologically to the Early Upper Palaeolithic–Uluzzian, Aurignacian and Epigravettian and has been dated roughly as 40–41 kyrs BP for the Uluzzian (included in the Early Upper Palaeolithic sequence), 35–26 kyrs BP for the Aurignacian, and 14 kyrs BP for the Epigravettian (Kuhn et al., this issue). Samples differ among themselves in having anthropic and/or non-anthropic origin, presenting

different mineralogical compositions and thus, different formation processes. Special emphasis has been placed on the study of hearths and ash layers as product of short term activities by the inhabitants of the cave. Phytoliths have been used in archaeological contexts since the 1970s and have allowed the identification of not only human use of plants (Rosen and Weiner, 1994; Albert et al., 1999, 2000, 2003; Madella et al., 2002), but also the correlation of the plants’ presence (natural accumulation rather than anthropogenic) in the palaeoenvironment of certain geographical areas (Alexandre et al., 1997; Barboni et al., 1999; Mercader et al., 2000; Tsartsidou et al., 2007). Phytoliths preserve remarkably well through time, due to their mineralogical composition

R. M. Albert

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Fig. 1.

Plan view of Klissoura Cave 1

(SiO2 × nH2O). Morphologically they reproduce the cellular tissue of different plants, which helps to identify the plants, in some cases, to the species level (Ball et al., 1999; Berlin et al., 2003; Albert et al., 2008), as well as the plant part in which phytoliths were formed (Geiss, 1973; Piperno, 1988, 2006; Ollendorf, 1992; Bozarth, 1992; Albert and Weiner, 2001; Bamford et al., 2006; Tsartsidou et al., 2007). In the Levant the use of fire by Middle Palaeolithic populations has been recorded since the beginning of the 20th century. Caves such as Tabun, Kebara and Hayonim (Israel) show an important stratigraphic record including the presence of hearths and ash levels, many of which are in situ (Bar-Yosef et al., 1992; Schiegl et al., 1996; Karkanas et al., 2000). These caves provide many indications that social activities centered around the hearths (Gamble, 1999: p.171). Phytolith and mineralogical studies of fire remains began in the 1990’s and focused on Middle and Upper Palaeolithic caves from the eastern Mediterranean as well as in France. Silica phytoliths are commonly found in hearths as a result of plant combustion. Their study in prehistoric com-

bustion features has made it possible to identify fire remains not visible to the naked eye, to determine the type of fuel used for the fire, and to obtain a better understanding of the functionality of the hearth (Schiegl et al., 1994, 1996; Albert et al., 1999, 2000, 2003, 2007; Karkanas et al., 2000, 2002; Madella et al., 2002) . The main focus of this study was to improve our understanding on the use of fire through the identification of the plants used as fuel, as well as other related activities carried out in the cave. The information obtained may shed some more light on collecting strategies and use of vegetal resources by the occupants of the cave during the Upper Palaeolithic and Epigravettian periods, as well as contributes to the reconstruction of the palaeovegetation of the area during the time that the cave was occupied.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Thirty sediment samples from Sequences B, C, D, E and F, layers II–V were analyzed for phytoliths. Of these, eight samples corresponded to Aurignacian clay structures (Sequence E, layer

Hearths and plant uses during the Upper Palaeolithic period

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Table 1 Phytolith results from Upper Palaeolithic Layers from Klissoura Cave Stratigraphy

Locality

N. phytoliths % N. of phyt. 1 g Weathering morphologiAIF AIF % cally identified

Observations (* – not interpreted)

Sequence B Layer IIa

B1-B2-B3 west profile

Layer IIb Layer IId

BB3-AA3 south profile

39.1

3.200.000

383

18.0

34.7

2.600.000

385

21.8

47.1

3.000.000

605

18.0

36.6

1.600.000

354

19.4

30.9

400.000

181

24.3

30.9

300.000

120

17.2

14.2

90.000

18

25.0

*white flat hearth

brownish grey reddish brown with stones

Sequence C Layer 6

B1-A1 north profile

grey-brown loose pit

Sequence D Layer III B1-B2-B3 west profile Layer IIIe'/g BB3-AA3 south profile

27.1

600.000

112

47.0

white cemented

30.8

540.000

192

47.0

light grey

13.9

200.000

48

45.5

*white flat hearth

11.3

140.000

46

37.8

*grey part of previous hearth

22.9

400.000

149

39.2

grey with stones

6.7

54.000

13

55.2

6.2

10.000

2

--

Layer IIIe

B1-B2-B3 west profile

*white flat hearth

B1-A1 north profile

30.9

240.000

103

29.0

grey flat hearth

Layer IIIg

BB3-AA3 south profile

16

300.000

67

46.0

grey

Layer IIIf

B1-A1 north profile

21.9

160.000

28

31.7

*grey flat hearth

Sequence E BB3-AA3 south profile

B1-B2-B3 west profile

Layer IV

B1-A1 north profile

AA1-BB1, CC1 north profile

38.9

500.000

230

28.8

reddish grey

22.2

100.000

49

45.6

*clay hearth, white lens

28.7

100.000

31

39.2

30.5

70.000

27

37.2

*clay hearth, white lens on top

7.3

40.000

10

33.3

*white flat hearth

28.9

70.000

23

54.0

*clay hearth, grey lens on top

22

140.000

44

30.2

*white lens from the above clay hearth

29.8

100.000

43

23.2

30.4

80.000

37

40.3

25.6

140.000

41

37.9

33.0

100.000

36

25.0

*dark grey flat hearth

31.6

50.000

21

53.3

*grey flat hearth

31

45.6

*grey with white patches

*clay hearth, grey lens on top

Sequence F Layer V

BB3-AA3 south profile

16.3

100.000

IV), 10 to Aurignacian flat hearths (Sequences C, D and E, layers 6, III–V) whereas the other 12 were sediment samples from the same Aurignacian layers and from layer II of the Epigravettian tradition. Clay structures of 30–40 cm diameter

have been defined as dark-red compact features with a basin like shape (Karkanas, this issue). The FTIR and differential thermal analyses suggest that these structures were heated to 400–600 °C and that they might have been used for cooking

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based on the identification of microscopically undisturbed intact wood ash and food remains (Karkanas et al., 2004, this issue). Phytoliths analyses were carried out on grey and white lenses deposited on top of them. The flat hearths represent mostly intact ashes with preservation of pseudomorphs. Nevertheless, moderate signs of trampling and minor reworking were noted. The ashes are thought to be the product of several burning episodes where burning was almost complete, which might explain the lack of major amounts of charcoal (Karkanas this issue; Ntinou, this issue). Table 1 lists all the samples analyzed, and their provenience with indication of the sequences and layers from where they were collected. All the samples were assembled from the south profile BB3-AA3, located close to the entrance of the cave, the west profile B1-B2-B3 and the north profile B1-A1, at the back of the cave (Fig. 1). The methods used to process the samples are similar to those described in the study of Tabun cave in Israel (Albert et al., 1999). In the laboratory weighed samples of approximately 1g of air dried sediment were treated for 30 minutes by the addition of 10ml of an equivolume solution of 3N HCl and 3N HNO3. Samples were then centrifuged to separate and remove the soil carbonates and phosphates for a better identification of phytoliths. The pellets were washed and the organic material was oxidized by the addition of 10ml of 30 H2O2 at 70 °C. The samples were dried and the remaining sediment weighed since this is the inorganic AIF (acid insoluble fraction, which includes the phytoliths, clay and quartz). The AIF was further separated into its component minerals using 5ml of 2.4g/ml density of Sodium Polytungstate Solution [Na6(H2W12O40).H20] added to the pellets. The suspension was centrifuged and the supernatant transferred to another centrifuge tube, 1.0 ml of de-ionised water was added and the tube was vortexed and again centrifuged. This cycle was repeated until no visible mineral particles remained in the supernatant. Approximately 1 mg of the remaining fraction was weighed and placed on a microscope slide. The samples were mixed with Entellan New (Merck), and a cover slip was placed over the suspension. Slides were examined using an Olympus BX41 optical microscope at 400 X and digital images were obtained using an Olympus Color View

III.U camera and Olympus Cell D software. The number of phytoliths on the slide was counted and related to the original sediment weight. Previous results (Albert and Weiner, 2001) indicates that the counting of 200 diagnostic phytoliths gives an error margin of around 20% whereas the counting of 50 phytoliths gives an error margin of 40%. Thus, in those situations where less than 200 phytoliths were identified, and keeping in mind the high error margin, only those samples with more than 50 phytoliths were morphologically interpreted. Morphological identification of phytoliths was based on standard literature (Twiss et al., 1969; Brown, 1984; Piperno, 1988; 2006; Mulholland and Rapp, 1992; Twiss, 1992), as well as on the modern plant reference collection from the Mediterranean area (Albert and Weiner, 2001; Albert et al., 2000; Tsartsidou et al., 2007). When possible, the terms describing phytolith morphologies follow anatomical terminology, and otherwise they describe the geometrical characteristics of the phytoliths. The International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature was also followed (Madella et al., 2005).

RESULTS Silica phytoliths were present, in different amounts, in the samples. Table 1 shows the list of the samples analyzed, locality and description. The table also shows the percentage of Acid Insoluble Fraction (AIF), the estimated amount of phytoliths per gram of AIF, the number of phytoliths with recognisable morphologies identified and the percentage of dissolution. Mineralogical and quantitative phytolith results Phytoliths were abundantly identified practically in all the sediment samples. Only sample from layer V, corresponding to the Early Upper Palaeolithic period did not show enough diagnostic phytoliths and in the Aurignacian sample from layer IIIg, less than 100 phytoliths related to a high dissolution percentage (Table 1 and Fig. 2a) were identified. Phytoliths were scarcely identified in the hearth samples, neither in the clay nor in the flat hearths (Table 1). Only one hearth from

Hearths and plant uses during the Upper Palaeolithic period

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Fig. 2. Photomicrographs of phytoliths identified in Klissoura samples. Pictures taken at ×400. a) Cylindroid scabrate from monocotyledonous plants with evident signs of etching due to dissolution; b) cylindroid psilate from monocotyledonous plants; c) short cell from the C3 festucoid grass subfamily; d) hat-shape phytolith from sedge; e) papillae cell phytolith from the grass family; f) short cell from the C3 festucoid grass subfamily; g) short cells from the C4 chloridoid grass subfamily; h) short cell bylobate from grass, probably Arundo donax (giant reed)

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layer IIIe, did present enough amount of phytoliths for a reliable morphological interpretation. The percentage of AIF allows for a better comparison of samples from different locations independently of their mineralogical composition regarding phosphates, carbonates and organics. The subsequent distribution of the AIF fraction into their corresponding density fractions permits a better isolation of the phytoliths and consequently a better quantification. The AIF % is especially valuable when interpreting anthropic hearths. Wood combustion produces a highly alkaline ash (pH 9–13.5) (Etiégni and Campbell, 1991) which is composed on average of 98% of fine-grained calcite and 2% of siliceous aggregates and phytoliths (Schiegl et al., 1994, 1996). In Klissoura the percentage of AIF in the sediment samples ranges between 16 to 47%, with variations among samples. Nevertheless reddish samples from layers IIb and d, as well as layer IV present a higher % AIF percentage with an average of 41% due to the presence of clay. The average % AIF for grey and white sediment samples is 27.5%. In the hearths the % AIF goes from 6.2 to 31, with an average of 22%, which is lower than previous samples and consistent with the presence of calcitic wood ash. Taking a closer look, however, some differences related to the type of hearths can be noted. Flat hearths present a lower AIF% (17.7) whereas in clay hearths the percentage of AIF is 27.6, probably due to the partially mixing of the lenses with the clay. Within flat hearths, the AIF % in the white colored sediments is less, just 19% suggesting a higher presence of calcitic ash whereas in grey hearths this average raises to almost 30%. The estimated amount of phytoliths per gram of AIF gives an overall indication of the plant input in the sediments related to other siliceous minerals (mainly clay and quartz). Phytoliths are particularly abundant in layer II, independently of the provenience of the samples and the type of sediments (Table 1). The weathering percentage is similar and relatively low, especially when compared to other layers. Layer 6, which is characterized by reworked and disturbed sediments, present a much lesser amount of phytoliths with a lower dissolution degree, suggesting, either a minor presence of plants

or the presence of plants which do not produce phytoliths in abundance (Table 1). Samples from layer III represent mostly burnt features and the quantitative results suggested a lower amount of phytoliths associated to a higher dissolution rate. On the contrary, samples from layer IV showed better phytolith preservation. Nevertheless the presence of clay dilutes the phytolith abundance in these samples. In the hearths the estimated number of phytoliths per gram of AIF lies between 10 to 240.000 phytoliths which is considerably lower than sediment samples from the same sequences. No significant quantitative differences were noted between flat and clay hearths in terms of phytolith abundance. Morphological phytolith results The number of phytoliths morphologically identified refers to those that have been recognized and ascribed to a plant origin. Sediment sample from sequence F, layer V, was not morphologically interpreted due to the low number of diagnostic phytoliths recovered (31) (Table 1). This sample presents, as well, the lowest estimated amount of phytoliths per gram of AIF related to a high dissolution percentage. As already mentioned only one hearth sample presented enough number of phytoliths to be morphologically interpreted (grey hearth from the north profile B1-A1). The dissolution index of phytoliths in hearths ranges from 23 to 55%, being slightly higher in the northern samples independently of the type of hearth (Table 1). Figure 3 shows the phytolith morphological distribution among samples according to the type of plant and/or plant part where they were formed. Note that some phytolith morphologies are nondiagnostic enough to differentiate between woody herbs, shrubs and trees so these are listed as “dicot wood/bark” or “dicot leaves”. Where we cannot distinguish between herbaceous monocots, grasses and sedges these are listed as “monocots” (Fig 2a, b). Morphologically, grasses and monocotyledonous plants are the major component of the phytolith record. Characteristic grass phytoliths dominate in samples from layers II and 6 (Figs 2c, 3). Monocotyledonous phytoliths are more common in samples from layer IIIe and IIIg. Dicotyle-

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77

Fig. 3. Histogram showing the morphological distribution of phytoliths according to the type of plant and/or plant part where they were formed

donous plants (including leaves and wood/bark) were identified as well in the samples, although in much lesser number. The morphological results from the grey flat hearth analyzed differ considerably from other samples presenting a lower number of characteristic grass phytoliths, a higher presence of monocotyledonous phytoliths and a higher amount of wood/bark phytoliths (Fig. 3). Only two samples from layer IIIe and IIIg from the south profile were dominated, as well, by monocotyledonous plants. The latter also showed more wood/bark phytoliths (Fig. 3). Sedges were noted in layers IIIe and in lesser amount in layers IV and II (Figs 2d and 3). It is noteworthy that sedges, though they produce phytoliths in abundance (Ollendorf, 1992; Bamford et al., 2006), they are not well represented in soils due to their fragile silicification, and dissolve soon after their deposition in the soils (Albert et al., 2006). Consequently their identification in these layers entail for an extraordinary preservation of these microremains. Fig. 4 shows the grass phytolith morphological distribution according to the plant part where they were formed. Short cells that appear commonly in the leaves and the inflorescences, have been grouped independently. Short cells are known to be the first cells in becoming silicified regardless of the moisture availability (Piperno, 2006). The results reveal that short cells are dominant in most of the samples, namely those from layer II, layers III and III’ and layer IV. It is significant to note the high number of inflorescence phytoliths recovered from layer IIIg and to a lesser degree from layers IIIe and 6. Phytoliths from the inflorescence are characterized by presenting elongated morphologies with echinate and/or dendritic margin formed in the glumes,

paleas and lemmas that surround the grass seedhead. The identification of the frequently fragile papillae cells, also formed in the inflorescences and associated to the elongated forms, in all layer II samples as well as in layer III, independently of the type of sediment, indicate, together with the sedge phytoliths, for especially good preservation in these layers (Fig. 2e). The sample from the grey hearth differs from the rest in demonstrating a dominance of phytoliths of leaf/stem of grasses whereas short cells are less abundant. In addition inflorescence phytoliths are present in this sample (Fig. 4). The short cells belong mostly to the festucoid subfamily (C3 photosynthesis pathway) common in the Mediterranean region (Fig. 2c, f). Nevertheless, samples from layer II present a higher variation of short cells indicating also the presence of C4 grasses, saddle type (Fig. 2g). Short cells bilobate that might correspond to reeds (Arundo donax) have been identified in most of the samples except for layer III (south profile) and layer IV (Figs 2h, 5). Arundo donax is a giant reed, common in the Mediterranean, growing in fresh and moderately saline waters. Short cells from the festucoid subfamily were observed only in the hearth samples.

INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION With the exception of the hearths, phytoliths are abundant and well preserved in the Upper Palaeolithic layers at Klissoura cave. The morphological variability of the phytoliths indicate difference in plant input related to the provenience of the samples within the cave. Hearth samples differ from sediment samples in presenting different mineralogical composition, lower phyto-

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R. M. Albert

Fig. 4. Histogram showing the morphological distribution of grass phytoliths related to the plant part where they were formed

lith abundance as well as different phytolith morphotypes. Table 2 lists the samples studied with the main results obtained and, when possible, the interpretation derived from them. Sequence E – Layer IV This sequence is attributed chronologically to the Early Upper Palaeolithic, one of the most densely occupied periods of the cave as attested by the richness in bones and artifacts. Phytoliths were abundant only in the reddish grey sediment and were practically absent from the rest of the samples that correspond to the hearths. The low estimated amount of phytoliths per gram of AIF observed in the former is due to the presence of clay, probably from the decay of clay structures that diluted the amount of phytoliths (Table 1). This sample was collected from the southern profile close to the entrance of the cave, and therefore the possible natural plant input from outside should be taken into consideration. Sequence E was deposited during the later stages of MOI3. This was a time of fluctuating climatic condictions marked by alternating stadials

and interstadials. The dominant presence of grasses from the C3 festucoid subfamily, in terms of climatic reconstruction for the Klisoura environs (Figs 2c and 2f) attests the presence of sufficient precipitation to support temperate C3 grasses. On the other hand, the higher presence of short cells in relation to other phytolith morphotypes, reflecting better preservation of phytoliths, may indicate a drier climate as noted by the studies of the charcoal (Ntinou, this issue) and micromorphology (Karkanas, this issue). This proposed interpretation may remain a viable hypothesis since the accumulations in the cave are not solely geogenic and may reflect the selection of plants and plant parts by humans who brought them in. However, the climate during this period would be more humid than in later periods, such as those prevailing during the formation of layer II, as stressed below. The identification of sedges (Fig. 3) indicates the presence of nearby water sources during this period. These results are supported by the study of shells demonstrating that about 8% of these correspond to fresh water species. Fresh water lakes, marshes and estuaries

Hearths and plant uses during the Upper Palaeolithic period

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Fig. 5. Photomicrographs of phytoliths. Pictures taken at ×400. a) Short cell bilobate phytoliths from Arundo donax (giant reed) from the Levant; b) and c) short cells bilobates probably from Arundo donax giant reed identified in Klissoura samples

would be present north and east of the cave (Stiner, this issue). The faunal collections exhibit a slightly higher presence of ungulates related to wet forest environments (Starkovich et al., this issue). The presence of sedges may reflect a kind of dietary habits. As stated above during this time the cave was densely occupied and therefore different resources should have been exploited to fulfill the needs of the occupants. Considering the dietary advantages, sedges are a valuable source since the rhizomes provide starch and proteins. Out of the eleven hearths (clay and flat white and gray hearth) analyzed from different profiles of the excavation, none presented adequate amounts of phytoliths for a reliable plant interpretation (Table 1), thus hampering us from making

inferences concerning the function of the hearths as either made for cooking or other purposes. The absence of phytoliths from the hearths cannot be explained by dissolution since the frequency of weathering does not substantially differ from the observations of other samples (Table 1). In consequence, the variation in the presence of phytoliths must be related to some anthropic selection of the plant material used for the fires. This observation holds for all the hearths independently of their stratigraphic provenience. The most plausible explanation for the absence of phytoliths is the use of wood as fuel for the fires. Phytoliths are not abundant in these parts of the plants and sometimes they are practically absent (Albert et al., 1999; Tsartsidou et al., 2007). This is especially true for species such as Olea and Pistacia which

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Table 2 Summary of phytolith results with plant presence and interpretation. Only those samples with more than 50 phytoliths morphologically identified have been interpreted Stratigraphy

Locality

Description

Dominant group Plants

Grasses

Interpretation

Sequence B Layer IIa

B1-B2-B3 west profile

brownish grey

BB3-AA3 south profile

reddish brown with stones

Grasses

Short cells

C3 grass

Layer IIb Layer IId

C3 and C4 grass + reeds. Drier environment

Short cells, leaf-stems

Grasses

Short cells

C3 and C4 grass + reeds. Drier environment C3 grass

Sequence C Layer 6

Grasses B1-A1 north pro- grey-brown loose Short cells, leaf-stems C3 grass file pit Grasses/monocots Sequence D

Layer III Layer III'

Layer IIIe

Layer IIIg

B1-B2-B3 west profile

white cemented

Grasses

Short cells

C3 + reeds

light grey

Grasses

Short cells

C3 + reeds

BB3-AA3 south grey with stones profile

Monocots

Short cells, C3 grass. Higher flower input. leaf-stems, inflores- Little grass variation. Temperate cences and humid environment

B1-A1 north profile

grey flat hearth

Monocots, wood/bark

Leaf/stem, infloresC3 grass cences

BB3-AA3 south profile

grey

Monocots

Short cells, C3 grass. Higher flower input. leaf/stems, inflores- Little grass variation. Temperate cences and humid environment

Sequence E Layer IV

BB3-AA3 south profile

reddish grey

Short cells, C3 grass, sedges. More humid Grasses/monocots leaf/stems, inflores- environment, fresh water sources cences nearby

contain a very low number of phytoliths both in their wood and bark (Albert et al., 2000; Albert and Weiner, 2001). Moreover, the micromorphological study exposed the abundance of wood ash crystals and a high degree of calcination of the ash components (Karkanas, this issue). This fact, added to the low phytolith abundance, supports the possible function of hearths for cooking purposes consistent with the results obtained through the study of ethnoarchaeological fires among the Hadza people (Mallol et al., 2007). Sequence D – Layer III Culturally this sequence has been assigned to the Aurignacian cultural tradition although there is some discussion concerning layer III’ which according to the tool industry does not seem to correspond to this chronological time-period (Koz³owski, this issue). Nevertheless, in terms of min-

eralogy and phytolith abundance our results indicate homogeneity among all analyzed samples. Mineralogically all the samples show a higher calcitic component due to the high presence of burnt features in this sequence (Table 1). The higher dissolution of phytoliths observed here might be related to water dripping or ponding that increased the pH and accelerated the phytolith dissolution. This phenomenon has been observed through the micromorphological analyses locally and in all the sequences (Karkanas, this issue). Morphologically, however, there were variations related to the different stratigraphic sub-layers, types of sediment, among the southern and western samples. Samples from the southern area of layers IIIe and IIIg, close to the entrance of the cave, show some morphological differences. The grey sample with stones from layer IIIe presents the high

Hearths and plant uses during the Upper Palaeolithic period

abundance of dicotyledonous leaves phytoliths whereas the grey sample from layer IIIg exhibit the dominant presence of wood/bark phytoliths. These morphological differences could be related to anthropic activities more than changes in vegetation since both represent different parts of dicotyledonous plants. It is noteworthy among the grasses, the presence of inflorescence phytoliths suggesting an important input of plant material during the flowering season. Moreover, the minimal phytolith morphological variability in these samples probably indicates that only few species from the C3 festucoid grass subfamily were introduced into this southern area of the cave. Hence, the occupation of the layers IIIg and IIIe in the south profile reflects a low variation of grasses that have been collected during the flowering season, and in layer IIIg, associated with a considerable input of wood/bark. The reason for the high presence of inflorescence of grasses in these layers is not obvious. The possibility of using grasses for dietary purposes in Klissoura cave during the Upper Palaeolithic period should not be disregarded and would explain both the important presence of inflorescence phytoliths as well as the minimal variability of grass plants. Grass seeds, as well as other plant seeds were already identified during the previous studies of several hearths at Klissoura (Koumouzelis et al., 2001), suggesting that consumption of plant seeds was common during the Aurignacian times. Madella et al. (2002) identified the use of grass seeds as part of the diet in Amud cave already during the Middle Palaeolithic period in Israel. Thus, the inhabitants of Klissoura were able to bring to the cave selected grasses for consumption. Once they extract the seeds from their surrounding cover where the phytoliths are found this wasted material found its way to the cave deposits. Similarly sedges were also consumed as mentioned above concerning layer IIIe (Fig. 3). Samples from layers III and III’ from the western area practically presented identical results in terms of mineralogical composition, phytolith abundance and morphological record even though they correspond to two different types of sediments, namely, the white cemented and light grey, suggesting that these deposits were formed under similar conditions and with same vegetal input in terms ofantity and type (Table 1, Figs

81

2, 3). These results support the dates that are statistically undifferentiated (Kuhn et al., this issue) and are independent of the changes in cultural behaviors as reflected by the lithic analysis. Grasses in layers III and III’ show a dominance of short cell phytoliths from the festucoid subfamily and probably some reeds similar to that observed in layer II (such as Arundo donax) (Table 2). Phytoliths from six hearths were analyzed and in only one (the grey flat hearth from layer IIIe) they could be morphologically interpreted. The most important difference noted in this hearth in relation to the surrounding sediment samples, in addition to the remarkably lower abundance of phytoliths, relates to the variation in plant-part distribution, indicating that certain plant parts or groups of plants were selected for the fires, namely the leaves/stems of grasses and wood/ bark of dicotyledonous plants. Herbaceous plants and dicotyledonous leaves were probably used in the hearths to assist in starting the fire. Charcoal analysis indicates that the hearths from this period employed more mesophillous species such as Ulmus, Prunus and deciduous Quercus (Ntinou, this issue). The identification of phytoliths from the C3 festucoid subfamily does not indicate important changes in the climatic conditions during this period in comparison to the previous one. Sequence C – Layer 6 The two samples analyzed derived from a large pit (Karkanas, this issue) were defined as being mainly formed by grey-brown loose sediment. Mineralogically, as well as quantitatively, the samples are similar to one another, even though there are some important differences in phytolith morphological composition. Characteristic grass phytoliths are more common in one sample whereas monocotyledonous phytoliths, that may include grasses and other plants such as sedges, are more abundant in the other. The distribution of grass phytoliths is very similar in both samples; there is little morphological variation with a major presence of leaves than in the previous layers. Festucoid C3 grasses are the only morphotypes recognized. The lower amount of phytoliths per gram of material in both samples, taking into account the low dissolution rate observed, indicates that in layer 6 (derived from the

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north profile at the back side of the cave) plants were either less abundant or the assemblage composed of plants that produce fewer phytoliths. If this area is interpreted as a dumping area, the lower plant input was probably due to the mixing with other discarded remains. On the other hand the noted morphological differences may well point to two different depositional events either during the same period or from different areas. One of the few intact burnt features – the white flat hearth – located in this sequence could not be interpreted in terms of the presence of phytoliths thus indicating a different plant input in respect to the surrounding sediment samples, and the probable use of wood as fuel. The low AIF percentage indicates a very high calcitic component and suggests the use of wood as fuel. Moreover, according to the micromorphological study, this layer 6 was overloaded with pure wood ash (Karkanas, this issue). Sequence B – Layer II The samples corresponding to the Epigravettian culture tradition were the richest in phytolith (Table 1). Samples were defined as “brownish grey” and “reddish brown with stones”. Nonetheless, the results were homogeneous with a similar phytolith dissolution percentage, estimated number of phytoliths per gram of AIF and AIF %. Phytoliths were found in relatively good preservation and were easily identified. There are no differences among these samples whether among the distribution of morpho-types, presence of characteristic grass phytoliths associated with monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous wood/bark phytoliths. Regarding grasses, the phytoliths from the inflorescences were noted in lesser number than in the samples from layer III. Noteworthy is the identification in two of the samples of short cells phytoliths from the C4 group (chloridoid subfamily) associated with C3 grasses, and possibly reeds such as Arundo donax. Surprisingly these two samples correspond to two different sub-layers from different profiles and different type of sediment. One sample was collected from layer IIa B1-B2-B3 west profile from brownish grey sediment, whereas the second sample was collected from layer IIb, BB3-AA3 in the south profile, from the reddish brown sediments with stones. The other brownish grey sample from layer

IIb also bear phytoliths, probably from reeds, but to a lesser degree. The identification of C4 phytoliths from the short grass chloridoid subfamily suggests a drier environment than older layers associated to a more open landscape. This interpretation is consistent with the anthracological study that marks the disappearance of the mesophilous component and the presence of Prunus amygdalus/spinosa which grows in relatively arid and more open environments (Ntinou, this issue). It should be noted, that, although drier conditions were recorded for previous times, no C4 grasses were identified until this period, suggesting a more drastic change in the climatic conditions that favored the development of the short grasses and which coincides with the early Last Glacial Maximum, the expansion of the open steppic landscape and the disappearance of many of trees. The archaeological study revealed that during the Epigravettian period the intensity of the occupation was less intense than during the Aurignacian in sequences C, D and E. Furthermore, as Klissoura is a relatively open cave thus the impact of the natural plant input from outside during periods of non-occupation should be taken into account.

SUMMARY The presence of plant material in Klissoura cave 1 varied according to the different locations in the cave, different stratigraphic sequences and different archaeological provenience. Sediment samples show a relatively abundant presence of plants probably reflecting different uses and allowing for a climatic reconstruction of various periods. Moreover, the study of the phytoliths proved to be critical on showing the drastic changes in climate that occurred during the early Late Glacial period identified by the proliferation of C4 grasses in layer II times. Nevertheless, it did not have the same resolution when we examined the variations dated to the later stages of MIS3 where C3 grasses remain constant with no independently apparent changes reflecting climatic fluctuations. The only indication of drier climate during these periods could be the major presence of short cells which are formed in plants regardless of moisture availability. Nevertheless, and as it has already been stated, this assumption should remain as hy-

Hearths and plant uses during the Upper Palaeolithic period

pothesis since the deposit, are mostly anthropogenic and thus with a potentially important human impact. In this regard, the interpretation of the phytoliths should rely on other results such as micromorphology or anthracological analyses to better interpret the climate reconstruction of the periods of the Early Upper Palaeolithic and the Aurignacian. Concerning the anthropological interpretation of phytoliths, the higher input of phytoliths observed in layer II is perhaps not entirely related to anthropic activities but to plant deposition reflecting the natural environment surrounding the cave. In the lower layers III and IV the decreased amount of phytoliths is related to a more intense human occupation, when plants were brought into the cave for different purposes such as food source, fire, bedding, etc. Of great interest is the identification of grass inflorescences in all the samples and most particularly in layers IIIe and IIIg where it could have been indicative of dietary consumption of grass seeds. Worth noting is the exploitation of sedges as part of the human diet mainly during the deposition of layer III as well as in layers IV and II. The study of hearths deserves special mention due to the important differences noted in the comparison to the sediment samples. The total absence of phytoliths in the hearths, independently on their type, main mineralogical component and location, indicates a different plant input for fuel. There is only one sample that points to the use of leaves/stems of monocotyledonous plants and wood/bark consisting the main fuel. The presence of wood was undoubtedly more important than its representation by the occurrence of phytoliths. Wood/bark of dicotyledonous trees produces 20 times less phytoliths than grasses (Albert and Weiner, 2001). Moreover the presence of phytoliths from wood and bark among some Mediterranean trees is very low and sometimes practically absent (Albert et al., 1999, 2007; Albert and Weiner, 2001; Tsartsidou et al., 2007). The use of wood/bark for the fires is supported by the presence of calcium oxalate crystals identified during our previous study of the hearths (Koumozuleis et al., 2001) and by the abundant presence of wood ash crystals identified during the micromorphological study (Karkanas, this issue). Therefore it is plausible to assume that wood/bark would have

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been the main component of fuel for making fires. According to both, phytolith and micromorphological results (Karkanas, this issue), herbaceous plants and dicotyledonous leaves were not particularly used to help setting up the fire probably because wood was collected dried, thus facilitating the combustion.

CONCLUSIONS Plants are abundantly represented in most of the Upper Palaeolithic sediment samples but not in the hearths. Grasses are the most important component among the plants and generally correspond to the C3 festucoid subfamily which is also the most common in the Mediterranean area. However, other grass phytoliths have also been identified belonging to the C4 grasses and probably several reed species (e.g., Arundo donax) in sequence B, suggesting a drier and more open environment during the Epigravettian period. The important presence of phytoliths from the inflorescences in some of the samples from sequence D, layer III and sedges from sequences D and E, layers IIIe and IV points to the possible use of these plants for consumption during the early Aurignacian. Hearths did not contain phytoliths in the same proportion as their corresponding sediment samples indicating, a different and selective plant input for the hearths, related to a higher use of dicotyledonous wood/bark plants and leaf/stem of grasses and other monocotyledonous plants, but in lesser abundance.

REFERENCES ALBERT R.M., WEINER S. 2001. Study of phytoliths in prehistoric ash layers using a quantitative approach. In: J.D. Meunier and F. Coline (eds.) Phytoliths, Applications in Earth Sciences and Human History. A.A. Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam, 251–266. ALBERT R.M., TSATSKIN A., RONEN A., LAVI O., ESTROFF L., LEV-YADUN S., WEINER S. 1999. Mode of occupation of Tabun Cave, Mt. Carmel Israel, during the Mousterian period: A study of the sediments and the phytoliths. Journal of Archaeological Science 26, 1249–1260. ALBERT R.M., BAR-YOSEF O., MEIGNEN L., WEINER S. 2000. Phytoliths in the Middle Palaeolithic deposits of Kebara cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel:

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BERLIN A.M., BALL T., THOMPSON R., HERBERT S.C. 2003. Ptolemaic agriculture, “Syrian wheat”, and Triticum aestivum. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 115–121. BOZARTH S.R. 1992. Classification of Opal Phytoliths formed in selected dicotyledons Native to the Great Plains. In: G. Rapp, Jr. and S. Mulholland (eds.) Phytolith Systematics: emerging Issues. Plenum Press, New York, 193–214. BROWN D.A. 1984. Prospects and limits of a phytolith key for grasses in the central United States. Journal of Archaeological Science 11, 345–368. ETIÉGNI L., CAMPBELL A. G. 1991. Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Wood Ash. Bioresource Technology 37, 173–178. GAMBLE C. 1999. Palaeolithic Societies of Europe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. GEISS J.W. 1973. Biogenic silica in selected species of deciduous angiosperms. Soil Science 116, 113–130. KARKANAS P., BAR-YOSEF O., GOLDBERG P., WEINER S. 2000. Diagenesis in prehistoric caves: the use of mineral that form in situ to assess the completeness of the archaeological record. Journal of Archaeological Science 27, 915–929. KARKANAS P., RIGAUD J.P., SIMEK J.F., ALBERT R.M., WEINER S. 2002. Ash, Bones and Guano: a Study of the Minerals in the Sediments of Grotte XVI (Dordogne, France). Journal of Archaeological Science 29, 721–732. KARKANAS P., KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., SITLIVY V., SOBCZYK K., BERNA F., WEINER S. 2004. The earliest evidence for clay hearths: Aurignacian features in Klissoura Cave 1, Southern Greece. Antiquity 78, 513–525. KOUMOUZELIS M., GINTER B., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., PAWLIKOWSKI M., BAR-YOSEF O., ALBERT R.M., LITYÑSKA-ZAJ¥C M., STWORZEWICZ E., WOJTAL P., LIPECKI G., TOMEK T., BOCHEÑSKI Z.M., PAZDUR A. 2001. The Early Upper Palaeolithic in Greece: The excavations in Klissoura Cave. Journal of Archaeological Science 28, 515–539. MADELLA M., JONES M. K., GOLDBERG P., GOREN Y., HOVERS E. 2002. Exploitation of Plant Resources by Neanderthals in Amud Cave (Israel): The evidence from Phytolith Studies. Journal of Archaeological Science 29, 703–719. MADELLA M., ALEXANDRE A., BALL T. 2005. International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature 1.0. Annals of Botany 96, 253–260. MALLOL C., MARLOWE F.W., WOOD B.M., PORTER C.C. 2007. Earth, wind, and fire: ethnoarchaeological signals of Hadza fires. Journal of Archaeological Science 34, 2035–2052. MERCADER J., RUNGE F., VRYDAGHS L.,

Hearths and plant uses during the Upper Palaeolithic period DOUTRELEPONT H., CORNEILE E., JUANTRESERRAS J. 2000. Phytoliths from archaeological sites in the tropical forest of Ituri, Democratic Republic of Congo. Quarternary Research 54, 102– 112. MULHOLLAND S.C., RAPP Jr. G. 1992. A morphological clasification of grass silica-bodies. In: G. Rapp, Jr. and S. Mulholland (eds.) Phytolith Systematics: emerging Issues. Plenum Press, New York, 65–89. OLLENDORF A. 1992. Toward a classification scheme of sedge (Cyperaceae) phytoliths. In: G. Rapp, Jr. and S. Mulholland (eds.) Phytolith Systematics: emerging Issues. Plenum Press, New York, 91–111. PIPERNO D.R. 1988. Phytolith analysis: An Archaeological and Geological Perspective. San Diego, Academic Press. PIPERNO D.R. 2006. Phytoliths: A comprehensive guide for archaeologists and palaeoecologists. Lanham, MD, AltaMira Press. ROSEN A.M., WEINER S. 1994. Identifying ancient irrigation: a new method using opaline phytoliths from emmer wheat. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, 125–132.

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Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 87–90.

PLANT MATERIAL FROM THE KLISSOURA CAVE 1 IN GREECE Maria Lityñska-Zaj¹c Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences Krakow Branch, S³awkowska 17, Kraków, Poland; [email protected] Abstract This paper presents the results of the investigation of the macroscopic plant remains (seeds and fruit) from the Upper Palaeolithic deposits at Klissoura Cave 1. A total of 115 samples were examined. Seeds and fruit were presents in 37 samples. The quantitative and qualitative composition of individual samples, preserved on the site, is very poor. For the entire sequence of layers we determined sixteen taxons of plants (Table 1). All seeds and fruits, excluding one seed of Arenaria serpylifolia, are uncharred. A small number of diasporas are of uncertain origin and without a clear chronological position thus does not allow further characterization of the different cultural levels. Key words: Upper Palaeolithic, seed, fruit.

INTRODUCTION

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Klissoura Cave 1 is located in the eastern Peloponnese in Greece. The field investigation during 1996–2006 were conducted as a joint project of the Ephory for Palaeoanthropology and Speleology in Athens, Greece and the Institute of Archeology of the Jagellonian University in Kraków, Poland (Koumouzelis et al., 2001). The excavations of this site revealed a long chronological sequence that contains the following cultural layers: 1. layers VI, VII and VIII are classified as Middle Palaeolithic, 2. layer V is dated to Early Upper Palaeolithic, 3. layer IV is a Lower Aurignacian layer, 4. layers IIIa to IIIg contain the sequence of the Middle Aurignacian assemblages, 5. layer III’ is epi-Uluzzian, 6. layers III and III’ assemblages are Mediterranean Gravettian and contain some backed blades I ndustry, 7. layers 6, 6a and 6/7 are Upper Aurignacian layers, 8. layers IIa, IIb and IId are Epigravettian, 9. layers 1, 2, 3 and 5 contain Mesolithic and modern finds (Koz³owski, this issue).

During the successive field campaigns samples were taken for archaeobotanical examination from the cultural layers. The size of samples varied from 0.5 to 2 liters. All samples were collected and floated with a sieve with 1.0 mm mesh, by an archaeologist. The obtained material was dried in the open air and then sent to botanical examination. In total, 115 samples were studied. Each sample was first sorted in the laboratory under the binocular microscope with the magnification of 25. All seeds, fruit, charcoal pieces and other plant part were picked for taxonomical identification. Most of the charcoal pieces were delivered for anthracological analyses (Ntinou, this issue). Seeds and fruits were present in 37 samples and 19 samples had none. Several samples contain only very small pieces (the largest measuring 1mm) of charred wood and uncharred needle fragments. Fruits and seeds were identified on the basis of their morphological characteristics, using the available literature (e.g., Cappers et al., 2006). All specimens were compared with reference material

M. Lityñska-Zaj¹c

88

Table 1 Uncharred plant remains and charcoal from the Klisoura Cave 1 A

C

1, 2, 3, 5

6, 6a, 6/7

D III"

IIIa-IIIg

E

E/F

F/G

IV

IV/V

V/VI

Number of specimens

Taxa name

1

Achillea

1

Arenaria serpyllifolia, ch Chenopodium album type

3

4

41

Echium

1

3

6

Lithospermum arvense

5

3

Hyoscyamus 1

4

5

1

3

Malva

6

Melandrium

1 3

Polygonum aviculare type 3

Sambucus

1

Silene

1

Solanum 2

Spergula

4

10

Taraxacum

1

Urtica

5

Caryophyllaceae

1

Poaceae straw

9

Poaceae grain

10 1

11

2

4

3

65

37

Pinus, cone fragm.

11

8

Coniferae, neddle

3

Quercus, charcoal Pinus, neddle

4

1

2

undet., charcoal

1

126

13

2

2

undet., leaf undet., seed

23

1

1

1 Musci Explanations: Sequence A, layers 1, 2, 3, 5 – Mesolithic and modern; Sequence C, layers 6, 6a and 6/7 – Upper Aurignacian layers; Sequence D, layer III' – Mediterranean Gravettian; Sequence D, layers IIIa-IIIg – Middle Aurignacian layers; Sequence E, layer IV – Lower Aurignacian layers; Sequence F, layer V – Early Upper Palaeolithic; Sequence G, layer VI – Middle Palaeolithic; ch – charred

of extant seeds and fruits in the collections of the Archaeological Station of Institute of Archeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Igo³omia and Department of Palaeobotany, W. Szafer Institute of Botany of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Kraków.

RESULTS The quantitative and qualitative composition of individual samples is very poor. For the entire layers we determined only sixteen taxons of

plants (Table 1). All seeds and fruits, excluding one seed of Arenaria serpylifolia, are uncharred. Several of specimens showed various deformations and mechanically damaged shape. The only fruit of the Taraxacum genus bears the remnants of papus. Probably, this specimens was carried by the wind. Three samples contained leaves and chaff fragments belonging to the wild grasses of the Poaceae family. Only a few pieces of charcoal, measuring ca. 3 to 6 mm, were determined as oak (Quercus). Some very small pieces of charcoal, two frag-

Plant material from the Klissoura Cave

ments of leaves and two diasporas remained undermined. A few samples contained fragments of young cones and needles of Pinus and undetermined Coniferae. These specimens are fresh, the needles are green in color, and are undoubtedly modern specimens probably the results of contaminations during the drying the samples in the field. The largesr number of specimens was preserved in layer IV dated to Lower Aurignacian, but it should be also noted that this deposit provided the largest number of sample. In other layers only individual specimens occurred. The Epigravetian layers (IIa, IIb and IId) had no preserved plant remains.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The interpretation of the collected samples is difficult. As already mentioned, almost all specimens (seeds, fruits and vegetative part of plant) were uncharred. In those archaeological sites located stratigarphically above the level of groundwater, it is assumed that only the remains that are burned are of the same period of formation of the cultural layers (van Zeist and Buitenhuis, 1983; Lityñska-Zaj¹c and Wasylikowa, 2005: 41–44). When charred and uncharred botanical remains are found they are considered as evidence for admixture during later time. The presence of uncharred forms could be due to accumulation of plant remains caused by animals or the results of contamination during the handling of the samples in the field. In this case, fresh needles of pine can be evident for modern origin. In other cases, the contamination of material suggests no qualitative differences between plant remains from the deposits that accumulated over a long period of time. The successive layers accumulated under variable climatic conditions that probably impacted the diversity of the local vegetation (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Ntinou, this issue). In addition, plant remains in the hearths show both forms of preservation. Single samples contain charred wood and uncharred diasporas. This indicates the heterogeneous nature of their filling and the various ages of the seeds and charcoal. Fruits from the Boraginaceae family, such as Lithospermum arvense and Echium, may be preserved in dry archaeological deposits in uncharred condition due to their hard

89

Table 2 Plant remains from the 4 features at Klissoura Cave 1 IIIg

IV

Chenopodium album

1

1

Echium

2

Taxa name

Pinus, neddle

IIIa

IIIe

2

2

Quercus, charcoal

5

undet., charcoal

9

undet., seed

2 1

coat impregnated with silica (Kulpa, 1974: 215– 216; van Zeist and Buitenhuis, 1983). Only radiocarbon AMS dating will allow us to determine clearly the age of the seeds and fruits from Klisoura Cave. At the current state of research we must assume that the samples represent the contemporary vegetation in the vicinity of the archaeological site. A few samples from Klissoura Cave yielded field gromwell Lithospermum arvensis fruits. This plant is a component of the steppic vegetation growing in rocky mountains and subalpine regions. Its remains were collected from the Upper Paleolithic cultural layers in Franchthi Cave (Hansen, 1980, 1991; Ntinou, this issue). In the Lower Aurignacian layers one seed of Arenaria serpyllifolia was present. Arenaria serpyllifolia is growing today as arable weed in cultivated fields and in open communities on mountains up to 2400 m above sea level (Strid, 1986: 89). A small number of diasporas are of uncertain origin and without a secure chronological position, and thus does not allow further characterization of the different cultural levels. Acknowledgements I am heartfelt thank to Professor Janusz K. Koz³owski for entrusting me such great material for research. Professor Ewa Zastawniak-Birkenmajer, head of Department of Palaeobotany, W. Szafer Institute of Botany of the Polish Academy of Sciences, I express my gratitude for allowing me to use the comparative collection of fruit and seeds.

REFERENCES CAPPERS R.T.J., BEKKER R.M., JANS J.E.A. 2006. Digitale Zadenatlas van Nederland. Barkhuis Pub-

90

M. Lityñska-Zaj¹c

lishing & Groningen University Library, Groningen. HANSEN J.M. 1980. The Palaeoethnobotany of Franchthi Cave, Greece. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, University Microfilms International, Twin Cities. HANSEN J.M. 1991. The Palaeoethnobotany of Franchthi Cave. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. KOUMOUZELIS M., GINTER B., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., BAR-YOSEF O., ALBERT R.M., LITYÑSKA-ZAJ¥C M., STWORZEWICZ E., WOJTAL P., LIPECKI G., TOMEK T., BOCHEÑSKI Z.M., PAZDUR A. 2001. The Early Upper Palaeolithic in

Greece: The Excavations in Klissoura Cave. Journal of Archaeological Science 28, 515–539. KULPA W. 1974. Nasionoznawstwo chwastów. Pañstwowe Wydawnictwa Rolnicze i Leœne, Warszawa. LITYÑSKA-ZAJ¥C M., WASYLIKOWA K. 2005. Przewodnik do badañ archeobotanicznych. Vademecum Geobotanicum. Sorus, Poznañ. STRID A. 1986. Mountain flora of Greece. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. VAN ZEIST W., BUITENHUIS H. 1983. A palaebotanical study of the Neolithic Erbaba, Turkey. Anatolica 10, 47–89.

Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 91–106.

THE BIRDS OF KLISSOURA CAVE 1: A WINDOW INTO THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC GREECE Zbigniew M. Bocheñski and Teresa Tomek Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences S³awkowska 17, 31-016 Kraków, Poland; [email protected]; [email protected] Abstract The paper analyzes avian remains from Klissoura Cave 1, southern Greece. Of the 1835 remains representing at least 17 taxa, two species were particularly numerous – the rock partridge Alectoris graeca and the great bustard Otis tarda. One species, the eagle owl Bubo bubo is reported for the first time in fossil state from Greece. The high degree of fragmentation is probably due to burning and subsequent trampling. Some traces of butchering indicate that most of the birds are food remains of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic people who inhabited the site. Key words: bird remains, taphonomy, Aurignacian, Mediterranean Gravettian.

INTRODUCTION The data on fossil vertebrates from Greece, and especially those on birds, are relatively scarce. Therefore every new report from this part of Europe is likely to bring new and interesting findings, which we hope is also the case of the present study. The first two reports on avian remains from Klissoura Cave 1 included preliminary data (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Tomek and Bocheñski, 2002). After several seasons of archaeological excavations, the number of bird bones has increased by about four times – from 449 remains in 2002 to 1835 in the present study, and the number of taxa identified from these remains was nearly doubled – from 10 to 17, respectively (Table 1). Yet, we must admit that the quantity of remains examined here is still only a large sample of the total material from this site. We did not include the remains from the mixed sediments of several pits, because it was not possible to ascribe them to particular time periods or sequences. We include in this study all avian remains recovered so far, including those that were already

published in two early papers (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Tomek and Bocheñski, 2002). This seemed to us the most appropriate way of dealing with the subject in the special issue of the journal dedicated to this site. A smaller sample of the avian material, partly overlapping with ours, was used in the chapter on faunal exploitation in order to examine the relative contribution of game birds to the total meat diet (Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). Most of the avian remains were covered with a thin layer of solidified sediments that formed a kind of encrustation or concretion coating, which adhered firmly to the surface of the bones and hampered their identification. The encrustation was difficult to remove both mechanically and chemically and soaking the bones in a solution of acetic acid and removing the layer of sediments manually was not only very time-consuming but also destructive to the extremely brittle bones. Therefore, cleaning of the bird bones was limited to a small sample of the material. Similar problems were encountered in the case of mammal bones (Starkovich and Stiner, this issue).

Z. M. Bocheñski & T. Tomek

92

Table 1 Avian species identified at Klissoura Cave 1 in particular sequences of the deposit (A–G) Sequence

Taxon

G

F

E

E/D

D

D/C

Anser anser/A. anser domest cf. Anser sp.

1/1

1/1

Total C

B

A

?

NISP MNI

1/1

1

1

3

Anas querquedula/A. crecca

1/1

3

1

1

cf. Accipiter nisus

1/1

1

1

cf. Buteo sp.

1/1

1

1

cf. Aquila chrysaetos

2/1

Accipitridae indet. (Aquila size)

1/1

2/1

Alectoris graeca

9/3

3/1

Alectoris graeca/A. chukar

16/4

2 3

3

cf. Alectoris sp.

1

281/15

1

59

1

12

Otis tarda

4/1

73/3

cf. Otis tarda

3

9

Tyto alba

795/47 9/2

75/9

24

1216

19

1

5

2

90

25

1

2

1

42

222/8

6/2

308

10

1

20

1/1

Bubo bubo

1/1

1

3/2

4

cf. Bubo bubo

2/1

Asio sp.

2

1/1

1

Columba livia

2/1

Columba cf. livia

2

1/1

1

Turdus sp. cf. Garrulus glandarius

2/1

cf. Pyrrh. pyrrhocorax

1/1

Pyrrh. pyrrhocorax/C. monedula

3

Corvus cf. corax

2 1/1

7

1/1

4

1/1

5

1

Aves indet

3

5

NISP

13

3

35

MNI

3

1

10

4

1

35

14

31

2

14

6

110

486

19

1123

14

105

33

1835

66

3

13

28

1 2

2

1/1

4/1

4

1

6/2

Corvus corax

1

3 1

Corvus corone/C. frugilegus

14

1

1 1/1

81

1/1

2

Corvus corone

3

1/1 1

Corvus monedula

Total

3

1 2 4 2 124

Figures preceding slash indicate the number of identified specimens (NISP) and those following slash – minimum number of specimens (MNI). Category "Aves indet" includes 41 specimens the size of Alectoris and 9 specimens the size of Otis.

SPECIES COMPOSITION The remains of birds belong to at least 17 taxa, and bird remains were found in every sequence from A to G (Table 1). By far the richest material (89%) in terms of both the number of fragments and species was recovered from the Upper Aurignacian in sequence C and the Mediterranean Gravettian/Middle Aurignacian in sequence D, and thus many of our inferences about

the avifaunas pertain especially to these two layers. With one exception (a thrush, Turdus sp.), these remains belong to medium-and large-sized birds such as goose, duck, raptors, partridges, great bustards, owls, rock doves and corvids. Two of the 17 taxa constitute 91% of the total NISP and 77% of the total MNI in this sample (Table 2, Fig. 1). These are the partridge Alectoris sp. (73% of NISP and 66% of MNI) and the great bustard Otis tarda (18% of NISP and 11% of MNI).

The birds of Klissoura Cave 1

93

Fig. 1. Relative proportions of the main avian taxa in Klissoura Cave 1 (data pooled for sequences A–G). For details, see Table 2

All the avian taxa found in Klissoura Cave 1 are either still represented in the present day Greek avifauna or withdrew from Greece during the 20th century (Lambert, 1957; Cramp, 1985, 1988; Cramp and Perrins, 1994; Cramp and Simmons, 1977, 1980). Most of the species found in the Klissoura Cave 1 faunas have also been reported from other Greek sites of similar age (Bachmayer et al., 1989; Mourer-Chauviré, 1981; Reisch, 1976; Tyrberg, 1998; Wessie, 1988; see also Stiner and Munro [n.d.] on the avifauna from Franchthi Cave). The only exception is the eagle owl, Bubo bubo, which is reported for the first Table 2 Percentage of main avian taxa (%NISP and %MNI) in Klissoura Cave 1 in two sequences that yielded most remains (C and D) Sequence D

Taxon

C

Total (A–G)

% NISP

% MNI

% NISP

% MNI

% NISP

% MNI

Alectoris sp.

72

54

75

71

73

66

Otis tarda

17

11

21

12

18

11

Others

11

35

4

17

9

23

time as fossil from Greece; one specimen (leg phalanx – Bubo(?) sp. indet.) of similar but unsure identification was reported previously from Greece by Kretzoi (1977). The overall composition of species for sequences C and D and possibly also for other periods of occupation indicates a mosaic habitat, including large open areas such as steppe (preferred by great bustard), rocky hills with short grass and low scrub (preferred by rock partridge), rocks (raven, chough) and adjoining sparse woods or at least clumps of trees and rocks (jackdaw, crow). At least one body of water that attracted ducks to the vicinity, and meadow suitable for goose, must have also been present in the area (Cramp and Perrins, 1994; Cramp and Simmons, 1977, 1980; del Hoyo et al., 1992, 1994). Similar conclusions concerning the types of habitats in the area were reached by the study of plant macrofossils and wood charcoal (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Ntinou, this issue).

PROBLEMS WITH IDENTIFICATION Most of the partridge remains are from the rock partridge, Alectoris graeca, but A. chukar cannot be ruled out in the case of smaller speci-

94

Z. M. Bocheñski & T. Tomek

Fig. 2. Modern eagle owl, Bubo bubo (A, B, E, F; Cat. No. A/4554/88), compared with fossil specimens of the same species from Klissoura Cave 1 from sequence D dated to the Aurignacian through Mediterranean Gravettian (C, D, G, H). Right coracoid in anterior (A, C) and posterior (B, D) views, and left second phalanx of the 3rd toe in dorsal (E, G) and plantar (F, H) views. Traces of burning are visible on both fossil specimens in the form of browned patches

mens. Nowadays, only the rock partridge inhabits continental Greece, including the surroundings of Klissoura Cave 1, whereas A. chukar can be found as close as Crete, in the Near East and southern Bulgaria (Cramp and Simmons, 1980; Johnsgard, 1988). However, their geographic distribution could have been different during the Upper Pleistocene. The two partridge species are very similar morphologically and they are poorly represented in available comparative osteological collections, which makes it even more difficult to tell them apart. Moreover, they are sometimes said to be members of a superspecies that includes Alectoris graeca, A. chukar, A. magma and A. philibyi, and the two potential species (graeca and chukar) may possibly interbreed (del Hoyo et al., 1994). The few comparative specimens from the collection of our Institute in Krakow show a clear

difference in size, with A. chukar being the smaller species. According to Kraft (1972), our small specimens for which measurements were obtained are within the lower limit of the size range typical for Alectoris graeca, but unfortunately the manual does not include A. chukar whose size may overlap with A.graeca. Taking all these points into consideration, we conclude that it is safe to identify the larger and more numerous specimens as the rock partridge Alectoris graeca, whereas the smaller specimens may theoretically represent either one of the two species – A. graeca/chukar. Two of the six specimens of a large owl are exceptionally well preserved and together with other two well-preserved fragments could be identified as the eagle owl, Bubo bubo. This was done on the basis of their overall similarity to the

The birds of Klissoura Cave 1

extant specimens from the reference collection of the Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, PAS (Fig. 2). Snowy owl, Nyctea scandiaca, another extant species of comparable size that is known to have occurred in southern Europe in the Pleistocene (Tyrberg, 1998), differs in some osteological details and could be excluded, whereas Bubo insularis, an extinct Pleistocene owl of Corsica and Sardinia was smaller (MourerChauviré and Weesie, 1986). Of all of the endemic owls that have been reported from Mediterranean islands, most may be excluded due to their smaller size, different systematic position (genus) or different geological age (Louchart, 2002; Pavia, 2008). A notable exception is Ketupa zeylonensis, whose present oriental range is apparently smaller than it was during the Pleistocene, because its remains have been found also in prehistoric sites in Israel and Crete (Weesie, 1987; Tchernov, 1980). We must admit that we did not have the opportunity to compare our material with a modern reference specimen of K. zeylonensis due to its bsence from Europaen osteological collections. However, we know that there are morphological differences between Bubo and Ketupa on many skeletal elements, including pedal phalanges (Mourer-Chauviré, personal communication). Therefore, because the specimens from Klissoura Cave 1 match well the eagle owl, whose remains are found throughout Europe (Tyrberg, 1998) and whose present distribution includes Greece (Cramp, 1985), we feel that our identification is justified.

TRACES OF BURNING Traces of burning were analyzed in a large sample representing about one-fourth of all of the bird remains (Fig. 3; see also Figs 2 and 4). Each fragment was checked for colour alterations under a light microscope, which was a difficult task because usually the surface of the bone was largely covered with solidified sediments and often only a small portion of bone was visible. Nevertheless, various colour alterations were observed on 82 per cent of the remains, and the figure could be even higher if the bone surface was clear (for this reason we refrain from analyzing the problem in detail). The traces included completely charred bones (black), fragments with dark and brown

95

patches, and whitish bones. Due to time constraints for data collection, we did not count separately the number of brown, black, or whitish specimens but instead interpreted all of them as burning damage. In retrospect, some brownish colour alterations interpreted as light burning could also be the result of phosphatization (Shahack-Gross et al., 1997), thus our record of burning frequencies may overestimate the true rate of burning (see Starkovich and Stiner, this issue for a more conservative estimate based only on blackened and calcined specimens at 0–17% of bird NISP). The colour of burning damage depends on such variables as the temperature, duration of exposure to fire and distance of the bone from the fire (Bennett, 1999; Cain, 2005; Lyman, 1994; Serjeantson, 2009; Stiner et al., 1995). Colour alterations interpreted as burning traces were found on all types of bones, including vertebrae, phalanges and long bones. They were present in all regions of the long bone elements – proximal parts, distal parts, shafts and surfaces of broken edges alike. The bones affected by burning damage belonged not only to the two most numerous species (great bustard and rock partridge) but also to some of the other species represented by a single or just a few fragments (crow, jackdaw, raven, eagle, owls). Traces of burning found on certain parts of the skeleton may indicate dismembering of the carcass prior to grilling. This is because parts of the bone are protected by meat, skin and feathers while other parts are exposed directly to the fire (Cassoli and Tagliacozzo, 1997; Cain, 2005; Laroulandie, 2005a). For instance, a burned proximal humerus indicates that the wing was separated from the trunk at the shoulder joint, whereas similar traces on distal humerus and/or proximal ulna would suggest that the wing was disarticulated (also) at the elbow joint. Similarly, burning on the proximal femur is typically interpreted as the result of disarticulation of legs at the hip joint, and burning traces on the distal femur and/or proximal tibiotarsus point to the disarticulation at the knee joint. Shafts of these bones are protected by meat and may get burned only after the meat has been removed (e.g. consumed). Taking this into account, we must allow that the interpretation of the burning traces on avian bones from Klissoura Cave 1 is not very straight-

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Z. M. Bocheñski & T. Tomek

Fig. 3. Traces of burning on various bones of rock partridge Alectoris graeca (A–D) and great bustard Otis tarda (E–I). For rock partridge, (A, B) right distal humeri with shafts burnt black at the breakage point; (C) left femur shaft with dark brown surface; (D) left scapular coracoid with dark brown surface. For bustard, (E) left distal tibiotarsus with dark brown surface; (F) right distal tarsometatarsus burnt black; (G) completely charred left distal humerus; (H, I) right distal humeri with dark traces of burning. Specimens E and F are still largely covered with solidified sediments. Specimens H and I show partial squashing or holes located at the level of the fossa olecrani, attributed to disarticulation of the elbow by forceful overextension

The birds of Klissoura Cave 1

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Fig. 4. Left coracoids of the rock partridge, Alectoris graeca, in anterior and posterior views (archaeological specimens also in scapular view). (A) modern specimen #3296; (B, C) archaeological specimens from geological sequence C; (D, E) archaeological specimens from geological sequence D. In archaeological specimens, the processus acrocoracoideus was probably removed with a sharp object, because the surface of the cut is surprisingly smooth and flat. Although the bones are still partly covered with a layer of solidified sediments, traces of burning (dark patches) are visible on most of them

Z. M. Bocheñski & T. Tomek

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Table 3 Distribution of skeletal elements in the material from Klissoura Cave 1 (data pooled for all taxa)

Element

Total (sequences Sequence D Sequence C A–G) % % N

Skull

14

14

78

Mandibula

13

23

77

Vertebra

96

20

75

Furcula

20

25

70

Sternum

79

38

54

Notarium

46

20

74

139

17

77

13

31

69

Small leg bones

3

33

67

Phal. dig. pedis

23

35

43

7

57

43

33

12

30

Long bones

1349

29

61

Total

1835

27

61

Pelvis Small wing bones

Rib Indet.

Long bones (data from Table 4); Skull (braincase, beak, quadratum); Small leg bones (fibula, patella); Small wing bones (phalanx dig.alae, os carpi ulnare)

forward. While it is very likely that some of the traces of burning, especially those on the proximal and distal parts of the humerus and femur, are the side-effect of grilling the birds, there are other reasons for cautious interpretation. The shafts and surfaces of broken edges were also often affected, and there are some fragments with traces of burning present on articular parts as well as on shafts. These observations suggest that some of the heat exposures took place after the bones were cleaned of meat. We can imagine that the bones were thrown into the hearth after meat was eaten but it is also possible that the bones were left on the floor of the cave and were burned by later fires – on subsequent days, months or even years later. This is quite likely in Klissoura Cave 1 because numerous hearths were found, and some of them were used repeatedly (Karkanas et al. 2004; Karkanas, this issue). Moreover, the fact that traces of burning were also found on species perhaps less likely to be eaten by people (crow, jackdaw, raven, eagle, owls) also supports the “accidental burning” hypothesis to some degree.

FRAGMENTATION AND PRESERVATION OF BONES All major skeletal element types were found in the material, but their relative abundance varied considerably (Tables 3 and 4). The material is heavily fragmented; complete long bones constituted only about 5% of the total NISP (pooled data for all taxa, sequences and elements). The most numerous portion of long bones were the shafts, constituting 49% of the total NISP, due to the high degree of fragmentation. Most of the fragmentation may be the result of human activity, in particular trampling. The influence of owls, eagles and other diurnal birds of prey on fragmentation may be ruled out because the extent of fragmentation in the Klissoura 1 assemblages is too great (Bocheñski, 2005). Only bones recovered from pellets of diurnal raptors may show a similar degree of fragmentation but these are also heavily digested (Bocheñski et al., 1997, 1998, 1999), which was obviously not the case in the present material, since no traces of digestion were found. Trampling must have played an important role in Klissoura Cave 1. It is a small shelter and people used the site repeatedly and/or for prolonged periods. In fact, severe trampling was also responsible for the fragmentation of the charcoal at Klissoura 1 (Karkanas, this issue). For rock partridges, the most numerous elements include tibiotarsi, humeri coracoids and pelves, followed by ulnas and tarsometatarsi (Tables 5 and 6, Fig. 5; data from all sequences pooled). Three long bone elements of rock partridge showed an over-representation of one of their distal or proximal part: distal humeri, scapular coracoids and distal tibiotarsi outnumbered their counterparts, making up 67, 55 and 43% of all their remains, respectively. Moreover, shafts of femurs, ulnas, tarsometatarsi and tibioarsi are also particularly numerous, constituting 95, 79, 74 and 54% of all their remains, respectively. Our results correspond well with those of the Upper Pleistocene remains of rock partridges from Kephalari Cave, Greece, where the same three elements (humerus, coracoid and tibiotarsus) were found to be the most numerous (Reisch, 1976). Moreover, in both caves (Kephalari and Klissoura 1), distal tibiotarsi greatly outnumbered their proximal parts; further comparisons are not possi-

The birds of Klissoura Cave 1

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Table 4 Fragmentation of long bones in the material from Klissoura Cave 1 (data pooled for all taxa) Total (sequences A–G) Element

Total Whole Prox N % %

Sequence D

Dist %

Shaft %

Total Whole Prox N % %

Sequence C

Dist %

Shaft %

Total Whole Prox N % %

Coracoid

174

14

54

14

18

53

19

45

11

25

103

8

61

Scapula

98

6

88

-

6

29

3

90

-

7

59

8

85

Humerus

229

3

13

65

19

60

5

20

50

25

129

3

10

Ulna

Dist %

Shaft %

15

11

72

15

7

172

9

5

7

79

47

4

4

4

88

105

11

4

9

76

Radius

18

-

12

44

44

9

-

22

22

56

7

-

-

86

14

CMC

33

36

21

40

3

5

40

40

20

-

25

36

16

44

4

Femur

121

2

12

9

77

31

3

13

6

78

79

1

13

10

76

TBT

308

2

1

45

52

75

1

-

33

66

184

3

2

49

46

TMT

144

2

10

17

71

41

-

5

10

85

93

3

11

17

69

Shaft indet.

52

-

-

-

100

23

-

-

-

100

14

-

-

-

100

Total

1349

5

18

28

49

373

5

20

19

56

798

7

20

31

42

In coracoid, "proximal" and "distal" indicate scapular and sternal parts, respectively, whereas in scapula "proximal" indicates articular part. CMC, carpometacarpus; TBT, tibiotarsus; TMT, tarsometatarsus. Category "Shaft indet" includes 41 specimens the size of Alectoris and 5 specimens the size of Otis/Anser.

ble because Reisch (1976) does not elaborate on the preservation and fragmentation of other elements. Certain similarities in the relative preservation of skeletal elements can be also seen between Klissoura Cave 1 and the Upper Magdalenian site of La Vache, France, where the main prey species hunted by people was the ptarmigan, Lagopus sp. (Laroulandie 2005a). In La Vache, two of the three most numerous elements are the same as in Klissoura Cave 1 (coracoid and humerus), and only the third element differed (femur instead of tibiotarsus). The most numerous skeletal elements of great bustards are vertebrae, ulnas, humeri and coracoids, closely followed by tibiotarsi, femora and tarsometatarsi (Tables 5 and 6, Fig. 5; all sequences pooled). At 69%, distal tibiotarsi clearly outnumber the proximal ends, and shafts of ulnas (constituting 82% of all ulna remains) were more numerous than other ulna fragments. The differences between the numbers of particular fragments of other elements were less obvious due to their lower number. It is a common belief that in assemblages accumulated by humans, bones from the meat-rich leg bones will prevail. This was first proposed by Ericson (1987), who used the ratio of the wing

Table 5 Distribution of skeletal elements for Alectoris, Otis and “other birds” in the material from Klissoura Cave 1 (data pooled for all sequences) Element

Total Alectoris sp. Otis tarda N % %

Others %

Skull

14

14

86

-

Mandibula

13

15

70

15

Vertebra

96

25

69

6

Furcula

20

60

40

-

Sternum

79

92

8

-

Notarium

46

98

2

-

139

89

9

2

13

8

92

-

3

67

33

-

Pelvis Small wing bones Small leg bones Phal.dig.pedis Costa Fragment indet

23

48

43

7

-

9

100

-

33

-

-

100

Long bones

1349

78

14

8

Total

1835

73

18

9

Long bones (data from Table 6); Skull (braincase, beak, quadratum); Small leg bones (fibula, patella); Small wing bones (phalanx dig.alae, os carpi ulnare)

Z. M. Bocheñski & T. Tomek

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Table 6 Fragmentation of long bones in the material from Klissoura Cave 1 (data pooled for all sequences) Alectoris sp. Element

Total Whole Prox N % %

Otis tarda

Dist %

Shaft %

Total Whole Prox N % %

Others Dist %

Shaft %

Total Whole Prox N % %

Dist %

Shaft % 11

Coracoid

137

16

55

9

20

28

11

54

25

10

9

-

33

56

Scapula

83

7

87

-

6

14

-

93

-

7

1

-

100

-

-

Humerus

187

4

9

67

20

31

-

32

58

10

11

-

18

55

27

Ulna

122

12

2

7

79

34

-

6

12

82

16

-

19

-

81

Radius

9

-

11

56

33

6

-

17

50

33

3

-

-

-

100

CMC

26

46

15

35

4

4

-

50

50

-

3

-

33

67

-

Femur

98

1

4

-

95

20

5

40

55

-

3

-

67

-

33

TBT

274

2

1

43

54

26

4

4

69

23

8

-

12

50

38

TMT

122

2

10

14

74

19

5

11

31

53

3

-

33

33

33

Shaft indet.

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

52

-

-

-

100

Total

1058

7

18

28

48

182

3

30

38

29

109

-

13

17

70

In coracoid, “proximal” and “distal” indicate scapular and sternal parts, respectively, whereas in scapula “proximal” indicates articular part. Category “Shaft indet” includes 41 specimens the size of Alectoris and 5 specimens the size of Otis/Anser.

(humerus, ulna, carpometacarpus) to leg (femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) bones. The ratio has also been used successfully to distinguish bird remains derived from pellets from the uneaten food remains of owls and diurnal birds of prey, where the wing bones prevailed or their share with leg bones was equal (Bocheñski et al., 1993, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2009a; Bocheñski and Tomek, 1994; Bocheñski and Nekrasov, 2001; Bocheñski and Tornberg, 2003; Bocheñski, 2005). In Klissoura Cave 1, leg elements represented 60% of the sum of wing and leg bones in partridges (Alectoris), a statistically significant bias (c2 = 19.18, P < 0.01) that supports the supposition that these birds were eaten by humans. Surprisingly, in great bustards Otis tarda, the ratio of wing to leg bones was 1:1, i.e. similar to that observed in pellets of owls (Bocheñski 2005: fig. 4.2). However, the birds are far too large for being hunted by owls, and other evidence suggests that the bustards in Klissoura 1 represent human food remains (archaeological context, traces of burning, butchering). It is difficult to say why the wing to leg bone ratio did not follow the rule in the case of bustards. It is possible that the strong, robust bones preserve differently or that some of their bones were used by the people for other purposes and were removed from the site (Gál, 2005; Serjea-

ntson, 2009). Finally, in other prey species (i.e. excluding the numerous Alectoris and Otis), wing elements constituted 68% of the sum of wing and leg bones. Although the deviation from the expected 50% (1:1 proportion) was statistically significant (c2 = 5.82, P < 0.05), caution is advised because the sample was relatively small. It is tempting to interpret these bones as food remains of owls or diurnal birds of prey, but due to their scarcity and distribution throughout the various cultural sequences, we cannot be sure.

BUTCHERING Very few bone modifications attributable to butchering were found on the avian remains from Klissoura Cave 1. The low frequencies of tool marks may be partly due to the fact that large areas of most bones were hidden beneath encrustations. Two of the modified fragments were distal tibiotarsi with cut marks on the lateral side (Fig. 6). One of them belongs to the most common prey, the rock partridge, while the other was identified as the crow, Corvus corone. No far-reaching conclusions can be drawn from these two fragments. A possible explanation is that the birds were hunted for their skins and feathers, as it was sug-

The birds of Klissoura Cave 1

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Fig. 5. The relative proportions (% NISP) of various avain skeletal elements recovered form Klissoura Cave 1 (data pooled for all sequences; see also Tables 5 and 6). The category Otis includes Otis tarda and cf. Otis tarda, whereas Alectoris includes Alectoris graeca, Alectoris graeca/chukar and cf. Alectoris. (CMC) carpometacarpus; (PDP) pedal phalanges; (Skull) braincase, beak, quadratum; (SLB) small leg bones consisting of fibula, patella; (SWB) small wing bones consisting of phalanx dig.alae, os carpi ulnare; (TBT) tibiotarsus; (TMT) tarsometatarsus

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Z. M. Bocheñski & T. Tomek

Fig. 6. Cut marks on lateral side of left distal tibiotarsi. (A) rock partridge Alectoris graeca (no stratigraphic data); (B) Corvus corone (geological sequence C). The bones are still partly covered with a layer of solidified sediments. One of the cut marks is partly exposed

gested in the case of numerous distal tibiotarsi with cut marks from an Upper Palaeolithic layer of Kephalari Cave (Reisch, 1976). We are unable to verify whether this was also the case in Klissoura Cave 1. In any case, the scarcity of the fragments with cut marks indicates that the process by which the cut marks were produced was not a daily routine. Two distal humeri of the great bustard represent possible examples of dismembering by humans (Fig. 3H, I). The bones have partial crushing or holes located at the level of the fossa olecrani. Such modifications are interpreted as penetration of the olecranon of the ulna through the fossa olecrani of the humerus during separation at the elbow by overextension. This kind of damage is known from fossil remains of various species ranging from snowy owl (Gourichon, 1994), ptarmigan/willow grouse and alpine chough (Laroulandie, 2000) to anseriforms (Tagliacozzo and Gala, 2002), and the damage has been confirmed experimentally on common partridges, chicken, tawny owl and barn owl (Laroulandie, 2000, 2001, 2005b; Laroulandie et al., 2008). It is the first time that such damage is reported for the great bustard. The presence of such squashing on the one hand, and the lack of cut marks on wing elements on the other, implies that the inhabitants of Klissoura Cave 1 disarticulated large birds by force rather than with flint blades. It is worth noting that although holes or perforations may also be produced by diurnal birds of prey, raptors gen-

erally do not perforate the distal humerus, which is protected by the elbow joint, but they do affect other more exposed elements (sternum, pelvis, coracoid) with their beaks and claws (Laroulandie, 2000, 2002; Bocheñski and Tornberg, 2003; Bocheñski et al., 2009a). An interesting damage pattern was observed on 12 of the 42 coracoids of rock partridge specimens that preserve the extremitas omalis (i.e. humero-scapular part). The processus acrocoracoideus was cut-off, and the surface of the cut was surprisingly smooth and flat (Fig. 4). All the bones affected in this way originated from sequences C and D (Upper Aurignacian and Aurignacian–Mediterranean Gravettian, respectively). We found only one other report of this phenomenon in the literature – on coracoids of willow grouse from a Magdalenian site of Grotte des Églises in France (Laroulandie, 1998: fig. 6). The two sites (Klissoura Cave 1 and Grotte des Églises) have many things in common, including clear evidence of human occupation and large numbers of galliform remains. Our finding strongly supports the hypothesis that the bones were cut off by man during the process of disarticulation, a preliminary step of separating the wing from the carcass. This cut exposed the strong and hence difficult to disarticulate joint of coracoid/humerus, which is a bit lower on the bone. Experimental work would be useful to further test the hypothesis.

The birds of Klissoura Cave 1

CONCLUSIONS Judging from the composition of species and their relative abundance in the archaeofaunal material, it is clear that the cave inhabitants hunted selectively. They had strong preference for two relatively large, ground-dwelling species – rock partridge and great bustard. The birds must have been hunted in the area and brought to the cave, where they were processed and eaten by people. The archaeological context (see other chapters in this issue) and traces of burning on many of the bones support this conclusion (Fig. 3). It is worth noting that the share of the rock partridge and great bustard did not change much with time, at least not between the two periods (sequences C and D) that yielded most of the bird remains in our sample: the Upper Aurignacian sequences C; the Mediterranean Gravettian sequence D1; and the Middle Aurignacian sequence D2. In sequences C and D, rock partridge remains amounted to 75–72% of the total NISP respectively, and those of the great bustard to 21–17%, respectively (Table 2). Remains of the two species clearly predominated in the other sequences as well, although small sample sizes prevent us from saying more than this. Great bustards, partridges and other galliforms were hunted and eaten by people at a variety of locations of similar and younger age in southern Europe (Reisch, 1976; Petit, 1995; Cassoli and Tagliacozzo, 1997; Stiner et al., 2000; Laroulandie, 2005a). As observed by Flannery (1969), at the end of the Palaeolithic the number of animal and plant species in people’s diet increased – a hypothesis called “Broad Spectrum Revolution” (BSR). Later, Stiner et al. (2000) refined the BSR theory by showing that increases in proportions of quick (low return) prey relative to slow (high return) prey more accurately reflect diet breadth expansion in the Mediterranean areas. Since that time a number of studies confirmed the validity of the BSR hypothesis (e.g., Stiner, 2001; Munro, 2004; Davis, 2005; Laroulandie, 2005a; Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). Although most of the data in support of the BSR hypothesis derive from sites around the Mediterranean (Stiner, 2001; Davis, 2005), it seems that it also occurred at higher latitudes, albeit at later dates (Bocheñski et al., 2009b;

103

Jochim, 1998). The present results as well as those of Reisch (1976) indicate that the change in the subsistence occurred earlier in Greece than in France, where the Magdalenian appears to be oldest Palaeolithic culture which has produced unambiguous evidence of the hunting of birds (Laroulandie, 2003, 2004). Other species that were probably hunted and eaten by the occupants of the cave include geese and a small duck species, but their remains are very scanty and therefore difficult to interpret. Most of the remaining species – eagle Aquila sp., barn owl Tyto alba, eagle owl Bubo bubo, rock dove Columba livia, raven Corvus corax, (Alpine) chough/jackdaw Pyrrhocorax/Corvus monedula – could have nested in the cave or in the rocks around the entrance (Cramp and Perrins, 1994). Consequently, they could die of natural reasons and become included in archaeofaunal remains accidentally. We also cannot exclude the possibility that some of them were killed by the inhabitants of the cave. Other species in the site that typically do not nest in rocks and/or caves (buzzard Buteo sp., owl Asio sp., thrush Turdus sp., jay Garrulus glandarius) must either have been hunted by man or large birds of prey – eagle owls (Bubo bubo) and eagles (Aquila sp.) have all of these species on their menu (Glutz von Blotzheim et al., 1971; Glutz von Blotzheim and Bauer 1980). Raptors may have brought their prey into the cave, where the remains eventually were added to unrelated material on the cave floor. Traces of burning found on bones of some of the above-mentioned species may have been the result of intentional human activities, such as grilling or cooking, but we cannot exclude the possibility that the remains were burned post-depositionally, because fires were built atop older refuse. The latter interpretation is supported by the fact that in some cases traces of burning were also found on bone shafts, i.e. body parts usually protected by meat. Acknowledgments We are very grateful to Erika Gál, Véronique Laroulandie, Cécile Mourer-Chauviré, Mary Stiner and Tommy Tyrberg for fruitful discussions on various aspects of this paper and supplying us with relevant literature.

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The birds of Klissoura Cave 1 europas, Vol. 4. Akademische Verlagsdesellschaft, Franfurt am Main. GOURICHON L. 1994. Les Harfangs (Nyctea scandiaca L.) du gisement magdalénien du Morin (Gironde). Analyse taphonomique des restes d’un rapace nocturne chassé et exploité par les hommes préhistoriques. Mémoire de Maîtrise (Ethnologie), Université Lumière Lyon II, Lyon. JOCHIM M. 1998. A Hunter-Gatherer Landscape: Southwest Germany in the Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic. Plenum Press, New York. JOHNSGARD P.A. 1988. The quails, Partridges, and francolins of the world. Oxford University Press, Oxford–New York–Tokyo. KARKANAS P., KOUMOUZELIS M., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., SITLIVY V., SOBCZYK K., BERNA F., WEINER S. 2004. The earliest evidence for clay hearths: Aurignacian features in Klissoura Cave 1, southern Greece. Antiquity 78, 513–525. KOUMOUZELIS M., GINTER B., KOZ£OWSKI J.K., PAWLIKOWSKI M., BAR-YOSEF O., ALBERT R.M., LITYÑSKA-ZAJ¥C M., STWORZEWICZ E., WOJTAL P., LIPECKI G., TOMEK T., BOCHEÑSKI Z.M., PAZDUR A. 2001. The early upper Palaeolithic in Greece: The excavations in Klissoura Cave. Journal of Archaeological Science 28, 515–539. KRAFT E. 1972. Vergleichend morphologische Untersuchungen an Einzelknochen nord-und mittel-europäischer kleinerer Hühnervögel. Inaugural- Dissertation der Tieräztlichen Fakultät der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München. KRETZOI M. 1977. The fauna of small vertebrates of the Middle Pleistocene at Petralona. Anthropos 4, 131–143. LAMBERT A. 1957. A specific check list of the birds of Greece. Ibis 99(1), 43–68. LAROULANDIE V. 1998. Etudes archéozoologique et taphonomique des LagopÀdes des saules de la grotte magdalénienne des Eglises (AriÀge). Anthropozoologica 28, 45–54. LAROULANDIE V. 2000. Taphonomie et archéozoologie des oiseaux en grotte: applications aux sites Paléolithiques du Bois-Ragot (Vienne), de Combe SauniÀre (Dordogne) et de la Vache (AriÀge). ThÀse d’Université, Université de Bordeaux I, Bordeaux. LAROULANDIE V. 2001. Les traces liées ´ la boucherie, ´ la cuisson et ´ la consommation d’oiseaux: apport de l’expérimentation. In: L. Bourguignon, I. Ortega, M.-C. FrÀre-Sautot (eds) Préhistoire et approche expérimentale. Éditions Monique Mergoil, Montagnac, 97–108. Internet access in 2011 on http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00082668. LAROULANDIE V. 2002. Damage to pigeon long bones in pellets of the eagle owl Bubo bubo and

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Sardaigne et de Corse. Revue de Paléobiologie 5(2), 197–205. MUNRO N.D. 2004. Zooarchaeological measures of hunting pressure and occupation intensity in the Natufian. Current Anthropology 45(s4), 5–34. PAVIA M. 2008. The evolution dynamics of the Strigiformes in the Mediterranean islands with the description of Aegolius martae n. sp. (Aves, Strigidae). Quaternary International 182, 80–89. PETIT L.G. 1995. Preliminary study of Upper Pleistocene bird bone remains from L’Arbreda Cave (Catalonia). Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 181, 215–227. REISCH L. 1976. Beobachtungen an Vogelknochen aus dem Spätpleistozän der Höhle von Kephalari (Argolis, Griechenland). Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 6, 261–265. SERJEANTSON D. 2009. Birds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. SHAHACK-GROSS R., BAR-YOSEF O., WEINER S. 1997. Black-coloured bones in Hayonim Cave, Israel: Differentiating between burning and oxide staining. Journal of Archaeological Science 24, 439–446. STINER M.C. 2001. Thirty years on the “Broad Spectrum Revolution” and Paleolithic demography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98(13), 6993–6996. STINER M., MUNRO N.D. [n.d.]. On the Evolution of Diet and Landscape during the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic at Franchthi Cave (Peloponnese, Greece). Journal of Human Evolution (in press). STINER M.C., KUHN S.L., WEINER S., BARYOSEF O. 1995. Differential burning, recrystallization, and fragmentation of archaeological bone. Journal of Archaeological Science 22, 223–237.

STINER M.C., MUNRO N.D., SUROVELL T.A. 2000. The tortoise and the hare: Small-game use, the broad spectrum revolution, and Paleolithic demography. Current Anthropology 41, 39–73. TAGLIACOZZO A., GALA M. 2002. Exploitation of Anseriformes at two Upper Palaeolithic sites in Southern Italy: Grotta Romanelli (Lecce, Apulia) and Grotta del Santuario della Madonna a Praia a Mare (Cosenza, Calabria). In: Z.M. Bocheñski, Z. Bocheñski, J.R. Stewart (eds) Proceedings of the 4th Meeting of the ICAZ Bird Working Group, Krakow, Poland, 11–15 September, 2001. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia 45 (special issue), 117–131. TCHERNOV E. 1980. The Pleistocene Birds of ‘Ubeidiya, Jordan Valley. The Israel Academy of Science and Humanities, Jerusalem. TOMEK T., BOCHEÑSKI Z.M. 2002. Bird scraps from a Greek table: the case of Klissoura Cave. In: Z.M. Bocheñski, Z. Bocheñski, J.R. Stewart (eds) Proceedings of the 4th Meeting of the ICAZ Bird Working Group, Kraków, Poland, 2001. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia 45(special issue), 133–138. TYRBERG T. 1998. Pleistocene birds of the Palearctic: a catalogue. Publication of the Nuttall Ornithological Club No 27, Cambridge, Massatchusetts. Updates at http://web.telia.com/~u11502098/pleistocene.pdf (access in 2011-01-28). WEESIE P.D.M. 1987. Preliminary report on the Pleistocene birds from Crete. In: Mourer-Chauviré C. (ed.) L’évolution des oiseaux d’aprÀs le témoignage des fossiles. Documents des Laboratories de Géologie Lyon No 99, Lyon, 197–200. WEESIE P.D.M. 1988. The quaternary avifauna of Crete, Greece. Palaeovertebrata 18(1), 1–94 + 9 Plts.

Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 107–132.

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC ANIMAL EXPLOITATION AT KLISSOURA CAVE 1 IN SOUTHERN GREECE: DIETARY TRENDS AND MAMMAL TAPHONOMY Britt M. Starkovich* and Mary C. Stiner School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, 1009 E. South Campus Drive, Tucson, AZ 85721-0030 USA; (*) [email protected] Abstract The faunal remains from the Upper Paleolithic (UP) through Mesolithic layers at Klissoura Cave 1 (Prosymna) in Peloponnese, Greece, were examined to understand changes in hominid diets over the course of the sequence, as well as the human and non-human taphonomic processes that affected the assemblages. The range of hunted species varied with time in response to a combination of environmental factors and human hunting pressures. Evidence for the latter includes a shift in small game hunting from mainly high-ranking slow moving species (tortoises) in the Early UP to greater use of low ranking fast-moving species (hares and birds) and the eventual inclusion of land snails in later Paleolithic and Mesolithic diets. Fallow deer dominate the ungulate remains throughout the sequence. The ungulate faunas are particularly diverse, however, in the earliest Aurignacian layers and again in the Epigravettian and Mesolithic layers. The evidence for bone modification is uniformly anthropogenic, with rare if any indication of non-human taphonomic processes. Body part analyses of the fallow deer remains reveal a paucity of axial elements below the neck, which probably were discarded at kill sites. Hare body part profiles consistently lack foot and vertebral elements, which may also reflect field processing or spatially discrete (unexcavated) processing areas on-site. The highly varied prey spectra of the Upper Paleolithic–Mesolithic occupations show that a wide range of economic activities generally took place at this site. Key words: Zooarchaeology, vertebrate taphonomy, Aurignacian, Uluzzian, Mesolithic, faunal turnover, small game hunting.

INTRODUCTION The faunal remains from Klissoura Cave 1 provide unique information on Upper Paleolithic diets and ecology in southern Greece. The site is situated at the interface of the hilly Berbati Valley and the Argive Plain, which provided diverse habitats for small and large game animals. This paper presents findings on the Early Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic faunas, relating to trends in human subsistence, regional ecology and taphonomic processes at the site. Earlier studies of small samples of the Klissoura 1 faunas, reported in Koumouzelis et al. (2001) and Tomek and Bocheñski (2002), have provided critical starting points for the research discussed here. The present study represents a near-full analysis

of the Early Upper Paleolithic and later layers excavated at Klissoura Cave 1 to date, including vertebrate and land snail exploitation. Of special interest in this presentation are changes in prey choice potentially as a function of rising human population density versus changes in natural biotic diversity in eastern Peloponnese. Ungulate body part representation and taphonomic observations are also examined for evidence of site function and variation in site occupation intensity.

CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND Two major issues that have emerged in recent studies of Upper Paleolithic subsistence in the Mediterranean region rely on observations about

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the proportionality (“evenness”) of key prey items in the diet. One of these issues concerns changes in small game use and can be related in some instances to hunting pressure and increases in human population densities (Stiner et al., 2000; Stiner, 2001; Stiner and Munro, 2002). The other issue concerns the dominance of one or just a few large game species in some faunal assemblages, and whether this reflects natural variation in biotic diversity or specialized hunting and habitatspecific patterns of land use by humans (Straus, 1987; Gamble, 1997; Phoca-Cosmetatou, 2003b, 2005). With regard to the first issue, small game animals clearly were important sources of supplementary meat at Klissoura Cave 1. As for the second issue, the ungulate assemblages are overwhelmingly dominated by fallow deer (Dama dama) in some periods, and considerably less so in others. Both of these topics are pertinent to understanding prehistoric hunting adaptations and their ecological contexts at Klissoura 1, although their implications for human behavior and ecology are different. This presentation attempts to distinguish among these hypothesized effects in the early Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic faunas at this site. Stiner and colleagues (Stiner et al., 2000; Stiner, 2001; Stiner and Munro, 2002) previously have demonstrated a marked change in small game use between the Middle and Upper Paleolithic in other Mediterranean regions, the first of a series of stages in dietary expansion that occurred among Late Pleistocene foragers. Meat diets continued to broaden from the Upper Paleolithic to Epipaleolithic, though ungulates remained the main source of meat in all periods. In the Middle Paleolithic, only slow-moving or sessile small animals, such as tortoises and shellfish, were collected in significant quantities to fill gaps in the availability of large game. These slow small animals continued to be exploited in the early Upper Paleolithic and later periods, but a variety of quick small mammals and game birds became ever more important. By the Epipaleolithic, quick small prey were a major part of the meat diet at many Mediterranean sites. This phenomenon is also known from higher latitude regions of Europe, but the trend often is not clearly expressed until the Magdalenian and later (Berke, 1984; Jochim, 1998; Costamagno et al., 2008).

An increasing reliance on quick small game is behaviorally significant because the costs of capture (i.e. technological investments) are higher than for slow-moving or stationary small prey of roughly the same body size. Ethnographic accounts show that, while large animals are difficult to capture, the potential yields are also very high (e.g., Kelly, 1995). Slow-moving small game animals are only somewhat less attractive than large game, because the cost of procurement is so low. Among recent foragers, capture costs are normally are reduced technologically, and the foraging equipment requires significant effort to produce and maintain. Prey choice models provide a valuable framework for testing hypotheses about the circumstances in which diets may constrict or expand (Stephens and Krebs, 1986). Considerable flexibility is expected within the adaptation of any human forager, but evolutionary changes are implied by long-term trends the diet breadth. A broadened diet tends to occur when high-ranked game animals become less abundant in the environment. Lower-ranked resources are exploited to compensate for the decline in the optimal (sensu highest yield) prey types. Evidence of expanding diet breadth does not require that new species be added to the diet, although this may also occur. Rather, the most important criterion is greater proportions of low-ranked prey species alongside high-ranked species (Colson, 1979; Stephens and Krebs, 1986; Kelly, 1995). In addition to prey composition, intensified processing of prey carcasses may also indicate rising pressures on the supply of animal foods in the environment (Stiner, 2002a). Another question about the Upper Paleolithic record that historically has received much attention concerns specialized forms of large game hunting. It is argued by some archaeologists that specialized hunting should be evidenced by a narrow focus on just one or two ungulate species. Hypotheses about specialized hunting are usually accompanied by interpretations of site function, focusing on hunting camps and use of highland areas. Tests of this hypothesis therefore require information on natural species diversity in the region and the habitats that could be exploited by the foragers. Some archaeologists propose that hunting specialization is a hallmark of the Upper

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

Paleolithic or fully modern human behavior (Mellars, 1973, 1989). However, recent zooarchaeological studies have shown that (1) mono- specific assemblages also occur in some Middle Paleolithic sites throughout Europe and southwest Asia (see review by Gaudzinski, 1995), and (2) though one species often dominates an assemblage, uneven species representation is not necessarily evidence of foraging specialization. Certain gregarious species were targeted during seasonal migrations in some regions, whereas a wider variety of taxa were exploited during rest of the year by the same cultures (e.g. in southern France, Surmely et al., 2003; Costamagno, 2004; Costamagno et al., 2006). Moreover, mammal species diversity naturally declines with latitude, and climate change produces a similar effect through time for any given region of the world. Straus (1987) has examined ibex hunting as a unique kind of specialization at sixteen sites in Cantabrian Spain and the French Pyrenees. He finds that ibex-dominated faunas often occur at high altitudes and during the Late Glacial, and they tend to associate with evidence for limited on-site activities. At Klithi Cave in northern Greece, Gamble (1999) found evidence for short occupation spans, low prey species diversity, a lack of carnivores, and biases favoring high-utility animal body portions, not unlike the situation at six of the Iberian sites reviewed by Straus (1987). In Italy, Phoca-Cosmetatou (2003a, 2004a, 2005) finds that, while there do appear to be specific tactics involved in ibex hunting, there also is considerable variation in the contents of ibex-dominated sites. She argues that the ecological association between ibex and high-altitude habitats is a recent phenomenon; in the past they also could be found on craggy ground at low altitudes (Phoca-Cosmetatou, 2004b), based on the presence of their remains in low-lying archaeological sites. In nearly all of the Italian assemblages she examined, ibex are either the dominant species or they are virtually absent, suggesting that exploitation of ibex noted by Straus (1987) and Gamble (1997) also occurred in Italy (PhocaCosmetatou, 2004a). The faunas from Klissoura Cave 1 contain a variety of ungulate species, each with somewhat distinct habitat requirements. Some of the species, such as the extinct European wild ass (Equus

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hydruntinus), would have preferred lower grassland areas, whereas ibex (Capra cf. ibex) and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) tend to inhabit craggy terrain. The position of the site at the interface of lowland and rugged hills must have contributed to the patterns of diversity in the Klissoura 1 prey assemblages. The duration of the occupation might also have affected the diversity of large mammals in the faunal assemblages. Klissoura 1 served as a kind of residential camp during most or all of the Upper Paleolithic occupations, based on the presence of diverse artifact forms and features, but the duration of occupations may have varied a great deal through time. Layer IV represents a particularly intense occupation, whereas Layer V is more ephemeral (see Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Karkanas, this issue; Stiner, this issue).

SAMPLES AND METHODS About 11,000 identified vertebrate specimens (NISP) were analyzed from the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic layers of Klissoura Cave 1. Nearly all of the excavated bones were studied, except from layers IIIe, IIIg and III” where large subsamples were examined. This study excludes the small samples reported in Koumouzelis et al. (2001) and the avian fauna studied by Tomek and Bocheñski (2002), due to differences in the criteria for sample selection. Our goal here is to determine the full prey spectrum and the relative proportions of the many classes of prey. Discrepancies between layer totals in Table 1 and later tables are from the exclusion of shattered dental specimens that potentially inflate species frequencies. Taphonomic data on the mammalian remains are presented to establish their associations with human activities in the cave. Apart from burning frequencies, taphonomic observations for the bird remains are reported only in Bocheñski and Tomek (this issue). Though no full count of land snail shells is available, changes in relative frequencies of land snails in squares AA4-BB4 of the stratigraphic column and modification data are also provided below. The largest faunal assemblages come from layer IV and parts of the layer III group. Layer definitions follow the sequences defined by Karkanas (this issue) combined with technological

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Table 1 NISP and MNI of all species in the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic sequences at Klissoura Mesolithic

Epigravettian

(3-5a)

Med. UP backed-bladelet (non-Aurigncian)

(IIa-d)

(III')

Aurignacian (upper)

(III")

(IIIb-d)

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

Small ungulate

0

NA

1

NA

5

NA

8

NA

0

NA

Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)

1

1

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

0

Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Medium ungulate

47

NA

10

NA

506

NA

884

NA

462

NA

Fallow deer (Dama dama)

23

1

6

1

284

4

511

7

363

4

Ibex (Capra cf. ibex)

13

1

2

1

26

1

14

1

6

1

Large ungulate

9

NA

3

NA

46

NA

71

NA

31

NA

Red deer (Cervus elaphus)

9

1

3

1

10

1

18

1

2

1

Wild pig (Sus scrofa)

0

0

1

1

3

1

0

0

0

0

European ass (Equus hydruntinus)

11

1

0

0

19

1

16

1

8

1

Extra-large ungulate

1

NA

0

NA

2

NA

1

NA

1

NA

Aurochs (Bos primigenius)

6

1

1

1

3

1

7

1

1

1

Small carnivore

0

NA

0

NA

0

NA

0

NA

0

NA

Stone/Pine marten (Martes foina, M. martes)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Wild cat (Felis silvestris)

0

0

0

0

5

1

0

0

3

1

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

7

1

Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Large carnivore

0

NA

0

NA

0

NA

0

NA

0

NA

Wolf (Canis lupus)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Hyena sp. (Hyaena sp.) (coprolite)

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

Leopard (Panthera pardus)

1

1

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

Eastern hedgehog (Erinaceus sp.)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Caucasian squirrel (Sciurus anomalus)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

123

5

34

2

289

6

75

2

169

3

Indetermined snake

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Tortoise (Testudo sp.)

0

0

0

0

3

1

1

1

3

1

Small birds

0

NA

0

NA

0

NA

0

NA

0

NA

Medium birds

2

NA

4

NA

9

NA

1

NA

3

NA

Rock partridge (Alectoris graeca)

10

1

2

1

102

7

5

1

74

3

Large birds

0

NA

0

NA

5

NA

0

NA

4

NA

Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Very large birds

0

NA

0

NA

1

NA

0

NA

0

NA

Ungulate

Carnivore

Small mammals

European hare (Lepus europaeus) Reptile

Birds

Great bustard (Otis tarda) Total

0

0

0

0

39

1

0

0

21

1

256

13

67

8

1359

27

1617

18

1158

18

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

111

Table 1 continued Aurignacian (middle)

Aurignacian (lower)

III(e-g)

Early UP (Uluzzian)

(IV)

Total

(V)

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

Small ungulate

10

NA

46

NA

3

NA

73

NA

Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)

0

0

5

1

0

0

8

3

Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra)

0

0

14

1

0

0

14

1

Medium ungulate

766

NA

973

NA

60

NA

3708

NA

Fallow deer (Dama dama)

567

6

318

3

56

1

2128

27

Ibex (Capra cf. ibex)

22

1

236

2

4

1

323

9

Large ungulate

72

NA

507

NA

15

NA

754

NA

Red deer (Cervus elaphus)

24

1

304

3

6

1

376

10

Wild pig (Sus scrofa)

1

1

19

1

1

1

25

5

European ass (Equus hydruntinus)

28

1

179

1

11

1

272

7

Extra-large ungulate

0

NA

18

NA

0

NA

23

NA

Aurochs (Bos primigenius)

16

1

43

1

0

0

77

7

Small carnivore

1

NA

10

NA

0

NA

11

NA

Stone/Pine marten (Martes foina, M. martes)

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

Wild cat (Felis silvestris)

9

1

10

1

0

0

27

4

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)

7

1

4

1

0

0

20

5

Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx)

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

Large carnivore

1

NA

2

NA

0

NA

3

NA

Wolf (Canis lupus)

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

Hyena sp. (Hyaena sp.) (coprolite)

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

Leopard (Panthera pardus)

6

1

10

1

0

0

19

5

Eastern hedgehog (Erinaceus sp.)

6

1

0

0

0

0

6

1

Caucasian squirrel (Sciurus anomalus)

1

1

1

1

0

0

2

2

137

5

353

10

26

1

1206

34

Indetermined snake

2

1

2

1

0

0

4

2

Tortoise (Testudo sp.)

12

1

17

1

38

1

74

6

Small birds

0

NA

1

NA

0

NA

1

NA

Medium birds

7

NA

15

NA

0

NA

41

NA

Rock partridge (Alectoris graeca)

2

1

5

1

2

1

202

16

Large birds

0

NA

9

NA

0

NA

18

NA

Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo)

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

Very large birds

0

NA

5

NA

0

NA

6

NA

Ungulate

Carnivore

Small mammals

European hare (Lepus europaeus) Reptile

Birds

Great bustard (Otis tarda) Total

0

0

2

1

0

0

62

3

1699

26

3110

33

222

8

9488

151

112

B. M. Starkovich & M. C. Stiner

Table 2 Taxa included in each body class category and their respective weight ranges. Masses from Nowack (1991) and Silva and Downing (1995) Weight range (kg) Small, fast-moving Rock partridge (Alectoris graeca)

0.51–0.68

European hare (Lepus europaeus)

1.3–7

Great bustard (Otis tarda)

10–16

Small, slow-moving Tortoise (Testudo sp.)

1–2+

Small ungulate Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)

15–50

Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra)

24–50

Medium ungulate Ibex (Capra cf. ibex)

35–150

Fallow deer (Dama dama)

40–120+

Large ungulate Wild pig (Sus scrofa)

50–350

Red deer (Cervus elaphus)

75–340

European wild ass (Equus hydruntinus)

160–240

Very large ungulate Aurochs (Bos primigenius)

500–1000

Small carnivore Stone/Pine marten (Martes foina/M. martes)

0.8–2.3

Wild cat (Felis silvestris)

3–8

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)

8–10

Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx)

8–38

Large carnivore Wolf (Canis lupus)

25–38

Leopard (Panthera pardus)

28–90

differences identified by Kaczanowska and others (this issue). The eight major layer groupings, from youngest to oldest, are as follows: Mesolithic (3-5a), Epigravettian (IIa-d), Mediterranean backed-bladelet industry (III’), Upper Paleolithic industry )non-Aurignacian) (III”), Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d), Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g), Aurignacian (lower) (IV), and the Early Upper Paleolithic or Uluzzian (V). The faunal remains were identified using the skeletal reference collection of the Wiener Laboratory, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and unpublished electronic faunal manuals created by one of the authors (M.C.S.). Skele-

tal specimens were identified to species, genus or body size categories (Table 2) and to the anatomical part of the skeleton. Terminology for counting units follows Grayson (1984) and Lyman (1994), and the coding of elements, portions-of-elements, age criteria, and taphonomic variables follows Stiner (Stiner, 1994, 2002b, 2004). NISP (number of identified specimens) is the basic counting unit, from which MNE (minimum number of elements) and MNI (minimum number of individuals) were derived. MNE is calculated using unique skeletal landmarks on each element, and element representation was tabulated relative to a complete skeletal model. MNE is important to comparisons of prey body part representation. Portion-of-element representation (a subset of MNE) is used to test for the differential preservation of structurally delicate versus dense skeletal parts against independent reference data based on photon densitometry for similar mammal species (Lyman, 1994). MNI (=MAU) is derived from the highest count of the most commonly occurring element, divided by the number of times it occurs in the body. Other observations were recorded for each specimen, including fusion state in the case of bones, wear stages for mandibular teeth, presence of burning damage and burning intensity stages (Stiner et al., 1995), and surface damage from tool marks, weathering, gnawing animals, and plant roots (Fisher, 1995).

RESULTS Species abundance and diversity Paleolithic groups hunted a wide variety of ungulate species in the Klissoura Gorge, upper Berbati Valley, and Argive Plain. The main ungulate species represented in the faunas are European fallow deer (Dama dama), ibex (Capra cf. ibex), European wild ass (Equus hydruntinus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and wild pig (Sus scrofa) (Fig. 1, Table 1). Two small ungulate species, roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), also occur in very low numbers in layer IV, and roe deer is present in the Mesolithic. Small game animals such as European hare (Lepus europaeus) and large ground birds (mainly rock partridge and great bustard; see Bocheñski and Tomek, this issue) were also important food sources in the Upper Paleolithic

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

Fig. 1. ble 1

113

NISP of the main economic species in the Upper Paleolithic sequences at Klissoura Cave 1, data from ta-

through Mesolithic. Tortoises (Testudo sp.) were important only during the formation of layer V. Carnivore remains are present at low frequencies in every assemblage. These are mainly small fur-bearing carnivores, especially red fox (Vulpes vulpes), wild cat (Felis silvestris) and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), along with one or two species of marten (Martes martes, M. foina). Rare large carnivore remains are mainly from leopard (Panthera pardus), along with scant remains of wolf (Canis lupus) in some layers. The general scarcity of carnivore remains in Klissoura Cave 1, very low frequencies of gnawing damage (Table 3 and see below), and the presence of burning damage and transverse fractures on some of the carnivore bones indicate that the carnivores were human prey. One coprolite in layer III” indicates that hyenas visited the cave, but their presence was ephemeral. There are absolutely no indications of carnivore dens in the site. The faunal samples from some layers are comparatively small (NISP < 300, Table 1), par-

ticularly those for the Mesolithic (3-5a), Epigravettian (IIa-d) and Early Upper Paleolithic or Uluzzian (V). The sample from layer IV is exceptionally large by contrast. Sample size differences certainly account for some of the variation in the number of species (richness) among the stratigraphic layers. The Reciprocal of Simpson’s Index, (1/D) or 1/S(ri)2, where r is the proportion of each prey type for the array i in an assemblage (Simpson, 1949; Levins, 1968), evaluates species richness and evenness (i.e. diversity) and corrects for sample size differences among the faunal assemblages. There are no clear trends in overall species diversity (Table 5, rs = 0.548, p = 0.160, n = 8), ungulate species diversity (rs = –0.095, p = 0.823, n = 8) or small game species diversity (rs = 0.371, p = 0.365, n = 8). Significant variation exists within the ungulate assemblage, however, with high diversity in Aurignacian layer IV and again in the Epigravettian (IIa-d) and Mesolithic (3-5a) (index = 3.31–4.41). Ungulate species diversity is consistently lower in the intermediate

B. M. Starkovich & M. C. Stiner

114

Table 3 Non-human taphonomic alterations at Klissoura Cave 1 Mesolithic

Epigravettian

(3-5a)

(IIa-d)

Med. backed-bladelet UP (non-Aurignacian) (III')

(III")

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

Gnawing none

287

99.7

77

100

1447

99.7

1791

99.9

carnivore

1

0.3

0

0

4

0.3

1

0.1

rodent

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Total

288

100

77

100

1451

100

1792

100

Weathering none

288

100

77

100

1449

99.9

1791

99.9

many cracks, most "open"

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

some exfoliation

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

advanced exfoliation

0

0

0

0

2

0.1

0

0

chemical weathering

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0.1

288

100

77

100

1451

100

1792

100

Total

Fig. 2.

Prey group NISP by sequence

layers and in the Early Upper Paleolithic, where fallow deer dominates to a great degree (index = 1.09–1.84). Figure 2 presents NISP values according to more general prey groups by layer (see Table 2 for the species included in each category). From this perspective, a major shift occurs between layer III’ and the Epigravettian (IIa-d); small quick animals occur at high frequencies in the later periods and medium ungulates dominate the earlier periods. A variety of small game animals were hunted throughout the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. Hares were exploited in all periods but their importance increased with time, whereas tortoises were a significant food item only in the

very beginning of the UP sequence (Fig. 1). Ground birds such as rock partridge (Alectoris graeca) and the great bustard (Otis tarda) gained importance in the upper Aurignacian layers (IIIb-d) and the Mediterranean backed-bladelet industry (III’) (see also Bocheñski and Tomek, this issue). The frequencies of partridges and bustards rise and fall together across the layers (Fig. 3). Both species prefer more open and grassy habitats (Vavalekas et al., 1993; Handrinos and Akriotis, 1997), and changes in their importance in the faunas may indicate a shift in plant communities near the Klissoura Gorge. The relative frequencies of the common small game species are plotted by period in Figure 3. The four species – hares, partridges, bustards, and

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

115

Table 3 continued Aurignacian (upper)

Early UP

(middle)

(IIIb-d)

(lower)

(IIIe-g)

(Uluzzian)

(IV)

(V)

Total

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

Gnawing none

1195

99.9

1893

99.8

4134

100

355

99.7

11179

99.9

carnivore

1

0.1

4

0.2

1

0

1

0.3

13

0.1

rodent

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Total

1196

100

1897

100

4135

100

356

100

11192

100

1196

100

1895

99.9

4110

99.4

356

100

11162

99.7

many cracks, most "open"

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

some exfoliation

0

0

2

0.1

6

0.1

0

0

8

0.1

advanced exfoliation

0

0

0

0

5

0.1

0

0

7

0.1

chemical weathering

0

0

0

0

13

0.3

0

0

14

0.1

1196

100

1897

100

4135

100

356

100

11192

100

Weathering none

Total

Fig. 3.

Small game by sequence

tortoises – have very different life history characteristics, habitat requirements, and flight responses, and the bustard is further distinguished by its exceptionally large size (Table 2). The most productive small prey, hares and partridges, were used heavily by Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic hunters in all periods except the Early UP (layer V). Tortoises are slow-moving and for this reason have high return rates. Tortoises are slow to develop, however, so a population is easily impacted by human overexploitation (Lambert, 1982; Blasco et al., 1986-87; Hailey et al., 1988; Stiner et al., 2000). Climate variation would never have been great enough to extirpate Mediterranean tortoises from southern Greece, and in fact they were

important throughout much of the Middle and Late Pleistocene in the eastern Mediterranean and Middle East (Stiner, 1994, 2005; Speth and Tchernov, 2002; Reynaud Savioz and Morel, 2005). The disappearance of tortoises in the later UP at Klissoura Cave 1 therefore may be a result of the suppression of these populations by human foragers. Great bustard provides a higher return than hare or partridge because of their large size. These large birds were never common in the diet, however, and heavy exploitation would not have been sustainable for long. Bustards have low reproductive and development rates, in marked contrast to the high reproductive and development rates of hares and partridges (Stiner et al., 2000).

B. M. Starkovich & M. C. Stiner

116

Table 4 Burn frequency and degree by species category at Klissoura Cave Medium ungulate

Large ungulate

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

Unburned

74

89.2

28

96.6

0

NA

107

87

12

100

1

100

222

89.5

< 1/2 carbonized (black)

2

2.4

1

3.4

0

NA

1

0.8

0

0

0

0

4

1.6

>1/2 carbonized

2

2.4

0

0

0

NA

1

0.8

0

0

0

0

3

1.2

fully carbonized

0

0

0

0

0

NA

13

10.6

0

0

0

0

13

5.2

<1/2 calcined (white)

1

1.2

0

0

0

NA

1

0.8

0

0

0

0

2

0.8

>1/2 calcined

2

2.4

0

0

0

NA

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0.8

Tortoise sp.

European hare

Birds

Carnivores

Total

Mesolithic (3-5a)

fully calcined

2

2.4

0

0

0

NA

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0.8

Total

83

100

29

100

0

NA

123

100

12

100

1

100

248

100

Unburned

17

94.4

6

85.7

0

NA

32

94.1

5

83.3

0

NA

60

92.3

< 1/2 carbonized (black)

1

5.6

0

0

0

NA

1

2.9

1

16.7

0

NA

3

4.6

>1/2 carbonized

0

0

0

0

0

NA

1

2.9

0

0

0

NA

1

1.5

fully carbonized

0

0

0

0

0

NA

0

0

0

0

0

NA

0

0

<1/2 calcined (white)

0

0

1

14.3

0

NA

0

0

0

0

0

NA

1

1.5

>1/2 calcined

0

0

0

0

0

NA

0

0

0

0

0

NA

0

0

fully calcined

0

0

0

0

0

NA

0

0

0

0

0

NA

0

0

Total

18

100

7

100

0

NA

34

100

6

100

0

NA

65

100

Epigravettian (IIa-d)

Med. backed-bladelet (III') Unburned

681

83.4

66

85.7

4

100

256

88.6

150

96.2

7

100

1164

86.2

< 1/2 carbonized (black)

16

2

2

2.6

0

0

2

0.7

1

0.6

0

0

21

1.6

>1/2 carbonized

23

2.8

2

2.6

0

0

6

2.1

0

0

0

0

31

2.3

fully carbonized

53

6.5

4

5.2

0

0

20

6.9

3

1.9

0

0

80

5.9

<1/2 calcined (white)

16

2

3

3.9

0

0

2

0.7

1

0.6

0

0

22

1.6

>1/2 calcined

11

1.3

0

0

0

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

14

1

fully calcined

17

2.1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0.6

0

0

18

1.3

Total

817

100

77

100

4

100

289

100

156

100

7

100

1350

100

1092

77.5

83

79

0

NA

52

69.3

6

100

0

NA

1233

77.3

58

4.1

3

2.9

0

NA

2

2.7

0

0

0

NA

63

3.9

>1/2 carbonized

82

5.8

6

5.7

0

NA

10

13.3

0

0

0

NA

98

6.1

fully carbonized

101

7.2

10

9.5

0

NA

5

6.7

0

0

0

NA

116

7.3

<1/2 calcined (white)

31

2.2

2

1.9

0

NA

2

2.7

0

0

0

NA

35

2.2

>1/2 calcined

23

1.6

1

1

0

NA

1

1.3

0

0

0

NA

25

1.6

fully calcined

22

1.6

0

0

0

NA

3

4

0

0

0

NA

25

1.6

1409

100

105

100

0

NA

75

100

6

100

0

NA

1595

100

UO (non-Aurignacian) (III") Unburned < 1/2 carbonized (black)

Total

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

117

Table 4 continued Medium ungulate

Large ungulate

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

Unburned

724

87.1

36

87.8

2

66.7

152

89.9

100

98

9

90

1023

88.5

< 1/2 carbonized (black)

24

2.9

2

4.9

1

33.3

4

2.4

2

2

0

0

33

2.9

>1/2 carbonized

30

3.6

2

4.9

0

0

2

1.2

0

0

1

10

35

3

fully carbonized

25

3

1

2.4

0

0

2

1.2

0

0

0

0

28

2.4

<1/2 calcined (white)

13

1.6

0

0

0

0

3

1.8

0

0

0

0

16

1.4

>1/2 calcined

7

0.8

0

0

0

0

3

1.8

0

0

0

0

10

0.9

Tortoise sp.

European| hare

Birds

Carnivores

Total

Aurignacian (IIIb-d)

fully calcined Total

8

1

0

0

0

0

3

1.8

0

0

0

0

11

1

831

100

41

100

3

100

169

100

102

100

10

100

1156

100

Aurignacian (IIIe-g) Unburned

1154

85.2

101

80.8

17

70.8

123

89.8

9

100

24

92.3

1428

85.2

< 1/2 carbonized (black)

54

4

8

6.4

3

12.5

4

2.9

0

0

0

0

69

4.1

>1/2 carbonized

45

3.3

6

4.8

2

8.3

3

2.2

0

0

1

3.8

57

3.4

fully carbonized

36

2.7

6

4.8

2

8.3

4

2.9

0

0

0

0

48

2.9

<1/2 calcined (white)

33

2.4

3

2.4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

36

2.1

>1/2 calcined

21

1.5

0

0

0

0

2

1.5

0

0

1

3.8

24

1.4

fully calcined

12

0.9

1

0.8

0

0

1

0.7

0

0

0

0

14

0.8

1355

100

125

100

24

100

137

100

9

100

26

100

1676

100

Total Aurignacian (IV) Unburned

1122

73.5

864

85.6

27

42.9

270

76.5

36

94.7

27

73

2346

77.5

< 1/2 carbonized (black)

80

5.2

36

3.6

1

1.6

22

6.2

0

0

4

10.8

143

4.7

>1/2 carbonized

125

8.2

34

3.4

4

6.3

18

5.1

0

0

1

2.7

182

6

fully carbonized

136

8.9

54

5.4

21

33.3

30

8.5

2

5.3

5

13.5

248

8.2

<1/2 calcined (white)

30

2

12

1.2

5

7.9

5

1.4

0

0

0

0

52

1.7

>1/2 calcined

22

1.4

8

0.8

3

4.8

4

1.1

0

0

0

0

37

1.2

fully calcined

12

0.8

1

0.1

2

3.2

4

1.1

0

0

0

0

19

0.6

1527

100

1009

100

63

100

353

100

38

100

37

100

3027

100

Unburned

83

69.2

21

63.6

76

68.5

20

76.9

2

100

0

NA

202

69.2

< 1/2 carbonized (black)

5

4.2

0

0

1

0.9

1

3.8

0

0

0

NA

7

2.4

>1/2 carbonized

20

16.7

5

15.2

6

5.4

2

7.7

0

0

0

NA

33

11.3

fully carbonized

7

5.8

4

12.1

12

10.8

2

7.7

0

0

0

NA

25

8.6

<1/2 calcined (white)

0

0

0

0

6

5.4

0

0

0

0

0

NA

6

2.1

>1/2 calcined

0

0

0

0

1

0.9

0

0

0

0

0

NA

1

0.3

fully calcined

5

4.2

3

9.1

9

8.1

1

3.8

0

0

0

NA

18

6.2

120

100

33

100

111

100

26

100

2

100

0

NA

292

100

Total EUP (V)

Total

B. M. Starkovich & M. C. Stiner

118

Table 5 Comparison of inverse Simpson’s index for all species at Klissoura Cave 1, ungulates, and small game species Total

All

All

Ungulate

Ungulate Small game Small game

Culture

Layer

NISP

N-taxa

1/D

N-taxa

1/D

N-taxa

1/D

Mesolithic

3-5a

256

9

2.40

6

4.24

2

1.16

Epigravettian

IIa-d

67

7

1.98

5

3.31

2

1.12

III'

1359

13

3.46

6

1.45

4

1.95

Mediterranean backed-bladelet UP (non-Aurignacian)

III"

1617

12

1.58

6

1.23

3

1.16

Aurignacian (upper)

IIIb-d

1158

11

2.59

5

1.09

4

2.07

Aurignacian (middle)

IIIe-g

1699

17

2.06

6

1.34

3

1.21

Aurignacian (lower)

IV

3110

19

5.67

8

4.41

4

1.14

Early UP (Uluzzian)

V

222

8

3.82

5

1.84

3

2.05

Bustard populations rely disproportionately on the reproductive success of older females (Morales et al., 2002); individuals can be long-lived and population turnover rates are comparatively low. Land snails are a significant component of the faunas from the younger archaeological layers of Klissoura Cave 1. Helix figulina, a large edible snail common to southeastern Europe, is the dominant species throughout the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic. None of the land snail shells are burned. Few land snail shells occur in the early Upper Paleolithic layers, and none of the shells from layers IV or V shows clear evidence of human modification. Shell sizes vary greatly, and some of the shells display tiny perforations made by a small predator, not unlike the condition of specimens found on the ground surface today. Land snail assemblages from the younger cultural layers are biased to comparatively large individuals, with modal diameters of 2.3–2.4 cm. Seventythree to ninety-five percent of these shells have broken lips (aperture rims) but are otherwise in very good condition (Fig. 4). Snails dominate the faunal remains of the Mesolithic period. The number of snails in the cultural deposits increases exponentially with time. Based on samples from squares AA4-BB4, snails are rare in the Early Upper Paleolithic (layer V) and uncommon in the lower and middle Aurignacian series (IV– IIIe-g). Land snails become moderately abundant in the upper Aurignacian (layer IIIb-d) and increase greatly through the Mediterranean backed-

Fig. 4. Helix figulina apertures damaged by humans while extracting the animals from their shells

bladelet industry (layer III”), peaking the Mesolithic (3-5a). It is not clear just when in the cultural sequence land snails became an important food source. Few if any land snail shells in the Aurignacian (layers IV through IIIc) seem to have been modified by humans. Moderate frequencies of broken lips occur on land snails in the Mediterranean backed-bladelet industry (III’) and Upper Paleolithic industry (non-Aurignacian) (III”) layers, but the damage to the shells is not nearly as systematic or prevalent as in the Meso- lithic assemblages. The Epigravettian (layer IIa-d) represents a distinct situation in which snails are uncommon yet species diversity is high (including significant presence of Rumina decollata, Lindholmiola cf. spectabilis, and Zonitidae spp., among other species) and best resembles recent snail assemblages from the site vicinity. The increasing use of quick and highly productive small prey types (e.g. hares, partridges) after the early UP, despite the higher technological costs to acquire them, is probably the result of mild over-hunting in the study area. The rising importance of land snails in forager diets parallels

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

119

Table 6 Butchery and other damage on ungulate remains at Klissoura Cave 1 by stratigraphic unit NISP

Cone Fractures

Crushed/ Impact

% All Impact Damage

% Tool marks

% Worked

% NISP Transverse

Mesolithic (3-5a)

72

0

0

0.0

0.0

1.4

37.5

Epigravettian (IIb-d)

13

0

0

0.0

0.0

0.0

46.2

Med. backed-bladelet (III')

786

2

7

1.1

1.1

0.1

32.3

UP (non-Aurignacian) (III")

1370

5

4

0.7

0.3

0.1

28.8

Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d)

796

3

6

1.1

0.1

0.0

27.3

Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g)

1249

5

6

0.9

0.3

0.5

23.8

Aurignacian (lower) (IV)

1374

14

5

1.4

0.6

1.3

22.6

Early UP (Uluzzian) (V)

110

0

2

1.8

0.0

0.0

20.9

Mesolithic (3-5a)

18

0

0

0.0

0.0

0.0

22.2

Epigravettian (IIb-d)

5

0

0

0.0

0.0

0.0

20.0

Med. backed-bladelet (III')

70

0

2

2.9

0.0

1.4

41.4

UP (non-Aurignacian) (III")

90

0

1

1.1

1.1

0.0

32.2

Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d)

41

0

1

2.4

0.0

0.0

41.5

Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g)

109

0

1

0.9

0.0

0.0

23.9

Aurignacian (lower) (IV)

843

31

5

4.3

0.9

1.3

16.4

Early UP (Uluzzian) (V)

28

1

0

3.6

0.0

0.0

14.3

Medium ungulates

Large ungulates

(% worked) refers to antler and bone fragments, most of which represent debris from tool manufacture or small fragments of exhausted tools

this trend; though they are not difficult to collect, the cooking and extraction of the snails can be fairly labor intensive. Such changes in small game use may suggest an increase in human population densities with time or an otherwise constrained food supply, especially after the formation of layer III”. Variation in the relative propor- tions of hares and partridges in the faunal series, on the other hand, may reflect climate-driven changes in environmental conditions, though this is not certain. Bone modification, bone survivorship, and ungulate body part representation It is clear that the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic faunas from Klissoura Cave 1 were collected and modified principally by humans. Other biological and geological processes exerted only minor effects on the faunas, mainly in the forms of occasional gnawing by scavengers and natural deaths of certain birds that resided in or near the cave (see Bocheñski and Tomek, this issue). The quality of bone preservation in the Up-

per Paleolithic and Mesolithic layers is generally very good and, despite considerable fragmentation, most of the specimens are easily identified to species or body size group and to skeletal element. Carnivore gnawing and weathering damage occurs on less than one percent of the bones (Table 3), and fragile fetal elements of mammals are present in some of the layers. Though tool marks were observed on some of the remains (Tables 6 and 7), the presence of thin concretion coatings on most of the bones obscured some of the butchery damage, making a systematic study of cut marks and other fine tool marks difficult. It is for this reason that we are more interested in relative differences in cut mark frequencies than absolute values. Large-scale removal of the concretions is impractical given the amount of labor that would be required, and the surfaces of many of the bones would be damaged in the process. Other evidence of carcass processing, including cone fractures, was readily apparent on ungulate and small animal remains. Patterns in these data do not indicate changes in the intensity of

B. M. Starkovich & M. C. Stiner

120

Table 7 Butchery damage on small game at Klissoura cave 1 by cultural level Tortoise sp.

European Hare

Carnivores

NISP

% Cut

NISP

% Cut

NISP

Mesolithic (3-5a)

0

NA

110

0

1

% Cut 0

Epigravettian (IIa-d)

0

NA

32

0

0

NA

Med. backed-bladelet (III')

4

0

233

0

5

0

UP (non-Aurignacian) (III")

0

NA

65

0

0

NA

Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d)

3

0

144

0.7

8

0

Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g)

24

4.2

115

0

21

4.8

Aurignacian (lower) (IV)

63

0

281

0

27

0

Early UP (V)

108

2.7

22

0

0

NA

Table 8 Transverse fractures on small animal limb bones (humerus, radius, femur and tibia) by cultural level Tortoise sp.

European Hare

Carnivores

NISP shell

% SR fracture

NISP

% TR fracture

NISP

% TR fracture

Mesolithic (3-5a)

0

NA

36

83.3

0

NA

Epigravettian (IIa-d)

0

NA

11

63.6

0

NA

Med. backed-bladelet (III')

2

100.0

96

67.7

2

100.0

UP (non-Aurignacian) (III")

0

NA

31

58.1

0

NA

Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d)

2

100.0

61

72.1

1

0.0

Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g)

17

64.7

61

57.4

4

50.0

Aurignacian (lower) (IV)

54

75.9

108

59.3

0

NA

Early UP (V)

80

88.8

9

66.7

0

NA

carcass processing through time. Transverse fractures are extremely common on the long bones of hares and carnivores (Table 8). Spiral fractures occur on between 65 and 89 percent of tortoise shell remains (Table 8), indicating that the tortoises’ shells were broken while the bone was fresh. For large game, cone and impact fractures from marrow processing occur on 1–2 percent of medium ungulate bones, and 1–4.5 percent of large ungulate remains (Table 6). Fractures transverse to the main axis of the bone are apparent on over 20 percent of the ungulate remains in most levels (Table 6). These fractures may relate to the partitioning of certain sections of carcasses during butchery. The medullary cavities of all medium ungulate long bones were opened with the exception of some of the toe elements, which contain the least amount of bone marrow (Table 9). The intensity of marrow processing could not be

determined for large ungulates because the sample is too small. Burning damage rare on bones from the two youngest layers, but is quite common on bones from the two earliest layers (Table 4), where many hearth features were found. Using a very conservative criteria for determining burning damage (blackening or calcination, but disregarding light brown coloration), bird remains seem to be less burned overall than the mammal remains in the Aurignacian layers. However, fracture patterns on the bird remains indicate that many were introduced to the site by humans (see Bocheñski and Tomek, this issue). Tortoise specimens, though rare in the assemblages that post-date layer V, are considerably more burned than other remains, particularly in layer IV (Table 4). This may be an artifact of sample size, although similarly high rates of burning have been noted on

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

121

Table 9 Percent of medium ungulate limb bones from Klissoura Cave 1 not opened prior to discard, by cultural level MNE

% Unopened

Mesolithic (3-5a)

MNE

% Unopened

Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d)

Femur

1

0.0

Femur

3

0.0

Humerus

1

0.0

Humerus

7

0.0

Tibia

1

0.0

Tibia

5

0.0

Metapodials

2

0.0

Metapodials

9

0.0

Radius

1

0.0

Radius

7

0.0

Scapula

0

N/A

Scapula

2

0.0

Calcaneum

0

N/A

Calcaneum

2

0.0

1st Phalanx

2

0.0

1st Phalanx

17

0.0

2nd Phalanx

2

0.0

2nd Phalanx

14

42.9

3rd Phalanx

0

N/A

3rd Phalanx

13

61.5

Epigravettian (IIa-d)

Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g)

Femur

0

N/A

Femur

13

0.0

Humerus

0

N/A

Humerus

9

0.0

Tibia

0

N/A

Tibia

9

0.0

Metapodials

2

0.0

Metapodials

20

0.0

Radius

0

N/A

Radius

5

0.0

Scapula

0

N/A

Scapula

2

0.0

Calcaneum

0

N/A

Calcaneum

3

0.0

1st Phalanx

0

N/A

1st Phalanx

25

0.0

2nd Phalanx

1

0.0

2nd Phalanx

20

5.0

3rd Phalanx

1

0.0

3rd Phalanx

19

57.9

Femur

5

0.0

Femur

2

0.0

Humerus

5

0.0

Humerus

2

0.0

Tibia

5

0.0

Tibia

4

0.0

Metapodials

7

0.0

Metapodials

17

0.0

Radius

2

0.0

Radius

8

0.0

Scapula

1

0.0

Scapula

2

0.0

Calcaneum

5

20.0

Calcaneum

5

0.0

1st Phalanx

17

5.9

1st Phalanx

35

5.7

2nd Phalanx

12

41.7

2nd Phalanx

26

0.0

3rd Phalanx

13

46.2

3rd Phalanx

24

20.8

Femur

4

0.0

Femur

2

0.0

Humerus

7

0.0

Humerus

1

0.0

Tibia

9

0.0

Tibia

1

0.0

Metapodials

19

0.0

Metapodials

3

0.0

Radius

14

0.0

Radius

2

0.0

Scapula

8

0.0

Scapula

1

0.0

Calcaneum

3

0.0

Calcaneum

0

N/A

1st Phalanx

27

7.4

1st Phalanx

9

0.0

2nd Phalanx

25

16.0

2nd Phalanx

2

0.0

3rd Phalanx

28

71.4

3rd Phalanx

3

1.0

Med. backed-bladelet (III')

Aurignacian (lower) (IV)

UP (non-Aurignacian) (III")

Early UP (Uluzzian) (V)

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B. M. Starkovich & M. C. Stiner

Middle and Upper Paleolithic tortoise remains at Kebara and Hayonim Caves in the Levant (Speth and Tchernov, 2002; Stiner, 2005). Tortoise carapaces may have been used in close proximity to cooking fires. In general, variation in the frequency of burning damage through the stratigraphic sequence in Klissoura Cave 1 is probably more closely related to site use and occupation intensity than to specific cooking behaviors. We now turn to patterns of body part representation and causes of bias in the archaeofaunal assemblages. Two tests evaluate the possibility of in situ bone attrition of the mammalian remains. The first test compares the highest tooth-based MNE to the bone-based MNE for skull parts in the common ungulate species in each layer (Stiner, 1994: 99– 103). The second examines observed patterns in ungulate bone representation to independent standards of bone tissue density values obtained by the photon-densitometry technique (Lyman, 1984, 1994; see also Lam et al. 1998 on CT technique). Mammal teeth are less susceptible to most destructive processes than are bones because the mineral density of tooth enamel greatly exceeds that of all types of bone (Currey, 1984; Lyman, 1994). Because teeth would remain within the skull if the head is carried by hunters to a base camp, the number of individual animals represented by the dental elements should be generally equivalent to the number of individual animals represented by unique bony features of the skull (a 1:1 ratio) in the archaeofaunal assemblages. If significant fragmentation, gnawing or other destructive processes occurred during the processing of the heads or post-depositionally, even the more durable diagnostic bony features of the skull should break down more readily than teeth. Table 10 shows the proportion of ungulate tooth to bone-based skull MNE for the Early UP through Mesolithic faunas in Klissoura Cave 1. In order to create a more robust sample, all ungulate taxa were combined. In general, the layers with larger samples (MNE>10) all have near-even ratios of tooth to bone-based MNE, with the exception of the lower Aurignacian layer (IV), in which the tooth-based MNE is double the bone-based MNE for the cranium (Table 10). We have no explanation for this anomaly, since other indications of

Table 10 Comparisons of tooth-based and cranial bone-based MNE in layers with adequate sample sizes Tooth MNE

Bone MNE

Tooth: Bone MNE

Mesolithic (3-5a)

5

2

2.5

Epigravettian (IIa-d)

4

1

4.0

Mediterranean backed-bladelet (III')

8

8

1.0

UP (non_aurignacian) (III")

9

14

0.6

Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d)

8

9

0.9

Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g)

11

10

1.1

Aurignacian (lower) (IV)

40

19

2.1

Early UP (Uluzzian) (V)

4

1

4.0

bone preservation are quite good (see below). It is possible that body parts are distributed unevenly in layer IV, or that crania were more heavily processed, but this cannot be evaluated from the available sample. Spongy bones tissues, including soft limb epiphyses, are more likely to be destroyed than dense long bone shafts (Binford and Bertram, 1977; Brain, 1981; Lyman, 1994). This destruction can occur from human butchering and marrow processing, carnivore ravaging or sediment compaction (e.g. Davis, 1987; Fisher, 1995; Lyman, 1994). Bone survivorship is examined for each element portion, such as the head of the femur, nutrient foramen of the humeral shaft, or the medial portion of the distal epiphysis of the tibia, by dividing the observed frequency in the assemblage by the expected frequency for this part in a complete skeleton. The data are then standardized to the most commonly represented body part in the assemblage (Binford, 1978; Lyman, 1994). Bone density standards for American deer (Odocoileus sp.) were applied to fallow deer from Klissoura 1 (from Lyman, 1982, 1994), and the standards applied to European hare were developed for Canadian snow hare (from Lyman, 1982, 1984, 1994; Pavao and Stahl, 1999). In this test, and in the discussions of body part representation below, hare data are combined with data for indeterminate small mammals, since the great majority of these remains are very probably from hares as well. Similarly, remains designated as medium

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

Table 11 Spearman’s correlation values between survivorship and bone mineral density for European hare and fallow deer during the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic at Klissoura Cave 1 N

rs

rs2

p

51

*0.280

0.078

0.046

Mesolithic (3-5a) European hare

Mediterranean backed-bladelet (III') European hare

51

*0.401

0.161

0.004

Fallow deer

80

0.038

0.001

0.735

0.083

0.007

0.462

UP (non-Aurignacian) (III") Fallow deer

80

Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d) European hare

51

0.189

0.036

0.185

Fallow deer

80

0.035

0.001

0.759

Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g) European hare

51

0.258

0.067

0.068

Fallow deer

80

*0.223

0.05

0.046

Aurignacian (lower) (IV) European hare

51

0.209

0.044

0.141

Fallow deer

80

0.153

0.023

0.174

Only larger samples are considered. Asterisks indicate a significant correlation

ungulates were combined with the taxon-specific fallow deer data, since fallow deer was always the most common ungulate species in the faunas. Results of a Spearman’s rank-order correlation between bone density values and percent survivorship indicate that density mediated bone destruction was very limited for ungulate remains throughout the sequence, though density-mediated processes may have affected hare bones somewhat more in the Mediterranean backed-bladelet industry (III’) and Mesolithic (3-5a) layers (Table 11). The comparison of observed body part representation in the Klissoura 1 faunas to independent bone density standards is useful for identifying biases in the bone assemblages, but it cannot determine whether humans or non-human processes caused the biases. Ethnographically, human foragers are known to be selective about which ungulate body parts will be carried over long distances, whereas small game animals tend to be carried to the site in whole form (e.g. Binford, 1978; Bunn et al., 1988; O’Connell et al., 1988; Yellen, 1991; Schmitt and Lupo, 1995). All of

123

these prey items would be subject both to processing for consumption on site and subsequent postdepositional processes. Transport biases aside, the survivorship of hare bones should agree with that of ungulate bones if post-depositional destruction was the main cause of the anatomical biases (Munro, 2004; Manne et al., 2005). If the hare bones show no substantive indications of density mediated attrition, but the ungulate remains do, then the cause of the biases in ungulate body part representation are more likely to have arisen from selective transport or bone grease rendering on site. On the other hand, evidence for density-mediated attrition of hare bones and a lack thereof for deer bones may have several explanations. One is that in general hare bones are smaller and lighter than deer bones (see values in Lyman, 1984; Pavao and Stahl, 1999) and more subject to trampling damage. Other potential explanations might be that hares were not brought to the sites whole, or they were processed and consumed in different areas of the site (Cochard and Brugal, 2004). Following Munro (2004), some of these hypotheses can be tested specifically through comparisons of the condition of large and small mammals in the assemblage. The hare remains from the Mesolithic (3-5a) and Mediterranean backed-bladelet industry (III’) layers display a significant positive relationship between bone density and percent survivorship. The rs2 values indicate, however, that density-mediated attrition has the potential to explain only 8–16 percent of the variation in skeletal survivorship for the hare bones from these levels (Table 11). For fallow deer, only the remains from the middle Aurignacian layer (IIIe-g) indicate a significant positive relationship, and here density-mediated attrition can explain no more than 5% of the variation in deer body part representation (Table 11). Overall, deer bone survivorship is uncorrelated or only weakly correlated with bone density. The cranial bone-based MNE nonetheless is much lower than expected as compared to tooth-based MNE for the lower Aurignacian (IV); this discrepancy cannot be explained by in situ attrition. Hare bone survivorship does correlate with bone density in the Mediterranean backedbladelet industry (III’) layer and above, so there may be some density-mediated processes at play in these later layers. A discussion of body part

124

B. M. Starkovich & M. C. Stiner

representation will allow us to further evaluate some of the potential explanations for variations in bone survivorship. Following Stiner (1991), standardized MNE is determined according to nine distinct anatomical regions that are logical packages for meat transport: horn or antler (if present in the species), head, neck, axial skeleton, upper front limb, lower front limb, upper hind limb, lower hind limb, and feet. The results for hare and fallow deer, two species consistently represented across periods at Klissoura Cave 1, are presented in Figure 5. In all of the layers, including the older Aurignacian, which lack evidence of density-mediated attrition for hare bones, hare and ungulate elements of the neck, axial and feet portions are poorly represented. This observation either calls in to question the assumption that complete hare carcasses were brought to the site, or alternatively raises the issue of limited spatial sampling. Figures 6 and 7 provide a more detailed element-byelement comparison of foot and neck/axial bone representation for hares from Klissoura 1. In both figures, specific elements are plotted in descending order of the maximally dense part of each element; foot and axial elements run the full gambit of different structural densities found in the hare skeleton (see values in Pavao and Stahl, 1999). There is no bias in the representation of foot elements based on structural density (Fig. 6), with the possible exception of the Mesolithic layers (3-5a). In general, however, the entire foot region of hares is almost entirely absent throughout the sequence. Cochard and Brugal (2004) argue that lagomorph feet may be absent from an assemblage because they were removed at the kill site, or because they were deposited in an area of a site not used for cooking. Hare foot bones are missing from Klissoura Cave 1, but not because of density-mediated processes. A final possibility for the lack of hare foot elements is that they were not retrieved during excavation or screening. This is unlikely as other small remains, such as shell ornaments (see Stiner, this issue) were commonly recovered. Moving on to the head, neck and axial skeleton of the hares (Fig. 7), it is again apparent that the absence of these elements is not explained by bone density. As far as the post-cranial axial skeleton is concerned, the innominate is consistently

Fig. 5. Body part profiles for hare and fallow deer in each of the sequences with a large sample size. The vertical axis represents the minimum animal units (MAU) or standardized MNE described in Stiner (1991)

more common than other bodily regions in all of the layers, even though it is not the densest element. The crania and mandibles are included in the figure because they are not as severely underrepresented as the postcranial axial skeleton in most of the layers (Fig. 5), even though they hypothetically could be removed during skinning or transport. A possible explanation for the presence of the innominate and head parts, along with an absence of vertebral and rib elements, in the Klissoura 1 assemblages is that they simply break down into unidentifiable fragments (Cochard and Brugal, 2004). In fact, the general body part composition in the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic layers at Klissoura Cave 1 is similar to the representation found in the “zone de préparation culinaire” described by Cochard and Brugal (2004), with the exception of abundant long bone epiphyses at Klissoura 1.

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

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Fig. 6. Plot of the foot region of hares from Klissoura Cave 1 by sequence, along with a standardized value based on the MNI from each level. The elements are presented in order of descending structural density from the most dense scan site of each element. Bone density values from Pavao and Stahl (1999)

Fig. 7. Plot of the cranial, neck and axial regions of hares from Klissoura Cave 1 by sequence, along with a standardized value based on the MNI from each level. The elements are presented in order of descending structural density based on the densest scan site from each bone, with elements lacking structural density values placed near similar or related elements. The head region is also plotted to show that it some layers it is present although other axial elements are not. Bone density values from Pavao and Stahl (1999)

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Table 12 Proportions of antler fragments for the Upper Paleolithic sequences at Klissoura Cave 1

Table 13 Age distribution for ungulates in the Klissoura Cave 1 assemblages, based on epiphyseal fusion and tooth eruption data

Antler NISP

Total NISP

Percent

Mesolithic (3-5a)

12

288

4.17

Epigravettian (IIa-d)

2

77

2.60

Mediterranean backed-bladelet (III')

28

1451

1.93

UP (non-Aurignacian) (III")

127

1792

7.09

Med. backed-bladelet (III')

Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d)

21

1196

1.76

Fallow deer

1

Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g)

104

1897

5.48

Ibex

0

Aurignacian (lower) (IV)

394

4135

9.53

Total

1

Early UP (Uluzzian) (V)

14

356

3.93

UP (non-Aurignacian) (III")

Total

702

11192

6.27

Fallow deer

0

Red deer

0

Total

0

Sequence

Fetal/ Juvenile neonate

Primeaged Old adult Total adult

Epigravettian (IIa-d)

The relative representation of fallow deer limb and foot bones and heads is generally in anatomical balance throughout the later part of the sequence, beginning with the middle Aurignacian levels (IIIe-g). Only the axial elements below the neck are consistently underrepresented, and this bias must be the result of transport decisions. Antlers are present in appreciable frequencies, given that only adult males develop antlers and these are seasonal structures. Male fallow deer possess antlers from roughly July to April (Chapman and Chapman, 1975), so some individuals in the Klissoura 1 assemblages must have died in these months, or antler was collected and curated over longer periods for tool-making. Tools made of antler were found in several layers at Klissoura 1 (Christidou, this issue), making it likely that many of the antler fragments represent debitage from tool manufacture. Worked bone (mostly antler) is the most common in Aurignacian layers IIIe-g and IV (Table 6). The highest proportions of antler of all sorts occur in the Mesolithic (3-5a), though this is a small sample, layer III”, IIIe-g, IV, and V (also a small sample) (Table 12). Not surprisingly, the layers that contain the most antler fragments also contain the most worked antler artifacts, suggesting some on-site production of osseous tools. Ungulate mortality patterns The presence of antler may provide a seasonal indicator for the human occupations at Klis-

Fallow deer

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

2

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

1

0

2

1

0

4

3

4

4

13

Aurignacian (upper) (IIIb-d) Fallow deer

1

2

Aurignacian (middle) (IIIe-g) Fallow deer

2

Aurignacian (lower) (IV) Fallow deer

0

1

2

0

3

Red deer

0

2

1

0

3

Aurochs

0

0

0

1

1

Ibex

1

1

1

0

3

Chamois

0

1

0

0

1

Total

1

5

4

1

11

soura Cave 1, but these data are somewhat ambiguous given the presence of osseous tool manufacture on site. More information on seasonality comes from the ungulate mortality patterns. In this section, we consider only those Upper Paleolithic layers with large ungulate samples. The age structures presented in Table 13 are based on long bone epiphyseal fusion and tooth eruption and wear patterns. Unfortunately, fusion schedules are not known for all of the ungulate species in the Klissoura 1 assemblages, so in some cases similar taxa are used as proxies. Bone fusion data applied to ibex are taken from Noddle’s (1974) study of domestic goats, white-tailed deer data from Purdue (1983) are used as proxies for fallow deer, and data applied to red deer are from Schmid (1972). Fusion data from domesticated equids (Silver, 1969) are used for wild ass.

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

Tooth eruption and wear schedules for whitetailed deer published by Severinghaus (1949) are applied to fallow deer, data on red deer are from Lowe (1967), data from Angora goats from Deniz and Payne (1982) are used for ibex and chamois, and developmental data from Hillson’s (2005) discussion of domestic cattle are applied to aurochs. The dental ages of the ungulates were estimated from the mandibular deciduous fourth premolar (dP4) in conjunction with the mandibular fourth premolar (P4). The use of these two teeth is preferred in this study because the deciduous tooth must be shed before the adult tooth comes into wear, and the dP4 and P4 are highly diagnostic even when broken. The side of the tooth was taken into account, and only permanent teeth that show signs of occlusal wear were considered among the permanent tooth specimens to avoid double counting of individual animals. Wear stages follow Stiner (1990), and the age cohort data were collapsed into three broader categories: juvenile, prime-aged adult, and old adult. The juvenile stage includes all animals that died between the time of birth and the shedding of their dP4. The division between prime-aged adults and old adults is set at approximately 65% of the potential life span (see Stiner 1990). Although the available sample sizes are small, it is significant that animals of diverse ages were exploited. This indicates relatively non-selective hunting of ungulate age groups. Infant and young juveniles are represented in the death assemblages. The small size of the fetal/neonate individuals probably belonged to unborn animals, based on comparisons to specimens in known-age collections. The presence of these very young animals in the assemblages, except in layers IIa-d and III”, means that the site was frequently used during the late spring (April) or early summer. Fallow deer and ibex typically give birth in May or June (Schaller, 1977; Spiess, 1979; Braza et al., 1988). The presence of deer antlers may also indicate that the site was also used in from the late summer through spring during at least some of the periods, but this is less certain. It is possible that hunters left the area in the height of summer.

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CONCLUDING DISCUSSION The richness of the archaeological sequence and high quality of skeletal preservation in the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic deposits in Klissoura Cave 1 provides a number of important insights into the nature of subsistence change in southern Greece from the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic periods. Trends in prey selection may indicate increasing pressure on resources, along with climate-driven changes in local biotic diversity and herd structure. Based on the presence of abundant lithic and faunal assemblages and dozens of hearth features in some layers, Klissoura Cave 1 was used mainly as a residential site for the majority of the Upper Paleolithic occupations. The intensity of the occupations may have been greatest, however, during the Aurignacian (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Karkanas, this issue; Stiner, this issue). The trend in small game exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1 generally resembles those documented at other late Pleistocene Mediterranean sites, namely a decrease in the proportion of small, slowmoving small game species and an increasing reliance on very productive quick types such as hares and partridges (Stiner et al., 2000; Stiner, 2001; Munro, 2004). Quick prey animals in the Klissoura 1 sequence were primarily hares and ground birds, which became increasingly important with time. In the most recent layers (3-5a and IIa-d), the NISP counts for quick small game (mainly hares) actually surpass those for medium sized ungulates, though not in terms of total biomass. It is interesting that partridges and bustards are most common in the later layers, as these birds prefer open grasslands. Changes in their importance relative to hares may reflect vegetation changes in the study area, possibly at the temporary expense of hares. Commensurate with greater use of quick small prey with time, there is good evidence from Klissoura Cave 1 of land snail exploitation during the later Paleolithic and Mesolithic, except in the Epigravettian (layer IIa-d). The history of land snail exploitation at Klissoura 1 parallels those for the Mediterranean rim overall (see Lubell, 2004), although the antiquity of the practice merits continued investigation. At Klissoura 1, snail exploitation may have begun as early as the late Aurig-

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nacian or, alternatively, by the makers of the Mediterranean blade industries. Another trend concerns species diversity within the ungulate remains. The dominance of fallow deer is extreme in the middle part of the UP at Klissoura 1. Ungulate species evenness is somewhat higher at the beginning of the UP (layer IV) and again at the end of the sequence in the Epigravettian (IIa-d) and Mesolithic (3-5a). This is true despite significant differences in the sizes of the faunal assemblages. Though fallow deer were always the dominant species in the ungulate assemblages, there is no indication of specialized or highly seasonal hunting. Rather, the data indicate opportunistic responses to changes in the species available in the region. The ungulate assemblages became more biased to fallow deer during drier periods when grassland expanded at the expense of moist forest. There is also the question of where the Klissoura 1 inhabitants obtained the ibex and chamois, since the area does not include true alpine habitats. Phoca-Cosmetatou (2004b) notes a longstanding misconception of the ibex as an exclusively high-altitude species; in fact they inhabit a much wider variety of ecozones in protected areas today, provided that the terrain is rugged. Klissoura Cave 1 is located at the interface of rocky hills and a large plain, so species preferring craggy terrain would have found suitable habitats in the area. The presence of ibex and chamois in the assemblage also is noteworthy, as these are species that specialized hunters targeted in other Mediterranean regions (Straus, 1987; Gamble, 1997; Phoca-Cosmetatou, 2004a). The possibility of specialized hunting is difficult to interpret archaeologically, since authors vary on what aspects of human choice should indicate this behavior. In the case of ibex or chamois, is it that hunters make special trips to rocky or mountainous areas to harvest the only common large animals that live in those habitats, or do hunters preferentially target only one ungulate species among many potential prey that they encounter? Anthropological definitions have tended to emphasize the former; the works cited above pertain mainly to selective land use and special short-term sites in areas that can only be occupied in warmer seasons, or of seasonal occupations along known migratory routes.

As for Klissoura Cave 1, the high diversity of ungulate species in layer IV, and again at the end of the sequence, suggests a unique environmental situation, and perhaps also long stays at a residential camp. The consistent dominance of fallow deer through the sequence indicates that the site was centrally located within optimal fallow deer habitat. Longer stays at a site would mean more time in which to accumulate rare species, along with archaeological traces of a greater variety of human circumstances and activities. Archaeobotanical evidence (Albert, this issue; Ntinou, this issue) indicate that habitat diversity was indeed higher at the beginning and the end of the Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic sequence, allowing more ungulate species to compete effectively with fallow deer. Fallow deer are flexible feeders (Feldhamer et al., 1988), but they require grasses and a complement of browse such as oak. Greater moisture in the region changes the pattern of habitats and vegetation and increases the degree of plant heterogeneity. The rising frequencies of openland birds in the middle of the Klissoura 1 sequence, by contrast, suggest that expansion of drier, open habitats, when fallow deer overwhelmingly dominate the assemblages. Other findings on Upper Paleolithic subsistence at Klissoura Cave 1 relate to human butchery practices, hare and ungulate body part representation, and ungulate mortality patterns. The patterns of fracturing and burning damage on the small animal bones indicate that these species were introduced into the site by humans in nearly all cases (but see Bocheñski and Tomek, this issue, regarding certain bird remains). Though fine cut marks are often obscured by concretion coatings, the pervasive distribution of cone and impact fractures on the ungulate bones indicates that the carcasses were intensively processed for marrow throughout the UP and later periods. Minor biases in ungulate body part representation are not explained by in situ attrition and therefore must reflect human transport decisions. The anatomical regions of the body are fairly evenly represented, except for the axial parts below the neck, which may have been discarded at kill sites. Biases also exist in the body part profiles of hares throughout the Klissoura 1 sequence, with a consistent and notable absence of foot and vertebral elements. The biases do not relate to variations in skeletal

Upper Palaeolithic animal exploitation at Klissoura Cave 1

density and therefore are attributed to humans. The absence of foot and vertebral bones may relate field dressing or skinning, and removal of these elements before the hares were brought to the site, or it may have arisen because hares were processed and cooked in different parts of the site (Cochard and Brugal, 2004). The areal extent of the Klissoura Cave 1 excavations is fairly limited, partly because the shelter is small and partly because the area immediately surrounding the cave is under cultivation. Ungulate mortality patterns are rather nonselective at Klissoura Cave 1, with animals of all ages well represented. A few fetal or neonate remains were found in each assemblage, and it is significant that they occur throughout the sequence. These bones most likely belonged to unborn animals, indicating that a few pregnant females were hunted before or during the spring birthing season. The presence of antler in the assemblages may indicate that the site was also occupied between the late summer and early spring, though cross-season curation of antler for toolmaking cannot be refuted with available information. Overall, many of the results of the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic faunas from Klissoura Cave 1 are similar to trends found elsewhere in the Mediterranean, including changes in small game exploitation, body part transport of large animals, and mortality patterns. Other features of the Klissoura Cave 1 faunal assemblage are unique and provide new information on Upper Pleistocene subsistence in southern Greece and its paleoenvironmental contexts. Interestingly, no trends were found among layers in the pattern of body part transport to the site, or subsequent butchery and marrow processing. The stability of these patterns may indicate a consistent focus on large game hunting during the UP occupations, and perhaps also a general consistency in overall site function. Such consistency could be explained by the strategic position of the site on the Peloponnesian landscape. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Margarita Koumouzelis and Janusz K. Koz³owski for inviting us to study the Klissoura Cave 1 fauna. Thanks to Teresa Tomek and Zbigniew Bocheñski for valuable comments on this manu-

129

script, and to Panagiotis (Takis) Karkanas, Krzysztof Sobczyk, Sherry Fox and Mathew Devitt for their logistical support. The preliminary study of the faunas by Poitr Wojtal and colleagues was tremendously helpful for designing this larger study. Starkovich’s part of the research was supported by a National Science Foundation IGERT program fellowship, a Rieker Grant, and William Shirley Fulton Scholarship, all through the University of Arizona, a research associate award from the Wiener Laboratory at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and a dissertation improvement grant to Britt Starkovich and Mary Stiner (advisor) from the National Science Foundation (BCS-0827294). Stiner’s work was supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation (BCS-0410654). Many thanks also to the Institute for Aegean Prehistory for supporting the excavations at Klissoura Cave 1, without which none of this research would have been possible.

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trum Revolution” and Paleolithic Demography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, 6993–6996. STINER M.C. 2002a. Carnivory, Coevolution, and the Geographic Spread of the Genus Homo. Journal of Archaeological Research 10, 1–63. STINER M.C. 2002b. On In Situ Attrition and Vertebrate Body Part Profiles. Journal of Archaeological Science 32, 103–117. STINER M.C. 2004. A Comparison of Photon Densitometry and Computed Tomography Parameters of Bone Density in Ungulate Body Part Profiles. Journal of Taphonomy 2, 117–145. STINER M.C. 2005. The Faunas of Hayonim Cave, Israel: A 200,000 Year Record of Paleolithic Diet, Demography, and Society. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge. STINER M.C., MUNRO N. 2002. Approaches to Prehistoric Diet Breadth, Demography, and Prey Ranking Systems in Time and Space. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 9, 181–214. STINER M.C., WEINER S., BAR-YOSEF O., KUHN S.L. 1995. Differential burning, fragmentation and preservation of archaeological bone. Journal of Archaeological Science 22, 223–237.

STINER M.C., MUNRO N.D., SUROVELL T.A. 2000. The Tortoise and the Hare: Small-Game Use, the Broad-Spectrum Revolution, and Paleolithic Demography. Current Anthropology 41, 39–73. STRAUS L.G. 1987. Upper Palaeolithic Ibex Hunting in Southwest Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 14, 163–178. SURMELY F., ALIX P., COSTAMAGNO S., DANIEL P., HAYS M., MURAT R., RENARD R., VIRMONT J., TEXIER J.P. 2003. Découverte d’un gisement du Gravettien ancien au Iieu-dit Ie Sire (Mirefleurs, Puy-de-Dôme). Bulletin de la Societe Prehistorique Francaise 100, 29–39. TOMEK T., BOCHEÑSKI Z.M. 2002. Bird Scraps from a Greek Table: The Case of Klissoura Cave. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia 45, 133–138. VAVALEKAS K., THOMAIDES C., PAPAEVANGELLOU E., PAPAGEORGIOU N. 1993. Nesting biology of the Rock Partridge Alectoris graeca graeca in northern Greece. Acta Ornithologica 28, 97–101. YELLEN J.E. 1991. Small mammals: Kung San utilization and the production of faunal assemblages. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 10, 1–26.

Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 133–285.

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC HUMAN OCCUPATIONS AND MATERIAL CULTURE AT KLISSOURA CAVE 1 Ma³gorzata Kaczanowska, Janusz K. Koz³owski and Krzysztof Sobczyk Jagiellonian University, Institute of Archaeology, Go³êbia 11, 31007 Kraków, Poland; [email protected] Abstract This paper provides the detailed description of the archaeological assemblages retrieved from the sequence of Upper Palaeolithic layers at Klissoura Cave. Layer V (sequence F) furnished the Early Upper Palaeolithic cultural remains dated to about 40 and >33 kyrs (uncalibrated) BP, ascribed to the Uluzzian; the techno-morphological structure of this assemblage is similar to the central Italian Evolved Uluzzian. Layers IV and IIIa-g (sequences E, D1, D2) contained a long sequence of Aurignacian occupations with unique clay-lined structures and organized living space. Tool types typical for the Aurignacian sequence are carinated end-scrapers/burins/cores, bladelets (some with fine retouches), splintered pieces; bone points occur with varying intensity. Layer III’’ (sequence D3) contained an assemblage dated to about 31 kyrs BP tentatively attributed to the Final (or Epi-) Uluzzian. Layer III’ (sequence D4) dated to around 30 and 29/28 kyrs BP corresponds to the Early Mediterranean Backed Blade/Bladelet industries which could be the contemporary with the Early “Gravettien indifferencie” from Italy. Layer III’is overlain by the filling of a transversal ditch (layers 6, 6a, 6/7 of sequence C, probably of anthropogenic origin) containing a mixed Aurignacian and later carinated (from III” and particularly III’layers). Layers II and IIa-d (sequence B) provided the Epigravettian industry corresponding to the late phase of the shouldered point horizon, and dated to ca.14 kyrs BP. Layers 3, 5, 5a (sequence A) closely resemble the specific type of a Mesolithic industry with blade/bladelet technology which is rooted in the local Epigravettian, possibly influenced by the Sauveterrian and later by the Para-Castelnovian. This full Upper Paleolithic sequence in Klissoura Cave 1 is unique in Greece, as it is more complete than the the known Upper Palaeolithic sequences exposed and studied in Franchthi and Kephalari caves. Key words: Uluzzian, Aurignacian, Early Mediterraean Backed Blade/Bladelets, Epigravettian, Mesolithic.

INTRODUCTION

SEQUENCE F

The archaeology of the Upper Palaeolithic sequences from F to B and Mesolithic (sequence A) layers in Klissoura cave is recorded in Table 1 of this report. The general structure of the main technological categories is presented in Table 2. The calculated restricted indices of technological groups are presented in Table 3 without chips and shattered pieces (chunks). The overall structure of retouched tool groups in sequence sequences is provided in Table 4. Radiocarbon readings are cite in this paper as 14C dates, not calibrated. For the calibrated dates and their discussion see Kuhn et al. (this issue).

Layer V Layer V is dark-gray clayey silt up to 15 cm thick, composed mainly of reworked massive, firm, white ash complexes (henceforth MWA), and in situ heterogeneous gray to brownish gray burnt remains (henceforth HGB; Karkanas, this issue). Layer V is located in the western and southern part of the excavation (Fig. 1). It contained 5–7 hearths, all flat, dark patches with locally concentrations of charcoals. The hearths form a circle from the NW corner to the SE corner of the excavation: These are – hearth H50 (sq B1), H43, H42, H35 (sq CC3). Hearth H43 is the largest

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Fig. 1.

Sequence F. Horizontal distribution of lithic artifacts

Fig. 2.

Sequence F. Horizontal distribution of hearths

(1 m in diameter), and hearth H35 the smallest (0.5 m in diameter). Moreover, inside the circle there are hearths H52, H53 and H103 each about

0.5 m in diameter (Fig. 2). Their stratigraphic association with layer V is uncertain as these they could be associated with layer IV or VI.

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Table 1 Stratigraphic sequences Sequence Layers 3 A 5 5a B IIa, IIb and IId

Facies

Cultural tent

HCS, LHW and LSS

Mesolithic and modern

HCS, HGB and LSS

C

LHW and MWA

Epigravettian Aurignacian mixed with Gravettian - "ditch" (+ H3 in situ) Backed Bladelet Industry (Mediterranean Gravettian) (not yet named - epi - Uluzzian?)

D

6, 6a and 6/7 4 3 2 1

E F G

III' III" IIIa, IIIb, IIIc and 7 IIId, IIIe, IIIf and IIIg IV V VI VII and VIII

MWA, HGB, RCS and LSS

Aurignacian - upper layers Aurignacian - middle layers MWA, RCS, HGB, LSS and HCS Aurignacian - lower layer HGB and MWA Early Upper Palaeolithic (Uluzzian) HCS, HGB and MWA Middle mixed with Upper Palaeolithic HCS, HGB and MWA Middle Palaeolithic

Table 2 Major technological groups Layers

Total N of chipped lithic

Shutter (%)

Chips (%)

Cores (%)

Splintered pieces (%)

Flakes (%)

Blades (%)

Tools (%)

Burin spalls (%)

3

1352 (100)

227 (16.5)

673 (49.1)

19 (1.4)

21 (1.5)

239 (17.4)

131 (9.5)

62 (4.5)

0

5

1484 (100)

558 (37.6)

529 (35.6)

13 (0.8)

28 (1.8)

244 (16.4)

66 (4.3)

46 (1.8)

0

5a

3953 (100)

1373 (34.7)

1503 (38)

45 (1.1)

49 (1.2)

595 (15.1)

257 (6.5)

131 (3.4)

0

B

II-IId

6281 (100)

1665 (26.5)

2880 (45.9)

74 (1.2)

83 (1.3)

1048 (16.7)

279 (4.4)

252 (4)

0

C

6. 6/7

8322 (100)

2231 (26.8)

3258 (39.1)

114 (1.4)

212 (2.5)

1995 (24)

317 (3.8)

189 (2.3)

6 (0.1)

4

III'

5943 (100)

1969 (33.2)

2010 (33.8)

109 (1.8)

153 (2.6)

1136 (19.1)

375 (6.3)

191 (3.2)

0

3

III"

2935 (100)

971 (33)

669 (22.7)

90 (3.1)

112 (3.8)

879 (29.9)

125 (4.2)

96 (3.3)

0

2

III a-c. 7

5623 (100)

1353 (24)

2007 (35.7)

120 (2.1)

184 (3.3)

1597 (28.4)

258 (4.6)

99 (1.8)

5 (0.1)

1

III d-g

28625 (100)

7344 (25.7)

13202 (46.1)

508 (1.8)

425 (1.5)

5157 (18)

1185 (4.1)

777 (2.7)

27 (0.1)

E

IV

63837 (100)

12227 (19.1)

34370 (53.9)

1419 (2.2)

398 (0.6)

10352 (16.2)

2906 (4.6)

2121 (3.4)

44 (>0.1)

F

V

4228 (100)

867 (20.5)

2212 (52.3)

41 (0.9)

62 (1.5)

702 (16.6)

189 (4.5)

151 (3.6)

4 (0.1%)

Sequence

A

D

The dating of layer V caused considerable difficulties as the radiometric dates are contradictory (Kuhn et al., this issue). The dates of the organic fraction from hearths H42 (> 31 100 BP

Gd-10714) and H53 (> 30 800 BP, Gd-10715) gave merely terminus ante quem for layer V. Subsequently, the AMS date on bones from layer V is much earlier – 40 010±740 BP (Gif-99168) and is

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Table 3 Major technological groups (restricted indices)

Layers

Total N of chipped lithic (without chips and shutter) (%)

Cores (%)

Splintered pieces (%)

Flakes (%)

Blades (%)

Tools (%)

Burin spalls (%)

3

472 (100)

19 (4)

21 (4.5)

239 (50.7)

131 (27.6)

62 (13.2)

0

5

39 (100)

13 (3.2)

28 (7.1)

244 (61.5)

66 (16.6)

46 (11.6)

0

5a

1 077 (100)

45 (4.2)

49 (4.5)

595 (55.2)

257 (23.9)

131 (12.2)

0

B

II-IId

1 736 (100)

74 (4.2)

83 (4.8)

1048 (60.4)

279 (16.1)

252 (14.5)

0

C

6. 6/7

2 833 (100)

114 (4)

212 (7.5)

1995 (70.4)

317 (11.2)

189 (6.7)

6 (0.2)

4

III'

1 964 (100)

109 (5.6)

153 (7.8)

1136 (57.8)

375 (19.1)

191 (9.7)

0

3

III"

1 302 (100)

90 (6.9)

112 (8.6)

879 (67.5)

125 (9.6)

96 (7.4)

0

2

III a-c. 7

2 263 (100)

120 (5.3)

184 (8.1)

1597 (70.6)

258 (11.4)

99 (4.4)

5 (0.2)

1

III d-g

8 079 (100)

508 (6.3)

425 (5.3)

5157 (63.8)

1185 (14.7)

777 (9.6)

27 (0.3)

E

IV

17 240 (100)

1419 (8.3)

398 (2.3)

10352 (60.1)

2906 (16.9)

2121 (12.4)

44 (>0.1)

F

V

1149 (100)

41 (3.6)

62 (5.4)

702 (61.1)

189 (16.5)

151 (13.1)

4 (0.3)

Sequence

A

D

in disagreement with the AMS dates from the same layer: 29 660±360 BP (RTT-4790) and 30 775±410 BP (RTT-4791). The AMS dates obtained using ABOX method are somewhat earlier: 32 690±110 BP (AA-75629) and 33 150±120 BP (AA-75628). We my assume that layer V is not much older than the floor of layer IV, namely, just a little before 33 kyrs BP. This was the period whose radiometric chronology evoked most controversies because the dates obtained for sites stratified below Campanian Ignimbrite layers (about 32–35 kyrs BP) are in disagreement with direct dating of thephra layers from the eruptions of volcanoes in Flegrean Fields (39.5 kyrs cal BC) (Giaccio et al. 2004; Higham et al. 2009). Major technological group structure The assemblage from layer V consisted of 4218 artifacts. It is dominated by chips (2212 – 52.4%), fragments and chunks (867 – 20.4%). This structure is the result of low quality of raw

material, but it also documents advanced core and tool reduction. Other technological groups are: flakes (702 – 16.6%, blades (189 – 4.5%) and tools (151 – 3.6%), splintered pieces (62 – 1.5%), cores (41 – 1.0%), and burin spalls and microburins (4 – 0.1%). Such structure indicates the onsite knapping activities of most of the lithic production. Among the exploited raw materials the local radiolarites demonstrate clear increase (3086 – 72.8%). It should be stressed that some radiolarite specimens, especially blades and blade tools, were made from a better quality reddish radiolarite, possibly originating in a different locality and reached Klissoura cave 1 as blanks or tools. Local flints are less frequent (968 – 23.0%) than radiolarites. Other rocks occur in minute quantities. These are: silicified limestones (40), chalcedony (14), quartz (25), quartzites, feldspars, sandstone. The assemblage includes also 262 burnt and unidentifiable specimens.

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Table 4 Major typological groups Layer 3

5

5a

III'

III''

IIIa-c, 7

IIId-g

IV

V

9 (14.5)

8 (14.4)

25 (19.1)

60 (23.8)

86 (45.5)

59 (30.9)

35 (36.5)

59 (58.6)

507 (65.2)

1354 (63.8)

37 (24.5)

Combinated tools

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

12 (1.5)

14 (0.7)

0

Bec & perforator

1 (1.6)

1 (2.2)

3 (2.3)

18 (7.2)

3 (1.6)

4 (2.1)

2 (2.1)

0

6 (0.8)

36 (1.7)

2 (1.3)

Retouched blades

5 (8)

14 (30.4)

6 (4.6)

31 (12.3)

24 (12.7)

51 (26.7)

4 (4.2)

5 (5.05)

21 (2.7)

109 (5)

15 (9.9)

0

0

0

0

1 (0.5)

4 (2.1)

0

1 (0.5)

5 (0.6)

8 (0.4)

2 (1.3)

Backed implements

21 (33.9)

9 (19.5)

63 (48.1)

80 (31.7)

15 (7.9)

25 (13.1)

3 (3.1)

2 (2.03)

5 (0.6)

0

45 (29.8)

Burins

3 (4.9)

0

2 (1.5)

11 (4.4)

3 (1.6)

5 (2.6)

2 (2.1)

2 (2.1)

33 (4.2)

59 (2.8)

2 (1.3)

5 (8)

3 (6.5)

0

21 (8.3)

6 (3.2)

4 (2.1)

7 (7.3)

5 (5.05)

28 (3.6)

71 (3.3)

6 (4)

0

1 (2.2)

0

19 (7.5)

20 (10.6)

9 (4.7)

23 (23.9)

12 (12.1)

75 (9.6)

233 (10.5)

17 (11.3)

Retouched flakes

8 (12.9)

2 (4.4)

21 (16)

8 (3.2)

22 (11.6)

10 (5.2)

15 (15.6)

9 (10)

51 (7.2)

189 (8.9)

14 (9.3)

Others

6 (9.7)

1 (2.2)

4 (3.1)

0

2 (1.1)

11 (5.8)

5 (5.2)

0

4 (0.5)

0

1 (0.7)

Undeterminated

4 (6.5)

7 (15.2)

7 (5.3)

4 (1.6)

7 (3.7)

9 (4.7)

0

4 (4.04)

21 (2.7)

59 (2.8)

10 (6.6)

62

46

131

252

189

191

96

99

777

2121

151

Tools End-scrapers

n (%)

Truncations

Sidescrapers Denticulated-notched implements

TOTAL

II-IId 6, 6a, 6/7

Core reduction Reduction of blade-flake cores commenced from single-platform cores (with unprepared or single-blow platforms) on flat radiolarite concretions (Pl. 1.1–3). Sporadically single-platform cores with postero-lateral preparation occur (Pl. 1.4, 6). There was a tendency to narrow the flaking surface in the distal part during reduction (Pl. 1.5). Another method was the reduction from two opposed platforms; this reduction system was applied exclusively on flake cores made on radiolarites plaquettes (Pl. 1.7, 8). In the case of blade cores bilateral preparation from the core back was also used (Pl. 1.9). The product of the residual stage these cores were doubled-platform cores for bladelets (Pl. 1.10). Reduction methods used for flake production were applied to low single-platform cores with preparation restricted to platforms (Pl. 1.1),

change-of-orientation cores (both 90° cores – (Pl. 2.1) and with the orientation changed several times – Pl. 1.11, 12), and sub-discoidal cores (Pl. 2.2). The relatively small proportion of cores (41 – 1.0%), less frequent than splintered pieces (62 – 1.5%), suggests that blanks were also produced by the splintered technique. Bipolar splintered pieces are most numerous: bifacial specimens made on flakes (Pl. 2.3, 5), on plaquettes (Pl. 2.4), on blades (Pl. 2.6), and on cores (Pl. 2.7). Unipolar splintered pieces are less frequent (16), and quadripolar specimens occur sporadically (4). The mean length of splintered pieces is 2.29 cm, width – 1.77 cm, and thickness – 0.82 cm. Among the debitage products flakes (702 – 16.6%) are less numerous than chips (2212 – 52.4%). The high proportion of cortical flakes (147 – about a fourth of all flakes) indicates that cortical nodules were exploited on-site.

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Blades are the most important blanks for tool production (especially backed pieces, retouched blades and truncations) and have been preserved as fragments. Out of 189 unretouched blades only 64 are intact specimens. Bladelets predominate and the mean length of complete specimens is 2.46 cm, with 0.93 cm the mean width, and the thickness mean as 0.33 cm.

Most (9) have fine retouch on one edge (Pl. 2.18, 19, 21) or a partial retouch of two sides (Pl. 2.20). This could be pseudo-retouch formed during use. Only two specimens have intentional retouch: a unilateral trimming blade (Pl. 2.22) and a bilateral specimen shaped by high, multiseriate retouch (Pl. 2.23). The remaining specimens are small fragments with fine retouch, sometimes notched.

The structure of major morphological tool classes Table 1 provides the frequency of the major morphological classes of retouched tools. The most numerous group are the backed pieces forming nearly a third of the tool inventory; they can be considered as diagnostic of layer V. Endscrapers are less numerous by half; flakes, retouched blades and notched-denticulated tools occur in equal numbers, about 10% each. Truncations are 6.6%, the other groups are represented by single specimens. Among them the presence of microliths is significant.

Backed pieces Among 45 backed pieces arched backed specimens, which are diagnostic for layer V, predominate. Arched backed pieces (19) were shaped on blades, sporadically on thick flakes, by steep obverse retouch; in the proximal and distal part the retouch is steeper, and in the mesial part less steep. Specimens with a well rounded blunted back are most numerous (Pl. 2.25–27; Pl. 3.1–3, 6–8, 10, 16). This group is represented also by: backed pieces with a distal slightly concave truncation (Pl. 3.15, 17) or with an atypical bec at the tip and traces of an impact fracture (Pl. 3.4). Only a few specimens were made on thick flakes (Pl. 3.18). One specimen has retouch of the opposite side (Pl. 3.19) and possibly a notch at the base (Pl. 3.20). Backed pieces with a weak rounded blunted back are less numerous (Pl. 2.24; Pl. 3.9, 11–14). One specimen has an impact fracture at the tip (Pl. 3.15). Among the arched backed two pieces are regular blade specimens with an incomplete blunted back a kind of double convex truncations. (Pl. 3.21, 22). Simple backed pieces are less numerous and less carefully made (Pl. 3.24); in one case the blunted back was shaped by bipolar retouch (Pl. 3.23). Another backed piece has an angulated blunted back (Pl. 3.25). In addition this group incorporate specimens with partially blunted sides, and fragments of backed pieces, usually mesial sections.

End-scrapers End-scrapers were predominantly made on short thick flakes forming a fairly high retouched fronts. Their shortened length is exemplified when we compare the specimens in Pl. 2.9 with the extremely short specimen in Pl. 2.8, 11. The shape of the fronts varies from slightly convex (Pl. 2.8, 11) to slightly nosed (Pl. 2.10, 12), straight (Pl. 2.14), or even bec-like (Pl. 2.15). One end-scraper has a low nose, made on core fragment, with alternate retouch. Only one specimen had lateral retouch and was also considerably shortened (Pl. 2.13). Burins Only two burins made on blades, were recorded: a dihedral and single burin (Pl. 2.16) and a single-blow burin. Perforators Perforators are represented by a blade specimen with a symmetrical tip shaped by steep retouch (Pl. 2.17), and an atypical bec on a flake with denticulated retouch. Retouched blades A total of 15 retouched blades were recorded.

Microliths Microlithic pieces, used as inserts, are represented by five specimens: three asymmetrical trapezes (Pl. 3.26–28) of which one has a proximal tip, another was made perpendicularly to the axis of a flake, and two rectangles on bladelets (Pl. 3.29, 30). Besides, there is a microburin split off from the distal end of a microlithic segment (Pl. 3.31).

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

Truncations Two convex truncations were made on bladelets and could be ascribed to the group of microliths (Pl. 3.32; Pl. 4.1). The remaining 8 specimens are: proximal oblique truncations (Pl. 4.2), or distal truncations (Pl. 4.3), also convex truncations of which one had an impact fracture (Pl. 4.4), and concave truncations (Pl. 4.5, 6). Side-scrapers Among the six side-scrapers one bears a lateral convex (Pl. 4.7), another has bilateral convex edges (Pl. 4.8) and one is a simple lateral sidescraper (Pl. 4.9). Three specimens are fragments. Notched tools Four specimens with single notches were recorded (Pl. 4.10, 11). Denticulated tools A total of 13 specimens included: lateral (Pl. 4.12, 13), bilateral (Pl. 4.14), transversal (Pl. 4.15) and convergent (Pl. 4.16, 17) specimens. One tool was made on a radiolarite plaquette. Retouched flakes Most of the 14 retouched flakes had lateral obverse retouch (Pl. 4.18, 19) and alternate retouch (Pl. 4.20–22). Ten indeterminate fragments and a chopper were also assigned to tools.

ASSEMBLAGE FROM LAYER V IN THE CONTEXT OF THE MEDITERRANEAN EARLY UPPER PALAEOLITHIC The presence of fossile directeurs in the form of arched backed blades indicates unequivocally the association of the assemblage from layer V with the Uluzzian known in Italy. It is noteworthy that this is the second instance of the Uluzzian occurrence in Greece. The first was the assemblage of layer F in Kephalari Cave investigated by L. Reich (1976), but unfortunately has never been published in details except for a brief cultural identification by J. Hahn (1984). The chronological position of the Uluzzian in Italy, especially concerning the radiocarbon chronology, is still disputable. In sequences with the ending phase of the Middle and the Early Phase of

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the Upper Palaeolithic the Uluzzian layers occur in the following contexts: 1. In Cavallo Cave, Lecce: Uluzzian levels (EIII, EII-I, E/D, DII, Dib) are interstratified between the final Mousterian (layer FI-III) and the Romanellian (B) (Palma di Cesnola, 1966a, 1967). It should be added that the Mousterian is separated from the Uluzzian by a thin layer of volcanic ash (Fa), 2. In Bernardini Cave on the Uluzzo Bay: Uluzzian layers (AIV, AIII) are stratified directly upon the Mousterian (also within stratigraphic series A (Borzatti von Löwenstern, 1970), 3. In Castelcivita Cave, Salerno: Uluzzian layers (pie, rpi, rsa) are stratified between the Mousterian (layer rsi ) and the Proto-Aurignacian (Fumanian) (top of layer rsa) (Cioni et al., 1979). However, it should be remembered that in this sequence a thin layer of vocanic ash separates the Uluzzian and the Proto-Aurignacian. 4. In Fumane Cave, Veneto: a poor level with arched backed blades is stratified betwee layer F n the Mousterian and the Proto-Aurignacian (Fumanian) (Peresani, 2008). Regretably, the dating of the Uluzzian in these sequences is imprecise: in Cavallo Cave layer EII-I was dated at > 31 000 BP, whereas in the Castelvicita Cave the dates are from 33 220±780 (for layer pie) to 32 930±720 (layer rsa). But the sequence has also provided the date of > 34 000 BP for layer rpi. The earliest date for the Uluzzian in Italy, today, come from layer A3 from the Fumane Cave (LTL-1795A: 37 828±430 BP; Higham et al., 2009). However, we should add that the entire Uluzzian in Italy could be earlier because the Uluzzian levels in the Castelvicita Cave are covered by Campanian Ignimbrite tephra which has been dated at 39 500 years cal BC (= about 35 000 BP) (Higham et al., 2009; Giaccio et al., 2004). The origin of the Uluzzian still remains a puzzle. The sequence from Klissoura I, too, has not contributed to the clarification of this question: between the Middle Palaeolithic from layer VII (layer VI contains, in all likelihood, mixed elements from layers VII and V) and the assemblage of layer V does not demonstrate technological or typological continuity. The terminal Mousterian from layer VII is dominated by non-Levallois technique based primarily on discoidal and sin-

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gle-platform cores. Among the tools side-scrapers predominate (IR-60). The only element that links the assemblages from layer VII and V are splintered pieces; they are nevertheless less numerous (by half) than cores (Koumouzelis et al., 2001b). In Italy a similar discontinuity can be seen in the sequences of sites situated in the south. In Tuscany, on the other hand, there are sites that have been ascribed to the Late Mousterian of microlithic type with a small Levallois component (Galcetti, Santa Lucia II, Impruneta; Palma di Cesnola, 1989), with arched backed implements on thick flakes. Unfortunately, these are surface sites. Similarly, in northern Italy (Fumane) arched backed implements occurred in a Mousteroidal context. The Uluzzian from layer A3 could be the oldest phase of this entity in Italy (Peresani, 2008). The raw materials composition in the Uluzzian sites in central Italy such as La Fabbrica (Pitti et al., 1976) shows the domination of local chert and quartz. In the Uluzzian of southern Italy (Castelcivita; Gambassini and Napoleone, 1997) mesolocal flint is the most important raw material exploited as pebbles obtained from the local alluvium. Moreover, of interest is the high proportion of used limestone (Riel-Salvatore and Negrino, 2009:223). In addition, the frequency of extralocal fine-grained rocks in the Uluzzian sequence at Cavallo distinctly increased. When we compare the assemblage from layer V with the evolution of the Uluzzian in Italy similarities can be detected. First is the middle and late phases of this entity. In the first report on the excavations at Klissoura Cave by Prosymna (Koumouzelis et al., 2001a), when we assumed an early date for layer V (40 010±740 BP – Gif99168), we drew attention to the contradiction between this date and similar sites of evolved Uluzzian in Italy. The criticism of this date allows to put forward a hypothesis proposing that the assemblage from layer V is a counterpart of the Evolved Uluzzian both in southern Italy (e.g., Cavallo layers EII-I) and in Campania (e.g., Tornola; Ronchitelli, 1984). A distinctive feature of this phase is the decrease in the frequency of splintered pieces, large quantities of arched backed blades, truncations, and the occurrence of parageometric microliths. In layer EII-I at Cavallo the proportion of backed pieces and microliths could

be nearly half of all the tools (Palma di Cesnola, 1989, 1993). This corresponds to layer V at Klissoura Cave where backed pieces and microliths account for one third of the tools. Another shared feature with layer V is the low proportion of burins and the simultaneous increase in the frequency of notched-denticulated tools, side-scrapers and retouched blades. Recently D. Papagianni (2009) has suggested that the differences between layer V from Klissoura Cave and the Italian Uluzzian are deeper than it was assumed in the first report (Koumouzelis et al., 2001b) mainly because in layer V blade technology dominates whereas the Uluzzian uses flake technology. On this issue Papagianni quotes S. Kuhn and A. Bietti (2000) who hold that backed pieces are not particularly common «except in “evolved” and “middle” Uluzzian industries». The early date we originally assumed for layer V is critically re-assessed due to similar dates obtained for the Final Mousterian. Consequently, Papagianni’s assumptions too become invalid. At present we believe that layer V corresponds to the “middle” or “evolved” Uluzzian. As far the technology of layer V is concerned it should be pointed out that the Ilam index in this layer is only 4.5 which corresponds to the mean values of this index in Uluzzian sites in Italy. For example, in San Romano the index is 3.04 where blade tools are 6.5%, in Indicatore 2.3 and blade tools are 6.1%, but at the same time in La Fabbrica this index is 9.6 and blade tools 12.2% (Cresti and Gambassini, 1970; Pitti et al., 1976; Dani and Gambassini, 1977). Papagianni (2009) questioned also the association of layer V with the Uluzzian because, among others, she treated with some reservations the proposed coastal route of Early Upper Palaeolithic migration from east to west. The presence of the oldest Uluzzian in northern Italy confirms the spread of arched backed implements from north into central Italy and, then, during the Adriatic regression, by land directly into Greece. In sum, we can state that the appearance of the Uluzzian in Greece is the result of migration of population from central Italy. This migration was, in all likelihood, not much earlier than the beginning of the Aurignacian (33 kyrs BP) and corresponded to the “Middle” or “Evolved” Uluzzian of the Italian sites. An open question re-

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

Fig. 3.

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Sequence E, layer IV. Vertical section: profile North

mains whether the Uluzzian population should be ascribed to the Neanderthals or to Anatomically Modern Humans. The only relic – a human tooth from the Early Uluzzian layer E7 from the Cavallo Cave (Palma di Cesnola and Messeri, 1967) – probably represents AMH. However, we should be cautious concerning this interpretation for two reasons: anthropological evidence is fragmentary, and – secondly – the Uluzzian belongs to “transitional” cultures, just like the Chatelperronian whose early phase – at least – has been ascribed to Neanderthals. Analysis of the assemblage from layer III’’ has shown that the Uluzzian tradition persisted in Argolid until the post-Aurignacian period.

SEQUENCE E Layer IV This sequence is constituted by layer IV that is well defined in the longitudinal and horizontal cross-sections. In the N and NE section its thickness is from 20 to 40 cm; in S and SW sections it is thinner; layer IV is the thickest among the Upper Palaeolithic layers. It is stratified from 135/ 140 to 180/185 cm below datum. Only a few lithics were located in the lower portion of this layer (Fig. 3). The scatter-pattern of the carinated indicates that the majority of the specimens are concentrated in the NE part of the excavation, at the en-

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Fig. 4.

Sequence E. Horizontal distribution of hearths

Fig. 5.

Sequence E. Stone structure

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Fig. 6.

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Sequence E. Clay lined hearths

trance to the Cave. Debitage and tools are distributed around and inside the hearth structures – mainly clay-lined – and within the intentionally laid out ring of limestone blocks (Figs 4, 5). According to P. Karkanas (in this issue) layer IV is composed of a variety of facies as follows: MWA – massive, firm, white ash, RCS – reddish clay structures, HGB – heterogeneous, grey to brownish-grey burnt remains, LSS – laminated and sorted sediments, HCS – heterogeneous clay-rich layers. The RCS facies contains most of the burnt remains and the clay-lined hearth structures. Layer IV locally overlies fairly conformably on top of layer V (Sequence F). Layer IV contained 55 hearths which is about 50% of all the (101) Upper Palaleolithic hearths at the site. These were: round, oval and irregular hearths filled in with ash, carbonates and burnt bones (29.1%), brownish, reddish, black and various shades of grey in color. Their diameters

ranged from 30 to 80 cm, rarely more than 100 cm. Among these there were clay-lined hearths (56.4%) or hearths with remnants of burnt clay (14.5%) (Karkanas et al., 2004). These types wee mainly rounded in shape, sometimes oval, with diameters of 25–30 cm, and the largest did not exceed 40 cm. The layers of clay within IV are superimposed which indicates that the hearths functioned over a limited time span (Fig. 6). They were located in the outer perimeter of the stone structure, in the N, NE and NW part of the excavation at the entrance to the Cave, directly underneath the rock overhang. The intentionally laid oval stone ring of 240– 180 cm in diameter, was constructed of smaller (10 to 20 cm in diameter) and larger (40–50 cm) undressed limestone blocks. The structure surrounds an area measuring about 1 sq m (Fig. 5). This feature could hardly be interpreted as a dwelling structure due to its size. Taking into account the concentration of some personal adornments and fragments of bone points inside this

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Fig. 7.

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Sequence E., layer IV. Horizontal distribution of lithic artifacts

feature and its central situation within the circle of hearths, points to a ceremonial function. The dating of sequence E is based on radiocarbon dates obtained from hearth 27; 29 950+460 BP (the Gliwice Laboratory: Gd-10567) and 32 400+600 BP (Gd-10562), and on AMS dates from the interface of layers IV/V 32 690+110 BP (the Tucson Laboratory: AA 75629) and 33 150+120 BP(AA 75628). The dates from the Gliwice Laboratory were obtained on organic fraction and carbonates, while those of the Tucson Laboratory from organic material. Major technological groups The 63 837 lithics were primarily concentrated inside the stone ring (24.8% of all the lithics in an area of 1 sq m) and outside the stone ring in the N and NE part of the excavation at the Cave entrance; in the remaining area of the excavation (15 sq m) lithic artefacts occur sporadically (Fig. 7). The same scatter pattern was recorded for all

the major technological groups: cores, splintered pieces, blanks, tools, shatters and chips. They account for as much as 48.3% of artifacts in all the UP and Mesolithic layers at the site. Together with the presence of numerous hearths this evidence reflects a longer occupation and intensive human activity during the time-span of layer IV the formation. The most frequent raw material is radiolarite (60.16%), with flint (37.03%) and others (1.14%). Burnt and unidentified pieces constitute 1.67%. Among the major categories 73% are chips and shatters (46 597 specimens); chips account for 53.9% including fragments of bladelets (< 1.5 cm) which were not taken into account in blade analysis, and chips from tool production and retrimming. The major technological groups – without chips and shatters – (17 240 lithic artefacts) are represented by: – cores sensu lato (without carenated cores/ endscrapers – 1419 spec. – 8.2%),

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

– splintered pieces (used both as cores and as tools) – (398 spec. – 2.3%), – blanks: flakes (60.05%) and blades/bladelets – 76.0% (13 258 spec. – 20.8%), – retouched tools (2 121 spec. – 12.3%), – waste from tool production (burin spalls exclusively – 44 spec. – 0.25%). Cores and methods of detachment Sequence E yielded a total of 1 419 cores (Pl. 5–13.1–10) including: – pre-cores and chunks with single scars 0.3% – initial cores 19.8% – cores in advanced stages of reduction 52.9% – residual cores 27.3% The most frequently used raw material is radiolarite – 58.0%, notably type R1 red in colour, followed by flint – 37.4%, quartzite, quartz, igneous rocks, silicified limestone, and indeterminate rocks including burnt specimens – 3.3%. Carinated – 775 specimens – namely: cores/ end-scrapers and end-scrapers/cores, or some types of high end-scrapers that could be used as cores for the production of microlithic blanks. Majority of cores – 86.3% – were made on plaquettes, chunks, and pebbles, only 13.7% on flakes; there were no basic differences in the methods of core reduction when different raw material were exploited. Initial cores were used for the shaping of unifacial crests which resembled chopping tools (Pl. 5.3; Pl. 6.1, 2; Pl. 7.1); most initial forms are plaquettes of raw material with single and several flake (Pl. 5.1, 2, 4) and blade scars (Pl. 5.1). In terms of technology among the more advanced cores there are: – single-platform cores (77.2%) and cores with a single scar (9.5%), – double-platform cores (6.7%), – discoidal and subdiscoidal cores (2.3% – some of these are probably Middle Palaeolithic intrusions), – change-of-orientation cores, and multiplatform specimens (13.4%). The dimensions of single-platform cores are their height (< 20 mm), showing that these are typical microlithic cores (31.3%). Among them there were: high carinatedal specimens and some nosed cores (included within the end-scraper group). Specimens between 20–30 mm in height

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account for 48.2% of single-platform cores; in general as 95.9% of the single-platform cores do not exceed 40 mm; only 1.3% are more than 50 mm. In the group of double-platform cores 97.6% of specimens are up to 40 mm in height. And only a few cores (2.4%) exceed this size. An exception is an initial core with a crest, 70 mm long, made from poor quality radiolarite (Pl. 8.5). Generally, flake cores predominate (61.43%) and as a rule blade-flake cores (14.4%) were initially used for detaching blades. Flake scars indicate he preparation or reshaping of the cores. Blade cores form 8.86%. and together with blade-flake cores they account for 23.27% of all cores.Typical cores for bladelets are 15.28%. When the carinated specimens (775) are added the total number of such cores doubles. In respect to shape and reduction methods the number of single-platform flake cores increases by comparison to earlier layers. They are small, even microlithic, sometimes prepared (Pl. 8.1–8). Often they are made on thermal fragments of usually of local radiolarite, while fewer are from flint, and sporadically on radiolarite pebbles. The platforms are prepared or formed by single blow. Flake-blade/bladelet cores or blade/bladeletflake cores, single-platform (Pl. 9.1–11) were made on plaquettes or pebbles of radiolarite. Flake scars were usually the effect of preparation or retrimming; single blade scars are the effect of retrimming. Some specimens show traces of lateral preparation, with the flaking surface almost round the entire circumference (Pl. 9.8), with a straight platform edge (Pl. 9.6). The occasional single-platform blade cores proper (Pl. 9.12; Pl. 10.1–4) were made on plaquettes; their shape is irregular, the flaking surface almost round the entire circumference, and platforms are prepared. The numerous typical single-platform cores for bladelets (Pl. 10.5–10; Pl. 11.1–10) were often difficult to distinguish from end-scrapers; their platforms are sometimes prepared (Pl. 10.6, 9) or unprepared (Pl. 11.5); the straight platform angle is maintained, but in a number of cases this is not the operation of reshaping but the result of the use of these cores as end-scrapers (Pl. 10.10; Pl. 11.1). Moreover, preparation often covered the back and sides of such small cores (Pl. 11.2, 10).

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An acute (Pl. 11.3, 8) or straight core angle suggests a secondary function as tools. Hypermicrolithic specimens were often retrimmed into endscrapers. In the group of double-platform flake cores (Pl. 9.11–14) there are specimens with prepared platforms, with lateral preparation, and also residual forms on pebbles (Pl. 9.14). Double-platform cores for bladelets are rare (Pl. 11.15, 16; Pl. 12.1–3); they have lateral preparation and an irregular flaking surface that indicate successive, not alternate, removals (Pl. 12.1); there were, besides, double-platform specimens with separate flaking surfaces (Pl. 12.4–6), and double-platform cores for flakes and bladelets (Pl. 12.7–9). Typical change-of-orientation cores (Pl. 12.10–13; Pl. 13.1) are 90° specimens: for flakes (Pl. 12.11, 12; Pl. 13.1), for bladelets (Pl. 12.13), and bladelet-flake specimens (Pl. 12.10). Sporadic discoidal and subdiscoidal cores (Pl. 13.2–7) were registered; however, they may be intrusions from the Middle Palaeolithic layers (VI or VIII) (Pl. 13.2, 3) which is indicated by their state of preservation (weak rounding of edges). These cores are two-sided, irregular, atypical, made on pebbles (Pl. 13.10). Splintered pieces Splintered pieces are only 2.3% of the inventory of layer IV (Pl. 13.11, 12 – Pl. 15.1–9), whereas cores are 8.2%. They can be interpreted as cores in advanced stages of reduction, as retouched tools, and, finally, as flake or blade blanks with use-wears. As cores they were used for the production of splinters (special small flakes) or chips used as unretouched inserts. As tools they were shaped by one- or two-sided splintered retouch on one, two or more edges. Use-wears are most frequent on flake splintered pieces: mostly single, onesided. Of the total of 398 splintered pieces 65% were made on flakes, 7.5% on blades, 13.3% on unworked chunks, 9.2% are cores, and about 5% were made on tools. The most frequent raw materials were radiolarites (69.3%), flint (27.4%) is next; a small proportion of other raw materials (3.3%) includes burnt specimens (2.2%). Splintered pieces were unipolar (34.4%), bipolar (59.0%), tripolar (4.5%) and quadripolar

(2.0%); bifacial specimens are slightly more frequent. Most specimens are small; the average size does not exceed 20 mm; in shape they are mainly quadrangular (76.0%), less often rectangular or, trapezoidal. In the group of splintered pieces on thick or thin flakes the most frequent types are short bipolar either uni or bifacial specimens (Pl. 14; Pl. 15.1–3), from which microlithic splinters were detached (Pl. 14.9, 10). The next group are unipolar splintered pieces, mostly bifacial (Pl. 13.8, 9, 11, 12; Pl. 14.1, 2), made on radiolarite flakes, both thin and thick. Some specimens were made on pebbles (Pl. 13.8). Multipolar: triple (Pl. 15. 4–7) and quadruple (Pl. 15.8) specimens are relatively few; these are bifacial items on flakes. Individual splintered pieces were made on tools e.g. on an end-scraper/bec (Pl. 15.9) which indicates that splintered technique was used for tool reshaping or reduction. In should be noted that in the Early Aurignacian in Europe splintered tools a appear constantly but form only small percentage of the lithic assemblage. Flakes A total of 10 352 flakes were discovered. This included 3 343 cortical flakes. Flake fragments that were less than 1.5 cm have been assigned to other categories: namely: chips, shutter and chunks. Flakes account for 16.2% of the entire inventory and for as much as 60.05% of the inventory without chips and shutter. The most frequently used raw material is radiolarite (56.7%), followed by flint (39.6%), other raw materials (3.7%) are less frequent (quartz, guartzite, igneous rocks, silicified limestone, chalcedony, one flake from andesite, greenstone, and serpentinite). Burnt specimens are 2.5% of all flakes. The raw material composition is similar for both cortical as well as decorticated flakes. Majority of flakes were detached during preparation or core retrimming; only a small part could have been used as blanks for tool production. Blades Sequence E yielded 2 906 blades and bladelets which accounts for 4.5% of the entire inventory and for 16.8% of the inventory without

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

the waste. Radiolarite is the most frequent raw material (59.6%), next is flint (37.2%), and other raw materials (0.6%) (silicified limestone, chalcedony, quartz, quartzite). Indeterminate and burnt raw materials are 2.6%. Blades and bladelets were, first of all, detached from small single-platform cores. Bladelets less than 20 mm are 51%, and bladelets in the mode of 20–40 mm are 47.1%. Only 1.8% of all blades are more than 40 mm. Among bladelets there occur twisted specimens which are commonly interpreted as bladelets detached from carinatedal cores (Pl. 26.1–7). The ratio of retouched (108 spec.) and unretouched bladelets (about 2 790 spec.), together with bladelet fragments assigned to chips, to cores for bladelets and other carinateds is 1.5 bladelets per one carinatedal core. Consequently, a considerable part of bladelets could have been taken away from the site area as retouched or unretouched inserts. If we take into account typical cores for bladelets only then the number of bladelets per one core is 2.5 – which is a very low ratio. Retouched tools A total number of 2 121 retouched tools account for 3.3% of all carinated and 12.3% of major technological groups without waste and chips. These specimens were made from radiolarite – 66% and flint – 29.9%; other raw materials such as quartz and quartzite are 0.6%. Indeterminate, mainly burnt specimens are 3.5%. The largest group are the end-scrapers: 1 354 specimens account (63.80%) of all tools, followed by denticulated-notched tools: 233 specimens (10.5%), retouched flakes: 189 specimens (8.9%), retouched blades: 109 specimens (5%), sidescrapers: 71 specimens (3.3%), burins: 59 specimens (2.8%), fragments of indeterminate tools: 59 specimens (2.8%). perforators/becs: 36 specimens (1.7%), composite tools: 14 specimens (0.7%), and runcations: 8 (0.4%). Some backed pieces found in this layer are admixture from sequence F. End-scrapers End-scrapers are the largest group of tools numbering 1 354 items (63.8%) and highly varied (Pl. 15.10–14 – Pl. 21.1–8). Even when the con-

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troversial carinated forms are disregarded, endscrapers are still the main group of tools (579 spec. – 43% of all tools). The most controversial and, at the same time, the most numerous subgroup are end-scrapers or carinated cores (775 spec. – 57.2% of all endscrapers) (Pl. 18.7–15; Pl. 19.1–3, 5; Pl. 21.5–8). These are: high end-scrapers/cores (74.6%), nosed high end-scrapers (13.9%) and carinated end-scrapers (11.5%), a small number of atypical carinated burins resembling naviform nosed end-scrapers with an oblique or lateral front (Pl. 20.15, 17; Pl. 21.1, 11, 12). Flat blade or flake end-scrapers are 15.9%; flat nosed specimens are 9.8%; thin type specimens are 4.3%; flat discoidal end-scrapers – 2%; fan-shaped specimens – 1.7%; double – 1.5% and atypical specimens – 7.4%. End-scrapers (including core/end-scrapers) were mainly made on flakes, sometimes cortical (Pl. 15.10–12; Pl. 16.1–4; Pl. 19.9, 10; Pl. 21.10) or on shortened blades with, fairly often, lateral retouch (65% of all end-scrapers). The specimens made on unworked nodules (plaquettes and chunks) are 26.5%, those made on blades (with uni- or bilateral, sometimes Aurignacian retouch) (Pl. 16.9, 12; Pl. 21.15) – are 3.1%. End-scrapers/cores made on indeterminate blanks are 5.3%. The overwhelming majority of end-scrapers are made from radiolarite (62.4%), flint is the next most frequent raw material (34.1%). Other raw materials are 2.2%, and indeterminate rocks are 1.3%. Specimens with a rounded, sometimes denticulated front predominate (Pl. 15.13; Pl. 16.7; Pl. 17.15; Pl. 19.14, 16; Pl. 20.1–4); other fronts are straight (Pl. 17.14), symmetrical or asymmetrical to the blank axis (Pl. 18.12; Pl. 19.8, 11, 13), also oblique to the tool axis (Pl. 19.4, 7), extending on to sides (Pl. 17.7, 13; Pl. 19.17), frequently retouched (Pl. 16.4–6, 8, 9, 12). In a few cases the front was retrimmed. Sporadically, there are end-scrapers on flakes with the front situated in the proximal part (Pl. 17.8). Some specimens have double fronts (Pl. 18.5; Pl. 19.6; Pl. 20.6–14, 16; Pl. 21.4), sometimes alternate (Pl. 20.8, 11; Pl. 21.1), or twisted (Pl. 20.12), fan-shaped, short, rounded or discoidal (Pl. 16.10, 11; Pl. 17.15; Pl. 18.1–4, 6, 11), some specimens are hypermicrolithic (Pl. 21.2, 3).

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Carinated end-scrapers/cores are high and short (Pl. 17.2), sometimes very short, shaped mainly in the distal part of a flake; some of them are nosed (Pl. 16.13–19; Pl. 17.1, 16; Pl. 19.12), some fronts are located next to a lateral notch (´ epaulement ) (Pl. 15.14; Pl. 17.3, 10; Pl. 19.15, 17) or two lateral notches (Pl. 17.6, 9); as a rule, these are single Clactonian notches (Pl. 17.4, 5, 8), sporadically the notches are shaped by retouch (Pl. 17.10; Pl. 20.5). The ventral part of such tools was often thinned by a single flat removal. When end-scrapers were used as cores for bladelet production the platform was rejuvenated or retrimmed. To answer the question whether carinated specimens should be interpreted as tools or endscraper, or cores for bladelets , is not a simple one. The distinguishing criteria could be the orientation of a given specimen and the degree of its exhaustion (Le Brun-Ricalens, 2005: 56). A carinated specimen could be a single-platform core for bladelets with prepared or unprepared platform, with a narrow flaking surface, or around the entire circumference; its form is often conical or subconical. On the other hand, a carinated specimen could be an end-scraper with a conspicuous (nosed or not) front that could be high, narrow or rounded, and sometimes round the entire circumference. The occurrence of frequent signs indicating that a straight platform edge of the core was maintained could be interpreted as use-wear on the working edge of the front of a tool, or its retrimming. However, to resolve these ambiguities detailed use-wear examinations are required. The bladelets and carinated cores refits are not decisive for the interpretation of all the carinated forms. The low frequency of bladelets, even when we take into account that some small fragments were assigned to chips and waste, does not justify a conclusion that the carinated forms were not cores. Some debitage products detached from carinated cores were taken away from the site; on the other hand, these bladelets could be by-products from the shaping of the carinated fronts. In addition, typical, small cores for bladelets, mainly residual, were used as tools. The question of carinated forms in the Early Aurignacian was broadly discussed in a publication of Union Internationale des Science Préhisto-

riques et Protohistoriques – Actes du XIVe CongrÀs de L’UISPP (LiÀge 2–8 Septembre 2001) entitled Productions lamellaires ´ l’Aurignacien: chaines opératoires et perspectives technoculturelles (Le Brun-Ricalens, 2005). The issues related to the carinated forms that occur at Klissoura in sequences D1, D2 and E were presented in a paper delivered at the UISPP Congress at Lisbon in 2006 (Ginter et al., in press). Quantitative analysis of sequence E showed that for 1 000 bladelets up to two cm long there are, almost 1 000 cores and carinated forms of the same size of up to two cm long. In sum, the basic type of the end-scrapers in sequence E is a high, small, core-shaped specimen generally defined as a carinated form with a fairly regular front. Combined tools The small number of combined tools (14 spec. – 0.7%) are mainly: an end-scraper+ splintered piece, an end-scraper plus a denticulated tool, a burin or a bec (Pl. 21.9–16). These combinations are worn, repaired or damaged tools (Pl. 21.12, 13). When an end-scraper plus a burin make up a combined tool the end-scraper is nosed, sometimes carinated, and burins can be angle, single, or transversal types (Pl. 21.9, 16). Perforators and becs The 36 perforators account for 1.7% of all tools (Pl. 25.25–27; Pl. 26.8–11). Most specimens were made from radiolarite – 60.9%, and from flint – 34.7%, while other raw materials account for 4.4%. A number of perforators are classified as the bec type (Pl. 26.8–17) made on flakes, some specimens are microlithic with the tip situated in the distal part of a blade (Pl. 25.23, 26); there are also Zinken type perforators on thick flakes, a kind of drill on a crested blade (Pl. 25.27), and a double perforator on a large flake (Pl. 26.9) Retouched blades and bladelets Sequence E yielded 108 retouched blades and bladelets i.e., 5.1% of all tools (Pl. 24.4–15; Pl. 25.1–12); radiolarite is the most frequent raw material – 78.7%, flint is 19.5%, specimens from other raw materials are 1.8%. Unilateral specimens (Pl. 24.4–7; Pl. 25.6) include a fragment of a saw (Pl. 25.13); there are bi-

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

lateral specimens (Pl. 24.5, 6, 8, 11–15; Pl. 25.2– 4, 8), among them a thick lame appointée (Pl. 24.15), a specimen with inverse retouch (Pl. 25.7) and a specimen with fine denticulated, notched retouch (Pl. 25.20). Proximal, distal and mesial fragments occur frequently. Possibly, some fragments were intentionally obtained, however, these are predominantly damaged retouched blades (Pl. 24.6–14; Pl. 25.1–4) such as a fragment of a lame appointée (Pl. 25.10). Numerous specimens have a partial, discontinuous retouch, possibly due to use-wears. A large group are unretouched (Pl. 26.1–7) and retouched bladelets bear unilateral and bilateral complete or partial retouch, sometimes inverse (Pl. 25.14–19). These bladelets were obtained from small, simple, single-platform cores rather than from carinated specimens. Truncations There are eight truncations i.e. 0.4% of all tools. The majority are atypical specimens, sometimes damaged such as a specimen with a burin scar on the tip (Pl. 25.23). They are predominantly made from radiolarite. Truncations are oblique (Pl. 25.21) or shaped in the proximal part of a broken off blade (Pl. 25.24). The most standard specimen was made on a fairly large blade with an oblique truncation (Pl. 25.22). Burins The 59 burins account for 2.8% of all tools (Pl. 22.1–16 – Pl.24.1–3). Radiolarite is the most common raw material – 76.8%, next is flint – only 20.2%, other raw materials are 3%. Burnt specimens also occur. The following types were represented: dihedral burins (27.1%), burins-on-a snap (25.4%), angle burins (23.7%), single blow burins (20.3%), and combined specimens such as a burin-on-a snap and dihedral burin + a single blow burin. Burins were made primarily on blades, sometimes retouched (Pl. 22.4, 5, 12), on flakes (Pl. 22.1–3, 8, 9) and on plaquettes. Some burins are damaged, worn or rejuvenated (Pl. 22.14, 15). As a rule the burin scars were multiple due to rejuvenation. In the group of dihedral burins (Pl. 23.7–15; Pl. 24.1–3) there are multiple specimens, and double burins on retouched blades. The burin scar(s) are lateral, transversal and of mesial types. Among

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the burins-on-a snap (Pl. 22.5–15) there are carinated multiple types (Pl. 22.7, 13) made on retouched blades or fragments, and double burins (Pl. 22.8, 12). In the group of burins on retouched truncations (Pl. 22.16; Pl. 23.1–7) there are specimens on retouched blades, objects with the tip in the proximal part of a blade or a flake (Pl. 23.4, 6), and carinated ones (Pl. 23.7). We note that the carinated specimens in the group of burins are not typical as they are rather multiple scar burins than typical small cores for bladelets. Finally, the ratio of burins to end-scrapers is as 1:10 which means that there are 59 burins (2.8%) and 579 end-scrapers (27.3%). Burin spalls There were 44 burin spalls that were not assigned to tools. Burin spalls account for 0.25% of the major technological categories (without waste). They cannot be assigned to bladelets used as tools – retouched or unretouched. Burin spalls are typical waste. Side-scrapers Side-scrapers are 3.3% (71 specimens) of all tools (Pl. 27.6, 13, 14; Pl. 28.1–14) made primarily from radiolarite. Some of the typical specimens could be interpreted as intrusions from the underlying Middle Palaeolithic layers. These are the damaged or worn specimens from the hearths and areas around them. Lateral straight side-scrapers predominate, followed by convex or concave specimens (Pl. 28.2, 5, 6, 11; Pl. 27.6). A large number of sidescrapers correspond to the category of retouched flakes with regular lateral retouch (Pl. 27.14). Moreover, there were transversal side-scrapers (Pl. 28.9, 10), convergent, and sometimes with steep retouch, or double convex-concave specimens (Pl. 28.5), including a specimen with partial retouch on the opposite edge. In sum, we note that in the inventories of the Early Aurignacian in Europe side-scrapers constitute only a small percentage. Denticulated-notched tools These tools are 10.5% (223 specimens) of all tools, most frequently made from radiolarite – 70%, from flint – 24.7%, from other raw materials

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– 4.4%, and 0.9% from unidentifiable rocks (Pl. 26.12–19; Pl. 27.1–12; Pl. 28.4). Denticulated specimens are the largest group (60%), followed by notched tools (32.3%), and denticulated-notched specimens (7.6%). Some of the notched tools were shaped on various blanks by Clactonian notches (Pl. 27.1, 2, 4, 7); one specimen was shaped in the distal part of a damaged radiolarite core (Pl. 27.5). As a rule, denticulated-notched tools were shaped on unworked nodules (Pl. 26.13, 16; Pl. 27.4), on flakes (Pl. 26.19; Pl. 27.3; Pl. 28.4) also with inverse retouch (Pl. 26.18), on blades (Pl. 27.9), or on cores (Pl. 27.1, 5). Occasionally the specimens have inverse, thinning retouch (Pl. 26.18; Pl. 27.9), or a notch situated in the proximal part of a thick flake (Pl. 27.7). Some notches are the effect of utilization, not the result of intentional retouch.

Bone tools In layer IV 38 bone tools were retrieved. The largest group are points and point fragments (31 items), and among them there are 10 typical points while the others are possibly point fragments. The bone points have oval (14), flat (6), plano-convex (4) or indetermined (7) cross-section. Fragments (Fig. 9) of bone points are mostly mesial and proximal. There is only one complete bi-point. Several (5) points have the type of base defined as retrecie et amincie. Only one item has a lateral groove. Other bone tools are represented by awls (3) and a long perforator (1) as well as one undetrmined bone tool, fragment of bone with lateral retouch and one bone flake.

Retouched flakes Retouched flakes account for 8.9% (189) of all tools. The majority were made from radiolarite and are most frequently bear discontinuous irregular, inverse retouch (Pl. 28.10), sometimes at the proximal part of a flake (Pl. 27.13; Pl. 28.1), and on occasion thinning retouch (Pl. 28.1). Several specimens resemble initial lateral side-scrapers or could be defined as raclettes (Pl. 27.14). The flakes that bear retouch resembling the denticulate-notched tools, could partly be the results of utilization rather than of intentional retouch. Some specimens are possible unfinished tools, atypical or worn and discarded.

Sequence D1–2 consists of layers IIId-g and IIIa-c, and is defined in cultural terms as the middle and upper phase of the local Aurignacian. Analyses demonstrated that the accumulations of sequence D are mainly burnt features and contains the MWA, RCS, HGB and LSS facies (Karkanas, this issue). The colours of the layers, depending on the presence or absence of carbonates, clay, loess-like and loamy sediments, as well as fine limestone rubble and remains of washed out or compact hearths, clearly differentiate them from one another. They are light grey, cemented by carbonates, and interstratified with loose, grey or dark lenses. According to P. Karkanas (this issue) “…different layers of sequence D can be considered as representing the spectrum of different facies found in this sequence, rather than stratigraphic entities. That is, each layer, defined as such, was not deposited during a certain time period, but represents a unique combination of natural and anthropogenic processes, deposited in different times”.

Unidentifiable tools or tool types Tools in this category this are 2.8% (59 items) of all tools. These are mainly fragments of tools with retouch, that were probably damaged during utilisation. Hammerstones and grinders This group does not represent retouched tools. Thirty three items were made from local limestone pebbles, silicified limestone or sandstone, obtained from the river bed at a distance of several hundred meters south of the cave. Their surfaces show traces of hammering (Fig. 8.3), polishing (Fig. 8.2), and occasionally traces of crushed dyes (Fig. 8.1).

SEQUENCE D1–D2

SEQUENCE D1 The complex of layers IIId-g The almost horizontally base of sequence D1 overlies the top of sequence E (layer IV), while its top is unconformably covered by the complex of

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Fig. 8.

Sequence E, layer IV. Hammerstones (1–3)

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Sequence E, layer IV. Bone points (1–4)

Fig. 10. Sequence D1. Horizontal distribution of hearths

layers IIIa-c. In the west profile of the excavation this complex is up to 90 cm (60–150 cm from the surface) thick. In the north section the top of this complex is damaged by the filling of a ditch (layer 6) and it reaches only 45 cm in thickness (at a depth of 105/110 to 150/155 cm). In the east section the strongly undulating top portion can be seen at a depth of 65/75 cm whereas the floor is at

a depth of 140/150 cm. In the south section the complex of layers is also strongly undulating reaching up 50 cm thick (90/110 to 125/140 cm from the surface). In the SE part of the excavation a large concentration of limestone rubble of anthropogenic origin of medium and small sizes was exposed.

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Fig. 11. Sequence D1. Horizontal distribution of lithic artifacts

Hearths occur mainly in the N and NE part of the excavation. Most hearths were situated around a damaged rounded stone structure. It is a single ring of limestone blocks, 15–40 cm in diameter damaged by the ditch (filled in by layers 6, 6a, 6). Large limestone blocks, which appear at a depth of 120 cm inside the ditch, may have originated from the damaged structure in sequence D1. The hearths in sequence D1 are large (H12, H14, and H17), from 35 to 100 cm thick and from 80 to 200 cm in diameter. They, too, were partially damaged by the ditch filled in by layer 6 (Fig. 10). There are nine hearths with clay daub lining or remains of clay daub, measuring from 30 to 40 cm in diameter. These hearths are a continuation of clay-lined hearths that are numerous in the layer IV. Dating The dating of the complex is based on four, fairly reliable, radiocarbon dates obtained on

charcaol. Two dates obtained at Gliwice Laboratory are from hearth H14 dated at 31 400±1000 BP (Gd-7893) and hearth H23 dated at 34 700± 1600 BP (Gd-7892). AMS dates place layer IIIe/g at 31 630±250 BP (AA 73817) and at 30 925±420 BP (RTT-4786 from Weizmann Institute of Sciences). Lithic finds Lithic finds of 28 625 carinated did not form distinct concentrations (Fig. 11). The “ditch” (sequence C) partially disturbed the scatter of the entire complex of layers IIId-g. The Aurignacian occupation of layers IIId-g is the continuation of the Aurignacian in sequence E and forms the middle part of the series of Aurignacian layers. The scatter of the various technological groups does not show well-delineated concentrations. In comparison with layer IV the lithic finds from sequence D1 are less numerous (44% of the inventory in layer IV).

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The most frequent raw material is radiolarite (75.5%), followed by flint (21.1%), others (2.1%), and unidentifiable burnt pieces (1.3%). The eioght major technological groups are dominated by chips and shutters: encompassing 20 546 items (71.8% of which 46.2% are chips). The smallest bladelets of less than 1.5 cm long and chips from the production process and retrimming of tools have also been ascribed to chips. When chips and shutters are left out, the rest of the inventory groups are quantitatively better presented including 8 052 artefacts divided into six major technological categories as follows: cores without carinated end-scrapers – 508 items (6.2%), splintered pieces functioning as cores and tools – 425 (5.3%), and blanks – 6342 (78.8%) siubdivided into: flakes – 5 157 (64.05%), blades – 1 185 (14.7%), tools – 777 items (9.6%), and burins – 27 (0.3%). Each group is further described. Cores and core reduction methods Core production was mostly carried on red radiolarite (72.1%) while flint was only 20.4%. and other raw materials (1.4%) are represented by single specimens of quartz, quartzite, calcite, silicified limestone and chalcedony. A few items (6.1%) were burnt and their raw material could not be identified. The 508 cores of this sequence (Pl. 29.1, 2 – Pl.36.1–4) without the carinated forms that were ascribed to end-scrapers that are more often interpreted in the current literature as small cores. Cores types are as follows: one core in preparation (0,2%), initial cores (16.8%), residual cores (56.3%), and cores in advanced stages of reduction (26.9%). Most of the carinated forms were classified to the group of end-scrapers, as core-shaped endscrapers or simply put – end-scrapers/cores. Typical carinated cores are represented by small naviform items (13), sub-carinated items (13), and conical specimens (8). The total of 34 objects accounts for 6.7% of all cores (Pl. 32.6, 10–13). The majority of cores were shaped on plaquettes or irregular nodules, often prepared or shaped by single blows to obtain the right form or size. Several cores were made on flakes. The various raw materials do not differ in their reduction sequence. Radiolarite was favored probably due

to its color, and size. In terms of technology the following cores can be distinguished as follows: single-platform specimens – 73.4% together with cores with single scars (9.9% of single-platform cores), double-platform cores – 7.3%, discoidal and sub-discoidal cores – 2.8%, change-of-orientation cores – 14.2%, and indeterminate items – 2.1%. The predominance of single-platform cores was probably caused by the original shape of the radiolarite nodules that made it easier to conduct the reduction from one platform. In the group of double-platform items the majority are cores with a common flaking surface – 81.0%, followed by cores with separate flaking surfaces – 13.5%, and with a twisted flaking surface – 5.4%. Discoidal and sub-discoidal cores occur sporadically forming only – 2.8%. Most cores are microlithic as about 70% do not exceed 30 mm, and only about 10% are longer than 40 mm (Pl. 32.9–16). Occasionally, cores for bladelets are hypermicrolithic (Pl. 32.17–22; Pl. 33.11–14). The produced blanks are flakes – 36.0% of the cores, blades 6.1%, blade/flake blanks – 11.3%, and bladelets – 17.6%. In some cases the produced blank type could not be unequivocally determined on the basis of scars (28.9%). Both flake and blade cores are small and in all likelihood, in the case of some blade/flake cores, the knappers intended to obtain blade cores. Thus the flake scars are resulted from the rejuvenation of the cores or alternatively due to knappers’ errors. Among all the categories blade-flake cores are the largest group, followed by flake cores and blade cores. In the group of ‘change-of-orientation cores’ blade-flake specimens are as much as 56.9% and flake cores – 34.7%. In the group of double-platform cores the frequency of bladelets cores is the highest – 29.7%. The platform edge of most cores was straight and only a small percentage are cores with platform or lateral preparation. Finally, the presence of only one ‘pre-core’ and the small number of initial cores is taken as evidence that core reduction on-site was advanced, while the initial preparation was done off-site. Splintered pieces The splintered technique, observed in the underlying layer IV, continued to be used. Splintered pieces are almost as numerous as cores,

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reaching a total of 425 items that accounts for 5.3% of the major technological groups (without chips and chunks) (Pl. 36.5–17; Pl. 37.1–17; Pl. 38.1–17). Splintered pieces – just as in layer IV – were used as cores (mainly as flake cores) and as tools. Most specimens were made on flakes which suggests their tool function; individual specimens were made on tools, but these specimens cannot be interpreted as combined tools. The most important raw material for splintered pieces was radiolarite – 77.9%, flint was next – 16.3%. The remaining specimens were made of indeterminate raw materials and some were burnt. Unipolar splintered pieces are 33.0%, bipolar – 60.9%, tripolar – 3.4%, and quadripolar – 2.7%. Most splintered pieces are small: the mean size is 20.6 mm x 16 mm x 7 mm, mainly rectangular (40.4%). There are also trapezoidal, oval, irregular and square specimens. Bifacial splintered pieces account for 77.1%. In addition fine retouch is observed at the tip that could have been the effect of use-wear, especially when the quality of the raw material is taken into account. Friable types of radiolarite were often used for this purpose. Some tools such as endscrapers, blades and retouched flakes show splintered retouch, probably resulting from use. Splintered pieces are a stable element of the Aurignacian in the Klissoura Cave. Flakes A total of 5 157 flakes accounts for 18.0% of the inventory, or 64.0% without waste and chips. Flakes with cortical or thermal surface fractures are 25.8% (1332 spec.). Some fragments as well as flakes are less than 1.5 cm long and were ascribed to the group of chips. The majority of flakes, cortical including, are made from radiolarite (72.9%), next in number are flint flakes (21.6%), and from other raw materials such as silicified limestone, quartzite, quartz, chalcedony or volcanic rocks (1.8%). Flakes were mainly detached during core preparation or reshaping of cores, and only a small number functioned as blanks. Fragments and waste The group of waste and fragments consists of 7 344 specimens i.e. 25.6% of the inventory.

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Radiolarite is the most frequent raw material (69.4%), followed by flint (26.0%); silicified limestone, quartz, quartzite, chalcedony, volcanic rocks. Indeterminate burnt items are 1.2%. This group is the second most frequent group among the major technological categories but it has been disregarded when restricted indices were calculated. Chips A total of 13 202 chips have been registered. This is the most numerous technological category. Radiolarite (79.9%) is nearly four times as frequent as flint (18.5%) , and other raw materials (0.3%) are chalcedony, silicified limestone and volcanic rock. Burnt, unidentifiable specimens are 1.3%. Blades Blades and bladelets are 1 185 specimens forming 4.1% of the entire inventory. The restricted blade index is 14.7. Most blades were made from radiolarite – 74.1% and only 22.4% of flint. Other raw materials include quartz and chalcedony – 0.6%. The raw material of the burnt specimens cannot be identified. The relatively high proportion of small cores (up to 30 mm long) for bladelets (67.9%) suggests that a high frequency of appropriate blanks was obtain on site. However, the total number of bladelets including those ascribed to chips indicates that some microblades were taken away from the cave, and only a small number of bladelets were retouched. Tools The tools (777 items) account for 2.7% of the inventory (Fig. 12). The restricted tool index is 9.6. Tools were, primarily, made from radiolarite (75.5%), and from flint (9.6%). Other raw materials are only 1% and are represented by individual specimens from chalcedony, quartz, silicified limestone and volcanic rock. The largest group is that of the end-scrapers – 507 items (65.2% of all tools). It is followed by denticulated-notched tools – 75 items (9.6%), retouched flakes – 60 items – 7.2%, burins – 33 items – 4.2%, side-scrapers – 28 items – 3.6%, blades and retouched bladelets – 21 items – 2.7%, combined tools – 12 items – 1.5%, perforators – 6 items – 0.8%, truncations and backed pieces – 5

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Fig. 12. Sequence D1. Horizontal distribution of retouched tools

items – 0.6%, others – 4 items – 0.5%, and indeterminate implements including fragments – 21 items – 2.7%. End-scrapers End-scrapers are the biggest tool group of 507 items which is 65.2% of all tools (Pl. 39.1– 16; Pl. 40.1–16; Pl. 41.1–20; Pl. 42.1021; Pl. 43.1–16; Pl. 44.1–7). This group is characterized by a large variety of sub-groups and the controversial carinatedal forms which are, more and more often, interpreted as microlithic cores. The following is a breakdown of the scrapers types: simple end-scrapers – 151 – 29.8% of all end-scrapers, carinatedal end-scrapers – 311 – 62.3%, discoidal end-scrapers – 20 – 3.9%, denticulated end-scrapers (denticulated front) – 20 – 3.9% (Pl. 43.11–16), and atypical end-scrapers – 5 – 1% (Pl. 43.6). Among simple end-scrapers we classified the following sub-types: double end-scrapers (Pl. 40. 3–7), with a straight front, ogival-shaped (Pl. 43.9), bec-like (Pl. 43.10), and fan-shaped. Some

of these specimens are with an initial retouched front (Pl. 42.11). Occasionally, the front can be slightly concave (Pl. 42.20). A few items are with a specific type of a front which extends onto one side of the klank (Pl. 40.19). The most varied sub-group are carinated endscrapers as demonstrated by the list: carina- ted and sub-carinated specimens – 41 – 13.2%, nosed end-scrapers – 57 – 18.3%, with a shoulder – 3 – 1%, core-shaped – 3 – 1%, with a steep front – 18 – 5,8%, high end-scrapers – 189 – 60.8%. Hypermicrolithic end-scrapers (Pl. 39.13– 16), and high end-scrapers with the front round the whole circumference (discoidal, high) (Pl. 40.8–11; Pl. 42.4–6) also occur. End-scrapers with a high front include the standard high end-scrapers – 55.0%, high endscrapers/cores – 34.4%, high denticulated endscrapers (with a high denticulated front) – 6.9%, and high end-scrapers/splintered pieces – 3.7%. Flakes were used as blanks for end-scrapers, sometimes Janus flakes (Pl. 42.15), chunks of various thickness are frequent (Pl. 42.3), plaquettes (Pl. 41.9), and sporadically blades (Pl. 41.10).

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

The most frequent raw material is radiolarite – 74.3%, followed by flint – 20.6%; specimens of unidentifiable raw materials, mainly burnt, are only 0.4%. The question of the use of carinated forms as cores was discussed when end-scrapers and cores from layer IV were analyzed. In sequence D1 microlithic bladelets and bladelet-like chips occur, detached from carinated end-scrapers. We note that the basic end-scraper type in sequence D1 – just as in sequence E – is a high carinated end-scraper with a fairly regular front. Combined tools Combined tools are only 12 i.e. 1.5% of tool inventory. These are: end-scrapers plus perforators – 5, end-scrapers plus burins – 5, one endscraper plus side-scraper, and one truncation plus burin. Perforators Six perforators (0.8%) included three bectypes, fairly thick (Pl. 44.10, 12), with additional lateral retouch (Pl. 44.8, 9). Retouched blades There were 21 retouched blades forming only 2.7% of the tool inventory. The majority are made from radiolarite (86.4%), some from flint (13.6%). The retouch is discontinous (Pl. 44.14), irregular (Pl. 44.15), partial (Pl. 44.13, 14; Pl. 45.1, 2), uni- or bilateral (Pl. 45.2, 3), sometimes alternate (Pl. 45.4), fine, flat, semi-steep or denticulated (Pl. 45.1). In addition there is a bilaterally retouched blade appointé or a point (Pl. 45.9) some 36 mm long made from radiolarite, and a unilateral retouched blade with a concave side (possibly due to use-wear – Pl. 44.15), two Dufour bladelets (Pl. 45.6, 7) and a bladelet with flat inverse retouch (Pl. 45.8). The largest specimen is 54 mm long (Pl. 44.14) and was detached from a radiolarite single-platform core. Some retouch is probably the effect of use (Pl. 45.3). Truncations There were five truncations (0.6% of the tool inventory) including a straight truncation (1 spec.), oblique or angulated truncations (4 item; Pl. 47.5), occasionally with a proximal truncation (Pl. 45.10). The retouch is semi-steep (Pl. 45.12),

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sometimes bifacial (Pl. 45.11) or inverse. Some items bear lateral retouch (Pl. 45.5). The truncated back could be straight or weakly convex (Pl. 45.13). A truncation plus a burin belongs to the category of combined tools. Backed pieces The small group of backed pieces contains only five specimens i.e. 0.6% of all tools. Three are standard backed pieces with a straight, an arched, and an angulated blunted back. Two specimens are backed points. These two are possibly intrusions from the overlying Gravettian layers. Burins There were 33 burins accounting for 4.2% of all tools: they are the fourth largest group of tools. Radiolarite is the most frequent raw material – 73.2% of specimens, and 22% are flint burins. The following sub-groups have been distinguished (Pl. 45.14–24; Pl. 46.1–17): dihedral burins – 10 specimens, single-blow burins – 9 angle burins – 7 burins-on-a snap – 2 atypical burin – 1 a flat burin – 1 double burins: dihedral plus burin-on-a snap – 1 item and dihedral plus single-blow burin – 1. In the group of dihedral burins there are multiple specimens on radiolarite concretions (Pl. 46.5, 6). In the group of single-blow burins there are two transversal burins of which one was made in the proximal part of a blank (Pl. 46.3). The group of burins on truncation includes one on the front of an end-scraper with a shoulder which forms a kind of S-shaped truncation (Pl. 45.24), and a specimen on a fragment of a retouched blade (Pl. 46.1). Burin spalls There were 27 burin spalls, and their restricted index is 0.33. Burins spalls produced when burins were shaped are considered typical waste from tool production. On the other hand they could have been intentionally obtained blanks thus indicating that multi-scar burins may have been bladelet cores. Side-scrapers Side-scrapers are a permanent component of the Aurignacian sequence. In sequence D1 they

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account for 3.6% – 28 tools, of all tools (Pl. 47.1– 5, 7–19; Pl. 48.1, 2), and are predominantly made from radiolarite. Side-scrapers were also made on flint chunks (Pl. 47.12, 17). Most specimens are lateral side-scrapers (Pl. 47.2, 5, 9) of which one is double (Pl. 48.1). Retouched edges can be straight (Pl. 47.9–11), convex or weakly convex (Pl. 47.1–4, 14, 15, 17). A unique side-scraper bears alternate bilateral or lateral-transversal (Pl. 47.8). In addition there were transversal side-scrapers (Pl. 47.7, 17, 18), and convergent specimens (Pl. 47.19; Pl. 48.2). Various types of retouch occur among the side scrapers inclduding fine and broad (Pl. 48.2), semi-flat (Pl. 47.12) or high (Pl. 47.15). A large number of side-scrapers are – just as in layer IV – are transitional forms to retouched flakes or blades (Pl. 47.13). Denticulated-notched tools Denticulated-notched tools are the second largest group comprising 75 specimens i.e. 9.6% of all tools (Pl. 47.6; Pl. 48.3–12; Pl. 49.1–5). They were predominantly made from radiolarite – 73.9% flint – 21.8%, and the majority are on flakes, with a few on plaquettes and only rare items were on blades (Pl. 48.3). These tools can be divided into there basic groups: notched tools – 28 – 37.3% of this group, denticulated tools – 40 – 53.3%, and denticulated-notched tools – 7 – 9.3%. Single Clactonian notches were documented (Pl. 49.4, 5), sometimes are double notches (Pl. 49.3). A Clactonian notch is infrequently located on one side and supplemented by finely retouched notches of the opposite side (Pl. 47.6). Notches and denticulated items are located on the sides and on the distal end of blanks. Retouched flakes There were 51 retouched flakes into which we have also ascribed nine retouched chunks. They form 7.2% of all tools, and are the third largest group of retouched pieces (Pl. 48.13; Pl. 49.6–17). The majority of items were made from radiolarite – 73.7%, fewer from flint – 17.5%. Flakes bear lateral and inverse retouch (Pl. 48.13; Pl. 49. 15, 17), steep lateral and distal retouch (Pl. 49.7), semi-steep, fine, denticulated retouch (Pl. 49.12), flat, partial (Pl. 49.11, 13), discontinuous, and alternate (Pl. 49.14, 15).

Other tools Four other objects (0.5%) are a point with flat retouch (Pl. 49.18), a bifacial tool, a pick-like tool (Pl. 44.11), and a tool with splintered retouch. Indeterminate tools To the category of unidentifiable tools we asigned mainly the tool fragments (27 items – 2.7%). Non-chipped stone artifacts Artifacts other than chipped stone are represented by a quartz plaquette used for pigment crushing (Fig. 13), polished limestone plaquettes, probably for pigment crushing – 2 items (Fig. 14), limestone hammerstones – 5 specimens, and 13 lumps of hematite. Bone tools In layers IIId-g were 75 bone artifacts (Fig. 15): points and fragments – 32 specimens, bone awls – 32 specimens, bone perforators – 3 specimens, pointed tool – 1 specimen, scratched bone – 1 specimen, a grooved bone – 1 specimen, and undetermined tool fragments – 5 specimens. The most important group of bone tools are points, including 14 complete specimens and bipoints. The cross sections of points and their fragments are: flat (8), rounded (4), rectangular (3), oval (2), plano-convex (2) and trapezoidal (1). Remaining corss-sections are undetermined. Some points have pointed base and base retrecie. In comparison to layer IV the point cross-sections are more varied. Also the proportion of awls is higher.

SEQUENCE D2 Layers IIIa-c The complex of layers IIIa-c overlies directly layers IIId-g continuing the Aurignacian in sequence D2. The complex is covered by layer III’’, at places by layer III’. At a depth of 95 cm, in the W profile, they are 35 cm thick, in the N profile at a depth of about 100–150 cm the layers are only 10 cm thick. The lower portion and the top are undulating. In the N profile the complex of layers IIIa-c is cut by the filling of a “ditch” (sequence C), which is later than layer III’.

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Fig. 13. Sequence D1. Quartzite plaquette

In the E profile, in the centre of the excavated area, the layers are only 10 cm thick, and the lower portion and the top part are weakly undulating which is caused, among others, by the occurrence of clay-lined hearths (the complex of hearths H12). In the E and in the S profiles layers IIIa-c do not occur, and layer IIIe is directly overlain by layers III’ and III’’. Sequence D2 in the west and south-west part of the excavation, also partially in the north-west part, covers an area of 15 sq m. This is more than a half of the area of the excavation, stretching from NE to SW (Fig. 16). At a depth of 70 cm, in the NE part of the excavation, a structure appeared made up of 10 large limestone blocks, of 20–40 cm in diametre. In the NE corner of the excavation the blocks are loosely arranged in – approximately – an arch. On the outer side of the stone structure the complex of hearths H14 forms an irregular oval of

about 150 cm in diameter. This is a complex of several, overlapping hearths without clay lining, grey or brown in colour. The hearths and the stone structure are situated at the cave entrance. Traces of hearths disappear in the lower portion of layer IIIa (Fig. 16). Dating There are no certain 14C dates from the complex of layers IIIa-c. The dates obtained on carbonates are too young (13 400±140 BP Gd-12036 and 15 490±410 BP Gd-10701). Layers IIIa-g and III’’ are separated by an occupational hiatus of about 3 to 4 thousand years. The Aurignacian in the Klissoura Cave has not provided dates younger than 30 kyrs BP. Thus, the Aurignacian layers: IV, IIId-g, and IIIa-c were built in a relatively short time-span corresponding to the middle phase of the Aurignacian in the northern Mediterranean.

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Fig. 14. Sequence D1. Grinder with traces of red ochre

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Fig. 15. Sequence D1. Bone tools (1–20)

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Fig. 16. Sequence D2. Horizontal distribution of hearths

Lithic finds Artifacts from the complex of layers IIIa-c form two large concentrations in the SW and NE part of the excavated area (Fig. 17). The SW concentration contained twice as many artifacts (4 033) as the NE concentration (1 590 specimens). The total number of 5 623 chips, shutter and fragments are 3 360 (59.7%). When this group was not included in the restricted indices of the major technological categories that were calculated on the basis of 2 263 the breakdown is a s follows: carinated cores – 120 – 5.3%, splintered pieces – 184 – 8.1%, blade and flake blanks – 1 855 spec. – 82.0% (including: flakes – 1 597 – 70.6%, blades – 258 – 11.4%), tools – 99 – 11.4%, and waste from tool production – burin spalls – 5 spec. – 0.2 %. Cores There were 120 cores and their restricted core index is 5.3 (Pl. 50.1–17). Carinated end-scrapers have not been included in this group, whereas micro- lithic carinated objects have been ascribed to cores, and are classified as follows: ‘naviform’ cores (4), sub-carinatedal core, a conical speci-

men, end-scrapers/cores (6), and microlithic core/ high end-scrapers (2). In terms of degree of reduction the cores were divided into initial cores – 17.1%, cores in mid-reduction phases – 18.0%, and residual cores – 64.9%. The most important raw material was red radiolarite of various types 50.4%, and – less frequent – flint 30.6%. Specimens from indeterminate rocks are 22.5%. One specimen was burnt. Most cores were made on plaquettes, some on flakes. Radiolarite was favored because of its color, cleavage, and availability. In terms of technology cores are divided into single-platform cores – 84.2%, double-platform cores – 6.7%, change-of-orientation cores – 6.7%, and discoidal cores – 2.5% Single-platform cores predominate (Pl. 50.1– 11, 16). This group is made up of “standard” cores (74.2%), carinated and sub- carinated items (4.9%), single-blow cores (11.9%), small cores similar to end-scrapers (7.9%), and one conical core. In the group of eight double-platform cores five are with common flaking surfaces (Pl. 50.12, 17) and 3 (Pl. 50.13–15) with twisted flaking surfaces. Small cores, up to 30 mm long, are as much

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Fig. 17. Sequence D2. Horizontal distribution of lithic artifacts

as 78.9% including numerous microlithic cores up to 20 mm long (Pl. 50.3, 10, 14) and rare cores of length of more than 4 cm. Scars on the cores are flake scars – 29.2%, blade-flake or bladelet-flake scars – 14.2%, blade scars 10.8%, and bladelet scars 19.3%. Singleplatform cores were, primarily, flake or bladeflake specimens (70.6%, up to 86.9%). Doubleplatform cores are mainly blade-flake specimens (23.5%), and change-of-orientation cores for flakes (11.4%). The platform edge of most cores was straight. Some cores have prepared platforms and sides but pre-cores are absent.

mens) are quartz, chalcedony or silicified limestone and indeterminate materials include burnt items. Typologically the splinterd pieces are either unipolar (50.0%), bipolar (47.8%), tripolar pieces (3 items) and a quadripolar piece. The majority of splintered pieces are bifacial (71.0%). Their shape is almost rectangular (51%), while others are trapezoidal, oval, quadrangular and irregular. Additional retouch in the distal part was intentional or resulting from use. The mean size of the specimens is 22.9 mm × 17 mm × 7.2 mm (Pl. 51.4–10).

Splintered pieces Splintered technique continues to be used. Splintered pieces are represented by 184 specimens i.e. the restricted technological of this group is 8.1 (Pl. 51.1, 2, 4–10). The frequency of splintered pieces is higher than that of cores. Primarily they were made from radiolarite (51.6%) and flint (33.7%). Other raw materials (3.6% of speci-

Flakes Flakes were 1 597 accounting for 70.6% of the restricted technological group index and 28.4% of the total number of artifacts. Cortical flakes are 13.4% of all flakes. Flakes less than 1.5 cm long were considered as chips. On the other hand they could have been intentional blanks as hyper-microlithic cores for flakes also occur. The

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Fig. 18. Sequence D2. Horizontal distribution of lithic tools and splintered pieces

raw materials were: radiolarite – 52.0% of all flakes, flint – 40.8%, quartz, chalcedony and silicified limestone – 2.1%, and 5.0% of indeterminate raw materials are represented by burnt specimens. Flakes were detached during preparation and retrimming of cores. Only a small percentage were used as blanks for tools production. Fragments and waste A total number of 1 353 waste and fragments account for 24.1% of the inventory. Radiolarite is represented by 49.8% of specimens, flint is – 48.4%, other raw materials such as quartz, chalcedony, silicified limestone etc. are – 1.2%. Burnt, indeterminate specimens are – 0.6%. Radiolarite and flint are almost the same proportion. Chips Chips are 2 007 i.e. 35.7% of the inventory, mainly small flakes and bladelets up to 1.5 cm long. Radiolarite is represented by 54.4% of specimens, flint by 43.8%. Specimens from other raw

materials are 1.6%, and burnt ones 0.05%. A large quantity of chips come from tool production, and some from the shaping and retrimming of cores. The large number of chips document the on-site production and retrimming of tools. Blades A total of 258 blades and bladelets are only 4.6% of the inventory. The restricted blade index is 11.4. The majority are from radiolarite – 58.1%, followed by flint – 25.2%, and other raw materials such as quartz, chalcedony and silicified limestone (3.1%) Burnt, indeterminate specimens are 12.8%. The low percentage of this technological group suggests that blanks were taken away from the site. Bladelets of less than 1.5 cm long have been assigned as chips. Tools The group of tools consisted of 99 specimens i.e. 1.8% of all the artifacts (Fig. 18). The restricted tool index is 4.4 . Most tools were made

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

from radiolarite – 66.7%, and fewer from flint – 24.2%. Other specimens were made from unidentifiable rock, andone specimen was burnt. Tools are represented by the following groups: End-scrapers The most numerous tool group are end-scrapers (59 spec. – 59.6% of all tools). The majority were made from radiolarite – 65.0%, from flint – 26.7%, and indeterminate specimens, also burnt, are 8.3%. End-scrapers included (Pl. 51.11–17; Pl. 52.1–13): simple specimens (26), carinated endscrapers (31), discoidal and subdiscoidal endscrapers (single items), and others. Among the simple end-scrapers there are short specimens (Pl. 52.9), irregular, low endscrapers (Pl. 52.7), and items with a straight and broad front (Pl. 52.8). Carinated end-scrapers (31) include specimens with a high front – 14 spec. (Pl. 51.12–14, 16, 17; Pl. 52.1–4, 10), core-shaped end-scrapers (Pl. 51.15), high nosed end-scrapers – 7 specimens (Pl. 51.11; Pl. 52.12, 13), nosed specimens sensu stricto, also with a shoulder – 5 spec. (Pl. 51.17), ‘naviform‘ items (4), and one with a steeply retouched front. Most specimens were made on flakes. Discoidal and subdiscoidal end-scrapers are small, with fairly high fronts (Pl. 52.11, 12). The fronts are situated in the proximal part of a flake, or they are oblique extending onto the side (Pl. 53.1), or with a shoulder (Pl. 51.17; Pl. 52.6). A unique Caminade type end-scraper (Pl. 52.19) was made on radiolarite blade. In order to shape some of the high end-scrapers a special method was used. The central side of these end-scrapers is not quite flat, but it is made up of two planes, often shaped by a single-blow; these planes can be situated at an obtuse angle. The ventral side can have several flat, small scars. These specimens are mostly from radiolarite (Pl. 51.14). Notched-denticulated tools Twelve notched-denticulated tools include notched tools (5), and denticulated tools (7). They are, mainly, made from radiolarite. Notched tools were represented by a cortical flake (Pl. 53.3), a chunk with a notch (Pl. 53.7), a flake with inverse

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notches (Pl. 53.4), a flint plaquette with a retouched notch and retouched sides (Pl. 53.6), and an uncharacteristic specimen with alternate retouch. Denticulated specimens include a sort of a denticulated side-scraper with transversal retouch (Pl. 52.25), a flake with transversal retouch (Pl. 52.23), and a flake with proximal inverse retouch (Pl. 52.21), a damaged blade with a denticulated side (Pl. 52.22), and atypical specimens. Truncations This group is represented by a Kostenki truncation (Pl. 51.3). This item was made on a relatively large proximal fragment of a cortical blade from radiolarite. Initially, it was thinned by splintered, inverse retouch. A bladelet scar on the dorsal side, in the central section, executed from the retouched edge thinned the tool; this part of the tool (with parallel bladelet scars) was thermally damaged. The distal part of the blade was broken off and shows fine, inverse retouch. This specimen can be also classified as a bifacial unipolar splintered pieces because the distinction between splintered pieces and Kostenki knives is imprecise. Backed pieces Two backed pieces were recorded. One is a simple specimen made on a bladelet fragment from a single-platform core (Pl. 52.24), an arched specimen on a narrow radiolarite bladelet from a double-platform core, however, it is unlike Uluzzian items (Pl. 52.17). Half of the blunted back has a high bidirectional retouch and the other was shaped by high unidirectional retouch. These backed pieces do not originate from layer V and in all are intrusions from layer III’. Retouched flakes There were seven retouched flakes and retouched chunks, mainly from radiolarite. The retouch is irregular, discontinuous, alternate (Pl. 53.5), or with regular lateral retouch (Pl. 52.15). Retouched blades Five retouched blades were all from radiolarite: four were irregular specimens and one was a fragment of a unilateral, irregular retouched blade

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Fig. 19. Sequence D2. Bone tools (1–9)

(Pl. 52.16). Finely retouched bladelets have not been registered. Burins There were two burins – a single, polyhedral burin made on the proximal part of an irregular blade-like flake from radiolarite (Pl. 52.18), and a dihedral, mesial burin on a radiolarite chunk (Pl. 52.14). In addition there are five burin spalls. Side-scrapers Four side-scrapers included: specimens with fairly high, transversal retouch made on a radiolarite flake (Pl. 52.20), and a bifacial specimen with flat and semi-steep retouch on a radiolarite plaquette (Pl. 53.8). An atypical Mousterian point can also be interpreted as a convergent sidescraper with denticulated retouch, was made from radiolarite (Pl. 53.2).

Indeterminate tools Four fragments of unidentifiable tools belong to this group. Bone tools There were 24 bone carinated including three complete bone pointes and 14 mesial and distal fragments. The points are oval in cross-section (Fig. 19.1–9). Of interest are 11 points, mostly fragments, found in square B2, at a depth of 105– 110 cm in the filling of hearths H4, H5, H15, H17, H20 that are partially stratified in the overlying layer III’ or III’’. In addition there are four awls, one fragment of scratched bone and one undetermined tool were found in the upper portion of layer III. Pigments Two hematite lumps were also found.

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

THE POSITION OF THE INVENTORIES OF SEQUENCES E, D1 AND D2 (layers IV, IIId-g and IIIa-c) IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE AURIGNACIAN The in situ Aurignacian layers occur within the sequences E, D1, and D2. They form a complex of layers up to 1.4 m thick composed of facieses MWA, HGB, LSS and HCS, and also RCS which are structured clay-lined hearths. The inventory of layer IV in sequence E corresponds to the lower portion of the Aurignacian. The inventories of layers IIIg-d and IIIc-a are the middle and the upper portion of the Aurignacian sequence spanning the time from 33 to 30 kyrs BP. The dates of these layers is later than that of the western and central European Early Aurignacian and the beginning of the Early Mediterranean Aurignacian referred to as the Protoaurignacian or the Fumanian. The numerous typical components of the Early Aurignacian layer from Klissoura are the carinated forms. Among these the first are carinated high end-scrapers, end-scrapers ´ épaulement or nosed end-scrapers (grattoirs épais, carené, grattoirs ´ museau rabots) and multiple scar dihedral carinated burins (burins carené, burins busqué, burins de Vachons) (Le Brun-Ricalens, 2005). Moreover, bladelets with fine retouch (Dufour type bladelets), splintered pieces and bone points also occur with varying intensity. The geography and chronology of the Protoaurignacian (Fumanian, sometimes referred to as the Early Mediterranean Aurignacian) sites closer to Klissoura are situated in northern and southern Italy. These are primarily cave sites: Grotta La Fabbrica, Grotta di Castelvicita, Grotta della Cala, Riparo Tagliente, Grotta Paglici, Grotta del Fossellone, Caruso, Pian della Carozza (Palma di Cesnola 1993; Broglio and Dalmeri, 2005). In the Adriatic Sea basin the Early Aurignacian was recirded in Croatia in Sandalja II Cave, layers G, F, E and E/F (Karavaniæ, 2003). In his synthesis of the Upper Palaeolithic of Italy Palma di Cesnola (1993) distinguished three types of Aurignacian: (a) the Aurignacian with bladelets with fine marginal retouch (Dufour type) (Aurignaziano a dorsi marginali), (b) the Aurignacian with bone points (Aurignaziano a

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punte ossee) and (c) the so-called, Uluzzian-Aurignacian (Uluzzo-aurignaziano). As far as the chronological position is concerned these Aurignacian units embrace – as Palma di Cesnola holds – the Arcy Interstadial and the beginning of Wurm II. A large number of 14C dates for the Aurignacian in the territory of Italy such as from Fumane, Paglicci, and Riparo Mochi fall in the interval between 38 and 31 kyrs BP (Jöris and Street, 2008). Most of the typical features of the Italian Aurignacian correspond to the inventory from Klissoura sequences E, D1, D2. These are first of all the carinated forms both cores and end-scrapers, splintered pieces used as cores and as tools, bladelets with marginal retouch, and small bone points. At Klissoura mostly distal fragments or damaged points were recovered. Special cores for the production of bladelets at Italian sites with single- and double-platform items, are larger than those at Klissoura by being 5 cm long or even longer. From such cores larger bladelets were detached and larger blades with steep retouch occur as well (Palma di Cesnola, 1993; Broglio and Dalmeri, 2005). Besides the Aurignacian industries with dominant carinated forms and a relatively small number of other standard Upper Paleolithic tools, other industries containing frequently typical UP tools were also recorded in Italy. Among them is the earliest Aurignacian from Riparo Mochi in stratum G. dated to 35–32 kyrs BP with a characteristic increasing of small retouched bladelets (up to 31.4%), retouched/utilized bladelets, up to 30.9%, and Dufour bladelets. These tools were produced from bladelets detached from small cores, with preparations and reshaping evidenced by the presence of crested blades and core tablets. At Riparo Mochi carinated/nosed end-scrapers were only 2.4%, whereas “typical” end-scrapers were three times as frequent – 9.8%. Prismatic core technique was employed on large cores producing larger blades shaped as scrapers, as well as notched tools and denticulates. These tools resemble more closely the Mousterian or the initial UP (Uluzzian) specimens. Bone points and shell ornaments also occurred (Kuhn and Stiner, 1998). In southern France the Aurignacian is rich in bladelets originating from carinated forms, while in the more northern territories the inventories of

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the “typical” Aurignacian contain other tool types (Bon, 2002; Bar-Yosef and Zilh±o, 2006). In the inventory of Roc de Combe in southern France end-scrapers were 34% of these but only 16.8% were carinated forms. Splintered pieces (15.4%), burins (15.6%), retouched blades and bladelets (23.3%), denticulated-notched tools (2.5%) and side-scrapers (1.4%) were also present. These proportions are similar at Le Piage (Bordes, 2002). At Grotte du Renne in northern France, layer VII attributed to the Archaic Aurignacian demonstrate common features with the Mediterranean Aurignacian. Out of 11 901 lithic artifacts there are cores and fragments (1.6%), debitage products (77.24%), and tools, fragments, burin spalls and other tool waste (21.14%). The tool inventory is dominated by splintered pieces (21.28%), Dufour points (15.99%), notched and denticulated tools (11.81%), burins (11.64%), end-scrapers (11.53%,) blades and backed bladelets (2.45%), and side-scrapers (2.28%). It should be added that 33.3% of tools were made on blades, 23.8% on bladelets, 25.5% on flakes, 5.8% on unworked nodules, and 11.6% on unidentifiable blanks. In the group of end-scrapers carinated forms are only 28.5%, among the burins 27%. Bladelets were obtained primarily from prismatic and conical cores (Schmider, 2002). A similar predominance or large proportions of carinated forms with retouched bladelets and splintered pieces can be seen at Early Aurignacian sites of Central and Eastern Europe (Hahn, 1977; Bar-Yosef and Zilh±o, 2006). Most researchers dealing with the Auringnacian consider the two methods of bladelet production i.e. burin technique and end-scraper technique to be the most important technologies of production of this type of blanks (Lucas, 1997; Le Brun-Ricalens, 2005). Carinated forms were used not only for core production but also functioned as tools. This particular technique is documented by items from layer IV at Klissoura (Koumouzelis et al., 2001a) The inventory from layer IV Klissoura shows similarities with the European Early Aurignacian characterized by the predominance of carinated forms, a small number of burins other than the carinated type, and a low frequency of other tools (except for retouched blades and bladelets) such

as denticulated and notched tools, side-scrapers, truncations, perforators and retouched flakes. Smaller size of artifacts in layer IV is probably caused by use of smaller concretions of local poor quality raw materials. All the stratified in situ Aurignacian layers exhibit a similar structure of the major technological groups (Table 1) and the main core types (Table 2). The richest assemblage is in the thickest layer IV where the total number of artifacts is 63 837, retouched tools are 2 121 respectively – 65.1% and 70.8% of the total number of carinated tools from the Aurignacian layers. This excludes the specimens in secondary position in the filling of the ditch i.e. from layers 6, 6a, 6/7. As far as diagnostic forms are concerned no seriation tendencies have been detected. The index of carinated forms (calculated for cores and end-scrapers) oscillates from 31.5 in sequence E (layer IV) to 34.0 in sequence D1 (layers IIId-g), and to 25.1 in sequence D2 (layers IIIa-c). The indices of major tool categories show minor oscillations that do not form a clear-cut seriation (Table 3). Regretfully, complete monographs of known Aurignacian sites in Greece are few and no comparisons from this region are available. According to C. Runnels (1995:714) the Aurignacian occupation in Greece begun after 25 kyrs and groups of this culture settled the Peloponese, inhabiting also Franchthi and the Kephalari Caves. Aurignacian settlement was also registered at surface sites in Achaia. One of the surface sites is Eleochori in western Achaia. A. Darlas (Bailey et al., 1999:308) believes that the concentration of several thousand artifacts in situ contains artifacts assigned to the Archaic Aurignacian. The inventory from Eleochori contained end-scrapers (28%) mostly on blades, a large number of carinated end-scrapers, burins (11%) mostly dihedral, and fewer burins-on-a snap. In the group of blanks the flakes dominate over blades. Microlithic blades are numerous in this group. Other sites in Greece that have been assigned to the Aurignacian provided very small series of artifacts and do not lend themselves to detailed analysis (Kourtessi-Philippakis, 1986; Bailey et al., 1999). Finds from Aurignacian layers at Klissoura incorporating lithics, bone artifacts and hearths

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Fig. 20. Sequence D3. Hearths and stone structure

structures were already analyzed in a preliminary report and were assigned to the Lower Aurignacian unit (Koumouzelis et al., 2001a). Particular attention was drawn to the occurrence of carinated forms in the Aurignacian layers (Ginter et al., in press). The present analysis completes and verifies the nature of the lithic assenblages and their and chronological position.

SEQUENCE D3 Layer III’’ Layer III’’ is present mainly in squares BB2-3, CC2-3 at a depth of 60–80 cm. In the east profile this layer is horizontally stratified, whereas in the southern profile it erodes to the west and disappears s in squares AA2-3, at a depth of 80–90 cm. In square CC3 a series of hearths 72–74 occured. In the upper portion of layer III’’ hearths 66 and 69 (the last covered by stones) and in the bottom of this layer – hearth 63 (at the interface with layer IIIe). The stratigraphic position of these hearths cannot be defined with certainty (Fig. 20). The

hearths – superimposed in a sequence – are lined with clay – just like in the Aurignacian layers. Layer III” is composed of heterogenous gray to brownish burnt remains (facies HGB) and of reddish clay (facies RCS), with admixtures of ash (facies MWA). We do not have radiometric determinations for layer III’’ but its age should fall within a very narrow range of almost overlapping dates between the ABOX date for layer IIId-g of 31 630 ± 250 BP (AA 73817; hearth 14, depth 120–124 cm) and the ABOX date for layer III’ of 31 460 ± 210 BP (AA 73821). Structure of major technological categories The assemblage from layer III’’ numbers 2935 specimens and is dominated by flakes that are the most important blanks for tool production (879 spec. – 29.7%). The number of blades is relatively small (125 spec. – 4.2%). Chips and fine flakes are less than a quarter of all the specimens (669 items – 22.8%). Just as in the other assemblages from Klissoura chunks and fragments are numerous (shutter is 971 up to 32.4%). There are

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90 cores (3.1%) 112 splintered pieces (3.8%) and 96 tools (3.3%). Cores The assemblage provided 90 cores (3.1% of the assemblage) of which 36 specimens were made of flint and 50 from radiolarite and only half of them from type R1. There were two cores from quartz and two from indeterminate raw material. Only a small number of cores shows traces of burning. The core reduction strategy was aimed to obtain bladelets and flake blanks. Two separate sequences of core reduction correspond to the two blank types. The reduction of cores for bladelets began by platform preparation, usually detaching one flake and subsequently bladelets were detached from this platform. When concretions or chunks of radiolarite or flint had flat surface the reduction continued while preserving the same flat flaking surface (Pl. 54.1–5). Sometimes, however, the flaking surface was extended onto the narrow side of a core (Pl. 54.6). In the case of nodular concretions the flaking surface was rounded and extended onto a part (Pl. 54.7) or the entire circumference of a core (Pl. 54.8). Singleplatform cores are more then a third of all cores. Another reduction sequence for bladelets consisted in an attempt to shape an opposed platform, slightly twisted in relation to the first platform. The platforms were used in succession, not alternately; Pl. 54.9) or in an attempt to change the core orientation to become perpendicular tot he formaer platform but in this case flake blanks were the main product (Pl. 54.10). The reduction sequence whose objective was to obtain flakes used two platforms from the beginning. Sometimes one platform was shaped by a single blow and the second was a plain type. Cores for this reduction sequence employed nodular concretions or chunks of raw material (Pl. 54.11–13). When two platforms were maintained flake reduction could end in a residual phase when the core became increasingly flat (Pl. 54.14). More frequently, however, a double-platform cores was transformed into a unifacial or a bifacial discoidal cores (Pl. 54.15). Change-oforientation cores (including multiplatform cores), that account for approximately a sixth of the entire group, were primarily used for the production

of flakes. Interestingly, initial cores are relatively few (17 specimens) as ore numerous are cores in advanced phases of reduction (47 specimens), and exhausted cores (26 specimens). Splintered pieces The splintered technique must have been very common as the number of splintered pieces (112 spec. – 3.8%) is much larger than the number of cores (90 spec. – 3.1%).The most frequent raw material is radiolarite (83 specimens of which only 24 are from type R1), less frequently are those made of flint (24 specimens). The splintered pieces are fairly small (average length – 23 mm, average width – 1.8 mm, average thickness – 7.6 mm) and their most common shape is rectangular. Bipolar specimens (68 spec.; Pl. 54.16–18) are more frequent than unipolar (17), tripolar (5) or quadripolar ones (2). As a rule the splintered are bifacial. Some specimens bear marginal retouch (Pl. 54.19). It seems that the splintered technique was also used to shape some tools. Flakes The total of 872 include 353 cortical flakes (40.5%). The high ratio of cortical flakes indicates that knapping local raw materials, starting from the initial phase, was considerably greater than in other assemblages of Klissoura. In the group of flakes the number of radiolarite and flint specimens are almost the same (294 to 208) and differ from other technological groups and in addtion flakes from other raw materials are practically absent. There are single examples from chalcedony, quartz and quartzite. Flakes rarely bear traces of burning (only 16 items). Blades Blades and bladelets form a small percentage of the assemblage (125 – 4.2%). Specimens from radiolarite are twice as many (87) as those from flint (35). Retouched pieces Layer III’’ yielded a total of 96 retouched implements (3.3%). Radiolarite was most frequently used (68 including 24 from R1) while those produced from chalcedony, flint and quartzite are less common. Burnt implements are few (8). The most numerous group of tools are end-scrapers

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

(35 – 36.8%), followed by denticulated and notched tools (20 – 20.8%), retouched flakes (12 – 15.6%) and side-scrapers (7 – 7.9%). Becs, burins, retouched blades and backed blades are rare. End-scrapers The most numerous group of tools are endscrapers (35 – 36.8%) represented by the following types of flake end-scrapers with low fronts: first, simple flake end-scrapers (11 spec.). They were made on robust flakes (Pl. 55.1) with the front extending onto one side (Pl. 55.2, 3); there are, besides, specimens on blade-like flakes (Pl. 55.4) or initial end-scrapers on cortical flakes (Pl. 55.5). One end-scraper has bilateral retouch (Pl. 55.6). A double end-scraper made on a fairly thick flake (Pl. 55.9). Two are unguiforme (Pl. 55.7, 8). A large group are thick scrapers that could have been used also as cores for bladelets: The latter function could be assigned to the specimens made on chunks (7 spec.). Notably those with fronts shaped by bladelet scars (Pl. 55.12) sometimes rounded (Pl. 55.11); on the other hand, the specimens with fronts shaped by flake scars functioned as scraping implements (Pl. 55.10). Only one high end-scraper was made on a flake. Nosed high scrapers could, too, function as cores (Pl. 55.13–16). The function of scraping tools, in turn, can be assigned to atypical nosed end-scrapers with low fronts, made on chunks (Pl. 55.17) or on flakes (Pl. 56.1). An end-scraper on a robust flake had thinning ventral retouch (Pl. 56.2). In addition there are a blade end-scraper combined with a proximal retouched truncation (Pl. 56.3), an atypical end-scraper and fragments of end- scrapers (2 specimens). Perforators and becs Only two specimens of this type were recorded (2.1%) i.e., a bec shaped on a flake by a Clactonian notch (Pl. 56.4), and a double bec on a flake: a proximal bec shaped by a Clactonian notch combined with a distal bec shaped by inverse retouch (Pl. 56.5). Retouched blades Four specimens were shaped by inverse retouch: a unilateral specimen, a bilateral specimen

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(Pl. 56.6), a bilateral specimen with partial retouch (Pl. 56.7), and a bilateral specimen with initial, distal-proximal splintered retouch (Pl. 56.8). A unilateral specimen was shaped by flat inverse retouch and by distal-proximal splintered retouch (Pl. 56.9). Backed items Three thick and short arched backed blades were made on flakes (Pl. 56.10–12). Kostenki truncations A small, flat radiolarite chunk had lateral retouch and its tip was thinned in the same was as “Kostenki knives” (Pl. 56.13). Burins There were two burins: a single burin on a flake (Pl. 56.14) and a carinatedal dihedral burin. Side scrapers Among seven side scrapers (7.9%) included four lateral side-scrapers of which one was a fragment (Pl. 56.15), one with tips thinned by splintered retouch (Pl. 57.1), and one combined with a high end-scraper (Pl. 57.2), a small bilateral side-scraper (Pl. 57.3), a double transversal side-scraper partially shaped by bifacial retouch (Pl. 57.4), and a déjeté side-scraper with retouch on three lateral edges (Pl. 57.5). Denticulates and notched tools There were 20 tools of this type. Denticulated tools had lateral (6 spec.), bilateral (2), lateral-transversal retouch (2 spec.), bilateral (2 spec.), lateral-transversal retouch (2; Pl. 57.6), and transversal retouch (3; Pl. 57.7). One specimen has denticulated inverse retouch (Pl. 56.16). Four specimens were made on radiolarite or flint plaquettes (Pl. 57.8, 9). Typical notched tools are represented by three specimens as follows one has two notches in the proximal part (Pl. 57.10), and one has a thick distal notch shaped by high retouch (Pl. 57.11). Retouched flakes Layer III’’ yielded 15 retouched flakes. Three specimens with lateral retouch (Pl. 57.12), two specimens with bilateral retouch (Pl. 57.13), and six with transverse retouch (Pl. 57.14). There are

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Fig. 21. Sequence D3. Hammerstone-grinder with traces of red ochre

also four fragments of retouched flakes (Pl. 57.15). Hammerstones and anvils Layer III’’ contained a large quartz pebble that at its two tips was used as a hammersone, while on the surfaces as a retoucher. Both surfaces show remnants of red color that indicates that it was used for crushing hematite (Fig. 21). Other finds include a smaller quartz pebble and a burnt limestone pebble – both used as hammerstones, and a sandstone plaquette used as an anvil. Lumps of hematite were found in Layer III’’. Bone objects Layer III” furnished seven bone tools of which five are awls, one undermined pointed object and one undetermined tool.

THE POSITION OF THE ASSEMBLAGE FROM LAYER III’’ IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC The assemblage of Level III’’ differs from both the Aurignacian layers below and from the

“Gravettian” layer III’ above. The main difference when compared to the Aurignacian assemblages is the flake blank production, a lack of cores for bladelets, and rare occurrence of carinated cores-end-scrapers (Pl. 55.9–17). The main difference when compared with layer III’ is the dominant role of flake technology and the absence of evidence for systematic production of bladelet and blade in layer III’’. Additional difference is the absence of backed bladelets, truncations and microretouched bladelets in layer III’’. At about 31 500 years BP flake industries that use single- and double-platform core technique and show predominance of end-scrapers (IG – 36.8), notched-denticulated tools (20.8%), retouched flakes (1.6%) and side-scrapers (7.9%) are not known in Europe. A certain indicator of taxonomic attribution of layer III’’ could be three thick, arched backed pieces on flakes (Pl. 56.10–12) that suggest links with the Uluzzian tradition from layer V. When assemblages of the late and final phases of the Uluzzian in Italy are taken into account it becomes clear that the richest Uluzzian sequence in Cavallo Cave, levels E II-I (Uluzziano evoluto) shows increased importance of blade technique,

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

the production of arched backed implements, and that blades replaced unworked plaquettes that were used in layer E III at this site (Palma di Cesnola, 1966a,b). Backed implements become smaller, approximating the size of microlithic segments. Although in the later layer D in Cavallo Cave (Uluzziano finale) several arched backed pieces were made on small flakes, and denticulated and notched tools on flakes occur, macroblade artifacts appear including lames retouchées that are almost of Aurignacian style as well as end-scrapers made on retouched blades (Palma di Cesnola, 1966a,b). In other Late Uluzzian sites such as San Romano near Pisa (Dani and Gambassini, 1977) assemblages are characterized by the presence of braoad blades that were, among others, used to produce arched backed pieces. They occur in the context of large quantities of side-scrapers and denticulated tools (up to 80%), that resemble the situation in layer III’’ in Klissoura Cave. Sites such as San Romano are considered as indicating a facies of Late Uluzzian mainly in Tuscany (Palma di Cesnola, 1993). Further to south similar inventories dominated by flake and splintered techniques are well recorded but regretably undated. These are sites such as Tarnola (Avelino) in central Italy (Ronchitelli, 1984) where short and broad flake backed pieces, flake end-scrapers and denticulated-notched tools dominate the assemblage. Thus, it is likely that the industry from layer III’’ in the Klisoura Cave corresponds to this facies of the Late Uluzzian.

SEQUENCE D4 Layer III’ Layer III’ is part of sequence D. Its stratigraphic position is defined by sequence C (layers 6, 6a, and 6/7) that cuts through layers III’ and III” and fills the (anthropogenic?) “ditch”. Layers III’ and III” overlap the entire complex of layers IIIa-g (sequence D1,2). Layer III’ is composed of massive firm ash (MWA). reddish clay (RCS) and heterogeneous gray to brownish burnt remains (HGB). The organic fraction from layer III’ provided a date of 23 000 ± 540 BC (square BB2, hearth 63, depth 50–53 cm – Gd-15349). This date is

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consistent with the date obtained from underlying layer III’’: 24 820 ±540 (square BB2m, depth 70–75 – Gd-15351). However, the dates for layer III’ obtained by using the ABOX method are much earlier i.e., 31 460 ± 210 BP (AA 73821; square AA4, depth 58 cm) and are close to the AMS dates from sequence C: 28 600 ± 350 BP (square A1/H1, depth 50–60 cm – RTT 4793) and 29 150 ± 340 BP (square A1/H1, dept 50–60 cm – RTT 4792). Layer III’ is best preserved in the belt of squares B, A, BB, CC 2–3. Further north the anthropogenic (?) “ditch” was filled with sediments of sequence C. This depression slightly disturbed the belt of hearths in layer III’ that stretched in W–E direction, parallel to the Cave entrance. The east part of the belt are hearths: 70,63 and 69 (the last is located at the interface of layers III’ and III”). The hearth basins are clay lined and have ash sweeping zones. The largest sweeping zone situated east of hearth 63. Hearth 63 is a complex structure composed of several stratified clay-lined basins where the uppermost are hearths 63, 63a, 63b and the lowermost 63c (at the bottom of layer III’ at a depth of 65 cm). At the same depth hearth 72 appears to belong to the layer III’’ (Fig. 22). Hearth 10a is the last one in the belt of hearths in the west part (hearths 11, 12, 12a); it was not clay-lined but paved with small stones. The outline of the hearth structures in layer III’ is best observable at the level of 50 cm. The major technological groups The series consist of 5943 artifacts. Shutters are best represented (fragments and chunks) with1969 specimens (33.1%). The next group are chips – 2010 (33.8%), followed by flakes – 1136 (19.1%). Blades are much less numerous – 375 (6.3%), retouched tools – 191 (3.2%), splintered pieces – 153 (2.6%), and cores – 109 (1.8%). Cores Layer III’ produced 109 cores among which radiolarite (first of all type R1) occurs twice more frequently than flint. The cores demonstrate three different reduction systems that aim at the production of flake blanks (cores like this are nearly a half of all the cores – 40 items), blades (20) and bladelets (26).

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Fig. 22. Sequence D4. Horizontal distribution of hearths

Flake blanks were detached from nodular fragments or concretions of radiolarite and flint after one platform had been shaped. Such single-platform cores have no preparation on the back or the flaking surface (Pl. 58.1). Sometimes the second platform was installed on these cores and the common flaking surfaces was exploited in opposite directions (Pl. 58.2–4) until, in the final phase, microlithic flakes were detached (Pl. 58.5). As their reduction continued the core orientation was changed (Pl. 58.6, 7) until polyhedral-spherical shape was obtained (Pl. 58.8). For blade cores elongated concretions were selected. Reduction began from platform preparation (Pl. 58.9) and an attempt was made to retain a narrow, slightly convex flaking surface (Pl. 58.11). Some cores, however, have a conspicuous, carefully executed postero-lateral crest (Pl. 58.10). Occasionally, in a more advanced phase of reduction cores were retrimmed in the distal part (Pl. 58.12) or on the back (Pl. 59.1).

Bladelet production in layer III’ was done in a separate reduction sequence. The reduction of cores for bladelets began by at least partial preparation of the platform; the flaking surface was more frequently installed on the broad, fairly flat side of a concretion or a chunk (Pl. 59.2, 3). Then, the flaking surface was extended onto the narrow sides (Pl. 59.4, 5) of a core. Less often reduction began from the narrow face (Pl. 59.6) and the flaking surface was extended onto the broad walls of a core (Pl. 59.7), or the narrowness of the flaking surface was retained until the final phase of reduction (Pl. 59.8, 9). Relatively rare are core for bladelets that in the final phase of reduction acquired a conical shape (Pl. 59.10, 11). From conical cores like this tablets were detached which corrected the core angle (Pl. 59.12). A special feature of reduction of some flat cores for bladelets was that in the final phase they were reduced by means of splintered technique however, still producing bladelet scars. Some

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

bladelets (pseudo-burin spalls) were detached from lateral sides of such cores-splintered pieces (Pl. 59.13–17). Initial cores are only a tenth of all cores; cores in the advanced and in the residual phase of reduction are most numerous. Splintered pieces Splintered technique is represented by 153 pieces of which the majority were made from radiolarite, mainly type R1 (102), less often from flint (38), and exceptionally from chalcedony (1 spec.). Splintered pieces are predominantly bipolar (107) and two-sided (Pl. 59.14–17). Unipolar specimens are much less frequent (35); there are individual examples of splintered pieces with three (6) or four (3) poles. Flakes Among the total of 1136 flakes there were 319 cortical specimens which points to a major role of local working of both radiolarites and flints. The proportion of flints and radiolarites in the group of cortical flakes (197 as compared to 122) and in the group of cores without cortex from more advanced phases of reduction is similar. There were single flakes from quartz, chalcedony, silicified limestone, quartzite and volcanic rocks. Blades Among the total of 375 blades specimens made from radiolarite predominate distinctly (289) over flint specimens (86). Blades from chalcedony and quartz are present as single examples. Retouched tools A total of 191 retouched tools (including 9 fragments of indeterminate tools) were registered. The biggest group are end-scrapers (59 – 30.8%), next in size is the group of backed bladelets and other microliths (40 – 20.9%), followed by retouched flakes (10 spec. – 6.6%). The percentages of morphological groups do not take burin spalls into account (11 spec.), thus the proportion of burins could have been, in fact, higher than 5 items (3.3%). End-scrapers Layer III’ provided 59 end-scrapers that represent the following types: blade end-scrapers (5 items; Pl. 60.1, 2) of which two are short (Pl.

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60.3), flake end-scrapers (18 spec.), fairly small, with rounded fronts (Pl. 60.4–7) or with fronts extending onto sides (Pl. 60.8, 9); sporadically fronts are narrow, straight (Pl. 60.12), flake endscrapers with lateral retouch (3 spec.; Pl. 60.10), nosed, atypical flake end-scrapers (7 spec.; Pl. 60.11, 13), ogival flake end-scrapers (3 spec.; Pl. 60.14, 15). One of them is combined: an endscraper and carinated core (Pl. 60.16), subdiscoidal flake one item (Pl. 60.17), discoidal flake end-scrapers (2 spec.; Pl. 60.18, 19), double flake end-scrapers (4 spec.; Pl. 61.1) including two specimens with alternate fronts (Pl. 61.2, 3), end-scrapers or carinated cores (8 spec.) on thick flakes (Pl. 61.4, 5), sometimes very regular, microlithic (Pl. 61.6), or damaged (Pl. 61.7), end-scrapers with denticulated fronts (2 spec.; Pl. 61.8, 9), fan-shaped end-scrapers (1 spec.) and three fragments of end-scrapers. Becs Only 4 becs were registered: three specimens on flakes (Pl. 61.10) of which one is high, made on a thick flake (Pl. 61.11), and one is a blade end-scraper (Pl. 61.12). Retouched blades This group is represented by 25 specimens: unilateral retouched blades (12 spec.; Pl. 61.13), bilateral retouched blades (5 spec.; Pl. 61.14; Pl. 62.1), two of these specimens are with fine obverse retouch (Pl. 62.2), one is pointed (Pl. 62. 15), blades with notches (3 spec; Pl. 62.3), blades with partial retouch (5 spec.; Pl. 62.4), a retouched blade used as a splintered piece. Backed items and microliths Among backed implements the most numerous group are simple backed bladelets with a straight or slightly concave blunted back (11 items; Pl. 62.5–14). There are few specimens with fine retouch of the opposite edge (3 spec.; Pl. 62.15, 16, 19) and specimens with flat retouch proximal resembling Vachons type points (2 spec.; Pl. 62.17, 18). Geometric microliths are, represented by two small arched backed pieces: one was made on a blade (Pl. 62.20), and the other on a flake (Pl. 62.21). The latter specimen could be intrusive from layer III’’. Four bladelets can be assigned to

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parageometrical forms, with partial, fine and steep retouch (Pl. 62.23–25), and one items shows similar retouch to the Krems type points on its distal part (Pl. 62.22). Three shouldered bladelets could be halfmade products of microlithic backed pieces or other types of microliths. The shoulders are located in the proximal (Pl. 63.1, 2) or distal part (Pl. 63.3). There are also 26 bladelets with unilateral, straight and concave microretouch (Pl. 62.26–29; Pl. 63.4), with partial retouch of the opposite edge (Pl. 63.5, 6), or with complete bilateral obverse retouch (Pl. 63.7), possibly also with bilateral alternate retouch (as in the case of Dufour type bladelets; Pl. 63.8). Mesial fragments of microretouched bladelets were also recorde (Pl. 63.9).

there are also specimens that, besides retouch, show traces of the application of splintered technique after one side had been retouched (Pl. 64.8), or before sides were retouched (Pl. 64.9).

Retouched truncations There are only 4 retouched truncations made on mediolithic blades with steep, oblique retouch (Pl. 63.10–12). One of the specimens was a fragment with a transveral truncation in the proximal part (Pl. 63.13).

The chronological position of layer III’ – about 30–29 kyrs BP – suggests that the industry of this layer belongs among the earliest industries with backed bladelets in the Mediterranean basin. Such an early appearance of assemblages with backed bladelets was recorded first in Italy where they are ascribed to Gravettien ´ pointes ´ dos indifférencié (Palma di Cesnola and Bietti, 1983; Palma di Cesnola, 1993). The earliest dates for this phase/facies of the Mediterranean Gravettian was obtained in the Cala Cave, layer Beta I–II (29 890 BP below layer Q IV dated at 28 230 ± 2460 BP; Bartolomei et al., 1975; Gambassini, 1982). Assemblages that are probably equally of early age are in the Riparo Mochi Cave, layer S f.3.6-1 (Palma di Cesnola, 1993) and in Calanca Cave (Palma di Cesnola and Bietti, 1983). In Italy the phase of Gravettian ´ pointes ´ dos indifférencié appears before the industries with backed bladelets and Noailles burins. These industries were recorded in layer Q of the Cala Cave, in layers Df3,5-1 at the Riparo Mochi and in layer 23 of the Paglici Cave within the chronological time-span of 28 to 26 kyrs BP (Palma di Cesnola, 1996a). In Greece the earliest assemblages with backed bladelets were registered in layer 10 of the Asprochaliko Cave (25 000 ± 900 BP) (Adam, 1989). Recently similar assemblages have been discovered by A. Darlas (symposium at the UISPP congress in Lisbon) in Skini Cave III and IV and dated to about 27–25 kyrs BP. In all likelihood layer D1 from Kephalari Cave – geographi-

Burins All the five burins were polyhedral, made on fairly thick flakes which suggests that they could have been small cores for bladelets. This group of burins consisted of: one-sided multiple dihedral burin (Pl. 63.14), two one-sided multiple burins (Pl. 63.15, 16), and one burin busqué (Pl. 63.17). Moreover, there were 11 burins spalls (Pl. 63.18, 19). Side-scrapers Only four end-scrapers were recorded. Of these three are lateral specimens with stepped retouch (Pl. 63.20, 21), and a transversal sidescraper (Pl. 63.22). Denticulated and notched tools These tools are represented by 9 specimens: four denticulated lateral tools (Pl. 63.23; Pl. 64.1), two flakes with retouched lateral notches (Pl. 64.2, 3), two transversal denticulated specimens (Pl. 64.4), and a flake with lateral-transversal denticulated retouch (Pl. 64.5). Retouched flakes Ten flakes had partial retouch of various types, usually lateral (Pl. 64.6, 7). In this number

Bone objects Layer III’ furnished 10 bone artifacts: 3 point fragments (including 2 with flat and one with plano-convex cross section), 4 awls, one perforator, one undetermined tool and one fragment of worked bone.

THE INDUSTRY FROM LAYER III’ AGAINST THE BACKGROUND OF THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC OF THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

cally the closest to Klissoura – has similar, early chronology but regretfully, this layer has not been dated and is unpublished (Hahn, 1984). In the northern Balkans the earliest phase of the Gravettian represents “undifferentiated backed bladelet industry”, known only from the Temnata Cave, the Gravettian levels X-IXb-IXa (Drobniewicz et al., 1992). Radiometric determinations place these levels at between 31 900 ± 1600 BP (the date for the top of the Aurignacian in layer 4, culture level A) and 28 900 ± 1490 BP (the date for level Ia, trench I; see Ginter and Koz³owski, 1992). In terms of technology the assemblage from layer III’ exhibits similarities first with Asprochaliko, level 10. Single-platform blade-flake cores with a single-blow platform (Adam, 1989: fig. 12.2) in Asprochaliko correspond to such specimens from the Klissoura Cave. These cores are accompanied by double-platform blade cores sometimes with twisted flaking surfaces with the proportions similar to the specimens from the Klissoura Cave (only slightly larger; see Adam, 1989: fig. 12.1). Some cores have lateral crested preparation. However, the component of microlithic cores for bladelets is smaller in Asprochaliko than in Klissoura. Although the number of tools at Asprochaliko is relatively small (47 spec. i.e. 3.5% of artifacts in square R4 in the Asprochaliko Cave), but two types of end-scrapers are similar to specimens from layer III’ at Klissoura (Pl. 3.11–18), predominate simple blade end-scrapers (Adam, 1989: fig. 11.7, 8) and fairly thick flake items (Adam, 1989:76). Another group of tools typologically closer to the tools from Klissoura Cave are the bladelets with a straight blunted back (Adam, 1989: fig. 11.9) or with partial retouch of the opposite edge (Adam, 1989: fig. 11.10). In addition in Asprochaliko microretouched bladelets and Dufour bladelets occur (Adam, 1989:77). The technology of early the “Gravettian” sequences of levels X – XIb – IXa in Temnata Cave is basically similar to the technology in layer III’ at Klissoura Cave. However, cores for blades are larger and predominantly single-platform. At the same assemblage microlithic cores are few, although carinated high cores-end-scrapers do occur (see Drobniewicz et al., 1992: pl. 3.6, 5.4). The small number of tools in the Temnata

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Cave (about 20 tools in each of the early levels) makes detailed comparisons difficult. However, of interest is the presence of bladelets with a straight blunted back (in level IXa also with bidirectional/bipolar retouch (Drobniewicz et al., 1992: pl. 6.2), and one blade or flake with an arched blunted back (Drobniewicz et al., 1992: pl. 5.7). A number of analogies with Klissoura layer III’ in respect to tool typology, can be seen in the early assemblages of the Appenines “gravettiano a punte a dorso indifferenziato”. In the early assemblages from Riparo Mochi, Cala and Calanca caves the number of tools is not large but almost all the types of backed pieces and microliths recorded at Klissoura, layer III’ are present. These include simple backed bladelets (at Cala they are very small) bladelets with the opposite edge with fine retouch, bladelets with flat retouch of the base resembling Vachons type, also alternately microretouched bladelets, resembling fléchettes. On the other hand, in some assemblages in southern Italy (e.g., Calanca; Palma di Cesnola, 1996b: 230) there are items with a truncated back that are not known from the Klissoura Cave. The difference between layer III’ and the Appenine assemblages consist first in the observation that at the latter sites the frequency of burins is higher than that of end-scrapers (Palma di Cesnola, 1993: 170). We can suggest the conclusion that the early industries with backed bladelets in the BalkanApenine zone inherited two typological components as follows: A. Some backed bladelets and microretouched bladelets may have originated in the tradition of the Mediterranean proto-Aurignacian (the Fumanian; Broglio, 1996).This relation between the proto-Aurignacian with micro-retouched bladelets and the Gravettian indifférencié has been emphasized by Palma di Cesnola (1996b:231) although this author is inclined to believe that the Appenine Gravettian “may come from southern France”. However, Palma di Cesnola expressed this view concerning the more recent phase of the Appenine Gravettian with Noailles type burins. We should note that this type of burin is absent in the assemblages of the earliest Gravettian indifférencié. B. The occurrence of bladelets or flakes with an arched back (see: in layer III’ Pl. 5.20, 21)

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could be the result of cultural impact by the Uluzzian tradition. These types are missing from the early Appenine assemblages that contain backed pieces. In southern Italy bladelets or flakes with an arched back occur sometimes together with Vachons type points at sites of slightly later age, and in association with para-Noailles burins such as at Laterina (Palma di Cesnola, 1993; Cocchi, 1952). A fragment of an arched backed bladelet was recorded, however, in the Temnata Cave in layer IXb.

SEQUENCE C Sequence C is the filling of an anthropogenic (?) “ditch” which cuts into sequence D4 (layers III’ and III’’). The filling of the ditch is covered by sequence B (layers IIa-d), and its depositional sequences is as follows: (a) layers 6,6a, and 6/7 built of LHW and MWA facies, and (b) hearth H3, located in the centre of the ditch. The hearth shows remains of clay daub, and is filled with carbonates, and brown-grey ash. It is cut by the north profile: the southern half of the hearth extends onto squares A1 and AA1. The hearth is later than the lower portion of the filling and is covered by a formation similar to layer 6. The erosional surface that cuts the filling of the ditch is overlain by sequence B (layers IIa-d). It should be emphasized that the filling of the ditch has no counterparts in the form of horizontally stratified layers in the excavated area. Thus, sequence C corresponds to the stratigraphic hiatus between sequence D4 (layers III’and III’’) and B (layers IIa-d). The “ditch” in question stretches over the entire width of the excavated area (along W–E axis), perpendicularly to the cave entrance. To the south it is 1.7 m wide at the depth of 0.20 m, whereas in the north it is 1.3 m wide with a depth of 0.5 m. Assuming that this originally was a human dug ditch, its function was to open the entrance to the cave where the surface of the older deposits less than 0.5 m from the cave’s ceiling at the entrance to the cave and open a more comfortable passage. The following radiometric determinations have been obtained from the filling (mainly from layer 6) of the “ditch”. The first 22 370±270 BP (Gd-1546) on charcoal, the second and the third on land snail shells: 23 800±400 (Gd-7994) and

27 200±500 BP (Gd-7996). The AMS dates on charcoal were 28 600±350 (RTT-4793) and 29 150±340 BP (RTT-4792). The group of older dates (29.1–27.2 kyrs BP) is probably associated with the destruction of the Aurignacian layers (layers IIIa-g) and “Gravettian” layers (Mediterranean backed blade industries – layer III’) when the ditch was dug. Thus, the dated material must be in the secondary deposit in the filling, similarly to the artifacts in the “ditch”. The younger dates (22.3–23.8 kyrs BP) could mark the final phase when the ditch was filled up, possibly they also date hearth H3. The sediments that fill the “ditch” are heterogenic, especially layer 6, so are the artifacts uncovered in its fill, with the exception of Hearth 3 and around it. The artifacts may in fact originate from the Aurignacian layers (IIIa-g) and postAurignacian layers (III’ and, possibly, III’’ (?)). Therefore the assemblage of mixed artifacts from sequence C is briefly presented with the frequencies in the corresponding tables. Diagnostic forms are shown in Plates 65–67. Lithic inventory of sequence C – filling of the “ditch” In the lower portion of the filling (except the vicinity of hearth H3) among 8322 artifacts radiolarite predominates (73%). Flint is next in importance (31%). Other raw materials are represented by single items. The structure of the major technological groups (Table 5) does not essentially differ from that in the Aurignacian layers III and IV. Among the cores (Table 6) specimens that are not diagnostic are most frequent (mainly single-platform cores; Pl. 65.1–5), while carinated cores, typical for the Aurignacian (Pl. 65.6–9) are less frequent. The frequency of double-platform cores, notably those with a common flaking face (Pl. 65.10–13), some of which are diagnostic for the Gravettian, also cores with postero-lateral preparation (Pl. 65.14) is still smaller. The frequency of splintered pieces (2.5% of the inventory; Pl. 65.15–17; Pl. 66.1–9) is higher than that of cores (1.4%), they occur in all the layers in the Klisoura Cave and are non-diagnostic. The tool kit composition (Table 7) confirms the mixed nature of the filling of the ditch. Aurignacian forms are the most numerous (carinated

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

Table 5 Sequence C. Structure of major technological groups

Table 6 Sequence C. Core morphology N

Cores: Layer 6. 6a. 6/7 Stone inventory:

1

0.9

Double platform Double platform with common flaking face Single platform

2

1.7

2

1.7

78

68.4

Carinatedal

10

8.8

Sub-conical

1

0.9

Discoidal

3

2.6

19 (6)

90 cores

7

6.2

Multiplatform

1

0.9

Undiagnostic/fragments

9

Total

Flint (%)

Cores

114

31 (27.2)

75 (65.8)

8 (7)

Splintered pieces

212

49 (23.1)

147 (69.3)

16 (7.6)

Flakes

1995

Blades

317

88 (27.8)

1201 (60.2) 210 (66.2)

Others (%)

40 (2)

Total N of chips and shutter

5489

1849 (33.7)

3530 (64.3)

110 (2)

Tools

189

36 (19)

149 (78.9)

4 (2.1)

6

0

5 (83.3)

1 (16.7)

8322

2807 (33.7)

5317 (63.9)

198 (2.4)

Burin spalls Total

%

Pre-core

Radiolarite (%)

754 (37.8)

179

end-scrapers with high front, nosed; Pl. 66.10–19; Pl. 67.1–3), also microretouched bladelets (Dufour type; Pl. 67.7–13). Tools that are typical for layer III’ (among others backed pieces; Pl. 67.14–17) also occur. A possible admixture from the overlying Epigravettian layer (II) is a shouldered point; it may have dropped into the filling in the effect of bioturbations registered in sequence C. Other implements (end-scrapers: Pl. 67.4–6; burins: Pl. 67.18, 19; retouched blades: Pl. 67.20, 21) and notched-denticulated pieces: Pl. 67.22– 31) are not diagnostic. Moreover, the filling of the “ditch” yielded 6 points including 3 damaged (or fragments). They are short, oval in cross-section (Fig. 23). Besides, there are 2 awls, 1 perforator and one edged tool. These specimens must have come from the sediments of sequence D2 or, possibly, D1. Lithic inventory of hearth H3 and adjacent area Hearth H3 (Table 8) and the adjacent area (Table 9) yielded 119 and 380 artifacts respectively. Their raw materials structure is similar to that in other levels of the site. Core are predominantly single-platform on flakes, sometimes blade-flake specimens. They

114

Total

7.9 100

Table 7 Sequence C. Major tool categories Tools

N

%

End-scrapers

86

45.5

Combinated tools

0

Bec & perforator

3

1.6

Retouched blades

24

12.7

Truncations

1

0.5

Backed implements

15

7.9

Burins

3

1.6

Sidescrapers

6

3.2

Denticulated-notched implements

20

10.6

Retouched flakes

22

11.6

Others

2

1.1

Undeterminated

7

3.7

189

100

Total

are fairly small (up to 2.4 cm long; Pl. 68.1–3). One specimens is a form in between a core for bladelets and a splintered piece (Pl. 68.4). Splintered pieces are slightly less numerous than cores (Pl. 68.5). Blades, just as in all the layers, are few; they are only a fifth or a sixth of the number of flakes. Among tools (15 specimens) end-scrapers are the most numerous, represented by low, subdiscoidal specimens (Pl. 68.6, 7), simple blade end-scrapers with lateral notches (Pl. 68.8), and a denticulated end-scraper on a radiolarite plaquette (Pl. 68.9). There were, besides, a blade and a bladelet with

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Table 8 Inventory of hearth H3 Hearth no. 3 Stone inventory: Cores Splintered pieces Flakes Blades Total N of chips and shutter Tools Burin spalls Total

Total

Flint (%)

Radiolarite (%)

Others (%)

Table 9 Inventory of area around H3 (Sq. A1, AA1) A1. AA1 Stone inventory: Cores Splintered pieces Flakes

6

0

5

1

5

0

5

0

30

18

11

1

6

3

3

0

58

10

48

0

13

2

10

1

Blades Total N of chips and shutter Tools

1

0

1

0

Burin spalls

33 (27.7)

83 (69.8)

119

3 (2.5)

lateral microretouch (Pl. 68.10, 11), a burin (Pl. 68.12), retouched flakes (Pl. 68.13), a splintered piece with secondary retouch (Pl. 68.14), two denticulated-notched specimens with inverse retouch: one on a flake (Pl. 68.15) and the other on a plaquette of silicified limestone (Pl. 68.16). Unfortunately, the inventory of hearth H3 and its surroundings did not yield diagnostic forms. The core reduction sequence and the presence of end-scrapers with low fronts (including subdiscoidal specimens), and the presence of micro-retouched blades and bladelets suggest links with a Gravettoid complex (in all likelihood, from the period between the Gravettoid industry in layer III’ and the Epigravettian in sequence B).

SEQUENCE B Layers IIa, IIb, IId Sequence B consists of units II, IIa, IIb, and IId. In the course of the excavations it was difficult to differentiate them, nor could discrete artifact scatter-patterns be distinguished. The sequence is built of sediments rich in clay (facies HCS), reworked burnt remains (facies HGB), and, locally, laminated and sorted sediment (facies LSS). Within the sediments no hearth structures in situ were exposed as the entire sequence was reworked by postpositional agents. The dating of sequence 2 is based on one only radiocarbon date from the interface of units

Total

Total

Flint (%)

Radiolarite (%)

Others (%)

6

1

4

1

4

0

3

1

66

28

36

2

9

5

4

0

293

100

188

5

2

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

134 (35.2)

237 (62.4)

380

9 (2.4)

IIa/IIb – 14 280±90 BP obtained at the Gliwice Laboratory (Gd-3872). Unfortunately, this date has been obtained from a carbonate fraction and could have been younger similarly to the dates from sequences 3 and 4 that were also obtained on this fraction. The sequence contained a total of 6312 lithic artifacts. More than one fourth of this sum are the shuttered debitage such as unidentifiable fragments and pieces of mainly flint and radiolarite. However, almost a half of all the artifacts are chips and small flakes (< 1.5 cm), accounting for 45.6% of the total (2880 items). They primarily originate from retouch and the various stages of core reduction. Because the number of uncharacteristic debitage products and chips is so large the frequency of cores (1.2%), splintered pieces (1.3%), blanks (flakes (16.6%), blades and bladelets (4.4%)) and retouched tools (4.5%) is low. These frequencies differ from frequencies of similar assemblages retrieved from sites in Epirus of approximately the same temporal horizon. For example, in layer 3 in the Kastritsa Cave – the richest assemblage (in square 2 – 1405 artifacts) and dated at about 19 kyrs BP (Galanidou and Tzedakis, 2001), the proportion of chips is 6.3%, that of flakes, on the other hand is 60%, blades and bladelets – 16.6%, cores – 2.5%, and tools – 9.2% (Adam, 1989). The frequencies in layer 1, recently dated at about 15.9 kyrs BP, are similar.

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

181

Fig. 23. Sequence C. Bone implements (1–6)

Out of 1699 artifacts in square 5 only 11.4% are chips, and as much as 55.00% are flakes, blades and bladelets are 1.0%, cores – 1.0% and tools – 9.3% (Adam, 1989). In layer 4 at Asprochaliko the frequency of chips is slightly higher – 15.7%, whereas the frequencies of cores – 1.2%, and tools – 2.2% are close to those from sequence II at Klissoura. At Asprochaliko flakes are 60.7% and blades and bladelets – 7.9% (Adam, 1989). However, these differences could – to some extent – be the consequence of differing excavation techniques.

Cores and core reduction sequences Sequence 2 yielded a total of 74 cores. The raw material for their production is radiolarite, mainly type R1, of which 66.2% of all cores were made. Flint was used to produce only 29.7% of cores. No major differences were recorded in methods of core reduction between these two raw materials. In both cases cores were frequently made on pebbles. As a rule detachment of blanks began from the shaping of the platform (Pl. 69.1). Blades and

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flakes were split off on the cortical, usually slightly convex (Pl. 69.2–4), sometimes carinatedal, surface (Pl. 69.6). Occasionally single-platform cores had preparation from the postero-lateral crests (Pl. 69.5). The flaking surface of these cores was installed on the narrow side of pebbles-chunks and preparation extended onto core sides. Quite exceptionally, the rounding of the flaking surface caused that a conical core with regular blade scars was obtained (Pl. 69.8). Only this type of core had abrasion of the platform edge; in the residual phase the core functioned as a hammerstone (Pl. 69.7). Single-platform cores are nearly a half of all the specimens. The exhausted itemss and the cores in advanced phases of reduction are almost equal in number. Two methods were employed for core reduction from the two platforms. First, the opposite platform was installed symmetrically and the flaking surface was common for the two platforms (Pl. 69.10). Second, the second platform was twisted in relation to the first one (Pl. 69.9). Sometimes the cores with a common flaking surface had preparation of the back (Pl. 69.11). As core reduction continued the common flaking surface was extended onto core sides (Pl. 69.12). Double platform cores are no more than a tenth of single-platform specimens. Among them there were short hyper-microlithic cores for bladelets or for delicate, fine flakes with separate flaking surfaces (Pl. 69.13). Residual cores are merely a fifth of all the specimens and are discoidal flake cores and multiplatform polyhedral cores. Microcores on core fragments also occur (Pl. 69.14, 15). In sum, we can state that reduction sequences of cores began from cores possibly with an initial prepared platform or from cores with postero-lateral crests. Then, reduction was continued either by a round the flaking surface (until sub-conical cores were obtained) or by the installation of an opposite platform. In all the phases of reduction both flake and blade blanks were produced. There are only 11 typical cores for blades, and only four typical cores for bladelets. Splintered pieces Splintered technique also occurs in sequence 2 but it is relatively less common then in the earlier sequences at Klissoura. There are 84 splint-

ered pieces which are only 1.3% of all artifacts, but – nevertheless – they are more numerous than the cores, which are 74. Most splintered pieces, even a greater percentage than in the case of cores, were made of radiolarite, first of all type R1. Less often they were made of flint (16.9%), and a single specimen was made from mudstone. Measurable attributes and technical parameters of splintered pieces indicate that they were either a final (residual) form of a core, or that they were produced from very small flakes. The average length of splintered pieces is slightly more than 2 cm, the width is 1.4 cm, and the thickness 0.6 cm. Most often splintered pieces are bipolar (84.3%) and two sided (Pl. 70.2, 3, 7). When splintered pieces are on flakes the surfaces on the ventral side of a flake have been preserved (Pl. 70.4, 6, 8), whereas splintered pieces on cores are bifacially worked (Pl. 70.1, 5). Unipolar splintered pieces (i.e. with a facet opposite a pole) are relatively rare (10.8%), quadripolar splintered pieces are sporadic (Pl. 70.9). Some splintered pieces were exhausted and became microlithic in size or even hyper-microlithic. Unfortunately, we cannot determine whether splintered pieces were cores for small flakes and chips, or whether they were chisel-like tools. In all likelihood splintered pieces served for both functions. Flakes There were 1048 flakes (16.6%) including only 40 cortical specimens. The majority of flakes were made from radiolarite, mainly R1 type (613 specimens – 60.8%). Other flakes were made from flint (373 specimens – 37.0%), and only single items from chalcedony (4), green jasper (1) and quartz (2). The dorsal scar pattern of most flakes is parallel, their shape approximately rectangular, and sometimes the dorsal face shows a blade scar pattern. A few flakes originate from lateral preparation (among others side blow type flakes; Pl. 70.10). Single examples of tablets were also present (Pl. 70.11). Blades There were 279 blades (4.4%). The frequency of items from radiolarite, most often from R1 type,

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

is even higher than among the flakes (198 specimens – 70.9%). Other blades were made from flint (71 specimens – 25.4%), single specimens from chalcedony (4). A sub-crested blade was made from obsidian, and it is likely that this specimen is a later addition to the sequence (Pl. 70.12). Predominantly blades were detached from single-platform cores: their average length is about 3.3 cm. Individual specimens can be longer (Pl. 70.13, 14). Some blades were removed from conical cores (Pl. 70.16, 20). Specimens with postero-lateral crested preparation that come from the operation of extending the flaking surface towards the posterior crest are also present in this group (Pl. 70.15). Blades with very regular and parallel inter-scar ridges (Pl. 70.21), and blades detached from double-platform cores (Pl. 70.17) are relatively rare. The frequency of unretouched bladelets is low (Pl. 70.18, 19). Specimens with a slightly convex profile were probably detached from carinated cores. Retouched tools 283 retouched tools account for 4.5% of all artifacts. Backed tools, microliths and truncations together make up the largest group (91 – 32.1%). The next large group are end-scrapers (74 – 26.1%); blades with lateral retouch come third (34 – 12.0%). Other tool groups (perforators, sidescrapers, denticulated-notched tools, burins and retouched flakes) do not exceed 10%. The most important raw material used for tool production is radiolarite, especially R1 type (73.9%). The frequency of flint is much lower (20.8%). Chalcedony (only 3 items), quartz (2 specimens), rock crystal (1), and quartzite (1) are also represented. The proportion of burnt tools is fairly low (5.9%). End-scrapers Among a total of 74 end-scrapers there are 17 blade specimens, 36 various types of flake specimens, whereas there are only 12 high carinated end-scrapers (that can be assigned to end-scrapercores). Other end-scrapers occur as fragments. Blade end-scrapers are, as a rule, short (Pl. 71.1, 3, 6), although some are made on unshortened, blades (Pl. 71.2, 5, 7). One short specimen has an asymmetrical front and unilateral retouch

183

(Pl. 71.4). Other end-scrapers on blades with lateral retouch (Pl. 71.8, 14, 15) kept the original size of the blank. Flake end-scrapers are much more numerous. Their fronts are convex or nosed. They were made on standard flake blanks (Pl. 71.16, 17, 20–22; Pl. 72.1–5, 8), or on fine, microlithic blanks (Pl. 71.18, 19; Pl. 72.9, 11). Short, often microlithic flake end-scrapers are not the effect of reduction resulting from use, but rather their presence is the effect of intentional selection of blanks with the desired size. Exceptionally are end-scrapers that were shortened by means of a transversal burin blow (Pl. 71.17). Lateral retouch in the case of flake end-scrapers is sporadic (Pl. 72.7). In the whole series flake end-scrapers have nosed fronts; only few of them are high (Pl. 72.10, 12, 13). Sometimes, the high front gives a specimen a carinated-nosed form (Pl. 72.14). In the group of nosed end-scrapers hyper-microlithic specimens also occur (Pl. 72.11). Carinated end-scrapers (or cores) are usually made on chunks or pebbles, possibly on thick flakes. Specimens made on plaquettes (Pl. 72.15) or on core fragments (Pl. 72.16) whose shape is not carinated also occur. Carinated core-end scrapers vary in size – some specimens are approximately the average size of other tools in the assemblage (2.5–3.5 cm; Pl. 72.6, 17, 19; Pl. 73.2, 3), others microlithic (up to 1.5 cm; Pl. 72.18; Pl. 73.1). Because sequence B has been disturbed by post-depositional agents the possibility that carinated end-scrapers-cores derived from the Aurignacian layers cannot be excluded. On the other hand, end-scrapers of this type can be found in the Late Epigravettian horizon in Italy. They were recorded at Paglici (Palma di Cesnola, 1967a,b), although we note that they are present as microlithic specimens at the sites of the Late Epigravettian that do not have Aurignacian layers such as Arma di Nasino in the region of Savona (Palma di Cesnola, 1974, 1985). Perforators and becs Perforators and becs are represented by 18 specimens i.e. 7.2% of all retouched tools. As a rule they were made on relatively large blades (9 specimens; Pl. 73.4–9, 20). Their tips are weakly distinguished and the retouch forming the tips often extends to the sides of the blade. In three items

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the tip is located in the proximal part. There is one alternate perforator. Flake perforators are not so frequent (4 specimens; Pl. 73.10, 14, 16, 17) and usually considered as atypical. Microlithic perforators on flakes (2; Pl. 73.11, 12) or on blades (2), also occur. Blade perforators are: one double (Pl. 73.13) and one alternate (Pl. 73.18). In addition there are two becs on flakes (Pl. 73.16) one that was shaped by two Clactonian notches (Pl. 73.15). Retouched blades There were 34 retouched blades (12.3% of all tools). Unilateral specimens are almost a half of the series (14 specimens). The items first differ in respect to their type of retouch either stepped retouch (Pl. 73.19), fine retouch (Pl. 73.21, 22), weakly steep retouch (Pl. 73.23; Pl. 74.2, 4), weakly denticulated retouch (Pl. 74.3). The retouched edges are straight or slightly concave (Pl. 73.24, 25). Sometimes only small proximal fragments have been preserved (Pl. 74.1). There are 15 bilateral specimens, among them appointé forms (Pl. 74.6, 12) and specimens with a rounded base (Pl. 74.17). Retouched blades differ according to the type of retouch including those with relatively high retouch (Pl. 74.5, 8–10), stepped retouch (Pl. 74.7), one specimen is very thick (Pl. 74.11), with semi-steep retouch (Pl. 74.14), with semi-steep and fine retouch (Pl. 74.15), or even with steep retouch in the proximal part (Pl. 74.16). Of interest is a fragment of a retouched blade which was thinned on the dorsal side by a flat scar from a transversal break (Pl. 74.13). The last group are bilateral specimens with partial alternate retouch (Pl. 74.18, 19). Backed items, microliths and retouched truncations This group was made up of 91 specimens such as backed implements, geometric microliths, shouldered blades and bladelets, micro-truncations and truncations, and pointes ´ soie. Backed blades and bladelets including backed points-blades with a straight blunted back (Pl. 74.19, 20, 23, 24, 27; Pl. 75.2, 4, 6, 9, 13, 15, 16), there is only one typical Gravette point (Pl. 75.14), bladelets with a straight blunted back (Pl. 74.21, 25, 26; Pl. 75.5, 10, 12, 19–21, 25, 31),

backed bladelets with a microretouched opposite lateral edge (Pl. 75.7, 8, 11, 17, 23, 26, 29, 30), backed points with ventral thinning of the base, resembling Vachons points (Pl. 74.22; Pl. 75.1, 3, 18, 27), backed points with ventral thinning of the distal part; the blunted back is slightly gibbeux (Pl. 74.9), needle-like backed points with proximal and distal thinning (Pl. 75.22, 24, 28, 40, 41), awl-like backed points (Pl. 75.32, 33). backed points with an angulated blunted back (Pl. 75.34). All these implements were made on regular blades and/or bladelets. The blunting retouch is very steep, and bidirectional (bi-polar) in some cases. Geometric and parageometric microliths Microliths (13) are represented mainly by arched backed blades and segments encompassing small backed bladelets with a convex back, resembling segments (Pl. 75.36–39; Pl. 76.1, 2), arched backed blades, mostly fragments (Pl. 76.4–6), parageometric microliths resembling Pavlov segments (Pl. 76.3), two microlithic rectangles with three retouched edges (Pl. 75.35, 36). Two microtruncations can also be assigned to this group. These specimens could be fragments of trapezes (Pl. 77.20, 21). Shouldered blades and bladelets In this group (5 items) there was only one typical shouldered blade, a diagnostic object for indicating the shouldered points horizon (Pl. 76.7). Another diagnostic specimen is a backed and shouldered (on the opposite edge) bladelet (Pl. 76.11). The remaining objects are shouldered bladelets, that possibly could have been infinished products of geometric microliths (Pl. 76. 8–10). Bladelets with fine retouch Besides backed bladelets there were also micro-retouched uni or bilateral bladelets (8 spec.; Pl. 76.12–17, 21). Micro- and macro-truncations The material from sequence B contained six micro-truncations (Pl. 76.18–20), including two specimens that could be fragments of trapezes (Pl. 76.22, 23), and an inverse truncation on a bilaterally retouched bladelet (Pl. 76.24). There are only

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

four simple macro-truncations including a fragment of a convex specimen (Pl. 76.25), and two oblique truncations (Pl. 76.26, 27). Pointes ´ soie Two specimens can be assigned to backed points with a thinned proximal part: two specimens were made on medium-size blades (Pl. 76.28, 29), and one is microlithic (Pl. 76.30). The latter specimen could have been shaped on a fragment of a backed bladelet. Burins The collection contained 11 burins (4.3% of all tools). The following types were represented: dihedral mesial burins on flakes (Pl. 76.31, 32), mesial burins on truncations: burin blows extend onto the retouched edge. Thus, these are specimens on unilaterally and bilaterally retouched blades (Pl. 77.1, 2, 6), or on partially unilateral retouched blades (Pl. 77.3). It is possible that these specimens could have been shaped by pressure – not necessarily intentional – on the distal end of the retouched blades. Angle burins on truncations are two objects where the burin spalls were removed from the fronts of end-scrapers that could have happened accidentally when an end-scraper was used and the pressure was exerted on the front (Pl. 77.4, 5). Only one angle burin with truncation is intentional. A burin on a snap on a thick blade (Pl. 77.8), and nucleiform burins on thick, partially cortical flakes complete this group (Pl. 77.7). Side-scrapers Among 23 specimens (8.3% of all tools) the following types have been distinguished on the basis of the location of the retouched edge in relation to the blank axis and they are: lateral sidescrapers (Pl. 77.9–12), bilateral side-scrapers including side-scrapers with parallel (Pl. 77.16), divergent (Pl. 77.15), or convergent edges (Pl. 77.13, 14). These are, however, fragments and the shape of these side-scrapers is difficult to determine. transversal side-scrapers (Pl. 77.17, 18), one with stepped retouch, Canted (déjeté) sidescrapers with two (Pl. 77.19) or three retouched edges (Pl. 77.20). The features of the blanks indicate that the transversal side-scrapers could have been an in-

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trusion from the Middle Palaeolithic layers, although specimens like this can be found in assemblages of the Late Epigravettian in Italy such as in the Cippoliane Cave in Lecce (Gambassini and Napoleone, 1997). Denticulated-notched tools on flakes There were 12 denticulated implements (4.7%). When the location of the retouched edge in relation to the flake axis is examioned we can distinguish the following sub-types: macrotools with alternate, bilateral retouch (Pl. 78.1), and similar but slightly different are tools with alternate retouch (Pl. 78.2), bilateral specimens with obverse retouch (Pl. 78.3), lateral-transversal specimens (Pl. 78.4), flakes with transversal-lateral Clactonian notches (Pl. 78.9), microlithic denticulated discoidal tools (Pl. 78.7), small specimens with denticulated-notched lateral retouch (Pl. 78.6), as well as three fragments of such implements (Pl. 78.5, 8). Blades with notched retouch There were 7 blades with notched retouch on thin, regular blades (Pl. 78.10–12), and on thicker, less regular blades (Pl. 78.13–15). Retouched flakes The small number of retouched flakes (8 specimens – 3.4%) is striking. All these are specimens with partial retouch are both fine (Pl. 78.16) as well as flat while some are alternate (Pl. 78.17). To this list we add indeterminate fragments of retouched tools (4 items). Hammerstones, anvils and ground stones Besides flint and radiolarite cores, a pebble of greenish sandstone was used as a hammerstone with subtriangular shape, and traces of hammering on each tip (Fig. 24.1). An additional limestone pebble with three concentrations of traces of hammering (Fig. 24.2) was used as an anvil. Finally, a relatively thin plaquette from grey quartz with traces of polishing on the edge was also recorded. It was used as an edge grinder; transversally broken (Fig. 24.3). Bone object Only one bone awl has been found in layer IId.

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Fig. 24. Sequence B. Stone plaquettes (1–3)

THE PLACE OF THE INVENTORY FROM SEQUENCE 2 IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE EPIGRAVETTIAN The tool type that is most diagnostic for the industry in sequence 2 are shouldered points: to be precise one specimen which (Pl. 76.7) is simi-

lar to classical shouldered points from Greek sites (e.g., Kastritsa, stratum 3; Adam, 1989: fig. 25). However, the Greek shouldered points are, however, earlier (dated to about 19 kyrs BP – Galanidou and Tzedakis, 2001). On the other hand, it should be emphasized that shouldered points in

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

the territory of Italy such as at Paglici Cave (layer 14), from Taurisano (layer B) where they have been dated to ca. 15 kyrs BP (Palma di Cesnola and Bietti 1983; Palma di Cesnola, 1992). Among Italian shouldered points there are objects like the specimen from Klissoura (Bietti, 1979) but also shouldered points with ventral retouch. In the rich set of backed implements the specimens with ventral retouch in the proximal part (Pl. 74.22; Pl. 75.1, 3, 18, 27) and “needle”-like points (Pl. 76.24, 28) are most diagnostic. Similar objects are known from Kastritsa stratum 5 and 3 (Adam, 1989), although closest parallels can be found both in the Early and in the fully developed phases of the Epigravettian in Italy (Epigravettiano evoluto according to Palma di Cesnola). For example, “needle”-like points were recorded (Palma di Cesnola et al., 1983: fig. 19; Palma di Cesnola, 1993: figs 30, 31, 37) at Paglici in layers 21 and 20 of the Early Epigravettian dated to about 21 kyrs BP, and in layers 18–14, and even layer 10 that is dated to 18–15 kyrs BP. Examples of “needle”-like points occur in the developed Epigravettian not only in Apulia but also in central Italy such as in the region of Rome in Palidoro, Salerno, grotta della Cala and more (Palma di Cesnola, 1993). Parageometric and geometric specimens are also a diagnostic component of the developed Epigravettian in the Adriatic Sea basin. Most importantly these are rectangles with retouch on three sides such as at Paglici in layer 19, an Early Epigravettian context. The triangles were found at Paglici in layer 18. These microliths are present also in the Tyrrenian Sea basin such as in Cala Cave, layers P-M, and continue to co-occur with shouldered points (Gambassini, 1971; Palma di Cesnola, 1993). Segments (lunates) are less frequent but they too, co-occur with shouldered points as in Palidoro Cave (Bietti, 1976–1977), in Diruto Cave, near Viterbo (Pennacchioni and Tozzi, 1984). In Cala Cave the segments occur in association both with shouldered points and with rectangles (Martini, 1981). At the sites of the developed Epigravettian in Epirus such as Kastritsa layer 1 (Adam, 1989) geometric forms are also present and their production is related to the microburin technique . Similar observations were mad in Klithi where they are dated to 15–10 kyrs BP (Bailey, 1997) a period missing in Klissoura.

187

In addition the presence of pointes ´ soie indicates some analogies with the sites of the Early Epigravettian in Italy that are considered as related to the “Solutroid tradition” in the Epigravettian (see for example layer 18 at Paglici; Palma di Cesnola, 1993). Similar artifacts with flat ventral retouch have not been found in the Greek Epigravettian.

SEQUENCE A Layers 3, 3a, 3b, 5 and 5a Sequence A was made up of layers 3, 3a, 3b, 5 and 5a. The layers were disturbed by recent holes made by shepherds, and by numerous bioturbations. In the course of our exploration it was not always possible to decide which artifacts are deposited in secondary position. It is only the detailed scatter-pattern analyses and techno-typological examinations carried after the field work was completed that facilitated us to provide a fuller picture of the Mesolithic industries. The results of the first seasons of excavations had already been presented in a preliminary report (Koumouzelis et al., 2003). The present analysis is an extended report finds including assemblages of artifacts within three units: the youngest layer 3 (made up of its three variants in the site area: 3, 3a, 3b and 3/4), and the underlying layer 5a which occurs only in squares AA1-CC3. The large number of historical disturbances caused damage and the stratigraphic succession of layers 5 and 5a could not be established. The scatter-pattern analysis on the other hand clearly suggests the existence of two concentrations of artifacts (Fig. 25). Sequence A is built of heterogeneous clay-rich deposits (HCS facies); levels 5 and 5a represent HCS facies mixed with LSS facies (loose ash and shell-rich deposits) and LHW facies (natural laminated deposits). Hearths structures were initially assigned to sequence A but detailed analysis has shown that they are associated with the lower layers. The base of sequence A provided a radiocarbon date of 9150±220 BP (Gd-10685) obtained on carbonates. Sequence A yielded a total of 6812 artifacts; the biggest number (3956) come from layer 5a.

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Fig. 25. Sequence A. Frequency of lithic artefacts in particular squares

Layer 3 Raw material frequencies are presented in Table 10. The most frequently exploited raw material was radiolarite which accounts for 58.4% of all the artifacts. Various types of siliceous rocks are the second largest group accounting for 37.6%. Other raw materials played a minor role. Of interest is the presence of two artifacts from obsidian, probably originating from the island of Melos. The frequency of siliceous rocks in the group of cores and chunks documents the attempts at exploitation of rocks whose feasibility was poor but they were easily available. In the group of tools the proportion of radiolarite is much higher than average at the site and reaches 74.1%. Possibly, some tools were brought to the site as complete items.

Inventory structure The largest group are chips and chunks (65.6% together). The proportion of these two technological categories is slightly lower in sequence A than in other layers, which indicates limited on-site tool production. In all likelihood, most tools were produced off-site, although the flakes to blades ratio points to on-site production of blanks. Cores There are 19 items including small bladeflake cores, sometimes with careful, lateral preparation (Pl. 79.1). The cores are strongly exhausted, as a rule with a flat flaking surface. It can be assumed that these cores were reduced by alternately rounding and flattening of the flaking surface. The platforms are usually at an acute anTable 10

Major technological groups structure – layer 3 Radiolarite Cores Splintered pieces Flakes

Flint

Chalcedony

Quartz

Obsidian

Other siliceous rocks

Indeterminate rocks

Total (%) 19 (1.4)

9

9

1

-

-

-

-

11

7

1

-

-

-

2

21 (1.5)

137

90

1

1

1

7

2

239 (17.4)

Blades

90

38

2

-

-

-

1

131 (9.5)

Chips

413

247

2

3

1

4

3

673 (49.1)

Chunks

96

115

1

3

-

12

-

227 (16.5)

Tools

46

10

1

-

-

-

5

62 (4.5)

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

gle to the flaking surface, single-blow or unprepared. Moreover, 4 flake cores, of which one is a change-of-orientation specimen, have also been preserved. The cores from sequence A show strong fragmentation (10 fragments). Splintered pieces Most splintered pieces (21) are bipolar and fairly small ranging from 18 to 27 mm long (Pl. 79.2). Only one specimen made on a robust chunk is bigger. The splintered technique was applied on chunks, flakes, sometimes cores in the final phase of reduction, even tools. One of the specimens was made on an end-scraper. Flakes Majority of flakes (239 in total) come from advanced stages of core reduction. The proportion of cortical flakes is very small which confirms the supposition that preliminary reduction took place off-site. Blades The recovered sample is 131 specimens. Complete blades are fairly small ranging from 12 to 37 mm long and their width from 2 to 18 mm. Individual blades that are longer than 25 mm were made from high quality radiolarite (Pl. 79.3) or from a siliceous rock black in color, however, we consider these probably as later intrusions. In most items the edges and inter-scar ridges are irregular, and the profiles are frequently twisted. 84 blades fragments are present. Tools Among the 62 items nine are end scrapers, four are burins and burin spalls, five side scrapers, eight retouched flakes, two raclettes, five retouched blades, 21 microliths including geometric forms, 12 backed pieces. End-scrapers End-scrapers were made on chunks (2), flakes (5) or even on blades (2). The fronts are irregular, with denticulated retouch, rounded (Pl. 79.4), asymmetrical (Pl. 79.5), flat, straight (Pl. 79.6) or undulating. A double, flake end-scraper had convex, and slightly asymmetrical fronts (Pl. 79.7).

189

Burins and burin spalls These include a dihedral mesial burin made in the distal part of a robust backed blade (Pl. 79.8), a lateral dihedral burin made on a flat residual core (Pl. 79.9), an irregular, lateral, angle burin with an inversely retouched truncation, and a flat burin scar, and an atypical burin spall from an angle or dihedral burin. Side-scrapers One side-scraper was made on a splintered piece, others are lateral on flakes (Pl. 79.10). A specimen with flat retouch covering the edge and the distal part of a flake (Pl. 79.11) could be a later intrusion from the early Bronze Age. Retouched flakes The retouch is irregular, steep, denticulated lateral-distal (Pl. 79.12) or distal. The following specimens have also been ascribed to this group: a splinter with flat ventral retouch covering a small section of the edge, and a fragment of a flat flake probably from platform rejuvenation with fine distal retouch. A thermal fragment of a flake with flat, regular retouch extending onto the flake surface is in all likelihood an intrusion from the early Bronze Age. Raclettes They were made by inverse, fine retouch that shaped notches (Pl. 79.13). The two specimens were made on small radiolarite flakes. Retouched blades The specimens are fairly regular, with discontinuous fine, denticulated-notched retouch of one edge (Pl. 79.14), or as one item with two edges. Microliths and geometric forms As many as 10 artifacts of this type occurred in square B2 at a depth of 30–40 cm, in layer 3b/4 and 3b. The group of microliths is varied comprising of backed tools, and truncations, rectangules, a triangle and atypical trapezes. Backed pieces These objects form the an important group of tools that is fairly varied. Because most backed pieces are fragments detailed analysis was difficult. The specimens are made on bladelets. Com-

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plete items are from 20 to 29 mm long i.e. they correspond in size to the blades from layer 3. There are 3 simple backed pieces relatively large, not very thick, inversely retouched (Pl. 79.15). Three backed pieces with partial fine retouch of the opposite edge (Pl. 79.19). Two specimens are microlithic, thin (1.5 to 2 mm). The blunted backs are straight and semi-steep, with fine retouch of the opposite edge in the proximal part. There are also arched backed pieces (6 specimens), fairly large (up to 30 mm), with the blunted back shaped by fine retouch (Pl. 79.16– 18). One arched backed piece have fine retouch of the opposite edge (Pl. 79.20). Sauveterrian points Two fragments of needle-like points were recorded: one is a symmetrical specimen made from chalcedony, the other is a slightly asymmetrical specimen made on a fine bladelet from radiolarite (Pl. 79.21). Both items were found in square B2. Other microliths The list includes an inversely retouched truncation: is a robust, small specimen made on a blade-flake from radiolarite and a fragment of an oblique truncation. An obtuse triangle (Pl. 79.22), slender, shaped by fine, regular retouch on a bladelet, from grey siliceous rock. The rectangles two items specimens (Pl. 79.23, 24) were shaped on regular bladelets measuring 23 × 5 × 3 mm and 21 × 4.4 × 3 mm, with careful, steep retouch of the blun- ted back and semi-steep retouch shaping the bases. Atypical trapeze are two. One atypical low trapeze with partial retouch of one edge was made on a blade from a double-platform core (Pl. 79.25). The second a similar, larger specimen was made on a blade from a single-platform core. The slight concavity of the blunted back is a characteristic feature. In addition this assemblage contained the following: a perforator with the tang shaped by flat retouch, a fragment of a flake with a Clactonian notch, a thick chopping type tool made one pebble, a Kostenki truncation on a fairly regular blade-flake, and four small fragments of tools. Layer 5 The dominant raw material in layer 5 is radiolarite (61,8%) nearly twice the quantity of

flint. The presence of yellowish flint (“silex blond”) is noteworthy. The fact that yellow flint was commonly employed by Neolithic groups and that this rock is absent at sites older than the Neolithic allows us to suggest that exchange functioned between groups with foraging economy and contemporary groups with food-producing economy. However, this hypothesis that has already discussed in the literature (Koumouzelis et al., 2003) should be treated with caution as layer 5, which contained finds from yellow flint, is considerably disturbed. Within layer 5 numerous recent pits and holes as well as bioturbations were observed which may have disturbed the original stratigraphy and the original location of the artifacts. It is further difficult to determine the stratigraphic position of finds in layer 5 due to its undulating base and top. The layer dips to SE. In square AA2 layer 5 can be seen at a depth of 15 cm thus deeper than layer 5a (10–15 cm) which occurs in the same square. In square AA1, on the other hand, layer 5 can be seen at a depth of 25–30 cm i.e. at a shallower depth than layer 5a (30–35 cm). The base of layer 5 is deepest in square B2 up to 40 cm below datum. The largest concentration of finds was recorded in square A2 and B2 at a depth of 40–50 cm. Fine chips and chunks (73.2%) predominate the inventory. Their ratio is similar to the frequency of these forms in other layers. The existence of such a large group of this category is the result of the use of excavation techniques that included sieving the entire sediments, and therefore not the expression of the special trait of the given assemblage. The low frequency of cores and the predominance of flakes over blades indicate the important role of on-site production of blanks and tools (Table 11). Cores Layer 5 provided 13 cores (12 complete specimens and a fragment). Most were discovered in metres AA1 (4) and A2 (4). These are single-platform blade cores or blade-flake cores (4 specimens) (Pl. 80.1). Among them there are microlithic cores in the final phases of reduction, with a flat flaking surface, and mediolithic specimens with careful bilateral preparation (Pl. 80.2). Also present are double-platform cores with a common flaking surface for fine bladelets (2; Pl. 80.3) or

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

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Table 11 Major technological groups structure – layer 5 Radiolarite

Flint

Siliceous rocks

Quartz

Chalcedony

Indeterminate

Total

5

-

-

-

-

13 (0.8%)

173

61+2*

4+2*

1

1

-

244 (16.4%)

50

14

1

-

-

1#

66 (4.3%)

Chips

310

209+1**+1#

2

3

3

-

529 (35.6%)

Chunks

332

222

3

1

-

-

558 (37.6%)

-

-

1

4

46 (3.1%)

-

2

-

-

28 (1.8%)

12 (0.80%)

7 (0.40%)

5 (0.30%)

5 (0.30%)

1484 (100%)

Cores

8

Flakes Blades

30 11 Tools Splintered 14 11+1** pieces 917 (61.80%) 538 (36.20%) Total * cortical; ** from yellow flint; # from obsidian

with a twisted flaking surface (1). Flakes wee detached from discoidal cores (2) or from singleplatform cores for flakes (2). Several changes of orientation leading to the formation of multi-platform cores (1) were used sporadically. Flakes Flakes (244) come from advanced phases of core reduction. The small proportion of cortical specimens confirms a hypothesis that ready cores were brought to the cave rather than nodules of raw materials. Sometimes during the advanced phases of reduction, the orientation of a core was changed into the opposite by detaching a robust overpass flake from the tip of the core. Blades Most blades (65) are small, almost microlithic, whose length does not exceed 17–18 mm. Layer 5 contained, besides, single items of large, broad, fairly robust blades detached from single-platform cores with unprepared platforms (Pl. 80.4), or from double-platform cores. Cores used for the production of such blades were absent in the assemblage from layer 5. Thus the blades in question must have been produced off-site. However, the possibility that they are intrusion from younger layers cannot be excluded. Some blades were detached from cores with full preparation documented by the presence of two sub-crested blades and one crested blade. Splintered pieces Splintered pieces (28) are small ranging from 14 to 29 mm long, 10–20 mm wide, and 4–14 mm

thick. The majority are bipolar rectangular specimens. Three items were made on flakes and two on blades. A specimen (Pl. 80.5) made on a mesial fragment of a broad flake from silex blond, already described in literature (Koumouzelis et al., 2003), is particularly interesting. The blade was at least 30 mm broad, about 6 mm thick, with irregular dorsal scars. Tools End-scrapers The group includes blade (5) and flake (3) specimens. The items made on short, irregular blades have rounded fronts (2 specimens), sometimes with retouch extending onto sides (1; Pl. 80.6) or straight, slightly oblique (2). Flake endscrapers are represented by: a discoidal end-scraper on a robust flake, a high scraper with a rounded, denticulated front (Pl. 80.7) as well as a small fragment of a flake end-scraper. Side-scrapers Three carinated have been ascribed to the group of side-scrapers . These are a convex sidescraper on a flake from a double-platform core, shaped by scaled retouch (Pl. 80.8), a bilateral, straight-convex side-scraper on a blade-flake (Pl. 80.9), and a small bilateral side-scraper, shaped by scaled retouch on a flake from a double-platform core (Pl. 80.10). All the specimens were discovered in metre A2 at a depth of 40–50 cm. Their state of preservation is similar – the surfaces are slightly pol-

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ished. It is likely that these side-scrapers come from older MP layers. Retouched blades Retouched blades (11) are irregular, with fine flat retouch, or simple discontinuous on one (2) or both (9) edges. The retouch can be notched obverse or inverse (Pl. 80.11). Bilateral retouch is fine, discontinuous, alternate (Pl. 80.12), and denticulated. Only one specimen has fairly regular, semi-steep retouch (Pl. 80.13). One blade has an accidental burin scar on the edge. A slender, fairly regular blade has two symmetrical notches. It resembles strangled pieces known among others in the Castelnovian (Pl. 80.14). Of interest is a specimen with flat parallel retouch on one edge and semi-steep retouch on the other (Pl. 80.15). This retouched blade could be a younger intrusion. Retouched flakes Two specimens are a thick flake with fine retouch on the right edge (Pl. 80.16), and a fragment of a blade-flake with denticulated retouch on the left edge. Microliths The 12 items are eight backed items and among them five specimens are made on slender bladelets, with a straight truncation shaped by fine retouch. In one case there it is also a partial retouch on the opposite edge. Two specimens are microlithic with a straight truncation (Pl. 80.17). In addition there is a fragment of a backed piece made on a thick bladelet; with a broad, bilaterally retouched truncation (Pl. 80.18). The group includes a “sauveteroid” point that was made on a bladelet (from a double-platform core) with flat ventral retouch (Pl. 80.19). Two bladelets with bilateral microretouch: one is a regular specimen with fine bilateral retouch, broken in the proximal part, and inconspicous retouch on the break (Pl. 80.20) while the other item is a distal fragment of micro-retouched bladelet. Finally, one trapeze (?), a sort of thick trapeze with alternate retouch of the sides is also included (Pl. 80.21). In addition layer 5 yielded the following: a small perforator with a short tang, made on a flake (Pl. 80.22), a notched piece on an irregular, large blade, a burin spall split off from the side of a nar-

row splintered piece, seven fragments of indeterminate tools, and a fragment of a grinding stone (Fig. 26). Layer 5a The layer 5a was identified in squares AA1, AA2, BB1, BB2, CC1, CC2. The layer is not continuous, it is partially damaged by recent diggings, by erosional processes and bioturbations. Its thickenss varies depending on the extent of damage: of 30 to up to 50 cm. The top of layer 5a is not stratified on the same level: in square AA1 it appears at a depth of 30 cm and it is 5 cm thick, whereas in square CC3 this layer appears at a depth of 10 cm and its thickness reaches 50 cm. Layer 5a yielded a series of 3955 lithics, mainly from metres BB2, BB3, and CC2. In squares AA1, and AA2 layer 5a was partially damaged and the section where it has been preserved contained few lithic artefacts. The fairly conspicuous concentration of lithics in squares BB2, BB3 and CC2 could be the remains of the original pattern (the area of blank or – rather – tool production). The majority of artefacts in the classified series were fine chips and fragments numbering a total of 2876 specimens (72.7% of the inventory). Such a large series of chips documents on-site production of both blanks and tools. In order to produce stone tools the inhabitants of the cave used radiolarite (61%) and various types of flint (33%). The proportion of radiolarite in the group of tools and blades is higher than average (77%), whereas it is distinctly lower than average in the group of fragments, chips and splinters. This suggests that part of radiolarite blades and tools was produced off-site. Layer 5a provided, besides, artifacts from extralocal obsidian (3 specimens). The investigations in the Franchthi Cave (PerlÀs, 1987) have shown that obsidian could have been bartered as early as the Final Palaeolithic. The inventory is dominated by chips and small fragments, and chunks. It can be assumed that such a high component of these forms is primarily the effect of employed excavation techniques. Blades account for 6.5% of the inventory. When the group of small-size artifacts (chips, fragments, chunks) is disregarded then the blade index increases up to 23.8 i.e. the value typical of inventories with blade technique and blades produced, mainly, on-site (Table 12).

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

193

Fig. 26. Sequence A. Fragment of stone grinder

Cores Cores (45) made from radiolarite (68.9%) dominate in the group of cores. Concretions, pebbles and radiolarite plaquettes were used for cores and reduced. Moreover, a large group of cores was made from larger radiolarite flakes (20%). The frequency of cores for blades and for flakes is almost equal (48.8%). Cores very in size: their length oscillates from 16 to 42 mm, width from 10 to 41 mm. Most cores are single-platform, short, representing advanced stages of reduction (Pl. 81.1). Some cores do not exhibit preparation prior to reduction proper. Specimens like this have broad, rounded flaking surfaces and unprepared platforms. Sometimes, core preparation was restricted to the shaping of the platform (Pl. 81.2). In the case of some of the blade cores preparation covered as well one side in order to give the flaking surface a rectangular shape (Pl. 81.3, 4). Generally, core preparation is limited. Nevertheless, some specimens must have undergone full preparation which is evidenced by the presence of two-sided crested blades. The reduction of blade and blade-flake cores began from a rounded or ogival flaking surface which was gradually flattened (Pl. 81.5). The coring angle was maintained by detaching tablets (Pl. 81.6). Among flake cores flat, one-sided discoidal cores (1) and double-platform specimens and change-of-orientation cores were registered. Moreover, the series from layer 5a contained concretions or chunks in the initial stage of reduction limited to one or two removals.

Splintered pieces Splintered pieces (49) are slightly more numerous than cores. Thus, the splintered technique was relatively frequently used. Splintered pieces were made on tabular concretions, on flakes (Pl. 81.7), sometimes on residual cores. Cores-splintered pieces were utilized for the production of specific blanks: thin, flat small flakes, and splinters. Majority of splintered pieces are from radiolarite (Pl. 81.8; 71.1%). The proportion of radiolarite, higher than average at the site, shows that this raw material was favored for the splintered technique. There was one obsidian splintered piece (Pl. 81.9). The specimens are from 12 to 36 mm long, and from 11 to 32 mm broad. Their thickness is from 2 to 17 mm. The most frequent

Table 12 Major technological categories – layer 5a N

%

Cores

45

1.14

Splintered pieces

49

1.2

Flakes

595

15.04

Blades

257

6.5

Retouched tools

131

3.4

Chips Fragments and chunks

1503

38.0

1373

34.7

2 hammerstones*, 2 dentalium beads** 1 lump of mineral dye * Pl. 83.24; ** Pl. 83.25-26 Others

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specimens are bipolar, two-sided, rectangular or approximately oval in shape (Pl. 81.10–12). Flakes Flakes are a relatively large group in the inventory (595 – 15.4%). Just as in other inventory groups among flakes, too, radiolarite is the most frequent raw material (58.1%), although its frequency is not much higher than that of other raw materials. Flakes are fairly small. Among larger specimens belong, first of all, flakes from core retrimming such as tablets that are longer than 30 mm. The proportion of cortical flakes is fairly high (73 specimens – 12.4%) which documents that the entire cycle of blank production, starting with decortication, took place on-site. Blades Most blades (257) were made from radiolarite (77.4%). The proportion of this raw material, higher than in other groups in the assemblage, allows to conjecture that part of the radiolarite blades were produced off-site. A microlithic bladelet from obsidian measuring 20 × 6 × 3 mm was also made off-site. Blade length oscillates from 15 to 56 mm, width from 3 to 18 mm, and thickness from 1 to 13 mm. The longest specimens were detached during preliminary treatment (among them a crested blade from quartzite is interesting). The occurrence of crested blades (9 – 3.5%), also from raw materials that are rare in the inventory (e.g., quartzite), with simultaneous absence of blade cores with full preliminary preparation, supports the conclusion that some blades were produced off-site. It is difficult to answer now whether specialized blade production from technologically advanced cores was conducted by the members of the same community or whether blades like this were obtained by exchange with other groups. Tools The basic raw material of the 131 tools was radiolarite which accounts for 74% of all tools. Most tools were made on blades (65.5%) both fine microlithic, to produce mainly microliths, as well as bigger blades for points, end-scrapers and other tools. End-scrapers Of a total of 22 items Flake specimens (13) are more numerous than blade end-scrapers.

Sometimes, flake end-scrapers were made from large flakes whose length was more than 40 mm (2 specimens). The fronts are usually high, denticulated (2), rounded (2; Pl. 81.13), nosed (1), asymmetrical (1; Pl. 81.14), straight (1; Pl. 81.15), ogival (1), rounded with retouch on a small section of one lateral side (1). Of interest is a short “core-shaped” double end-scraper on a thick flake. Moreover, there were 3 fragments of flake end-scrapers of which one was retrimmed as a splintered piece. Blade end-scrapers (9) are short, with rounded fronts (Pl. 81.16), sometimes with bilateral retouch (Pl. 81.17) or retouch on one lateral side (Pl. 81.18). A specimen with a high, asymmetrical front (Pl. 82.1) and a short double end-scraper (Pl. 82.2) also occurred. Burins The two burins are a mesial angle burin was made in the distal part of a fairly broad blade (Pl. 82.3). The second specimen is a lateral dihedral burin (Pl. 82.4). In addition layer 5a yielded 3 burin spalls which do not make up refits with the burins described here. Perforators The 3 items are an asymmetrical perforator one flake, with a thick tip (Pl. 82.5), a slender perforator on a blade, with a weekly distinguished tip (Pl. 82.6), and a slender asymmetrical perforator-bec on a blade. Retouched flakes The 21 specimens were shaped by simple (15 spec.) or denticulated-notched (6 spec.) retouch. A flat flint plaquette can also be ascribed to this group which has alternately retouched opposite notches (Pl. 82.7). Some specimens have retouch on a small section of the edge, e.g. an obsidian specimen (Pl. 82.8). The retouch is also alternate simple and notched (Pl. 82.9). Sometimes, the notch was made by a single blow. Pointed heavy duty tools These three tools occurred in metre BB3 (2 spec.; Pl. 82.10, 11) and metre AA3 (1 spec.; Pl. 82.12), all at a depth of 5–10 cm. The specimens are small: from 20 to 32 mm long, shaped by thick, sometimes bilateral retouch that covers three facets of tools. This retouch gave the tools their triangular or trapezoidal cross-section.

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

Retouched blades These tools (6 spec.) have been preserved as fragments. The blades are fairly large, their width is up to 17 mm. The retouch is usually semi-steep, continuous, covering two (Pl. 82.13, 14) or sometimes one edge. In one case the retouch is notched, lateral (Pl. 82.15), and one specimen has lateral distal retouch. A trimming blade with fine, possibly, pseudo-retouch on one edge also belongs in this group. Microliths The most numerous group in layer 5a are microliths and inserts (63). The majoritywere made on slender, regular microlithic bladelets. This group is highly strongly differentiated, represented by straight backed tools (21 specimens). They were shaped by fine, steep unilateral retouch (Pl. 82.16). Most have been preserved as fragments (16 specimens), for this reason their length is difficult to determine. The width of the specimens is between 4 to 10 mm. The retouch is steep, inverse; only three specimens are with bilateral retouch. One specimen has flat, ventral retouch at the base (Pl. 82.17). Backed tools with partial retouch on the opposite edge (8 spec.). The retouch covers a section of the edge opposite to the blunted back (Pl. 82.18), it is usually finer, less steep (Pl. 82.19). Some of the fragments are specimens with weakly convergent sides. It is difficult to decide whether these were truncations with retouch on the opposite edge or whether these were backed points (Pl. 82.20). Backed tools with oblique retouch on the base (3). These specimens have been preserved as fragments. A backed tool with a concave base and a distal impact fracture from the break (Pl. 83.1). A robust, arched backed tool on a flake, with a thick, bilaterally retouched blunted back and an impact fracture at the distal end (Pl. 83.2). Backed tools with an undulating blunted back (2 spec.). In squares CC2 and CC3, at a depth of 15–20 cm, 2 tools made on blade-like flakes were discovered. They had retouch on one edge that shaped a kind of notch at mid-length of the edge, and simple distal retouch. The angle between the retouched edge and the opposite edge is acute (Pl. 83.3, 4). These tools can be classified as a kind of

195

thick, atypical backed tools with an undulating blunted back. Backed points (3 spec.; Pl. 83.5–7). These are symmetrical specimens, with fine retouch of the edge opposite to the blunted back. Sauveterrian and “Sauveterroidal” points (6 spec.; Pl. 83.8–12). Three specimens are typical, small, needle-like points, the others are slightly larger, made on broader bladelets (one of them is on a bladelet with traces of careful lateral preparation; Pl. 83.11), with steep bilateral retouch. One of the points has flat, ventral retouch in the proximal part and an impact fracture at the tip (Pl. 83.12). Rectangles (6) are with steep retouch of the blunted back and transversal retouch in the distal and the proximal part (Pl. 83.13, 14), or fragments with distal retouch and a fracture in the proximal part (Pl. 83.15), intact specimens with transverse retouch in the distal part (Pl. 83.16), and with a proximal impact fracture. These specimens could be the intrusion from Epigravettian layers. Triangles. Two specimens are a triangle with retouch on three sides (Pl. 83.17) and a fragment of atypical elongated triangle with flat ventral retouch in the distal part (Pl. 83.18). Truncations. Three microlithic specimens had truncations shaped by fine retouch in the proximal end (Pl. 83.19). Retouched bladelets (7 specimens) include two bladelets with fine retouch on both edges (Pl. 83.20), four specimens with unilateral retouch (Pl. 83.21, 22), and a bladelet with fine unilateral retouch and piquant-triÀdre at the tip (Pl. 83.23). Finally, the inventory contained a microburin. It was discovered in the upper portion of layer 5a (squares AA3, 5–10 cm deep). In addition seven small fragments of indeterminate tools were recorded. Hammerstone and dentalium. One hammer-stone made from local limestone pebble and two dentalium beads were found (Pl. 83.24–26).

MESOLITHIC LAYERS FROM KLISSOURA ON THE BACKGROUND OF SOUTH-EAST EUROPEAN MESOLITHIC The dating of sequence A has been based on only one radiocarbon date from the floor of the se-

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quence (9150±220 BP). The upper chronological boundary of sequence A is defined by the presence, in layer 5, of a splintered piece made on a macroblade from silex blond – the raw material that was used in the Early Neolithic. Based on the typological analysis of this artifact and on the studies of ceramics from Cave 1, the authors of the first report (Koumouzelis et al., 2003) interpreted the splintered piece as the evidence of contacts between inhabitants of Cave 1 and the groups of first agriculturalists in the neighborhood of the cave. Thus layer 5 was contemporaneous with layer X from the Franchthi Cave dated to 7939± 100 and 7900±90 BP (PerlÀs, 1987:95). The authors maintained that because Early Neolithic ceramics are absent in Cave 1 the macroblade artifact in question must have been obtained by exchange between groups of foragers and the first farmers. It should be remembered, however, that from layer X in the Franchthi Cave produced only several small ceramic pieces, that were obtained by sieving (PerlÀs, 1987:94) and are possibly the results of intrusions from younger deposits. The occurrence of ceramics in the earliest phase of the Neolithic in Greece is still a object of lively discussions in the literature (e.g., PerlÀs, 2001). The supporters of the hypothesis about the presence of ceramics already in the earliest phase of the Neolithic emphasize that there are the small discarded fragments in the sites. Thus, the absence of ceramics in Cave 1 is not a decisive argument against the occurrence of occupation by early farmers in the Cave. Recent excavations in Cave 1 did not provide evidence that would contribute to the dating of layer 5. Nor did the Cave provide palaeobotanical/archaeozoological materials that would enable dating. The presence of numerous younger intrusions in sequence A compels us to cautiously suggest the hypothesis about contacts with Neolithic population. We note that the industries from sequence A at Klissoura differ from those recorded in Franchthi Cave (phases VII–X) with their microlithic and geometrical components and in other open-air sites in Argolid (Runnels, 2009), as well as from the flake industry (without the geometrical components) from Sidari on Corfu (Sordinas, 2003). Sequence A from Cave 1 contains blade industries that are strongly related to the local Epigravettian traditions. Throughout all the layers (espe-

cially in layer 5a) the index of microliths is high; the most important group are simple backed blades and weakly arched backed pieces. Besides the backed tools geometric forms also occur (rectangles, and obtuse triangles) and two types of points: on blades, with inverse proximal retouch, and small “needle” points. Rectangular geometric points and small, symmetrical “needle” points, were recorded at Sauvetarrian sites in northern Italy (Romagnano III; Broglio and Koz³owski, 1983). However, in Cave 1 at Klissoura microburin technique was not applied for their production. It is only layer 5a that provided a few specimens of this technique. Analyses of tool compositions in the various layers has not revealed conspicuous tendencies in the evolution of Mesolithic industries. Unlike in the Franchthi Cave the frequency of non-geometric microliths or flake forms with notched retouch doees not increase. Layer 5 shows a higher index of fairly regular blades with lateral retouch, which may possibly support the hypothesis about influences of Neolithic industries. On the other hand layer 3 exhibits a strong local Epigravettian traditions. It seems that the Mesolithic occupation of Cave 1 was done by isolated, fairly conservative groups of people with lithic industry rooted in earlier local Epigravettian traditions. These industries clearly differed from the flake industries – also representing the Epigravettian tradition – known in the Cycladic Islands (Maroulas; Sampson et al., 2002). The presence of Epigravettian tradition in Mesolithic assemblages can also be seen in the Late Mesolithic inventory from the Cyclope Cave on the Island Gioura. This assemblage contained two large backed tools: one with a straight blunted back, the other with an arched blunted back. The Cyclope Cave yielded also flake flint tools shaped by thick retouch and truncations, trapezes, and crescents made on obsidian blades. As far as obsidian tools are concerned there is some likelihood that they may come from the younger layers (Kaczanowska and Koz³owski, 2008). In sum, in the Mesolithic industries in Greece various traditions and evolutionary directions can be seen. At the moment the following groups can be distinguished: A. Flake industries that in their earlier phases absorbed influences from the western part of the Mediterranean basin, expressed in the presence of

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

flÀches tranchantes transversales. Moreover, regular blades and trapezes on blades appear in these contexts (Franchthi, phases VIII–X). B. Flake industries characterized by the occurrence of denticulated-notched forms, end-scra -pers and short perforators, and microliths, mainly thick arched backed pieces and atypical trapezes known in the Early Mesolithic of the Cycladic Islands (Maroulas on the Kythnos Island, Kerame on the island of Ikaria). In all likelihood the industry from layer X at Knossos should also be assigned to this group. C. Blade industries that evolved from the basis of a strong local Epigravettian tradition with Sauveterrian elements first and, later with paraCastelnovian components (Klissoura, Cave 1).

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THE SEQUENCE OF UPPER PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC LAYERS Table 13 presents the general tendencies in the evolution of occupations and lithic industries in all Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic layers. The results of this inter-layers comparisons are discussed in the general conclusions (see Stiner et al., this issue).

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Synopsis of the Upper Palaeolithic/ Layer 3

5

5a II, II a,II b,Iid

No and type of hearths

Raw materials

Major technological groups structure

Core types

Cores - 1.4%; flakes - 17.4%; blades Exhausted, blade-flake, change of 9.5%; tools - 4.5%; splint pieces orientation cores. Some prepared. 1.5%; chips - 49.1%; chunks - 16.6% Single platform, micro-and Radiolarite - 61.8%; Cores - 0.8%; flakes - 16.4%; blades mediolithic blade and blade-flake flint - 36.2%; imported 4.3%; tools - 3.1%; splint. pieces cores; double platform cores for "honey flint"(?) 1.8%; chunks - 37.6%; chips - 35.6% bladelets Radiolarite - 61%; flint - Cores - 1.1%; flakes - 15.1%; blades - Single platform microlithic and 33%; traces of obsidian ( 6.5%; tools - 3.4%; splint. pieces mediolithic cores for blades, 3 specimens) 1.2%; chips - 38%; chunks - 34.7% bladelets and flakes. Single platform mediolithic blade Cores 1.2%; Flakes 16.6%; blades Radiolarite 66%; flint cores (prepared), double platform 4.4%; tools 4.0%; splint.pieces 1.3%; 29% cores less frequent chips - 45.9%; chunks - 26.5% Radiolarite 58.4%; flint 37.6%

Residual cores (82%) for flakes Cores 1.4%; flakes 24.0%; blades (39%), blades and bladelets (42%), 3.8%; tools 2.3%; splint. pieces mostly single platform (83%), 90 2.5%;chips - 39.1%; chunks - 26.8% degree cores (10%), double platform (3.4%) Hearths 63,69,70 (clay Flakes cores (40%), blade cores Cores 1.8%; flakes 19.1%; blades lined) and sweeping zones; (20%), bladelet cores (26%); single III' Radiolarite dominate 6.3%; tools 3.2%; splint.pieces 2.6%; hearths 10a,11,12,12a and double-platform with platform chips 33.8%, chunks 33.2% (paved or stone-lined) preparation Single and opposed platform for Cores 3.1%; flakes 29.9%; blades Hearths 66,67,72-74 (clay Radiolarite 58.1%; flint bladelets; single platform for III" 4.2%; tools 3.3%; splint.pieces 3.8%; lined) 41.8% flakes; advanced reduction phase chips 22.7%; chunks 33.0% (50%) Upper portion of the comResidual /advanced cores (73%); IIIa- plex of hearths H16 H17 ( Radiolarite 52.8%; flint Cores 2.7%; flakes 27%; blades 5%; single (80%), and double platform IIIc clay-lined or simple); two 42,2% tools 3%; chips 30%; chunks 28.6% (10%) cores; flake (44%) and hearths out of this complex blade/bladelet cores (35.6%) Residual/advanced cores (70%); 7 clay lined hearths (includsingle platform (70%) 90 degree ing the basal hearths in Cores 1.8%; flakes 18%; blades IIIdRadiolarite 75.5%; flint cores (16%), double platform complex H16,H17), 3 with 4.1%; tools 2.7%; splint. pieces 1.5%; IIIg 21,1% (8%); flake cores (50%), traces of clay structures, chips 46%; chunks 26% blade/bladelet (33%), blade-flake and 5 simple hearths cores (16%) 55 hearths: clay lined Residual/advanced cores (80%); (56%), with remains of single-(77%), double platform burnt clay (14%). Diameter Cores 8.2%; flakes 16.2; blades Radiolarites 60,16%; (7%) 90 degree cores (13%); cores IV of all these hearths 25-40 4.5%; tools 3.3%; splint pieces 0.6%; flint 37,03 for flakes (61%), for blades (9%), cm. Simple hearths filled chips 53.9%; chunks 19% for bladelets ( 15%), for with ash (29%); diameter blade-flakes ( 14%) 30-100 cm. Oval stone ring. 5 simple flat hearths 30 100 cm in diameter, distribResidual/advanced cores (66%), Radiolarites dominate uted in a circle and 3 Cores 1%; flakes 16.6%; blades flake cores (80%), blade-flake (67.5%), mostly the best V hearths in the center of this 4.5%; tools 3.5%; splint.pieces 1.5%; cores(10%), cores for blades and quality R1 variant; flint circle. Layer preserved only chips 52%; chunks 20% bladelets rare; possible import of 27.5% in SW part of the trench. ready blade/bladelet blanks. No clay or stone structures. Mixed filling of the depresRadiolarite 60%, flint 6,6a, sion ("ditch") and inventory 33.6% 6/7 of H3 in top

Upper Palaeolithic human occupations and material culture at Klissoura Cave 1

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Table 13 Mesolithic sequence Layer

Major tool groups

3

Microliths (33.8%), end-scrapers retouched flakes and blades, burins.

5

Mictoliths (26%); retouched blades; end-scrapers; side-scrapers

5a

Microliths (48.1%); end-scrapers; retouched flakes and blades

II, II Backed blades and bladelets (32.1%); a, II end-scrapers (26.1%); retouched blades b, Iid

Diagnostic tools Arched backed bladelets; atypical trapeze, Sauveterrian points; rectangles Simple backed bladelets; Sauvterroid point; trapeze(?)

Sauveterrian points; triangles; microretouched bladelets; rectangles Gravette points; straight and needle-like backed bladelets; parageometric microliths (arched, reclangles); shouldered blades and bladelets; pointes a soie

End-scrapers (including carinates) (45.5%), retouched blades (12.7%), reCarinates and microretouched bladelets of 6,6a, touched flakes (11.6%), burins, side-scrapDufour type, backed bladelets 6/7 ers

III'

III"

End-scrapers (30.9%), microliths (20.9%), retouched flakes (5.2%), burins and reBacked bladelets, Vachons points, small touched blades arched bladelets, Krems points End-scrapers (36.8%); denticulated-notched (20.8%); retouched flakes (15.6%), side-scrfapers (7.9%)

Thick arched backed blades, Kostenki truncations, nosed end-scrapers

End-scrapers (including carinatedals) IIIa- 62%, retouched flakes, IIIc noteched-denticulates (8.7%), retouched blades (5.4%)

Carinateds

End-scrapers(64%), notched-denticulates IIId(10%), retouched flakes ( 6.5%), burins IIIg (4%), side-scrapers (3.5%)

Carinates and microretouched bladelets (0.2%)

No of lithic

Bone artefact

Remarks

1372 EN intrusions (?)

1448

2876

Bone beads

6312

One bone tool

10997

10 bone tools (6 points)

5943

2935

3089

24 bone tools (17 points)

75 bone tools 28627 (32 points)

IV

End-scrapers (63.8%), denticulates-notched (10.5%), retouched flakes (8.9%), retouched blades (5%)

Carinatedal end-scrapers/cores, 38 bone tools endscrapers on retouched blades, retouched 63837 mostly points) bladelets

V

Arched backed blades (30%: this ratio include specimens found in secondary position in layer IV); convex truncations Arched backed bladelets; convex retouched (6.5%), end-scrapers 4218 truncations (16.5%),denticulated/notched (11%), retouched flakes (10%), side-scrapers (4.2%), perforators (1.3). Only one burin

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Sequence F, layer V. 1–12 cores

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Sequence F, layer V. 1,2 cores; 3–7 splintered pieces; 8–27 retouched tools

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Sequence F, layer V. 1–32 retouched tools

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Sequence F, layer V. 1–22 retouched tools

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Sequence E, layer IV. 1–4 cores

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Sequence E, layer IV. Core

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Sequence E, layer IV. 1–14 retouched tools

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Sequence C, “ditch”. 1–14 cores; 15–17 splintered pieces

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Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 287–308.

SHELL ORNAMENTS FROM THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC THROUGH MESOLITHIC LAYERS OF KLISSOURA CAVE 1 BY PROSYMNA (PELOPONESE, GREECE) Mary C. Stiner School of Anthropology, P.O. Box 210030, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721-0030, USA; [email protected] Abstract More than 1500 shell ornaments were recovered during the excavations of the early Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic layers of Klissoura Cave 1. The ornament assemblages from the middle and lower Aurignacian and the earliest Upper Paleolithic (Uluzzian) layers associate with well preserved hearths and other intact cultural features. The older ornament assemblages are exceptionally rich in mollusk species, whose shells humans collected from marine shorelines, freshwater habitats and Pliocene fossil sources. A particularly dense concentration of ornamental shells occurs within the area of a small structure in the lower Aurignacian (layer IV). Taxonomic diversity in the ornament assemblages declines precipitously after the formation of layer IIIe–g (upper Aurignacian), and this condition of low diversity persists through the end of the cultural sequence. The changes in ornament diversity seem to reflect natural changes in coastline habitat structures of the region. All of the Upper Paleolithic ornament assemblages are “high-graded” or selectively winnowed for harmony in color, form and quality. There are few if any hints of manufacturing errors and debris typical of shell ornament assemblages in coastal sites. Rather, the ornaments display high frequencies of use wear (polish), usually in a preferred orientation, indicating that most of them arrived on site while affixed to human bodies or organic artifacts. There are no remains of edible marine mollusks in Klissoura Cave 1, consistent with its inland location. The taxonomic composition of the early Upper Paleolithic shell assemblages is similar to those documented in Italy, whereas the very limited taxonomic composition of the later ornament assemblages is most consistent with those found at Franchthi Cave on the southern Argolid. Key words: Paleolithic shell ornaments, Aurignacian, Uluzzian, taphonomy, site formation processes, site structure.

INTRODUCTION Comparatively little is known about Paleolithic ornaments from Greece. The number of excavated Paleolithic sites has climbed slowly over the last five decades, and only a few of these sites – Franchthi Cave and now Klissoura Cave 1 – provide much information about early decorative traditions and the contexts of their use. Paleolithic art, including beads, is considered an important criterion for the emergence of modern human behavior during the Late Pleistocene (e.g., Klein, 1989; Mellars, 1989; White, 2003). Decorative traditions exist in virtually every recent human culture, so much so that early Paleolithic beads and other ornaments might seem or-

dinary and without interest. The behavioral importance of the emergence of bead-making traditions in the early Upper Paleolithic is underscored, however, by the dearth of them in archaeological sites prior to this period in much of Eurasia (but see d’Errico et al., 1998; Bar-Yosef Mayer et al., 2009) in contrast to some African Middle Stone Age sites (Bouzouggar et al., 2007; Henshilwood et al., 2004). Ornaments made from mollusk shell, ostrich eggshell, mammal teeth and ivory, and soft stone are considered to be a unique evolutionary development on account of their visually striking qualities, transferability among persons (sensu durable items of trade, gifts or burial paraphernalia) (Kuhn and Stiner, 2007), and the stylistic formalizations

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apparent from consistencies in size and appearance (Hahn, 1972; Bar-Yosef, 1989; White, 1989, 1993; Taborin, 1993; Stiner, 1999, 2003; d’Errico et al., 2001; Kuhn et al., 2001; Bouzouggar et al., 2007). Mineral oxides, on the other hand, were widely used as early as the Middle Paleolithic period in Eurasia, perhaps to color hides, human skin, or tools. While decoration is only one of several possible explanations for the presence of pigments in Middle Paleolithic toolkits, the possibility of such practices in the Middle Paleolithic cannot be refuted with current evidence. Even if ochre and other minerals were used as pigments in the earlier periods, archaeologists’ efforts to link their occurrence in sites to prehistoric decorative traditions remains controversial (but see Henshilwood et al., 2009). The information that painted body designs may carry is transient and nontransferrable (Kuhn and Stiner, 2007), in contrast to the durable properties of some ornaments. Evidence for design repetition is necessary to any argument for shared symbolic significance in prehistoric decorative objects (Kuhn and Stiner, 2007). It is likely that ornament production and use was greatest where interaction among social groups was high, possibly in connection with regionally high human population densities (Kuhn et al., 2001). The sudden appearance of durable ornamental objects in human cultures of the Late Plei- stocene may even suggest the emergence of a basic visual grammar in social interactions (e.g., Gamble, 1986; d’Errico et al., 2003; Kuhn and Stiner, 2007). The timing of the first appearance and subsequent proliferation of ornament traditions varies across world regions. An important question for this study is the chronology and evolution of ornament traditions in southern Greece. Few paleoanthropologists would be surprised to learn that ornaments appear suddenly in the archaeological record of Greece with beginning of the Upper Paleolithic culture period. Most early Upper Paleolithic industries in Greece are attributed to the Aurignacian (Runnels, 1996) and have been identified in cave sites such as Franchthi (PerlÀs, 1987), Kephalari, Klissoura 1 by Prosymna (Koumouzelis et al., 1996, 2001), Asprochaliko (Bailey et al., 1983), and most recently at Lakonis (Panagopoulou et al., 2002–2004). Early Upper Paleolithic industries that resemble the Uluzzian

of Italy (Palma di Cesnola, 1966, 1993; Benini et al., 1997; Gambassini, 1997) have been found in Klissoura Cave 1 (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Kaczanowska et al., this issue). Several Upper Paleolithic sites in Greece contain ornaments made from shells (e.g., Shackleton, 1988; Koumouzelis et al., 2001). Recent excavations at Klissoura Cave 1 have yielded exceptionally rich ornament traditions in the early Upper Paleolithic of Klissoura Cave 1, including the Uluzzian layer.

BACKGROUND TO KLISSOURA CAVE 1 More than 1500 shell ornaments were recovered during the excavations of the early Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic layers of Klissoura Cave 1. The ornaments from the early Upper Paleolithic layers (V–IIIc) occur within and among a dense array of well preserved sedimentary features, mainly hearths. Shell ornaments are most abundant in the middle to lower Aurignacian layers, particularly layer IV. Several general observations about Klissoura Cave 1 are important to this presentation of the shell ornaments. This shallow cave is situated on the Berbatias River and commands a wide view of the Argos plain, roughly 12 km inland of the Argolikos Gulf (Fig. 1). Most of the ornamental shells nonetheless were collected from marine shores. The great variety of features, artifacts and vertebrate faunal remains in the Upper Paleolithic layers indicates that the site served mainly at a residential base, particularly in the early phases of occupation. An area of 13–15 square meters was excavated (Karkanas et al., 2004; Koumouzelis et al., 2001), and the units cut through the heart of several occupational layers in this small cave. The cultural stratigraphy in Klissoura Cave 1 is more than 5 m deep and includes a long Middle Paleolithic sequence (Sitlivy et al., 2007) capped by Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic horizons (Karkanas, this issue). Apart from locally disturbed zones at the interface of the Middle and Upper Paleolithic (VII/VI), ornaments are confined to the Upper Paleolithic (V, IV, III–III” & 6a), Epipaleolithic (II) and Mesolithic layers (5–3a) (Table 1). In the early Upper Paleolithic layers, hearth features occur in more than onethird of all excavation units. The Aurignacian lay-

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289

Fig. 1. (Left) Location of Klissoura Cave 1 by Prosymna on the Argolid of Peloponnese, Greece; other sites shown are Franchthi Cave (2) and Kephalari Cave (3). (Right) Comparison of modern shorelines to the distribution of paleolakes (black fill) and shorelines at the Last Glacial Maximum in southern Greece (adapted from Petit-Maire et al., 2005). White fill represents exposed land surfaces at the time of the LGM, which are now inundated

ers are unique not only for their high concentrations of wood ash and intact hearths, but the fact that many were lined with clay (Karkanas et al., 2004; Pawlikowski et al., 2000). Burning damage is common on the bones, ornaments, and lithics from all of the layers (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Tomek and Bocheñski, 2002; Karkanas et al., 2004; Starkovich and Stiner, this issue).

Variation in ornament abundance in the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic layers is not explained by differences in the thickness of the excavated deposits. Following Karkanas (this issue), the Mesolithic and probable Epigravettian (IIa–d) horizons are 10–20 cm in thickness, except where large pits invade the older layers. The Upper Paleolithic sequence (III–V) is much

Table 1 Layer terms, cultural attributions, and geological sequences for the ornament samples from Klissoura Cave 1 Culture attribution

Layer terms

Geological sequence

Ornament NISP

3, 5a

A

5

IIa, IIb, IId

B

9

6, 6a, 6/7

B

8

III-III'

D

38

Upper Paleolithic (non-Aurig.)

III"

D

28

Upper Aurignacian

IIIc

D

23

IIIe-g

D

138

IV

E

1218

Mesolithic Epigravettian Disturbed zone Medit. Backed-bladelet industry

Mid-Aurignacian Lower Aurignacian Earliest UP (Uluzzian)

V

F

32

Disturbed, mostly MP

VI

(F/)G

28

VII G 52 Middle Paleolithic The geological sequences are layer groups or facies with similar sedimentological characteristics that form coherent layer sets, separated by discrete contacts that indicate minor or major depositional hiatuses (following Karkanas, this issue). The Mediterranean backed-bladelet industries of layers III-III' and III'' differ from one another in some aspects but have in common the high frequency of the implements.

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thicker – about 190–210 cm overall. A disturbed, mixed deposit was encountered in layers 6–7 (see Table 1) and will not be discussed further. In the layer III series, clay-lined hearths are common only in layer III’. A large space devoid of hearths and large rocks was found in squares AA-CC1 at the depths of 75–85 cm below datum, and a short arc of clustered rocks was encountered between 85–105 cm. Sediments containing a nonAurignacian backed-bladelet industry of typical Mediterranean type (layers III–III’) and another layer (III”) containing a non-Aurignacian industry occur above the Aurignacian layers (IIIb–g, IV) (Kaczanowska et al., this issue). The earliest Aurignacian layer IV varies between 25–50 cm in thickness and is exceptionally rich in bones and artifacts. In addition to many clay-lined and unlined hearths, this layer preserves a wide assortment of lenses, pits, and the outline of what was probably a small man-made shelter. Rare antler points and significant amounts of what appears to be osseous manufacturing debris also occur in layer IV (Christidou, personal communication, 2010; Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). Layer V is a thin, undulating deposit that occurs only in the western part of the excavation and is characterized by many concave hearth features. A small ornament assemblage accompanies the distinctive lithic industry (Table 1), whose arched backed bladelets and comparatively high proportion of microblades resemble Uluzzian industries in Italy (cf. Palma di Cesnola, 1993; Benini et al., 1997; Gambassini, 1997; Kuhn and Stiner, 1998), warranting a comparison of the Greek and Italian ornament assemblages. The first radiocarbon determinations attempted for the Upper Paleolithic layers suggested comparatively young ages for the Aurignacian at Klissoura 1 (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; compare Koz³owski, 1982, 1992, 1999). Preliminary thermo-luminescence results on burnt flint artifacts suggested that layer V is significantly older. New AMS radiocarbon results using the ABOX pretreatment method (Bird et al., 1999) on wood charcoal samples from the late Middle Paleolithic through Upper Paleolithic layers permit some revisions to the Upper Paleolithic chronology (Pigati et al., 2007; Kuhn et al., this issue). Still, the dates for the earliest Aurignacian layer (IV) –

32,690±110 and 33,150±120 uncali- brated radiocarbon years before present (BP) – are not nearly as old as those for many other Aurignacian cases in Europe (e.g., Conard et al., 2003), but they are somewhat older than Aurignacian sites in the Levant. The Uluzzian-like industry in layer V is sealed from the layer above by a fine tephra and may be older than 39,000 calibrated BP.

GOALS AND METHODS This study addresses several issues surrounding ornament use and discard at Klissoura Cave 1: (a) Species composition as it relates to marine and terrestrial environmental conditions, diversity in raw material sources, and evidence for selectivity by humans; (b) damage patterns on the shells that may reflect raw material sources, ornament manufacture, use and discard practices; (c) the spatial distribution of ornaments and damage phenomena in the deposits, including associations with hearths and other features; (d) trends in ornament assemblage composition from the early Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic; and, (e) comparisons of the Klissoura 1 ornament series to those from early Upper Paleolithic Italian sites and to the later ornament assemblages from Franchthi Cave on the southern Argolid (see Fig. 1). The quantitative units used in the analyses are the number of identified specimens (NISP) and the minimum number of individual animals (MNI) represented by whole and fragmentary remains. NISP is important for many of the taphonomic analyses, whereas MNI better represents ornament quantities from a functional point of view. To address questions about the contexts of ornament use and their possible significance in daily life, this study considers both the general processes of assemblage formation and how the ornaments were made, used and exhausted as items of technology. Species-specific ecologies of the mollusks are used to infer the range of habitat sources, and observations about shell condition and spatial distributions help to determine the contexts of ornament use on site. Reconstructions of Late Pleistocene shorelines and other water bodies at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ca. 20,000 years BP; Lambeck, 1996; Petit-Maire et al., 2005) and recent Holocene periods define two extremes in the Pleistocene shoreline and habitat

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Table 2 Indexed comparison of species richness for early Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic shell ornament assemblages by intact layer from Klissoura Cave 1 Layer group

Number of species

Ornament MNI

Species richness

Mesolithic (3, 5a)

5

5

7.15

Epipaleolithic (IIa-d) Med. Backed-bladelet Industry (III-III') Upper Paleolithic (non-Aurig.) (III")

3

9

3.14

6

38

3.80

2

23

1.47

Upper Aurignacian (IIIc)

4

23

2.94

Mid-Aurignacian (IIIe-g)

18

138

8.41

Lower Aurignacian (IV)

45

1218

14.58

Early UP/Uluzzian (V)

14

32

9.30

14 Undetermined (VI-VII) Species richness is calculated as N-species/logMNI.

53

8.12

configurations of southern Greece (Fig. 1). Environmental conditions on the Argolid during the early Upper Paleolithic would have fallen somewhere within these extremes, though closer to LGM conditions with respect to land surface exposure, peninsula-island configurations, and the diversity of aquatic habitats within a 50 km radius of the site. The later occupations, particularly during the Mesolithic period, would have experienced conditions more like those of the recent Holocene.

RESULTS ON THE PALEOLITHIC ORNAMENT ASSEMBLAGES All of the ornaments from Klissoura Cave 1 were made from aquatic mollusk shells, mainly small marine gastropod species along with some fresh or brackish water and fossil types. A few red deer (Cervus elaphus) canines occur among the faunal remains (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Starkovich and Stiner, this issue) but none of these was altered for suspension. A few perforated teeth were noted in the early years of the excavation project but these could not be located or confirmed Mollusk species abundance and diversity The diversity of mollusk species varies greatly among the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic layers in Klissoura Cave 1 (Table 2 and Appendix 1), but species distributions do not vary significantly among features or excavation units within each

layer. Species richness, here calculated as N-species/log MNI to correct for sample size effects, is greatest in layers IIIe–g and VI, especially in IV where a minimum of 44 taxa were identified. The ornament assemblages from the later UP and Epipaleolithic layers are much poorer in species, even after correcting for the smaller sample sizes, followed by a mild increase in diversity in the Mesolithic. Taxonomic diversity is uniformly low in the large Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic ornament assemblages from Franchthi Cave on the southeastern margin of the Argolikos Gulf (compare Shackleton, 1988; PerlÀs and Vanhaeren, 2010). Steep rocky or heterogeneous Mediterranean coasts with high nutrient turnover tend to support many mollusk species. Nearby sites containing Upper Paleolithic shell ornament assemblages also tend to be species-rich (e.g., Riparo Fumane and Riparo Mochi in northern Italy; Leonardi, 1935; Bartolomei et al., 1994; Fiocchi, 1996-97; Stiner, 1999, 2003). Today Klissoura Cave 1 lies as close as it ever has to the Argolikos Gulf. The site would have been a few more kilometers distant from shore at the time of the Aurignacian occupations, but without radical alterations in shoreline shape or topography (Fig. 1). The central geographic position of the Klissoura Gorge to brackish lagoons, rivers, lakes and marine shorelines of the Peloponnese and mainland Greece during glacial periods contributed to the taxonomic variety in the ornament assemblages in layers IIIe–g through V. Shells were

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Table 3 Representation of habitat sources and trophic categories in shell ornaments from layer IV, the most diverse assemblage By habitat type

%

By trophic group

%

Fossil source

4

Carnivore

10

Marine mixed shore

35

Carnivore-scavenger

42

Estuarine-lagunal

52

Omnivore

6

Fresh-brackish

8

Herbivore-detritivore

40

Fig. 2. Fossil taxa from Pliocene lake deposits of the genera Corymbina (probably C. rhodiensis and C. aegae) and Melanopsis (e.g. M. gorceixi), following Magrograssi (1928). Image compiled from photographs by G. Hartrman

Table 4 Summary of relative abundances of common genera (% of total MNI) in the ornament assemblages from Klissoura Cave 1 Layer(s):

3, 5a

IIa-d

6-6/7

III-III'

III"

IIIc

IIIe-g

IV

V

VI-VII 4

% of total MNI

Taxon Dentalium spp.

20

44

0

2

0

0

1

1

29

Gibbula albida

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

0

0

Gibbula spp.

0

0

0

0

0

0

8

13

3

15

Clanculus spp.

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

0

11

Monodonta spp.

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

0

2

Homalopoma sp.

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

9

3

6

Columbella rustica

0

0

0

13

30

22

25

7

9

6

Mitrella scripta

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

<

0

0

Cyclope spp.

20

45

87

81

70

61

46

35

34

30

Hinia reticulata

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

7

3

11

Theodoxus spp.

0

0

13

0

0

17

6

8

4

9

Fossil lake spp.

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

3

3

2

Bivalve spp.

60

11

0

4

0

0

2

1

9

4

All other taxa

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

3

3

0

5** 9** 8** 38 23 Sample size (MNI) (**) Sample size is very small, making percentage calculations suspect.

23

138

1218

32

53

collected from the wide range of marine and inland habitats during these occupation phases (Table 3 and Appendix 2). At least 8% of the ornamental shells from layer IV are freshwater species (Theodoxus), and another 4% are fossils from Pliocene lake bed deposits (Fig. 2; Magrograssi, 1928; G. Manganelli and A. C. Colonese, personal communication, 2007). More than half of

the shells originate from Late Pleistocene brackish lagoons or estuaries (Cyclope), and the remaining 35% are from the marine littoral. Other factors that may have contributed to species richness in the older ornament assemblages were the greater intensity or duration of occupation and the greater diversity of activities on site (see below).

Shell ornaments from the Upper Paleolithic

Fig. 3.

293

Relative frequencies of the major ornament genera in the Upper Paleolithic layers of Klissoura Cave 1

The ornament assemblage from layer V is also species-rich for its size, but the prominence of Dentalium (tusk) shells sets it apart (Table 4). The layer V assemblage is small, however, and it should be kept in mind that one distinctive bead strand would be enough to alter the character of this small assemblage. Interestingly, Dentalium shells are also common in the Uluzzian horizons of Grotta del Cavallo in Italy (Palma di Cesnola, 1966). Small quantities of ornaments also occur in layers VI and VII of Klissoura 1. These must be considered separately, since a mixture of Upper Paleolithic and (mostly) Mousterian artifacts oc-

curs in these layers, along with few faunal remains (Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). The species content of the ornament assemblage from VI–VII best resembles that of layer IV (Fig. 3), which lies in direct contact with layer VI horizontal units in the area where most of the ornaments were found (squares AA1-2 at 175–185 cm below datum). This and other evidence (K. Douka, personal communication, February 2010) indicates that the few ornaments that locally co-occur in Middle Paleolithic artifacts in layers VI and VII originated from layer IV. The structure of the Peloponnese landscape during the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene is

294

M. C. Stiner

important to understanding ornament raw material sources as well as the potential foraging opportunities for humans of the period. The Gulf of Korinthos, Argolid Peninsula, and Cyclade Islands have been the focus of several shoreline reconstructions (van Andel and Sutton, 1987; Shackleton, 1988; Lambeck, 1996; van Andel and Tzedakis, 1996). These reconstructions are invaluable for estimating the distance between site and coast at the time of occupation, the complexity of coastal and inland aquatic habitats, and the heterogeneity of the environment in successively larger catchments around the site. The most recent reconstruction by Lambeck (1996) integrates models of eustacy and glacio-hydro isostasy with topographic data for tectonically stable areas to estimate net changes in land exposure. Groundtruthing was accomplished in this and prior studies partly by reference to dated archaeological and paleontological deposits. Layers III and below in Klissoura Cave 1 would have formed during intermediate glacial conditions, and layer II and the Mesolithic layers would have formed around the time of the Pleistocene–Holocene temporal boundary. The older ornament assemblages predate the Last Glacial Maximum by many thousands of years, but according to Lambeck (1996: 596), [during] “…much of the time between about 70,000 years b.p. and the Glacial Maximum, ice volumes significantly exceeded those of today such that the global sea-levels did not rise above 40–50 m below present level during this interval.” Landscapes to the north and east of the Klissoura Gorge had greater land mass exposure during the early Upper Paleolithic, interspersed locally with marshes and estuaries and at least two large freshwater lakes to the northeast. The landscape and ecology of this period therefore was more complex than the modern one, and the terrestrial ecosystems would have been more productive. The central location of the gorge and its small caves to diverse habitats was a major attraction to Pleistocene foragers in the eastern Peloponnese. The rapid decline in species richness in the shell ornaments after layer IIIe–g but within the Aurignacian period may be explained by the growth and eventual dominance of lagunal habitats on the western shores of the Argolid (see Shackleton, 1988). While changes in culturally

bound aesthetics may also have contributed to the narrowed range of mollusk species used for ornament-making in layers IIIc–d and after, changes in natural biotic diversity were the primary constraint on human choices and form the baseline against which variety must be interpreted. Raw material sources and evidence for human selectivity The types of ornamental shells in Klissoura 1 are not the most common species on Mediterranean shores today or in the past. “Unnatural” biases in taxonomic composition include comparatively high frequencies of carnivorous species, and artificially narrow shell color, shape and size distributions. The early Upper Paleolithic occupants clearly preferred shells of the genera, Gibbula, Clanculus, Homalopoma, Columbella, Cyclope, Hinia, and Theodoxus (Table 4). The proportions of Columbella and Cyclope increase with time and these two genera ultimately dominate the younger Upper Paleolithic assemblages (Fig. 3). Gibbula albida was important only during the formation of layer IV, and most Clanculus shells also occur there. Dentalium shells are common in layer V, as noted previously by Koumouzelis et al. (2001), and they regain importance only during the Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic. Carnivorous species (predators and scavengers) in the ornament assemblages are represented well in excess of the expected encounter rate in living mollusk communities. Global censuses of mollusk communities (e.g., Sabelli, 1980) and collecting experiments by the author on eastern Mediterranean shores (Stiner, 1999) suggest average encounter rates for carnivores at roughly 15% of all gastropod individuals in beach-cast material. In Aurignacian layer IV, specialized carnivores occur at a rate of 10% but together with carnivorous scavengers constitute 52% of shell MNI (Table 4). The pattern of trophic representation in the ornaments is the opposite of that for natural mollusk communities and must reflect strong selectivity on the part of Paleolithic humans. Shell collectors probably were responding to visually attractive properties of the shells coupled with a sense of their ecological rarity (Stiner, 2003). Damage patterns on the shells indicate that most or all of the specimens were collected as empty shells from marine and estuary beaches,

Shell ornaments from the Upper Paleolithic

295

Fig. 4. Size distribution (cm) of measured ornaments, exemplified by the shells from layers IV and V of Klissoura Cave 1

Fig. 5. Typical shell forms and perforations made by humans.The holes were made by a simple punching technique, except for tusk shells (Dentalium) which were snapped to create tube beads. Shell taxa from left to right are Homalopoma sanguineus, Nucella lapillus, Cyclope neritea, Dentalium sp. Theodoxus spp (2 specimens, one with stripes), Monodonta sp., Columbella rustica, and Clanculus corallinus. Image compiled from photographs by G. Hartman

river banks and mouths, and fossil beds. Wave-induced abrasion is widespread on the marine shells and on some of the fossil types (Table 4b). Abrasion damage is least common on fresh and brackish water species and probably reflects the lower energy levels of the aquatic habitats where these shells were obtained. Abrasion damage and boreholes from molluskan predators occur on some of the shells from Klissoura 1 (0–8% of shells), also consistent with collection from wave-cast beach sources. There are no large, edible marine mollusk remains in any of the layers of Klissoura Cave 1. Human selectivity is apparent from the narrow range of shell shapes and sizes in the Klissoura ornaments. This pattern holds true for all of the shell assemblages. Small species were strongly preferred (Fig. 4, Table 5b), with the mean length for all measurable (whole) shells in the Upper Paleolithic layers between 1.3–1.4 cm, and between 1.4–1.7 cm in the younger layers. The full

size range is 0.6 to 5.5 cm, but nearly all of the shells are under 2 cm in length. The consistency in ornament size within this range is explained by the humans’ narrow preference for certain species. Round, oval or basket-like forms were the norm in the Klissoura assemblages (Fig. 5), along with Dentalium tubes. Similar mean sizes and ranges are reported for other Upper Paleolithic sites in Europe (e.g., White,1989; Stiner, 2003), including ornaments from the Périgord region of France that were laboriously carved from ivory and stone (White, 1989: 382). Red and pink shells were sought out preferentially in addition to those with bright opalescent hues or contrasting stripes. Ochre stained shells occur throughout the Upper Paleolithic layers (Table 6a), but ochre application centered on two genera: Clanculus, a group with naturally pink or red shells and rough, knobby surfaces; and Theodoxus, a group with bright white or vividly striped shells and smooth surfaces (Table 6). Ochre traces

M. C. Stiner

296

Table 5 Damage and shell size statistics for the larger assemblages of Upper Paleolithic ornaments by layer from Klissoura Cave 1 a. burning damage, perforation rates, breaks through perforation point, cord wear and the incidence of ochre traces Layer group

Burned %

Perforated %

Hole broken %

With cord-wear %

With ochre %

Non-Aurig. UP industries (III-III")

51

97

14

69

3

Upper Aurignacian (IIIc)

58

92

8

50

8

Mid-Aurignacian (IIIe-g)

55

92

26

38

3

Lower Aurignacian (VI)

18

90

21

18

6

Early UP/Uluzzian (V)

48

96

17

7

0

Undetermined (VI-VII)

4

99

32

47

4

b. completeness, size statistics, and non-cultural types of damage Layer group

Complete-ness

With natural color %

Mean length (cm)

Sd (cm)

Wave-worn Predated % %

Non-Aurig. UP Industries (III-III")

0.97

11

1.43

0.26

23

6

Upper Aurignacian (IIIc)

1

17

1.47

0.3

17

8

Mid-Aurignacian (IIIe-g)

0.91

8

1.45

0.6

52

2

Lower Aurignacian (VI)

0.94

10

1.28

0.44

35

4

Early UP/Uluzzian (V)

0.93

3

1.28

0.55

31

3

0.94 13 1.27 0.29 49 0 Undetermined (VI-VII) Notes: Only the larger samples from the III series are below are considered. Perforation refers to holes made by humans; hole broken refers to specimens that were broken through the perforation point on the shell, either during manufacture or (more commonly) from long-term use; cord wear refers to polish on some or all edges of the perforation but may also include polish on the outer surface near the perforation. Shell completeness is calculated as MNI/NISP. Length measurements are only for those shells whose natural dimension could be determined. Predated shells have holes drilled in them by a mollusk predator. Natural color refers to the retention of natural pigment within the shell.

occur most often on Clanculus shells, at about 3 times the rate observed for Theodoxus. Ochre traces were found on several other shell types but Table 6 Distribution of ochre traces by mollusk genus in all of the Upper Paleolithic layers combined Genus

% with red ochre

Clanculus

29

Columbella

1

Cyclope

5

Gibbula

2

Homalopoma

4

Hinia

7

Theodoxus

11

All other genera

3

at much lower frequencies. Though a rough surface might generally increase the chances of ochre traces being preserved, ochre is also frequently preserved on smooth shells in the Klissoura 1 assemblages, so the bias is not from differential preservation of applied pigment. Reddish hues were valued, and people went to some effort to make naturally reddish (but faded) shells redder. Contexts of ornament use and discard Shell fragmentation is measured in this study by an index of “completeness." The index is calculated by dividing the number of individuals by the total number of identified fragments in each taxonomic group and layer (MNI/NISP, Table 5b). Nearly all of the gastropod shells from Klissoura 1 are complete or nearly complete (89–

Shell ornaments from the Upper Paleolithic

100%, depending on the species), except for fractures at the perforation point. Dentalium shells were usually sectioned to make tube beads. Rare bivalves (Pecten and Chlamys) were nearly always broken, probably because they are large, fragile and prone to trampling. A significant number of the ornamental shells are burned (Table 5a). Most or all of this damage appears to have been accidental. There is much evidence of hearth rebuilding, renewal, and superposition in the Upper Paleolithic layers (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Karkanas et al., 2004), causing older debris to be damaged by the heat from superimposed hearths (see Stiner et al., 1995). Burning damage is least common on the ornament shells from layer IV, VI and VII (Table 5a). Most of the ornaments in layer IV were found within the perimeter of the man-made structure and immediately below it. The great majority of the shells in each assemblage have holes in their flanges or whorls (90–95%, Table 5a), and there is little if any waste material on site. The holes in gastropod shells usually were made by humans using a punching technique that produced small round openings with rough edges. Some of the marine shells have holes caused by wave action or drilling by molluskan predators. Humans sometimes took advantage of these “natural” holes if located in the shell flange or dorsally (opposite) to the flange. Waveworn and predator-drilled holes tend to be distributed more randomly on shell surfaces, and those drilled by molluskan predators are almost perfectly round and beveled in contrast to man-made holes (Figs 7 and 8). Holes caused by wave action are as abraded and thinned along with the rest of the shell, in contrast to localized polishes resulting from wear against organic fibers or hide. Gibbula albida shells were treated differently from other types of shells in that fewer than half of the specimens were perforated. This is a comparatively large top shell with an elegant pyramidal form and pronounced concentric ridges. G. albida shells are common only in layer IV (MNI = 71). They concentrated between the depths of 150–170 cm below datum, mainly in squares AA1-AA2 (a few also occur in BB1-BB2) and therefore coincide with the interior of the manmade shelter (see below). The generally high perforation rate for the

297

Fig. 6. Example of cord wear in human-made hole and outer surface of Theodoxus shell. Photo by G. Hartman

Fig. 7. Comparison of holes made by humans (1), and another by molluskan predators (2) of the Naticidae or Muricidae families

shell ornaments from Klissoura 1 overall lies at one extreme in the continuum of variation observed among Upper Paleolithic cases that contain ornamental shells. At coastal sites, such as Riparo Mochi (Liguria, Italy; Stiner, 1999) and ÜçaÈÏzlÏ I Cave (Hatay, Turkey; Stiner, 2003; Kuhn et al., 2009), perforation rates are lower and manufacturing errors more apparent in shell ornament assemblages, along with evidence for stock-piling or raw material and accumulation of rejected pieces. Cord wear was identified on the shell specimens from Klissoura 1 with the aid of a hand lens, and thus the percentages in Table 5a represent minimum estimates of occurrence. Cord-wear inside the perforations tends to be asymmetrical, suggesting that the shells were fastened or strung in one position for long periods. Surface polish on the outer surface near the perforations accompanies the evidence of cord-wear on some of the shells (Figs 6, 7). The incidence of cord wear at

298

M. C. Stiner

Klissoura is high in comparison to the coastal site of Riparo Mochi in Italy. About one fifth of the specimens from Klissoura 1 Cave were broken through the perforation point (Table 5a, hole broken 8–32%). The frequencies of breaks at the perforation is positively correlated with the incidence of cord polish (.05>>p>>.02), probably because both of these phenomena relate to ornaments becoming worn out from extended use. The prevalence of cord wear, the high perforation rates, and the near absence of manufacturing waste argue against the ornaments having been manufactured on site. There is, as well, an appreciable winnowing or “high grading” effect apparent in the ornament assemblages. All told, the ornaments are generally complete, attractive specimens with a narrow size distribution and considerable evidence long-term use. Spatial distributions of the ornaments Ornaments are abundant in layer IV and especially within the domain of the hypothesized man-made structure. This feature spans squares AA1-2 of the excavation (Table 7), where simplified site plan drawings (Fig. 8) reveal the mutually exclusive distributions of large limestone rocks and hearths at 150–175 cm below datum. The structure is defined by the circular jumble of large rocks, minimally 2 m in diameter, and a complete absence of hearths. Dozens of hearth features encircle this area. The rocks may originally have weighted the edges an organic covering, and rolled inwardly upon removal or decomposition of the cover. Dark stained sediments were observed at 155–165 cm below datum and may be the remnants of a floor covering. Given that the ornaments cluster within the shelter area to a large degree, and many display cord wear from prolonged use, it is possible that they were once attached to an organic object such as a large hide or matt. The concentration of ornaments within the structure also explains the lower incidence of burned specimens in layer IV in comparison to the ornament from the other layers (Table 5a). The only other shell assemblage that displays a low burning rate is from layers VII–VI, immediately below the shelter feature, and where layer V does not extend horizontally. Small numbers of ornaments extend downward into layers VII–VI at one edge of the shelter feature area of layer IV (Table 7).

Layer V is comparatively thin, uneven and riddled with hearth depressions. About 42% of the layer V ornaments occur within hearths, and many of these ornaments are burned (Table 5a). The frequent presence of original (biological) pigment in the shells is noteworthy (natural color variable in Table 5b) and suggests a favorable preservation environment. Vertically, the frequency of this phenomenon is highest at 85–115 and 140–160 cm below datum. The retention of natural coloration in shells is strongly and positively correlated to the presence of cord wear throughout the cultural layers (p = 0.0001). It seems that the longer an ornament remained strung or attached to another object, the better the chance that its more transient natural properties would also be preserved. This relation suggests the existence of one or more stable microenvironments within the deposits that enhanced shell preservation. Neither natural color retention nor cord wear is concentrated in any particular square, but the large horizontal (1 × 1 m) units of the excavation do not allow us to distinguish random from finely structured distributions in the sediments. Finally, ornaments are rare items in Klissoura Cave 1 if considered against the total number of chipped stone artifacts in each layer (Table 8). Ornaments are formal artifacts, however, and thus it seems appropriate to consider their numbers in relation to chipped stone tools in particular. Ornaments are comparatively few even in relation to the numbers of tools, but their proportions are noticeably greater in layers III’ and below, and especially in layer IV. These and other observations suggest that the occupations were more intense during the Aurignacian.

CONCLUSIONS Prehistoric shell ornaments were mere particles in larger decorative formulae, and in Paleolithic sites they usually are found mixed with other cultural debris. Lost to archaeologists in most instances are the rules of combination of these objects on strings, surfaces or in deliberately assembled caches. The degree to which ornaments were recruited for complex symbolic representations is unclear and no doubt varied greatly. Their basic function for conveying simple visual

Shell ornaments from the Upper Paleolithic

299

Table 7 Number of shell ornaments by square at 5-199 cm below datum in Klissoura Cave 1 Spit

A1

A2

A3

AA1

AA2

AA3

AA4

BB1

BB2

BB3

BB4

CC1

CC2

CC3

5-20

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

Layer(s)

25

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

30

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

35

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3

-

-

-

-

40

-

-

-

-

1

1

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

45

-

-

-

-

-

-

3

-

-

1

-

-

4

1

III'

50

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

1

III'

55

-

-

-

1

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

2

-

III'

60

-

-

-

-

-

1

3

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

III'

65

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

-

-

2

3

-

-

III'

70

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

2

-

1

-

1

-

III"

75

-

-

-

-

1

1

2

2

-

1

-

-

1

-

III"

80

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

III"/IIIc

85

-

-

-

-

-

3

-

-

-

1

-

-

4

2

III"/IIIc

90

-

-

-

3

2

3

2

-

1

-

1

3

-

2

IIIe-g

95

-

-

-

3

4

2

2

-

2

-

-

1

-

1

IIIe-g

100

-

-

-

3

3

-

7

-

1

-

-

1

1

-

IIIe-g

105

-

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

-

1

2

-

-

IIIe-g

110

-

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

11

2

2

2

4

-

IIIe-g

115

1

-

-

1

2

-

7

-

-

-

4

-

14

-

IIIe-g

120

3

-

-

3

1

-

4

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

IIIe-g

125

1

1

-

-

3

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

IIIe-g

130

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

IIIe-g

135

-

2

7

2

6

7

4

2

7

5

-

3

2

3

IIIe-g

140

1

4

1

8

6

8

7

8

12

7

1

6

7

5

IIIe-g/IV

145

-

4

2

9

29

-

8

11

6

1

6

5

3

11

IIIe-g/IV

150

4

4

4

10

36

25

19

24

23

14

4

5

21

25

IV

155

7

6

-

21

17

14

16

21

12

15

7

10

36

22

IV

160

3

10

1

20

38

6

3

17

23

14

14

-

15

13

IV

165

4

-

6

55

62

17

5

12

16

16

1

-

12

5

IV

170

12

6

1

53

33

2

1

21

36

3

-

24

22

3

IV

175

-

2

-

27

37

3

3

32

21

1

-

21

9

7

IV/V

180

-

-

-

7

15

-

1

6

4

-

-

-

3

2

IV/VI

185

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

-

1

-

1

-

-

-

VI

190

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

VI/VII

195

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

VII

Value in first column refers to the top of each ~5 cm spit. Gray shading indicates the presence of one or more hearth features. Layer designations are generalized, since some are discontinuous (e.g. Layer V) or are not necessarily lie perfectly horizontal across units. Because the sequence of excavation squares in the table cannot correspond to the original grid layout, squares are listed alphanumerically.

messages about personal state (Kuhn and Stiner, 2007) or affiliation (Vanhaeren and d’Errico, 2006) may have been nearly universal, however, and likely explains why small ornaments are the

most widespread and common art form of the later Paleolithic in Eurasia and Africa. Even in a disassembled or scattered state, Paleolithic ornaments can provide information

300

M. C. Stiner

Fig. 8. The distributions of limestone rocks (white) and hearth features (black and dark gray) in 5 cm cuts at 145 through 180 cm below datum. The inferred shelter feature is apparent in cuts 150–175, in the area where rocks are common but hearths consistently absent. Light gray background represents sedimentary matrix

Shell ornaments from the Upper Paleolithic

301

Table 8 Density of ornaments in relation to all chipped stone artifacts and to chipped stone tools by layer or layer group Layer(s)

N chipped stone N chipped stone artifacts tools

Percent groundstone of all lithics

MNI ornaments

Ornaments/ all lithics

Ornaments/ tools

5a

3955

134

0.1

5

0.0014

0.037

IIa-d

6281

251

3

9

0.0014

0.036

III-III'

5096

158

3

38

0.0075

0.24

III"

2935

97

4

23

0.0078

0.24

IIIa-g

31631

822

0.01

161

0.0051

0.20

IV

63922

2237

0.06

1218

0.0190

0.54

V

4153

137

0.07

32

0.0077

0.23

Percent groundstone artifacts is calculated based on all lithic artifacts in layer. Lithic data provided by Kaczanowska et al. (this issue).

about the contexts of decorative behavior, patterns of human selectivity and geography of these preferences, and how the native biota were woven into local or generalized expressions of human identity (Stiner, 2003). Local biotic communities exerted powerful background effects on the composition of ornaments made from animal skeletal materials. Humans filtered through this natural background with their own strong preferences for shell shape, color, size, and natural rarity. These patterns of selectivity are surprisingly consistent through the Upper Paleolithic across Mediterranean and inland regions of Eurasia, while species or types of raw materials used for bead-making frequently were substituted (White, 1989; Taborin, 1993; Stiner, 2003). The early Upper Paleolithic ornament assemblages from Klissoura Cave 1 are most similar to those from Adriatic sites with respect to favored mollusk species. The narrow size distribution of the Klissoura 1 shells represents another point of similarity to ornament assemblages from coastal Italy but also to Levantine Turkey, and to carved non-shell ornaments from the interior of France and Germany. The shell ornaments from Klissoura 1 are distinguished by their refined contents if compared to assemblages from coastal sites. Though never far from the sea, Klissoura 1 was always an inland site. Marine shells suitable for ornament making were not readily at hand, and few if any of the ornaments were manufactured on site. There is also considerable evidence of “high-grading” or selec-

tive winnowing of the ornamental shells from Klissoura 1 for harmony in color, form and quality. One finds few if any hints of child’s play from the raw materials used, or the miscellaneous junk so typical of coastal assemblages. Instead, nicely finished objects were the rule. The prevalence of cord-wear suggests that many of the ornaments arrived already attached to organic materials or human bodies. What breakage occurred to the ornamental shells reflects damage from long-term use rather than errors in manufacture. The ornament assemblage from the earliest Aurignacian (layer IV) is the richest and the most instructive about site function of the period. This assemblage is quite large, and the diversity of its contents is exceptionally high, even after corrections for sample size differences among layers. Most of the ornaments in layer IV occur within what appears to have been a man-made shelter. This hearth-free feature is defined by a jumbled ring of large stones around a thin organic stain, and is surrounded by many hearths. The ornaments from inside the shelter feature may have been attached to one or more leather or textile objects that once lined the floor of the structure. As is generally true of Upper Paleolithic ornaments in Europe (Koz³owski and Otte, 2000), those from Klissoura Cave 1 are well developed in character and appear suddenly in the stratigraphic series. Distinct, well-stratified Mousterian industries occur in all layers below VI. There are no ornaments in the Middle Paleolithic layers except in VI an VII immediately below the

M. C. Stiner

302

shelter feature of layer IV. Layer V has an intermittent distribution and does not extend under the area in layer IV that contains the shelter feature. Instead, layer IV meets VI in this area of the excavation. The spatial distribution of the shell ornaments in layers VI–VII and young dates on some of the shell specimens are almost certainly the result of localized intrusions and mixing from above. The earliest Upper Paleolithic industry in the Klissoura 1 stratigraphic series comes from layer V and associates with an unambiguous shell ornament assemblage. Dated to greater than ca. 39,000 years BP, the lithic industry is distinguished by a high incidence of lunates, resembling Uluzzian industries in Italy, and it is clearly an Upper Paleolithic technology. The ornament assemblages from all of the early Upper Paleolithic layers of Klissoura 1 show general taxonomic affinities with those from some older and coeval Aurignacian sites in Italy. The small ornament assemblage from layer V resembles that from Grotta del Cavallo in Italy, due simply to the high incidence of Dentalium shells. Variation in the taxonomic content of the shell ornament assemblages from Klissoura Cave 1 also speaks to climate-driven changes in environment heterogeneity in southern Greece during the Late Pleistocene. The great number of species represented in the early Upper Paleolithic assem-

blages reflects a mosaic of habitats that was more complex than exists in the Peloponnese today. Longer occupations, as is suggested for the lower Aurignacian occupation, might tend to amplify taxonomic diversity quasi-independently of environmental change, but this is not sufficient to account for the differences in species richness. The early Upper Paleolithic ornaments from Klissoura 1 greatly exceed the taxonomic diversity of ornamental shells both from the younger layers of this site and those from all of the late Paleolithic and Mesolithic layers in Franchthi Cave (Shackleton, 1988). The reduction in taxonomic diversity after the LGM was almost certainly linked to the global rise in sea level, which drowned the inland lakes, raised water tables and swamped many shorelines. Acknowledgments I am very grateful to André Carlo Colonese (Universit´ degli Studi di Firenze) and Giuseppe Manganelli (Università di Sienna) for their assistance in clarifying the paleontological context of the Pliocene fossil shells from Klissoura Cave 1. I also thank the members of the Klissoura 1 excavation team for access of geological data, site maps, and artifactual data, and the volunteers from the community of Berbati for their generosity and logistical assistance during the study. Gideon Hartman (Harvard University) generously made many of the photographs used in this manuscript.

Appendix 1: Species abundance (NISP and MNI) in the intact Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic layers of Klissoura Cave 1, and for the interface between MP and UP deposits (VII-VI) 3-5a

3, 5a

IIa-d

IIa-d

III-III'

III-III'

III''

III''

IIIc

IIIc

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

Dentalium, ridged types

1

1

4

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

Dentalium, smooth types

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

Columbella rustica

0

0

0

0

5

5

7

7

5

5

Cylope neritea

1

1

4

4

25

25

14

14

12

12

Cylope pelucida

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

2

2

Cylope sp.

0

0

0

0

5

5

2

2

0

0

Theodoxus spp.

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

4

Glycymeris spp.

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Pecten maximus

2

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Acanthocardia tuberc.

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

TOTAL

6

5

9

9

38

38

23

23

23

23

a. Layers 3-5 to IIIc Taxon

Shell ornaments from the Upper Paleolithic b. Layers IIIe-g to VII Taxon

303

IIIe-g

IIIe-g

IV

IV

V

V

VI-VII

VI-VII

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

Scaphopoda Dentalium, indet. Type

0

0

6

3

0

0

0

0

Dentalium, smooth types

1

1

9

7

9

7

2

2

Dentalium, ridged types

0

0

4

3

2

2

0

0

Gastropoda Haliotis lamellose

0

0

5

2

1

1

0

0

Calliostoma sp.

0

0

2

2

0

0

0

0

Gibbula adansoni

8

8

123

118

0

0

8

7

Gibbula albida

0

0

61

53

0

0

0

0

Gibbula richardi

3

3

19

19

1

1

0

0

Gibbula cf. umbilicus

0

0

3

3

0

0

0

0

Gibbula spp. (other)

0

0

16

16

0

0

2

1

Clanculus corallinus

0

0

73

70

0

0

6

6

Clanculus cruciatus (?)

0

0

2

2

0

0

0

0

Monodonta articulate

1

1

6

6

0

0

1

1

Monodonta mutabilis

1

1

10

10

0

0

0

0

Monodonta turbinate

0

0

6

6

0

0

0

0

Homalopoma sanguineum

4

4

111

110

1

1

3

3

Littorina neritoides

0

0

2

2

0

0

0

0

Turritella communis

0

0

2

2

0

0

0

0

Vermetus sp.

0

0

2

2

0

0

0

0

Cerithium vulgaris

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

Cerithium sp.

1

1

2

1

0

0

0

0

Naticarius sp.

0

0

4

4

0

0

0

0

Neverita/Naticarius sp.

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Phalium sp.

0

0

3

3

0

0

0

0

Columbella rustica

42

34

88

85

3

3

3

3

Mitrella/Pyrene scripta

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

Pisania maculosa

1

1

6

6

0

0

0

0

Cancellaria cancellata

0

0

3

3

0

0

0

0

Cyclope neritea

56

54

410

395

7

7

16

15

Cyclope pelucida

7

7

34

34

3

3

1

1

Cyclope spp.

6

6

0

0

1

1

0

0

Hexaplex trunculus

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

Thais haemastoma

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

Hinia reticulate

3

3

94

90

1

1

6

6

Sphaeronassa mutabilis

0

0

2

2

0

0

0

0

Colus jeffreysianus

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

Conus mediterraneus

1

1

4

4

0

0

0

0

Indet. marine gastropod

0

0

3

3

0

0

0

0

Theodoxus spp.

8

8

97

95

1

1

5

5

"A"*

1

1

8

8

0

0

0

0

"B1" Corymbina rhodiensis*

0

0

15

15

1

1

1

1

"B2"*

0

0

8

8

0

0

0

0

"D,G" Melanopsis gorceixi*

0

0

12

12

0

0

0

0

M. C. Stiner

304 b. Layers IIIe-g to VII

IIIe-g

IIIe-g

IV

IV

V

V

VI-VII

VI-VII

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

Taxon

Bivalvia Glycymeris sp.

0

0

5

3

1

1

0

0

Pecten maximus

1

1

17

1

0

0

1

1

Chlamys varia

0

0

3

1

0

0

0

0

Acanthocardia tuberculatum

2

2

14

3

1

1

1

1

Cerastoderma edule

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

148 138 1300 1218 34 32 56 TOTAL (*) fossil species of Pliocene age, originating from lake bed or lakeshore deposits, source locality undetermined

53

Appendix 2: Ecological summary of Late Pleistocene molluskan taxa used as ornaments at Klissoura Cave 1, Greece Family

Genus species

Name source

Common name

Diet

Substrate size (mm)

Adult

SCAPHOPODA (Class) Dentaliidae

Dentalium dentale

L.

tusk

C

s

35-50

Dentalium vulgare

DaCosta

tusk

C

m,s

35-50

60-75

GASTROPODA (Class) ARCHAEOGASTROPODA (Order) Haliotidae

Haliotis lamellosa

Lamarck

abalone, ormer

HA

r

Gibbula adansoni

Payr.

top

HD

r,s,w

8-15

Gmelin

top

HD

–

10-24

Payr.

top

HD

r,s,w

8-15

L.

top shell

HD

r,g

10-13

Clanculus corallinus

Gmelin

top shell

HD

r,g

9-15

Monodonta =Gibbula articulata

Lamarck

top shell

HD

r

10-25

Monodonta =Gibbula mutabilis

Philippe

top shell

HD

r

10-15

Born

checkered top

HD

r

20-35

L.

red turban

HA

r,w

3-7

Gibbula albida Gibbula richardi Trochidae

Clanculus cruciatus

Monodonta turbinata Turbinidae

Homalopoma sanguineum

MESOGASTROPODA (Order) Littorinidae

Littorina neritoides

L.

periwinkle

H

r

5-7

Turritellidae

Turritella communis

Lamarck

turrit shell

HD

g,m,s

20-45

Cerithium rupestre

Risso

horn shell

HD

m,w,s

20-35

Cerithium vulgatum

Brug.

horn shell

HD

m,w,s

20-65

Naticarius= Neverita josephina

Risso

moon snail

C

s,g,m

25-40

Lamarck

moon snail

C

s

30-45

Born

helmet shell

Curch

s

60-70

Cerithiidae Naticidae Cassididae

Naticarius millepunctata + others Phalium = Cassis undulatum

NEOGASTROPODA (Order) Pyrenidae = Columbellidae

Columbella rustica

L.

dove shell

O

s,r,w

15-20

Pyrene = Mitrella scripta

L.

dove shell

O

r,s,c

15-18

Buccinidae

Pisania maculosa = striata

Lamarck

spotted pisania

C,SC

r

15-32

Muricidae

Hexaplex = Murex trunculus

–

–

C

–

–

Cyclope neritea1

L.

mud snail

C-SC

s,m

8-17

Renieri

mud snail

C-SC

r,s

8-15

L.

basket whelk

O

s,m

18-28

Brug.

cone shell

C

r,w

60-65

Nassariidae

Nassarius = Hinia costulata Sphaeronassa mutabilis

Conidae

Conus mediterraneus

Shell ornaments from the Upper Paleolithic

305

Appendix 2 continued Family

Genus species

Name source

Common name

Substrate size (mm)

Diet

Adult

MESOGASTROPODA (Order) Littorinidae

Littorina neritoides

L.

periwinkle

H

r

5-7

Turritellidae

Turritella communis

Lamarck

turrit shell

HD

g,m,s

20-45

Cerithium rupestre

Risso

horn shell

HD

m,w,s

20-35

Cerithium vulgatum

Brug.

horn shell

HD

m,w,s

20-65

Naticarius= Neverita josephina

Risso

moon snail

C

s,g,m

25-40

Lamarck

moon snail

C

s

30-45

Born

helmet shell

Curch

s

60-70

Cerithiidae Naticidae Cassididae

Naticarius millepunctata + others Phalium = Cassis undulatum

NEOGASTROPODA (Order) Pyrenidae = Columbellidae

Columbella rustica

L.

dove shell

O

s,r,w

15-20

Pyrene = Mitrella scripta

L.

dove shell

O

r,s,c

15-18

Buccinidae

Pisania maculosa = striata

Lamarck

spotted pisania

C,SC

r

15-32

Muricidae

Hexaplex = Murex trunculus

–

–

C

–

–

Cyclope neritea1

L.

mud snail

C-SC

s,m

8-17

Renieri

mud snail

C-SC

r,s

8-15

L.

basket whelk

O

s,m

18-28

Brug. cone shell C r,w Conus mediterraneus FRESH- AND BRACKISH WATER MOLLUSKS (lakes, ponds, slow moving rivers)

60-65

Nassariidae

Nassarius = Hinia costulata Sphaeronassa mutabilis

Conidae

GASTROPODA (Class) Neritidae

Theodoxus cf. jordani Theodoxus cf. fluviatalis

Sowerby

river nerite

C

s,m

7-9

–

river nerite

C

s,m

7-10

BIVALVIA or PELECYPODA (Class) FILIBRANCHIA (Order) Glycymeridae Pectinidae

Glycymeris = Pectunculus sp.

–

bittersweet

F

s,m,g

35-65

Pecten maximus

L.

giant scallop

F

r,s

100-150

F

s,m,g

25-90

EULAMELIBRANCHIA (Order) Cardiidae

L.

Acanthocardia tuberculatum

cockle shell

1

L. edible cockle F s,m,g 30-50 Cerastoderma edule Notes: Pliocene fossil taxa are not included in this table. (¹) tolerates or prefers brackish water. Substrate codes: (r) rock and other firm surfaces, (m) mud, (f) floating matter and bubbles, (s) sand, (v) varied, (w) weeds, (c) corals, (g) gravel or coarse sand, (sp) sponges, (r/s) adheres to hard surfaces as juvenile but free swimming as adult. Nomenclature: (L.) Linnaeus; (Blainv.) Blainville; (Monter.) Monterosato; (Payr.) Payraudeau; (Brug.) BruguiÀre. Molluskan diet codes: (H) herbivore, (O) omnivore, (D) detritivore, (SC) scavenger, (F) filter or suspension feeder, (C) carnivore.

Appendix 3: Relative frequencies of natural and human-caused damage to a sample of mollusk shells found within well-defined hearths in Layer IV Genus (if > 5 MNI)

NISP MNI Shell com- wave-worn pre-dated burned perforated holebroken examined examined pleteness % % % % %

with cord with wear ochre % %

Homalopoma

15

14

0.93

93

20

40

100

0

0

Cyclope

40

37

0.92

27

2

32

100

27

13

0

Theodoxus

10

10

1

0

0

20

100

30

20

10

59

30

0.93

37

0

25

100

34

0

4

124

116

0.93

38

3

29

100

28

6

Other genera

0

3 All taxa Listings are by genera for common types, except G. albida, which is significantly larger than all other species of Gibbula in the ornament assemblages

306

M. C. Stiner

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Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (2): 309–321.

KLISSOURA CAVE 1 AND THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC OF SOUTHERN GREECE IN CULTURAL AND ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT Mary C. Stiner1, Janusz K. Koz³owski2, Steven L. Kuhn1, Panagiotis Karkanas3 and Margarita Koumouzelis3 1

School of Anthropology, P.O. Box 210030, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721-0030, USA; [email protected], [email protected] 2 Jagiellonian University, Institute of Archaeology, Go³êbia 11, 31007 Kraków, Poland; [email protected] 3 Ephoria for Palaeolanthropology and Speleology, Ardittou 34b, 11636, Athens, Greece; [email protected] Abstract Klissoura Cave 1 preserves a long series of Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic cultural layers, interrupted by at least three significant erosional hiatuses. The sedimentary features, artifacts and animal remains of the Upper Paleolithic though Mesolithic layers testify a wide range of on-site activities, with complex cycles of feature construction and abandonment. The industry of Layer V closely resembles Uluzzian assemblages from southern Italy. Its age remains uncertain but almost certainly exceeds 39 kyrs BP. The most intense use of the site occurred during the formation of Aurignacian layers IV and IIIe-g, distinguished by many superimposed plain and clay-lined hearths, and in Layer IV, the remnants of a small structure enveloping a dense concentration of perforated shell beads. Fireplaces were fed mainly with dicotyledonous wood and bark-producing plants, whereas grass remains are concentrated in other parts of the occupied area. Post-dating the Aurignacian are two non-Aurignacian layers, followed by an ephemeral Epipaleolithic occupation and substantial Mesolithic occupations. The botanical, faunal and geological data identify a gradual trend toward climatic cooling through the Upper Paleolithic sequence. Warmer, wetter conditions returned only well after MIS 2, during the Mesolithic. Faunal data indicate opportunistic hunting of a variety of ungulate species, but mainly fallow deer, one or a few animals at a time. The patterns of small game exploitation reveal a trend of increasing dietary breadth that began in the early Upper Paleolithic and involved progressively greater use of animals such as hares and/or birds with time. Land snail exploitation became important in the later Upper Paleolithic phases and peaked in the Mesolithic. Perforated shell ornaments are present in the Uluzzian layer (V) and in all subsequent layers. The ornaments consist almost exclusively of finished products, worn from use and lacking evidence of production debris. Key words: Mesolithic, phytoliths, anthracology, zooarchaeology, lithic industries, osseous technology, paleoecology.

INTRODUCTION Klissoura Cave 1 preserves a regionally unique sequence of Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic though Mesolithic cultural layers dating to the Late Pleistocene (Koumouzelis et al., 1996, 2001; Koz³owski, 1999; Pawlikowski et al., 2000; Tomek and Bocheñski, 2002; Karkanas et al., 2004; Sitlivy et al., 2007). Klissoura 1 is one of several archaeological cave sites in the Klissoura Gorge (Koumouzelis et al., 1996, 2004;

Runnels, 1996), and it contains the deepest and earliest Paleolithic sequence for the area. Here we report only the material from the final sedimentary cycle in Klissoura 1, that representing the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic occupations. The Upper Paleolithic is clearly distinguished from the Middle Paleolithic on the basis of lithic and other artifactual contents. The Upper Paleolithic layers contain ornament assemblages and osseous tools, whereas the Middle Paleolithic layers do not, except where minor post-deposi-

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tional mixing at the MP-UP layer contact is indicated. The formation of the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic stratigraphic sequence was dominated by anthropogenic processes. Constructed hearths of diverse forms, ash dumps, raked-out ash features, and trampled ash remains are very common (Karkanas, this issue). The earliest Upper Paleolithic layer (V) truncates the top of the Middle Paleolithic sedimentary series. As of this writing, Layer V represents the only Uluzzian occupation documented in Greece (though unpublished finds from Kephalari Cave may also be Uluzzian), and its industry resembles essentially contemporary industries in Italy. The Aurignacian layers have a generally discrete appearance, and the earliest Aurignacian layer (IV) truncates the underlying deposits. The Aurignacian components in Klissoura 1 are distinguished from all other cultural layers by the remarkable complexity of in situ hearths, which range from simple small basin or stacked forms to clay-lined types (Karkanas et al., 2004). Remnants of a small structure are demarcated in the earliest Aurignacian layer (IV) by a roughly oval scatter of large stones, a discrete organic stained area within, and an exceptionally dense concentration of perforated shell beads. Following the upper Aurignacian layers are two enigmatic cultural horizons. The definition of these horizons suffers in part from the lack of information for the region and period, but also from ambiguities concerning the behavioral causes of variation in the lithic industries. Hypotheses for explaining this variation include ethnic differences and distinct traditions of tool manufacture and, alternatively, differences in the circumstances of occupation by essentially similar groups by season. We offer some preferred explanations below but acknowledge that resolution of these questions ultimately requires more information from as yet undiscovered Upper Paleolithic sites in the Peloponnese. Moderately rich faunal and lithic assemblages were obtained from the Epigravettian and Mesolithic layers. These cultural layers experienced frequent truncations and considerable disturbance, mainly from human activity, and diffuse interfaces characterize the contacts between them. The second major hiatus in the stratigraphic series

corresponds to the LGM, after which appears the typical middle (or early-middle) Epigravettian with conspicuous links to south-central Italy. The third hiatus separates the Epigravettian (layers IIa-d) from the Mesolithic (layer 5a). Here, however, cultural continuity can be seen despite the presence of depositional hiatus. The occurrence of the Terminal Paleolithic marked by a Epigravettian tradition in neighboring caves of the Klissoura Gorge indicates that Epigravettian groups did not abandon the region at this time, but rather occupied different caves and shelters in the area. The rich and varied archaeological record of Klissoura Cave 1 provides an unprecedented and for the moment unique body of information about the Upper Paleolithic of southern Greece. Coherent lithic, bone, shell and osseous tool assemblages and many features and spatial data were recorded and studied in this collaborative research project. This detailed record of Upper Paleolithic activities yields several of surprises and insights on Upper Paleolithic behavior and cultural diversity in Eurasia, including the great age of the earliest Upper Paleolithic occupation and the contexts of on-site activities throughout the Upper Paleolithic.

CULTURAL SEQUENCE BASED ON LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES The sequence of cultural horizons and lithic assemblages does not document an uninterrupted local evolution of Paleolithic cultures (Kaczanowska et al., this issue). Instead, it is characterized by cultural and occupational discontinuities. The Upper Paleolithic begins with the Uluzzian (layer V), replaced by the Aurignacian as represented by layer IV and layers IIIg-a. Layer III’’ contains a non-Aurignacian Upper Paleolithic industry. The Gravettoid component in layer III’ contains what we have described as a “Mediterranean backed bladelet/blade industry.” The technological character and stylistically distinct nature of the Gravettoid assemblage rules out a local evolution, suggesting instead origins from different regions of the mid-northern Mediterranean region. Layers 6, 6a, and 6/7 in fact represent the mixed filling of what may be an anthropogenic ditch and will not be discussed further.

Klissoura Cave 1

The artifactual record in Klissoura Cave 1 affords important insights on the process of cultural evolution and differentiation in the region. Above the Uluzzian layer V is a series of Aurignacian layers (IV, IIIa-g) overlain by layer III” that could represent the final phase of the Uluzzian. Higher in the stratigraphic column, layer III’ contains a “Mediterranean backed bladelet/blade” industry, which, after sedimentological/erosional hiatus, is overlain by the Epigravettian (layer II). These observations from the lithic assemblages (Kaczanowska et al., this issue) suggest that the various culture units identified in Klissoura 1 correspond not so much to the adaptation of the same foragers to specific raw materials and ecological conditions, but rather represent different cultural traditions corresponding to distinct groups who periodically coexisted within the larger region. Culturally diagnostic artifact forms in Klissoura 1 include the following: arched backed blades and convex truncations for the Uluzzian; carenate cores/endscrapers and micro-retouched bladelets for the Aurignacian; backed blades and bladelets for the “Mediterranean Early Gravettoid”; component various backed blades (also with ventral retouch), para-geometric forms and shouldered points for the Epigravettian; and geometric microliths for the Mesolithic. Technological diversity is quite narrow from the Upper Paleolithic through the Mesolithic assemblages and contrasts with the cultural taxonomy based on the indicative artifact classes. The limited technological variability in these assemblages is probably due to the fact that a fairly homogenous group of primarily local raw materials (radiolarites and flints) were exploited throughout the sequence (Koumouzelis et al., 1996). The proportion of radiolarites remains fairly stable (60–70%) through time, whereas the proportion of flint is more variable; the lowest frequency of flint is found in the Aurignacian layers (20–29%), and the highest in layer III’ (42%) and the Mesolithic (33–37%). Extra-local raw materials are rare throughout the layers, with some of the red radiolarites in layer V being of the highest quality. Unquestionably exotic materials from the later cultural layers include Melian obsidian from Mesolithic layer 5a. The relatively uniform composition of the raw material across assemblages, and the dominance of local raw materials overall,

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suggest a fairly limited range of mobility of all of the groups while inhabiting this cave. Local raw materials were determined from field survey of raw material outcrops over a radius of 3–4 km around the site. The nearest known sources of higher quality stone are Mesozoic outcrops located in the northeastern Peloponnese. Several sites on the Argolid, particularly those of the Early Neolithic, contain these high quality raw materials, but Klissoura Cave 1 does not. The structure of the major technological categories also is similar across most of the lithic assemblages. The large quantities of lithic shatter/ chunks in all levels are clearly attributable to the low quality of the local raw materials. Tabular fragments of both radiolarite and flint from the study area contain many internal fractures and flaws as a rule. The high frequency of chips and small flakes is also partly explained by the use of poor quality raw materials, but it simultaneously attests to the intensive use of these materials, including the frequent rejuvenation of retouched tools. Shatter/chunks, chips and small flakes constitute more than half of the lithic artifacts. This property of the stone tool assemblages reduces the indices of other technological categories – cores, blades, and retouched tools. Indices for the latter categories nonetheless are consistent with values for other sites at which the full cycle of blank and tool production and diverse activities took place. The high indices of backed pieces used as inserts in the Uluzzian and Gravettoid industries indicate the use of hafts, apparently made from perishable materials. In the Aurignacian levels, on the other hand, the bladelet index is low, and carenate cores/endscrapers from which the bladelets were detached, occur in large quantities. This pattern suggests that some bladelets were taken away from the site during the Aurignacian occupations, hafted as exchangeable parts of weapons, tools or both of these. Macroscopic impact fractures and microscopic marginal scars indicate that both Aurignacian micro-retouched (or unretouched) bladelets and Gravettoid backed bladelets were used for projectile hunting weapons and as inserts for cutting or scraping tools. The contrast between the Aurignacian and other industries is most evident in the tools/cores typological group. In the Aurignacian levels, end-

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scrapers/cores (mainly carenate forms) are very common, with an index of about 60 for the industries of layers IV and IIIe-g. By contrast, the scraper/core index is between 16 and 36 in the Uluzzian, and about 30 in levels III’ and II. Such high tool to core indices in the Aurignacian are due to the dual roles of carenate pieces, which functioned both as cores for bladelets and as endscrapers. In other levels, bladelets were detached from other, specialized core types, while endscrapers functioned primarily as tools for activities such as hide processing. The indices of blades and bladelets do not fluctuate very much through the Upper Paleolithic sequence, oscillating between the values of 4 and 6. It is only in the Late Mesolithic (layer 3) that the blade index is significantly higher (9.5). More significant differences can be seen among the cultural layers in the frequency of flake tools (i.e. denticulated, notched and retouched flakes). An especially high index of these tools (20) is found in layer III” and in some of the Aurignacian layers.

DATING The dates for the Gravettoid–Aurignacian sequence (layers III’, IIIe-g and IV) are relatively well constrained. They show a generally monotonic trend of increasing age, from ca. 27–29 14C kyrs BP to ca. 32–33 14C kyrs BP. These ages are consistent with other classic or late Aurignacian sites in southern Europe (Kuhn et al., this issue). The Uluzzian industry in layer V clearly predates the Aurignacian stratigraphically, but the radiocarbon results for layer V are ambiguous. Based on one date on a sample reported to be from layer V (source location is unclear, see Kuhn et al., this issue), and two dates from layer VI (which is stratgraphically mixed), it is possible to suggest an age of >40,000 years for layer V. Other radiocarbon data are significantly younger and may or may not truly originate from layer V, the limits of which are locally difficult to distinguish from layer IV. Fortunately, microtephra analysis conducted as part of the RESET project has identified one major peak concentration of tephra shards at the interface of layers IV and V, tailing upwardly to layer III’, along with a minor peak at the interface

of layers VI and VII. Attempts currently are underway to correlate the tephra(s) with specific eruptions of known age (Dustin White, personal communication, 2010). In nearby Franchthi Cave, a wind-blown Y-5 tephra (Campanian Ignimbrite) was found in stratum Q. Originating from the Naples area of Italy, this tephra is dated to 39.28± 0.11 kyrs by 40Ar/39Ar (De Vivo et al., 2001). There is a strong possibility that Klissoura 1 may also contain this tephra. Importantly, the tephra seals layer V in Klissoura 1. The radiocarbon results suggest that the industry of layer V is about 6000 years older than most currently reported ages for similar lithic assemblages from Europe. Karkanas (this issue) concludes that the temporal gap between layers VII and V is considerably greater than the gap between layers V and IV. Published ages from Uluzzian sites in Italy tend to be significantly younger than 39,000 years BP (reviewed by Kuhn et al., this issue). However, almost all published dates for the Uluzzianin southern Europe should be considered minimum estimates, and current efforts at re-dating the sites are likely to push age estimates backward in time. The ABOX pre-treatment technique was used successfully used to obtain finite dates of >60,000 years on wood charcoal from the Middle Paleolithic layers. Although these should be also taken as minimum ages, they illustrate the technique’s potential for pushing back the maximum limits of radiocarbon dating. ABOX proved less useful when applied to more recent Upper Paleolithic samples for reasons that may include greater water circulation or other sources of contamination. The two important depositional/occupational hiatuses in the later part of the Klissoura 1 sequence correspond to major paleoclimatic events. One of these occurs within sequence B between the Mediterranean Backed Bladelet layer III’ and the Epigravettian (layer II). Because layer III’ is dated at about 30–28 Kyr and the Epigravettian cannot be older than 16–15 Kyrs BP, this hiatus should include the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) within Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage (MIS) 2. Sites dated to the LGM are absent in the gorge as well as in other parts of Argolid. The only cultural entities that are chronologically close to LGM are lithic phase II in Franchthi Cave (22.3–21.4 kyrs BP; see PerlÀs, 1987) and probably layer D3 in

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Kephalari Cave, which unfortunately lacks radiocarbon dates. It is possible that the inland areas were depopulated during the LGM. The last major hiatus in Klissoura 1 occurs between the geological sequences B and A, or between the Epigravettian (layer II) and the lower Mesolithic (layer 5a). Given that the Epigravettian occupation almost all certainly spans the time interval from 16 to 14 kyrs BP, and the Mesolithic is synchronous with the Early Holocene, the second hiatus must cover the end of the Late Glacial, spanning at least 12 to 10 kyrs BP. This most recent hiatus in Klissoura Cave 1 may be unique to the site, since there are numerous Late/Final Paleolithic sites in the area, including the dated layers from Klissoura Caves 4 and 7 (Koumouzelis et al., 2004), sites in the Voidomatis Gorge, and in other parts of Argolid such as at Kephalari Cave (layer C) and Franchthi Cave (PerlÀs, 1987).

PALEOENVIRONMENTS AND PALEOCOMMUNITIES OF THE ARGOLID The results from the botanical, faunal and geological analyses suggest a gradual trend toward climatic cooling through the Upper Paleolithic sequence in Klissoura Cave 1. Warmer, wetter conditions returned only well after MIS 2, or during the Mesolithic. These general conclusions can be qualified by indications about the broader environment and the sedimentary environment inside the cave. Grass phytoliths are the most important elements in the phytolith assemblages from Klissoura 1 (Albert, this issue). Most of the identified specimens correspond to the C3 festucoid subfamily, which is very common in the Mediterranean basin. The grass phytolith assemblages of layers IIIe-g and IV indicate only a moderately humid environment. Pytoliths representing C4 grasses and probably also reeds (Arundo donax) are present in the Epipaleolithic (II) layers, and reed phytoliths occur in the uppermost portion of the III sequence (III-III’). Although reeds require very wet conditions, their presence may simply indicate small pockets of wet land somewhere in the area and possibly localized changes in water tables caused by sea level changes, tectonic

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events or other non-climatic factors. The presence of C4 grasses, on the other hand, suggests a significantly drier and more open environment during the Epipaleolithic. Wood charcoal remains from the Upper Paleolithic layers reflect a mosaic of perennial vegetation types (Ntinou, this issue). It is likely that dry parkland vegetation covered the rocky hills, giving way to open woodland with mesophilous and thermophilous trees in the foothills and valley floors. Burned wood remnants of oak (Quercus sp., deciduous type) and elm (Ulmus), genera that prefer somewhat moister conditions such as might occur in gullies and small canyons, are most common in layers V though IIIe-g. Elm all but disappears from the charcoal assemblages thereafter. The wood-charcoal record of the early part of the Upper Paleolithic sequence indicates interstadial conditions during mid-MIS 3 (40–30 kyrs BP) and gradual cooling and drying towards the end of the MIS 3 (after 30 kyrs BP). The scope of variation in moisture that would have been available to plants near Klissoura Cave 1 warrants some discussion. Even the earliest Aurignacian phases, in which some moisture-dependent tree species are represented, coincided with generally dry conditions. A marginal balance of moisture availability and water uptake by plants was enough during this interval to support the development of some mesophilous and thermophilous vegetation. While this situation helped to suppress erosion in the area during the formation of layer IV (and possibly layer V), conditions were still sufficiently dry to prevent ash in the site from becoming cemented by dripping water. During the later occupations, the environment became very dry and, based on higher rates of clastic sediment accumulation, more prone to erosion during infrequent storms. The main explanation for increased erosion in the area is a decline in perennial vegetation. Precipitation seems to have increased again only with the Mesolithic, but erosion was considerable until forest development caught up with water availability. The composition of the mammal and avian faunas in Klissoura 1 suggests corresponding changes in animal community structure during the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic (Bocheñski and Tomek, this issue; Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). The ungulate assemblages from layers

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IIIe-g, IV and V are relatively diverse for their sizes. Hares (and tortoises in V) dominate the small game fractions. The assemblages from the middle and upper Aurignacian layers (IIId-a) are less rich in ungulates, and they are dominated by one ungulate species in particular, European fallow deer (Dama dama). Hunting of large and medium-sized ground birds (bustard and partridges, respectively) also became important in the interval represented by layers IIId-a. The dominance of fallow deer together with the high incidence of partridges and bustards in the later Aurignacian layers suggests an expansion of open grassy areas. Ungulate diversity expands again in the Mesolithic (and possibly in the Epipaleolithic, but this is a small sample), and hares once again dominate the small game fraction. It is unlikely that the variations in ungulate species diversity stem mainly from human hunting preferences. Changes in temperature and sea level forced qualitative shifts in the structure of terrestrial animal communities on the Argolid. A more heterogeneous environment would support a broader range and more even proportions of ungulate species, because greater macro-structural variation in available habitats makes it more difficult for one species to outcompete others. Relatively heterogeneous habitats are indicated by the faunal and botanical results for the earliest Upper Paleolithic. Subsequently, drier or cooler conditions prevailed and vegetation became more uniform, allowing Dama populations to dominate locally. The small animal component of the dietary spectrum poses the main contradiction strictly climate-driven patterns in prey choice. The overall contribution of small animals to the meat diet increased dramatically in layer III’ and above. This is clearly apparent within the vertebrate assemblages, but also from the rising economic importance of large land snails. Expansions in dietary breadth are generally thought to represent either temporary or long-term responses by consumers to the decline in the most profitable resources (Stephens and Krebs, 1986) – large game in the case of the Paleolithic. Such trends may represent cultural preferences only in the sense of their becoming permanent solutions with time, supported by significant technological investments made in spite of other important demands on foragers’

time. It is likely, therefore, that the relentless expansion in dietary breadth evidenced in Klissoura Cave 1 reflects a growing human ecological footprint in the region and probably also mild increases in human population densities. That the trend is evidenced principally within the small game fraction of the faunas is not surprising, as these resources were the main means for filling gaps in the availability of large game animals (Kelly, 1995; Kuhn and Stiner, 2006). The cultural sequence of Franchthi Cave on the southern Argolid partly overlaps with the most recent part of the Klissoura 1 chronology (PerlÀs, 1987; Farrand, 2000). The Aurignacian fauna from Franchthi is small and as yet under-documented, but the large Gravettoid assemblage dated to ca. 21–22 kyrs appears to follow in time the III layer series of Klissoura 1. Although the southern Argolid experienced sea changes much more directly than the Klissoura Gorge area, the Franchthi data are of comparative interest.1 Five of the ungulate species found in the Klissoura 1 faunas also occur in the upper Aurignacian, “Gravettoid,” Epipaleolithic, and Mesolithic layers of Franchthi Cave (Stiner and Munro, n.d.; Payne, 1975, 1982). Both red deer and European wild ass were important prey in the early part of the Franchthi sequence, but red deer was the only significant large prey item in the later part. Other ungulates are represented in low frequencies, namely aurochs, wild pig and ibex. Interestingly, no fallow deer remains were found in Franchthi,2 despite the singular importance of this species in Klissoura 1. The contrast in dominant deer species in Klissoura 1 and Franchthi are one of several lines of evidence that climate-driven environmental conditions were strongly influenced by local factors on the Peloponnese. Another contrast in ungulate representation between the two sites concerns the European wild ass. In Franchthi, wild ass remains dominate during the “Gravettoid” occupations (Stiner and Munro, n.d.). Deer dominate the entire Upper Paleolithic–Mesolithic sequence in Klissoura 1 where wild asses were always rare. The importance of wild ass at Franchthi Cave during the Gravettoid occupations must relate to more open conditions on the southern end of the peninsula going into the LGM. European equids of the Late Pleistocene are thought to have preferred open and

Klissoura Cave 1

steppic conditions, particularly E. hydruntinus. Modern fallow deer feed mainly in open grassy areas but must have some tree cover for protection from the elements and predators. The optimal habitat for fallow deer therefore is deciduous and mixed woodlands on gently rolling terrain. Red deer, the dominant deer species in Franchthi, are grazers by preference but can also feed on dwarf shrubs such as heather and other low quality browse, provided that conditions are relatively moist. They are also more tolerant of wet winds and cool, exposed conditions than are fallow deer. The findings on the shell ornaments from Klissoura Cave 1 also speak to questions about the degree of environmental heterogeneity in southern Greece during the Late Pleistocene (Stiner, this issue). Although Klissoura 1 was never situated on the Aegaen shore during the Paleolithic or Mesolithic, the inhabitants visited the sea and other aquatic habitats, and they brought many small ornamental shells back to the site. These shells fall within a narrow range of sizes and shapes. However, the species collected during the earliest Upper Paleolithic phases are quite varied, whereas few species were utilized for ornamental purposes in the later occupations (above layers IIIg-e). The great variety of ornamental mollusk species in the assemblages from layers IV and V reflect a mosaic of aquatic habitats, more complex than exists in the Peloponnese today. The taxonomic diversity of the early Upper Paleolithic ornament assemblages from Klissoura 1 also greatly exceeds that of every post-Aurignacian ornament assemblage from Franchthi Cave (Shackleton, 1988; C. PerlÀs, personal communication, 2010). The more recent shell assemblages from Klissoura 1 and Franchthi invariably are dominated by just a few brackish water and lagunal mollusk species (Columbella rustica and Cyclope spp.). Reduction in taxonomic diversity in the marine shell types was almost certainly linked to changes in sea level. Based on the dating and environmental data, the early Upper Paleolithic part of the Klissoura 1 cultural sequence correlates with an interstadial and the last minor high sea stand (ca. 35 kyrs calibrated BP), before the big drop in sea level that began about 30 kyrs (calibrated BP) and culminated in the LGM (Chappel, 2002; Wright et al., 2009). The high sea stand in the early Upper

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Paleolithic helps to explain the great diversity of coastal and inland habitats, since elevated water tables would result in the formation of marshes, lagoons and sand bars. According to van Andel et al. (1990), for example, the northern part of the Argolis Gulf is an extended flat shallow area less than 50 m deep. During the last high sea stand of MIS 3a this area would have been only partly submerged and thus would have supported a wider range of aquatic habitats. The decline in sea levels thereafter probably also explains the abrupt decline in ornament shell diversity in the layers above IIIe-g in Klissoura 1.

HUNTING PATTERNS Klissoura Cave 1 lies at the interface of rugged hills and a large plain, thereby providing access to a varied food supply. The site is located strategically where the gorge opens onto the upper Argos plain. There is no indication of mass hunting of ungulates at this site. Rather the data suggest opportunistic hunting of a variety of species, one or a few at a time (Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). As the local animal community changed with climate and vegetation, hunters responded opportunistically and pursued whatever ungulate species were available. There is the question of where the Upper Paleolithic inhabitants of Klissoura 1 obtained the ibex and chamois (layer IV only), since the area does not include true alpine habitats. In fact ibex may inhabit a much wider variety of elevations, provided that the terrain is rugged (Phoca-Cosmetatou, 2004). The low but persistent presence of ibex in the ungulate faunas may simply reflect the extent to which hunters chose to search craggy uplands nearby. Today chamois tend to occupy rocky or alpine areas, but they along with wild goats may descend to much lower, forested pastures in winter (Forsyth, 2000; Baumann et al., 2005). Small game exploitation at Klissoura 1 exhibit a pattern of increasing dietary breadth. Generally similar trends have been documented in other regions of the Mediterranean Basin (Tchernov, 1992; Hockett and Bicho, 2000; Stiner et al., 2000; Stiner, 2001; Munro, 2004; Manne and Bicho, 2009). Specifically, there is a decrease through time in the proportion of small, slowmoving game species and an increasing reliance

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of more productive quick small animals such as hares and/or birds. At Klissoura 1, this trend begins around the time of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition (Starkovich, 2010), though occasional hare exploitation occurred before this time, in the late Middle Paleolithic. The relative contribution of small animals to the meat diet increased further in the most recent layers (3-5a, II), where the NISP counts for quick small game actually surpass those for medium-sized ungulates (Bocheñski and Tomek, this issue; Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). The shells of the large edible land snail, Helix figulina, also are prevalent in the late Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic strata of Klissoura 1. Most of these were modified by humans rather than small predators, although none is burned by fire (Koumouzelis et al., 2001; Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). The relative quantity of land snails in the archaeofaunas increases exponentially with time, and shell sizes become larger and more uniform. Specifically, land snails are rare in layers IV or V and show no clear evidence of human modification, whereas human-modified snail shells are moderately abundant in layer IIIc and increase greatly through layers III” and III, and snail abundance peaks in Mesolithic layers 3-5a. Epigravettian layer IIa-b represents a striking exception in that snails are uncommon and a wide range of tiny to large species are represented, similar to the natural snail assemblages that litter the ground in the site vicinity today. Snails are not difficult to find or collect after heavy rains, but cooking and extraction is relatively labor intensive. Other findings on Upper Paleolithic subsistence at Klissoura 1 relate to large game hunting, specifically the patterns of prey age selection and food transport. Minor biases were found for body part representation in this site. These biases are not explained by in situ attrition and therefore must reflect human transport decisions. The parts of ungulate skeletons are fairly evenly represented, except for the scarcity of axial elements below the neck. Nearly all meaty parts of carcasses were brought to the site for processing, and axial parts were often left at or near the kill sites. In fact the dressed weight for most of the prey animals would not have exceeded what a few hunters could carry back to camp within a day. The mor-

tality patterns of the ungulates indicate fairly even representation of young, prime adult and old adult individuals in all layers except the early Aurignacian (IV), where old adults are less well represented. The lack of strong age biases in the ungulate faunas suggests a consistently emphasis on encounter hunting, without focusing on sexsorted herds. Small quantities of fetal or neonate remains are present in the ungulate assemblages throughout the sequence, and most of these represent unborn animals. Hunting of pregnant female fallow deer must have taken place before or during the spring birthing season (late May–June). Other seasons of occupation are not necessarily excluded by these findings, however, since the phytolith evidence from layers IIIg, and to a lesser degree in IIIe, indicates the presence of grass flowers. In modern Greece, grasses may begin blooming in March, but most inflorescenses develop from April to June, and at much lower frequencies from July to September (Albert, this issue). Hearths and large volumes of wood ash are also a major component of the Klissoura 1 record, and some of the occupations must have included cool months of the year. Deer antler is proportionately common in the Mesolithic (3-5a), though this is a small sample, and in layers III”, IIIe-g, IV, and V (also a small sample). Worked antler and (rarely) bone artifacts occur in all of the layers, but most of these are from Aurignacian layers IIIe-g and IV. The layers that contain the most antler fragments of any sort generally also contain the most worked antler artifacts, with the exception of the Mesolithic (Starkovich and Stiner, this issue). Microscopic analysis of the antler fragments revealed few unequivocal examples of trimming debris from antler working, but the lack of such evidence in this site may be explained by the extensive breakage of the antler by the humans and post-depositional microsurface alterations (Christidou, personal communication, 2010). Male fallow deer possess antlers from roughly July to April (Chapman and Chapman, 1975), and the antlers harden in time for the autumn rut. Some of the male fallow deer in the Upper Paleolithic Klissoura assemblages therefore must have died in the colder months of the year (autumn through early spring). It is possible, how-

Klissoura Cave 1

ever, that antler was collected and curated over long periods in anticipation of tool-making. Thus the presence of antler in direct connection with osseous tool-making may not provide a reliable indication of the season of occupation.

PALEOLITHIC ORNAMENTS Shell ornaments occur throughout the Upper Paleolithic, Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic layers (Stiner, this issue). As is generally true of the Upper Paleolithic in Europe, the ornament assemblages from Klissoura Cave 1 are well developed in character. The earliest Upper Paleolithic ornaments occur in layer V in association with an Uluzzian industry. The largest assemblage of ornaments comes from the earliest Aurignacian or layer IV. There are a few ornaments in layers VI–VII, but most of these were found immediately below the area of the man-made shelter in layer IV. Layer V does not extend to this area of the excavation, and taphonomic evidence and direct dating of some of the shells (K. Douka, personal communication, February 2010) indicate that the shells in VI–VII represent very localized downward intrusions from layer IV. The Klissoura 1 ornament assemblages differ from those typical of coastal sites in that the Klissoura 1 assemblages consist almost exclusively of finished products. There is considerable evidence of “high-grading” or human selection of the assemblages for harmony in shell color, form and quality, and there are few, if any, examples of manufacturing errors. The prevalence of cord-wear suggests that many of the ornaments arrived already attached to organic materials or human bodies. What breakage occurred to the shells resulted primarily from long-term use. Faded or worn shells of species that would have originally been red in color (Clanculus spp.) were renewed with red ochre. The ornament assemblages from the earliest Upper Paleolithic layers are particularly rich in species. The high frequency of Dentalium (tusk) shells nonetheless sets the small Uluzzian ornament assemblage apart from the Aurignacian and later bead assemblages in the site. Dentalium shells are also prominent in the Uluzzian horizons of Grotta del Cavallo in southern Italy (Palma di Cesnola, 1966), though sample size variation may be a complicating factor.

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The ornament is considerable variation in abundance through the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic layers in Klissoura 1 is not explained by differences in the thickness of the excavated layers. As noted above, the assemblage from the earliest Aurignacian layer IV is exceptionally large, and most of the ornaments from this layer occur within the inferred perimeter of the manmade shelter, ringed by large stones. This feature is surrounded by hearths but none occurs within the inferred area of the shelter where the ornaments are concentrated.

SITE FUNCTION AND OCCUPATION INTENSITY The variety of features, artifacts and faunal remains in the early Upper Paleolithic layers of Klissoura 1 indicate that the site served as some kind of residential base during most or all of these occupations. The intensity or duration of the occupations probably varied greatly, however, with the most intense use of the site occurring during the formation of Aurignacian layers IV and IIIe-g. In addition to many clay-lined and unlined hearths, these layers contain a diverse assortment of lenses, pits and other features. Antler points and probable manufacturing debris, mainly on antler, are particularly abundant in layer IV. Unlike the situation in the layers above, where osseous artifacts are widely scattered among horizontal units, worked antler speciments are spatially concentrated within and around the immediate area of the shelter feature in layer IV (Christidou, personal communication, 2010). The indications of human activities are only somewhat less varied in the later part of the Upper Paleolithic-Epipaleolithic sequence. Unfortunately, the upper layers suffered from greater amounts of erosion or disturbance, possibly reducing the diversity of visible activity areas. For example, the material in layers 6, 6a and 6/7, which includes a mixture of Aurignacian and other artifacts, represents material that was dumped episodically into a large pit. Its sediment is homogenous, generally loose and porous, and the matrix is almost pure ash and contains more than the usual proportion of fragmented lithic debitage. Normally such concentrated refuse would associate with an intensive occupation, but

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we find no horizontal layer associated with the pit. A significant erosional hiatus is apparent in this part of the stratigraphic column (Karkanas, this issue), however, and some sediment may have been lost during the LGM. Plant phytoliths are abundant in most of the Upper Paleolithic sediment samples, but they generally are not found in the hearths. The contrast in phytolith distributions between hearths and open areas testifies to the horizontal integrity of features in the Upper Paleolithic layers, consistent with the geological observations. The input of plant matter into fireplaces was selective – mainly dicotyledonous wood and bark-producing plants. It is the grasses that show the greatest spatial separation from the hearths. The abundant grass inflorescences in Layer IIIe-g may point to their use as food, or the harvesting of mature stems for fiber working or bedding. Small amounts of sedge phytoliths in layer IV, and reed phytoliths in layers II and III-III’ could also relate to fiber working on site. There is considerable evidence of osseous technology use and production on site (Christidou, personal communication, 2010), particularly in layers III’’ IIIe-g and IV. Plant fiber working and hunting may rank among the many potential uses of these tools. Clearly, a wide range of activities took place in the cave, a situation typical of base camps. The record of fire use in the Upper Paleolithic layers of Klissoura 1 is unusually complex (Karkanas et al., 2004; Karkanas, this issue). Hearths are often superimposed in Klissoura 1, with repeated building and maintenance of fires in certain areas of the site. The function of the claylined hearths in the Aurignacian layers is difficult to interpret from the sparse wood charcoal remains alone. However, the scarcity of charcoal in these layers might be the result of intentional production of hot embers for use in the clay hearths. Embers – the incandescent stage of a fire – allow one to exploit the properties of conduction and convection to heat a small, semi-enclosed space. Complete combustion from continuous stoking of embers would destroy most of the wood charcoal produced in these fires. Embers may also be used to cook food indirectly with radiant heat, for drying and curing of food and other materials, and possibly heating sweat lodges (saunas). Ember transfer and multiple uses of hearths likely oc-

curred during the formation of the Upper Paleolithic layers, particularly in layers where claylined hearths co-occur with unlined hearths.

CONCLUSION The Paleolithic deposits in Klissoura Cave 1 preserve a well-ordered stratigraphy that covers a large portion of the Late Pleistocene Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic, along with Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic components. The Upper Paleolithic record is especially well preserved and complex due to a dense assortment of intact features and artifacts. These cultural components provide a rich and only partly overlapping complement to the Paleolithic record of Franchthi Cave on the southern Argolid. Among the important findings of this research on the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic in Klissoura Cave 1 are the identification of an early Uluzzian occupation in layer V that may be more than 39,000 years old, the first Upper Paleolithic occupation in the stratigraphic series, followed by a long and relatively well-dated Aurignacian sequence. Ornament assemblages appear suddenly with the onset of the early Upper Paleolithic (Uluzzian) in this site, and all intact (unmixed) Middle Paleolithic layers that underlie the Upper Paleolithic lack ornaments entirely. Some inter-stratification of Aurignacian, later Uluzzianlike (III’’) and Gravettoid (III’) components is suggested on the basis of formal artifact types. The lithic industries in some layers of Klissoura 1 show demonstrable, periodic links to Paleolithic populations in ltaly, particularly the Uluzzian of layer V. Zooarchaeological findings indicate early increases in dietary breath during the Upper Paleolithic, consistent with trends observed in other Mediterranean areas where this phenomenon has been studied intensively. Diets expanded further during the later Paleolithic and Mesolithic occupations. The small game trends in Klissoura 1 and other Mediterranean faunal sequences are not explained by climate driven environmental changes, since they persist through MIS 3 and generally intensify in MIS 2 (Stiner, 2001).3 Paleoenvironmental data from the studies of intact charcoal fragments, plant phytoliths, sedimentary characteristics, and animal species repre-

Klissoura Cave 1

sentation indicate moderate changes in moisture availability over the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic sequence. Overall, dry conditions prevailed in the area throughout the Upper Paleolithic, but moisture availability was somewhat greater during the formation of layers V and IV. Local environments became drier and cooler during the formation of the middle and upper Aurignacian layers and more so through the Epipaleolithic. Moisture availability increased again only in the Mesolithic. Important hiatuses marked by erosion events separate the Middle and Upper Paleolithic sedimentary groups. There is no seamless transition between the two cultural entities in this site. Depositional hiatuses also separate the Uluzzian from the earliest Aurigancian, and the Upper Paleolithic layer series from the Epipaleolithic. There is no record of human occupation at Klissoura 1 during the Last Glacial Maximum nor, apparently, at the nearby site of Franchthi Cave (Farrand, 2000). Klissoura Cave 1 provides considerable detail about the daily existence of Upper Paleolithic foragers at one site. The sedimentary features, artifacts and animal remains testify a wide range of on-site activities that is typical of residential bases. Anthropogenic processes greatly shaped the character of the Upper Paleolithic through Mesolithic sediments, particularly the many cycles of hearth building, cleaning, renovation and trampling. Humans were also the main sources of disturbance in the cave deposits, as the result of creating and cleaning hearth basins, clearing activity surfaces, and digging small pits. The remarkable clay hearths of Klissoura 1 Aurignacian are unique as of this writing, and may have been used as satellite fire installations to which hot coals were moved for the purposes of cooking or heating activity areas. The intensity of the occupations seems to have varied over time, with those of layer IV being particularly intense. Greater post-depositional disturbances to the later layers may have undermined the visibility of features, and thus the relative intensity of the later occupations is more difficult to judge, but site use does seem to have been lighter during the Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic. The cultural sequences identified at Klissoura Cave 1 and at other important sites in southern Greece (see PerlÀs, 1987, 1999 on Franchthi

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Cave; Panagopoulou et al., 2002–2004 on Lakonis) testify to significant regional differences the classic chronologies of western and central Europe beyond the Balkans (e.g., Koz³owski, 1999). As might be expected for a part of the world defined by distinctive ecosystems and a uniquely broken and diverse topography, there is much evidence for regional or “endemic” patterns of cultural evolution. While processes that promote cultural divergence are to be expected for peninsular conditions, as the Peloponnese certainly represents, there were also significant intervals of increased contact westwardly across the upper Adriatic seabed, such as during the Uluzzian.

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Notes 1. The ages of the cultural layers differ; the early UP in Klissoura 1 is older, and there is a major gap in cultural material between 27–16 kyrs BP at Klissoura 1; Franchthi is particularly rich in deposits containing “Gravettoid”, Final Paleo- lithic and Mesolithic industries (PerlÀs, 1987; Farrand, 2000). 2. Payne mentions having found a few fallow deer bones in Franchthi Cave, but this diagnosis remains unclear. 3. Data on a variety of higher latitude archaeo- faunas in continental Europe (e.g., Berke, 1984; Jochim, 1988) indicate related but significantly later shifts in dietary breadth.