Kaleidoscope of Cultures: A Celebration of Multicultural Research and Practice

“A compelling and exciting view of multiculturalism in music education! Moore and Ewell have compiled essays from research sessions and lesson plans from workshops from the

MOORE with EWELL

Music Education • Multicultural

2006 and 2008 symposia into a unique, practical, and highly inspirational guide for music teachers. This book brings together innovative ideas and connects theory and practice to introduce music educators to the various music cultures of the world. A must-have for music teachers at every level!”

—Polyvios Androutsos, music education specialist/instructor,

KALEIDOSCOPE of CULTURES

Department of Music Science and Art, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece

A Celebration of Multicultural Research and Practice:

the National Symposium on Multicultural Music. Marvelene Moore and the symposia have

Proceedings of the MENC/University of Tennessee

stood as a beacon for the advocacy, development, and understanding of multicultural music. The publication of papers from the 2006 and 2008 symposia provides us with an invaluable resource to consider and apply across our various music education situations. These challenging yet practical ideas and applications will help develop an appreciation and understanding of our culture—however we define it—and that of others.”

—David Forrest, associate professor

of music education, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia A rich collection of the best offerings from the 2006 and 2008 National Symposiums on Multicultural Music, Kaleidoscope of Cultures is full of resources, references, lesson plans, and ethnic music. In addition to lively speeches, engaging workshops (including making ethnic instruments), and reviews of vocal and instrumental multicultural literature, research papers address timely topics. With video clips from the conference performances and presentations available on the MENC website, you can see authentic demonstrations of the music and share them with your students. MARVELENE C. MOORE is professor of music education at the University of Tennessee–

KALEIDOSCOPE OF CULTURES

“This publication gives insight into the richness and breadth of work that has emanated from

National Symposium on Multicultural Music

Knoxville and founder and chair of the National Symposium on Multicultural Music. PHILIP EWELL is assistant professor of music theory at Hunter College in New York City.

For orders and information please contact the publisher ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD EDUCATION A Division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. Published in Partnership with MENC: The National Association for Music Education 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 1-800-462-6420 • fax 717-794-3803 www.rowmaneducation.com

KaleidoscopeCulturePBK.indd 1

90000 9 781607 093022

Cover image credits, top left and right: Donna Hundley; bottom left: David M. Royse

edited by MARVELENE C. MOORE with PHILIP EWELL 11/23/09 6:17:47 PM

Kaleidoscope of Cultures A Celebration of Multicultural Research and Practice: Proceedings of the MENC / University of Tennessee National Symposium on Multicultural Music

Edited by Marvelene C. Moore and Philip Ewell

Published in partnership with MENC: The National Association for Music Education Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC. Lanham • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

Published in partnership with MENC: The National Association for Music Education Published by Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.rowmaneducation.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright © 2010 by Marvelene C. Moore and Philip Ewell All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kaleidoscope of cultures : a celebration of multicultural research and practice : proceedings of the MENC/University of Tennessee National symposium on multicultural music / edited by Marvelene C. Moore with Philip Ewell. p. cm. “Published in partnership with MENC: The National Association for Music Education.” Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-60709-301-5 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-302-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-303-9 (ebook) 1. Music—Instruction and study—Congresses. 2. World music—Instruction and study—Congresses. 3. Multicultural education—Congresses. I. Moore, Marvelene C. II. Ewell, Philip. III. MENC, the National Association for Music Education (U.S.) MT1.K255 2010 780.71—dc22 2009025066

⬁ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America

Contents

List of Illustrations

v

Foreword

vii

Acknowledgments

ix

Introduction

xi

Keynote Speeches

xiii

Part I: Research Papers

1

Music Majors’ Levels of Familiarity with Fifteen Musical Styles Lynn M. Brinckmeyer, Cynthia I. Gonzales, and Robin Stein

2

Studying Multicultural Music Can Oppose Prejudice: The Aesthetic Realism Teaching Method Shows How Alan Shapiro

3

Cultural Identities of Composers Represented in a State-Prescribed Concert Band Repertoire List Mary Ellen Cavitt

4

Marcel Khalife’s “Oh Father, I’m Yusif” and the Struggle for Political Freedom and Religious Sensitivity Nasser Al-Taee

3

11 17

23

Part II: Workshop Presentations

5

African Traditional Musical Concepts: Philosophical and Pedagogical Lessons for Multicultural Music Education J. S. Kofi Gbolonyo

35

6

Approaching Multicultural Music Education through the Canarian Transmission Model Emma Rodríguez Suárez

47

7

The Lion’s Roar in the Classroom: Teaching Chinese Luogu Han, Kuo-Huang

53

8

Bamboo Is Fun: Bamboo Angklung for the Classroom Han, Kuo-Huang

59

iii

iv

9

Contents

The Modern Chinese Orchestra Han, Kuo-Huang

63

10

Then Sing My Song . . . : The Place of Gospel in Our Schools Rene Boyer and Marvelene C. Moore

69

11

Korean Mask Dance Drama Soojin Kim Ritterling

75

12

Make It and Take It! World Instruments for the General Music Classroom Lisa J. Lehmberg

83

13

Multiculturalism in School Instrumental Music Programs David M. Royse

89

14

Hear John Henry’s Hammer Ring: Moving Beyond Black and White Images of Appalachian Music Sean K. McCollough

15

Research, Resources, and Materials for Teaching the Music of Black Cultural Traditions Rosita M. Sands

93 101

Appendix A: Sample Lesson Plans

109

Appendix B: Additional Instrument Construction Directions

137

Appendix C: Performing Groups: Video Clips on the MENC Website

143

About the Editors

145

About the Contributors

147

List of Illustrations

FIGURES 1.1. Listening Experience of All Respondents about All Styles

5

1.2. Performing Experience of All Respondents about All Styles

5

1.3. Listening Experience Results with Above Average and Extensive Levels

6

1.4. Performing Experience Results with Above Average and Extensive Levels

7

1.5. Listening Experience Results by Ethnicity with Above Average and Extensive Levels

7

1.6. Performing Experience Results by Ethnicity with Above Average and Extensive Levels

8

2.1. Kanye West, “Heard ’Em Say”

12

2.2. Henry Purcell, “Dido’s Lament”

13

2.3. Timeline

13

2.4. Timelines

14

4.1. Songs by Marcel Khalife, Arabic Coffeepot

28

4.2. Marcel Khalife, Words to “Oh What a Country,” Arabic Coffeepot

28

4.3. Marcel Khalife, Words to “Oh My Father, I Am Yusif,” Arabic Coffeepot

29

5.1. “Dowuame Vo” Score

43

5.2. “Afokpavuvutola” Score

45

6.1. U.S. Population of Hispanic Origin and Race, 1980–2004 (in Millions)

49

7.1. Luogu (Chinese Percussion)

54

11.1. A Young Man Mask

75

11.2. A Young Woman Mask

76

11.3. An Older Person Mask

76

11.4. Kkwaenggwari

77

11.5. Jing

77

11.6. Janggu

78

11.7. Buk

78

11.8. Taryung Jang-Dan

78

v

vi

List of Illustrations

A.1. “Yo, Yo, Yo!”

110

A.2. “Ekpe! Ekpe!”

111

A.3. “Kpatsa”

113

A.4. “Pio, Pio, Pio Sign”

114

A.5. “Los Pollitos”

114

A.6. “Antón Pirulero”

115

A.7. “Tengo Una Muñeca”

117

A.8. Addition Table

117

A.9. Prelude Score

118

A.10. Etude Score

119

A.11. “Lion Dances”

120

A.12. “Fengyang Flower Drum Song” Score

121

A.13. “Fengyang Flower Drum Song”

122

A.14. Traditional Anklung from Sunda

123

A.15. “Pergi Kekota”

125

A.16. “Pergi Kekota” Song

126

A.17. “Burung Kakatua”

127

A.18. “Burung Kakatua” Song

128

A.19. Spoons Rhythm Pattern 1

131

A.20. Spoons Rhythm Pattern 2

132

A.21. Spoons Rhythm Pattern 3

132

A.22. Blues Form

133

A.23. I Made a New Instrument!

133

B.1. Mini-Pan Rim Note Measurements

140

B.2. Mini-Pan Rim Note Diagram

140

B.3. Mini-Pan Center Note Measurements

141

B.4. Mini-Pan Stand

141 TABLES

3.1. Frequency and Percent of Composer by Nationality

19

3.2. Frequency and Percent of Composers by Era

20

6.1. Percent of U.S. Population of Hispanic Origin and Race, 1980–2004

48

7.1. The Ba Yin (Eight Sounds) System

55

7.2. The Instruments and Their Mnemonic Sounds

57

PHOTOGRAPHS 7.1.

55

7.2

56

Foreword

As our world becomes smaller and smaller through

to participate in the richness of multicultural music. We explored cutting-edge research studies, played in a drum circle, and moved to music of Asia, all in the same weekend. Thank you to all of the music educators who participated in this symposium, because our students across the country will benefit from their contributions.

the use of electronic media, we expand and grow as human beings by experiencing the world through the lenses of a variety of cultures. Studying music of different populations help us gain insights into our similarities and differences. Each and every day, diverse music touches lives across the globe. Dr. Marvelene Moore, along with her colleagues and students, created the ideal venue for us

Lynn M. Brinckmeyer President, MENC, 2004–2006

vii

Acknowledgments

We sincerely appreciate the contributions that many

Finally, we extend our heartfelt thanks to the University of Tennessee College of Arts and Sciences and the School of Music for their support of the symposium, and our graduate assistant in vocal music, Carly Wilson, for the many hours she spent in typing the manuscript for submission. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Donald Pederson, Professor of Music Theory, for preparing the written music scores and Gabriel Osborne, a UT music student, for developing video clips from the symposium for the MENC website.

individuals have made to the successful completion of this project. In particular, we thank the contributing authors for their sound scholarly work in the areas of research and pedagogy. Special thanks is extended to the MENC editorial staff, Sue Rarus and Pat Woofter, for mentoring us in the process for developing the content. We are also grateful to the staff of Rowman and Littlefield Education Publishers, Tom Koerner and Maera Stratton, for their guidance and direction in the construction and assembling of the manuscript.

ix

Introduction

I

sessions are scheduled to allow music educators and ethnomusicologists to converse with each other and the participants. Further, special workshop sessions are presented that introduce songs and instrumental literature, with suggestions on innovative strategies for performing the music and instruction for students from kindergarten through university levels. An afternoon is spent at the Museum of Appalachia, an expansive farm, where music and dance of East Tennessee and the Appalachian region are performed. As a part of the symposium outreach, clinicians frequently present sessions in the local elementary, middle, and high schools. In addition, selected sessions are open to the public at no cost. A symposium children’s choir and a high school chorus are created to perform for parents, administrators, participants, and the local community. The symposium is sponsored by the University of Tennessee School of Music, the College of Arts and Sciences, the Ready for the World Initiative, and MENC: The National Association for Music Education. This publication is a compilation of sessions presented at the 2006 and 2008 symposia, keynote speeches, research papers, workshop presentations, papers on making ethnic instruments, and an extensive review of both vocal and instrumental multicultural music literature. Appendix A comprises lesson plans from selected music cultures. Appendix B provides additional instructions for making instruments, and appendix C lists performances of selected ethnic music that can be accessed at the MENC website, at www .menc.org.

conceived the idea of a national symposium on multicultural music in 1994 while I was preparing for a presentation on diversity in music education and reflecting on my dissertation written some years prior, on multicultural music. I presented the idea to my former colleague, Dr. A. Wayne Tipps, who served as symposium co-chair for many years, and to Dr. Kenneth A. Keeling, former department head of the School of Music, and Dr. Clifton Wood, former associate dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, both at the University of Tennessee. The first symposium was approved and held in October 1995; subsequent conferences occurred in 1998 and every two years thereafter. The symposium is a four-day event that focuses on bringing together international, national, and local clinicians, performers, and researchers recognized as experts in the music of their cultures, to provide instruction for undergraduate and graduate students, university professors in the fields of multicultural music and musicology, and public and private school music teachers. Further, it (1) provides exposure to music that will contribute to understanding one’s own culture and that of others, (2) supplies students and teachers with a repertoire of vocal and instrumental multicultural music literature appropriate for inclusion in the school music curriculum, and (3) offers a forum for intellectual discourse on research among faculty and students in multicultural music education and ethnomusicology. The conference consists of workshops and curricula planning sessions and live performances of music and dance by internationally and nationally known groups as well as community musicians. Poster presentation

Marvelene C. Moore Founder/Chair xi

Music Touches Lives: Keynote Speech 2006 Lynn M. Brinckmeyer

Thank you, Marvelene, for inviting me to be here. It is

tive voice, working together. It didn’t matter whether we were tall or short, a music teacher or family member, a band director or a general music teacher. MENC presidents select a theme for the two years they are in office, and I chose “Touch a Life: Teach Music” because I truly believe that music touches lives and teachers touch lives. That theme is important because of the human component. Large corporations and associations sometimes get caught up in business as usual and forget that we are working with people. We teachers can easily become engrossed in our own lives, fine-tuning the next performance, grading papers, and answering endless e-mails. People are a priority, and it is essential to remember that as our organization and our profession move into the next century. Our membership has diverse views. That is our greatest strength and our biggest challenge. Our dedication to music education provides a wealth of experiences, and I encourage all of us to lead the way to the global perspective to which we and MENC aspire. One of my colleagues in Washington State told me that we aren’t in the music business; we are in the people business. So I ask you: Are you a people person? Author John C. Maxwell agrees that people are a priority. He wrote several books; my favorites are Be a People Person and Leadership 101. In Leadership 101, he mentions that the average person influences four people on a daily basis. I venture to say that music teachers are not average. We have the opportunity to influence hundreds of individuals each day, and the number of people a music teacher will influence throughout the course of a career is absolutely mindboggling!

an honor to share this time with all of you. Let’s take a quick moment for the “getting to know you” part of our time together. How many of you teach secondary, elementary, or middle school music? Are there any private teachers here? Are there university administrators or administrators in other areas? Finally, how many of you are parents or friends of the students performing tonight? A special thank you goes out to all of you for supporting these talented students and being advocates for the right to receive a quality music education. I bring you greetings from the National MENC Executive Board and staff in Reston, Virginia. In case you are not aware of this, you have outstanding music educators in Tennessee. That is evidenced by the students you see here tonight. In spite of funding challenges and lack of resources, these teachers are serving your students. Will all of the teachers please stand and let us recognize your dedication? What a delightful experience to sing the national anthem together, and I bring that to your attention for two reasons. First, the National Anthem Project is an ongoing program that the MENC leadership and staff initiated to bring awareness across the country about the importance of school music programs. A recent Harris poll found that two out of three individuals do not know the words to the national anthem. We usually learn patriotic songs, folk songs, and other songs of our heritage in school. Although many mothers may sing to their children, they probably do not sing the national anthem to them as a bedtime ritual. The second reason I appreciated singing the national anthem was that for a few moments, we were all a part of the same musical community. We were one collecxiii

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Keynote Speech 2006

So what are the ramifications when you “touch” a life? Every person either adds to or detracts from the energy in a room. What “fragrance” do you leave in a room? We all know those individuals who test our resolve to be a patient and caring person. Are you the person who makes people smile when you arrive, or are you the person who is “testing the resolve” of others? Asking ourselves this simple question throughout the day can help each of us stay on track: Am I contributing or contaminating? In every interaction, we do one or the other. What about those of us who are passive? I recently moved to Texas, and I can tell you that a passive puddle of water will either dry up and disappear or will soon have a variety of unpleasant microscopic creatures swimming around in it. Isn’t that the same in music, too? A phrase that has consistent energy behind it will have vitality and forward motion, whereas a phrase that just sits there is lackluster, and intonation usually suffers. People and their communication with each other follow the same path. Most of us are motivated to help humanity move forward.

I once heard an interview with Deepak Chopra. Dr. Chopra has authored several books and was asked, “How do you want to be remembered?” His answer was, “That I made a little difference.” All of you who are teachers probably entered the field of education to make society a better place and help your students learn to be contributing members of their community. Teachers, you are one of the “significant others” in your students’ lives, and you are making a difference to them. Parents and family members, you have more impact on these students than you can possibly imagine. Honor that privilege. As we close our time together this evening, let’s sing the Seneca melody “Neesa.” A loose translation of the lyrics is, “Honor the creator of the winter moon in January.” Once again we are a collective voice. I will take your gift of music and “contributing” energy with me back to Texas. You have touched my life with your beautiful, passionate singing. Lynn M. Brinckmeyer President, MENC, 2004–2006

Celebrating Difference, Embracing Commonality— Multiculturalism and the Arts: Keynote Speech 2008 Martin Comte

It is such a pleasure for me to be here. But before I

had multicultural music—the music of many cultures— for 40,000 years. Although these cultures were unique and separate, there is some evidence of a degree of overlap and sharing. Just as we did in Australia, you in the United States introduced a new culture to a land of Native Americans and others, also to a land mass where there were many different cultures. But in Australia we tend not to speak of multiculturalism—or multiculturalism in music—when we refer to our early white settlement, nor do we normally speak of multiculturalism with respect to the many indigenous cultures that existed prior to European settlement. It is only in our relatively recent history that the term “multiculturalism” has been commonly used. “Multiculturalism” today generally refers to a recognition and sharing of cultures, to the influence of one culture on another, indeed, even the embracing of other cultures. And of course, ideally it implies tolerance and respect for other cultures. Multiculturalism in Australia was not generally seen to be a serious issue until the end of the Second World War, just over sixty years ago. Australia’s population at that time was heading toward 7.5 million, composed almost entirely of white Europeans—and British at that. But what, you might ask, of the indigenous population—those people who had survived attack and being forced off their land and the land of their forefathers? Well, the first time that Aborigines were included in an Australian census was 1971. And it was only in the 1960s that Aborigines were allowed to vote in federal and state elections. This is, of course, a national disgrace and something of which thinking Australians are ashamed. Indeed, both of our countries have much reason to be ashamed of the way we have

go any further, I have to say that I can guess what you’re thinking as you look at me. You’re saying to yourselves, “Is he or isn’t he—a typical Australian?” Well, I’m pleased to tell you that I am. Like me, all Australians are over six feet tall, bronzed, with blonde hair and surfy looks. The men look like me, and the women look like Nicole Kidman. Multiculturalism is a concept that is very dear to my heart. I live in a country that is almost the same size as the United States. Unlike in the United States, however, most people in Australia live relatively close to our very extensive coastline. Although our countries are similar in size, our populations are vastly different: yours is well over 301 million, and ours is just over 21 million. Australia was only settled (some would say invaded) by Europeans in 1788, a mere 220 years ago—and just 12 years after the American Declaration of Independence in 1776. Australia’s history in one sense is very short. But its history in terms of settlement by our indigenous peoples goes back for thousands of years. Australian Aborigines have lived on our continent for at least 40,000 years. In a sense, our respective countries had a history of multiculturalism long before the European invasions. In Australia, for example, there was a multitude of Aboriginal nations; at the time of white settlement there were approximately 250 separate language groups. All of Australia’s Aboriginal nations coexisted, and all had their own music, dance, and art. In other words, England introduced just one more culture to a land of native Aborigines who themselves represented “many cultures.” So it could be said that we in Australia have xv

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Keynote Speech 2008

treated our indigenous peoples and other minority groups. But to return to 1945, the end of the Second World War. As did the United States, Australia had an influx of immigrants after the war. They came from all over Europe. In our case they did not come from Asia and some other countries, because we had a “White Australia Policy,” which restricted nonwhites from settling in our country. An exception was made for the descendants of the Chinese who had come to Australia in the 1850s as a result of the gold rush in our country. Our White Australia Policy, which was established in 1901, was legally abolished in 1973, although it had begun to be relaxed some years before this. Since then we have continued to see a great influx of immigration from all parts of Asia and other countries whose citizens were once prevented from immigrating. Let me return yet again to the end of the Second World War, because this is where I entered the picture, having been born in 1946, just months after the war ended. I started school in 1951, at age five. In 1951, most of the children in my class were Australian of Anglo Celtic descent. But this demographic changed very quickly within one or two years, as a steady stream of children from Italy, Greece, and Britain entered our schools. Of course, we also had a large influx of Jews, many of whom had arrived in an earlier wave of migration in the 1930s, prior to the commencement of the war in 1939. The British kids spoke with what we thought was a posh accent (quite different from Australian English), and the Italian and Greek kids smelled of garlic. And what they had in their lunch boxes was very different from the soggy white bread tomato sandwiches or Vegemite and cheese sandwiches that my mother used to make for me. Those kids from Southern Europe used to eat garlic sausage. To this day my mother has never used garlic in her cooking. Within a few years, children from other countries were joining my class—children from Turkey, Holland, Germany, Hungary, and so forth. Sometimes I visited the homes of my friends from Southern Europe. And I tasted their food. I loved it— even though it was quite different from the food my mother cooked. But their houses did have a distinctive smell. It was because of such ingredients as garlic, fen-

nel, and olive oil, I’ve since come to discover—things that we Australians of British stock tended not to use in our cooking. By the early 1950s, some of the new immigrants to Australia had begun establishing shops—Italian butcher shops, Greek greengrocers, and Jewish delicatessens—where one could buy food that the average Australian family would not think of buying. I began studying for a music degree at the University of Melbourne in 1964. I was eighteen. The University of Melbourne is just one mile from downtown Melbourne. One block away from the university at that time were Italian and Greek restaurants and all the shops that one needed to shop for ethnic food related to the palate of Southern Europe. Yet not once in the 1960s did I venture that far—only one block—to sample what was on offer. (Already I’ve been far more adventurous in Knoxville than I was as a young university student!) But I was not unique. In 1960s Melbourne it wasn’t a question of whether I would go to one of the Italian or Greek restaurants—the thought of it never entered my mind. Nor, I am sure, did it enter the minds of most of my friends. It was not long, however, before things began to blossom. Foodwise at least, Melbourne was becoming a multicultural city. Indeed, today it is regarded as having the best and most diverse range of restaurants in all of Australia. But I’m getting ahead of myself. Let me tell you what was happening in schools in Australia during the 1950s and 1960s. The songs we sang were mostly English, Irish, Welsh, or Scottish folk songs. You see, we were still “English” or “British” in our thinking. But we didn’t only sing folk songs from the British Isles; we sang some Australian folk songs as well. We also sang a few—a very few—songs from other countries. I best recall singing what were then referred to as Negro spirituals. My first teaching appointment was at a secondary school in 1969. Just one month before I started teaching, I got married. And guess what? I married an Italian. By this stage, I had fallen in love with everything Italian, so much so that when my wife and I divorced some years later, I not only mourned the end of the relationship, but also my mother-in-law’s cooking. My love of everything Italian—well, just about everything Italian—continues to this day.

Celebrating Difference, Embracing Commonality

Why am I telling you my story? Simply because it is not unique. To some extent it represents my generation’s story of multiculturalism in Australia since the Second World War. Just as when I was a student, most of the songs I was taught emanated from the British Isles, when I myself began teaching music in schools in 1969. These, in the main, were the same songs that I taught my students—again with some Australian folk songs and songs from other countries thrown into the mix. But things were changing. Keep in mind, we are only talking about forty years ago. Increasingly, the song books we used included more songs from other countries: Spain, Mexico, and, a little later, Africa and parts of Asia. But because we were of British stock, I also continued to teach many British folk songs (the words of which increasingly had little meaning to my students, who by now represented many countries of Europe). Was this really multiculturalism in music? For example, did the teaching and singing of what we knew as Negro spirituals really give me—and later my students—a feeling for what had happened in America when the cotton fields flourished because of slave labor? In truth, the songs stood or fell from a student’s perspective on whether they had a nice melody, an enticing rhythm . . . whether in fact they were enjoyable songs to sing. At the same time, singing these songs did enable teachers—especially the more enlightened ones—to highlight issues associated with them. But it was certainly not a major emphasis, if indeed it was done at all. This brings me to an important point that I want to make about music and multiculturalism: Does an acquaintance with the music of other cultures necessarily lead to intercultural understanding? I ask this question because in many countries where children have been introduced to the music of other cultures, there has been an implicit but not necessarily stated belief that singing the songs or engaging with the music of another country, or another racial or ethnic group, will of itself give children a greater understanding of that particular culture. Was the intent when I was a student—and later on a young teacher—to introduce children to the music of other cultures in order to foster intercultural understanding? No, it was not! At the same time, I must confess that although I would like to think that involving children in the music

xvii

of other cultures might address problems of prejudice and discrimination and reinforce respect for ethnic or racial identity, I truly think that this is too much to ask of music teaching alone. It’s too much to ask of music educators alone. Not that many years ago, we had multicultural days in elementary schools in Australia, where children would cook spaghetti to get a better feeling for Italian culture. Or they would cook a typical dish from some other country as a means of fostering cultural awareness. Some children would even dress up in national costume. But this, it seems to me, was nothing more than tokenism, gesture over substance. Learning to cook spaghetti does nothing to foster multiculturalism. And learning to sing a song from another country or culture, of itself, does little if anything to foster multiculturalism. Now don’t get me wrong: I’m not saying that we shouldn’t sing the songs of other countries, listen to music from other countries, and learn the dances of other countries or cultures. But if we’re serious about multiculturalism, I’m arguing for authenticity. And that is why I have particularly been looking forward to this symposium, because it is clear to me that Dr. Moore and her colleagues have assembled experts from many cultures and ethnic and racial groups to present to us the music and dance of their respective cultures. When we listen to the music of other cultures, it is important that we don’t do so with narrowed ears, narrowed eyes, and a narrowed mindset. If we do so we may, without knowing it, be ignoring some of the most salient features of the music—features that enable us to understand the music within its own (and not our own) cultural context. To put it differently, it’s important that when we engage with music from other cultures, we don’t do so through our own insular perspective of being an American or an Australian, or whatever. Regardless of whether we’re spectators, in the sense of being an audience, or more active participants, it is essential that we see the music through the eyes of those who live the culture. And this I see as the real challenge for multiculturalism in music: enabling us to perceive music, experience music, and engage with music through the eyes and ears of those who live—or lived—the culture.

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Keynote Speech 2008

When I was a very young music teacher, in the early 1970s, I read a book on music teaching that has inspired me to this day. I know that many of you are familiar with it. It was written by an American, Mary Val Marsh, and is entitled Explore and Discover Music (MARCH, 1970). In it, she describes a music and movement session with a group of young children. She encouraged them to move or dance to represent the music. They moved as if they were clouds. It was obviously an extremely enjoyable experience. At the end of it, one boy went up to her and excitedly exclaimed that it was the first time he had ever felt inside the music. What a wonderful goal this is for all music teaching and learning—to feel inside the music! In arguing for multiculturalism in music, I want us not only to be inside the music—but also inside the culture, to the extent that this is possible. If this is our goal in teaching music from other cultures, we have a much better chance of presenting the music with some degree of authenticity—and some degree of sensitivity toward the culture itself. Some people, however, argue that it’s an impossible task to expect music educators to represent the music of many cultures with equal degrees of authenticity. If I may be perverse, just for a moment, I sometimes get so frustrated at the state of music education in my country that I think how nice it would be if Australian children had an acquaintance with the wealth of Australian music and Australian folk songs. Many don’t. This was brought home to me some years ago when one of my graduate students, whom I liked very much and whose parents had emigrated from Southern Europe in the early 1950s, said to me that she didn’t know many Australian folk songs and certainly didn’t teach them to her students. She asked why she should teach Australian folk songs to her elementary school students when she and her family were really not part of Australian culture. I was somewhat aghast, but I asked her if, instead, she taught any of the folk songs from her parents’ culture. She replied, “No—because I don’t know any of their folk songs, either.” Sadly, this sums up one of the problems we have in Australia in relation to teaching the songs of our own past, our own folk songs, our own musical heritage. We in Australia are increasingly losing our folk heritage, our musical heritage—well, at least our heritage since 1788.

In Australia, and in some other countries with which I’m familiar, less and less time is being made available for music in the curriculum. This is a national disgrace. It is an international disgrace. Sometimes I feel so pessimistic that I fear that music education will be abolished long before shootin’ and huntin’ are! Of course, this symposium is not just about multiculturalism in music with respect to children in preschools, elementary schools, and secondary schools—the symposium is much broader than this. Its parameters extend beyond music in school. As such, it is about awakening us to music from diverse cultures regardless of the level at which we engage with music. It is vital, I believe, that musicians, composers, performers, and audiences broaden their horizons and open their ears to musics from other countries, because this can have a great impact on how we see, perceive, and make our own music. Of course, composers have been influenced by the music and dance of other countries for centuries. Bach, for example, used many stylized dance forms in his suites—the Spanish sarabande, the French courante and Italian corrente, the English jig, and so forth. Debussy, to take another example, incorporated many jazz elements in his music. And he was also enamored of so-called oriental scales. Of course, one could go on and on listing the influence on composers of the music and instruments of other countries and cultures across the centuries. Only a few days ago, I was in the Country Music Hall of Fame in Nashville. I was fascinated to read on one of the current exhibits that “As the British settlers moved westward . . . they took with them a wealth of fiddle tunes and folksongs.” In part, these contributed to the development of country music. Indeed, some of the folk songs they took with them were the very folk songs that I myself was taught in school and went on to teach my own students. How many degrees of separation is that? So you see, it could be argued that musically I’m related to American country music! I would never have believed it until a few days ago. I learned, further, that country music is not only rooted in the folk traditions of the British Isles. To quote another current display in the museum, British folk traditions “became entangled with the ethnic musics of other immigrants and African slaves. Many gospel hymns were also popularized in the nineteenth-

Celebrating Difference, Embracing Commonality

century South. . . . Played on fiddles or homemade banjos, all this music would one day sound as if born in the Southern hills.” This is a very interesting comment. The time would come, it said, when this music wouldn’t sound as if it had originated from Britain, Africa, and elsewhere; it would sound as if it had originated purely and simply in the Southern hills. This, I believe, provides us with an interesting perspective on music and multiculturalism. So much of the music that we see as belonging to “us” is, in fact, a result of absorption of music from other cultures that has been given a new twist, music that is the result of rich cross-cultural fertilization, interpretation, reinterpretation, and creativity. I was convinced during my visit to the Country Music Hall of Fame that there’s a sense in which some country music at least is a worthy example of multicultural music! Regardless of our musical background, interest, or specialization, I believe that there is great merit in each of us opening our ears to other musics. There are contemporary Australian composers, for example, whose music is strongly influenced by that of our own Aborigines, including the use of the didgeridoo as a so-called serious instrument. Some contemporary Australian composers are strongly influenced by the Indonesian or Balinese Gamelan orchestras. Simi-

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larly, there is a strong Asian influence in the music of contemporary Australian composers, just as there are strong influences from the African continent. Surely this enriching of the musical sources that we all have at our disposal today can only be for the better. I’m looking forward to celebrating the diversity of other cultures during this symposium. Indeed, it has already begun. I welcome the opportunity to compare and reflect on cultural differences with respect to all aspects of music—composition, performance, instrumentation, and so forth. Let us never lose sight of the fact that we are the inheritors of our respective musics. We are the beneficiaries of our respective musics. As such, we have a responsibility to be the custodians of our respective musics. And, accordingly, we must be advocates for our respective musics. Let us, during this symposium, “get inside the music” of other cultures, other races, indeed, other times. This, in turn, may well lead to further creativity in teaching, composition, performance, and musical engagement. Martin Comte Former Dean, Faculty of Education Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University of Melbourne, Australia

I RESEARCH PAPERS

1 Music Majors’ Levels of Familiarity with Fifteen Musical Styles Lynn M. Brinckmeyer, Cynthia I. Gonzales, and Robin Stein

Music educators strive to find appropriate methods to

lar styles of music are selected more often than any other style (Greer et al. 1973; LeBlanc 1981; LeBlanc et al. 1996; Neville 1985), which is particularly significant given that the standard collegiate music curriculum, for the most part, remains focused on Western art music. In a study of preference for world musics, Fung (1996) asserted that familiarity greatly influences music preference when considering a range of musical styles. Crossover influences and the increased accessibility of recorded music of all styles have expanded the options for listening experiences of people living in America. A significant event, for example, was the 1986 release of Paul Simon’s Graceland with Ladysmith Black Mombazo, which paired an American pop artist with a South African choir. The purpose of this preliminary study was to explore the following questions:

build bridges from the known to the unknown, bridges that connect a student’s current experience and level of understanding to the musical knowledge and skills defined by a university-level curriculum. Knowing what your students already know and developing curricula that have a close relationship to students’ existing knowledge leads to increased understanding, processing, and information retention (Wiggins 2001). New information that is relevant to students’ lives is also an important factor in retention. Motivation for learning is influenced by affect for music (Asmus 1989), which implies that curriculum that involves familiar music may be more successful than that which uses unfamiliar music. This project sought to determine what students know. The researchers investigated 270 university music majors’ familiarity with various musical styles. Each student rated his or her self-perceived level of familiarity with fifteen styles of music twice: first for familiarity through listening experiences, and second for familiarity through performance experiences. These data were intended to frame future discussions in the School of Music about appropriate musical examples in various curricular offerings, because building on prior knowledge, experience, and comfort level helps to create an environment of success and forward momentum in the learning process. Schmidt and Zdzinski (1993) determined that music preference is one of the most frequently cited topics in the leading music education research journals (Finnas 1989). LeBlanc (1981) concluded that style is the strongest variable when determining preference response. Numerous studies have determined that rock and popu-

1. What level of familiarity do music majors have with various styles of music through listening experiences? 2. What level of familiarity do music majors have with various styles of music through performance experiences?

METHOD Data were gathered at a large, southwestern state university, with an enrollment of 27,503 students. At this diverse campus community, ethnic minorities comprise over 28 percent of the student body, and 21 percent of the undergraduates are Hispanic. The university is one of the top twenty producers of Hispanic 3

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baccalaureate graduates in the nation. According to 2005 enrollment by ethnicity in the School of Music, 64 percent were Caucasian, non-Hispanic; 4 percent black, non-Hispanic; 29 percent Hispanic; 3 percent Asian/Pacific Islander; and 0 percent American Indian/Alaskan Native. Subjects were undergraduate music majors (N = 270). The survey was distributed and completed by the respondents during the first week of classes in one of the following venues: freshmen orientation, a major ensemble rehearsal, or an upper-level theory class. Students rated their level of familiarity with a named style of music. Lists of musical styles available on the Internet from three sources were examined: MySpace.com (83 musical styles), Yahoo.music (100 styles), and CDBaby.com (196 styles grouped into sixteen categories). For the purposes of this project, the sixteen-category CDBaby list was considered the most suitable. Styles were blues, classical, contemporary Christian, easy listening, electronic, folk, gospel, hiphop/rap, jazz, Latin, metal, new age, pop, rock, and world music. The CDBaby category titled “Spoken Word” was intentionally omitted. Each category was further defined by descriptors: 1. Blues: electric blues, funky blues, guitar blues, rhythm and blues, etc. 2. Classical: early music, baroque, romantic, contemporary, etc. 3. Contemporary Christian 4. Easy listening: background music, mood music, musicals on Broadway, soft rock, etc. 5. Electronic: experimental, funk, house, techno, etc. 6. Folk: folk pop, modern folk, traditional folk, etc. 7. Gospel: contemporary, country, traditional, etc. 8. Hip-hop/rap 9. Jazz: big band, Dixieland, jazz fusion, swing, etc. 10. Latin: Latin jazz, mariachi, salsa, tejano, etc. 11. Metal: alternative, death, heavy, etc. 12. New age: meditation, environmental, Celtic new age, etc. 13. Pop: sixties pop, Beatles pop, current top 40, etc. 14. Rock: classic rock, emo, grunge, psychodelic, ska, etc. 15. World: Celtic, flamingo, polka, reggae, etc.

In addition to listening and performance experiences, the survey also collected demographic data on gender, age, ethnicity, major, and primary instrument. The data were analyzed by the statistical package SPSS.

ANALYSIS Aspects of the data are shown in six charts (figures 1.1–1.6). On each chart, the horizontal axis identifies the fifteen styles of music, one beam for each style. The vertical axis refers to the self-perceived level of familiarity, either through listening or performing. Figures 1.1, 1.3, and 1.5 refer to familiarity through listening experiences; figures 1.2, 1.4, and 1.6 refer to performing experiences. Each pair of charts (1.1 and 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6) keeps constant the group of respondents and the responses being examined. Students were asked to rate their level of familiarity using a Likert-type scale to select one of five possible answers: 1. No experience listening to (or performing) this style 2. Minimal experience listening to (or performing) this style 3. Average experience listening to (or performing) this style 4. Above average experience listening to (or performing) this style 5. Extensive experience listening to (or performing) this style Each of these five levels corresponds to the five segments on each beam. The lowest segment represents no experience, whereas the segment at the top signifies extensive experience. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 contain the complete set of data from all respondents who participated in the study (N = 270). By comparing the lowest segment of each beam on figure 1.1 (no experience), the data revealed that students were least familiar with contemporary Christian and new age styles through their listening experiences. On the opposite end (the extensive segment at the top of each beam), students were most familiar with rock, classical, pop, and jazz styles through listening.

Figure 1.1. Listening Experience of All Respondents about All Styles

Figure 1.2. Performing Experience of All Respondents about All Styles

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Results displayed in figure 1.2 show that a large percentage of the respondents had no experience performing fourteen of the fifteen styles. Classical music comprised more than 50 percent of the performance experience for the entire sample. Less than 5 percent of the respondents had extensive experience performing electronic, hip-hop, or new age styles of music. After classical music, jazz was identified as the next highest style with which they had extensive familiarity through performance. Students indicated no or minimal experience performing world music. Figures 1.3 and 1.4 are similar in format to figures 1.1 and 1.2. Styles of music again appear along the horizontal axis, and self-perceived levels of familiarity appear along the vertical axis. These charts isolate the above average and extensive responses. Each beam now contains the level of familiarity only for those who rated themselves as having an above average or extensive level of familiarity. For clarification, the above average response rate is displayed at the lowest segment of each beam, and the extensive experience is

displayed at the highest segment. Thereby, figures 1.3 and 1.4 are subsets of figures 1.1 and 1.2, respectively. They illustrate the same preference results on a less complicated graph. Figures 1.5 and 1.6 further explore the data by analyzing the respondents’ listening and performance familiarity by ethnicity. Students self-identified as Caucasian (N = 159), Hispanic (N = 82), African American (N = 10), Asian (N = 8), or other (N = 10). No ethnicity was indicated by one respondent. Given the small number of African American, Asian, and other respondents, the data for these three categories were combined in figures 1.5 and 1.6 as “All Others” (N = 29). Data on figure 1.5 represent the percentage of each ethnic group that rated their level of familiarity through listening as either above average or extensive. The results for Caucasians (N = 159) are shown in the top segment of each beam; for Hispanics (N = 82) in the middle segment, and for “All Others” (N = 29) in the bottom segment. These results mirror those in the

Figure 1.3. Listening Experience Results with Above Average and Extensive Levels

Figure 1.4. Performing Experience Results with Above Average and Extensive Levels

Figure 1.5. Listening Experience Results by Ethnicity with Above Average and Extensive Levels

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Figure 1.6. Performing Experience Results by Ethnicity with Above Average and Extensive Levels

previous charts. Students were most familiar with classical, rock, and pop styles of music in their listening experiences, and hip-hop was almost equal to jazz as the fourth highest choice. Students performed classical music at a rate more than twice that of the style rated the next highest, jazz. These last two figures present a visual comparison of the various ethnic groups. For example, in figure 1.5, the segments of the beams representing classical, rock, and pop styles of music are all about the same size, as are the segments representing classical and jazz on figure 1.6. This would indicate that all students, regardless of ethnicity, shared a comparable level of familiarity with these five styles. This was not true for other styles of music. In figure 1.5, gospel, hip-hop/rap, and jazz had a slightly higher level of familiarity identified by the “All Other” category as compared to the other two ethnic groups. In fact, the level of familiarity through listening for the “All Other” category was approximately the same for six styles of music: classical, gospel, hip-hop/rap, jazz, pop, and rock. Hispanics rated their level of familiarity with Latin music through listening at a rate approximately three times greater than the other ethnic groups.

With respect to performing Latin music, however, Hispanics rated their level of familiarity only twice that of the other ethnic groups.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Students ranked their level of familiarity with various styles of music through listening experiences in the following order, highest to lowest: rock (63.7 percent), classical (57.3 percent), pop (51.9 percent), jazz (47.4 percent), Latin (34.1 percent), metal (34.1 percent), hip-hop (33.7 percent), easy listening (28.5 percent), blues (26.4 percent), gospel (21.5 percent), contemporary Christian (20.8 percent), electronic (19.3 percent), world (18.5 percent), folk (16.4 percent), and new age (9.6 percent). These percentages represent the sum of the responses for extensive and above average experiences. For performance experiences, students indicated overwhelmingly that classical music was the style with which they had the greatest level of familiarity. Students ranked their level of familiarity with various styles of music through performance experiences in the following order, highest to lowest: classical (70.7

Music Majors’ Levels of Familiarity with Fifteen Musical Styles

percent), jazz (33.7 percent), rock (27.0 percent), pop (21.1 percent), Latin (20.7 percent), contemporary Christian (19.7 percent), blues (19.4 percent), gospel (14.8 percent), metal (13.3 percent), easy listening (13.0 percent), folk (9.6 percent), electronic (7.0 percent), world (7.0 percent), hip-hop (4.8 percent), and new age (3.0 percent). Again, these percentages represent the sum of the responses for extensive and above average experiences. Music majors are required to take applied lessons on their performance instrument, so the focus on classical music is understandable. Applied music professors usually control literature choices, which might account for the extensive experience in performing classical music. Breaking out the statistics on incoming freshmen music majors may show a contrasting view, although audition criteria favor students with classical backgrounds. Students with less traditional performance backgrounds may not be entering the School of Music. Teachers implement sound pedagogical practice when they identify the knowledge and skills students possess in order to build a curriculum. Our research shows that students’ listening and performance experiences span a variety of styles that provide them with a rich repertoire of musical patterns and harmonic relationships. Yet the overwhelming majority of examples in undergraduate theory texts, for instance, are drawn from the canon of Western art music. The researchers recommend further study using music familiar to students. A wider variety of styles could be incorporated to teach musical knowledge and skills. When learners begin with familiar information and then move on to unfamiliar concepts, they gain confidence and experience greater success. University faculty should consider exploring the cultural diversity of their students and possibly modify the curriculum to serve them, based on their prior experience. In addition to analyzing Western classical music, such as Bach chorales, students might gain insights from analyzing other styles of music. In closing, this project is the first of a longitudinal study at this university researching student familiarity with and preferences for various musical styles. Other areas of interest for future investigation are

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1. comparison of the levels of familiarity and preference between entering freshmen music majors and upper level music majors (four to six completed semesters), 2. comparison of listening preferences (free time choices) between current music majors and entering freshmen music majors, 3. correlations between students’ levels of familiarity with styles and their personal style preferences in listening and performance, 4. the effect on student success in beginning theory/ aural courses of using a broader range of styles in the musical examples and exercises.

REFERENCES Asmus, E. 1989. Factor analysis: A look at the technique through the data of rainbow. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 101:1–29. Finnas, L. 1989. How can musical preferences be modified? Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 102:1–58. Fung, C. V. 1996. Musicians’ and nonmusicians’ preferences for the world musics: Relation to musical characteristics and familiarity. Journal of Research in Music Education 44:10–83. Greer, R., L. Dorow, G. Wachhaus, and E. White. 1973. Adult approval and students’ music selection behavior. Journal of Research in Music Education 21: 345–354. Herbst, A., J. de Wet, and S. Rijsdijk. 2005. A survey of music education in the primary schools of South Africa’s Cape Peninsula. Journal of Research in Music Education 53 (3): 260–83. LeBlanc, A. 1981. Effects of style, tempo, and performing medium on children’s music preference. Journal of Research in Music Education 29:143–56. LeBlanc, A., C. Silvola, M. Obert, and W. L. Sims. 1996. Music style preferences of different age listeners. Journal of Research in Music Education 44 (1): 49–59. Neville, J. 1985. Aspects of music in the multicultural curriculum. Music Teacher 64:14. Schmidt, C. P., and S. F. Zdzinski. 1993. Cited quantitative research articles in music education research journals 1975–1990: A content analysis of selected studies. Journal of Research in Music Education 41 (1): 5–18. Wiggins, J. 2001. Teaching for musical understanding. New York: McGraw-Hill.

2 Studying Multicultural Music Can Oppose Prejudice: The Aesthetic Realism Teaching Method Shows How Alan Shapiro

Multicultural

SAMENESS AND DIFFERENCE

music is being included increasingly as part of music education, and this represents the hope for respect for the great cultural diversity of our classrooms, our society, and our world. Even so, prejudice persists. The aesthetic realism teaching method enables the study of multicultural music to be a conscious means of combating prejudice. The philosophy of aesthetic realism was founded in 1941 by the American poet and educator Eli Siegel, who explained that “the purpose of education is to like the world” (1981, 5) and that the cause of both learning difficulty and prejudice is contempt, the “false importance or glory from the lessening of things not [one]self” (1977). The beginning of all prejudice is the ordinary yet dangerous feeling that “if I can look down on and have contempt for something or someone outside of me, then I am superior.” This is a feeling I have seen not only in students but also in teachers, including myself. To combat the contempt from which prejudice and racism arise, people need to see that the world—with all its social injustice, economic unfairness, worry, and ordinary confusion—can honestly be liked because it is made in a way that is sensible, even beautiful. This can be richly demonstrated through music. In an essay, Eli Siegel wrote: “Music for a long time has been telling what the world is really like. What music has to say now, in a manner that has both logic and emotion in it, is that the world has a structure persons could like; be stronger by” (1975). That structure is aesthetic, the oneness of opposites. It is described in this principle of aesthetic realism: “All beauty is a making one of opposites, and the making one of opposites is what we are going after in ourselves” (Siegel 1967).

Every time students see the oneness of reality’s opposites in a specific instance of music, they have more respect for the world, and as a result, their desire to look down on, disparage, mock, or hurt another person representing that world is combated successfully. I have observed this in urban and suburban schools for more than twenty years. Further, when we see that the same opposites that make a musical composition beautiful are present in us and also in a person of a different skin color or ethnic background, we cannot be prejudiced against that person, because we see him or her as not only different from us, but also deeply the same. How important the technical study of sameness and difference in multicultural music is in understanding and combating prejudice is explained by Ellen Reiss (1997): What needs to replace [prejudice] is not the feeling that the difference of another person is somehow tolerable. What is necessary is the seeing and feeling that the relation of sameness and difference between ourselves and that other person is beautiful. People need to feel, with feeling both intimately personal and large, that difference of race is like the difference to be found in music: two notes are different, but they are in behalf of the same melody; they complete each other; each needs the other to be expressed richly, to be fully itself.

Take two very different examples, “Heard ’em Say” by Kanye West (2005) from the twenty-first century, and “Dido’s Lament” by Henry Purcell from the seventeenth century. On the surface, they sound 11

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very different. Hearing both, many students initially respond more favorably to the Kanye West song, because it is familiar. Yet, looking more closely at the music, we find both have this in common: in each, a fixed element below is supporting one that changes above. In the first example, that fixed element is the bed-track (see figure 2.1). In the second example, a passacaglia, it is the ground bass (see figure 2.2). These very different instances of music have this structure in common: they both put together a pair of opposites related to sameness and difference— constancy and change. In their important paper “Aesthetic Realism: A New Foundation for Interdisciplinary Musicology,” presented in Graz, Austria, at the Conference of Interdisciplinary Musicology, composer Edward Green and anthropologist Arnold Perey (2004) discuss constancy and change: They are ontological; they correspond to the deepest scientific and philosophic structure of the world; they are in every instance of reality one can think of: a leaf rustling in the wind; an embryo developing. . . . At the same time, they are present in the hopes and feelings of every man and woman. Has there ever lived a human being who did not want both stability and adventure? Both security and surprise? No. And that desire to see opposites as one impels all music.

In fact, constancy and change, stability and adventure are opposites present throughout the world of music,

Figure 2.1. Kanye West, “Heard ’Em Say”

from bagpipe music, with its relation of drone and melody, to salsa, in which the montuno—the piano vamp—underlies instrumental and vocal variations. Stability and change are often at odds in students; they feel both stuck and tossed around—and so do teachers. When young men and women see that instances of music like those by Purcell and West make a sensible, coherent composition of opposites that confuse them, they feel more composed themselves, and they are much less predisposed to be against what is called “classical” music. Even more important, they stop being scornful of each other and of people who may look different from them. They listen to music— and to each other—more carefully and respectfully.

MUSIC IS FREEDOM AND ORDER Other opposites in the daily life of every person, student and teacher alike, are freedom and order. From New York City to Beijing, Edinburgh to Kinshasaa, people want to feel free, unfettered, and independent. But we also want order and routine; we want to feel our lives have organization. In music, people of different cultures have composed these universal opposites, each in a unique way. Take the Ewe of Ghana. We find order and freedom, pattern and unpredictability in David Locke’s (2005) description of Agbekor, a traditional percussion ensemble piece of the Ewe:

Studying Multicultural Music Can Oppose Prejudice

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Figure 2.2. Henry Purcell, “Dido’s Lament”

Although a performance of Agbekor follows a definite pattern, it is not rigidly formalized. A.M. Jones, a pioneering scholar of African music, [writes]: “Within the prescribed limits of custom, no one quite knows what is going to happen: It depends quite a lot on the inspiration of the leading performers. . . . They are moved by the spirit of the occasion.” (85)

One of the key features of this music is the timeline, which brings order and unity to all that occurs around it (see figure 2.3). In its particular way, this music has satisfied a hope in Ghanaian people to put together freedom and order, a hope of all people. One of the wonderful things about the timeline is that it can be experienced in two, three, four, and six (see figure 2.4). This is a major reason that this West African music, with all its intricate rhythmic organization, feels free, loose, and unrestricted. The same opposites of freedom and order are central in Arabic music, too. More than ever, it is essential that we see the people of the Arab world with accuracy and respect, and learning how the music of this region puts opposites together can encourage that perception. Writing about the improvised instrumental form called the taqsim, the noted musicologist Habib Hassan Touma (1996) points to these opposites: In the hands of a gifted musician, no taqsim performance is musically the same as any other, for tradition prescribes that the taqsim be created anew each time. Nevertheless, the taqsim is not purely improvisational. Underlying its freely unfolding rhythmic-temporal design is a . . . fixed tonal-spatial organization, its predetermined sequence of tone levels and phases. This interplay between composition and improvisation is the essential characteristic of a taqsim. (99)

Figure 2.3. Timeline

So the taqsim is at once improvised and composed; it unfolds freely, yet has a fixed organization. Here again, in this music that represents a large part of the world and a tradition many hundreds of years old, we find in outline a solution to a problem we and our students meet every day, from Brooklyn where I teach, to the windy city of Chicago, to sunny San Diego: the problem of freedom and restriction. Studying any improvised music—for instance American jazz, the music of India, folk music of Eastern Europe, or freestyle rap—we can ask: How is there order within this freedom? Students and teachers can have a thrilling time exploring this. I have seen the pleasure on students’ faces as they follow for the first time the twelve-bar blues structure underlying a Charlie Parker solo, or count out the tala of a Ravi Shankar improvisation. And looking at music in which improvisation is not central to its performance, be it a Beethoven sonata, a traditional Chinese instrumental composition, or a popular song on the radio, we can ask: Is there freedom within the order, surprise within the organization? Time and again, the answer is yes. The aesthetic realism teaching method, in explaining that the oneness of opposites is what makes for beauty, enables students and teachers to look at music from any culture with a respect for the uniqueness of that culture, while simultaneously seeing that it is fundamentally related to music of other cultures. Of course, we have to be careful critics of each instance of music and encourage this exactitude in our students as well, for it would be as much a mistake to say all music is of equal value as it would be for us to say greatness in music is a matter of style, or worse, nationality. Still, whatever the music, whatever the culture, whatever the century, the opposites are there.

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Figure 2.4. Timelines

EXCITEMENT AND CALM, FAST AND SLOW Excitement and calm, energy and thoughtfulness often take the form of speed and slowness. Do people all over the world want to put these opposites together? Music shows the answer is yes. In the Hindustani tradition of North India, the structure of a raga performance shows the desire to relate these opposites in a way that is graceful and dramatic. Such a performance traditionally begins with the alap, a more meditative section without definite beat, followed by the gat, with definite rhythm, building finally to the jhala, the rapid conclusion. In many instances, there is a shift in the jhala to something like a doubletime feel, as though the underlying tempo has become twice as fast. In the greatest performances, that shift is done so subtly, it is difficult to say just when the change occurs, showing the continuity and deep friendliness possible between calm and excitement, slowness and speed. This music meets our hope to bring together repose and energy, thoughtfulness and excitement. There are notable examples of speed and slowness throughout the world of music. For instance, the people of Japan have put together these opposites in a style of music for koto called danmono. In Music: An Appreciation, Roger Kamien (1996) writes that in the danmono “the theme is presented in the first section (dan)

and is then varied in subsequent sections, which have increasingly faster tempos” (643). There is Brahms’ Hungarian Dance No. 5 in G minor, which begins fast, then suddenly slows down at the second to last phrase of the main section, returning to the first tempo to conclude that section. There is Louis Armstrong’s “West End Blues,” which begins with a rapid introduction by Armstrong on solo trumpet, followed by the slow blues form. There is the structure of the classical symphony, with its arrangement of faster and slower movements. And an example in contemporary popular music is “Let ’er Rip,” written by Billy Crain and Sandy Ramos and recorded by the Dixie Chicks. Like many raga performances, this song begins with a slow introduction, followed by the faster paced main section, which builds in excitement as the steel guitar soloist implies a double-time feel. In each instance, we can study the relation of fast and slow with our classes and ask, Do these opposites go together convincingly, satisfyingly, beautifully? And if so, why? Like the people and cultures represented by these different musical examples, students and teachers want to put together excitement and calm. We want to feel things are interesting, stirring, and inspiring; we want to feel composed, at ease, and relaxed—and we don’t want these feelings one at a time. Excitement without calm is agitation, nervousness, anxiety. Calm without

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Studying Multicultural Music Can Oppose Prejudice

excitement is boredom, dullness, lifelessness. People everywhere are looking for the oneness of these opposites. In fact, Eli Siegel (1981) defined happiness as “dynamic tranquility” (77). And through the aesthetic realism teaching method, learning with our students about the opposites in music makes for an atmosphere in the classroom that has just that quality: excitement with composure. For any person to effectively oppose prejudice, we must first be against it in ourselves. As a boy and young man, though I would have denied being bigoted or prejudiced, I was, in ways I didn’t realize. I saw myself as more intelligent and sensitive than others, and looked to find flaws in people to support that image. I was prejudiced in favor of myself. I also told jokes in which I used various ethnic slurs, something I tried to laugh off at the time, but of which I am ashamed to this day, more than thirty years later. I am very grateful to have learned about the struggle between contempt and respect as explained by aesthetic realism, because that knowledge enables me to be a better critic of myself, to be truly affected by my students, and to have a good effect on them. For us to be the effective educators we are hoping to be, we each need to ask courageously: Do I have an unconscious stake in feeling superior to my students? As I look at other people, do I see them as essentially different from me, or as deeply and interestingly the same and different? The aesthetic realism teaching method has been used effectively by teachers across the curriculum, from elementary through graduate levels, enabling students to learn—even those young people desperately hurt by our unjust profit economy. Further, through the subject they are studying, it encourages students of diverse backgrounds to view all people with greater kindness and respect. Articles documenting this effect have been published in journals and newspapers in the United States and abroad, and many are available on the website of the Aesthetic Realism Foundation in New York

City (www.AestheticRealism.org). Teaching multicultural music with this method opposes prejudice in two ways. First, while honoring the uniqueness of any culture’s music, it enables one to see the opposites that all music has in common. Second, by showing the relation between the opposites in music and the opposites in ourselves, it enables people of one culture to respect honestly not only the music of other cultures, but also people of other cultures. This great method enables a student to feel: “The beauty that other people have gone after also stirs me. This means other people’s feelings are more like my own than I realized, and the whole world looks friendlier.” REFERENCES Green, E., and A. Perey. 2004. Aesthetic realism: A new foundation for interdisciplinary musicology. In Proceedings of the conference on interdisciplinary musicology (CIM04), ed. R. Parncutt, A. Kessler, and F. Zimmer, University of Graz, Austria. Kameian, R. 1996. Music: An appreciation. New York: McGraw-Hill. Locke, D. 2005. “Africa/Ewe, Mande, Dagbamba, Shona, BaAka.” In Worlds of music, shorter version, 2nd ed., ed. J. T. Titon, 73–121. Belmont, CA: Thomson Schirmer. Reiss, E. 1997. The right of aesthetic realism to be known. New York, NY. Aesthetic Realism Foundation, 1264. Siegel, E. 1967. Four statements of aesthetic realism. New York: Aesthetic Realism Foundation. ———. 1975. Music tells what the world is like. In The right of aesthetic realism to be known, ed. Ellen Reiss. New York, NY: The Aesthetic Realism Foundation, 93. ———. 1977. Aesthetic Realism: A Tripartite Study. In The right of aesthetic realism to be known, ed. Ellen Reiss. New York, NY: The Aesthetic Realism Foundation, 247. ———. 1981. Self and world: An explanation of aesthetic realism. New York: Definition Press. Touma, H. H. 1996. Music of the Arabs. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press. West, K. 2005. Late registration [CD]. Roc-a-Fella Records, B000A2H2C2.

3 Cultural Identities of Composers Represented in a State-Prescribed Concert Band Repertoire List Mary Ellen Cavitt

The goals of a music curriculum are often based on

or apparent consensus on the quality of the compositions (Gaines 1996). The music selection committee for the Texas Prescribed Music List uses the following criteria to determine whether a particular piece should be included:

the repertoire selected for performance. To provide a good music education, teachers must choose music of the highest quality. According to Colwell and Goolsby (2002), “music should be selected for what it can teach of and about music, and also for its interest, its motivational value, and for variety” (425). H. Robert Reynolds (2000) states that although “you should consider the students’ enthusiasm for the music, the intrinsic merit of the music has a much higher level of priority” (33). Several studies have examined the wind band repertoire in an attempt to identify excellent works (Gilbert 1993; Ostling 1978; Peterson 1986) and a core repertoire of concert band literature (Gaines 1996; Howard 2001; Olson 1982). Numerous textbooks have also attempted to identify best works for concert bands (Dvorak 1986; Dvorak and Floyd 2000; Dvorak, Grechesky, and Ciepluch1993; Kvet 1996; Reynolds 1975; Wallace and Corporan 1984). In the United States, many state music organizations have adopted a prescribed music list of compositions authorized for use in state-sanctioned music contests and festivals. These lists aid music educators in selecting quality literature and are expanded and improved upon regularly. Many of the state music festivals require that teachers not perform multiple selections by the same composer at one festival. The purpose of the prescribed list seems to be in alignment with the national standard for music education that states that we should perform a varied repertoire of music (Consortium of National Arts Education Association 1994). These repertoire lists are usually based on the opinions of the compilers rather than on any empirical research

• Does the composition have some shape and design, and is it consistent in quality throughout the various sections? • Does the composition reflect good scoring, and how active are the parts? • How predictable are the probable musical goals, and does the piece contain a musical result, which moves above just historical worth and a good teaching piece? (Prado 2007, ¶ 4) In 1967, the Tanglewood Symposium first called upon American music educators to consider a more culturally diverse repertoire (Mark and Gary 1999). Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman (1995) stated that, “in order to develop respect for the achievements of cultures other than their own, teachers need to integrate multicultural music into the core music curriculum” (285). Although many teachers may support the idea of cultural and musical diversity, when it comes time to select music for competitions, they may be limited by state-prescribed music lists. Terese Volk (1998) has pointed out that there is a lack of multicultural materials for instrumental music classes. Composers may add authentic elements such as scales or traditional percussion to the composition, but rhythms and melodies are often adjusted to meet the educational needs of the students. Most composers of school band music do not focus on cultural context or authenticity. 17

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Many students perceive the music that they perform in band as “school music” and not “real music” (Wiggins 2001, 85). Teachers need to consider using authentic works or arrangements of authentic works instead of music created solely for educational purposes. Carlos Abril (2006) urges that, “the performer, arranger, composer, or transcriber . . . be an individual who understands the culture and music style. The person can be a culture bearer or an individual with an in-depth understanding” (41). Palmer (1992) argues that when music “is transferred out of its original culture, it loses some of its essential qualities” (32). He concedes that some compromise of authenticity may occur when music is performed for educational purposes. For example, composers who collect and arrange folk melodies may or may not be concerned about authenticity. Volk (1998, 178) describes four categories that may help in questioning the authenticity of compositions: 1. Pieces whose only connection to the authentic music of another culture is in their titles. 2. Pieces that essentially employ Western art music forms, but incorporate melodies from other cultures. 3. Pieces that make a conscious effort to incorporate melodic and rhythmic elements from the music of another culture. 4. Pieces that are either original compositions by composers from the culture, or arrangements that are a close approximation of the original music of the culture. According to Anderson and Campbell (1996), In the past, as a result of emphasizing selected aspects of Western European and American classical and folk music, teachers have often led students to believe there was only one major musical system in the world, the Euro-American system. By stressing the importance and perhaps “superiority” of that system, educators have taught by implication the relative unimportance, if not the actual inferiority, of other musical systems. Today’s scholars have clearly demonstrated that educational institutions at all levels need to ensure that music curricula contain balanced programs that are representative of the world and also of the multicultural nature of the United States itself. (3)

Hornyak (1985) explored the core repertoire of university bands and attempted to classify the nationality

of composers represented. He categorized the composers into four distinct groups: (1) American tradition, (2) English tradition, (3) Austro-German tradition, and (4) Russian tradition. Most of the pieces included in the Austro-German and Russian traditions were orchestral transcriptions for band. It should be noted that this categorization was limited to American and European composers. Demographics are rapidly changing within the United States. In August 2008, a United States Census Bureau news release stated that minorities are expected to become the majority in 2042, with the nation projected to be 54 percent minority by 2050 (Bernstein and Edwards 2008). Currently, Texas, Hawaii, New Mexico, and California are “majority-minority” states, in which the combined minority population exceeds the majority population (Longley 2005). This means that classroom populations are becoming more diverse, and there is a greater need for students to learn to be tolerant and understanding of people from varying cultures. Kelly and Van Weelden (2004) stated that, “while traditionally a multicultural approach has focused on race and ethnicity, effective music education programs present music experiences with a wider cultural scope that encompasses differences in gender, social class, religion, language, geography, and age.” Cushner (2006) identified twelve attributes of culture that influence teaching and learning: ethnicity/nationality, social class, sex/gender, health, age, geographic region, sexuality, religion, social status, language, ability/disability, and race. The sociological, artistic, and cultural conditions of composers whose works are represented on prescribed music lists have a direct influence on the music education of numerous students. Although the lists restrict the music selection process, they also clearly define an important part of the American instrumental music curriculum. The purpose of this study is to explore the cultural identities of composers included on a selected state-prescribed music list.

METHOD Information about prescribed lists of concert band music was obtained from Gaines (1996), jwpepper.com, the National Band Association, and state-specific websites (obtained through the jwpepper.com website).

Cultural Identities of Composers Represented in a State-Prescribed Concert Band Repertoire List

While attempting to investigate a core repertoire of concert music for the high school band, Gaines (1996) found that very few states used their own prescribed music lists (Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, Wisconsin, and West Virginia). Five states used another state’s list. The jwpepper.com (October 8, 2008) website included information about twenty states’ prescribed music lists; there was no information for thirty states and Washington, D.C. For the purposes of this investigation, the Texas Prescribed Music List was selected for analysis. The University Interscholastic League was created in 1913 by the University of Texas at Austin to provide leadership and supervision to public school competitions (www .uil.utexas.edu/history/index.html). The Texas University Interscholastic League Prescribed Music List for the school years beginning 2007–2010 was obtained at www.uil.utexas.edu. The Texas Prescribed Music List is configured as a database and can be sorted by title, arranger, composer, publisher, and type of event. Music for full ensembles (concert band, orchestra, choir), small ensembles, and solos is included on the list. The database was sorted first by event type (concert band) and then by composer. The list includes no quick-step marches. The assigned variables that were initially analyzed are sex, nationality, race, and era. The following sources were used to determine the results of the cultural identity variables:

• • • •

Rehrig (2005) Miles (1997–2007) Several different composers’ personal websites Burkholder, Grout, and Palisca (2006)

The composers’ nationalities were defined by examining their reported country of origin and citizenship. The composers’ citizenship (naturalized or by birth) and length of the residency were determining factors.

RESULTS Results indicated that 298 distinct composers were identified on the Texas Prescribed Music List. Many were represented by more than one composition on the list. There were 292 males and 6 females. The female composers were Jodie Blackshaw, Carolyn Bremer, Julie Giroux, Elena Roussanova Lucas, Anne McGinty, and Joan Tower. Frequency of composer by nationality (N = 298) is described in table 3.1. American composers comprised 61 percent of the prescribed music list. Each of the other nationalities represented was less than 10 percent. The 2000 U.S. Census defined sixty-three racial categories; five were the following mutually exclusive categories: (1) white alone, (2) black or African American alone, (3) American Indian and Alaska Native alone, (4) Asian alone, and (5) Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander alone. Another category, called “Some

Table 3.1. Frequency and Percent of Composer by Nationality Nationality American Austro-German English (& Welsh) Russian French (& Belgian) Italian Czech Japanese Australian Canadian Hungarian Spanish Dutch Norwegian Mexican Unknown N = 298

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Frequency

Percent

n = 182 n = 23 n = 20 n = 18 n = 17 n=6 n=4 n=4 n=3 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=1 n=1 n = 11

61.0 7.7 6.7 6.0 5.7 3.0 1.3 1.3 1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 3.6

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Other Race,” included multiracial and Hispanic. The determination of composer race or ethnicity yielded results that were inconclusive. Most biographical reference information did not include statements concerning composers’ race or ethnicity. I was only able to identify two composers who are African American (Quincy Hilliard and William Owens) and four who are Asian. It was clear that most of the composers were white and that there was very little racial diversity on the prescribed music list. A composer’s era was determined by the date of the original composition and traditional classification of eras as defined by Burkholder, Grout, and Palisca (2006). Eras covered the following approximate dates: • • • • • •

Ancient and medieval (?BC–AD 1400) Renaissance (1400–1600) Baroque (1600–1750) Classical (1750–1820) Romantic (1820–1920) Contemporary twentieth/twenty-first centuries (1920–present)

Table 3.2 illustrates the frequency and percent of composers from each era. The contemporary era was the most represented time period on the Texas list. Although some eras were represented by very few composers, this does not necessarily reflect the number of pieces from an era included on the list. For example, even though the baroque period was the least-represented, there were nineteen pieces on the list by Bach.

lection of contest pieces. The selection criteria for the prescribed list did not include the composers’ cultural background, yet the result is a somewhat homogeneous list comprised primarily of white, male, contemporary, and American composers. Much of this homogeneity can be attributed to the increase in popularity of American school bands and the rise of the wind band as a genre in the mid-twentieth century. The composition of the committee who revised the Texas Prescribed Music List for 2006–2011 closely resembles the cultural identities of composers included on the list—six white males and one white female (Prado 2007). As the United States and its schools become more diverse in the twenty-first century, teachers can advocate for music by women and minorities. Palmquist and Payne (1992) suggested that “teachers need to support organizations and businesses that provide inclusive materials or specialize in music by women” (53). Everitt (1978) pointed out that there is a considerable amount of quality literature written for the concert band by Black American composers which demonstrates this influence that has hardly been explored. It is especially surprising that this music has not gained the exposure it deserves, since most of the works are playable by high-school, as well as college bands, and their musical worth and content are certainly more substantial than most of the music being programmed by school bands. (143–44)

Perhaps it is time to include great works by more culturally diverse composers on our state-mandated prescribed music lists.

DISCUSSION REFERENCES The goal of the Texas Prescribed Music List is to present the best possible wind band repertoire for seTable 3.2. Frequency and Percent of Composers by Era Era Ancient/medieval Renaissance Baroque Classical Romantic Contemporary Unknown N = 298

Frequency

Percent

n=0 n = 11 n=4 n=7 n = 54 n = 218 n=4

0.0 3.6 1.3 2.3 18.1 73.1 1.3

Abeles, H. F., C. R. Hoffer, and R. H. Klotman. 1995. Foundations of music education. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Schirmer. Abril, C. R. 2006. Music that represents culture: Selecting music with integrity. Music Educators Journal 93 (1): 38–45. Anderson, W. M., and P. S. Campbell. 1996. Multicultural perspectives in music education. 2nd ed.. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Bernstein, R., and T. Edwards. 2008. An older and more diverse nation by midcentury. U.S. Census Bureau, at www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/ population/012496.html (accessed October 3, 2008).

Cultural Identities of Composers Represented in a State-Prescribed Concert Band Repertoire List

Burkholder, J. P., D. J. Grout, and C. V. Palisca. 2006. A history of Western music. 7th ed. New York: W. W. Norton. Colwell, R. J., and T. W. Goolsby. 2002. The teaching of instrumental music. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Consortium of National Arts Education Association. 1994. National standards for arts education: Dance, music, theatre, visual arts. Reston, VA: MENC. Cushner, K. 2006. Human diversity in action—Developing multicultural competencies for the classroom. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Dvorak, T. L. 1986. Best music for young band: A selective guide to the young band/young wind ensemble repertoire. Brooklyn, NY: Manhattan Beach Music. Dvorak, T. L., and R. L. Floyd. 2000. Best music for beginning band: A selective repertoire guide to music and methods for beginning band. Brooklyn, NY: Manhattan Beach Music. Dvorak, T. L., C. M. Grechesky, and G. M. Ciepluch. 1993. Best music for high school bands. New York: Manhattan Beach Music. Everitt, T. 1978. Concert band music by black-American composers. The Black Perspective in Music 6 (2): 143–50. Gaines, D. A. 1996. A core repertoire of concert music for high school band: A descriptive study. PhD diss., Teachers College, Columbia University. Gilbert, J. W. 1993. An evaluation of compositions for wind band according to specific criteria of serious artistic merit: A replication and update. PhD diss., Northwestern University. Dissertation Abstracts International 54 (08): 2787. Hornyak, R. 1985. The repertoire of the college and university band 1975–1982. Manuscript, University of Cincinnati. Howard, R. L. 2001. Repertoire selection practices and the development of a core repertoire for the middle school concert band. PhD diss., University of Florida, Gainesville. Kelly, S. N., and K. Van Weelden. 2004. Connecting meaningful music and experiences in a multicultural, multimusical classroom. Music Educators Journal 90 (3): 35–39. Kvet, E. J. 1996. Instructional literature for middle-level band. Reston, VA: MENC.

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Longley, R. 2005. Number of “majority-minority” states grow, at usgovinfo.about.com/od/censusandstatistics/a/ minmajpop.htm (accessed October 3, 2008). Mark, M. L., and C. L. Gary. 1999. A history of American music education. Reston, VA: MENC. Miles, Richard, ed. 1997–2007. Teaching music through performance in band. Volumes 1–6. Chicago: GIA Publications. Olson, R. H. 1982. A core repertoire for the wind ensemble. Journal of Band Research 18 (1): 11–35. Ostling, A. E., Jr. 1978. An evaluation of compositions for wind band according to specific criteria of serious artistic merit. PhD diss., The University of Iowa. Dissertation Abstracts International 39 (06): 3215A. Palmer, A. J. 1992. World musics in music education: The matter of authenticity. International Journal of Music Education 19:32–40. Palmquist, J. E., and B. Payne. 1992. The inclusive instrumental library: Works by women. Music Educators Journal 78 (7):52–55. Peterson, D. L. 1986. The university band: Its repertoire and the prospective music educator. PhD diss., Arizona State University. Dissertation Abstracts International 47 (10): 3606A. Prado, D. 2007. The new PML committee. The Texas Bandmasters Review 8 (4), at www.texasbandmasters .org/EdResources/TBMR/2007/2007-06-Prado1.cfm (accessed October 4, 2008). Rehrig, William H. 2005. The Heritage encyclopedia of band music (CD ROM). Oskaloosa, IA: C.L. Barnhouse, The Robert Hoe Foundation, Walking Frog Records. Reynolds, H. R. 1975. Wind ensemble literature. 2nd ed. Madison: University of Wisconsin Bands. Reynolds, H. R. 2000. Repertoire is the curriculum. Music Educators Journal 87 (1):31–33. University Interscholastic League. n.d. www.uil.utexas.edu/ (accessed October 8, 2008). Volk, T. M. 1998. Music, education, and multiculturalism: Foundations and principles. New York: Oxford University Press. Wallace, D., and E. Corporan. 1984. Wind ensemble/band repertoire. Greeley, CO: University of Colorado School of Music. Wiggins, J. 2001. Teaching for musical understanding. New York: McGraw-Hill.

4 Marcel Khalife’s “Oh My Father, I Am Yusif” and the Struggle for Political Freedom and Religious Sensitivity Nasser Al-Taee

On November 3, 1999, Lebanese singer and composer

in 1992, the attempted assassination of Nobel Prize– winning novelist Najeeb Mahfouz, and the killing of prominent Lebanese journalist Samir Qasir in 2005 sparked a crisis among artists concerning the sanctity of intellectuals in the Arab world (Chalala 1998; AlTaee 2001). The accusation of blasphemy against Khalife occurred because of the song “Oh Father, I Am Yusif,” from his album Arabic Coffeepot, released in 1995. The poem it was based on was written in 1992 by Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish. In the poem, Darwish borrowed a verse attributed to Joseph from the Holy Qur’an, in which Joseph declares, “Of eleven planets, I dreamt, and of the sun and the moon all kneeling before me” (Holy Qur’an, Sourah 12, v. 4). “Oh Father, I Am Yusif’ (hereinafter “Yusif”) was inspired by the biblical and Qur’anic story of Joseph, in which Joseph’s brothers conspire against him. As it stood, the charge was not derived directly from the poetic and musical significance of the song, but rather from its alleged parallel to current events and its use of the Qur’anic verse. Darwish is a Palestinian poet, and his poem contained an implicit parallel between the story of Joseph and his brothers and the plight of the Palestinians and their Arab brothers. Palestinians feel that throughout the past six decades, their Arab brothers have conspired against them through massacres, prosecution, and confiscations of their rights, while failing to protect them from Israeli aggression and occupation of their land and subjecting them to the status of refugees in their neighbors’ police states. Reacting to the song, senior Sunni Muslim clerics in Lebanon ruled that singing verses from the Qur’an was “absolutely banned and not accepted as a senior

Marcel Khalife appeared before the Beirut Court to defend himself for the second time against accusations of blasphemy and “insulting religious values by using a verse from the chapter of Joseph from the Holy Qur’an in a song” (Human Rights News). Three years earlier, Khalife had been cleared of similar charges through the mediation of then prime minister Rafik al-Hariri, who was later assassinated (in February 2005). The renewal of the case in 1999 brought an outpouring of support for the singer. This phenomenon emphasized Beirut’s renaissance as a cultural center, but also highlighted political, religious, and cultural tensions in Lebanon and the Arab world. Elias Khoury, a newspaper editor and one of Lebanon’s best novelists, summed up the case: “We will never accept Beirut falling back into obscurantism and becoming a city without liberty like other Arab cities. We will not accept such threats to Lebanese culture” (Khalife 2004, 134–40). To Khoury, Lebanese “culture” meant its close affiliation with Western culture, which distinguishes it from its Arab culture. Although bloody conflicts are nothing new to the unstable Middle East, recent attacks on intellectuals, artists, journalists, and musicians reflect an alarming new strategy associated with “swords against the pens” campaigns stretching from Yemen in the east to Morocco in the west. Countries such as Algeria, Egypt, and Lebanon, with long-standing traditions of novelists, poets, and musicians, find themselves in a state of war between various feuding factions and contesting ideologies. In Algeria, the assassination of rai and pop singers such as Cheb Hasni and Lounes Matoub in the 1990s, the murder of Egyptian author Farag Fouda 23

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cleric maintained repeatedly that Khalife is guilty of blasphemy.” Shaikh Qabbani claimed that “there is a limit to freedom of expression. One limit is that it should not infringe on people’s religious belief.” On December 14, 1999, a Lebanese court found Khalife innocent of blasphemy, a serious accusation in Lebanon that would have resulted in imprisonment of up to six years (Lebanon’s Penal Code). As I will argue in this chapter, Khalife’s modernist vision of music was viewed as a threat by an establishment that supported political anarchy and sectarian divisions and promoted the regression of the arts. As I hope to show, however, the musical value of Khalife’s work is of a quality that transcends ephemeral propagandistic concerns and raises it above contemporary politics, to the level of true art. This I believe, more than his use of the Qur’anic verse, was the probable reason behind the accusation and court appearances. To be sure, the accusation of blasphemy against the most celebrated political artist and most visible vocal singer chanting for Lebanese and Palestinian unity is astounding, considering that Khalife’s songs were responsible for mobilizing millions in the Arab world against Israeli invasion and occupation of Lebanon in 1982, and that he was seen as an avid supporter of democracy and freedom in the Arab world. From the late 1970s to the 1990s, Khalife’s songs were synonymous with Arab nationalism, resistance, empowerments, unity, and political freedom. We could entertain several reasons for this uncharacteristic accusation. The most obvious are the rise in religious conservatism and the regression of democracy in the Middle East; the establishment of the Islamic Republic in Iran under the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which at first threatened to export its ideologies to its neighboring countries; the increasing instability of the region, beginning with the Iran–Iraq war and culminating in the U.S.-led invasion and subsequent occupation of Iraq in 2003; and the rise of sectarian feuds between various segments of Lebanese society (Khalife is a member of the Christian faith, citing a verse from the Qur’an). Although these are valid cultural and political reasons for the case, they ignore the aesthetic dimensions of Khalife’s impact on the music of the Arab world. Artistically speaking, Khalife’s ambitious innovations and modernization of Arab music through trying times may have left him at odds with conservative institutions. In

this chapter, I examine the case against Khalife from a variety of angles, notably the religious, political, and musical. In doing so, I acknowledge the strong and complex relationship among music, religion, and politics in the Arab world. I am adapting the premise advanced by many musicologists and ethnomusicologists that music is a “cultural medium” that cannot be separated from human experience (McClary 1991). These relationships are at the heart of Khalife’s music, which has been associated with rebellion and the celebration of the human experience throughout the Arab world. Although Khalife has been creating this type of committed, modernist music for more than twentyfive years, it has come under closer scrutiny in recent years. For a long time it was part of the underground, not aired on many Arab state-owned radio and TV stations, primarily due to censorship and lack of freedom of expression in the Arab world. Only recently, and with the establishment of privately owned satellite channels and the increasing accessibility of the Internet, has the Arab world been able to hear the music of Khalife through mainstream Arab media, a matter of concern for the forces of the status quo. As I mentioned previously, Khalife’s modernist vision of music represented a threat to an establishment that supported political anarchy and sectarian divisions and promoted the regression of the arts.

INCOMPREHENSIBLE CHARGE Khalife gathered national and international support from organizations such as Human Rights Watch, which called the accusations a “blatant violation of his right to freedom of expression.” In a petition signed by hundreds of Lebanese, the citizens voiced their shock “to see Lebanon—the country that has long prided itself as a haven for artists and intellectuals—embark on prosecuting one of its best artists, even as the country celebrates its capital Beirut as the cultural capital of the Arab world.” Khalife avidly defended his position, stating during his first appearance before the court that he was “accompanied by a rich tradition of artistic and cultural expression, past and present, the fruit of more than one generation. This tradition arises out of an overwhelming yearning for freedom, a deep desire to free the human mind from forces bent on deforming

Marcel Khalife’s “Oh My Father, I Am Yusif”

and distorting human thoughts.” Speaking eloquently about his case, Khalife declared his sadness about a system that allows the indictment of an artist “not for a crime he committed, a harm he caused, a disloyalty or treason, but for singing of love and freedom and trying earnestly to convey the conditions and concerns of his society” (Khalife 2004, 136). Khalife added: The accusation against me stems merely from relating passionately to a Quranic verse which opened my soul to vast horizons in ways no other text is capable of doing. I stand accused because I believed that the spirit of religion was more broad and tolerant than the interpretations by those who appoint themselves as guardians of our faith and morality. I also believed that inquisition courts were things of the past. (136)

In his second appearance, Khalife equated himself with Joseph as a victim through the use of similar expressions, such as the rhetorical questions “Why do you prosecute me” and “What have I done to deserve this Whirlwind?” I shall not believe that quoting or incorporation a fragment of a Koranic verse in a poem, and reciting it with reverence and spiritual sensitivity, justifies this lawsuit, this dubious decision, this rabid campaign, this prosecution. Why do you prosecute me? Is it because I have so keenly embarked upon a quest to elevate Arab music to a cultural status that empowers Arabs to address themselves—and the world around them—with eloquence that befits this nation? What have I done to deserve this whirlwind? I have no need for it. I have formulated the song “oh my father, I am Yusif,” written by the poet Mahmoud Darwish, with a densely symbolic texture in which Joseph represents innocence, beauty, truth and sacrifice, contrary to what was stated in the bill of charges. (Khalife 2004, 137)

Egyptian novelist and critic Jabber Asfour views the case against Khalife and many Arab intellectuals in the Arab world as an ominous trend rather than an isolated instance (Chalala 1999). Director of Al-Arabiyya TV and former editor of the London Arabic daily newspaper Al-Sharq Al-Awsat Abd Al-Rahman Al-Rashed attributes this trend to rising extremists in the Arab world following the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1978. He cautions that “the Arab region has been living in a climate that silences authors. Most of the Arab extremists

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have made it a mission to persecute thinkers, authors, playwrights, and those working in the cinema. They recently added to this list the moderate imams and clerics, and are using the same method against them, namely overt and covert threats” (Free Muslim Collision, 2005). In a defense of Khalife, modernist Syrian poet Adonis claimed that this accusation “reveals the abyss into which the Arabs are being pushed,” and added that “[a]t this critical juncture of human history, the earth and heaven alike are hostage to political and personal agendas. As land becomes personal property to those controlling it, extremist religious leaders increasingly ‘own’ heaven. The religious leaders enter into perfect agreement with politicians, although on the outside they may appear to be at odds with each other” (quoted in Chalala 1999). Adonis further blamed Arab leaders “who preach the abolition of freedoms to protect and support their transient political and religious authorities—choking minds to support dying theories.” He added that “those who interpret and present religion often use it to fashion a human in perpetual chains in spite of the fact that religion, in its original meaning, was founded to benefit mankind. They have succeeded in making religion man’s enemy in the realms of speculation and inquiry.” Others criticized those who brought the charges for claiming “divine entitlement” and the “demonization of opponents” to promote their own agendas (Lockard 1999). In a lengthy defense of Khalife, Darwish wrote a passionate statement, referring to the composer as the “guardian of hope and human qualities” and “the creator of new taste dedicated to the celebration of peace, life, and freedom.” Darwish denounced the accusation as “intellectual terrorism,” hypocrisy, and religious “fundamentalism,” referring to the case against Khalife as part of a campaign against secular enlightenment challenging the central authority: Who then would punish him? Who would prosecute his voice? Who would put this very space under arrest? Where it not for our ironic enlightenment, we would have been able to read things backwards: such intellectual terrorism must be practiced by a new sort of fundamentalism, one with a modern façade, because there exists an Arab who still believes there is room for two extinct words: freedom and justice, and that hope is still curable from common dullness.

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Therefore, we demand that the supporters of religious fundamentalism consider distinguishing between the different opponents of Khalife’s artistic and revolutionary message in defense of the oppressed. For most of us will not so naively believe that singing a Qur’anic phrase among the lines of a longer poem with such transparency and composure justifies this vicious attack on Marcel. Also, we rightfully conclude that Khalife’s case is part of a comprehensive campaign against secular enlightenment at the beginning of a twenty first century, clearly desired to be free of any culture of resistance to global domination and central authority. Thus, globalization besieges our path to the future, and fundamentalism besieges our present and pushes us to a past from which bright pages only the margins of intellectual censorship are selectively read. Such fundamentalism does not bother asking what qualifies it to appoint itself a guardian of the sacred and a monopoly of faith. Our defense of Khalife today is a defense of the freedom of creativity, unbound and unshackled, a defense of the blending of time and spirit in us, for earth will not near the heavens unless the heavens near the earth. (Darwish 1996)

THE POLITICAL DIMENSION OF “YUSIF” To Khalife’s contemporary Arab listeners, Joseph’s questions to his father in the song are reminiscent of Arab betrayal of their Palestinian brothers, as they seem to reflect political realities in Lebanon and the plight of Palestinian refugees. In her defense of Khalife, author Elmaz Abinader (1999) outlined Lebanon’s hypocrisy, preaching compassion and freedom of expression while exercising intolerance and censorship against its artists. Abinader distinguished between Lebanon the myth and Lebanon the reality, with the artist serving as the bridge between the two: When I first wrote a poem about Lebanon, In the Country of My Dreams in 1995, I tried to imagine both a Lebanon of myth and a Lebanon of reality. The Lebanon of myth is the country of compassion and understanding, diversity and joy. I thought of a country rich in the arts, in faith, in language, and in a kind of transcendent relationship to those inside and outside of it. This is the Lebanon I was raised to believe in. In my parents’ stories of their home, there was no better

place to live and breathe. I grew up with that Lebanon like a song in my head that I couldn’t forget. The Lebanon of reality was the Lebanon that burst forth in 1975 during the Civil War. This was a Lebanon of self-destruction and intolerance, one that was reluctant to solve problems—one where religion and nationality made a difference and allowed questions. When I saw that Lebanon, I felt betrayed by the myth as many of us do. So I sought the things that allowed a bridge between the myth and the reality: the poets, the artists and the musicians. They became the bridges between the beauty of Lebanon and its beast. Among those inspirations is Marcel Khalife whose song and music have the soul of the myth and address the reality.

For an accusation of blasphemy to come from a court in Lebanon, a country long described as a model of pluralistic democracy in the region, is mystifying. Writing for Al Jadid magazine, Elie Chalala (1996) questioned the “political” agenda behind the case, citing the strangeness of the accusation given the fact that the judge was a Christian, and concluding that “many observers are still searching for the political powers that instructed the judge to file the charges.” Beneath its superficial facade, however, Lebanon’s political system is laden with discrimination and divisions based on its sectarian makeup, known as “confessionalism.” Despite its attempt to achieve balance among the various religious sects and ethnicities, the years since Lebanon’s independence in the early 1940s have served only to deepen divisions and fragment its society. Confessionalism allocated political power to various ethnicities, based on an inaccurate census taken in 1932 under the French mandate and later incorporated in the National Pact (al mithaq al-watani) of 1943. Under this policy, the president must be a Christian Maronite, his prime minister a Sunni Muslim, the speaker of the Parliament a Shi’i, and the commander of the army a Maronite. The census determining that Lebanon’s majority was largely Christian in the 1920s was never updated to reflect current realities—the decrease in the Christian population due to emigration and the increase in the Muslim population due to a higher birth rate— which has resulted in disproportionate political power for the Christians. The failure of Lebanese leaders to agree on a new formula for power sharing that would reflect contemporary demographic realities was one

Marcel Khalife’s “Oh My Father, I Am Yusif”

of the reasons behind the decades-long civil war that started in 1975. Summarizing his article on the Lebanese political system, Edmond Melhem (1996) stated that confessionalism left the Lebanese political system on a “shaky foundation” with a “fragile and sensitive” balance that could be upset at any time and lead to the collapse of the government. In 1982, an Israeli invasion of Lebanon extended beyond the defeat of the Palestinian armed resistance. The war ensured the evacuation of Arafat and the dismantling of the Palestinian militias to Tunisia and other Arab countries and hardened the Phalangist party’s hold on Lebanon as it stood against any political reforms (Odeh 1985, 209). The continuation of such a political system only solidified walls and separations between Lebanese political entities and ethnicities.

THE MUSIC OF “YUSIF” Part of Khalife’s defense was to express his outrage at the accusation because it stands contrary to the spirit of the song and his music in general: Have we become so desperately lost that the song “Oh Father, I Am Yusif,” so full of truth, reverence and sensitivity, turns into a bombshell that threatens to shatter and destroy our whole edifice? Have we so misread each other’s faces that a song of resistance becomes a “devil” that poisons our sacred texts, that we, who are the guardians of identity and integrity, would rob others of the ecstasy of gazing upon whatever makes them feel that they are a people with a mission on earth? . . . Who would believe that a song that represents a burning moment of the collective Lebanese, even Arab, conscience would be condemned? (Khalife 2004, 138)

As a political singer, Khalife has always been at odds with the establishment. Thus, it was not only “Yusif” that was a threat; his entire musical output, from Promises of the Storm (1978) to Ahmad Al-Arabi (1986) to Jadal (1991) to Arabic Coffeepot (1995), contained some controversial selections. Khalife saw his political engagement as integral to his efforts to rise above the banality of commercial music, creating music that is full of artistic expression. Whereas Promises of the Storm served as an anthem to Palestine, liberty, and love of a homeland and Ahmad Al-Arabi immortalized the

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freedom fighter musically, elevating him to epic proportions, his Jadal, a duo for Ud, transcended Arabic music to the realms of the absolute by freeing it from the limitations of the text. The eight songs in Arabic Coffeepot represent a departure from most popular music in the Arab tradition. Khalife’s poetry and music are selective, aimed at transcending music’s ordinary entertainment status. This elevation brings his music to the forefront of cultural and political debates regarding music’s merit and place in Arab culture. In his second defense before the judge, Khalife questioned an institution that prosecutes its artists, who are committed to innovations, while it promotes music for entertainment purposes: Why do you prosecute me? Is it because I have so keenly embarked upon a quest to elevate Arab music to a cultural status that empowers Arabs to address themselves—and the world around them—with eloquence that befits this nation? Is it because I have protested in a civilized manner against the banality and stagnation in which the Arab individual blissfully lives day and night, exposed to the “artistic” creations transmitted and aired by the Arab earth stations and satellite networks? Is this why I have been found so deserving to face an accusation as cold as a murderer’s blood? (Khalife 2004, 134–40; marcelkhalife.com)

With the exception of “Yusif,” Arabic Coffeepot is a collection of art songs with a mixture of folk-like tunes, sung by Khalife with the accompaniment of a Western orchestra. The album is framed by the large orchestral pieces “Arabic Coffeepot” and “Coffee Trees.” Both songs are unified with the topic of the traditional Arabic drink, associated with social, cultural, and communal gatherings. The light songs of love and yearning are saturated with geographical references that equate the love of a beloved with the love of the homeland and compare the beloved’s physical attributes with the beautiful landscapes of the Arabian desert, its aroma, spices, and jewelry. Khalife’s mastery of large-scale form and sense of unity within a collection of works reflects aesthetic awareness unparalleled among contemporary Arab composers. Placing “Yusif” as the pivot of his album and singling it out from the rest through its intimate style and lack of orchestral accompaniment gives the song an emotional and spiritual power (see figure 4.1).

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

“Arabic Coffeepot” “After All That Happened” “Sing a Little, oh Birds” “Young Beauty” “Oh My Father, I Am Yusif” “Passing Beauty” “Oh What a Country” “Coffee Trees”

Figure 4.1. Songs on Marcel Khalife, Arabic Coffeepot (Nagam Records, 1995)

Unlike other songs on the album, the power of “Yusif” comes from its deviation from the rest, its extreme velocity, its sustained mood, and Khalife’s careful setting of its religious text, which is the exact opposite of what his prosecutors sought to prove. The song begins with a solo Ud taqsim, improvisation, highlighting Yusif’s alienation, loneliness, torment, and victimization, while situating the song within a traditionally Eastern format. Here the absence of orchestral accompaniment and the strong metric pulse that dominates the rest of the songs give “Yusif” a spiritual feel worthy of its biblical and Qur’anic references. Jihad Racy (2000) argues for the symbolic significance of improvisation, noting that in the Arab world it has been “shown to combine freedom with adherence to established and somewhat predictable modal patterns” (305). Racy further equates improvisation with “mystical or emotional transcendence,” due primarily to its free structure and religious symbolism in its compliance with the model of Qur’anic chanting and as a phenomenon that “transcends the realm of common practice” (306–10). Even when it departs from its declamatory to a more metric section, “Yusif” retains its improvisatory spirit. Thus, the song not only alludes to the ancient story of Joseph, but further has a tragic and darker feel that relates it to the present. In addition, any implied political content is integral to an artistic creation that rises above the current situation, while implicitly commenting on it. More effectively, the unique setting of “Yusif” separates the song from the rest of the album. The expressive modulation in the second half of the song strengthens its Eastern spirit, or al ruh al sharqiyah, by grounding it in the maqam tradition. The modulation adds further richness to the sonority and reflects Khalife’s sensitivity to the text. Unlike his “remote”

and unexpected modulation in “Oh, what a Country,” which alludes to irony and departure of loved ones illustrated through departure from the home key, Khalife’s modulation in “Yusif” represents continuity in the song. Thus, whereas the modulation in “Oh, What a Country” (see figure 4.2) reflects displacement and alienation, the one in “Yusif” strengthens the song’s unity and cohesion through the carefully balanced modal shift. In their discussion of Arab modal theory, ethnomusicologists stress the centrality of modulations in Arab vocal and instrumental music (Gerson-Kiwi 1970; Marcus 1992; Shiloah 1991; Nettle 1974; El-Kholy 1978; Racy 2000). Citing modulation as an important element that provides cohesion, form, and structure to many genres such as the sam’i, bashraf, and taqasim, scholars also emphasize the aesthetic value of the process as a means of intensifying the dramatic content of the piece. Samha El-Kholy, for example considers it the “climax” section in improvisation (1978, 20–21), whereas Gerson-Kiwi emphasizes the element of pleasure associated with a “smooth” transition from one maqam to another (1970, 71–72). Some ethnomusicologists distinguish between sudden and gradual modulations, and between passings versus full fledged ones. Scott Marcus (1992), for example, argues that the sudden modulation usually happens after a cadence, while the gradual is achieved progressively throughout the allusion of the maqam through the highlighting of its upper or lower tetrachord. In his vocal compositions, Khalife uses these What a time we live in, father! What an age full of marvels, I swear, father. This boy is not a boy. He is a youth from this country. He thinks he is a big shot, Just short of a king. Only yesterday he was a toddler. Oh what a marvelous age. Where are all the loved ones? They are scattered, east and west. And those who remain are only saving face. Oh, what a country! Figure 4.2. Marcel Khalife, Lyrics to “Oh What a Country,” Arabic Coffeepot (Nagam Records, 1995)

Marcel Marcel Khalife’s Khalife’s “Oh “Oh My My Father, Father, II Am Am Yusuf” Yusif”

strategies in a way that illustrates his command of the maqam system, but he further employs new ways that advance the meanings of the text. In “Oh What a Country,” for example, Khalife starts with a beautiful melody in the flute with a luxurious accompaniment in the orchestra. The free-flowing melody of the flute symbolizes the naive vision of a youthful boy who thinks he is a “big shot, just short of [being] a king.” Admiring the marvelous time of his youth, he addresses his father with the naiveté of one seeking simple pleasure and lacking an understanding of life’s complexity. In the final phrase of the poem, however, the bright tone darkens when it describes the dismemberment of loved ones east and west: Where are all the loved ones? They are scattered, east and west. And those who remain are only saving face.

Here, Khalife highlights the poetic shift with a sudden modulation aimed at shattering the naive vision of the boy and his expectations of life. The ending of the song on the words “Oh, What a Country!” in the new key leaves us hanging without the satisfaction of a return to the happy state of the opening as the flute melody intensifies with shattering, drooping runs (see figure 4.2). By never returning to the initial maqam of the piece, Khalife seems to have “violated” one of the principal rules of composition (Marcus 1992, 183). Similarly in “Yusuf,” Khalife ends on an exclamation, with a question that he leaves unanswered. Joseph’s rhetorical question, “Did I wrong anyone when I told about my dream?” parallels the boy’s shocking question, “Where are all the loved ones?” in “Oh What a Country.” But just as Khalife’s modulation leaves his listeners wondering about the fate of the loved ones and their whereabouts, Joseph’s unanswered question gives the Qur’anic reference an open-ended possibility for interpretation, hence preserving the symbolic meaning of the divine quote and the multilayered references of Darwish’s poem (see figure 4.3 for full text). CONCLUSION In the light of sectarian and political tensions, one could speculate that the case against Khalife was

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Father! I am Yusif Oh father! My brothers neither love me nor want me in their midst. Oh father, they assault me, they stone me, And with insults they shower me. My brothers wish me dead so they may give their false eulogies. They shut your door before me, and from your field they expelled me. They poisoned my grapevines, oh father! When the passing breeze jested with my hair, they became envious and outraged at you and me. What have I done to them, father? Butterflies rest on my shoulder, wheat bows toward me and birds hover above my hands. So what have I done wrong, father and why me? You’re the one who named me Yusif! They pushed me down the well and they blamed the wolf. Oh, father! The wolf is more merciful than my brothers. Did I wrong anyone when I told about my vision? Of eleven planets, I dreamt, and of the sun and the moon all kneeling before me. Figure 4.3. Marcel Khalife, Lyrics to “Oh My Father, I Am Yusif,” Arabic Coffeepot (Nagam Records, 1995)

a manifestation of outdated political and cultural models that claim to follow democracy but actually reinforce religious and racial boundaries. In his study of Salman Rushdie’s Satanic Verses and freedom of expression in Islam, Daniel Pipes, a columnist for the New York Post and the Jerusalem Post and a member of the Defense Department’s Special Task Force on Terrorism and Technology, argues that the cultural

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crisis was not about east versus west as much as it was about the “direction of Islam.” He poses the questions: “Would there be freedom of speech or not? Would the rulers have an exclusive prerogative to interpret the Islamic sage? Would fundamentalists prevail, squeezing out secularist Muslims? The debate was really about competing visions of society—closed or open, religious or secular, bigoted or tolerant” (Pipes 1990, 249). Regardless of Pipe’s anti-Islamic conclusion, Khalife’s vindication was a triumph (albeit a temporary one) of art, free expression, and modernity in the Arab world. As a leader in musical and artistic innovations, Lebanon has exerted tremendous influence on the modernization of Arab music through the innovations of the Rahbani School of the 1960s–1980s and its extension in the music of Khalife, who continues to challenge the state of contemporary Arab music. Recent religious and political regressions, however, have exposed Lebanon’s volatile and unstable cultural and political makeup. In this respect, Khalife’s “Yusif” signals a new path in Arab music, one that conjures new horizons of freedom and modernity by reinventing old forms and continuing to challenge the political and social forces in society. Khalife’s music is part of a new musical language emerging in the Arab world that brings to the surface tensions between tradition and modernity and between imitation and innovation. Describing his music, Khalife once wrote that every serious and sincere musical work “reflects revolution,” and that “the artist . . . [must] be rebellious with his writing and creative projects.” In Khalife’s quest to advance his political songs, “Yusif” frees itself from the shackles of predetermined musical form as it carves a new path in the history of Arab music. The demand for freedom of expression dictates a greater freedom of form, but one that remains spiritually worthy of a biblical and a Qur’anic subject like that of Joseph. Because the accusation of blasphemy sought to neutralize the power of Khalife’s music under the flag of religion, Khalife’s defense, in turn, was a defense of the future of Arab music and its freedom from the state and its hypocrisy. His vindication should prove to be a signal for cultural and artistic changes to come.

REFERENCES Abinader, Elmaz. 1999. In the country of my dreams: For Marcel Khalife and Khalil Gibran, at marcelkhalife .com/httpdocs/htmls/abinader.html (accessed 24 August, 2006). Al-Taee, Nasser. 2001. Running with the rebels: Politics, identity, and sexual narrative in Algerian Rai. ECHO 5 (1), atwww.echo.ucla.edu/Volume5-Issue1/al_taee/index .html (accessed 25 August 2006). Chalala, Elie. 1996. Arab artists, intellectuals, condemn charges against Khalife as attack on civil liberty. Al Jadid 2 (11), at www.aljadid.com (accessed 25 September 2006). Chalala, Elie. 1998. Many causes underlie assassinations of Algerian journalists and intellectuals. Al Jadid 4 (24), at www.aljadid.com/features/0424chalala.html (accessed 25 September 2006). Chalala, Elie. 1999. Marcel Khalife faces charge over Darwish poem; arab intellectuals rally to defend creative freedom. Al Jadid 5 (28), at www.aljadid.com/features/ 0528chalala.html (accessed 24 September 2006). Darwish, Mahmoud. 1996. In defense of freedom and creativity. Translated by Manal Swairjo. At www.marcel khalife.com/httpdocs/htmls/darwish1.html (accessed 25 August 2006). El-Kholy, Samha. 1978. The tradition of improvisation in Arab music. Giza, Egypt: Imprimerie Rizq. Free Muslim Collision. 2005. Arab intellectuals: Under threat by Islamists, November 23, at www.freemuslims.org/news/ article.php?article=1111 (accessed 6 September 2006). Freemuse Journal. 2001. Marcel Khalife—the blasphemy trials. January 1, at www.freemuse.org/sw6542.asp (accessed 10 September 2006). Gerson-Kiwi, Edith. 1970. On the technique of Arab taqsim composition. In Festschrift Walter Graf, ed. E. Schenk, 66–73. Wiener musikwissenschaftliche Beitrage 9. Wien: Hermann Bohlaus Nachf. Human Rights News. 1999. Trial of famous Lebanese singer to begin: Marcel Khalifa faces three years in prison, at hrw.org/english/docs/1999/11/02/lebano1975.htm (accessed 10 September 2006). Khalife, Marcel. 2004. Defending freedom: Blasphemy trials and censorship in Lebanon. In Shoot the singer: Music censorship today, ed. Marie Korpe, 135–40. London: Zed Books in association with Freemuse. Leppert, Richard. 1993. The sight of sound: Music, representation, and the history of the body. Berkeley: University of California Press. Lockard, Joe. 1999. Marcel Khalife and blasphemy. In Bad subjects, at bad.eserver.org/editors/1999/1999-12 -16.html (accessed 2 October 2006). marcelkhalife.com (accessed October 2, 2006).

Marcel Khalife’s “Oh My Father, I Am Yusif”

Marcus, Scott. 1992. Modulation in Arab music: Documenting oral concepts, performance rules and strategies. Ethnomusicology 36 (2): 171–95. McClary, Susan. 1991. Feminine ending: Music, gender, and sexuality. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Melhem, Edmond. 1996. Workings and shortcomings of the Lebanese political system. http://www.geocities.com/ capitolhill/lobby/3577/edmond_melhem.html Nettl, Bruno. 1974. Thoughts on improvisation: A comparative approach.” Musical Quarterly 60 (1):1–19. Neubauer, Eckhard, and Veronica Doubleday. 2001. Islamic religious music: Legal status of music. Grove Music Online, at www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/ music/52787?q=Islamic+Religious+Music&source=omo_

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gmo&search=quick&hbutton_search.x=28&hbutton_ search.y=8&pos=1&_start=1#firsthit (accessed 10 September 2006). Odeh, B. J. 1985. Lebanon: Dynamics of conflict: A modern political history. London: Zed Books. Pipes, Daniel. 1990. The Rushdie affair: The novel, the aAyatollah, and the West. New York: Carol Publication Group. Pipes, Daniel. 2002. Militant Islam reaches America. New York: W.W. Norton. Racy, Jihad. 2000. The many face of improvisation: The Arab taqasim as a musical symbol. Ethnomusicology 44 (2): 302–20. Shiloah, Amnon. 1981. The Arabic concept of mode. Journal of American Musicological Society 32 (1): 19–42.

II WORKSHOP PRESENTATIONS

5 African Traditional Musical Concepts: Philosophical and Pedagogical Lessons for Multicultural Music Education J. S. Kofi Gbolonyo

INTRODUCTION

which are integral parts of “music.” In Wegbe, these terms include ha (“song”) and dzi (“sing” or “to give birth” [to a song in this case]), or hadzidzi (“singing” or the “act of singing” or “giving birth to a song,” and for that matter the making of vocal music in general) (Fiagbedzi 1977; Gbolonyo 2009). Another term related to vocal musical practice is hakpakpa (“art of carving or creating a song” or “composition of song”). In instrumental music making, the Ewe have fo for “play/beat/strike” and vu for “drum”; hence vufofo means “the act of drumming or playing a drum.” In addition, ku means “blow” (air/wind) and kpe or dze stands for any wind instrument; hence kpekuku or dzekuku means “the act of blowing a wind instrument.” These terms demonstrate both the vocal and instrumental concepts of Ewe music. In addition, the Ewe distinguish other aspects of their musical concept through language. We may identify hadzigbe, nyagbe, and vugbe as three categories of this concept. Hadzigbe, meaning “the singing voice,” places particular emphasis on the quality of voice acceptable for singing. It is from this that we derive hagbe, “sound of song or sound accepted and regarded as song.” Hagbe may also refer to poetic text or poem. In general Ewe literature, a poem is usually referred to as hakpanya, which literally means “word for carving song.” In view of this, hagbe refers to the combination of sounds and words in song. Nyagbe means “word sound” or “speech utterance,” which expresses a complete thought, and vugbe means “drum sound/text/pattern, a meaningful drum language by Ewe standard.” In composition, nyagbe guides the composer in selecting text and melodic phrasing, as well as guiding the listener in making meaning out of what the composer composes or sings.

This chapter is an exposition and exploration of indigenous African cultural insights, teaching techniques, and approaches. Using musical examples mostly from the Ewe region of West Africa, it introduces and emphasizes philosophical principles and techniques that underlie African music education and are applicable in teaching and learning African drumming, games, songs, dances, and rhythms in a multicultural classroom. Included are practical lessons and teaching materials that will be useful and meaningful in a variety of educational and community settings. The teaching materials include comprehensive handouts; translations of song texts, including their deeper meaning; transcriptions of music (songs, games, and instrumental rhythmic patterns); and detailed descriptions of drum patterns and dances along with cultural information about them. MUSICAL CONCEPT AND INTERACTIVE RELATIONSHIP IN AFRICAN ART FORMS ”Not Having a Drum Is No Excuse for Not Making Music”

In some sub-Saharan African societies and languages, there is no single word that stands for all the aspects that constitute “music” in the Western conventional sense. Even though Ewe as an ethnic group is widely known for its complex, elaborate, and interesting music tradition (drumming, rhythm, dances, games, and songs), Wegbe (the Ewe language) has no one word for “music” (Gbolonyo 2009). There are, however, various terms that refer to different activities, all of 35

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If nyagbe is used in a song, it becomes hagbe. Likewise, if nyagbe is used as a drum language or pattern, it becomes vugbe because many drum patterns are based on specific linguistic items. Generally, nyagbe, hagbe, and vugbe serve not only as texts but also as frameworks for shaping melody, rhythm, and meaning. These terms all establish the various aspects of the whole Ewe concept of music. The Ewe also have ye (“dance”) or yedudu (“dancing” or the “act of dancing”); fefe/kodidi (“play” or “drama,” which in a holistic sense refers to the performing arts, including music and dance); and other forms of verbal, creative, and expressive arts. Just as dance is barely separable from music, so instrumental music in isolation is rare among the Ewe. Vocal and instrumental music as one entity is often used to accompany dancing. Instrumental music may be considered an adjunct to vocal music in certain capacities, if it serves as an accompaniment (for example, in avihe, a Wedome Ewe female dirge). Hence, not having a drum is no excuse for not making music (Gbolonyo 2009). Music as depicted and defined in many African societies south of the Sahara involves many aspects of the culture, including dance, visual arts, verbal arts, and other performing arts—an incorporation of art forms that may be separated in Western cultures (Nketia 1962). The Ewe (African) musical concept is intrinsically woven into the African’s everyday life. Although the various elements of this concept are closely related and interwoven (in practice and in theory) to a very high degree, there is no doubt that the interrelationship does not exist at the same level. For example, the extent to which dance relates to and depends on music is almost limitless; that is to say, dance may not exist without music. Music, on the other hand, does not necessarily depend on dance for its survival and/or practice. Visual art relates to music on a complementary level and can and does function without music. Similarly, music employs visual art forms in various ways but does not depend entirely on them. Irrespective of the degree of interrelationship and level of cooperation among these art forms, one may hardly exist and function as an absolutely separate entity in traditional African cultures. As art forms, music, dance, drama, and visual arts represent the creative traits of the people (as separate entities as well as a conglomerate). The evidence of creativity does not ap-

ply only to the music as a sonic entity. Quite the contrary, the musical forms, represented in Ewe, as well as most African societies, exist alongside kinesthetic and visual expressions of art that are manifested in dance, makeup, costumes, drama, instrumental ornamentations, sculpture, and other artifacts, paraphernalia, and forms of expression. Hence, the terminology or expressions that refer to music as a general artistic phenomenon incorporate all the related creative expressions as a whole (Anyidoho 1983). For example, when an Ewe says (a) meyina vugbo, meaning “I am going to the drum”; (b) meyina vu woge, meaning “I am going to make the drum”; or (c) meyina vu fo ge, meaning “I am going to play the drum,” the speaker does not mean that she or he is (a) walking to the musical instrument “drum”; (b) going to make the musical instrument “drum”; or (c) going to play/beat only the musical instrument “drum.” Rather, what the speaker means in all three expressions is that she or he is going to “make music,” that is, participate in a musical production and/or performance. “Making music” as used here refers generally to an activity or series of activities that includes playing of instruments, singing, dancing, and drama, with the appropriate visual—nonsonic or nonkinesthetic—representations and paraphernalia, (including costumes and props). Regardless of whether the speaker’s particular role is as a singer, dancer, drummer, or actor, the expression usually refers to the entire process of production, total production, and/or final product. Whatever the performer’s role, her or his expression always refers to the total performance and/or artistic product (Anyidoho 1983). It should be noted that vu (“drum”) occurs in all three varieties of expressions above. On the one hand, this underscores the drum’s central role in Ewe musical performance. Although there are indigenous Ewe musical genres that do not use drums or in which drums do not play a central or master role, there is always an underlying perception, belief, and feeling of percussive rhythm in most Ewe musical expression. Hence, vu (“drum”), which symbolizes all Ewe percussive instruments, plays a key part in most expressions of music and dance performance or production. On the other hand, not having a drum is no excuse for not making music among the Ewe and many other African societies. In many cases, as in the three examples above, the use of the lexical item vu “drum” does not refer

African Traditional Musical Concepts: Philosophical and Pedagogical Lessons

specifically to the instrument, but rather to the concept or the total activity of which the instrument is a part. Hence, the proverbial admonition, not having a drum is no excuse for not making music, is a way to couch an aspect of the philosophical principle that underlies the concept of “music” in many indigenous African cultures. It should be pointed out that there are different expressions for specific activities (especially if the performance is limited to only one aspect of Ewe music making). For example, in singing, or singing practice, the Ewe may say meyina hakpa (I am going to singing rehearsal), meyina ha dzife (I am going to sing), or meyina ha srofe (I am going to learn songs).

AFRICAN INDIGENOUS MUSIC EDUCATION Ewe lacks a single word for “music” not because it (and other African languages) is not developed enough to coin such a word, but rather because of the Ewe conception of music as a holistic art form. For us, the music and its practice are an enactment of “life”—an art of “play.” In other words, the Ewe concept of “music” goes beyond “art for art’s sake.” It incorporates other sociocultural and philosophical concepts besides its aesthetic and/or artistic relevance. In view of this concept, the philosophy of traditional Ewe (African) music education ensures that the musical life of an Ewe begins at infancy. Music education is, therefore, a lifelong activity. It is more or less interwoven with, and often forms an integral part of, many daily activities. The extent to which music and its related practices permeate the entire life of Ewe, Ghanaians, and Africans in general cannot be overemphasized. The musical life of an Ewe begins at infancy, when he or she learns to listen and move to music while being carried on his or her mother’s back. While the mother sings, claps, and dances, the child is perched on high in the midst of this musical performance, literally learning to sing, dance, and interpret music in his or her own way even before learning to walk, and, most important, simultaneously acquiring the knowledge and culture of his or her people and learning their history; tradition; and social, moral, and aesthetic values. Acquisition of musical knowledge begins with highly improvised activities that incorporate cradle songs, dances, drums,

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and drama, then continues with children’s games and songs, folktales, creative imitation of adult musical activities, and later direct musical instruction. In Ewe traditional culture, and throughout many traditional societies in Africa, music learning is as fundamental to all children as language acquisition. On any given day, a person strolling through any village in Ghana, Togo, and Benin will hear and see children involved in various games in which music, dance, and drama play vital roles. A child may be singing a teasing “insult” song against a cousin or a friend, an older sibling will be composing an instant song to stop a baby from crying or to put him or her to sleep, or children on a “dusty” sandy floor under a shady tree will be playing a rock-passing game or a clapping game while accompanying themselves with songs, drums, and other musical instruments. Children may drum, sing, and play as they bring out musical instruments and help to set up the stage for a major community performance, imitating their older siblings and master musicians. One may hear a mother singing a lullaby to a child, and on the farms a man (accompanied by his children) singing a work song (with moral values–related texts) as they gather their farm implements, cut down a tree for firewood, or harvest some vegetables and fruit for dinner. In the evenings, one may hear children drumming while imitating their older siblings, or perhaps there is a funeral celebration, in which communal musical performance will last far into the evening. Generally, these “performances” serve various “functions”: to put a child to sleep, lessen work fatigue, tease, mourn, relax, and so forth. However, consciously, intentionally or unintentionally, creativity (musical, choreographic, theatrical, artistic, composition, analysis) is in progress. Musical, historical, moral, and cultural education is informally in progress, and the knowledge, traditions, and values of the people are being preserved, documented, transmitted, and perpetuated by these acts from an early age. In the traditional setting, nobody sits a child down to teach him or her how to make or play children’s music, dance, play games, or sing songs (with a structured and scheduled program, curriculum, or syllabus). These skills are handed down from older children to younger ones. Traditionally, an African child learns music, dance, and games by participating in (observing and imitating) these activities. It should be noted,

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however, that there are certain specific musical genres for which one needs special assistance, initiation, and training to be able or allowed to perform in them (having acquired and displayed the general musical skills and indigenous knowledge through the processes enumerated above). Such was my traditional music education, acquisition, and practice. Asking some African performers when they first began musical performance (drumming, singing, dancing, and games) is comparable to asking others when they started talking and/or walking.

AFRICAN PHILOSOPHICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES Several principles and techniques underlie the philosophy of African traditional music and education in general. Among them is the belief that transmission, acquisition—thinking, teaching, learning—and preservation of any kind of knowledge and skill involve and happen simultaneously with the whole human body (physical body, brain, heart, and all the senses and organs), not only with the mind. Another is that any music and dance teaching-learning process is a special and holistic, child-centered art of play that begins literally from birth. In other words, children are the center of any teaching-learning process, and to a large extent the artistic directors of all creative productions, which should start with what is indigenous and natural to them: lullabies, nursery rhymes, children’s songs, chants, games, folktales, and dances. Traditionally among the Ewe and many other African societies, musical practice and education is literally believed to begin soon after birth because the new baby’s first cries are considered vocalizations in preparation not only for speech but essentially for singing. Hence, upon hearing the first cry of a newly born child, the traditional Ewe birth attendant (midwife) will often say or sing Yue, etso agbe ve; egbeme na wo lo! Henoga zu ge ne le; do to, sakabo ava xo gbe/agbe le asi wo nam sia (literally, “Yes, you have brought life; what a great voice you have! You would become a great singer/you are a potential musician; stop crying, for sakabo may take away your voice/life”). Such a statement or song underscores the Ewe conception of music as symbolizing life, and the voice of the child indicates her or his musical poten-

tial and good signs of life. With such indication of life “the child begins to receive music lessons straightaway just as language lessons begin” (Flolu 1999, 33). The new mother and other relatives and members of any household in the neighborhood begin to sing nursery rhymes and lullabies to the baby. Although this approach may seem to be peculiar to or prevalent among African societies, the phenomenon is natural to all humans and present in all societies. Carl Orff indicates that children’s rhymes are the natural starting point for work with children (Orff and Murray 1978). Traditional African educational philosophy underscores the concept that music making and learning is as natural and fundamental as language acquisition, and it is a lifelong process. The process is as important as the product. This lifelong process is not just the steps, but also an opportunity for children to get together, create, share, and express ideas as they go through the steps and explore their unlimited world. Thus, it favors cooperative ensemble production and encourages individual creativity. Virtuosity is an added skill and a contribution to communal work or production. This is one of the primary and underlying principles of the philosophy of African indigenous education. These are the roots of African traditional music education and also what, from my perspective, seem to be the realization and eventually the revitalization and reactivation of Western music education and the basis of the OrffSchulwerk philosophy and approach. This indigenous African philosophy and pedagogical approach are fundamental, not only to Ewe (for that matter African) educational traditions, but to any human-based learning process. Fundamental as the approach and the philosophy may seem to be, they often go unnoticed, are ignored, or are not articulated or utilized well enough.

RHYTHMIC CONCEPT AND EDUCATION IN THE AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE One of the basic characteristics of traditional African culture and music is rhythm. Rhythm is no abstract concept; it is life itself (Agawu 1995; Orff and Murray 1978). To indigenous Africans, rhythm is everywhere and in anything they do. From an indigenous Ewe cosmological perspective, I see life as a living rhythmic ostinato in many ways: every day, the sun rises from

African Traditional Musical Concepts: Philosophical and Pedagogical Lessons

the east and sets in the west. Night is always followed by day (or vice versa), setting the natural rhythm for life. Birth ushers in death, and after death another life begins. Variations in this rhythmic ostinato come in different forms, ways, and structures but without stopping or interrupting this natural rhythmic flow. Rain, fire, war, joy, birth, and death do not stop this natural ostinato pattern. They only serve as good or bad extemporizers or improvisatory elements that bring variations. Life ceases as soon as the rhythmic ostinato pattern of breath in any living being stops. Human life is severely affected if the flow of rhythmic breath in humans and animals is interrupted. It is upon this constant rhythm of breath that each and every human extemporizes in his or her own way, with unique or similar themes, structures, scales, and tones that ensure unity, diversity, theme, and variation in life. So, traditional Africans believe there is rhythm in everyone and everything in life and therefore, rhythm is life. Hence the indigenous African’s “obsession” with, emphasis on and orientation to varieties of rhythmic patterns in her or his artistic expressions (Gbolonyo 2009). Some scholars and educators (other than indigenous Africans) are close to understanding and articulating traditional Africans’ perception and use of rhythm in their musical practice and daily social lives, as indicated in their works. Chernoff (1979) comments on parallels between the aesthetic conception of multiple rhythms in African music and the Africans’ ontological conception of multiple forces, including the Supreme Being, in their belief systems. Writing on polyrhythmic characteristics and how they influence or translate into the social realms of African life, Chernoff states, The many ways one can change a rhythm by cutting it with different rhythms is parallel to the many ways one can approach or interpret a situation or a conversation. And there is always an in-between, always a place to add another beat. A musical occasion, like any other social occasion, is therefore beyond any one perspective a person can bring to it, and people in Africa are usually realistic enough not to try to impose a single point of view on the larger context in which they are playing a part. It is not only that one rhythm cannot monopolize all the notes; one rhythm means nothing without another. In a musical context, separation of parts heightens rhythmic dialogue, and in a musical ensemble, singlemindedness of purpose would be

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equivalent to poverty of expression. And of course, if a rhythm must be cut by another to be meaningful or interesting, its meaning can be influenced, altered, or defined by another. (158)

Partly because of the African’s integration of rhythm into many spheres of her or his life, it is only natural to feel rhythm in music, no matter how complex it is. Also, the Africans’ integration of music and dance and perception of them being inseparable contributes to our ease at feeling it. All these “rhythmic” phenomena are not unique to indigenous Africa. However, the Africans’ approach to rhythm, their feeling, conception, and understanding of its philosophical underpinnings and interrelationship to real life and the emphasis they place on it, may be distinctive. Other scholars and educators have observed that rhythm serves as one of the unifying factors between music and dance and their interrelationship. Carl Orff indicates that rhythm is active; it produces effects; and it is the unifying power of language, music, and dance (Orff and Murray 1978). It is this deeper comprehension, coupled with my multicultural and bi-musical knowledge and skills, that informs my teaching approaches. These approaches include the Orff-Afrique technique and the concept of dancing the music and playing the dance. I believe in teaching music (especially African rhythm and drumming) through movement and dance. That is, to dance the music and move the rhythm. I am convinced that one of the very natural ways to get rhythm “into the body” and to get the individual to feel the rhythm and the beat is to let the body dance or move to the rhythm. It is only when the body (and all the senses) can feel the music that it can release it and do so correctly. One of the easiest, most lasting, and deepest ways to get this (rhythm) through to the learner is to get the whole body involved (not just the hands and the head, the Western conventional approach). Usually, teaching multicultural music and movement, including “African rhythm,” in our classrooms becomes difficult because educators often turn to literature and methodologies developed by people who may have not practically tested them, cannot do them practically, or do not practically feel them (“correctly”). Hence, for example, rhythm in African music is often essentialized and misunderstood, and the notion of polyrhythm and “African rhythmic complexity” is usually overemphasized, mystified, and

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sometimes romanticized. Many music educators shy away from using relevant and rich African and multicultural musical materials and resources, which may enrich the musical knowledge of their students in their lessons, partly because of the perceived or even assumed rhythmic complexities. Works by some theorists and ethnomusicologists compound rather than demystify or eliminate these perceptions and misperceptions. Furthermore, many teachers of African music and dance either lack the knowledge of or ignore the holistic nature of the African performing arts and the technical know-how necessary for their dissemination and application. No teacher, performer, or “theorist of African rhythm” can effectively analyze, perform, and “theorize” African rhythm without critical consideration of all components of “music” or African performing arts as defined in many indigenous African cultures. Often, many nonindigenous African musicians try (sometimes in vain) to identify “the down beat” in a polyrhythmically structured African piece, without considering the dance, the song, and most important the underlying concept discussed above. In many cases, the “unidentified down beat” is in the dancer’s feet movements, the song, or the internal (body) rhythmic chemistry that binds all performers as one—the (sometimes) unarticulated but most resonated and most felt beat in the musical art of play. As Serwadda and Pantaleoni (1968) indicate, “the Westerner taps his foot to give himself a regular stress on which to hang his part; the African taps his foot to mime the motion of the dancer, or any other part of the ensemble he wishes to add particularly strongly to his own” (52). Alluding to the phenomenon I call the “internal body rhythmic chemistry,” Chernoff observes that in African cultures the musicians often maintain an additional beat, by moving part of their bodies while they play, “not in the rhapsodic manner of a violinist but in a solid regular way” (1979, 50). African traditional musicians, therefore, inadvertently dance the music and move the rhythm as they create and perform their pieces. From their perspective, therefore, it is very important that we always perceive the dancer’s feet as an integral part, a supplier, and an articulator of essential rhythmic elements, including the beat. These indications underscore the role of all stakeholders, including dancers and audiences, in an African musical performance. The teacher or learner must be able to identify, consider,

and understand the rhythmic interplay among all the elements and participants of the ensemble to be able to comprehend “what is going on.” Hence, in African and multicultural education, all elements of “music” as defined in the culture must be considered. Learners must be encouraged to “move the rhythm and play the dance,” and teachers do not have to have a drum to be able to teach African music—the Orff-Afrique way.

KNOWLEDGE IN INDIGENOUS AFRICAN CONCEPTION The propagation and implementation of multicultural education in many Western cultures is still vigorously in progress. From my experience so far, there is still much to be done to make this laudable dream part of life in music education in many cultures. One of the factors that may be relevant in facilitating the establishment and the sound grounding of this educational approach is the need to look beyond the “book” or written sources as the only or most reliable sources of knowledge and information. From my perspective, and if my understanding of Orff’s pedagogical principles is correct, knowledge (especially of music and dance) and the ability to store it, transfer it, and improve upon it go beyond “books” and written sources. To the traditional African, knowledge is not limited to literature or written documentation. In August 2006, in his annual address to Orff-Schulwerk music educators, Doug Goodkin indicated that the way knowledge is separated from the whole of life—made abstract and disembodied, sometimes as something to learn in the head only and divorced from the hand and the heart— may be a shortcoming of Western culture and, in a strange way, one of its strengths as well. Much of this deficiency (if that is what it is) in Western conventional education may not necessarily be due to the inability of books to provide knowledge, but rather derives from the idea of knowledge divorced from values and reduced to knowing about something rather than living that thing itself. In contrast, in Ewe traditional education, as in many African (and other non-Western) cultures, knowledge is lived. It is embodied in and forms an integral part of almost all the daily activities of people (Gbolonyo 2009). Knowledge is tied to the community, character, and creativity. The Ewe (and

African Traditional Musical Concepts: Philosophical and Pedagogical Lessons

for that matter, African) concept of knowledge (Ewe: nunya), and at a different level, wisdom (Ewe: adanu/ anyasa and Akan: nyansa) is more and all inclusive (Gbolonyo 2005). From the point of view of an indigenous African musician, educator, and scholar, in addition to using various media and processes, knowledge involves knowing and expressing something, either in the body, through dance; in the hand, through drumming, painting, and drawing; in the heart and voice, through song; in the character, through moral behavior; as well as in the head, through understanding. If knowledge is something greater than knowing some facts about something or some procedures, then it needs other forms of transmission than just books, written sources, and lectures. Thus, songs, song texts, rhythms, drum patterns, and dances, as means to preserve and transmit knowledge, are essential to daily life. This understanding of knowledge and its processes is engrained in the minds, souls, and hearts of Ewe and Africans and has helped us keep our indigenous knowledge and cultural values—our philosophies—for many generations despite many attempts by external forces to discourage and even eradicate them. So, like the traditional Ewe (African) approach, my admonitions about the teacher going beyond the book, laying down approaches and theories, and spelling out methods and procedures to discover and create his or her own ways in a natural manner should be the concern of all who aspire to live “the multicultural education dream.” As Carl Orff puts it, It would be a mistake to think that Orff’s book contains a ready-made system to be taught chapter by chapter: it is not that kind of book at all. It points in the right direction but the road to be traveled must be discovered by the teacher himself. Such a teacher must be capable of molding musical material without help from printed pages: he must deal with rhythm, melody and harmony as painters deal with colors and sculptors with clay—he must be able to encourage children to play with sound objects, to form them, to “compose” them. (quoted in Walters 1971, 137)

Such discovery and creativity on the part of the teacher is as important in the success of multicultural education in any classroom as the expansion of musical repertoire and instruments and mastering of musical

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skills. The discovery, the approach, and the techniques to deal with all the elements are primordial. Adopting and keeping the right process is crucial; the process is as important as the product. If this creative discovery is done well, it should be easy for the teacher to know how knowledge (of any kind) may be accessed and disseminated through music, dance, and drama. This we all know is possible, and it is being done—even though not on a large scale or in an assertive way. Human and material resources and technical and institutional support for schools and individual teachers are invaluable. It is interesting and heart warming for me to know and see individuals and institutions, including Dr. Marvelene Moore, the University of Tennessee, and MENC, working to create platforms and access to multicultural education, to promote and disseminate their acquisition practically and theoretically in a multicultural society such as the United States. However, until there is greater awareness of the need for and benefits of multicultural education by the powers that be, individual institutions and educators should not wait to have drums before they make music. An Ewe proverb advises that ne avo mede tata o la, wosane de ali (literally, “if the piece of cloth/fabric is not big enough to be worn on the entire body, it is worn around the waist”). It is better to cover the “essential” parts of the body than to be naked (as a result of not having enough cloth to wear).

TEACHING WEST AFRICAN CHILDREN’S GAMES AND SONGS: AN AFRICAN PARTICIPATORY APPROACH In the course of my educational, scholarly, and artistic career, I have employed the principle of at least covering the basics and many traditional African pedagogical approaches, theories, performance practices, and concepts in putting across African music and dance. Following are descriptions and sample materials of sessions I presented in Knoxville, Tennessee, at the National Symposium on Multicultural Music, organized by the University of Tennessee School of Music and MENC in October 2006. The presentations gave participants pedagogical, philosophical, and cultural insights into African music education; described multicultural and interdisciplinary teaching techniques and approaches that are effective in multicultural classrooms; and more

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important, emphasized philosophical principles of African traditional music education that are applicable in teaching and learning African games, songs, dances, and rhythms—the African art of play. African traditional education is enshrined in the belief that transmission, acquisition—thinking, teaching, and learning—and “preservation” of any kind of knowledge and skill involves and happens simultaneously with the whole human body (physical body, brain, heart, and all the senses). Another belief is that any teaching-learning process is a special and holistic child-centered art of play that begins literally from birth. These and other fundamental principles and techniques mentioned above form the bases of the philosophy of African traditional education and are at the root of African music education. This participatory approach—the art of play—underscores the educational principles and philosophy of African traditional music educational systems employed in the activities described in this section, in which all participants practically experience children’s games, songs, drumming, dances, and rhythms from West Africa. Children’s Games and Songs

Like many others, the origin of some of these chants, games, and songs may not be traced to an individual. It is believed that some have been around from time immemorial and have been passed on from generation to generation. Traditionally, a Ghanaian child learns songs and games by merely participating in them. However, traditional games are nowadays being formally and informally taught in Ghanaian schools (especially in some urban schools). This section involves the learning, analysis, and performance of games and

songs (see appendix A) including “Dowuame Vo” (“Hunger Ends”), and “Afokpavuvutola” (“Cobbler”), multiethnic children’s games and songs from Ghana, Togo, and Benin. (See appendix A for lesson plans on the songs/games “Ekpe! Ekpe!” and “Yo, Yo, Yo!”) Songs and Meaning

Ewe (and many other African) traditional songs normally have different levels of meaning. Usually, in addition to the literal meaning, there is a deeper and philosophical meaning to the lyrics and performance practice, occasion, and function. One needs a sound cultural, historical, linguistic, and indigenous knowledge and insight to be able to fully understand the deeper and philosophical meanings of many Ewe songs in particular, and African songs in general (see Gbolonyo 2009). Even children’s songs, including those used here, mean more than just their literal meanings, even to the children. Deeper/Philosophical Meaning. Fufu is one of the Ghanaian’s most common staple foods. It is prepared from cassava, plantain, yam, and/or cocoyam. Although many Ghanaians enjoy eating fufu, its preparation is no easy job for anyone. Although children like to eat fufu, they always find ways to excuse themselves from preparing it or helping in its preparation. The song “Dowuame Vo,” likens fufu preparation to hard work that leads to abundance of food and a remedy for hunger. This song is used to accompany many games, especially stone-passing games, in which the sound of the stones hitting the floor reminds students of pounding fufu (see figure 5.1). Deeper/Philosophical Meaning. The lyrics indicate that the singer is expressing shock that the cob-

“Dowuame Vo” (“Hunger Ends”): An Ewe Stone-Passing Song

Text

Approximate Pronunciation

Literal Meaning

Fufu toto na Dowuame (ya) vo Se tatia di Prom, prom, prom! Dowuame egbo na

Foofoo toohtooh nah Dorwooahmeeh yah vor Seh tahtiah dee Prom, prom, prom! Dorwooahmeeh ehgbor nah

Cooking fufu (food) Hunger ends (ceases) Soon the pestle sounds Prom! (sound of pounding) Hunger is coming

“Afokpavuvutola” (“Cobbler”): An Ewe Stone-Passing Game Song

Text

Approximate Pronunciation

Literal Meaning

Call: Afokpavuvutola, Resp: Toe ne mafle! All: Oo, toe ne mafle. Ne be yegbe, Ye negbe!

Ahforkpahvoovootorlah tor ney mahfley Oh, tor ney mafley Neh bey yehgbey Yeh neygbey

Cobbler Mend it (shoe) so I will buy Oh, mend it so I would buy. You said you refused And you did refuse!

Figure 5.1A. “Dowuame Vo” Score

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Figure 5.1B. “Dowuame Vo” Score

bler, whose profession is sometimes regarded as less important than others, has the “nerve” to refuse his or her request to repair a shoe. Actually, the song underscores the importance of everybody in the community, irrespective of occupation, status, or role. Children often learn and act out adult roles in society through music and games. “Afokpavuvutola” is one such song that gently reminds us that society is incomplete without the services of the so-called insignificant or less-regarded persons or occupations in the community (see figure 5.2).

The Concept of “Music” as Defined in Ghana: A Traditional African Approach to Teaching Drumming and Dance in Western Classrooms

This section explores traditional African techniques and methodologies in practically defining “music” in its holistic terms. It engages (in a hands-on experience) all participants in kpatsa, one of the many music and dance types associated with puberty initiation rites in Ghana (see video clip at www.menc.org). Kpatsa is an indigenous music and dance used in the puberty rite and rituals of the Dangme (Ga-Adangme) of Ghana.

African Traditional Musical Concepts: Philosophical and Pedagogical Lessons

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Figure 5.2A. “Afokpavuvutola Score”

The Dangme people live in central southern Ghana around the capital, Accra, and this dance is said to have originated in Ada, a coastal town east of Accra. Historically, kpatsa is said to be associated with abodo (dwarfs). It is believed that the dance imitates the limping and uneven walking steps of the dwarfs, which some people claim to have seen. “Dwarfs” may be understood to be supernatural beings, like fairies. Today, kpatsa is the principal traditional entertainment music and dance among the Dangme and the Ga of Southern Ghana (see sample lesson plan in appendix A).

CONCLUSION In this chapter I have tried to blend musical scholarship with pedagogy, to bridge the gap between concept and perception, and practice of African music

and dance. I have tried to give the reader a more culturally sensitive insight into African music, teaching techniques, and approaches while (and equally important) introducing and emphasizing philosophical principles and techniques that underpin multicultural music education and traditional African pedagogy. I emphasized concepts that are crucial in understanding and applicable in teaching and learning African games, songs, dances, and rhythms. I hope my expositions and the materials are useful, meaningful and applicable in a variety of educational and community settings. In addition to being a hands-on presentation, I hope this chapter is a valuable resource for all readers, especially music educators, through the translation of song texts with their meanings, pronunciation, transcriptions of music and games, and detailed description and cultural information (see sample lesson plans in appendix A).

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REFERENCES Agawu, V. Kofi. 1995. African rhythm: A Northern Ewe perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Adzenyah, A. K., D. Maraire, and Judith Cook Tucker. 1997. Let your voice be heard! Songs from Ghana and Zimbabwe. Danbury, CT: World Music Press. Amoaku, William Komla. 1971. African songs and rhythm for children: A selection from Ghana. London: Schott & Co. Anyidoho, Kofi. 1983. Oral poetics and traditions of verbal art in Africa. PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin. Avorgbedor, Daniel. 1994. Freedom to sing, license to insult: The influence of halo performance on social violence among the Anlo Ewe. Oral Tradition 9 (1): 83–112. Chernoff, John. 1979. African rhythm and African sensibility: Aesthetic and social action in African musical idioms. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Dor, George W. K. 2004. Communal creativity and song ownership in Anlo Ewe musical practice: The case of Havolu. Ethnomusicology 48 (1): 26–51. Dzansi-McPalm, Mary Priscilla. 2004. Children’s playground music as cultural expressions in Ghanaian schools. PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Euba, Akin. 1990. Yoruba drumming: The Dundun tradition. Bayreuth, Germany: Bayreuth African Studies Series. Fiagbedzi, Nissio. 1977. The music of Anlo: Its historical background, cultural matrix and style. PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles. Flolu, James. 1999. The roots of Ghanaian composers. In Composing the music of Africa: Composition, interpretation and realization, ed. Malcolm Floyd, 29–43. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.

Gbolonyo, Kofi J. S. 2005. Want the history? Listen to the music! Historical evidence in Anlo Ewe musical practices. MA thesis, University of Pittsburgh. ———. 2007. My encounter with Orff-Schulwerk: A triangular journey. Orff Echo 39 (Winter) (2): 15–18. ———. 2009. Indigenous knowledge and cultural values in Ewe musical practice: Their traditional roles and place in modern society. PhD diss., University of Pittsburgh. Goodkin, Doug. 2006. The abc’s of education: A primer for schools to come. San Francisco: Pentatonic Press. Nketia, Kwabena J. H. 1962. African music in Ghana: A survey of traditional forms. Accra, Ghana: Longman. Orff, Carl. 1971. The Schulwerk—Its origins and aims. In The eclectic curriculum in American music education: Contributions of Dalcroze, Kodály, and Orff, ed. Beth Landis and Polly Carter. Reston, VA: MENC. 152–160. Orff, Carl, and Margaret Murray. 1978. The Schulwerk, volume 3: Carl Orff/Documentation, his life and works. London: Schott Music. Serwadda, Moses, and Hewitt Pantaleoni. 1968. A possible notation for Africa drumming. African Music 4 (2): 47–52. Walters, Arnold. 1971. Carl Orff’s music for children 1959: The instrumentalist. In The eclectic curriculum in American music education: Contributions of Dalcroze, Kodály, and Orff, ed. Beth Landis and Polly Carter. Reston, VA: MENC. 161–165. Younge, Paschal Yao. 1998. Enhancing global understanding through traditional African music and dance: A multicultural African music curriculum for American middle schools. PhD diss., West Virginia University.

6 Approaching Multicultural Music Education through the Canarian Transmission Model Emma Rodríguez Suárez

As an independent, fifteen-year-old Spaniard, my only

collections and how songs were lumped together. Every music education method course required students to select music based on different criteria. Several times during these courses, I encountered songs labeled “Spanish Folk Song.” I quickly and excitedly scanned the music to see whether I recognized my country of origin in the lyrics, tune, or otherwise. Often I was disappointed because songs labeled “Spanish” only meant “in Spanish,” meaning “in the language of” and not “from the country of.” This became more and more significant to me as time passed. I realized that songs from the country of Spain were very difficult to locate, and that other countries also were not being recognized. For example, a song from Venezuela, with its traditions, culture, and legacy, was labeled “Spanish Folk Song.” This was a turning point for me.

ambition was to play the piano and travel the world. When my father approached me about leaving home to study in the United States, I did not hesitate. “Would you like to study abroad?” he asked, totally convinced that I would be frightened. “Yes” was my only reply, smiling broadly, not quite knowing what I was saying. The years quickly passed, and soon I graduated from high school. My father fully expected me to run home in tears after a full year away, and never did he believe that I would want to continue my studies away from home after a second year. When I announced that I wanted to go to college in the United States, he was truly shocked. I enjoyed being in a new setting and meeting different people. Music education intrigued me—being a teacher was in my blood. I had always been a curious child, setting my dolls down in front of a blackboard to teach them the lesson the nuns had taught me that day in school. Yet despite being drawn to teaching, I had never considered how culture affects learning. I was raised in a highly cosmopolitan area. The Canary Islands in Spain form an archipelago off the coast of Morocco in Africa and are a port of call between Europe and the Americas. Due to these islands’ location, as a child I was exposed to many cultures and a wide diversity of peoples. I did not have to deal with culture clash, prejudice, and minority issues. I was raised to believe that we were all one and the same. Class issues, on the other hand, were much more prominent, and I was always aware of who were the financial haves and who were the financial have nots. During my freshman year of college, many things changed. I became knowledgeable about folk song

NEEDS I realized there were concerns that needed to be addressed. The first was an authentic Spanish folk song collection to preserve and promote the culture, especially the music and traditions, of the people of the Canary Islands and Spain. As time went on and I evolved as a musician and music educator, I saw more needs clearly emerge. I collected songs from the Canary Islands, which are representative of the Spanish culture, and gave workshops and conferences on my findings. Teachers and educators as well as students and parents enjoyed these songs. Every time that I sang them, someone would tell me that he or she had heard the same song but with a variation in words or tune. I 47

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became enthralled with the variations and differences that I encountered. Therefore, my second need was to find the origin of a song and track it with its variations and different meanings, including documented, written transcriptions. Finally, the third need was to document how the song has been transmitted through the generations and through cultures.

INITIAL TEACHING EXPERIENCE I began to teach in a formal music classroom setting (versus a community setting) after graduating from college. While collecting Spanish songs and giving workshops, I was also teaching K–5 music and several choirs. Because this experience involved children of diverse cultures, I became acutely aware of the variety of voices I was teaching, for example, the dichotomy of the Anglo head singing voice versus the Spanish mixed voice tradition. I could see diversity in my students’ faces and hear it in their voices. On the one hand, college had taught me to lead children in the beautiful, pure head-singing voice of the Anglo tradition. Many of my students learned to sing using different games (e.g., sirens), which seemed to work, yet some students had a difficult time singing in their upper register. They struggled to sing in a head voice and would shy away when singled out. I could not help but think that they did not enjoy the act of singing. This always concerned me, especially because when singing in groups, many of these children sang their hearts out. Then Open House would inevitably arrive, when parents came to visit teachers at school, and I always heard about these same students and how much they loved singing at home. I was always amazed by the disparity. Was I doing something wrong? Were these students unable to hear themselves sing? Why are they glorified at home for their singing, yet by my school music education standards, they are nonsingers? I realized my standards must be a little askew, and I needed to ponder this.

A CULTURAL ISSUE: DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS Throughout history, the immigration of people from other lands to the United States of America has subtly shaped our society. However, where the immigrants of past decades have striven to adopt the customs of their new home and assimilate themselves into its culture, the immigrants of more recent times are striving to preserve the uniqueness of their heritage. This trend has greatly influenced the language, culture, government, economy, and educational systems of a country that has been historically referred to as a melting pot, or more recently, as a glorious mosaic. As educators, we must become more cognizant of the world around us and embrace a systematic multicultural education curriculum to address the needs of this emerging population. In particular, this chapter refers to the influx of Spanish-speaking people that has greatly affected this country in many noticeable as well as subtle ways. The numbers speak for themselves. According to the 1980 U.S. Census, as shown in table 6.1, 6.4 percent of Americans were of Hispanic origin. By 1990, the Hispanic population had increased to 9.0 percent. As shown in table 6.1 and figure 6.1, this segment of the U.S. population had increased to 12.6 percent in 2002, and by 2004, to 14.2 percent, or around 14 million. Hispanics are becoming the largest minority population. The U.S. Department of Commerce (2006) projects that the Hispanic population will reach 102.6 million by July 2050. According to this projection, Hispanics will constitute 24 percent of the nation’s total population by that date. Given the relative prosperity of the United States and its proximity to numerous Spanish-speaking countries, this increase is not terribly surprising.

EFFECTS OF CHANGING DEMOGRAPHICS IN MUSIC EDUCATION How does the Spanish-speaking population’s demographic shift affect music education and music edu-

Table 6.1. Percent of U.S. Population of Hispanic Origin and Race, 1980–2004 Year Percent

1980 6.4

1990 9.0

2000 12.6

2001 13.1

2002 13.5

2003 13.9

2004 14.2

Approaching Multicultural Music Education through the Canarian Transmission Model

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Figure 6.1. U.S. Population of Hispanic Origin and Race, 1980–2004 (in Millions)

cators? How do we integrate other cultures into our curriculum? Making Spanish folk music literature available to teachers is an important step. Music literature should be authentic material that has been field tested in an American school system. It is of no use to gather materials that could not, for one reason or another, be effective in these classrooms. Furthermore, how do we accommodate the differences in culture of the growing Spanish-speaking population? Teaching Cultural Awareness

One of the major factors that I became aware of when I began to teach is a difference in the singing quality between cultures. Music educators have researched the singing voice and students’ ability to learn to sing. As an educator studying the Spanish music culture, specifically the Spanish region of the Canary Islands, I have researched and found interesting dichotomies between the singing voice there and what is taught and learned in the United States. Several characteristics stand out: 1. Lower vocal range. The range of the singing voice used throughout the Spanish and Canarian culture is lower than in other cultures. This includes the Anglo culture of England, Ireland, and Scotland, for example. This difference is manifested at an early age in songs such as lullabies. For example, the typical Canarian lullaby “Arrorró” is sung to babies. It is modal but usually

sung around a low G. A mother sings in her chest voice to convey the chest vibrations of her heart and the love in her voice with this lower range. Does this mean that we do not teach Spanishspeaking students head voice singing? No. It means that we teach with understanding. 2. Use of mixed voice developed much more than the pure head-singing voice. Mothers sing in a chest voice to their children and convey their love through this experience. Babies are captivated by their mothers’ voices. As babies begin to sing, the culture’s models are filled with strong mixed voice resonance. Children are encouraged to sing loud and out. Music is more about enjoyment. Male and female role models abound. The culture bearers convey that children’s singing development is slow and that singing out of tune is normal. This correlates with the concept that a mixed voice vocal development comes later than the head-singing voice. A child singing out and loud is cheered both in live performances and on television. 3. Different tuning (flat on the seventh, e.g.—B in “Los Pollitos”; see appendix A). Due to the frequent use of the mixed singing voice, normal Canarian tuning is a little different, including a slightly flat seventh. 4. Darker singing tone with warmer vibrations (soulful singing). This is usually considered a warmer tone. The depth of tone reaches the heart.

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5. Vocal ornamentations, rubato, and ritardandos. A musician who adds certain ornamentations or decorations is considered skilled and is highly regarded. 6. Music as a form of socialization. Everyone enjoys music, any kind of music. Music is at the heart of every social event. It is a part of life. 7. Males singing and performing musically and being proud of it. Singing, dancing, and performing on musical instruments are not gender biased. 8. Live music still very much a part of the culture. Live performances of local orchestras, folk bands, and streets musicians are daily occurrences that the locals have come to expect. These performances are subsidized by the government. 9. Children’s games. Children gather in plazas, and games are still played on the street and at home (see sample lesson plans in appendix A). 10. Folk music. The traditional music of the people is watched on television and is sung at fairs and celebrations. 11. Dance as an important part of the music. Many dances are typical of the Canary Islands. Even though most are originally from mainland Spain, variations exist. Most are couple dances and are accompanied by solo or group singers and folk bands in colorful local attire. 12. Instrumental accompaniments. Local instruments accompany singers and dancers alike, as well as transmitting the legacy of the culture. 13. The transmission process. The oral transmission process of music and music learning and teaching is alive and well. 14. Traditional music, music teaching, and music learning in the Canary Islands transmitted orally. One of the major purposes of my research was to determine the exact process of transmission of music, music teaching, and music learning or acquisition in the Canary Islands, specifically on the island of Gran Canaria. Through data gathering, personal narrative, interviews, and personal observations, I determined that the transmission method is an oral process. Canarians sing, perform, and learn music by ear. Americans teach music by rote. The oral/aural has become

a developed skill in informal schooling (as opposed to the formal training at the royal Conservatory). No musician of the traditional Canarian school could perform either as a soloist or in a group for any long period of time if he or she were conditioned to read music. Canarian musicians are very accepting people. I have seen them use lead sheets, and they do respect the musician who can read music, yet if one does not also have the ability to hear chord changes, leading tones, and phrasing, that person is not considered a musician of any caliber. These are the standards and practices of the culture. 15. Multigenerational involvement. Many generations sing, play instruments, and dance together. When Canarians gather together in celebration, all ages enjoy the festivities. Children move about, dancing to the music and uttering the few words they know; young adults lead the music making; and older culture bearers watch, participate, and help in continuing the traditions that have been passed from generation to generation. All are welcomed and invited to play a role in any musical activity. Through my research, these characteristics have led to my discovering two additional needs for teaching. First is the need for a music curriculum that understands the child’s cultural heritage and the background of the child’s vocal development within that culture. Second is the need for a music education methodology, scope and sequence, and the tools to aid in the development of a whole, sensitive, and culturally authentic musical child. As Goetze (2000b) remarked, If we are to achieve what I believe to be the true mission of multiculturalism in education—to acknowledge and validate the numerous cultures that are now represented in our school population and to foster tolerance and appreciation of those who differ from ourselves—then we need to do more than sing a song or play a composition based on a non-Western melody or text. (page 23)

CONCLUSION Growing up in another culture, then leaving and yet returning to study that same culture, has forced me to add a perspective to my teaching that may not have been there

Approaching Multicultural Music Education through the Canarian Transmission Model

otherwise. Visiting home several times a year and watching my own transformation from an American to a Spaniard as I step out of the airplane helps me understand that cultural differences are far deeper than skin level. As I research the various levels of this complex issue, the common expression “peeling the onion” reminds me that much can be learned about how we perceive our lives, selves, and others. Teaching and learning is a flow that can easily be truncated if not for the mindful eye of a masterful and aware teacher. Issues of tact, religion, authenticity, and gender are intricate in a classroom, where our job is to honor these differences. I have seen many students stop singing because they were made fun of for not singing in the “correct” register, whereas at home they were praised because their culture sings lower. I have also witnessed female students refusing to play an instrument considered a “male” instrument in their culture. Some of these same students were then denied access to other instruments because of a lack of understanding of the cultural issue presented. I myself would not have played the chácaras (a Canarian typical instrument that looks like huge castanets) as a young child because these are considered male-only instruments. My tradition would have prohibited me from playing them. These traditions are changing, but our sensitivities must accommodate and facilitate the students we teach. Our music classrooms become communities of diverse populations that each bring their own sensitivities and traditions. These students are the culture bearers

51

of the new generation. The issue now is that “different cultures’ music are affected differently when they come into contact with other musical cultures” (Nettl et al. 2008). Can we as a profession adapt to the changes this will bring? REFERENCES Gibson, C., and K. Jung. 2002. Historical census statistics on population totals by race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic origin, 1970 to 1990, for the United States, regions, division, and states. U.S. Census Bureau, at www.census/ gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056.html (accessed September 11, 2005). Goetze, M. 2000a. The challenges of performing choral music of the world. In Performing with understanding, ed. B. Reimer, 155–69. Reston, VA: MENC. Goetze, Mary. 2000b. Challenges of performing diverse cultural music. Music Educators Journal 87 (July) (1): 23–25, 48. Nettl, B., P. Bohlman, C. Capwell, T. Rommen, T. Turino, and I. Wong. 2008. Excursions in world music. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Rodríguez Suárez, E. 2005. Canciones de mi tierra Española: Islas Canarias/Songs of my Spanish land: Canary Islands. Old Greenwich, CT: ERPublishing. U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Census Bureau news. Hispanic heritage month 2006: Sept. 15–Oct. 15. CB06FF.14, at www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2006 (accessed September 17, 2006). U.S. Census Bureau. 2004. General demographic characteristics: 2004, at factfinder.census.gov (accessed October 11, 2005) (Tables 1 and 2).

7 The Lion’s Roar in the Classroom: Teaching Chinese Luogu Han, Kuo-Huang

CHINESE PERCUSSION MUSIC: AN OVERLOOKED GENRE

nese or non-Chinese, aware of its existence, let alone the names of the major percussion instruments? When asked what kind of Chinese musical instruments they can name, people usually answer the pipa (lute), zheng (zither), erhu (fiddle), di or dizi (cross flute), and sheng (mouth organ). Throughout Chinese history, the elite class kept the records. Chinese intellectuals always favored the qin, a seven-stringed zither whose quiet sound and meditative nature represented the highest quality of musical culture. Cai Yong (Ts’ai Yung, AD 132–192) is attributed with having stated that “The tone of the ch’in (qin) is the true tone of heaven and earth” (DeWoskin 1982, 111). The elite disliked the noisy percussion instruments and their association with the lower classes. Therefore, there were few mentions of the use of percussion in literature. Even now, when qin is not as popular as in ancient times, most people would turn to zheng, pipa, and erhu rather than to gongs and drums. However, percussion instruments are still part of the daily life of the common people. When there is a festival, the lion dance or dragon dance is always accompanied by loud percussion instruments. This kind of event takes place even overseas, in Chinatowns in major cities outside of China. When there is a theater performance, percussion instruments accompany actions, punctuate singing, and open and close the show. Moreover, village drum ensembles have appeared at public events or on stage with increasing frequency in recent years. Therefore, it is time to reexamine Chinese percussion. There is another reason to reconsider Chinese percussion music: school education. It is true that one can learn to play sophisticated instruments like qin, zheng, pipa, erhu, and di. But it is also true that, as with their Western counterparts, such as piano, violin, cello, flute, and oboe,

Unlike the Western classical way of categorizing musical instruments, the ancient Chinese classified their musical instruments according to the eight categories of materials from which they were made, called Ba Yin (Eight Sounds), based on symbolical rather than on acoustical or musical reasons. When all eight categories were played together in a ritual setting, harmony between heaven and earth was achieved, as stated in Shu Jing (Classics of History): “The musical instruments [made of the eight materials] are tuned in such a way that there arise no conflicts [in sound] and no interference [among them]. The spirits and people thereby will become adjusted harmoniously [to each other]” (Kauffmann 1976, 23). In typical ancient thought, each category was associated with extra musical connotations, such as directions and seasons. It is important to note that percussion instruments occupy half of the eight categories: metal, stone, skin, and wood. In modern China and Taiwan, this system is used only once a year, during Confucius’s birthday ceremony, or more recently, for tourists in China. Musical instruments are now classified into strings, winds, and percussion, or, in scholarly circles, following the Hornbostel-Sachs system, which classifies the whole world’s instruments by the sounds they generate: idiophones, membranophones, chordophones, and aerophones (Myers 1992, 444–61). It is interesting to note that, again, percussion instruments occupy half of the categories. This is where the current topic comes in. If percussion was so important in ancient times and is still so important today, why are so few people, Chi53

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it will take years for a young person to master these instruments. For a schoolteacher who has a few hours in a semester to devote to multicultural music, Chinese gongs and drums certainly have an advantage over other instruments. The possibility of adding activities such as a lion or dragon parade would enhance students’ interest in these instruments. There is no better way to introduce Chinese culture with minimum time than through teaching percussion (see sample lesson plans in appendix A).

THE MAJOR INSTRUMENTS OF LUOGU, CHINESE PERCUSSION Luogu in Chinese literarily means gong (luo) and drum (gu). But the term has been extended to denote

Figure 7.1.

Luogu (Chinese Percussion)

percussion ensembles in general. It consists of not only gongs and drums but also cymbals, clappers, and other smaller percussion instruments, used in groups ranging in size from three or four to a dozen players. As in many folk ensembles in the world, the drummer is the leader. Each instrument is represented by one or two vocal sounds. The combinations of these sounds in different rhythms make up musical patterns. Traditionally, the luogu was taught by vocal patterns, called luogu jing, recited like bols in Indian tabla learning. But in modern times, simple notation is also used in schools or clubs. Recitation is still encouraged. The major luogu instruments are shown in figure 7.1. 1. The gu (drum), the leader of the ensemble, is beaten with two sticks. There are dagu (large drum), also

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The Lion’s Roar in the Classroom Table 7.1. The Ba Yin (Eight Sounds) System Directions

Season

Main Instruments

Events

Metal

West

Autumn

bell-chime

Sounded when commander orders his troops to retire

Stone Skin Gourd Bamboo Wood Silk

Northwest North Northeast East Southeast South

Autumn to winter Winter Winter to spring Spring Spring to summer Summer

stone-chime drum mouth organ flute, pipe wooden tiger zither

Earth

Southwest

Summer to autumn

vessel flute (ocarina)

called da tanggu (large hall drum), and xiao tanggu (small hall drum). The latter is recommended. 2. The daluo (large gong) is beaten with a padded mallet. There are many kinds of gongs. The Jingluo (Peking opera gong) is recommended. 3. The xiaoluo (small gong) is beaten with a piece of thin wooden board. In some areas the thin wooden board is replaced by a padded mallet. It is also called shouluo (hand gong). 4. The bo (cymbals) come in various sizes, and several pairs are usually used. The medium-sized and small ones are recommended.

Photo 7.1.

Performed in solemn ceremony Performed when planting trees and crops Performed when silk worms are fattening and spinning their cocoons

The first two and the fourth are essentials in all luogu ensembles. Other instruments, such as the pengling (hand bells), banzi (woodblock), and muyu (wooden fish, also a kind of woodblock), may be added when needed. For instance, when accompanying singing without heavy percussion, bells play the first beat, and the woodblock improvises. Bells can join the ensemble by playing the “K” beat (see below), and the woodblock can join the ensemble by playing the same beat as the bells as well as improvising at other places. Most of these instruments can be purchased online or in various stores in the United States and are not

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Photo 7.2.

extremely expensive. One can use most Western substitutes, although the sound may not be authentic: xiao tanggu (small hall drum)—small-sized drum played vertically daluo (large gong)—any handheld medium tam-tam xiaoluo (small gong)—small handheld gong bo (cymbals)—any cymbals (two sizes) pengling (hand bells)—any small bell or bells bangzi (woodblock)—any woodblock or temple block Specific sounds and symbols may be used to facilitate playing the instruments (see table 7.2). Usually only one or two class periods are needed to conduct a luogu practice. It is always important to teach the patterns orally (using mnemonics) before playing. In addition, it is fun to add action, such as using child-sized lion masks or dragon masks and big (clown) heads, who lead the lion and/or dragon, and have them parade in the assembly hall while the luogu group is playing. Long ribbons and flags are good additional props (see photos). Get help from an art teacher to produce a homemade lion mask or clown head. Work with

teachers from other fields (social study, history, geography, etc.) to host a China Day or Asian Cultural Day.

READING THE SIMPLIFIED NOTATION When using the lesson plans in appendix A, use this guide to the simplified notation. 1. Bar lines and time signatures are the same as in staff notation. 2. Each single letter is a quarter (note equivalent). 3. A single letter with a dash after it is a half. 4. Two letters with a line underneath them are two eighths. 5. Two letters with two lines underneath them are two sixteenths. 6. Most short pieces can be repeated over and over until the drummer gives a signal (marked with *) to stop or to move to the following section. 7. The drummer can give a cue on the edge of the drum (d d) to begin. The cue is never repeated. It also sets the tempo, which is determined by the drummer.

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The Lion’s Roar in the Classroom Table 7.2. The Instruments and Their Mnemonic Sounds Instruments

Symbol

Sound (pronunciation)

Daluo (large gong) Xiaoluo (small gong) Bo (cymbals) Gu (drum)

Q (solo) K (played with other metal instruments) T or t l (soft) C (open) P (muted) D d (rim) /// (roll) ^ or s

kuang [KWAHN] cang [CHAHNG] tei [TAY] ling [LING] cei [CHAY] pu [POOH] dong [DONG] da [DAH]

d or x g or x O

da [DAH] go [GOH] (no sound in EE or syncopation)

Xing (bell, bells) Banzi (woodblock) Rest

8. For “Fengyang Flower Drum Song” (No. 2): Numbers represent pitches: 1 = do; 2 = re; 3 = mi; 4 = fa; 5 = sol; 6 = la; 7 = ti. A dot above a number denotes the higher octave; below a number, the lower octave. A number with a dot after it = a dotted quarter. Rhythm follows the percussion notation described above. The melody can be played in any key by any melodic instrument.

EXAMPLES OF LUOGU MUSIC USED IN THE SESSION Assisted by Wang, Jui-Ching, Northern Illinois University 1. Preludes (see appendix A) 2. Etudes (see appendix A) 3. “Fengyang Flower Drum Song” (No. 2) (melody performed on piano) (see appendix A)

sing [SING]

4. “Lion Dance I” (with lion, dragon, clown masks, and action) (see appendix A)

REFERENCES DeWoskin, Kenneth J. 1982. A song for one or two: Music and the concept of art in early China. Michigan papers in Chinese studies, no. 42. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, the University of Michigan. Han, Kuo-Huang, and Patricia Shehan Campbell. 1996. The lion’s roar: Chinese percussion ensembles. 2nd ed. Danbury, CT: World Music Press. Kauffmann, Walter. 1976. Musical references in the Chinese classics. Detroit monographs in musicology, no. 5. Detroit: Information Coordinators. Liang, Mingyue. 1985. Music of the billion: An introduction to Chinese musical culture. New York: Heinrichshofen Edition. Myers, Helen, ed. 1992. Ethnomusicology: An introduction. New York: W. W. Norton. Yang, Mu. 1994. The use of Chinese luogujing in classroom music. International Journal of Music Education 23:17–23.

8 Bamboo Is Fun: Bamboo Angklung for the Classroom Han, Kuo-Huang

The angklung is a popular bamboo musical instrument

is used as building material for houses, fences, bridges, irrigation pipes, bulletin boards, tables, chairs, and beds. It is also used as a carrying pole, a walking stick, chopsticks, water containers, cups, pencil holders, a bow and arrows, and so forth. Split bamboo is used for weaving nets, hats, baskets, and umbrellas. Bamboo shoots and seeds are used as food. Pandas depend on bamboo as their primary food. Bamboo pulp fibers were used to make paper. In ancient times, bamboo slips were used for carving characters. In art, bamboo is used for handicrafts. In the realm of music, many musical instruments were and still are made of bamboo. In Chinese characters, many musical instruments’ names are crowned with the character zhu (bamboo), an indication of the material from which they were made.

in Southeast Asia. It is one of the easiest instruments to play (by shaking) and is now widely used in music education. This chapter discusses the background of, use of, and methods for playing the angklung. Traditional and modern compositions in cipher notation are provided in appendix A. BAMBOO IN ASIA Bamboo is part of the grass family. There are approximately seventy-six genera and a thousand species of grass in the world. Asia, especially Southeast Asia and the Far East, has the major concentration of bamboo production. It is one of the most important materials in many Asian peoples’ daily lives. It is also a symbol of good luck and an essential part of their spiritual lives. The word “bamboo” comes from the Malay term bambu, which originally described the cracking sound of burning bamboo: bam and bu! It is believed that before the invention of fireworks, people burned bamboo to ward off evil spirits. During the Chinese New Year, the phrase “zhu bao ping an” (“bamboo reports peace”) is frequently used as a greeting, which indicates the ancient use of bamboo burning during the New Year. The pronunciation of the character bao” can mean “report” as well as “cracking.”

Spiritual Culture

Bamboo grows rapidly. It is seen as embodying the force of growth and fertility in many Asian societies. The Dusun people of north Borneo Island (Kalimantan, Indonesia) pay homage to a sacred bamboo to assure fertility and also believe that yellow bamboo can ward off evil spirits. In Taiwan, myth tells how bamboo was brought to earth by a man from heaven. In India, myth tells how King Rama’s wife, Sita, cut off an extra finger, which she planted. From it grew a bamboo plant, which in its sections contained all kinds of grain, which became available to humankind through a hole in the bamboo, chewed there by a pig (Wessing 1998, 51).

Material Culture

Bamboo is strong but light and elastic. Throughout the ages, it has been used for a great variety of purposes. It

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Chapter 8

Aesthetics, Philosophy, and the Arts

Bamboo is regarded as a symbol of virtue and good character in most Far Eastern cultures. The Chinese scholar Su Shi (also known as Su Dongpo; eleventh century) of the Song dynasty wrote, Meals can be without meat, but living cannot be without bamboo. The lack of meat makes one thin; the lack of bamboo makes one vulgar. A thin person can become fat, but a vulgar person cannot be cured. (Translated by K. H. Han)

Bamboo has occupied an important role in literary life in the Far East. In addition to planting bamboo gardens, composing poems on bamboo or painting bamboo became a fashion among scholars. Because bamboo is strong and upright, it is used as a metaphor for a virtuous person in Chinese society. Some Chinese boys are given the name Zhujun, which is translated as “bamboo gentleman.”

BAMBOO IN ASIAN MUSIC Because bamboo is abundant in Asia, it is not surprising to find numerous bamboo musical instruments. Bamboo is used in three out of four categories of musical instruments, namely aerophones (winds), chordophones (strings), and idiophones (percussion without membrane). It is easy to identify bamboo aerophones such as flutes and mouth organs (with wooden chambers). It is equally easy to recognize bamboo idiophones such as bamboo stamping tubes, buzzers, and xylophones. But it is necessary to explain the bamboo chordophones. Bamboo strips are detached from the body but remain attached at both ends. Small bridges made of bamboo or wood are then inserted between the strips and the body. The player plucks the strips (strings) like playing a zither. This type of instrument is called an idiochord and is found among tribal people in the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, and along the Burma–Thailand border. One famous example is the kulibit of the Kalinga tribe in the Philippines. The more famous sassandu of Timor, which now uses metal strings, probably began with bamboo strips.

ANGKLUNG, THE BAMBOO SHAKER The most indigenous Southeast Asian bamboo idiophone is the angklung, the bamboo shaker. An angklung is a pair (or more) of bamboo tubes mounted on a bamboo frame. The tubes are in different lengths. At the upper two-thirds, each tube is cut in half. The lower end of each tube is closed by a node. Two prongs extend out and fit loosely into a corresponding slot of the horizontal bass tube. The two tubes are tuned an octave apart (three tubes can be two octaves or can form a chord). When shaken, the concussion of the tubes against the bass produces a pitch. Because each instrument has only one pitch, it takes many single angklungs to make a complete melody. Even though the bamboo angklung can be found in many parts of Southeast Asia, it is generally believed that it originated on the island of Java, Indonesia. There are many reports by European travelers in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries about the “funny” angklung performance in Sunda (West Java). Traditional angklung music is also used in East Java, Central Java, and other islands, but Sunda is the most representative area.

Traditional Angklung Music in Sunda

The villagers in Java believe in a rice field goddess, Sri Dewi, who oversees the benefits of the fields and the people. When she is properly served with rituals, there will be a bumper crop and peace in the region. If she is displeased, there may be drought, epidemics, and even wars. Javanese villagers used to observe rituals to her by performing angklung music. This traditional music, which is mostly played outdoors, uses angklungs tuned to a pentatonic scale (five-pitches) and plays ostinato melody (cyclic). One can find this music in Sundanese villages. Traditional angklung music is accompanied by drums, gongs, metal plates, and an optional double-reed oboe (tarompet). A lion mask dancer is added in some forms. Shouts and action are part of the performance. In some forms, performers fall into a trance. Other traditional angklung music is performed indoors. Dance improvisation is common in all forms. Some of the traditional

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Bamboo Is Fun

angklung forms in Sunda are Reak, Buncis, and Ogel (Baier 1985–1986).

Modern Angklung Music in Southeast Asia

By the beginning of the twentieth century, traditional angklung music had disappeared in the cities because of its less refined nature. In the 1930s Daeng Sutigna, a Western-educated teacher at the Dutch school in Sunda, worked with an instrument maker and introduced newly tuned angklung instruments to a boy scout troop. This gave birth to modern angklung music (Perris 1971, 404). Before long, many schools had established angklung clubs as part of their extracurricular activities. Nowadays one can find this new style of angklung band almost everywhere in Southeast Asia. The modern angklungs are tuned to the Western-tempered diatonic scale. They play familiar Western songs or contemporary local popular songs. The music is characterized by the use of all seven pitches of the diatonic scale (some even use accidentals). Western triadic harmony is easily utilized, and balanced phrases are normal. Instead of gongs and drums, a string bass, tambourines, and a drum set can be found in some ensembles. In some cases, a bamboo xylophone, the gambang arumba, is added. It plays primarily chords. A conductor is needed in modern angklung music. In short, it is like a Western bell choir. This style can be easily introduced in schools, churches, and social clubs.

HOW TO PLAY ANGKLUNG Hold the instrument loosely with one hand and grab one edge of the bottom tube of the frame. Shake it rapidly sideways. This will produce a pitch. That is all! In some cases, one person can play more than one instrument by holding one in each hand or by hanging one on the forearm while holding another. Each angklung plays only one pitch of the scale. When there are five, performers can play a pentatonic scale; when there are seven or more, they can play most simple folk songs. For instance, playing “Mary Had a Little Lamb” requires only four instruments (four pitches). See the sample lesson plans in appendix A.

HOW TO READ THE CIPHER NOTATION Following are instructions for reading a cipher notation system the author uses frequently in workshops. The only difference from the Indonesian cipher notation (developed by the Dutch) is that the horizontal lines are placed under the numbers rather than on top. Interestingly, this system was invented by the French, borrowed by the Japanese, and popularized by the Chinese. Each pitch of the scale is represented by a number. In the key of C, which is most common in angklung instruments, C (do) = 1, D (re) = 2, E (mi) = 3, F (fa) = 4, G (sol) = 5, A (la) = 6, B (ti) = 7 (see video clip at www. menc.org). When a pitch is an octave higher than the middle range, a dot is placed above the number; when a pitch is an octave lower, a dot is placed beneath it. Two dots denote two octaves higher or lower. In general, very few folk songs have too high or too low pitches. Rhythm is represented by a combination of pitch numbers, lines, and dots (using a quarter note as a unit in 2 /4, 3/4, and 4/4 times):

1. Single number = a quarter note. 2. Single number with a line after it = a half note. 3. Two numbers with a line under them = two eighth notes. 4. Four numbers with two lines under them = four sixteenth notes. 5. A number with a dot after it followed by a number with a line under it = dotted quarter + an eighth. 6. A number with a line under it and a dot after it followed by a number with two lines under it = a dotted eighth + a sixteenth. 7. A number followed by a line and a dot = a half and a quarter (three beats). 8. 0 = rest. 9. Vertical lines = bar lines. 10. A slur above numbers = tied-over notes (syncopation). 11. When there are two or more lines, players perform both lines simultaneously. The result is harmony. 12. Fermata, da capo, repeat, and other signs are the same as in staff notation.

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Note: When purchasing a bamboo angklung, the larger set (octave) is always better. It is acceptable to use several sets (same octaves) because there are always more students than instruments. One source for purchasing angklungs that the author recommends is Global Connections in Independence, Missouri (www .globalconnections-int.com/otherpercussion.htm). REFERENCES Baier, Randall. 1985–1986. The angklung ensembles of West Java. Balungan 12 (1–2): 8–16.

Marden, L. 1980. Bamboo, the giant grass. National Geographic (October): 502–29. Perris, Arnold B. 1971. The rebirth of the Javanese angklung. Ethnomusicology 15 (3): 402–7. Wessing, Robert. 1998. Bamboo, rice, and water. In The Garland encyclopedia of world music, volume 4: Southeast Asia, ed. Terry E. Miller and Sean Williams, 47–54. New York: Garland Publishing. Widaja, Elizabeth A. 1980. The angklung and other West Javanese bamboo musical instruments. In Bamboo research in Asia: Proceedings of a workshop held in Singapore, 28–30 May 1980, ed. Gilles Lessard and Amy Chouinard, 201–4. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.

9 The Modern Chinese Orchestra Han, Kuo-Huang

CHINESE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT

Of all the instruments, the bell stood out as a symbol of wealth and authority. Bells came in singles as well as sets of bell chimes. Many rulers in the Spring and Autumn periods (770–221 BC) competed in showing off their wealth by casting bell sets. The discovery of the sixty-four-bell set in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (dated 433 BC) stunned the world. Most of the bells in this set can produce two pitches in minor or major thirds on the same bell (lower middle and lower side parts), and the chromatic scale portion has a range of three octaves, while the less dense scale continues for two more octaves (Bagley 2000, 35). The zithertype instruments (qin, zheng, etc.) and mouth organ (sheng) have remained favorites throughout Chinese history, and have also had an impact on similar types of instruments in neighboring countries. During the Han dynasty, the Chinese began to interact with their neighbors, and outside musical ideas and instruments started to flow in. For example, military instruments such as horns and pipes were introduced from the northern tribes during that period (206 BC–AD 220). Then many Indian and Central Asian musical ideas and instruments, such as the four-stringed pipa lute, the five-stringed pipa lute, the piri oboe, bo cymbals, and hourglass drums, arrived by way of the Silk Road during the Southern and Northern dynasties (420–589) and became the favorites of the Sui dynasty (581–618) and the glorious Tang dynasty (618–907). The famous Tang court banquet ensembles, Ten Performing Divisions, represented music and musical instruments not only indigenous to China, but also from many neighboring countries in Asia. It was truly international in terms of musical culture (Liang, 1985, 98–99). A significant event during the Tang dynasty was the appearance of

Like most cultures, modern-day Chinese culture is the result of give and take. China was a major ancient civilization that had a substantial impact on its neighbors, including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. It was also influenced by Indian and Central Asian cultures via the Silk Road in ancient times and by Europe and the United States in more recent times. Thus, in terms of musical tradition, one can find indigenous music and musical instruments as well as imported music and musical instruments that have been sinicized for local taste. The modern Chinese orchestra seen and heard today just about everywhere in China, Taiwan, Singapore, and overseas Chinese communities is a true reflection of amalgamation of cultures, east and west, ancient and modern. Before the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), the Chinese had developed a large number of musical instruments, which were classified according to the materials with which the instruments were made. The eight categories were metal (bells), stone (stone-chime), skin (drums), gourd (mouth organ), bamboo (flute, panpipe), wood (wooden trough), silk (zither; silk as string material), and earth (ocarina). The significance of this classification was more symbolic than acoustic or musical. When all eight categories were played together in a ritual setting, it meant there was harmony between heaven and earth, as stated in Shu Jing (Classic of History): “The musical instruments [made of the eight materials] are tuned in such a way that there arise no conflicts [in sound] and no interference [among them]. The spirits and people thereby will become adjusted harmoniously [to each other]” (Kauffmann 1976, 23). 63

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two bowed instruments, the yazheng zither and the xiqin fiddle (from the Xi tribe). Both were bowed (pressed) by a piece of bamboo, anticipating the use of horsehair bows with all fiddles later (i.e., the erhu type). Beginning with the Song dynasty (960–1279), court music declined, and the focus shifted to the non-court culture. Among the common people, one type of instrument stood out: the bowed fiddle. Song dynasty poet Shen Kuo (1031–1095) wrote about the horsehair huqin (mawei huqin): The mawei huqin followed the Han chariot, Its music sounding of complaint to the Khan, Do not bend the bow to shoot the goose within the clouds, The returning goose bears no letter. (Stock 1993, 94)

This is the first time a horsehair bow is mentioned in history. Although the term huqin (barbarian instrument) first appeared in the eighth and ninth centuries, it was a plucked instrument of some sort. So, as Jonathan Stock’s in-depth study points out, “The horsehairbowed lute, the conceptual ancestor of today’s erhu, was imported intact into China, by, at the latest, the late eleventh century” (1993, 97). The origin was most likely overland from China’s western or northern tribes. As time went on, the bowed fiddle became a major instrument, accompanying various styles of opera during the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties. One form, the erhu, became the “Chinese violin” during the twentieth century. The Song dynasty saw the beginning of the so-called neo-Confucian trend in China. Foreign elements were less welcomed; traditional values and ethics were highly elevated. Qin, the seven-stringed zither and the most important Chinese scholar’s instrument since ancient times, was raised to its highest peak as a symbol of refinement and a reflection of Zen Buddhist and Daoist ideology. Again and again it is mentioned in literature and seen accompanying a scholar in landscape paintings. Many qin tablets survive to this date. Qin, qi, shu, hua (qin zither, chess, writing, and painting, respectively) became the four virtues of a gentleman. From the Ming dynasty until the Qing dynasty, the major development in Chinese instruments was the appearance of many sizes and forms of huqin fiddles, most of which were employed in theater accompaniment or on the streets. However, two foreign instru-

ments did make their way into China and later became prominent: the suona (conical oboe, since the fifteenth century) and yangqin (hammered dulcimer, since the seventeenth century), both from the Middle East. It is worth noting that all these foreign instruments were first adopted by the common people rather than the court.

THE FORMATION OF THE MODERN CHINESE ORCHESTRA As a result of modernization at the turn of the twentieth century, Western ideas poured into China. Music was also greatly influenced. Western music was introduced to the Chinese public through Christian churches, Western-style military bands, and the newly established school system. Intellectuals who were trained in the new music system began to think and hear music in terms of Western intonation and harmony and preferred the standardization of musical instruments as well as large orchestras (Han 2002). Using the traditional Jiangnan Sizhu (Silk and Bamboo Ensemble of the South, i.e., lower Yangzi River valley area) as a base, the first attempt to form a modern Chinese orchestra took place in Nanjing in 1935. It was the Central Broadcasting Company’s orchestra, and it only performed on the radio. The first appearance of such an orchestra on stage in concert form took place in Chongqing in 1942 (Han 1979). One important step in the forming of this type of orchestra was the improvement of Chinese musical instruments (indigenous or foreign, but sinicized after a long period) in line with Western standards for tuning, range, and efficiency. Medium-sized and large instruments were made to accommodate the lower pitch range of Western harmony. From the 1950s on, this new type of orchestra went through numerous transformations in China and Taiwan, finally reaching the form it has today. Based on the Western classical symphony orchestra and partially influenced by the Russian balalaika orchestra, the modern Chinese orchestra is divided into four sections: bowed strings, plucked strings, winds, and percussion. The bowed string section consists of several sizes of erhu fiddles, equivalent to the vio-

The Modern Chinese Orchestra

lin family of the West. The plucked string section is unique due to the many lute-type instruments popular in China (pipa, liuqin, ruan, sanxian). The yangqin (hammered dulcimer) and the zheng (not always featured) are somewhat different from the other plucked strings and are considered specials. The wind section consists of mainly the di flute, sheng mouth organ, and suona oboe types. There were (and still are) no significant brass instruments. The percussion section consists of many gongs, cymbals, and drums. In recent practice, some Western instruments such as timpani and harp have been included. In fact, cello and double bass have replaced the large Chinese fiddles because of their better intonation and volume. A conductor is essential. This type of modern Chinese orchestra is called Minzu yuetuan or Minyue tuan (national or folk orchestra) in mainland China, Guoyue tuan (national orchestra) in Taiwan, Zhongyue tuan (Chinese orchestra) in Hong Kong, and Huayue tuan (Chinese orchestra) in Singapore. It can be encountered in all urban areas, including overseas Chinese communities. The ensemble ranges from a dozen players to eighty or a hundred, and its repertoire ranges from traditional pieces played in unison to fully harmonized compositions, similar to their Western counterparts. It is not uncommon to find symphonies, concertos, and overtures. However, ornamentation, expression, tone color, and more emphasis on solo instruments highlight the Chinese-ness.

THE PRESENTATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY CHINESE ENSEMBLE On October 12, 2006, the University of Kentucky Chinese Ensemble presented a demonstration concert at the National Symposium on Multicultural Music. The author of this chapter introduced a short history of the modern Chinese orchestra, the major musical instruments used in the performance, and the content of the pieces. Before the performance, a group of participants at the symposium also performed Chinese luogu (gongs and drums) under the present author’s direction. This event was assisted by Jui-Ching Wang of the School of Music, Northern Illinois University.

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Program: Luogu (Gongs and Drums) Music by Participants of the Symposium

1. Parade Luogu. This piece consists of a series of short sections, each of which is repeated. The order of the sections is A—B—C—D—E—A. This music is used for outdoor activities and is suitable for opening an event. 2. Demonstration of luogu instruments. Like many percussion traditions in the world, luogu is taught by oral patterns. Each instrument is represented by one or two sounds, and the entire ensemble is also represented by a specific sound. The author of this chapter recited the sound, and the performers produced them on the instruments. 3. Etudes. Like many Romantic piano etudes, these two exercises for luogu are excellent pieces for practice as well as performance. Every major instrument has an opportunity to demonstrate its unique sound. The author has arranged them in ABA form, with a repeat in each section. The instruments used in this performance were the tanggu (a hall drum; medium size), the leader of the group; the daluo (a large gong played with a padded mallet), the xiaoluo (a small gong played with a thin wooden plate), bo (cymbals; two pairs), the dan (a hand gong played with a small mallet), pengling (bells), and the bangzi (a woodblock). Performance by the University of Kentucky Chinese Ensemble

1. “Cinnamon Flowers in the Eighth Moon” (“Ba Yue Gui Hua”), a folk song. The Chinese count the months in a year by the “moon.” The “eighth moon” means August, the height of autumn. This pentatonic melody, originally called “Ba Duan Jin,” came from the Dabie Mountain area (in Henan, Hubei, and Anhui Provinces). Because of its happy mood and bouncy rhythm, it was transformed into a revolutionary song, with new text praising the establishment of the local Soviet government in the 1920s–1930s. It is now regarded as one of the most popular “new” folk songs (see video clip at www.menc.org).

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2. Introducing the instruments. The director of the ensemble (the present author) introduced the instruments used in the performance and the performers (see a summary below). 3. “Flower-Ball Dance” (“Cai Qiu Wu”), a traditional song. Starting with a long and free of meter flute solo introduction, this traditional dance tune is composed of two main melodies (A & B) in slow tempo, a C melody at faster tempo, and a returned A with a short coda. The different sections are arranged for unison, simple counterpoint, and heterophony (see video clip @ www.menc.org). 4. “A Full Moon with Flowers Blossom” (“Hua Hao Yue Yuan”), by Huang Yijun, 1930s. Written in Shanghai in the 1930s, this is one of the most popular “new” compositions with Western influences. The composer, Huang Yijun (1915–1995), studied composition at the then newly established Shanghai Conservatory of Music and played trumpet in the Shanghai Municipal Orchestra. He was one of the first four Chinese musicians to be admitted into that European-dominated symphony. Many years later, he became one of the conductors of the same orchestra. One can hear Western-style simple triadic harmony and modulation (from G to C). In addition to the original introduction and A—B form with repeat, a fast coda (melody derived from A) is added to this version, which was arranged by Peng Xiuwen (1931–1996). 5. “Longing for the Spring Wind” (“Wan Chun Feng”), by Teng Yu-Hsien, 1930s. Written in the 1930s in Taiwan by popular songwriter Teng Yu-Hsien (1906–1944), this pentatonic song has been an icon of Taiwan for decades. In fact, many people consider it a folk song, and not too many people know the names of the composer and the lyricist, Li Lin-Chi’u (1909–1979). The text describes a young lady’s longing for her lover, most likely inspired by a phrase from the famous Chinese novel, Xi Xiang Ji (Story of the Western Chamber). This version features simple harmonic accompaniment and melodic variations. 6. “Full of Joy” (“Xi Yang Yang”), by Liu Minyuan, 1958. This is another popular modern composition that is known to millions in China and is often used in celebrations due to its title as well as

its flamboyant nature. The composer, Liu Minyuan (1931–1996), a virtuoso Chinese fiddle performer, is famous for writing folk-style pieces. The piece is constructed in A—B—A form, and the themes of both sections are taken from folk songs of Shanxi Province. Instruments Used in the Presentation

• Erhu (two-stringed fiddle): a fiddle with two strings and a hexagonal wooden resonator box, which is covered with snakeskin. The bow is placed between the two metal strings, and the sound is produced by bowing inward and outward from the strings, which are normally tuned to d¹ (inner string) and a¹(outer string). There is no finger board. Er means “two,” and hu means “barbarian,” an abbreviation of erxian huqin (twostringed barbarian fiddle). The instrument came from a northern tribe (very likely the Xi) and was used by street and theater musicians for a long time. However, it was elevated to a high position at the beginning of the twentieh century. By now it is the violin of China, and the erhu section in the modern Chinese orchestra is the equivalent of the bowed string section of a Western orchestra. It is also a virtuoso solo instrument. • Di or dizi (cross flute): a cross flute made of bamboo or wood. Di means “flute”; dizi means “little flute.” In addition to six finger holes and one blow hole, there is an additional membrane hole situated between the blow hole and the sixth finger hole. It is covered with a thin membrane (usually inner skin of bamboo), which produces the typical buzzing sound, a unique characteristic of the instrument. Holes are not covered with keys. Additional holes at the end are for tuning or tassel hanging. The two normal sizes are the lower Qudi (named after Kunqu or Kun opera of the south, for which it is used; tuned in d¹) and the Bangdi (named after Bangzixi, a high-pitched northern opera for which it us used; tuned in g¹). The di is also a virtuoso solo instrument and is the most important wind instrument in a modern Chinese orchestra. • Yangqin (hammered dulcimer): Yang means “foreign” and qin means “instrument.” It is similar to the American hammered dulcimer and is played by

The Modern Chinese Orchestra

a pair of hammers (bamboo hammers in the Chinese model). Like almost all hammered dulcimers, the origin of yangqin can be traced to the santur of Persia (modern-day Iran). The modern yangqin is much expanded in size and range (influenced by the Hungarian cimbalon). In its modern-day usage, it is treated like a piano because it plays solo as well as accompanying solo instruments such as the erhu and dizi. It occupies a special position (percussive string) and is always placed at the front center of a modern Chinese orchestra. • Pipa (four-stringed, short-necked lute): The name originated from the action of finger picking, “pi,” out-picking, and “pa,” in-picking. But ultimately the name was probably derived from the Persian term barbhu (strongly plucked). It was imported from Central Asia by way of the Silk Road and reached central China during the Southern and Northern dynasties (420–589). The instrument has a pear-shaped wooden body, a curved neck, and four strings. It was held sideways and played with a large plectrum. The Chinese replaced the large plectrum with the finger nails of all five fingers of the right hand. Nowadays it is played with taped-on picks on five fingers. The modern pipa has a shallower body, with thirty frets arranged chromatically. Ever since its importation, the pipa has been a virtuoso instrument. In the modern Chinese orchestra, it belongs in the plucked string section. It was the model for Korea pipa, Japanese biwa, and Vietnamese tyba. • Liuqin or liuyeqin (small, short-necked lute): Liu comes from liuyue (willow leaf), the shape of the instrument. Qin means “instrument.” So, this is a “willow leaf–shaped instrument.” It looks very much like a small pipa. Originally it was an instrument to accompany local theaters in southern Shandong and northern Jiangsu provinces. The strings increased from two to three, then to four, and are plucked with a small pick. There are twentyfour to twenty-eight frets in chromatic arrangement. In the modern Chinese orchestra, liuqin is the soprano of the plucked string section. • Zhongruan (medium, long-necked lute): Zhong means “middle,” and ruan, an abbreviation of ruanxian, is the name of an ancient sage, Ruan Xian (one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove; third century) as well as the round-shaped lute for

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which he was famous. It is a round-shaped lute with a long neck and four strings. The modern version has twenty-four chromatic frets and is played with a pick. In order to accommodate the range, it is made in three sizes for the modern Chinese orchestra. The zhongruan (medium ruan) and daruan (large ruan) are commonly used. In a modern Chinese orchestra, it belongs in the plucked string section. • Sanxian (three-stringed banjo): a three-stringed, fretless, long-necked lute plucked with finger nails or a small pick. The wooden body is covered with snakeskin on both sides. It is an important accompaniment instrument in narrative singing. The large instrument is popular in the north, the small one in the south. It produces a characteristic nasal tone. In a modern Chinese orchestra, it belongs in the plucked string section. • Cello: To strengthen the bass range, there were many attempts to enlarge the erhu fiddle. Those large fiddles are called dahu (large hu), dihu (low hu), gehu (skin hu), and so forth. But they have been abandoned, and the Western cello and/or double bass is preferred for the bass range. • Small percussion: Drums, gongs, cymbals, and other percussion instruments are used frequently in a modern Chinese orchestra. Due to the nature of the compositions performed at the symposium, only smaller ones, such as a temple block, a twotone block, and a small bell, were featured. Members of the University of Kentucky Chinese Ensemble (2006)

The University of Kentucky Chinese Ensemble was established in the fall semester of 2004 as a Silk and Bamboo Ensemble. By 2006 it had expanded into a larger ensemble. All members are volunteers. Nancy Campbell (erhu), string teacher Lauren Cole (erhu), student in nursing Elaine Cook (cello), harp faculty Anne Corley (erhu), graduate student in speech language pathology Kevin Kehrberg (zhongruan), graduate student in musicology Jeff Keith (liuqin), graduate student in history Melinda Lio (erhu; pipa), student in piano major

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Charlie Olvera (liuqin), student in percussion Tiffany Scolf (di or dizi), recently graduated flute student Kristen Tabor (erhu; yangqin), student in music education Cecilia Wang (yangqin), music education professor Han, Kuo-Huang (sanxian), director, visiting professor REFERENCES Bagley, Robert. 2000. Percussion. In Music in the age of Confucius, ed. Jenny So, 35–63. Washington, DC: Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery. Han, Kuo-Huang. 1979. The modern Chinese orchestra. Asian Music 11 (1): 1–40.

Han, Kuo-Huang. 2002. The introduction of Western music in modern times. In The Garland encyclopedia of world music, volume 7: East Asia, ed. Robert C. Provine, Yosihiko Tokumaru, and J. Lawrence Witzleben, 373–78. New York: Garland Publishing. Kauffmann, Walter. 1976. Musical references in the Chinese classics. Detroit monographs in musicology, no. 5. Detroit: Information Coordinators. Liang, Mingyue. 1985. Music of the billion: An introduction to Chinese musical culture. New York: Heinrichshofen Edition. Myers, John E. 1992. The way of the pipa: Structure and imagery in Chinese lute music. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. Stock, Jonathan. 1993. A historical account of the Chinese two-stringed fiddle. Galpin Society Journal 46:83–113. Thrasher, Alan R. 2000. Chinese musical instruments. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

10 Then Sing My Song . . . : The Place of Gospel in Our Schools Rene Boyer and Marvelene C. Moore

Involving students in the singing of an energetic piece

The knowledge and teachings of these religious books assisted many African Americans in gaining the confidence, understanding, tolerance, and patience needed to adapt in the challenging urban settings of which many had become a part. The books also provided them with a spiritual base upon which they could create and eventually communicate their own personal stories and life experiences.

of gospel music can be an unforgettable and fun experience. Many students across our nation have proven time and again that once they have been introduced to this style, it is difficult to take it away. Simply put, “Students love it!” Yet a lack of understanding of and regard for the inclusion of gospel music as an integral part of the general/choral curriculum continues to prevail. Serious study of this elemental/grassroots style has consciously been excluded in many general/choral settings in favor of those styles that reflect the work of time-honored composers of Western European origin.

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GOSPEL STYLE Whereas spirituals were unaccompanied, folk-based melodies passed down aurally from one generation of slaves to the next, most gospel songs were newly composed songs that were accompanied. It should be noted, however, that many of these “newly composed gospel songs” were often inspired by their spiritual predecessors, to the point that spiritual melodies were borrowed and rearranged to fit the rhythmic syncopation and harmonies of the gospel style. Urban musicians soon realized that the quickest way to change a song to the gospel style was to “swing” the rhythm and add an accompaniment. Therefore, gospel music was described as jazz rhythm and blues singing to religious text (Brooks 1984). A simple but excellent example of a spiritual turned gospel is “This Little Light of Mine.” Its text and message are both powerful in a very simplistic and repetitive way. Yet its syncopated rhythms, inherent in its gospel style, cry out for side-to-side movement of the body, a hand-clapping

THE ROOTS OF THE GOSPEL STYLE Following the end of slavery, many African Americans believed they had much for which to be thankful. Many who had been newly freed strongly believed that it was only through the help of God that they had been released from bondage. This sense of gratitude committed many to the church, its leaders, and the teachings it advocated. The newly freed African Americans were determined to worship God by any means possible, the most popular modes being preaching, singing, and praying. Equipped with the musical traditions of their work songs, spirituals, and blues, African Americans used their understanding of the New Testament (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) as the springboard from which they would launch a new style of composed music called gospel.

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accompaniment that is performed on beats 2 and 4, and a vocal lead who sets the pace of the song while engaging in endless techniques of improvisation (aural examples of “This Little Light of Mine” can be found on YouTube). “This Little Light of Mine” and other newly composed gospel songs possess one major characteristic that distinguishes them from their spiritual predecessors: the addition of an added accompaniment. Other characteristics that, although found in gospel, are also found in spirituals, blues, jazz, ragtime, rock, and hiphop, are • the “call and response” style of singing; • syncopated and other complex rhythmic patterns; • the addition of complex harmonic progressions involving seventh chords, diminished, secondary dominants, and so forth; • inclusion of riffs and runs/ornamentation; • sliding and scooping of the voice; • lots of vocal ad instrumental improvisation; • use of biblical texts and secular texts reflecting the African American experience; • body percussion (hand clapping and foot stamping used to accompany the song); • use of the chest voice; • the rocking and swaying of the body in rhythm to the beat; • learning through aural means (rote, tapes, CDs, and live performances; and • the accompaniment of a piano/keyboard, organ, bass guitar, drums, and/or tambourine.

THE GOSPEL TEXT Gospel text is related directly to the poor black experience. Unlike the spiritual, which had its roots in the cotton fields and brush arbors of the rural South, gospel music evolved from the urban experience. “I Shall Wear a Golden Crown” is a classic example of how the gospel poet provided his listeners with a creative interpretation of the rewards that one would receive upon the completion of a good, honest, hardworking life here on earth. The lyrics are meant to give guidance and encouragement to the community in general. “I Shall Wear a Golden Crown,” which is

still performed by choirs today, is a popular example of classic gospel. Because learning gospel demands the aural/oral component in the teaching/learning process, this author has chosen to reference YouTube as a vehicle through which the gospel songs in this chapter can be heard and analyzed (oral examples of “I Shall Wear a Golden Crown” can be found on YouTube).

WHERE WAS GOSPEL MUSIC PERFORMED? The primary place one would go to hear early gospel music was a huge temporary tent. These tents were erected primarily for traveling evangelists. Storefront churches were also popular meeting places. There was never a question whether one was nearing a location where gospel music was being performed. Visually one would see a plethora of finely dressed people gathered at these locations. The people often donned their most colorful hats and their best shoes and clothing. Aurally, one was immediately attracted to sounds of tambourines, the tapping of feet, hand clapping, and shouting. This cacophony of harmonious sounds filled the air with excitement that would awaken the curiosity of any pedestrian or vehicle that happened along (see video clip at www.menc.org): When Black people began pouring into the nation’s cities during the second decade of the twentieth century, they took their joyful spirituals with them, but found the rural music to be unsatisfactory in urban settings and unresponsive to their needs. Consequently, the church singers created a more expressive music to which they applied the term gospel, but which displayed little resemblance to the traditional gospel songs of the Whites. Negro gospel music became the sacred counterpart of the city blues, sung in the same improvisatory tradition with piano, guitar, or instrumental accompaniment. (Southern 1971, 402)

TEACHING GOSPEL SONG Though not originally written down, many gospel songs were so powerful in their message and so beautiful in their melodies that they survived until someone who possessed the necessary musical literacy skills

Then Sing My Song . . . : The Place of Gospel in Our Schools

could write the melodies down. Meanwhile, gospel songs were taught to soloists or choir members using a rote process. This process of teaching requires a choir director or musician to sing or play each vocal part while the choir or soloist listens and imitates what is heard. Unlike the Western European approach, which emphasized a singer’s need to read music, this type of teaching and learning encouraged all members of the congregation to participate, whether musically literate or not. Simply put, “an education did not a singer make.” It was evident that choir directors, choir members, and church congregations were more interested in the aesthetic or “feelingful” performance of this aural art form rather than its conceptual inner workings. This approach to teaching and learning gospel music still persists today (see video of “Hallelujah” and “I Love the Lord” at www.menc.org). One of the first gospel songs to be written down was composed by Thomas Dorsey (1899–1993). This gospel classic was “Precious Lord,” written in response to the death of his wife, Nettie, and his son, Thomas Jr. This early gospel piece and others written during this period centered around three evangelical themes: salvation, personal conversion, and preaching (Harris 1992). “Precious Lord” has been published in twenty-six languages and continues to be sung in communities throughout the world. Because of the power of its lyrics—“I am tired. I am weak. I am worn”—it is often heard in funeral services (aural examples of “Precious Lord Take My Hand” can be found on YouTube).

WHY SHOULD GOSPEL BE INCLUDED IN OUR SCHOOLS? 1. Gospel is a very popular musical style that is performed in many communities. 2. Many of our young people, in both urban and suburban settings, enjoy highly syncopated and rhythmic-based music. Many selections from gospel repertoire meet these criteria. 3. Improvisation is a key element when performing in a gospel style. Many of the major methodological approaches, such as Orff-Shulwerk, an approach espoused by many teachers throughout the United States, advocate the need to develop a child’s improvisational skills.

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4. Singing in harmony is done in a user-friendly way. The effect of using a layering technique to create harmony among sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses is mesmerizing and immediately satisfying to the singer. 5. The development of both “ear” and “eye” is essential when learning and performing gospel music. Due to its extreme improvisational nature, one never knows what is going to happen to the form of the piece. In a gospel performance, repetitions may occur unannounced, severe dynamic contrasts may be added at any time, and rhythms may suddenly be altered with the addition of rests and accents. The inner expression and feeling of those involved in the actual music-making process at the moment determine the final outcome. The director, whether musically educated or not, controls the final musical product. 6. The invitation to engage in creative movement, especially movement that reflects one’s understanding and feeling of basic pulse/beat, is essential to those performing gospel music. All participants, regardless of age, are expected to move completely in unison. 7. Gospel music involves not only the performer but also the listener. The listener will help drive the energy and excitement of any performance. This aspect of gospel will promote the attendance of those in the community who would not ordinarily participate in or attend other concerts. Though it is important that music educators display a willingness to include a variety of musical styles in their classrooms, many have taken an adamant stand against including gospel music in their curricula for the following reasons: 1. It is an insignificant style. 2. Most choral programs in universities and high schools do not include gospel music as part of their repertoire, so why should they? 3. The text of gospel music is religious. (The texts of Bach, Handel, Brahms, Beethoven, and so forth are also religious, yet they are included.) 4. Most gospel songs have been passed down through oral tradition and are therefore not considered “good” music. (The music of the

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5.

6.

7.

8.

troubadours and trouveres was also passed down through oral tradition. Yet, bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degree students are required to know these styles.) Learning gospel music does not require reading skills. (It is interesting to stress here that music is an aural art form. However, to make the style more attractive to those who hesitate to use music that is not written down, many pieces of gospel are presently being published, making it easier for both singer and accompanist to learn the pieces much more quickly and efficiently.) In order to learn an accompaniment or parts, one must transcribe it off a tape or CD. (Fortunately, tremendous strides have been taken in making gospel music more accessible.) The accompaniments are too complex. (Many earlier gospel pieces use a simple I, IV, V7 chord structure.) The vocal timbre is not something that one can understand or duplicate. Therefore, one cannot serve as a role model for students.

It is clear that many teachers exclude this genre, not because they dislike it, but rather because they themselves have had little, if any, exposure to it. Consequently, they are simply not comfortable incorporating it in the curriculum. However, because our National Standards for Music Education reinforce the use of those elements and experiences found in this style, educators and teachers should at least try to expose students to the genre. It is evident that gospel music can afford all students the opportunity to further reinforce their understanding and appreciation of music in general. It also opens doors to a better understanding and appreciation of other styles, such as spirituals, blues, jazz, rock, and hip-hop. If nothing else, it encourages all students to believe that they too can enjoy a musical style that continues to appeal to many, regardless of age, location, religion, or musical preparation (see sample lesson plans in appendix A).

TAKING THE LEAP! Readers of this chapter should listen to performances of the following songs on YouTube and other musical

resources. It will be clearly noted that the texts of these arrangements share similar, if not exact, texts. Song: “Now Let Us All Sing” Gospel/Unknown; “Psallite” by Michael Praetorius (1571–1621). Published by Bourne, New York Song: “Hallelujah, Glory Hallelujah” Gospel/ Unknown; “Hallelujah Chorus” by Handel Song: “Lead Me, Guide Me” Doris Akers. Published by Hill and Range Songs Song: “My Help” (gospel arrangement); “Lift Up Thine Eyes to the Mountains,” from the oratorio Elijah by Felix Mendelssohn. Arranged by John Bertalot. Published by Harold Flammer Song: “Bless the Lord, Oh My Soul” Song: “The Lord Is My Light” Investigate other major sources, such as Hal Leonard and GIA Publications, Inc. Not only have these publishers made a concerted effort to make written gospel music arrangements available to schools, but they also have many of the accompaniments on compact discs. Moses Hogan (all publications are with Hal Leonard) Rollo Dillworth (all publications are with Hal Leonard) Clarence Boyer, “We Are Climbing Jacob’s Ladder” (GIA) Nathan Carter, “Great Is Thy Faithfulness” (GIA) Nathan Carter, “Something Within” (GIA) In addition, the lyrics that they publish have been carefully selected and fine-tuned, to make sure that no students feel uncomfortable. Converse with students’ parents. Ask them for recommendations of community gospel musicians who may be willing to come to your school and work with you and your students. Converse with retired music teachers. Four out of five African Americans who have majored in music in their colleges and universities have performed some form of gospel. When selecting gospel pieces, avoid those that include terminology that may prove offensive to persons in other religions and faiths. Begin with pieces similar to “United We Stand,” composed by Rene Boyer and published by Hal Leon-

Then Sing My Song . . . : The Place of Gospel in Our Schools

ard, that are written in a gospel style but are patriotic in nature.

CONCLUSION Gospel music, although inspired by the religious texts and teachings of the New Testament, can offer an enormous amount of pleasure and value to music students across our nation. Be aware that any piece of music can be transformed into gospel style, if, that is, one is aware of the basic characteristics of the style. Many R&B, blues, and jazz artists “cut their teeth” on this style before being launched into stardom on the popular scene. When Ray Charles sings “Georgia,” he is singing and playing traditional gospel. Gospel serves as an important form of musical expression that has been realized and held in high esteem by individuals, conductors, and choirs throughout the world. It continues to enliven the hopes and dreams of many of our family members and world community

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members, regardless of race, color, creed, or economic status. Its rich cultural significance and pedagogical value are rivaled only by its older brothers, blues and jazz. One can easily say that gospel will continue to be an integral and growing part of the American music tradition for years to come.

REFERENCES Brooks, Tilford. 1984. America’s black musical heritage. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Harris, Michael W. 1992. The rise of gospel blues. New York: Oxford Press. I shall wear a golden crown, at www.youtube.com/watch?v =pOFwOsVhuGA&feature=PlayList&p=B07E087EAD4 FDA6A&index=102 (accessed November 3, 2008). Precious lord, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=fgTnA9Fse Ww (accessed November 3, 2008). Southern, Eileen. 1971. The music of black Americans. New York: W. W. Norton. This little light of mine, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xx3n TsFJEQE (accessed November 3, 2008).

11 Korean Mask Dance Drama Soojin Kim Ritterling

One of our goals as educators is to bring new and excit-

ed as Important Intangible Cultural Properties by the South Korean government. Primal colors, such as red, white, and black, are used for an effective categorization of different genders and ages. In general, red masks represent young men, white masks represent young women, and black masks represent older people (shown in figures 11.1, 11.2, and 11.3). In some

ing content to the classroom, with the goal of broadening our students’ desire to learn on their own. This chapter illustrates an approach of using broad content and multiple art disciplines to present cultural educational content to students from early elementary to college. It focuses on the Korean mask dance drama as an example for introducing a foreign culture’s history, folklore, music, art, and dance to students in a manner that would provide a more enthusiastic and memorable learning experience.

OVERVIEW OF KOREAN MASK DANCE DRAMA (TAL CHUM) The literal meaning of Tal is a mask, and Chum is a dance. The origin of Tal dates back to the prehistoric era in Korea. Korean historians believe that people wore masks to disguise themselves for hunting. A shaman priest would wear Tal in ritual offerings and in shamanistic exorcisms. Ritual masks were also used in funeral processions to expel evil spirits. Over time, the Korean people emphasized the artistic meaning of Tal more than the ritual meaning. Tal Chum became popular and was established as a major genre in folk art during the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910). At the end of each Korean mask dance drama, there is a bonfire called Dwitpuri, which is a celebration of setting the wrong right. Traditionally, all the masks used in the mask dance are burned. To some extent, this has a religious meaning: it represents a cleansing, making a better world and future (Hahoedong Masks Museum, 1). Approximately fifteen Korean mask dances from different regions of Korea have been handed down from generation to generation. They are all designat-

Figure 11.1. A Young Man Mask

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Figure 11.3 An Older Person Mask

MUSIC AND INSTRUMENTS

Figure 11.2. A Young Woman Mask

dances, animals and supernatural beings are also used (Andong International Mask Dance Festival Promotion 2001). DRAMA The most common themes found in Korean mask dance drama deal with morality, criticizing the hypocrisies found in Korean society, as in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. The Korean mask dance drama was the common people’s rebellion against the ruling class. Actors, who are also dancers, explore themes such as corruption, infirmity, covetousness, gender prejudice, and differences between classes. They seek solutions through witty dance and absurd remarks. With the elutriating action of wearing a mask, Tal represents unmasking the hypocrisies (Andong International Mask Dance Festival Promotion 2001, 17).

Traditional Korean instruments, including strings, woodwinds, and percussion, are used to accompany Korean mask dance drama. The instrumentation varies in each region. A representative instrumentation for a mask dance uses six instruments called Samhyonyukgak, consisting of two piri (bamboo oboes), one taegum (a large, transverse bamboo flute), one haegum (a two-stringed spike fiddle), one janggu (an hourglassshaped drum), and one buk (a barrel drum). When a modified Korean mask dance drama is used in a different cultural setting, the following four Korean percussion instruments can be easily adapted to accompany it: kkwaenggwari (a small gong; see figure 11.4), jing (a large gong; see figure 11.5), janggu (a double-headed hourglass-shaped drum; see figure 11.6), and buk (a barrel drum; see figure 11.7). These percussion instruments can even be replaced with finger cymbals or a cow bell, a large gong, a large bongo, and a hand drum. A performance on the buk drums can be seen on the MENC website (see video clip at www. menc.org). The most commonly used rhythm pattern in Korean mask dance drama is Taryung Jang-Dan (see figure 11.8). Taryung is a type of four-beat rhythm pattern. The literal meaning of Jang-Dan is long and short, and it means “rhythm.” Any four-beat rhythmic patterns created by teachers and students can also be used to accompany the dance.

Figure 11.4.

Kkwaenggwari

Figure 11.5.

Jing

Figure 11.6.

Janggu

Figure 11.7.

Figure 11.8.

Taryung Jang-Dan

Buk

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Korean Mask Dance Drama

ART

A KOREAN FOLKTALE: “A TOAD FABLE”

In the tradition of Korean mask dance drama, common people exhibited their feelings toward others and society, illustrating their thoughts with the creativity found in the different masks used in the dance. Students can also express their creativity by creating their own masks, reinforcing material learned and giving them a tangible reminder.

Interestingly, Korean folktales usually begin with the line, “A very long, long time ago, when tigers used to smoke tobacco . . . ,” whereas a Western folktale begins with “Once upon a time . . .” In old Korean society, tigers were considered sacred beings, and personifying animals in folktales or fables was very common. The toad fable in this chapter appears in many Korean folktales and in different story settings. It is believed that this fable was developed from “Ship Song Yul” in Tripitaka Koreana, a collection of Buddhist scriptures gathered during the Koryŏ dynasty (918–1392) in Korea. The tale begins with three animals, a deer, a hare, and a toad, bragging about their ages. The deer argues that he is the oldest among them because he helped with the Creation of Heaven and Earth. Then the hare claims that he planted the very tree that the deer made his ladder from, which was used during the Creation. Suddenly, the toad sniffles, weeps, and says, “I had three sons. They all planted one tree each when they were young. These trees made the earliest tools that were used in the Creation. The oldest one used his tree to make the handle of the hammer that was used to put the stars up in the sky. The second oldest one used his tree to make the handle of the shovel, which was used to dig the diamonds from the ground that were put in the sky to make the Milky Way. My youngest one made the handle of the hammer used to nail the sun and the moon in the sky. They became very ill and died as a result of the tremendous amount of work they accomplished. I miss them very much.” This type of folktale illustrates the reverence for age and wisdom that is the fabric of Korean society.

A. Materials: newspaper aluminum foil 1½ plaster cloths (rigid wrap) scissors empty ice-cream container or a water bucket acrylic paint or craft paint (red, black, white, or other colors) paint brushes (foam brushes) and a palette black cloth (14 by 14 inches) glue gun ¼-inch-wide elastic (14 inches) paper cutter B. Instructions for making a mask: 1. Crumple newspaper to make an oval face shape and secure it with masking tape. 2. Wrap the newspaper with aluminum foil to smooth the surface. 3. Cut the plaster cloth, dip it in the warm water, and then spread it over the form. 4. Use at least 3 layers of plaster cloth to form the basic face surface. 5. Fold and roll the wet plaster cloth to make the shapes of eyebrows, nose, eyes, lips, and cheeks. 6. Let the mask dry overnight or bake it in the oven on low heat (150–180˚ F) for 15 minutes. 7. Paint the mask, then let the paint dry for a half to a full day. 8. Separate the mask from the form. 9. Cut out the eye pupil parts with a paper cutter. (Carefully!) 10. Using a glue gun, attach the black cloth to the inside of the mask head part. 11. Make a small hole with a sharp object to insert the elastic on the sides of the mask, by the ears.

SCRIPT AND DANCE The following script is based on “A Toad Fable.” The original folktale has been changed to the script below because human masks are easier to make than animal masks. By changing the animal characters to human beings, the script incorporates a brief historical aspect of the rulers of Korean history in relation to the most common three Korean family names. According to Korea Tourism Organization (2007), “The majority of Koreans have family names within one of a small set: Kim (about 21 percent of the population), Yi (or Lee or Rhee, 14 percent), Park (or Pak, 8 percent)” (11). Historically, the

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Park clan dominated Korea, with Hyŏkkŏse Park being the first king, in 57 BC, shortly before Julius Caesar emerged in Rome. Although three clans, Park, Suk, and Kim, took turns producing the king of the kingdom of Shilla (57 BC–AD 935), the Kim clan consolidated power in the late eleventh century and dominated the

country until the Koryŏ dynasty. The Lee clan became the ruler of the Koryŏ dynasty (918–1392) through the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), and continued to rule the country until the beginning of the twentieth century (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development 2002, 46).

The Place of Honor, a Modified Korean Mask Dance Drama Act One The drummers take their places. The drums begin. The dancers enter and line up. Act Two Narrator: The story of the Lees, the Kims, and the Parks Long ago, during a time when tigers could smoke tobacco, there was a village that consisted of three clans: the Lees, the Kims, and the Parks. One day in the fall, the three clans decided to hold a huge festival together in celebration of a good harvest season. Everyone brought something different for the feast, and soon the tables were crowded with simmering rice cakes, chili red kimchi, fried mandu (dumplings), jopchae (potato noodles), bulgogi (marinated beef) with raw garlic and fresh lettuce, ripe persimmons, juicy pears, nut-covered rice cookies, sesame seed ball cookies, and cold sweet drinks with floating rice. There was talking, wrestling, singing, drumming, dancing, bragging, and a general air of happiness along with the aromatic foods that decorated the great table. After the narration, the dance of gathering is performed. Dancers take their positions. Act Three Narrator: The gathering quickly turned to arguments, however, when the time to take seats arrived. It could not be determined who should take the place of honor, which was reserved for the oldest person present. This person would also have the honor of beginning the feast. After the narration, the dance of arguing is performed. Moves in section three. Act Four Narrator: Each clan claimed that it was the oldest, and therefore, its leader deserved the place of honor. Strong disagreements ensued, and none of the families would back down. At last, someone suggested that the leaders should have an oral competition to convince the others who was the oldest. The clan leaders agreed. After the narration, the dance of agreeing and taking places to watch is performed. Moves in section four. Act Five Narrator: The Lee clan’s leader stepped forward and began his story. “When the world began, heaven and earth had to be separated from each other. My family had the honor of completing this immeasurable work, along with putting the stars, the sun, and the moon in the heavens.” After the narration, the dance of the Lees is performed, creating the heaven and earth. Moves in section five. Act Six Narrator: After a moment of silence, the leader of the Kims volunteered to go next. “It is very true that the Lee clan divided the earth from heaven and placed the stars, the sun, and the moon in the sky. Because the sky was up so high, the Lees used a ladder to do the job. We, the Kims planted the very tree and made the ladder for the Lees to use to help the Creation.” After the narration, the dance of the Kims is performed, making a ladder. Moves in section six. Act Seven Narrator: Suddenly, the leader of the Parks started weeping hysterically. Everyone else wondered what was going on. Blowing his nose, he said, “I had three sons. They all planted one tree each when they were young. These trees made the earliest tools that were used in the Creation. When the Lees were separating the heaven from earth, my oldest one used his tree to make the handle of the hammer that was used to put the stars up in the sky. My second oldest one used his tree to make the handle of the shovel, which was used to dig the diamonds from the ground that were put in the sky to make the Milky Way. And, my youngest son . . . .” He stopped for a while, sighed, wiped his eyes, and said, “My youngest one made the handle of the hammer used to nail the sun and the moon in the sky. Shortly after everything took its place in the world, all my three sons became very ill and died one by one before me as a result of the tremendous amount of work they accomplished. How unlucky I am! Oh! I miss them so much.” After the narration, the dance of the Parks is performed, weeping. Moves in section seven. Act Eight Narrator: After the leader of the Parks shared what happened to his three sons, everyone was sad and very quiet. They all agreed that the Parks should take the place of honor. Hence, lifting a glass of rice drink with a smile on his face, the leader of the Parks said, “Let the feast begin! Guhn Bae [a toast]!” After the narration, the dance of celebration is performed. Moves in section eight. Exit.

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SUGGESTIONS This presentation of a Korean mask dance drama is designed to be a flexible module that can be adapted to students from elementary age to the college level. The basic elements surrounding the Korean mask dance drama are used as building blocks so that the content can be tailored to any age group. In authentic Korean mask dance drama, the dance itself has regimented steps and movements. Professional performers spend a lifetime perfecting the dance steps. These performers themselves carry the title of “cultural treasure” and work with apprentices, who learn directly from the masters. The music used in mask dances has the same rhythms, but the melodies may change in different performances. The masks used in the dances are the same shape and decoration, depending on the region of the dance origin. Even though the basic elements of the mask dance are the same, there is room for interpretation in different performances. Understanding the basic elements of Korean mask dance drama allows educators to use these different components, emphasizing those areas that may appeal to different aged students. For elementary aged children, we might focus on the introduction of the rhythms and instruments, creating an interest in taking part and performing together. The creative art aspect of making masks reinforces the characters found in the dance. By creating and taking home a mask, the student feels a sense of accomplishment and reward. For secondary school students, the same basic themes used with elementary students may be expanded. More emphasis on the dance steps may be used with memorization, resulting in actual performed music that is rehearsed and coordinated with a dance and story. More history and auxiliary information may be provided in the area of geography, history of Korean society, and the reasons why mask dances were performed. Making masks also reinforces information presented in class, much the same way creating a world map reinforces geography. For college level students, the emphasis may be placed on Korean society as it related to mask dance drama. Students may explore parallels to artistic expression in other cultures (e.g., Chaucer’s Canterbury

Tales or Aesop’s Fables). Students may compare mask dances found in other cultures, their characteristics, and the purposes found in each. Students could take the premise of the mask dance and create their own dance, with characters to illustrate a societal view or injustice. Using a modified Korean mask dance drama as a template for researching Korean culture as well as other cultures allows students to participate in the content of their learning. Through this approach, we are encouraging students to explore and become a part of their education. REFERENCES Andong International Mask Dance Festival Promotion. 2001. Andong mask dance festival 2001. Andong, South Korea: Andong International Mask Dance Festival Promotion Committee. Hahoedong Masks Museum. Tal [Masks]. Andong, South Korea: Hahoedong Masks Museum. Kangryung Talchum Bojonhoe. 1995. Kangryung talchum kyobon [Instructional manual of Kangryung mask dance]. Seoul, South Korea: Kangryung Talchum Bojonhoe. Korea Tourism Organization. 2007. Korea travel guide. Seoul, South Korea: Korea Tourism Organization. Korean Traditional Performing Arts Centre. 1993. The traditional music & dance of Korea. (Available from The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts, 700 Seocho-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137-073, South Korea). Lee, B. O. 1982. Songpa sandaenori youngu [A study of Songpa Sandae mask dance]. Seoul, South Korea: JipMun Dang. Lee, B. W., comp. 2001. Musical cultures of Korea and Korean people. (Available from The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts, 700 Seocho-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137-073, South Korea). Lee, D. H. 1995. Hangukeui talchum [Korean mask dances]. Seoul, South Korea: Il-Jih Sa. Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development. 2002. Korean history. Seoul, South Korea: Korean History Publication. Nahm, A. C. 1996. Korea: Tradition and transformation—A history of the Korean people. Seoul, South Korea: Hollym Corporation. The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts & Ministry of Culture and Tourism. 1998. A study of musical instruments in Korean traditional music. (Available from The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts, 700 Seocho-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137-073, South Korea).

12 Make It and Take It! World Instruments for the General Music Classroom Lisa J. Lehmberg

OVERVIEW

fit this classification (U.S. Bureau of the Census, cited in Robinson 2006). Cultural and socioeconomic differences between teachers and diverse student populations are causing difficulties for teachers in designing effective instruction because of a lack of knowledge of students’ lived experiences, cultural heritage, and social backgrounds. Many music education scholars support the idea of world music as a means of connecting with culturally diverse populations of students, fostering cultural understanding, and achieving a global perspective in the classroom. Students can feel both valued and validated through classroom study of music from their cultural backgrounds. As cultural insiders, they are often able to elaborate on material being presented in class, allowing the teacher to take a facilitative approach, and thus enabling greater student ownership of learning experiences. Because music mirrors the culture and era in which it is created, the study of world music can enhance students’ ability to understand, appreciate, and relate to diversity in today’s society. World instrument construction also provides a means of connecting with families of various cultures. Students who construct and take home playable facsimiles of world instruments are easily able to share this learning experience with their families and involve their families kinesthetically in playing the constructed instruments and possibly building additional instruments at home. Positive results of this school–family connection include increased cultural identity, appreciation, and respect, as well as increased family support of the school music program. The use of inexpensive materials increases the likelihood of such projects fitting within teachers’ school

The purpose of this interactive workshop was to acquaint music educators with workable facsimiles of world instruments that could be constructed easily and inexpensively at various levels of general music instruction. Co-presenters Lisa Lehmberg and Lance Lehmberg began by briefly discussing rationales for incorporation of world music and world instrument construction in the general music classroom. They then provided short descriptions of the history and function of each instrument exhibited, as well as indepth instructions for construction. Participants built and took home (a) bullroarers, (b) paper plate m’biras, (c) PVC panpipes, (d) pizza box guitars, and (e) musical spoons.

RATIONALE Great change is occurring in the cultural distributions of student populations in the United States. According to recent statistics, 43 percent of students enrolled in U.S. public schools are classified as minority (National Center for Education Statistics 2008). Nineteen percent of students in U.S. public schools speak a first language other than English at home, and 5 percent of all students are classified as not proficient in English (Federal Interagency Forum 2006). Concurrently, the teaching force in the United States is becoming increasingly homogeneous. Approximately 90 percent of teachers are of middle-class, Western European background, and speak only English (Pang 2005). In the field of music education, 94 percent of teachers 83

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budgets. In addition, when construction materials are available locally, projects become logistically more feasible.

INSTRUMENT CONSTRUCTION The following section includes instructions for building instruments constructed by participants in the Make It and Take It! session, as well as brief descriptions of the history and function of each instrument in its native environment. Bullroarer (Australia, Various World Cultures)

Though bullroarers are found in many world cultures, the Australian bullroarer comes from the native Aborigine culture. It has historically been used in male initiation rituals, to embody voices of ancestors and deities in the Spirit World, and in celebrations of life events such as weddings or the birth of a child. When whirled in a circular motion, the bullroarer makes a unique, low-pitched, buzzing sound. It is often played in combination with the didjeridu.

in a high position followed by revolutions in a lower position. 3. Bullroarers can also be constructed from large paint-stirring sticks (the size used for stirring 5gallon pails of paint). The larger bullroarer produces a lower pitch. M’bira (Africa)

The m’bira is found among almost all cultures in subSaharan Africa. M’biras consist of keyboards made of metal tines and amplified by a resonating body, such as a gourd, wooden box, or tin container. They are tuned differently by various African tribes, with some tunings being appropriate for entertainment and some being only for religious uses. The m’bira was brought to the Western Hemisphere by West African slaves, and it has become a very popular instrument throughout the Caribbean and South America. The m’bira is also known as the likembe, karimba, kalimba, mbila, or thumb piano. Paper Plate M’bira (Africa) (adapted from Waring 2000)

Materials: Materials: wooden paint-stirring stick (the size used for stirring 1 gallon of paint) 2- to 3-foot length of cotton string paints or markers (optional) drill Instructions: 1. Drill a small hole in the handle of the paint-stirring stick. The hole should be big enough for the string to pass through. Thread the string through the hole and tie securely. Decorate the bullroarer with paints or markers, if desired. 2. To play the bullroarer, twist the string in one direction until it is tightly twisted. Stand in a clear area and swing the bullroarer overhead in a circle. The vibration of the bullroarer will create an unusual buzz as it twists and turns in the air. It is interesting to notice how the bullroarer alternates position as it swings, making revolutions

2 small, sturdy paper plates 1 wooden block (approximately 11/8 inches thick and 3 inches long) 1 thinner wooden block (approximately 3 inches long and 1 inch wide) 1 piece of 1/8-inch plywood (e.g., screen door molding; should be of the same dimensions as the wooden blocks) 5 or 6 flat popsicle sticks brads or small screws (optional) paper glue wood glue Instructions: 1. Glue a block of wood to a paper plate near its edge. Glue another paper plate (with the plates facing each other) to the original plate and the wooden block. 2. Spread glue on both the rims of the plates and the wood block. Glue a 1-by-3-inch wooden block to

World Instruments for the General Music Classroom

one of the plates directly over the inside wooden block. 3. Cut a hole in the top paper plate. Glue 5 or 6 flat popsicle sticks to the wooden block, arranged so the center sticks are longer than the side sticks. 4. Glue the piece of 1/8-inch wood to the tops of the popsicle sticks. 5. If desired, brads or very small screws may be used to help hold the entire bridge mechanism in place.

4.

5.

Extension

This section augments the instructions for the m’bira construction by providing directions for making two more m’biras of increasing levels of difficulty. The first is made of cardboard, and the second is constructed from a dried gourd. Cardboard M’bira (adapted from Waring 2000) Materials: 1 piece of sturdy cardboard or a small, sturdy cardboard box 1 piece of ¼-inch plywood 2 strips of screen door molding 1 short piece of 3/8- or ½-inch wooden dowel 2 or 3 2-inch machine bolts 2 or 3 T-nuts 5 or 6 thin metal tines from a small leaf rake sharp utility knife wood glue Instructions: 1. Mark and cut a sturdy piece of cardboard to make a box about 2 inches deep, 6 inches wide, and 8 inches long. If desired, a ready-made box of approximately the same size may be used instead. 2. Do not assemble the box yet. If using a preassembled box, open the ends of the box, but do not cut off the end pieces. 3. Glue a piece of ¼-inch plywood, approximately 2 by 4 inches in size, to the top of the box approximately 1½ inches from one end. Position 2 pieces of screen door molding, parallel to

6.

7.

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each other, approximately ¼ inch apart, on the wood piece. These pieces of molding should be slightly shorter than the wood piece. Glue the pieces down. Drill 2 holes between the screen door molding and down through the flat piece and the top of the box. Cut a round hole in the box top approximately 2½ inches away from the bridge piece. Cut a 3/8- or ½-inch wooden dowel the same length as the screen door molding. Drill 2 or 3 holes in the dowel to match the holes in the bridge piece. Insert machine bolts through the wood dowel, down through the bridge piece and the top of the box. Fasten them lightly from below with T-nuts. Slide 4 to 6 flat, metal tines between the dowel and the bridge piece and tighten the machine screws just enough to hold them lightly in place. Adjust the tines so those in the center are longer than the ones on each side. While plucking the metal strips and listening to the pitches produced, slide them in and out of the bridge to tune them to the notes of a pentatonic scale (or alternate tuning of your choice). When the notes are in tune, tighten the machine bolts until the strips are held firmly in place.

Gourd M’bira (adapted from Summitt and Widess 1999) Materials: 1 large gourd 1 piece of ¼-inch plywood (must be longer and wider than the gourd.) small piece of oak or other hardwood (approximately 4 inches long and 1 inch wide) 2 pieces of screen door molding 1 short piece of 3/8- or ½-inch wooden dowel handsaw, hacksaw, band saw, or table saw drill machine bolts (approximately 2 inches long) T-nuts 6 to 8 thin spring steel tines from a small leaf rake (or children’s leaf rake) wood glue paints or markers (optional) polyurethane sealant

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Instructions: 1. Choose a large, round, dry gourd. Soak the gourd, covered with cloth kitchen towels, in warm water for 20 to 30 minutes. The wet kitchen towels will make the gourd heavier and help keep it underwater. 2. Remove the towels, rinse the gourd, and scrub it vigorously with a plastic pot scrubber and dishwashing liquid. Scrub until all mold, dirt, and other residue is removed from the gourd. Air dry until the gourd feels dry to the touch. 3. Using a hacksaw, band saw, or table saw, cut off one side of the gourd, leaving a section shaped like a bowl. Clean out the seeds and loose material from inside. 4. Turn the bowl over onto a piece of ¼-inch plywood and trace around the gourd with a pencil. Cut out the diagram on the plywood. This piece will be glued to the gourd as the top piece of the m’bira. Cut a round hole in the top piece near its center. A hole saw kit for an electric drill (used for cutting holes for door knobs) works very well. 5. Glue a small block of wood between the newly cut hole and the edge of the top piece. A small piece of hardwood works best for this purpose. Position 2 pieces of screen door molding on the piece of wood. These pieces of molding should be slightly shorter than the piece of wood. Position them parallel to each other, approximately ¼ inch apart, and glue them down. 6. Drill 2 holes between the screen door molding and down through the flat piece and the top of the box. Using a drill bit size that is compatible with the machine bolts, drill 3 holes down through the bridge material, the wooden block, and the top piece. 7. Cut a section of wooden dowel the same length as the wooden block. Drill 3 holes through the dowel to match the holes in the block. Insert the machine bolts through the dowel and bridge piece. Fasten them loosely with T-nuts below the top piece. 8. Slip the metal tines from the rake between the dowel and the bridge piece, arranging them so the pieces are longer in the center and shorter on each side. Tighten the machine bolts until the metal strips are held lightly in place.

9. While plucking the metal strips and listening to the pitches produced, slide them in and out of the bridge to tune them to the notes of a pentatonic scale (or alternate tuning of your choice). When the notes are in tune, tighten the machine bolts until the strips are held firmly in place. 10. Glue the top piece to the gourd section and decorate, if desired. Finally, cover everything but the metal strips with a coat of polyurethane. 11. When playing the m’bira, hold it so the tines are pointed toward you. Then pluck the tines with your thumbs to produce sound. Panpipes (South America)

Panpipes are found in many major world cultures. They consist of graduated single flutes joined together in the shape of a raft. The tubes have no finger holes, and the bottom of each tube is stopped. Historically, panpipes have been made of clay, stone, bamboo, wood, metal, and plastic. In the South American countries of Peru and Bolivia, panpipes are also known as antara. In Ecuador, they are referred to as rondador. Materials: 2 to 3 feet of ½-inch schedule 40 PVC pipe 5 pennies glue colored duct tape acrylic paints (optional) hacksaw, band saw, or table saw grinder or sander Instructions: 1. With a hacksaw, band saw, or table saw, cut the PVC into lengths slightly longer than those listed below. (Cutting the lengths slightly longer allows for fine tuning later using a grinder.) C 6 inches D 5½ inches E 47/8 inches G 4 inches A 3½ inches 2. Use a grinder or sander to smooth and fine-tune pitches. Glue 1 penny onto the bottom end of

World Instruments for the General Music Classroom

each tube. When the glue is dry, wrap a piece of duct tape around the lower end of each pipe to seal the pipe and secure the penny. Using a wall or a box as a straight edge, place the pipes, in correct order from left to right (C, D, E, G, A), on a length of duct tape (sticky side up), with the tops of the pipes against the straight edge. Tightly wrap the piece of duct tape horizontally around the entire set of panpipes to join them together in order from low to high. Decorate with acrylic paints if desired, and label with the correct note names. 3. To play the panpipes, hold them vertically, with the note C on the left. Blow horizontally across the tops of the open holes, as if blowing into a flute or soda pop bottle. Pizza Box Guitar (adapted from Waring 2000)

The guitar has historically been an extremely popular instrument in many world cultures. There is a great deal of speculation about its geographic origins. Some music scholars have suggested that it was derived from the Greek kithara. Others have suggested that it originated in Arab cultures or the cultures of Egypt. Materials: 1 pizza box 1 32- to 36-inch length of 1-by-2-inch wood for neck (fingerboard) small nails or brads 1 piece of wooden dowel for the bridge, approximately 3 inches long and ½ to ¾ inch in diameter 1 2½-inch piece of wooden dowel for the nut (near tuning pegs) 1 strong, wide rubber band 4 eye screws 4 small screws or nails small/medium diameter string for an outdoor weed trimmer (.060 or .065mm gauge) Instructions: 1. Cut holes in 2 ends of the pizza box. Make the holes just large enough to insert the neck through

2.

3.

4.

5.

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the box. Secure by driving 2 nails or brads through the box into the neck. Start 4 eye screws near the end of the fingerboard. Arrange the screws in 2 rows on the front side of the fingerboard. For ease of tuning, leave approximately 1 inch of space between the 2 screws in each row. Do not insert the eye screws too far, as they will later be tightened more as each string is tuned. Insert 4 small screws or nails in the other end of the neck. Tie the end of a length of weed trimmer string to one of the small screws or nails. Tie the other end to one of the eye screws at the end of the fingerboard. Tighten the strings by turning the eye screws. Tighten just enough to hold them in place. Slide the bridge piece under the strings and over the body of the pizza box. Experiment with placement to find the best sound. Tighten or loosen the strings to tune them to a major triad or chord. The strings should eventually be fairly tight to make the best sound.

A lesson plan incorporating the pizza box guitar is included in appendix A. Spoons (United States, Various World Cultures)

Musical spoons have long existed in world cultures that use spoons as eating utensils. In the United States, they are often used to accompany American folk music and are often played in combination with instruments such as the jug, washboard, fiddle, and guitar. The phrase “playing the spoons” is said to have come to the United States from the Irish phrase “playing the bones,” which referred to sheep rib bones, which were rattled in the same manner as spoons. Materials: 2 plastic spoons masking tape Instructions: 1. Place the spoons back to back. Using a strip of masking tape, fasten them together by wrapping

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the strip of masking tape around the top inch of the spoon handles. Loosely wad another strip of masking tape and place it between the spoons, just above the spoon bowls. The tape wad should be big enough that the spoon bowls are held slightly apart. 2. To play the spoons, hold them by the handles and strike the spoon bowls on one leg. Spoons can also be played by alternating striking the spoon bowls first on the leg, then on the down-turned palm of the hand that is not holding the spoons. A lesson plan utilizing musical spoons is included in appendix A.

ADDITIONAL INSTRUMENTS Several other workable facsimiles of world instruments were demonstrated in the Make It and Take It! session, including the coffee can cuica drum, gourd shekere, rainstick, and steel drum mini-pan. Information about

and instructions for constructing these instruments are included in appendix B.

REFERENCES Federal Interagency Forum. 2006. America’s children in brief: Key national indicators of well-being, 2006. Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, at www.childstats.gov/americaschildren06/index.asp (accessed May 17, 2007). National Center for Education Statistics. 2008. The condition of education, at nces.ed.gov (accessed March 1, 2009). Pang, V. 2005. Multicultural education: A caring-centered, reflective approach. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Robinson, K. 2006. White teacher, students of color: Culturally responsive pedagogy for elementary general music in communities of color. In Teaching music in the urban classroom: A guide to survival, success, and reform, ed. C. Frierson-Campbell, Vol. 1, 35–53. Lanham, MD: MENC. Rowman & Littlefield Education. Summitt, G., and J. Widess. 1999. Making gourd musical instruments. New York: Sterling. Waring, D. 2000. Cool cardboard instruments to make and play. New York: Sterling.

13 Multiculturalism in School Instrumental Music Programs David M. Royse

The

into Western-style compositions. Probably the bestknown example is Antonín Dvořák’s Symphony No. 9 in E Minor, From the New World (1893), influenced by African American musical styles. Similarly, American composer Edward MacDowell’s “Indian” Suite (Suite no. 2, op. 48), completed in 1896, was loosely based on transcribed Native American song melodies. Although it is not widely known, John Philip Sousa had an interest in indigenous musics as well. In 1889, while serving as director of the United States Marine Band, he was asked by the secretary of the navy to compile national and patriotic airs of all nations. The resulting publication, National, Patriotic and Typical Airs of All Lands (Sousa 1977), included arrangements of Native American songs as “typical” airs from the United States.

term “multiculturalism” means different things to different people. So it is understandable that when one speaks about multicultural music in school instrumental music programs, a wide range of notions about musical style, literature, and performance comes to mind. For some this refers to regional styles such as New Orleans jazz or Kentucky bluegrass, others see it as meaning non-Western or world music, and still others think popular music and jazz. Another common way of looking at it relates to school instruction, using music as a way to educate about culture through a “multicultural approach.” Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary doesn’t help a lot. It defines multicultural as “of, relating to, reflecting, or adapted to diverse cultures” (Multicultural 2009). But perhaps this lack of specificity is a good thing, opening the door for educators to consider many different approaches to learning musical styles in all their richness, so as to expand their students’ awareness of musical expression.

MULTICULTURALISM IN SCHOOL MUSIC PROGRAMS Perhaps what has changed in the United States over the last fifty years that has most affected the school music curriculum is the inclusion of world music outside of the Western tradition and musical styles such as jazz and other popular music. This movement was supported by the tenets of the early twentieth-century progressive education movement, which included an emphasis on cultural and international understanding as a part of school reform (Barron 1951, 203–4). Arguably the event that had the most influence on thinking about greater inclusion of multicultural music in the school curriculum was the Tanglewood Symposium in 1967, a gathering of music educators and other music, labor, and government professionals to discuss

MULTICULTURAL TRADITIONS Although some instrumental directors believe that including multiculturalism in instrumental ensembles is “trendy,” that is not the case, at least in the broadest historical sense. The practice of performers playing music from other areas of the world and composers incorporating “exotic” elements into their compositions has existed for hundreds of years. Common examples of this include Mozart’s Turkish-inspired opera The Abduction from the Seraglio and Gilbert and Sullivan’s Japaneseinfluenced operetta The Mikado. Attempts have also been made to incorporate indigenous American musics 89

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the place of music in a changing society (Choate 1968, iii). Their summative statement, The Tanglewood Declaration (Statement 2), had a major impact on the music education profession’s thinking about expanding the traditional core repertory, stating: “Music of all periods, styles, forms, and cultures belongs in the curriculum. The musical repertory should be expanded to involve music of our time in its rich variety, including currently popular teenage music and avant-garde music, American folk music, and the music of other cultures” (139). The publication of Dance, music, theatre, visual arts: What every young American should know and be able to do in the arts: Nation standards for Arts Education in 1994 especially brought forth this thinking during a major era of educational reform that had resulted in the establishment of national standards in core academic areas (Consortium of National Arts Education Associations 1994). The writers of the National Standards for Music Education included nine content standards, with the ninth being “Understanding music in relation to history and culture” (63). For this content standard in grades 9–12, there are achievement standards written specifically for “proficient” students in elective specialized courses, including instrumental ensembles. These support cultural diversity and provide some clarification about learning outcomes for school music programs: ACHIEVEMENT STANDARD, PROFICIENT Students a. classify by genre or style and by historical period or culture unfamiliar but representative aural examples of music and explain the reasoning behind their classifications b. identify sources of American music genres, trace the evolution of those genres, and cite wellknown musicians associated with them c. identify various roles that musicians perform, cite representative individuals who have functioned in each role, and describe their activities and achievements (MENC Task Force for National Standards in the Arts 1994, 25)

especially when addressing musics outside of Western culture. To begin with, ensemble directors are faced with philosophical questions about the appropriateness of performing world musics, such as those in the Indian classical or Balinese gamelan traditions, on standard band and orchestra instruments. This is an area of professional disagreement. Some educators feel that traditional musics must be performed on indigenous instruments and only after teachers get extensive training in the style. Others disagree, noting that performing these musics through compositions or arrangements that incorporate these elements can be a great teaching technique and an introduction to the authentic style, which can lead students to a discussion of what is authentic and what is not. Linda Brown (2008) interviewed Dr. Patricia Shehan Campbell, a leading scholar and writer on multiculturalism in music, and addressed this issue: Campbell would like to see multicultural music enter the realm of school bands and orchestras too. While it could be difficult for these ensembles to play this music on their traditional instruments, students can listen to great musicians play music from India, Ireland, Brazil, Japan, Tonga, etc. [Campbell stated] “They could also try playing the music of other cultures on their instruments, where an immediate ‘arrangement’ would transpire as new timbres replace the timbres of the original rag, jig, or other piece. The benefits include bringing students to a close connection with the sonic properties of some of the world’s beautiful musical expressions.”

This issue brings up fundamental questions about what it means to study multicultural music, and, from an evaluative standpoint, what it takes to meet National Standard number 9. Given that these content standards are very general, great leeway is available for the teacher to accomplish the goals of Standard 9. If an important objective of school instrumental instruction is to teach style, then many interesting possibilities are available when a broad approach is utilized that encourages the exploration and examination of all musics, in the most comprehensive ways possible.

THE QUESTION OF AUTHENTICITY

TEACHING WITH A MULTICULTURAL APPROACH

Part of the challenge for branching out to include musical styles less familiar to school groups is authenticity,

If one believes that an instrumental curriculum rich in music of many cultures is important to the educa-

Multiculturalism in School Instrumental Music Programs

tion of young people, then what needs to happen for this to be achieved? First, instrumental directors must think creatively about their concert programming and consider pieces in multiple styles. This opens up many exciting possibilities for not only broadening students’ knowledge about music in general, but also adding interesting variety for concert audiences. Too often concert programs are overloaded with similar-sounding pieces in common styles. Concerts like this can be very good, but can also be very boring for all involved. It needn’t be this way. Reaching out to a greater variety of styles can add real interest for learners and concert listeners alike. And this need not be a threat to the integrity of the educational process. Nowadays quality compositions and arrangements can readily be found in many styles, with a little digging. Over the years, numerous articles have been published in professional publications—such as the Music Educators Journal (mej.sagepub.com), Teaching Music magazine (www .menc.org/resources/view/teaching-music-magazine), and American String Teacher Journal (www.astaweb .com/AM/Template.cfm?section=AST_Journal)— recommending quality compositions and arrangements from experts in the field. The Instrumentalist magazine (www.instrumentalistmagazine.com) is especially noteworthy for not only literature-related articles, but also its new music reviews. Since 1954, The Instrumentalist has printed reviews of new music for bands and orchestras, and since March 1983, panels of expert reviewers have indicated highly recommended music with a checkmark and potential additions to the permanent repertoire as “reviewer’s choice.” This is a great resource for finding quality works soon after they are published, including folk, nationalistic, and some world musical styles. Similarly, online sheet music retailers and music publishers have greatly expanded their websites to make literature searches easier and more productive, often including digital sound files and score excerpts. For example, J. W. Pepper’s website (www.jwpepper.com ) has numerous categories in which to seek music selections, including the headings “Choral,” “Band,” “Orchestra,” “Church,” and “Classroom,” each with extensive subheadings. Of particular interest in the “Orchestra” menu is a subheading titled “Folk and Multicultural” for both full and string orchestra. Although the number of selections isn’t extensive, it is a helpful, quick resource for available publications. Interestingly, the “Choral” and “Band” menus

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don’t include this subheading. However, multicultural pieces are found throughout the regular listings, and especially noteworthy ones are listed as “Editors’ Choice,” which is helpful when determining quality. Multicultural experiences for instrumental groups are most easily accomplished through the large concert ensembles, the primary vehicles for secondary instrumental school education. Such an exploration begins without wandering away from the traditional core literature at all. Compositions based on folk materials are a fundamental part of the educational and multicultural experience. Well-known composers such as Mikhail Glinka, Carl Orff, Gustav Holst, and Percy Grainger, to name only a few, offer excellent works that should be played during a student’s school years. Seasonal concerts also provide an opportunity for performing a variety of literature. In recent years this is especially an imperative at Christmastime, when in pluralistic communities there are expectations for literature selections from a variety of cultures and religions. Again, this opens many exciting opportunities for performing quality music that may otherwise go unplayed, such as traditional Jewish music and nationalistic pieces. Unfortunately, some directors are so gun-shy of criticism on this issue that they avoid playing anything from the season simply to avoid criticism from parents or administrators. There are many drawbacks to this logic. The most significant is that students lose the opportunity to experience new kinds of literature, not to mention that students and the audience alike miss the spirit of the holidays. Another common approach to thinking about musical diversity is through specialty-theme concerts. For example, many band directors like to feature concerts composed entirely of marches, including traditional American military and circus marches by composers such as John Philip Sousa, Henry Fillmore, and Karl King, but also European marches representing other regional styles, such as English marches by Kenneth Alford, German marches by Carl Teike, Russian marches by Sergei Prokofiev, and Spanish marches (called pasodobles) by Pascual Marquina. Small ensembles or specialty ensembles are another way to broaden the curriculum and experience new musics. Probably the most common type of small ensemble is the jazz ensemble, which has been a fixture in school music programs for decades. In addition,

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directors around the country have established other types of groups, including African drumming, mariachi, klezmer, and gamelan ensembles. These ensembles provide students with unique opportunities to play traditional instruments that aren’t available in large-group ensembles. And it is especially with percussion ensembles that a wide variety of world music is being written and performed. This would be appropriate for solo and ensemble, which provide a capsule experience for exploring new musical styles in a short time frame.

quently, it is important that teaching methods courses include literature units that cover a wide perspective of repertoire and current materials available for class lessons. However, it is still up to teachers to educate themselves through professional in-service workshops and conferences. Numerous experiences are available for preservice and experienced teachers through summer workshops and specialty clinics, especially those that feature hands-on experiences with traditional instruments of the world. See sample lesson plans in appendix A.

PREPARING TEACHERS FOR MULTICULTURAL INSTRUCTION

REFERENCES

For music teachers to be able to teach multicultural music effectively, they must have a basic understanding about many musics and the components of their style. It is logical that this should occur in music teacher preparation programs, but how much is a matter of practicality and philosophy. Across the country, it is common for music education degrees to take nine semesters to complete. It is difficult to add additional courses to an already packed curriculum. This situation has been further complicated by national movements to increase general education requirements for undergraduates, and at the same time many states have implemented strict limits on the number of graduation credits, some mandating a limit of 120 semester hours for most bachelor’s degrees. Still, despite these challenges, a lot of progress has been made over the last twenty years in preparing teachers, with the addition of college music experiences outside of the traditional Western classical tradition. This has been supported by accrediting agencies, such as NCATE (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education 2007) and NASM (National Association of Schools of Music 2007, 70). Requirements for undergraduate courses in world and popular musics are becoming more common for music majors, although the amount of time given to this content can vary from university to university. This is true also for jazz instruction as a required component in music education degrees. There is inconsistency around the county, with some universities requiring no jazz study for their music teacher candidates (Goins and Royse 2002). Conse-

Barron, C. K. 1951. Points of resistance to curriculum change. Progressive Education 28 (7): 201–5. Brown, L. 2008. Multiple ways to go multicultural, at www.menc.org/v/general_music/multiple-ways-to-gomulticultural (accessed May 23, 2009). Choate, R. A., ed. 1968. Documentary report of the Tanglewood Symposium. Washington, DC: MENC. Consortium of National Arts Education Associations. Dance, music, theatre visual arts: What every young American should know and be able to do in the arts. Reston, VA: MENC, 1994. Goins, W., and D. Royse. 2002. Integrating jazz into the instrumental music education curriculum. Paper presented at the 45th National Annual Conference of the College Music Society, Kansas City, Missouri. MENC Task Force for National Standards in the Arts. 1994. The school music program: A new vision. The K–12 national standards, preK standards, and what they mean to music educators. Reston, VA: MENC. Multicultural. 2009. In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary, at www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ (accessed July 11, 2009). MENC. 2008. Performance standards for music: Grades 9– 12, Part 2, at www.menc.org/resources/view/performancestandards-for-music-grades-9-12-part-2 (accessed May 23, 2009). National Association of Schools of Music. 2007. National Association of Schools of Music handbook 2007–08. Reston, VA: NASM. National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. 2007. Professional standards for the accreditation of teacher preparation institutions, at www.ncate.org/documents/ standards/NCATE%20Standards%202008.pdf (accessed May 23, 2009). Sousa, J. P. 1977. National, patriotic and typical airs of all lands. New York: Da Capo Press. Reprint. (Originally published in 1890).

14 Hear John Henry’s Hammer Ring: Moving Beyond Black and White Images of Appalachian Music Sean K. McCollough

INTRODUCTION

dren) such as “Froggie Went a Courtin’,” which thrill us with their absurdity and perhaps comment on some long lost piece of history or ancient family feud. And then there are the British fiddle tunes such as “Soldier’s Joy,” which are still played at dances throughout Appalachia and are a staple of almost any bluegrass band’s repertoire. But, again, simply knowing that the roots of the banjo are from Africa raises so many questions that a more comprehensive view is necessary. One of the voices that has been calling for a broader approach for decades is Bill Malone’s:

Sometimes I feel that I have been put on this earth to teach people one simple fact; the banjo is from Africa. Or, more accurately, the roots of the modern American banjo are traceable back through early African American instruments to instruments from Africa. It is a simple fact about a well-known American artifact, so simple that it seems it would be common knowledge. But perhaps because the banjo is primarily associated with styles of music such as bluegrass, which are played by mostly white musicians, its origins have been shrouded from the American consciousness. In fact, I am constantly amazed as I teach college classes and travel to public schools across the heart of Appalachia how many students (and teachers!) are not aware of this fascinating and provocative piece of American history. In my work, I am often called upon to talk about the history of Appalachian music or to perform “traditional” music from the region. These seem simple enough tasks on the surface, but simply knowing about the banjo’s origins complicates things. When I pull out my banjo or mandolin, I am often met with comments such as, “I love bluegrass. It sounds just like Celtic music. Doesn’t it?” Well, yes and no. This chapter examines how this comment misses the mark in a number of ways, so the comment is a good place to start. Certainly, the British origins are central and must be included in any discussion of music from Appalachia. So, when I teach or perform, I often include British ballads such as “Barbara Allen,” which explore timeless topics of love and death and leave us with ancient values to ponder in our modern world. And I cannot resist the silly ballads (particularly when singing for chil-

As I moved farther back into the pre radio sources of country music, the presumed British origins seemed increasingly less important as defining elements than I had once believed. The roots were British, in a very general and generic sense, but I could find no clear evidence that they derived from any explicit English, Irish, Scottish, or Welsh cultural soil. Romantic but enduringly popular terms like “Anglo-Saxon” and “Celtic” made even less sense as explanations for southern folk or country music styles. On the contrary, southern rural music seemed more and more to be a remarkable blending of ethnic, racial, religious, and commercial components with both Old World and American origins. “British” styles met and meshed with German, Spanish, French, Caribbean, Mexican and African-derived forms. (1983, 2)

In the remainder of this chapter, I use this lens to briefly examine musical styles that are part of the rich tapestry of sounds still emanating from the mountains. I end with a brief look at the style that is most often associated with Appalachia today: bluegrass. 93

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THE BALLAD TRADITION In the early twentieth century, an Englishman named Cecil Sharpe came to Appalachia to collect traditional folk songs of England that were dying out in his homeland. He was surely not disappointed, as he found himself in “a community in which singing was as common and almost as universal a practice as speaking” (Sharpe 1932, xxv). More specifically, what he found was that a substantial number of what they were singing were songs with Old World origins. He, along with Olive Dame Campbell, documented 274 British ballads being sung to 986 tunes. In 1932 they published English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians. Sharpe did a great service in preserving these songs. But equally important to what he preserved was what he left out or glossed over. His romantic notion of the isolated, primitive mountaineer who sang some type of “pure” folk music that was rarely tainted by outside influence ignores the more complex nature of the history of music in this region. When Sharpe does admit to the “rare song” that made its way into the mountains, he characterizes it this way: “When, by chance, the text of a modern streetsong succeeds in penetrating into the mountains, it is at once mated to a traditional tune and sometimes still further purified by being moulded into the form of a traditional ballad” (Sharpe 1932, xxvi). Although this phenomenon definitely occurred, the idea that this somehow purifies the song is certainly a value judgment that does not do justice to the people of this region who created their own music out of an amalgam of sources (including “street songs,” religious songs, bawdy songs, African American songs, and songs of various commercial origins).

THE AMERICAN BALLAD AND “JOHN HENRY” Although many British ballads became part of the Appalachian singing tradition, the tradition also grew and changed. Largely because these ballads existed primarily in oral tradition, the melodies varied from community to community and singer to singer. The words were also often modified to reflect more local or modern speech patterns. Sharpe and other collectors documented multiple versions of these songs.

Of course, many original ballads were also written in the New World. A large number of these ballads can be classified as “event” ballads. “These compositions chronicled such current events as train wrecks, sensational murders, mining disasters, famous crimes (and criminals), death of prominent people, and many other happenings that interested rural southerners” (Wolfe 1977, 7–8). One famous event ballad about a man who worked on the railroads is “John Henry.” Clearly this song was informed by the lyrical style of the British ballads. Just a brief comparison between a verse from the British ballad “Little Musgrave and Lady Bernard” and a verse from “John Henry” makes this clear. Compare this from “Little Musgrave and Lady Bernard” (Sharpe 1932, 1:164): The next come down was dressed in red The next come down in green The next come down was a pretty little miss. Dress’d finer than any queen, queen Dress’d finer than any queen

with this from “John Henry” (Lomax 1960, 561): John Henry was just a li’l baby Settin’ on his daddy’s knee He pint his finger at a little piece of steel “Steel gon be the deat of me.” “Steel gon be the deat of me.”

But although the songs share much in lyrical form, and both are typical in how they tell a dramatic story, “John Henry,” much like the story of the banjo, is truly an American tale. To begin with, it should be noted that, having been turned into something of a tall tale (particularly by more recent books and cartoons), it seems reasonable to believe that the story, which can be traced back to the 1870s, is based at least partially on the life of a real railroad worker. Nelson (2006) even claims to have discovered who John Henry was: a former Union soldier who had been imprisoned for theft and then leased out to work on the railroads. Although such details may be difficult to verify, the myth of this working-man’s hero remains strong to this day. In almost all versions, John Henry is a black man of great strength who raced and beat the steam drill. He became a hero for black and white workers alike in

Moving Beyond Black and White Images of Appalachian Music

an industrial era that threatened both jobs and people’s way of life. The facts that his hero status crosses racial lines and that the song can be found in the repertoire of both black and white musicians points out that musical boundaries of race and culture have perhaps never been as clear as they are often made out to be. “John Henry” is not only a song that stands at the center of an important musical tradition; it is also a symbol of how the music of this region is complicated and has been created by forces that go well beyond typical notions of traditional rural music as “Celtic” or “Anglo-Saxon.” The story of “man versus machine,” particularly that of “black man versus machine,” points straight to the confrontations that have formed the music of this region: confrontations between agriculture and industry, rural and urban, traditional and commercial, Old World and New World, locals and outsiders, and black and white.

THE FIDDLE The fiddle tradition is another that is often tied to its British origins, and rightfully so. But like the ballad tradition, the fiddle and the fiddle bands (string bands) that came later have also been deeply affected by the confrontations mentioned above. Let me begin by making clear that “fiddle,” of course, is simply the name used for the violin in folk music. The modern fiddle (or violin) dates back to Europe in the 1600s. It was played from early on in both classical and folk traditions. It is the oldest rural American instrument and was the primary instrument in Appalachia from the early eighteenth to the early twentieth centuries (Abramson and Haskel 2006, 1151). It came into the mountains along with the earliest European settlers. They brought many tunes with them that are still played today. Appalachian musicians also composed tunes in the idiom of those Old World tunes (Abramson and Haskel 2006, 1152), much like in the ballad tradition. One of the facts that contradicts many traditional images of the fiddle is that black musicians played the fiddle perhaps as early as it was common in Appalachia. “By the second half of the seventeenth century, African slaves were being trained to play the fiddle, to accompany the dancing of their masters” (Hamm

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1983, 123). The result was that, as with the spirituals and work songs from the plantations, American fiddle styles are a mix of black and white (African and European) musical elements. The reverberations of this can be seen clearly in the development of bluegrass music in the 1940s.

THE BANJO The banjo, as I mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, has its roots in Africa. It can easily be traced back to Caribbean and early African American instruments from the days of the slave trade. Sometimes referred to as a banjar or banza, these early American instruments were made out of a gourd with a long neck and three or four strings of materials such as hemp, horsehair, and cat gut. They were fashioned after West African plucked lute instruments (Abramson and Haskel 2006, 1121). After studying black banjo players in the Piedmont area of North Carolina, Conway, noted that “although early descriptions of banjo playing are frustratingly scarce and vague, they are compatible with what we see in twentieth-century African American downstroking and up-picking and thus suggest a continuity between early and current African American folk banjo playing” (1995, 196). She connected this style directly to early Appalachian styles known as frailing or clawhammer, quoting banjo player Steve Waring: “During a visit to Mali, I noticed that the musicians in Babko plucked (or struck) their ‘ngouni’ somewhat like banjos are plucked (or struck) in the Appalachian mountains. I borrowed one and began to play. They all asked me: ‘Where did you learn to play the ngouni?’ It was crazy [amazing] because I was ‘frailing’” (Conway 1995, 198). In fact, one need only listen to modern recordings of African instruments such as the ekonting to hear for oneself the similarity to pre-bluegrass (“oldtime”) banjo styles (check out the recordings at www .myspace.com/akonting). There is evidence of the banjo in Appalachia in the early part of the nineteenth century, but it did not become common in the region until after the Civil War (Abramson and Haskel 2006). The transmission of the banjo from black players to white players in the region seems to have happened through a number of methods.

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Conway argues convincingly that the primary transmission was direct, from black to white musicians in the region (Conway 1995). The traveling minstrel and medicine shows, with white performers playing the banjo, are often pointed to as primary modes of transmission. But Conway argues that the limited contact provided by these interactions is probably less important than direct contact with black musicians who lived in the region and came through on the riverboats and railroads and during the Civil War (Conway 1995). It is somewhat ironic, considering its history, that the banjo is not common in twentieth-century styles associated with black musicians. There are several possible explanations. Certainly, the cycle of white musicians appropriating black musical styles, and then black musicians moving on to something new, is a common American tale (other good examples can be found in the histories of jazz and rock ‘n’ roll). In this instance, the desire to move on may have been driven in part by the banjo’s association with the racist, black-faced minstrel shows. Or perhaps the availability of relatively cheap guitars in the beginning of the twentieth century also played a part. But the lack of black banjo players today also raises interesting questions about how commercial categorization affects what music is played and by whom. As radio and recordings began to blossom in the 1920s, music promoters fit different styles into categories to market to certain demographics. Early country music was called “hillbilly” music and marketed to rural, white southerners. And as blues and jazz were recorded and sold as “race” records, there seemed to be little room for black musicians who played anything else.

STRING BANDS The fiddle-banjo combination is documented among black musicians by the middle part of the nineteenth century. It seems logical to conclude, and there is a small amount of evidence, that this dates back even further, perhaps as much as a century (Conway 1995). The fiddle and banjo were also featured together during the middle of the nineteenth century by white traveling minstrels. As the banjo became common in the Appalachians after the Civil War, these two instru-

ments (with their roots in different cultures, pointing back to two different continents) became the heart of the mountain string band. As mail-order catalogs became popular and transportation in the mountains easier in the early part of the twentieth century, other instruments, such as the guitar, the upright bass, and the mandolin, were added. The string bands played for dances with a repertoire that included tunes of Old and New World origins. They mixed in minstrel lyrics and popular songs and were recorded as some of the first “hillbilly” artists. The existence of a strong Appalachian black string band tradition was largely ignored by much of the country. Black fiddle and mandolin player Howard (Louie Bluie) Armstrong from LaFollette, Tennessee, talks about this in the documentary Louie Bluie: “Many people didn’t know, especially in the cities, that black people, you know, black musicians, string bands, and what not, played country music too. We used to play hoedowns and all that sort of music—like ‘Ida Red,’ ‘John Henry’” (Zwigoff 1986). Armstrong played in a band out of Knoxville called the Tennessee Chocolate Drops, with Carl Martin and Ted Bogan. They played a mix of country, ragtime, and just about anything else that was popular during that time. They also recorded a few of their early songs. But as the century progressed and black musical styles became largely defined as jazz, blues, and rhythm and blues, these and other black string-band musicians found their music channeled into more narrow categories. Carl Martin, for example, moved to Chicago and recorded more straightforward, Chicago-style blues, as can be heard on Crow Jane Blues (Martin 1997). Still, the music of these early black string bands is well documented on a number of outstanding recordings (Durman 2008). But the stories of musicians like Howard Armstrong are important beyond the fact that black musicians played a wide variety of music. They also point to the role that early industry, particularly coal mining, played in bringing people from different backgrounds together in small Appalachian communities. The need for workers in these lightly populated rural areas attracted both African Americans and early immigrants. Armstrong talks about how the diversity in LaFollete, Tennessee, in the early part of the twentieth century affected his childhood:

Moving Beyond Black and White Images of Appalachian Music

There were different ethnic groups here in the part of Tennessee where I was. And they had, of course, Jim Crow, the discriminatory practices and what not. We weren’t supposed to cross over the line, but being little ol’ kids and things, we did. I played with the little Italians, little Hungarians, little Polish kids, you know. (Zwigoff 1986)

Armstrong describes how he moved to Chicago and was able to perform in the immigrant neighborhoods due to his ability to speak several languages and sing songs from the different ethnic groups’ own cultures (Zwigoff 1986). This particular fact about Armstrong points to his exceptional character. But the broader story, of how music cultures interacted in the rural mountain communities of Appalachia, is at the heart of how country and bluegrass were born, and further debunks any notions we have about music being purely segregated. One fact that seems clear from listening to Armstrong is that good musicians were interested in learning from good musicians, whatever their background or the color of their skin. This fact becomes increasingly clear upon examination of early commercial country music (“hillbilly”) and bluegrass.

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points to the strong influence of both African American and commercial elements. The Carter Family (“The First Family of Country Music”) appears to be the more traditionally Appalachian of the two. They did, in fact, hail from Appalachia (Maces Springs, Virginia). And they did sing music that sounded more like the traditional folk music of the region. But by this point, “traditional folk music” had already incorporated many elements. One of the Carter Family’s biggest hits, in fact, “Wildwood Flower,” is a song with commercial origins. Referring to the process of pop songs being brought into the folk music fold, Charles Wolfe notes that As the song circulated through countless hands over the decades, its origins and its author were soon forgotten; it became simply an old song learned orally from an earlier generation. It became a folk song. Thus “Wildwood Flower,” one of the most popular folk songs found in Tennessee, can be traced back to an 1860 song by Maud Irving and J.P. Webster, “I’ll Twine Mid the Ringlets.” (1977, 7)

Bill Malone expands on this idea as he moves beyond labels such as “folk,” “rural,” and “old-time” and gets right to the heart of things:

HILLBILLY MUSIC By the time Ralph Peer of Victor Records discovered the first big stars of country music (Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family) during the now-famous “Bristol sessions” in the summer of 1927, any perception that one might have had of country music being based on some pure ethnic heritage was absurd (though not necessarily uncommon). One need look no further than the “Father of Country Music” himself (Rodgers) to see how the complex American musical landscape contradicts the images conjured by the new name for this music, “hillbilly.” Rodgers was from Mississippi, a state largely associated with the blues. And he did sing the blues. His early songs are referred to as “blue yodels” (incorporating his trademark yodel) and are very similar to songs sung by black blues musicians in lyrical content and format as well as musical style. The recording of his big hit, “Waitin’ for a Train,” incorporates a small jazz combo (with Louie Armstrong playing trumpet). Much of Rodgers’s sound and style

White rural music should be defined simply, and logically, as music and dance that white rural people accepted as their own. Rural southerners made their own music or inherited it from their forebears, but they also absorbed songs, dances, instrumental pieces, and performing styles from whatever source was available within the total context in which they lived. A good tune was a good tune, whether it wafted on the breeze by a town brass band, a militia fife-and-drum duo, a circus fiddler, a street corner evangelist, a black gospel singer, a minstrel banjoist, a piano roll, a disc or cylinder recording, or any other source that disseminated music. (1983, 9)

When A. P. Carter collected “Wildwood Flower” out in the countryside, he likely was not aware of its origins. It was already part of the folk tradition. Then, at Peer’s urging, he copyrighted his arrangement of the song. And by copyrighting a “folk” song, originally written by professional songwriters, he brought the song full circle, making it folk and commercial, traditional and

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original, old and new all at the same time. As a result, “Wildwood Flower” is as truly Appalachian as any song out there. It is also important to note that although the Carters’ music was not always as directly affected by African American musical styles as was that of Jimmie Rodgers, the influence was definitely present. This is evident in such hits as “Coal Miner’s Blues” and by A. P.’s association with black blues guitarist Lesley Riddle, who helped him remember the music to songs as they went around collecting them.

BLUEGRASS As commercial country music progressed and moved further and further away from its roots, bluegrass filled a void, with its return to acoustic instruments and older song styles. At first glance, it seems a simple return to older folk styles of the Appalachian region. And many likely perceived it this way. But, as one might imagine based on the history discussed thus far, it was not that simple. Bill Monroe is rightfully considered the “Father of Bluegrass Music.” After all, it was his Blue Grass Boys who defined much of the sound for other early bands such as the Stanley Brothers and gave the music its name. It is often pointed out that Monroe was not from Appalachia proper, but rather from western Kentucky. But his musical experiences growing up were very much like those of musicians in rural Appalachia. His mother sang ballads as well as playing fiddle and accordion. His uncle Pen was a popular square-dance fiddler, and Monroe often accompanied him. He was exposed to the singing styles of the church (styles that, by the way, have an equally complex history as secular music). And he learned much from a local black musician named Arnold Schultz. His early informal musical education set the stage for his later style. Bill Monroe joined the Grand Ole Opry radio show in 1939. He mixed the old-time sounds of earlier dance bands with his hard-driving mandolin and “high lonesome” singing style. It was not until 1945, however, that all of the elements came together in such a way that a new music was born. At the center of the transformation was the addition of an innovative banjo player named Earl Scruggs. Replacing the old-time clawhammer style

with a three-finger roll, Scruggs opened up the melodic possibilities of the instrument and added to the drive of the music. Chubby Wise added a bluesy fiddle component, and the group adopted a jazz-oriented approach to taking turns playing solos, with a heavy emphasis on virtuosity. Combine all of that with the distinctive harmony singing of Bill Monroe and Lester Flatt, the strong backbeat of the mandolin, and the use of African American blues scales and forms alongside European harmonies and tunes, and bluegrass was born. The style was instantly influential on other bands and was popular in rural areas. But it was not clear at first that it would go much beyond that. In Bill Monroe’s words, “I thought bluegrass music would never get no further than the farmer” (Cantwell 1984, 5). But it did. It became a national phenomenon. How that happened owes as much to modern media and “outsiders” as to the down-home nature of the music. For instance, Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs (as Flatt and Scruggs), who had left the Blue Grass Boys long before, had two songs that helped boost national interest in bluegrass in the 1960s. One was “Foggie Mountain Breakdown,” used in the movie Bonnie and Clyde. The other was the theme song for the TV show The Beverly Hillbillies. In addition, urban folk revivalists in the 1960s kept the music alive with festivals and young musicians joining the scene. In more recent years, the movie Oh Brother Where Art Thou acted in a similar fashion to rekindle interest in bluegrass, though the soundtrack of the movie contains very little music that is bluegrass in any strict sense of the word. In fact, “bluegrass” has come to encompass many of the styles discussed in this chapter, along with some styles of more modern acoustic music. With new bands both rehashing and reshaping the music of the past, perhaps we need some new terms to describe the changing traditions of this region and beyond.

CONCLUSION This chapter has taken a brief look at the complex nature of music in Appalachia. Much has been left out. In particular, I have largely ignored the importance of religious music such as harp singing and gospel. However, a demonstration of harp singing and African American gospel music can be viewed on the MENC website (see video clip at www.menc.org). I’ve left out urban styles

Moving Beyond Black and White Images of Appalachian Music

like classic blues. For instance, we might ask ourselves if Bessie Smith from Chattanooga, Tennessee, should be considered an “Appalachian” musician. I certainly do not want to leave readers with the impression that Appalachian music must even be defined by any preconceived set of standards. Instead, I am reminded of a quote from Jeff Bigger’s book The United States of Appalachia, in which he reminds us that “far from being an idyllic Eden of music, sequestered by mountains and preserved in a time-warp, the Southern Appalachians have been a burning ground in innovating and mixing modern musical trends” (2006, 2).

SUGGESTED LISTENING Following are selected songs representing various traditions from Appalachia. I’ve listed an album for each, but most also exist on other albums or as online downloads. • “Barbara Allen” performed by Jean Ritchie— Child Ballads in America (Smithsonian). British a cappella ballad from a master interpreter. • “Soldier’s Joy” performed by Gid Tanner and the Skillet Lickers—Country, the American Tradition (Sony). A Scottish fiddle tune with minstrel-type lyrics. • “Yes Pappy Yes” performed by Martin, Bogan, and Armstrong—That Old Gang of Mine (Flying Fish). An old-time tune played by one of the finest black string bands. • “John Henry” performed by Sid Hemphill, Lucius Smith, Will Head, and Alec Askew—Deep River of Song (Rounder). A black string band example of a classic American ballad. • “John Henry” performed by Roscoe Holcomb— Friends of Old-Time Music (Smithsonian/Folkways). Old-time solo banjo by a Kentucky legend. • “Roustabout” performed by Dink Roberts—Black Banjo Songsters of NC and VA (Folkways). One of the banjo players profiled by Celia Conway. • “Ekonting Song” performed by Paul Diatta—available as a free download at http://www.myspace .com/akonting. The ekonting is an African banjotype instrument.

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• “Waiting for a Train” performed by Jimmie Rodgers—The Essential Jimmie Rodgers (RCA). “The Father of Country Music.” • “Wildwood Flower” performed by the Carter Family—The Best of the Carter Family (King Special). Listen to Maybelle’s innovative guitar playing. • “It’s Mighty Dark to Travel” by Bill Monroe and his Blue Grass Boys—16 Gems (Sony). From Monroe’s defining band, with Earl Scruggs, Lester Flatt, and Chubby Wise. REFERENCES Abramson, Rudy, and Jean Haskel, eds. 2006. Encyclopedia of Appalachia. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. Biggers, Jeff. 2006. The United States of Appalachia: How southern mountaineers brought independence, culture, and enlightenment to America. Emeryville, CA: Shoemaker & Hoarc. Cantwell, Robert. 1984. Bluegrass breakdown: The making of the old southern sound. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Conway, Cecelia. 1995. African banjo echoes in Appalachia. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. Durman, Chris. 2008. Sound recording reviews: African American old-time string band music: A selective discography. Quarterly Journal of the Music Library Association 64:4 (June 2008) p. 797–808. Hamm, Charles. 1983. Music in the new world. New York: W. W. Norton. Lomax, John. 1960. The folk songs of North America: In the English language. New York: Doubleday. Malone, Bill. 1983. Singing cowboys and musical mountaineers. Athens: University of Georgia Press. Martin, Carl. 1997. Crow Jane blues. Oakland, CA: Testament Records. Nelson, Scott Reynolds. 2006. Steel drivin’ man: John Henry: The untold story of an American legend. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Rosenberg, Neil V. 1985. Bluegrass: A history. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Sharpe, Cecil James. 1932. English folk songs from the southern Appalachians. London; New York: Oxford University Press. Wolfe, Charles K. 1977. Tennessee strings: The story of country music in Tennessee. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. Wolfe, Charkes K. 2001. Classic country: Legends of country music. New York; London: Routledge. Zwigoff, Terry, prod. 1986. Louie Bluie. Beverly Hills, CA: Pacific Arts Video.

15 Research, Resources, and Materials for Teaching the Music of Black Cultural Traditions Rosita M. Sands

In this chapter, research, resources, and pedagogical

it directly toward African American researchers and scholars by issuing the following challenge: “If we Black folk are serious about our commitment to the rediscovery and the redefining of our heritage in the fine arts, our scholars must take upon themselves the responsibility for developing an appropriate and exemplary literature (in the broadest sense of the term) for use by students, educators and laymen” (1973, 5). Whether or not Southern made a conscious decision not to include the word “teaching” in the title of her article, “Some Guidelines: Music Research and the Black Aesthetic,” her comments and the fact that she identified “students, educators, and laymen” as the benefactors of such research pursuits make it evident that a significant focus of her attention was on teaching and, particularly, how the results of research directly impact the teaching of music (1973, 5). Here Southern addresses a most fundamental connection between research and teaching by alluding to how the success of the one activity (teaching) is largely dependent on the productivity and effectiveness of the other (research). And, although her challenge was aimed at an audience of black readers, her point is an important one for anyone involved in the pedagogy of black music or interested in broadening the music curriculum to include black music subject matter in a meaningful manner. In 1989, at the inaugural session of the CBMR Forum, Samuel A. Floyd Jr. presented a paper that discussed, among other topics, “the relationship between black music research and the teaching of black music” (1989, 152). From a report published in the College Music Society’s journal, we learn that Floyd focused attention on the role of black music research as a source for “important, substantive, and enriching subject matter” (152). The report

materials are discussed for the purpose of highlighting the critical role each can serve in teaching music from a multicultural perspective and, specifically, for teaching about the body of music that emanates from the black experience. The nexus that exists between research and teaching has been reflected in my professional work over many years, beginning with my doctoral research, which culminated in a dissertation that addressed the pedagogy of Afro-American music (Sands 1983). In addressing the topic of teaching black music, the following questions arise: • Where does one locate materials that can be utilized effectively in the classroom? • What contribution can ethnomusicological and musicological research make to the pedagogy of the music? • What are some of the best resources available today for teaching about specific styles and genres of black music? • What role might the Internet serve? First, here is some historical perspective on the nexus between research and teaching as it relates specifically to the subject of black music. Thirty-six years ago, two years following the publication of her monumental work, The Music of Black Americans (1997; 1st ed. 1971), Eileen Southern wrote an article for Black World in which she presented some guidelines for black music research. She called to the readers’ attention the availability of “few suitable materials on the market for the teaching of black-music courses” (1973, 5) and, metaphorically-speaking, threw down the gauntlet, aiming 101

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states that “musical figures such as William Grant Still, the Chevalier de St. Georges, and Frank Johnson were identified by Floyd as excluded exemplars [in the higher educational curriculum], knowledge of whose music and musical accomplishments are important to the proper and full understanding of the black contribution to world music and culture” (152). The relationship between research and teaching is a topic long recognized and acknowledged in the field of black music scholarship. Many of the early black music scholars were educators who understood the necessity of research as a critical means of generating content, gathering missing information, supplementing limited resources, and filling in the gaps, all targeting the goal of enriching content by addressing black music subjects that either had not been treated or had been given minor mention in textbooks and other pedagogically oriented resources. Today, the connection between the production of research and the act of teaching remains critical and fundamental. The production of research requires the gathering of information; information supports the development of knowledge; and knowledge is what informs instructional and curricular content and design. Research on topics related to black music is important beyond the subject of black music alone. Black music research impacts the content knowledge base of music in general and consequently serves to undergird the place of black music subject matter as instructional content across levels and areas of the academic curriculum, including the arts, humanities, and social sciences.

AN EMBARRASSMENT OF RICHES, AN ABUNDANCE OF RESOURCES We are fortunate today to have a tremendous amount of resources designed specifically for use in teaching black music. Included in this assessment are the publications, print, audio, and audiovisual materials on the subject that MENC: the National Association for Music Education has produced over the years, some of which are cited in the resource list prepared for this session. Also to be acknowledged are the national, regional, and state conferences of MENC; the Organization of American Kodály Educators (OAKE); the

American Orff-Schulwerk Association (AOSA); the International Association of Jazz Educators (IAJE, now defunct); and the National Association for the Study and Performance of African-American Music (NASPAAM)—all of which have presented opportunities over the years for teachers to participate in clinics and workshops and gain experience with materials relevant to various aspects of the subject of black music. In addition, music series books and materials and many of the music and educational publishing companies have also made available a wealth of quality materials that address styles and genres of black music. Sources of information that have not been specifically or primarily marketed to educators may still contain information that is of value in teaching about black music. These sources are the results of historical, musicological, and ethnomusicological research, ethnographic fieldwork, and oral histories. This research is produced by organizations and associations whose dedicated mission is to promote and preserve the legacy of specific styles and genres of the music, such as the Blues Archive at the University of Mississippi and or the Institute for Jazz of Rutgers University. Equally valuable research is produced by entities that may have broader goals or cover a wider scope of content, such as independent research centers, archives, and media sources dedicated to music and other art forms, such as film. Three sources are discussed here: a research center, a private/public archive, and a national media source, all of which maintain an online presence that plays a critical role in the dissemination of the research. In examining these sources, the focus is on content that is of pedagogical value as well as efforts made by the entities to present the research in pedagogically focused formats and to make the research accessible to an audience of educators. The three entities that are highlighted are the Center for Black Music Research of Columbia College Chicago, the Alan Lomax Archive, and an online film resource, Folkstreams.net.

THE CENTER FOR BLACK MUSIC RESEARCH/ COLUMBIA COLLEGE CHICAGO The Center for Black Music Research is housed at Columbia College, an arts, media, and communications

Research, Resources, and Materials for Teaching the Music of Black Cultural Traditions

institution in Chicago, Illinois. It was founded in 1983 by Dr. Samuel A. Floyd Jr. with the mission of documenting, preserving, and disseminating information about black music in all parts of the world—that is, the various styles, forms, and genres of music of the global African diaspora. It is the only organization of its kind that promotes and produces research on the full spectrum of music produced by peoples of African descent, across cultures, historical time periods, and regions of the world. The CBMR maintains a library and archive, which houses one of the largest and most comprehensive collections of print and sound materials that reflect the breadth of scholarly and archival work that has been done on black music. Reference requests come from researchers all over the world, from media looking for photographs or interviewees on a particular subject; teachers looking for information to be incorporated as content in various types of courses; and of course, librarians and teachers looking for content and substance to be presented during Black History Month. Requests also come from performers and performing organizations looking for repertoire, unpublished manuscripts, or out of print musical scores; from students looking for information for a research project; and even from parents looking to help a child with a school assignment. The center maintains a publication program that includes the Black Music Research Journal, which is currently the only scholarly publication of its type published; a print newsletter; a series of monographs; the award-winning International Dictionary of Black Composers, a two-volume reference work; and a book series copublished with the University of California Press, Music of the African Diaspora. Other components of the CBMR’s program include scholarly conferences, held roughly on a biannual basis; a performance program—The New Black Music Repertory Ensemble; a membership program of individuals and institutions that support the center’s work; and a small number of educational initiatives that have included teacher workshops, special conference sessions, and short-term residencies for teachers. The CBMR’s website (www.colum.edu/cbmr) houses the center’s online information and electronic resources. Among the resources found on the CBMR website that are most valuable to teachers are bibliog-

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raphies, discographies, and music lists—all available free of cost—in addition to one bibliography titled “Resources for Teachers,” which includes materials that have a more or less pedagogical focus. Two other resources on the CBMR website that are of particular value to educators are the “Definitions of Styles and Genres” and “Pod Casts.” In the “Definitions of Styles and Genres” section, which is accessed under “Library resources” on the website, are brief definitions of musical styles that exist across the African diaspora, with music examples, discographies, bibliographies, and occasionally, brief sound clips. Definitions are presented for more than twenty genres/styles from the African musical diaspora, including “blues, children’s game songs, meringue/méringue, samba, rap and hip hop, and traditional and contemporary African music.” The “Pod Casts: Exploring Black Music” section consists of short audio programs that are released on a monthly basis and archived on the CBMR website. Each program presents a discussion that focuses on particular genres or topics in black music, written and narrated by a scholar in the respective area. Pod cast topics include “Soul Music of the 1960s,” “Rags and Ragtime,” “Black Women Composers,” and “Hip Hop meets Jazz,” as well as programs on individuals such as the composer Coleridge-Taylor Perkinson and jazz bassist and composer Charles Mingus. The programs may be accessed directly on the website or downloaded as MP3 files.

THE ALAN LOMAX ARCHIVE AND THE ASSOCIATION FOR CULTURAL EQUITY The Alan Lomax Archive and the Association for Cultural Equity, a nonprofit organization established by Alan Lomax in 1983, is now under the direction of Lomax’s daughter, Anna Lomax Wood. The Association for Cultural Equity (ACE) is the umbrella organization that manages and controls the materials collected by Alan Lomax over the span of his career, resources that are now made accessible in collaboration with the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Lomax, who passed away in 2002, was an extraordinary folklorist and musical anthropologist who devoted his life to the documentation of music and

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cultural traditions across the world. The products of his work include thousands of sound recordings, beginning with recordings made in 1946 onto the newly invented format of tape and continuing through the recordings he made in the 1990s. In addition to a wide spectrum of musical performances from around the world, the body of work documented by Lomax includes stories, jokes, sermons, personal narratives, and interviews conducted by Lomax and his associates. This material, which was housed in Lomax’s independent archive, is distinct from the earlier recordings he made from 1933 to 1942 under the auspices of the Library of Congress. Alan Lomax devoted much of his career to researching the music of African diasporas in the United States and the Caribbean. His field work on African American culture took place from 1933 to 1985. Located on the Alan Lomax Archive website is the Alan Lomax Database, a massive undertaking that is still not complete. Newly digitized material is constantly being added toward the ambitious goal of making the broad scope of work that Lomax documented during his career accessible on the Internet. Currently, the database includes material organized in categories titles “Sound Recordings, Photographs & Digital Images”; “Video Recordings, Radio Programs, and Ballad Operas”; “Discussions, Lectures, and Interviews”; and materials organized by “Performance Style and Culture.” Site registration is required to access materials in the Lomax Database. Once entry is gained, one can search authentic footage, unfiltered sounds, and raw data collected in the field at a particular time and place; the body of sound recordings (sound clips/excerpts); photographs and digital images; or discussions/lectures/interviews that have been digitally preserved and cataloged on the site. Some of Lomax’s work has been published and is available in various media formats. One source of particular relevance to elementary music education is a collection of children’s game songs that is the product of fieldwork research conducted by Alan Lomax, J. D. Elder, and Bess Lomax Hawes in several countries of the eastern Caribbean in 1962. This fieldwork was conducted on the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, St. Lucia, Dominica, Carriacou, Nevis, St. Kitts, Guadeloupe, and Martinique. The collection was published

as a book with accompanying CD titled Brown Girl in the Ring (Lomax 1997). Another popular Lomax resource is a video titled The Land Where the Blues Began, a film/video has been effectively used at the collegiate level in several courses that have included discussion of the blues in particular, or African American secular music traditions in general. The Land Where the Blues Began is the result of fieldwork conducted by Lomax in the Mississippi Delta during the late 1970s. It is an extraordinary film that highlights the origins of blues thereby showcasing unknown, nonprofessional early bluesmen who worked the farmland in the day and played the blues at night. The resulting document is remarkable for its effectiveness in demonstrating African retentions; documenting the African roots of blues culture and the African American antecedents of the blues; illustrating the connections that exist among various genres of black music, including blues, work songs, and field hollers and cries; and between performance practices and instruments of bluesmen and their African predecessors.

FOLKSTREAMS.COM Folkstreams.net—A National Preserve of Documentary Films about American Roots Cultures, serves as a clearinghouse for an assortment of excellent documentary films. The goal of Folkstreams.net is twofold, described on the website in the following manner. One goal is to build a national preserve of hard-tofind documentary films about American folk or roots cultures. The other is to provide greater access to these resources by streaming them on the Internet (www .folkstreams.net/pages/about.html). On the Folkstreams site is a wide range of documentary films that focus on American (U.S.) folk music traditions, along with essays about the traditions and the filmmaking process. The site also includes transcriptions, study and teaching guides, suggested readings, and links to related websites. Two of my favorite documentary films on black music topics are included on Folkstreams.net: Lomax’s Land Where the Blues Began, which includes a complete transcript; and The Gandy Dancers, the story of Southern railroad workers and the songs and chants they sang as they worked together performing manual labor maintenance and repair on

Research, Resources, and Materials for Teaching the Music of Black Cultural Traditions

the railroad tracks. Other films focus on jazz, gospel, blues, and hip-hop, and there are short documentaries on individual blues and folk artists.

CONCLUSION The goal of this chapter was to direct attention to examples of research-based materials whose content contributes to the core knowledge base in the area of black music. It was designed to highlight some of the best resources located on the Internet that could be utilized effectively in the classroom for teaching black music and to demonstrate how ethnomusicological and musicological research could have an impact on the pedagogy of the music. Often scholarship and research are viewed as being for the primary benefit of scholars and researchers; educators are not always considered to be part of the target audience and among the primary benefactors. But generally there is an inherent pedagogical value in research-based materials. And both educators and their students stand to benefit when these materials are accessed, examined, and employed strategically in the classroom for educational purposes.

SELECTED AUDIOVISUAL AND WEB RESOURCES ON BLACK MUSIC Compiled by Rosita M. Sands VHS and DVD

Blues Masters: The Essential History of the Blues. Rhino Records, 1966. Catalog # 976075. 103 min.; color/B&W. DVD. Blues Masters presents a comprehensive visual history of blues music through rare performances and archival footage that trace the development of this unique American art form. With a rare performance by Leadbelly, the DVD also presents Son House, Bessie Smith, Big Bill Broonzy, Muddy Waters, Jimmy Witherspoon, Billie Holiday, and many others. Available through Amazon.com or CDUniverse .com. Bringing Multicultural Music to Children. Music Educators National Conference, 1992. 27 min.

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VHS. Includes footage of Rene Boyer Alexander and Marvelene Moore in teaching episodes that focus on children’s game songs and vocal traditions from Caribbean and African American cultures. Chuck Davis: Dancing through West Africa. Produced and directed by Gorham Kindem. New York: Distributed by Filmmakers Library, 1987. VHS or DVD. A wonderful introduction to traditional African music and dance, filmed primarily in Senegal and The Gambia. Chuck Davis, an internationally renowned ethnic dancer, takes several of his company’s dancers to study and learn African dance in Africa. Available via rental or purchase through www.filmakers.com. The Gandy Dancers. Distributed by Cinema Guild Inc., 1994. (130 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016-7038; 212-685-6242). 30 min. VHS. Musical traditions and recollections of eight retired African American railroad track laborers whose occupational folk songs were once heard on railroads that crisscrossed the South. The Land Where the Blues Began. Distributor contact, Media_Generation, 1979. 58 min. In the late 1970s, Alan Lomax traveled to Mississippi with filmmaker John Bishop and folklorist Worth Long. A transcript is included on the Folkstreams .net website. Repercussions: A Celebration of African-American Music. Directed by Dennis Marks. Edited by Geoffrey Haydon and Dennis Marks. Distributed by Century. London, 1985. “A seven-part documentary tracing African-American music back to its roots in Africa.” Episodes include “Born Musicians—Traditional Music from the Gambia,” “On the Battlefield—Gospel Quartets,” rhythm and blues legend Max Roach, Caribbean music, and more. Say Amen, Somebody. Produced and directed by George T. Nierenberg. New York: Distributed by First Run Features, 1982. 25th Anniversary Deluxe Edition 2-disc set available (DVD + 15-song soundtrack CD). “The legendary film that explores the lives and music of the pioneers of modern gospel music.” Features Thomas A. Dorsey, Willie Mae Ford Smith, Sallie Martin, the Barrett Sisters, and footage of Mahalia Jackson. Visit

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sayamensomebody.net for detailed information and sound clips. Teaching the Music of African Americans. Music Educators National Conference, 1991. 25 min. VHS. Includes footage of Bernice Johnson Reagon, Luvenia A. George, and Daniel E. Sheehy recorded during sessions presented during the MENC 1990 Symposium on Multicultural Approaches to Music Education. Includes historical information and performances of Afro-Cuban music and African American religious music and work songs. A Vision Shared: A Tribute to Woody Guthrie and Leadbelly. 1998. 70 min. DVD. Includes interviews and performances with a number of artists who have been influenced by Guthrie and Leadbelly. Features performances by Sweet Honey in the Rock, John Mellencamp, Taj Mahal, Little Richard, Bruce Springsteen, Willie Nelson, Arlo Guthrie, and others. Available through MENC. CD and MP3 files of performances available at Amazon.com. Websites

AfriClassical.com. Focuses on composers, conductors, and instrumental performers of African heritage (including Africans, African Americans, and Afro-Europeans) who created, composed, or performed music in the European classical tradition. The site includes over 100 sound samples and well-researched biographical information on the 80+ individuals presented. The Alan Lomax Archive. www.culturalequity.com or www.lomaxarchive.com. American Negro Spirituals. www.Encyclopedia. com. American Negro spirituals. Presents facts about spirituals with accompanying pictures. America’s Story from America’s Library, the Library of Congress. www.americaslibrary.gov. According to the description found on the website, it was designed with young people in mind. A section titled “See, Hear, and Sing” includes images of African American children playing children’s game songs under “children’s songs.” Archives of African American Music and Culture, Indiana University. www.indiana.edu/~aaamc/.

Black Gospel Music Resource Directory. www .blackgospel.com/links/. A guide to websites with more than 700 links to black gospel sites. The Blues Archive, University of Mississippi. dm.olemiss.edu/archives/blues/index.html. Center for Black Music Research, Columbia College Chicago. www.colum.edu/cbmr. Center for Jazz Studies, Columbia University. www.jazz.columbia.edu/. Folkstreams.net—A National Preserve of Documentary Films about American Roots Cultures. www.folkstreams.net. An outstanding resource for teachers with complete videos streamed on the site. Sources include additional footage not available in the commercially released versions of the videos as well as supplementary essays, transcriptions, study and teaching guides, suggested readings, and links to related websites. Titles include • Born for Hard Luck: Peg Leg Sam Jackson. 1976. 29 min. A film portrait of the last black medicine show performer, Arthur “Peg Leg Sam” Jackson, with harmonica songs, tales of hoboing, buck dances, and a live medicineshow performance. • A Singing Stream: A Black Family Chronicle. 1986. 57 min. With interviews and stories, the film traces the history of the Landis family of Granville County, North Carolina. • Gravel Springs Fife and Drum. 1972. 10 min. The story of Othar Turner, a fife-maker and musician from northwest Mississippi. • Dry Wood. 1973. 37 min. Focuses on the Mardi Gras celebrations of black Creoles in French Louisiana, featuring the stories and music of “Bois Sec” Ardoin and Canray Fontenot. • Pizza Pizza Daddy-O. 1968. 18 min. Looks at girls’ playground games in Los Angeles. • Give My Poor Heart Ease: Mississippi Delta Bluesmen. 1975. 21 min. An account of the blues experience through the recollections and performances of B. B. King, James “Son” Thomas, Shelby “Poppa Jazz” Brown, and others, including prison inmates. • Sonny Ford, Delta Artist. 1969. 41 min. B&W 16mm documentary film based on fieldwork with Leland, Mississippi, bluesman and folk artist James “Son” Thomas.

Research, Resources, and Materials for Teaching the Music of Black Cultural Traditions

• The Gandy Dancers. Distributed by Cinema Guild Inc., 1994. (130 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016-7038; 212-685-6242). 30 min. Musical traditions and recollections of African American railroad track laborers whose occupational folk songs were once heard on railroads that crisscrossed the South. • The Land Where the Blues Began. Distributor contact, Media Generation, 1979. 58 min. In the late 1970s, Alan Lomax traveled to Mississippi with filmmaker John Bishop and folklorist Worth Long and made this film about the African American music he found there. A transcript is included on the Folkstreams.net website. • Afro-American Work Songs in a Texas Prison. 1966. 29 min. Pete Seeger and Toshi Seeger, their son Daniel, and folklorist Bruce Jackson visited a Texas prison in Huntsville in March 1966 and produced this rare document of work songs by inmates. • Jazz Parades: Feet Don’t Fail Me Now. 1990. 58 min. Alan Lomax’s overview of the jazz scene in New Orleans, with interviews and performances by Majestic Band, members of the Preservation Hall Band, and the Dirty Dozen Brass Band; some discussion of the jazz funeral tradition. • The Music District. 1996. 56 min. A one-hour documentary profiling four African American traditional music groups in the neighborhood churches and nightclubs of Washington, D.C. The film features the Orioles (R&B quartet); Junk Yard Band (go-go); The Kings of Harmony (United House of Prayer shout band); and The Four Echoes (jubilee quartet). • Jumpin’ Night in the Garden of Eden. 1987. 1 hour, 15 min. The first film to document the klezmer revival, tracing the efforts of two founding groups, Kapelye and Boston’s Klezmer Conservatory Band, to recover the lost history of klezmer music. • Fannie Bell Chapman: Gospel Singer. 1975. 42 min. Film of the singer/faith healer and folk artist Fannie Bell Chapman from Centreville, Mississippi. • Let the World Listen Right: Hip-hop and Blues in Clarksdale, Mississippi. 2006. 29 min. Top

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Notch and Da Fam as well as performances by blues artist Terry “Big T” Williams and gospel singer Martha Raybon. • Homemade American Music. 1980. 40 min. A history of rural southeastern traditional American music, as told and played by Mike Seeger and Alice Gerrard. Includes footage of Lily May Ledford, Roscoe Holcomb, and Elizabeth Cotton. • Sonny Terry: Shoutin’ the Blues. 1969. 5 min. Short film about harmonica great Sonny Terry. • Sonny Terry: Whoopin the Blues. 1969. 13 min. Sonny, with one small harmonica in his hand, creates a complex and soulful blues solo out of his whooping and hollering, after telling the story of the context that gave birth to that solo. • Battle of the Guitars. 1985. 16 min. One of three short films in the Living Texas Blues series. It shows the influence of Aaron “T-Bone” Walker through the performance of Pete Mayes and Joe Hughes at the Doll House Club in Houston. • Cigarette Blues. 985. 4 min. One of three short films in the Living Texas Blues series. It features Sonny Rhodes and the Texas Twisters performing at Eli’s Mile High Club in Oakland, California. • Deep Ellum Blues. 1985. 10 min. This is one of three short films in the Living Texas Blues series, exploring the 1920s and 1930s night life in Dallas through the music of Bill Neely. • Style Wars. 1983. 1 hr., 9 min. New York’s legendary Kings of Graffiti own a special place in the hip-hop pantheon. Style Wars is regarded by many as the definitive document of the emerging hip-hop culture. • Black on White, White and Black. 1990. 26 min. A look at the life and career of the legendary blues pianist Alex Moore of Dallas, who was the first African American Texan to receive a National Heritage Fellowship from the National Endowment for the Arts. Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University. newarkwww.rutgers.edu/IJS/index1.html. Jazz in America. Education website of the Thelonious Monk Institute of Jazz. www.jazzinamerica. org. Eight lesson plans for fifth, eighth, and eleventh grades. Each lesson is aligned with National

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Standards in the areas of American history, social science, and the arts. William Ransom Hogan Archive of New Orleans Jazz. www.tulane.edu/~lmiller/JazzHome.html.

REFERENCES Alan Lomax Archive. n.d. At www.culturalequity.org/rc/ index.html (accessed October 7, 2008). Center for Black Music Research, Columbia College Chicago. n.d. www.colum.edu/cbmr (accessed October 7, 2008). Floyd, Samuel A., Jr. 1989. The Center for Black Music Research Forums. College Music Symposium: Journal of the College Music Society 29: 151–157.

Folkstreams.net. n.d. At www.folkstreams.net (accessed October 7, 2008). Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University. n.d. At newark www.rutgers.edu/IJS/index1.html (accessed October 7, 2008). Lomax, Alan, J. D. Elder, and Bess Lomax Hawes. 1997. Brown girl in the ring: An anthology of song games from the eastern Caribbean. New York: Pantheon. Sands, Rosita M. 1983. An annotated source book of published and unpublished materials focusing on the pedagogy of Afro-American music. EdD diss., Teachers College, Columbia University. Southern, Eileen. 1973. Some guidelines: Music research and the black aesthetic. Black World 23 (1) (November): 4–14. Southern, Eileen. 1997. The music of black Americans: A history. 3rd ed. New York: W. W. Norton.

A Sample Lesson Plans

CHAPTER 5, AFRICAN TRADITIONAL MUSICAL CONCEPTS

Esi (a name given to a girl born on Sunday) knows she has violated a rule, she does not own up. Other members of the game (community), knowing Esi is the wrongdoer, quickly mention her name and expose her. As her punishment, she is rebuked, spanked, or even beaten by other members. The neighbors closest to her first begin the “punishment,” portrayed by clapping their hands over Esi’s head, before the others join in to share or have a hand in Esi’s punishment. This progresses until everyone is involved. The game involves listening, attention, alertness, and demonstration of intelligence. It also builds rhythmic skills, response, and timing.

Lesson Plan 1: Yo, Yo, Yo! (Yes, Yes, Yes!) Objective: Students will 1. Experience a bilingual Ewe and Akan children’s game song from Ghana. National Standards: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture.

Text:

Words Yo, yo, yo! (Ewe) Whana na wa yo (Akan) Esi na wa yo! (Akan) Ta bobo (Ewe)

Materials: copy of the song “Yo, Yo, Yo!” (figure A.1) assorted percussion instruments Procedure: Introduction: The philosophy behind this game and song is to teach children the need to be law abiding, respectful, and responsible for their behavior. During the game, the leader assumes the position of a parent, a teacher, and/or an elder in the community. In a social situation, all children are to abide by rules. If someone is not bold enough to own up for any wrong that was done, then it is up to the other children to point out that child for his or wrongdoing. In the game, the leader says “Yo” (Yes), at which time everyone has to be quiet. Although

Approximate Pronunciation

Literal Meaning

Yoo, yoo, yoo! Wahnah nah wah yoo?

Yes, yes, yes! Who says yes?

Ehsee nah wah yoo! Tah borbor

Esi says yes! So get (bend) down

Instructions:

1. The students stand in a circle, holding hands. The leader or a player volunteers to be the first “culprit,” whose name will be mentioned first (and who will be the one to bend down first). 2. The group begins the song by swinging their hands back and forth. At the end of the song (ending with “ta bobo”), the one whose name is mentioned bends down, and her or his immediate neighbors (on both sides) clap their hands over her or him. 109

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Thereafter, the neighbor to the right of the first “accused” bends down, and the process of “punishment” continues in a counterclockwise direction. 3. The process and the song stop when any participant misses one of the three things each participant has to do: clap to the left, bend down, and clap to the right. All three actions must be done rhythmically and at a particular time, so that the rhythmic flow of the game and the song is not disrupted. 4. As participants are eliminated, the group becomes smaller, the rhythm faster, and the challenges more difficult, because those eliminated may add other musical elements, instruments, and movements to test the players’ skills and ascertain the “survival of the fittest.”

the most talented, active, and musically skillful participants, efforts are made to disrupt (rhythmically) students so as to highlight the most competent in the group. Some of the elimination tactics adopted are speeding up the tempo of the rhythm and the song and introducing other musical elements, accompaniments, and movements.

Assessment: Observe the students to determine whether they perform the song with motions in rhythm as the tempo increases. Because one of the aims of the game is to challenge each other and to learn who are

1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture.

Figure A.1. “Yo, Yo, Yo!”

Lesson Plan 2: Ekpe! Ekpe! (Stone! Stone!) Objective: Students will 1. Perform an Ewe introductory chant and stone passing game from Ghana. National Standards:

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Sample Lesson Plans

Materials: copy of the song “Ekpe! Ekpe!” (figure A.2) stone for each student who plays the game Procedure: Introduction: Other than ekpe, meaning “stone,” all the words used in this lesson are onomatopoeic and have no real meaning. They are an imitation of the sound of a stone hitting the playground and/or its rhythmic movement. However, they are used to accompany preparatory activities that ensure everyone taking part in the game is ready (with the stone). Other preparatory or introductory activities or chants may be used, depending on the makeup of the group, ethnic group, or village or the general context.

Figure A.2. “Ekpe! Ekpe!”

Text:

Words Fufu toto na Dowuame (ya) vo Se tatia di Prom, prom, prom! Dowuame egbo na

Approximate Pronunciation

Literal Meaning

Foofoo toohtooh Cooking fufu (food) nah makes Dorwooahmeeh Hunger ends yah vor (ceases) Seh tahtiah dee Soon the pestle sounds Prom, prom, Prom! (sound of prom! pounding) Dorwooahmeeh Hunger is coming ehgbor nah

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Instructions: 1. Students sit or squat in circles, holding stones. 2. The leader calls: “Ekpe, ekpe” (stone, stone), and the others respond by hitting their stones on the floor rhythmically: kpo-kpo-kpo-kpo (the sound of the stone plus its voice imitation by students) (see figure A.2). 3. The leader continues with a new call: “Kpokpo trikpo” (stone-pounding sound), with the chorus responding while rhythmically hitting the stone on the ground: “kpo.” (Repeat this step a number of times.) 4. When the leader introduces “Kiti kangbe” or any new call (whatever is contextually appropriate), each student rhythmically passes the stone counterclockwise, hitting the floor on the strong beat while responding with the chorus: “Kangbe hrrrrrrrrrrr gbe.” 5. As the playing gathers momentum, a song is introduced to accompany the game (e.g., “Dowuame Vo” and “Afokpavuvutola”). 6. As the game progresses, the leader (and sometimes any other player) may challenge the other participants with musical surprises, such as signals, gestures, syncopated vocal sounds, and abrupt tempo variations. Those who make mistakes are eliminated, and eventually only one is left—the winner of the game.

Materials: copy of the music “Kpatsa” (see figure A.3) assorted African instruments Procedure: Introduction: African youths have other educational opportunities in which music and dance not only form integral parts but also facilitate the acquisition of other skills and knowledge necessary for adult life. This includes rites of passage—puberty initiation rituals. In West Africa, these rites include dipo (among the Krobo of Ghana), gboto/nudodo (among the Ewe of Ghana, Togo, and Benin) and bragoro (among the Akan of Ghana). Students gain an understanding of music making as defined by Ghanaians through basic drumming techniques, dance steps, and songs and their layered cultural and philosophical meanings and physical, moral, and emotional impacts. Text:

Words

Approximate Pronunciation

Literal Meaning

Call: Kayayo ee!

Kahyahyoh eh!

Kayayo ee Anani

Kayahyoh eh Ahnahnee

Kayayo (a potter/ a name of a potter) Kahyahyoh (whose name is Anani)

Assessment: Observe the students to determine whether they pass the stones in rhythm at the appropriate time.

Response: Kayayo ee Kayayo ee Anani

Lesson Plan 3: Kpatsa

Call: Kayayo ee! Kayayo ee, ayiko

Objective: Students will

Kahyahyoh eh! Kayahyoh eh Ahnahnee Kayahyoh eh! Kahyahyoh eh Ahyeekoh

Kahyahyoh Kahyahyoh Anani Kayayo Kahyahyoh, well done

Kayahyoh eh! Kahyahyoh eh Ahyeekoh

Kayayo Kahyahyoh, well done

Response:

1. Perform an Ewe and Akan music complex. National Standards: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture.

Kayayo ee! Kayayo ee ayiko

Instructions: 1. The students clap along with each line of the complex and perform the lines together. 2. The students perform the rhythms on prescribed instruments together.

Sample Lesson Plans

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Figure A.3. “Kpatsa”

3. Students should learn the song by singing each line, then singing the prescribed call and response. 4. The students “put it all together”: a few students perform on the instruments, a small group sings the call, and the majority of the students sing the response (see video clip at www.menc.org). Assessment: Observe whether the students are able to perform the rhythms in the ensemble and while members of the class sing.

CHAPTER 6, APPROACHING MULTICULTURAL MUSIC EDUCATION Lesson Plan 1: Los Pollitos Objectives: Students will 1. Sing the song “Los Pollitos” as a group and individually. 2. Identify the Spanish sound the chicks make.

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National Standards: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Procedure: 1. Students actively listen to the song “Los Pollitos” (see figure A.5) and try to identify any sound that could be chicks chirping in Spanish. 2. The teacher sings the song, emphasizing the sounds “pío, pío, pío.” 3. Students identify the sounds that chicks make in Spanish. 4. The teacher models singing this short phrase for students. 5. Students echo singing “pío, pío, pío.” 6. The teacher presents students with a visual sign for the sounds “pío, pío, pío” and asks the students to sing (see figure A.4).

Figure A.4. Pio, Pio, Pio Sign

Figure A.5. “Los Pollitos”

7. The teacher sings the first phrase and raises the “pío, pío, pío” sign to cue the students to sing. Translation: 1. The chicks say “chick, chick, chick,” when they are hungry, when they are cold. 2. The hen looks for corn and wheat, gives them food, and looks for warmth for them.

Instructions: 1. The class repeats the song several times. 2. The teacher asks students for ideas about the meaning of the word “hambre” (hungry). The teacher may model rubbing his or her stomach while singing. 3. The teacher asks students for ideas about the meaning of the word “frío” (cold). The teacher may tremble as if he or she is cold while singing the song. 4. Now students can sing three phrases: “pío, pío, pío,” “hambre,” and “frío.” As the teacher sings the song again, the students join in, singing the words and phrases they have learned. Repeat several times. 5. The second verse is taught in the same fashion. First discuss what the mother hen and her chicks eat. Identify the words “maíz” (corn) and then “trigo” (wheat). 6. The teacher models singing “el maíz y el trigo.” The students echo the phrase. 7. The class discusses how the mother hen feeds the chicks and keeps them warm (e.g., the hen keeps the chicks warm with her wings).

Sample Lesson Plans

Assessment: 1. Ask students to sing the song “Los Pollitos” individually. 2. Ask students to identify animal sounds in both English and Spanish. Have them compare and contrast various sounds. Other Activities: 1. Discuss the sound that chicks make in various cultures. Do chicks say “pío, pío, pío” in the United States? What does a rooster say? In Spain, the rooster says “kíkiriki.” 2. Discuss the sounds that animals make all over the world (e.g., cats in the United States say “meow”; in Spain, cats say “miau”). 3. Discuss other songs with animal sounds in them (e.g., “Old MacDonald Had a Farm” and “El Rancho Grande”). Resources: Ada, A. F., and F. I. Campoy. 2003. ¡Pío peep! New York: HarperCollins. Wolff, A. 2005. Los pollitos dicen. New York: Little, Brown.

(Rodríguez Suárez, 2005, Canciones de mi tierra Española)

Figure A.6. “Antón Pirulero”

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Lesson Plan 2: Antón Pirulero Objectives: Students will 1. Sing the song “Antón Pirulero” (see figure A.6). 2. Play the game for the song “Antón Pirulero.” 3. Identify the Spanish word “prenda.” National Standards: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Procedure: 1. The teacher explains the game (see p. 116). 2. The teacher explains what a “prenda” (meaning “object”; literal translation is clothing) is in Spanish. 3. The teacher introduces the first phrase, “Antón, Antón, Antón pirulero.” Translation: Antón, Antón, Antón pirulero [nonsense word to rhyme] each one, each one, attends to his game and whoever does not attend will pay with a toll [i.e., like going to the end of the line].

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Instructions: 1. Students sing the beginning, the teacher sings the end, and the students play the game. 2. The teacher introduces the phrase “pagará una prenda” (meaning “will pay a toll or object”) and explains what it means. 3. Now the students can sing the beginning and the end. 4. The class repeats playing while students sing the beginning and the end. 5. The teacher introduces the repeated phrase “cada cual, cada cual” (meaning “each one”). 6. This phrase is added to the first and the last as students play the game. 7. Students listen for the only other phrase that repeats, “y el que no, y el que no” (meaning “and the one that does not”). The class discusses its meaning. 8. Students repeat this phrase. The quick articulation of the words makes it fun to sing. 9. Students learn “que atienda su juego” (meaning “attends to his game”). The teacher now discusses responsibility in the game. The teacher may also discuss various types of facial expressions so no one knows which hand the object is hidden in. Finally, the teacher discusses what other students must do so they do not give away any information. 10. Students can now try to sing the entire song and play the game.

2. Ask students to play the game “Antón Pirulero” by themselves. 3. Ask students to define the Spanish word “prenda” individually and to use it in the context of the “Antón Pirulero” game. (Rodríguez Suárez, 2005, Canciones de mi tierra Española) Lesson Plan 3: Tengo Una Muñeca Objectives: Students will 1. Count using Spanish numbers included in the song. 2. Act out the song “Tengo una muñeca.” 3. Jump rope to the song “Tengo una muñeca.” 4. Perform the song “Tengo una muñeca.” National Standards: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 8. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the arts. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Procedure: This song is ideal for learning to add in Spanish (see figure A.7). Introduction: The teacher introduces verse 4 first. This verse is about learning to count even numbers.

Game: “Jugar a las prendas o a las prenditas” • Hide a small object in one hand and place both hands crossed behind your back. • Someone has to guess which hand is hiding the object. • If the other person guesses right, he or she gets to hide the object. If the person guesses wrong, he or she pays the price by going to the end of the line. Assessment: 1. Ask students to sing the song “Antón Pirulero” as a group.

Verse 2. La saqué a paseo y se me constipó, la tengo en la cama con mucho dolor. Verse 3. La llevo al médico y me recetó, una cucharada de aceite de castor. Verse 4. Dos y dos son cuatro, cuatro y dos son seis, seis y dos son ocho y ocho dieciséis. Y ocho veinticuatro y ocho treinta y dos, ánima bendita me arrodillo yo.

Translation: Verse 1. I have a doll that is dressed in blue, with an undershirt and a vest. Verse 2. I took her out and she caught a cold, I took her to bed but it hurt me a lot.

Sample Lesson Plans

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Figure A.7. “Tengo Una Muñeca”

Verse 3. I took her to the doctor and he prescribed a spoon of castor oil. Verse 4. Two plus two is four, four plus two is six, six plus two is eight and eight is sixteen. And eight is twenty-four and eight is thirty-two, blessed soul, I kneel down.

Variation: In the first verse, the word “pañoleta” may be sung instead of “camisilla.” “Pañoleta” is a type of handkerchief. The teacher shows students an illustration of an addition table illustrating the lyrics of the song (see figure A.8). Instructions: Figure A.8. Addition Table

1. The teacher repeats the song’s last verse while pointing to the illustration. 2. Students sing the last verse while volunteers from the class point to the illustration. 3. Students must connect each of the words of this verse (verse 4) with the numbers they are pointing out. 4. The class repeats the activity several times while various volunteers point to the illustration. 5. The class discusses the meaning of the first three verses. 6. Students act out the first three verses.

Game: This song is also a jump rope game. Students jump rope to the beat. Assessment: 1 Ask students to sing the song “Tengo una muñeca.” 2. Ask students to count in Spanish alone and with others. 3. Ask students to jump rope to the song “Tengo una muñeca.”

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4. Ask students to act out the song “Tengo una muñeca.” (Rodríguez Suárez, manuscript, Canciones de mi tierra Española, volume 2)

REFERENCES MENC National Standards for Music Education. At www. menc.org/ (accessed October 4, 2008). Rodríguez Suárez, E. 2005. Canciones de mi tierra Española: Islas Canarias/Songs of my Spanish land: Canary Islands. Old Greenwich: ER Publishing. Rodríguez Suárez, E. n.d. Canciones de mi tierra Española: Islas Canarias/Songs of my Spanish land: Canary Islands, vol. 2 (manuscript).

CHAPTER 7, THE LION’S ROAR IN THE CLASSROOM Lesson Plan 1: Luogu (Chinese Percussion): Preludes Objectives: Students will 1. Play in a Chinese percussion ensemble. 2. Perform the preludes with percussion instruments (authentic or substitutes).

Figure A.9. Prelude Score

National Standards: 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Procedure: 1. The teacher gives the students background information on the use of percussion in Chinese society, especially on holidays. 2. The teacher shows students the instruments or substitutes and also shows them video programs or photos related to the subject. 3. The students recite the percussion oral patterns again and again before using the simplified notation. (Do individual phrases or sections first) (see figure A.9). 4. The students perform the complete pieces on instruments. The preludes can be performed individually or in (A)—(B)—(A) form, each with a repeat. The * on the drum part (next to the last measure in each piece) denotes a signal to end or to move to the next section. The d d at the beginning of (A) is a drum signal (playing on the edge of the drum) to start the piece. This is a good piece to begin a cultural program.

Sample Lesson Plans

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Assessment: Invite other classes, teachers, and parents to view the results and provide feedback. Lesson Plan 2: Luogu (Chinese Percussion): Etudes Objectives: Students will 1. Play in a Chinese percussion ensemble. 2. Perform the etudes with percussion instruments (authentic or substitutes). 3. Learn to recite and read special types of notation. National Standards: 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Procedure: 1. The teacher gives the students background information on the use of percussion in Chinese society, especially on holidays. 2. The teacher shows students the instruments or substitutes and also shows them video programs or photos related to the subject. 3. The students recite the percussion oral patterns again and again before using the simplified notation (see figure A.10). The drum part is notated separately in some lines. (Do individual phrases or sections first.) The d d at the beginning is a drum signal (playing on the edge of the drum) to start. The d/// is drum roll on the edge. 4. The students perform the complete piece in (A)— (B)—(A) form, each with a repeat. Assessment: Invite other classes, teachers, and parents to view the results and provide feedback. Lesson Plan 3: Luogu (Chinese Percussion): Lion Dances Objectives: Students will

Figure A.10. Etudes Score

3. Learn a type of music from a different culture. 4. Learn about the use of lion or dragon dances with luogu in Chinese communities (such as Chinatowns in the United States). 5. Perform with small lion masks, dragon masks, big heads (clowns), and other props with simple actions and in a parade, accompanied by the percussion group who just learned the patterns. National Standards: 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Procedure:

1. Play in a Chinese percussion ensemble. 2. Perform “Lion Dance I” or “Lion Dance II” individually with percussion instruments (authentic or substitutes).

1. The teacher gives the students background information on the use of percussion in Chinese society, especially on holidays.

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2. The teacher shows students the instruments or substitutes and also shows them video programs or photos related to the subject. 3. The students recite the percussion oral patterns again and again before using the simplified notation (see figure A.11). The * for the drum (next to the last measure) denotes a signal to end the piece. The d d at the beginning of a section is a drum signal (playing on the edge of the drum) to start the piece. 4. The students perform the complete piece on instruments. The two dances are not combined; there is only one piece per action. 5. The teacher selects students to wear lion, dragon, and big-head (clown) masks or to swing ribbons and flags. 6. The two groups combine and parade around. This is always good for the climax at the end of a cultural program. Assessment: Invite other classes, teachers, and parents to view the results and provide feedback. Lesson Plan 4: Luogu (Chinese Percussion): “Fengyang Flower Drum Song” (No. 2) Objectives: Students will 1. Play in a Chinese percussion ensemble and sing a folk song.

Figure A.11. Lion Dance 1 and II

2. Perform the accompaniment part to “Fengyang Flower Drum Song” (No. 2) with percussion instruments (authentic or substitutes); the rest of the class will learn to sing the song. National Standards: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music (the Chinese folk song “Fengyang Flower Drums Song” No. 2). 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Procedure: 1. The teacher gives the students background information on the use of percussion in Chinese society, especially on holidays. 2. The teacher shows students the instruments or substitutes and also shows them video programs or photos related to the subject. 3. The teacher informs the students that the song comes from Anhui Province in eastern central China. The text of the song reflects the suffering of poor families. The song was performed by a girl singing and playing a small drum hung by a strap on her shoulder. There are two versions of the song. No. 1 can be found in Multicultural

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Sample Lesson Plans

4.

5.

6.

7.

Perspectives in Music Education (3d ed., edited by William M. Anderson and Patricia Shehan Campbell, MENC, in press). The students recite the percussion oral patterns again and again before using the simplified notation. The pattern is derived from the refrain of the song (see figure A.12). The teacher encourages the students to compose percussion patterns for simple folk songs based on this model. The students recite the percussion patterns and sing the song with English text. A staff notation is also given for easy reading (see figure A.13). Piano accompaniment is encouraged. The performance goes in this order: percussion alone (line 1), song (lines 2 and 3), refrain with percussion (line 4), song (lines 5 and 6), refrain with percussion (line 7), percussion alone (line 1).

8. Bells and the woodblock may be added. Bells (marked with o in the notation) play beats one and three with percussion or beat one only with the song; the woodblock (marked with x in the notation) improvises or plays the suggested rhythm. 9. The entire class sings the song; a few students may wave ribbons left and right in duple rhythm or another dancing manner while the song is being performed. Assessment: Invite other classes, teachers, and parents to view the results and provide feedback.

CHAPTER 8, BAMBOO IS FUN! Lesson Plan 1: The Angklung: Traditional Pieces

Figure A.12. “Fengyang Flower Drum Song” Score

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Figure A.13. “Fengyang Flower Drum Song”

Objectives: Students will 1. Learn about the importance of bamboo in Asian people’s lives and even in American daily life. 2. Lean about the use of bamboo in making musical instruments around the world. 3. Learn to read the cipher notation. 4. Perform traditional angklung music. 5. Learning about the material culture of a certain area that produces specific musical instruments. National Standards: 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music (cooperation in melody and rhythm). 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. Procedure: 1. The teacher asks students about their own experiences with bamboo.

2. The teacher gives the students background about bamboo in Asian or American daily life. 3. The teacher provides background information about the bamboo angklung. 4. The students shake the instruments individually by pitch numbers in a scale up and down. In traditional music, only pitches 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 are employed (see figure A.14). 5. Many traditional pieces can be performed with action. The action may be a simple walk, a snakelike route, cycles, and even shouting and jumping. The leader always plays a small drum and leads the action. Additional drums or gongs may be used (see notation in figure). The usual shout is “Oh! Oh! Oh!” (may be applied any time and any place). No matter what action is taken, the music keeps going until the end. The third piece in the figure (“Buncis”) is the best action piece; the first (“Marengo”) is good for slow walking without much action or shouting.

Figure A.14. Traditional Anklung from Sunda

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Assessment: Invite other classes, teachers, and parents to view the results and provide feedback. Lesson Plan 2: Angklung Pergi Kekota (Going to Town) Objectives: Students will 1. Learn about the importance of bamboo in Asian people’s lives and even in American daily life. 2. Learn about the use of bamboo in making musical instruments around the world. 3. Learn to read the cipher notation. 4. Perform modern angklung music in concert formation. 5. Learning about the material culture of a certain area that produces specific musical instruments. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. Procedure: 1. The teacher asks students about their own experiences with bamboo. 2. The teacher gives the students background about bamboo in Asian or American daily life. 3. The teacher provides background information about the bamboo angklung. 4. The students shake the instruments individually by pitch numbers in a scale up and down, then perform chords by combining pitches together, such as 1 (do), 3 (mi), and 5 (sol); 4 (fa), 6 (la), and 1 (do); etc. 5. The students perform “Pergi Kekota” (“Going to Town”), a modern Sundanese children’s song (see figure A.15). The text describes the joy of a child going to a big city in a horse-drawn cart with his dad. “Tuk Tik Tak” imitates the sound of the horse shoes. In the cipher notation, jump over to line 4 after the next to the last measure of line 3; after da capo, jump over that measure and end the piece at Fin measure. Staff notation follows (see figure A.16). Assessment: Invite other classes, teachers, and parents to view the performance and provide feedback.

Lesson Plan 3: Angklung Burung Kakatua (The Parrots) Objectives: Students will 1. Learn about the importance of bamboo in Asian people’s lives and even in American daily life. 2. Lean about the use of bamboo in making musical instruments around the world. 3. Learn to read the cipher notation. 4. Perform modern angklung music in concert formation. 5. Learn the material culture of certain area which produces certain musical instruments. National Standards: 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music (cooperation in melody and rhythm). 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. Procedure: 1. The teacher asks students about their own experiences with bamboo. 2. The teacher gives the students background about bamboo in Asian or American daily life. 3. The teacher provides background information about the bamboo angklung. 4. The students shake the instruments individually by pitch numbers in a scale up and down, then perform chords by combining pitches together, such as 1 (do), 3 (mi), and 5 (sol); 4 (fa), 6 (la), and 1 (do); etc. 5. The students perform “Burung Kakatua” (“The Parrots”), a modern Sundanese children’s song (see figure A.17). From line 5 on, the piece is performed in two-part harmony. Shake the pitch when it appears in the top and bottom lines. For a triple meter piece, use woodblocks to play beat one and wooden frogs (rasps) to play beats two and three in each measure, additional fun for the class. Staff notation follows (see figure A.18). Assessment: Invite other classes, teachers, and parents to view the performance and provide feedback.

Figure A.15. “Pergi Kekota”

Figure A.16. “Pergi Kekota” Song

Figure A.17. “Burung Kakatua”

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Figure A.18. “Burung Kakatua” Song

CHAPTER 10, THEN SING MY SONG . . . Lesson Plan 1: This Little Light Objectives: Students will 1. Define gospel style. 2. Determine the importance of the gospel style based on the multitudes of people who sing it throughout the world. 3. Discuss the messages found in gospel songs. 4. Identify call and response styles when listening to and performing this style. 5. Identify instrumentation used in selected gospel songs. National Standards: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.

2. Playing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music (the use of hand clapping to accompany song). 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture (cultural awareness of gospel style and where it comes from). Materials: website reference: www.youtube.com. musical selections of “This Little Light of Mine” Procedure: 1. The teacher presents a short historical background of gospel music and tells students that • gospel music received its name because many of the texts used in these songs are biblical, based on the first four books of the New Testament;

Sample Lesson Plans

• gospel music, unlike its predecessor the spiritual, is often accompanied; • gospel music requires improvisatory vocal and instrumental skills; both voice and instrumental accompaniment must be able to engage in an energetic musical dialogue made possible through the extension and exploration of vocal timbres, range, and improvisatory abilities; • gospel music is not read; it is learned aurally by rote; and • gospel music had its beginnings in big urban cities like Chicago, Los Angeles, Birmingham, Atlanta, St. Louis, Detroit, and Dallas. 2. The class listens to and views a variety of performances of the song, “This Little Light of Mine” on YouTube. Following are examples: • Bruce Springsteen and the Seeger Sessions (country version of “This Little Light of Mine” performed by fiddles, piano, tambourine, guitar, trombone, tuba, trumpet, rhythm section, and saxophone) • Joe Holt (piano solo—jazz/gospel style) • A capella Allen (young African American male vocal solo) • RGM Vocal Ensemble from Muhdorf • “This Little Light of Mine” for Shirley (1969) (performance by an eighty-nine-year-old woman) • “This Little Light of Mine” performed in solo by a young teen • Street performers in the French Quarter of New Orleans • White House Guest Series, including Leontyne Price singing “This Little Light of Mine” 3. The class discusses the similarities and differences between the performances of “This Little Light of Mine” viewed on YouTube. The discussion should include • the use of jazzy syncopated rhythms; • “call and response style,” created by lead singers and the choir; • whether or not the performers chose accompaniment (Instrumental accompaniment depends on availability of instruments.); and • the joy and enthusiasm that is portrayed by all those involved when singing this style. 4. The teacher sings “This Little of Mine” and • asks students to sing the song through in unison;

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• asks students to sing it again and add claps on beats 2 and 4; • recruits volunteers in small groups or soloists to sing the song; • strongly but gently encourages various students to take the “lead”; and • shares performances with the class. Assessment: 1. Ensure that students have a strong comprehension of how this style came about by giving a mini-quiz at the end of the lesson. 2. Have students sing “This Little Light of Mine” once again. Observe their ability to relax, clap on 2 and 4, and smile. 3. Ask students to express in one to two sentences how they felt about this experience. Lesson Plan 2: Now Let Us Sing Objectives: Students will 1. Listen to the gospel song “Now Let Us Sing.” 2. Sing the gospel song “Now Let Us Sing.” 3. Locate the question answer phrases in “Now Let Us Sing.” 4. Play a simple Orff, piano or guitar accompaniment to the song using I-IV-V7 chords. National Standards: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 2. Playing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture (cultural awareness of gospel style and where it comes from). Materials: website reference: www.youtube.com. musical selections of “Sing till the Power of the Lord Comes Down” chart of I-IV-V7 chords

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Instruments (any melody instruments): alto xylophone, soprano xylophones, bass xylophones alto metallophone, soprano metallophone, bass metallophone glockenspiels or resonator bells piano, guitar, autoharp Procedure: 1. The teacher distributes a copy of “Now Let Us Sing” to the students and then • divides the students into two groups and asks them to say the text of the song in rhythm; and • asks the students to switch parts and say the words again in rhythm, this time clapping on beats 2 and 4. 2. The teacher asks the students to describe what musical characteristics present in this song are also present in gospel music (antiphonal style singing/question response/clapping on 2 and 4 presence of chromaticism). 3. The teacher asks the students to name those characteristics that are missing that would make this a true gospel song (religious text). (The teacher should let them know that he or she has altered the text and ask whether that makes the song any less a gospel piece.) 4. The class accesses www.youtube.com (“Now Let Us Sing”) to • listen to a variety of examples of this piece being performed and • discuss the changes in melodies, word alterations, and styles of the same song. The class then divides into two parts and sings the song again. 5. The teacher tells the students that most gospel songs can be accompanied with the three primary chords: I, IV, and V7. • Using the example in the box, the teacher shows students how these chords are spelled in the key of C major. • The teacher assigns students to instruments. One group will play the I or tonic chord, another group will play the IV or subdominant chord, and the third group will play the V7 or dominant seventh chord.

I IV V7

Chord Chord Chord

C-E-G F-A-C G-B-D-F

• The teacher informs the students that most gospel musicians use their “ears” to guide them in providing accompaniments. Many do not read musical notation. 6. Beginning with the word “Sing,” which is located on the second beat of the first full measure, the students decide which chord should be played to go along with the melody (the I or tonic chord). • The students continue to play the I or tonic chord on beats 2 and 4 until they hear that a necessary change in harmony must take place. • The students continue listening for and adding the chords on beats 2 and 4 throughout the entire song. Assessment: 1. Have some students perform chordal accompaniments in small groups while the rest of the students sing the song. 2. Have students discuss how they felt about accompanying a simple gospel song. 3. Have students, with a partner, identify the three chords that they used in the gospel accompaniment.

CHAPTER 12, MAKE IT AND TAKE IT! Lesson Plan 1: Introduction to musical spoons Objectives: Students will 1. Explore the history of spoons as musical instruments. 2. Construct a set of musical spoons. 3. Demonstrate correct performance technique while performing characteristic percussion patterns on musical spoons. 4. Accompany an American folk song as members of a spoon ensemble.

Sample Lesson Plans

National Standards: 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 7. Evaluating music and music performances. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Materials: short videos of musical spoons performances (A wealth of musical spoon performances can be found on YouTube: www.youtube.com.) historical information on musical spoons (A brief history of musical spoons can be found on the Wikipedia website: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Spoons_(musical_instrument), as well as on the MusicalSpoons.org website: www.musicalspoons .org/7901.html.) materials for constructing musical spoons (plastic spoons, masking tape) CD or MP3 recording of a medium-tempo American folk song in 2/4 or 4/4 time (e.g., “Turkey in the Straw,” “Sandy Land,” “Skip to My Lou,” “Shoo Fly,” “Cindy,” “Froggie Went A-Courtin’,” “Oh, Susanna!”) Procedure: 1. The teacher focuses students’ attention by viewing and discussing a brief video of a musical spoon performance. The teacher guides students individually or in collaborative groups to answer the following questions: • How are the spoons held when they are played? • What does the performer in the video do in order to play the spoons? • What types of music might be appropriate for musical spoon accompaniment?

Figure A.19. Spoons Rhythm Pattern 1

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2. The class discusses the history and uses of musical spoons in various parts of the world, including the United States. If time permits, the teacher plays two or three brief videos of spoons being played in various world cultures. 3. The teacher guides students in constructing individual sets of musical spoons, explaining that the wad of masking tape between the spoon backs allows students to play without holding one finger between the spoons. 4. Students play a basic, quarter-note beat pattern (see figure A.19) with the spoons by striking the spoons on one leg using a downward motion. 5. Next, students play a basic eighth-note pattern (see figure A.20) by striking the spoons on one leg using a downward motion, then with an upward motion, striking the palm of the hand that is not holding the spoons. (This hand should be held palm down, at approximately chest height.) 6. Finally, students play an eighth/two sixteenthnote pattern (see figure A.21). 7. The teacher plays a CD or MP3 recording of an American folk song and guides students in performing their choices of the three spoon patterns with the folk song. 8. As closure, the teacher incorporates questioning about the history of spoons and the proper playing position for spoons. Students demonstrate the spoon pattern they learned during the lesson Assessment: Assessment data include student responses to questions about spoons, spoon sets constructed by students, and students’ individual and group performances of the three spoon patterns. Lesson Plan 2: Pizza Box Guitar Blues Lesson Objectives: Students will 1. Briefly explore the history and characteristics of the musical form/style known as the blues.

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Figure A.20. Spoons Rhythm Pattern 2

2. Demonstrate knowledge of a basic twelve-bar blues form by playing I7, IV7, and V7 chord roots. 3. Sing a simple twelve-bar blues. 4. Accompany a twelve-bar blues on pizza box guitar, using I, IV, and V chords (the seventh is omitted for ease of performance). 5. Improvise on the pizza box guitar over a twelvebar blues accompaniment. National Standards: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 3. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 7. Evaluating music and music performances 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture Materials: short videos of twelve-bar blues performances (A wealth of blues performances can be found on the YouTube website at youtube.com.) figure A.22, which shows a twelve-bar blues form in the key of C, including chord functions and symbols boom pipes, lower octave Boomwhackers, or standard Boomwhackers with Octivator Caps on the pitches C, F, and G figure A.23, which shows the blues song “I Made a New Instrument” in the key of C, including chord functions and symbols

Figure A.21. Spoons Rhythm Pattern 3

pizza box guitars, tuned to a C chord, with the neck marked in pencil to show barred finger positions for F and G chords Procedure: 1. The teacher focuses students’ attention by viewing and discussing a brief video or videos of twelve-bar blues performances, and guides students individually or in collaborative groups to answer the following questions: • Are there lyrics? If so, what are they about? What makes them have a blues feel? • What instruments are often used to accompany the blues? 2. Students discover how many measures or bars are in this blues form (twelve bars). They explore how many phrases constitute each verse, and whether there are repeated lyrics and/or rhyming words. 3. Using figure A.22, students play the root tones of blues in the key of C, using boom pipes, lower octave Boomwhackers, or standard Boomwhackers with Octivator Caps on the pitches C, F, and G. 4. Still using figure A.22, students play the chords of the twelve-bar blues on the pizza box guitar. The guitar should be tuned to a C chord in open position. The correct barred position for the F and G chords should be marked on the guitar neck (the seventh is omitted for ease of playing). 5. Using figure A.23, students sing “I Made a New Instrument.” The teacher points out that the rests after the lyrics “play it, baby, play it” provide space for improvisation on pizza box guitars. The class divides in half; one half sings the song while the other accompanies and improvises on pizza box guitars. They then switch parts, so that

Figure A.22. Blues Form

Figure A.23. I Made a New Instrument!

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Appendix A

each student has the opportunity to both sing and play pizza box guitar. On another day, students sing “I Made a New Instrument” while accompanying themselves on the pizza box guitar. 6. As closure, the teacher incorporates questioning on characteristics of the blues, including blues form, asking students to demonstrate the chords used in a twelve-bar C blues. Assessment: Assessment data include students’ responses to questions about the blues and blues form and their individual and group performances of the chords in the twelve-bar C blues form exemplified in “I Made a New Instrument.”

CHAPTER 13, MULTICULTURALISM IN SCHOOL INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC PROGRAMS Lesson Plan 1: Instrumental music/band Objectives: Students will 1. Identify various roles that musicians perform, cite representative individuals who have functioned in each role, and describe their activities and achievements. 2. Identify, explain, and perform the stylistic features of “The Stars and Stripes Forever” and “Colonel Bogey March” and explain the stylistic similarities and differences between traditional American (Sousa) and English (Alford) marches. National Standards: 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 5. Reading and notating music. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Materials: score and parts to “The Stars and Stripes Forever” by John Philip Sousa (adapt. Brion & Schissel; C. L. Barnhouse) and “Colonel Bogey March” by Kenneth Alford (Halferty; Kendor Music).

handouts of march structural forms with listed tonal centers, and handout of composer biographies Procedure: 1. The teacher distributes handouts and parts for the marches. 2. The teacher explains the basic characteristics of a Sousa march, referencing the handouts, and emphasizing form, tempo, key relationships, and performance practices. A student reads the biography of John Philip Sousa. The group performs “The Stars and Stripes Forever.” 3. The teacher explains the basic characteristics of an English march, referencing the handouts, and emphasizing form, tempo, key relationships, and performance practices. A student reads the biography of Kenneth Alford (Major Fredrick Joseph Ricketts). The group performs the “Colonel Bogey March.” 4. The teacher asks for a volunteer to write group comments on the board and then directs the group in a discussion of the characteristic similarities and differences between the two marches, addressing character, form, tonal centers, and tempo. The teacher then leads a discussion about the lives of the two composers. 5. The teacher replays “Stars and Stripes Forever” and “Colonel Bogey March” for closure. Assessment: 1. Have students collectively identify basic characteristics of American and English marches and the similarities and differences between the two, as well as describing the backgrounds of John Philip Sousa and Kenneth Alford. 2. Students can perform “Stars and Stripes Forever” and “Colonel Bogey March” with good stylistic interpretation. Lesson Plan 2: Instrumental Music/Orchestra Objectives: Students will 1. Identify sources of African American musical genres, trace the evolution of those genres, and cite well-known musicians associated with them.

Sample Lesson Plans

2. Identify, explain, and perform the stylistic features of “His Spirit of Freedom” and define its aesthetic tradition and historical or cultural context. National Standards: 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. 5. Reading and notating music. 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. Materials: score and parts to “His Spirit of Freedom (Favorite Hymns and Spirituals of Dr. Martin Luther King)” arranged by Bud Caputo (Alfred Publishing) performances of the following: “When the Saints Go Marchin’ In” performed by Louis Armstrong (YouTube.com) “Just a Closer Walk with Thee” performed by Natalie Cole (YouTube.com) “Swing Low Sweet Chariot” performed by Kathleen Battle (YouTube.com) “He’s Got the Whole World in His Hands” performed by Patti LaBelle’s choir (YouTube.com) “Precious Lord Take My Hand” performed by Aretha Franklin (YouTube.com) “Lift Every Voice and Sing” performed by the Metropolitan Baptist Church choir (YouTube .com) “Oh, Freedom” performed by ASBC Male Chorus (YouTube.com)

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“Keep Your Eyes on the Prize” performed by Mavis Staples (YouTube.com) “Standing in the Need of Prayer” performed by The Caravans (YouTube.com) Procedure: 1. The teacher distributes parts for “His Spirit of Freedom.” 2. The teacher explains to students the basic structure of this arrangement, listing on the board the nine spirituals or hymns on which it is based, along with names of the YouTube performers. The teacher then leads a discussion on the origin of the pieces and the performance practices of these African American traditions. 3. The teacher sight reads “His Spirit of Freedom.” Afterward, the class plays the corresponding YouTube performance before rehearsing each section, commenting on the historical significance of the performers when appropriate. 4. The class discusses the cultural relevance of this medley to the civil rights movement and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. 5. The teacher replays “His Spirit of Freedom” for closure. Assessment: 1. Have students collectively identify the basic characteristics of African American musical styles and how they developed historically, as well as significant performers in these genres. 2. Have students perform “His Spirit of Freedom” with good stylistic interpretation.

B Additional Instrument Construction Directions

ADDITIONAL WORLD INSTRUMENTS: DIRECTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION

2. Make a hole in the center of the plastic lid with the sharp point of the bamboo skewer. Push the skewer through the hole, leaving approximately 1 inch sticking out the top. 3. Wrap the electrician’s tape around the top of the bamboo skewer enough times so that the skewer cannot pass through the hole in the plastic lid. Push the skewer down so that the edge of the tape rests on top of the plastic lid. 4. Take the lid off the can and wrap electrician’s tape around the bamboo skewer underneath the lid, so that the skewer cannot slide in and out of the hole in the lid. Using the saw, cut off the sharp end of the skewer. 5. To play the cuica drum, wrap the wet cloth or sponge loosely around the skewer and gently rub it up and down the skewer. Press down on the plastic lid as you play to make the pitch rise.

Coffee Can Cuica Drum (Brazil)

The cuica drum is often heard in the Brazilian samba. It looks like a drum, but has a small stick in the middle, which is fastened into a goatskin drum head. The characteristic cuica sound is made by rubbing the stick with a small, damp cloth. The pitch of the cuica can be varied by pressing on the outside of the drum head while playing, enabling the cuica to mimic the sound of laughter, whooping, or a small puppy crying. The cuica may have evolved from the sound of blacksmiths’ moist hands on bellows as they fanned the fires in their shops. Materials: coffee can with plastic lid (The size of the can determines the pitch of the drum.) can opener 12-inch bamboo skewer electrician’s tape, ½ to 1 inch in diameter black or white enamel paint acrylic tempera paint disposable foam paintbrushes small paintbrushes small saw small, wet cloth or sponge

Gourd Shekere (Africa) (adapted from Summitt and Widess 1999)

The shekere is an African rattle constructed from a dried gourd. It is covered with a loose netting made from knotted string and small, hard objects such as beads, seeds, shells, bits of metal, or bone. The type of hard object used usually depends on items available where the shekere is constructed. Materials:

Instructions: dried birdhouse gourd 250–300 craft beads one 92-yard skein of 2-ply plastic or nylon yarn

1. Using the can opener, remove the bottom of the coffee can. Fit the plastic lid on the can. 137

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Appendix B

short awl 2 books of matches markers, acrylic paints (optional) acrylic or polyurethane sealant spray aluminum or steel pot scrubber dishwashing liquid kitchen towels warm water

10.

Instructions: 1. Cover the gourd with cloth kitchen towels and soak it in warm water for 20 to 30 minutes. The wet towels will make the gourd heavier and help keep it under water. 2. Remove the towels, rinse the gourd, and scrub it vigorously with a plastic pot scrubber and dishwashing liquid. Scrub until all mold, dirt, and other residue is removed from the gourd. Air dry until the gourd feels dry to the touch. 3. Decorate the gourd as desired and let it set until completely dry. Spray the gourd with acrylic or polyurethane sealant. Let the first coat of sealant dry completely, then add a second coat. 4. To make a 4-strand braid, fold 2 1½-foot lengths of yarn in half, leaving a ½-inch loop at the top (folded end.) From the 4 strands, make a braid that is long enough to reach loosely around the neck of the gourd. 5. Place the strand around the neck of the gourd. Bring the loose ends of the braid through the loop and make a knot tying the loop to the end of the braid. Cut off the braid below the knot. 6. Use a lighted match to melt and seal the ends of yarn protruding from the knot. 7. Cut 24 3- to 5-foot lengths of yarn. The size of the gourd will help determine the exact length of yarn that should be used. 8. If the shekere is to have a tail, double the length of each piece of yarn. Fold a length of yarn in half and attach it by tying a knot. Attach 24 lengths of yarn in this way, spacing them evenly around the braid collar. Use matches to melt and fuse the end of each strand. 9. Using an overhand knot, tie together one strand of yarn from each of two adjacent pairs of strands. Place the tip of the awl in the center of the knot while tying, to keep the knot from slipping out of place. The knot should be approximately 1 to

11.

12.

13.

14.

1½ inches below the braid collar. Work all the way around the gourd until you have tied a complete row of knots, using every pair of adjacent strands. After you have completed one row of knots, begin to tie a second row using adjacent strands from adjacent knots. Before you tie each knot in the second row, add a bead to one strand of each pair. The shekere looks most uniform if a bead is always added to the same side of each pair of strands (e.g., always add a bead to the strand on the right.) Continue adding rows of knots and beads until you have worked your way almost to the bottom of the shekere. Add a final row of unbeaded knots. Use 2 1½-inch lengths of yarn to make another 4-strand braid. Tie the braid together in the same manner as before. Anchor it to the bottom of the netting at 4 opposite points by tying an overhand knot with each anchoring pair of strands. Anchor the rest of the strands to the braid. If the shekere is to have a tail, gather all the strands together at the bottom of the lower braid and tie them into one big, overhand knot. Trim the ends of the strands to make the length uniform, and use lighted matches to melt the end of each strand so it does not unravel. If a tail is not desired, trim the ends of the strands just below the overhand knots and use matches to melt and fuse each pair of strands. There are several ways to play the shekere. It may be shaken, tapped with the hands or fingers, or twisted or moved rhythmically up and down while the netting is held stationary, or the netting may be twisted or moved rhythmically up and down while the gourd is held stationary.

Rainstick (Africa, South America)

The origin of the rainstick is difficult to trace. According to legend, rainsticks were played in Africa long before the birth of Christ. The purpose of playing a rainstick was to communicate with spirits and gently remind them that rain was welcome. Today, many rainsticks are constructed in the South American country of Chile from dead, dried cactus that might otherwise be used for firewood. Thorns are pressed into the dried cactus flesh, and small stones or pebbles are placed inside. The cascading of the pebbles over the thorns creates the water sound of this instrument.

Additional Instrument Construction Directions

Materials: cardboard mailing tube, 2 inches in diameter (The tube needs to have plastic end caps in order to seal it shut.) approximately 50 2-inch roofing nails hammer 1 cup of dried beans, lentils, rice, and/or pasta of varying sizes paste for papier-mâché (Flour and water paste is inexpensive and works well.) lightweight paper for papier-mâché strips (Newspaper end rolls work well.) tempera paint (optional) several small paintbrushes (optional) oil-based polyurethane sealant (optional) disposable foam brush (optional) rubber gloves (optional) Instructions: 1. Hammer the roofing nails into the mailing tube in a spiral pattern from one end of the tube to the other. The seam of the tube can be used as a guide. Nails should be spaced approximately 1 inch apart. 2. Seal one end of the tub shut with a plastic end cap. Pour the cup of dried beans, pasta, or rice into the tube. Different sizes of filler material (beans, rice, etc.) allow the rainstick to make sounds of different timbres. Seal the other end of the mailing tube shut with the remaining plastic end cap. 3. In a medium sized bowl, mix some flour with enough water to form a paste. (Whole wheat flour adds a rustic look to the finished rainstick.) Tear the paper into 3-inch strips that are approximately 1 inch wide. Dip the paper strips into the paste and cover the sides of the rainstick tube with a flat layer of strips (i.e., papier-mâché). Make sure that no corners or ends of paper are left sticking up. Dry the rainstick for 24 hours. 4. If desired, paint the rainstick with acrylic or tempera paint. Dry again for 24 hours. 5. Using a foam disposable brush and wearing rubber gloves, coat the rainstick with 1 coat of polyurethane sealant. Dry for 24 hours. 6. For a quicker finish, rainsticks may be covered in self-adhesive shelf liner paper, painted with glue

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and rolled in colored sand or covered with wrapping paper. 7. To play the rainstick, hold it vertically to let the filler material cascade through the matrix of roofing nails. The rainstick may also be held horizontally and played as a large shaker tube. Steel Drum Mini-Pan (Trinidad)

The history of steel drums in Trinidad dates back to 1883, when colonial legislation prohibited the use of drums in street parades. Plantation owners feared that drum messages sent among slaves could lead to uprisings. As a reaction to this ban on drums, metal cookie or biscuit tins were used as musical instruments in street parades. During the late 1930s and early 1940s, musicians experimented with making various sized dents in the cookie tins, which could produce different tones when struck with a mallet. In 1948, the first fifty-five-gallon oil drum was used as raw material for constructing a steel drum. Since that time, the popularity of steel drum music has spread throughout the world, and steel drum bands are becoming a familiar sight in many music education programs in the United States. The mini-pan, a small version of a soprano or lead steel drum, is often used today in general music classes in the United States. It usually has five to twelve notes and is often tuned either to a C pentatonic or C diatonic scale. Materials: metal 5-gallon pail (available at paint manufacturing companies) ¼-inch wooden dowels 3 or 4 wide rubber bands high-gloss enamel paint in silver and 1 other color 2 disposable paintbrushes small sledgehammer or medium-sized claw hammer dead blow hammer (optional) flexible ruler medium-point permanent marker pen cloth measuring tape flat end metal punch saber saw or jigsaw with a blade designed for cutting metal drawing compass

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Appendix B

Instructions: 1. Using the small sledgehammer, pound the bottom of the pail down until the center point is a minimum of 2 inches below the plane created by the edge of the pail. It is best to pound in circles starting at the edge. This helps keep the drum head smooth and the depression as gradual as possible. Use the dead blow hammer near the end of this process. This will help smooth the pan surface by eliminating the hammer marks. 2. Using the drawing compass, find the center point of the pan head. This will help achieve accuracy when measuring the sections for individual pitches. 3. Use the permanent marker and cloth measuring tape to mark the sections for the notes of the C major scale on the rim. Then mark each section with the appropriate pitch name. (See figure B.1 for measurement guidelines.) 4. Draw lines from the marks toward the center point of the pan head. Make the lines approximately 2½ inches long. Using a hacksaw blade or flexible ruler, draw curved lines to connect section lines for each pitch (see figure B.2). 5. Using the paper templates (figure B.3), mark 3 additional notes in the center portion of the pan head. The notes should be positioned near the rim notes that are of the same note name, but one octave lower.

Figure B.1. Mini-Pan Rim Note Measurements

6. Using the flathead metal punch and a hammer, carefully deepen the lines outlining each note. This process is what isolates each note section from the rest of the pan head. Check the progress by looking at the underside of the pan head. A mark, outlining each section, should be clearly visible from the underside. Be careful not to make this line too deep to prevent making a hole in the pan head. 7. At this point, cut the pan head from the rest of the pail. Mark the pail, all the way around, approximately 3 inches below the rim. Make sure the sides of the pan extend below the lowest point of the pan head. Use the saber saw or jigsaw (with a blade designed for cutting metal) to cut the pan head. 8. Using a hammer on the underside of the pan, carefully pound within the lines of each note section until each one is raised. This is not an exact science, but the higher each section is raised, the easier it should be to tune the individual pitches later. After this is done, tap the rest of the pan head down a bit. Tap in the center of the pan head, avoiding the small notes. Use the dead blow hammer, if one is available. 9. The notes of the pan head can now be tuned. From the top of the pan, lightly tap each note section, constantly checking with a tuner or piano, until the proper pitch is achieved. As the section is pounded lightly, the pitch should descend. The large C note of the pan head should correspond to middle C on the piano. If a section collapses or the pitch becomes lower than desired, pound the section back up again from below. Because the paint can is not as depend-

Figure B.2. Mini-Pan Rim Note Diagram

Additional Instrument Construction Directions

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Mini-Pan Stand Materials: 2 5/8-inch wooden dowels piece of 18-by-24-by-1-inch wood for the base drill 2 small eye screws 2 small curtain hooks 12- to 18-inch piece of electrical wire 2 “pinch” fasteners for the electrical wire Mini-Pan Stand Instructions:

Figure B.3. Mini-Pan Center Note Measurements

able and sturdy as a 55-gallon oil drum, it may sometimes be difficult to achieve the desired pitch on a particular section. If this occurs, it may be best to accept the pitch achieved and go on to the next section. Hopefully, the original pitch desired will be attainable on another section. Also, as each section is tuned, it may affect the pitches of those next to it. Therefore, after a rough tuning (once around the pan), it will probably be necessary to work on each note again until the desired tuning is achieved. 10. After the tuning is completed, paint the top of the drum silver and outline the sections again with the permanent marker. Paint the side of the drum with a color other than silver. 11. Mallets can be constructed from ¼-inch dowels and wide rubber bands. Cut the dowels approximately 6 to 8 inches long. Cut a rubber band, then wrap it around the head of the dowel and tuck the end under the last wrap. 12. The mini-pan can be played by gently striking the middle of each note with the mallets.

1. A stand for the steel drum can be constructed by inserting two 5/8-inch dowels, approximately 18 inches long, into a wood base, which is 18 to 24 inches long. Drill 2 holes in the base, the same size as the dowels, so the steel pan fits between them with ¼ to 3/8 inch of space on each side. The dowels may be glued to the base or simply fitted tightly (see figure B.4). 2. Drill two 5/8-inch holes in the sides of the pan head, just below the rim. Make sure the holes are beyond the center point of the pan head, on the opposite side of the pan from the note C. This ensures that the drum will hang in the proper position to be played and the note C will be closest to the performer. 3. Next, insert small eye screws into the ends of the dowels and, using small curtain hooks, attach the steel pan to the stand. Hang the drum, using the electrical wire and “pinch” fasteners of the appropriate size for the wire.

Figure B.4. Mini-Pan Stand

C Performing Groups: Video Clips on the MENC Website

the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse, performs on percussion drums. The ensemble is directed by Soojin Kim Ritterling. • Ch. 14, Sacred Harp Performing Group. The Sacred Harp Singers are a group of participants who sang in a session at the 2008 Multicultural Symposium. The group was led by Jonathon Smith, a graduate student in ethnomusicology and a presenter at the symposium. • Ch. 15, L’Esprit Creole. L’Esprit Creole is a Cajun and Creole band that performs Cajun music of New Orleans and French Creole music of “Upper” Louisiana. Dennis Stroughmatt and the band perform for libraries and museums and in small concert halls. An educator as well as an entertainer, Dennis also presents an educational workshop for students in elementary and middle schools.

• Ch. 5, West African Music and Dance. Kofi Gbolonyo leads the workshop participants in a performance of “Kpatsa,” a music and dance folk song from Ghana. • Ch. 8, Bamboo Angklung. Han, Kuo-Huang leads the workshop participants in performing folk tunes on bamboo instruments from Southeast Asia. • Ch. 9, Chinese Ensemble. The University of Kentucky Chinese Ensemble performs traditional melodies on Chinese instruments. The group is led by Han, Kuo-Huang. • Ch. 10, African American Gospel Music. The Virginia State Gospel Choir performs traditional African American gospel music. The group is directed by James Holden. • Ch. 11, UM-L Korean Percussion Ensemble. The Korean Percussion Ensemble “Samulnori,” from

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About the Editors

Marvelene C. Moore, editor, is a professor of music education and holder of a James A. Cox Endowed Chair. She is a member of the ISME Executive Board and president of the Tennessee Alliance for Arts Education. She has published extensively, including Multicultural Traditions and the National Standards, Classroom Management in the General, Choral and Instrumental Music Programs, and the Making Music textbook series. She is a contributing author to Musical Experiences in Our Lives, Bringing Multicultural Music to Children, and Performing with Understanding.

Philip Ewell, editor, is an assistant professor of music theory at Hunter College CUNY and a former assistant professor at the University of Tennessee. Dr. Ewell’s specialties include Russian music, twentieth-century music, and rap and hip-hop. He has published articles in Germano-Slavica, Indiana Theory Review, Journal of Schenkerian Studies, Popular Music, and other professional journals. After receiving bachelor’s and master’s degrees, he received a certificate in cello performance from the St. Petersburg Conservatory of Music in Russia. He completed his Ph.D. at Yale University.

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About the Contributors

choral music education and directs University Singers. Dr. Brinckmeyer is also the artistic director for the new Hill Country Youth Chorus. She has conducted, lectured, presented master classes, and performed across the United States and in Korea, Taiwan, Amsterdam, Italy, and the British Isles. Her recent All-State performances include the Oregon, Idaho, and Washington Elementary All State Honor Choirs.

Nasser Al-Taee is an assistant professor of musicology at the University of Tennessee. He specializes in eighteenth-century Orientalism as well as in the political, social, and cultural exchange between East and West. He has published in The Opera Quarterly, Popular Music, ECHO, and Pride. His current research focuses on Orientalism in Western music as it pertains to issues concerning politics, gender, and identity. Other areas of interests include trends in Arabic music, including resistance, rebellion, and borrowings.

Mary Ellen Cavitt is an associate professor of music education at Texas State University. She is an active clinician and adjudicator in instrumental music, and her research has been presented at regional, national, and international conferences in the fields of music education and music therapy. Dr. Cavitt currently serves as the editor for the Texas Music Education Research Journal, and her recent writings can be found in the Journal of Research in Music Education and the Journal of Band Research.

René Boyer is professor emeritus of music education at the University of Cincinnati College Conservatory of Music. She has served as guest clinician for numerous state, national, and international conferences; teacher inservices; and courses of study. She is the coauthor of Bringing Multicultural Music to Children; Music Fundamentals, Methods, Materials for the Elementary Classroom Teacher; Share the Music; and the K–8 Basil Book Series. She is the author of Walking in the Light of Freedom: Celebrating African American History through the Spiritual Song; Celebrating African American History through Plantation Songs and Folklore; and Celebrating African American History through Children’s Songs, Games, Rope Chants and Dances. She is a special guest singer and conductor on Gospel and Spirituals, a compact disc.

Martin Comte is an arts consultant working with universities and school systems, principally in Australia and Hong Kong. Dr. Comte has had an illustrious career in music and arts education. He was awarded the first Australian university Chair of Music Education. He is a past president and honorary life member of the Australian Society for Music Education and a former chair of the International Society for Music Educationís Commission on Music in Schools & Teacher Education. For many years he was editor of the Australian Journal of Music Education. He has published widely in the fields of the arts and education, including Music Education: International Viewpoints and Music Education: Giving Children a Voice.

Lynn M. Brinckmeyer is an associate professor of music and director of choral music education at Texas State University–San Marcos. Dr. Brinckmeyer has served as the national president of MENC: The National Association for Music Education. At Texas State University, Dr. Brinckmeyer teaches courses in 147

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About the Contributors

J. S. Kofi Gbolonyo is a Ghanaian Ewe, a Ph.D. candidate and an Andrew Mellon predoctoral fellow, the director of the University of Pittsburgh African Music and Dance Ensemble, and a teaching fellow at the University of Pittsburgh. He served as a production assistant at the School of Performing Arts, University of Ghana, Legon, and worked with Abibigromma, the resident theater company of the university (2002–2003). He was the director of the University of Ghana African Brass Ensemble (1999–2002). Kofi is a specialist and a clinician in African music and dance and Ewe language and culture, and an advocate of multicultural music education. Cynthia I. Gonzales is a music theorist and a professional soprano with degrees in Music Education and Music Theory from the University of North Texas and from Harvard University. She has published and delivered presentations at both national and international conferences on her primary research topic—text-music relations in German lieder, particularly the songs by Arnold Schoenberg—and about the application of technology to music instruction. In 1983, Cynthia was a soloist and section leader during the inaugural season of the Santa Fe Desert Chorale. Since 1996, she has performed with the Austin-based Grammy-nominated professional choral ensemble Conspirare, for which she is also Soprano Section Leader. Dr. Gonzales has twice been a member of authoring teams for choral textbooks published by Hal Leonard and Glencoe/ McGraw-Hill, and recently contributed materials to the Teacher Resource Binder on teaching dictation skills. Han, Kuo-Huang is professor (emeritus) of music and the principal teacher in the area of world music and world music education in the School of Music, Northern Illinois University–DeKalb. He has published widely in the field of ethnomusicology, including twelve books and many articles in Chinese and English. His articles have appeared in Ethnomusicology, Asian Music, The World of Music, Balungan, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (2nd ed.), The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music (Far Eastern Volume), Encyclopedia Britannica, Routledge Encyclopedia of Contemporary China, and textbooks such as Musics of Many Cultures (ed. Elizabeth May) and Multicultural Perspectives in Music Education (ed. William Anderson and Patricia Campbell).

Lisa J. Lehmberg is an assistant professor of music at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Her areas of specialty are general music education, world music education, and music education technology. Her research focuses on effective general music education and preservice preparation for urban schools. She has served as a presenter at ISME World Conferences, MENC Biennial In-Service Conferences, and Biennial National Multicultural Music Symposia, as well as at state MEA conferences in Florida and throughout the Midwest. Sean K. McCollough is a lecturer of musicology at the University of Tennessee. His general area of specialty is American music, with an emphasis on the music of Appalachia. He plays guitar, claw-hammer banjo, and mandolin. He has five CDs to his credit, including the LoneTones’ most recent album. He worked as the concert manager at the Laurel Theater in Knoxville, Tennessee, for two years and continues to help organize music festivals in the Knoxville area. Soojin Kim Ritterling is an associate professor of music education at the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse. Dr. Ritterling is a Korean folk music enthusiast, having played traditional Korean instruments such as the kayakum (a 12-stringed instrument) and percussion instruments such as the janggu (doubleheaded hourglass shape drum), kwaenggwari (small gong), jing (large gong), and buk (barrel drum). She is a contributing author for the Korean music units in the Spotlight on Music Textbook Series by Macmillan/ McGraw-Hill. Emma Rodríguez Suárez is currently an assistant professor at Syracuse University. Emma Rodríguez Suárez was born and raised in the Canary Islands, Spain. Suarez holds a Level III Orff Schulwerk Teacher Training certificate and a Kodaly Certificate from the Kodaly Musical Training Institute. She has published numerous articles and contributed to Strategies for Teaching: K–4 General Music (MENC), Performance Standards for Music: Grades PreK–12 (MENC), and Strategies for Teaching Elementary and Middle-Level Chorus (MENC). David M. Royse is an associate professor at the University of Tennessee. He is a frequent presenter at

About the Contributors

state and national conferences, and has published in the Journal of Research in Music Education, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, Journal of Music Teacher Education, Contributions to Music Education, Music Educators Journal, and Teacher Magazine. He is a contributing author to the 2002 MENC publication Classroom Management in General, Choral, and Instrumental Music Programs, and is past president for the Southern Chapter of the College Music Society. Rosita M. Sands currently serves as faculty in the Music Department of Columbia College Chicago. She previously served as associate director and director of the Center for Black Music Research at Columbia College and as a professor and coordinator of music education at the University of Massachusetts, Lowell. Her most recent publications are an update to the “Secular Folk Music” chapter in African American Music: An Introduction (2006) and an article in Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education. She is currently editing, with Samuel A. Floyd Jr., an anthology of readings on black music. Alan Shapiro is a jazz pianist and, for nearly twenty years, has been a teacher of music appreciation, voice, chorus, and music technology in the New York City public

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schools, currently at Edward R. Murrow High School. He has lectured on the music of Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Richard Wagner, and others, and has given workshops describing the Aesthetic Realism Teaching Method at conferences of the New York State School Music Association. He is the coauthor of Teaching Music in the Urban Classroom, recently published by Rowman & Littlefield in partnership with The National Association for Music Education. Robin Stein is the coordinator of music education at Texas State. Ms. Stein taught elementary and junior high general music classes in public school for 26 years prior to finishing her D.M.A. in Music Education at the University of Northern Colorado. She holds bachelor’s and masters degree’s in music from the University of Wyoming. She has presented clinics at state, divisional, and national conferences. Dr. Stein has served on the advisory board of the MENC publication Teaching Music and is currently on the editorial review board for the College Music Society’s South Central Region Journal. She serves on the National Executive Board for the Society for Music Teacher Education. Her professional affiliations include MENC: The National Association for Music Education, Texas Music Educators Association, American Orff Schulwerk Association, Central Texas Orff Chapter, and College Music Society.

PRAISE FOR KALEIDOSCOPE OF CULTURES

“Marvelene Moore’s approach to multiculturalism in music education is as rich as it is very real. Biennially, she assembles an inspirational case of teachers, performers, and scholars who think and act musically—and multiculturally. This compendium of thoughtful essays and straightforward lessons, from those assembled at the 2006 and 2008 symposia, are a beautiful reflection of the way forward to more finely honed music education practices in our time of multi-splendored diversity.”—Patricia Shehan Campbell, Donald E. Petersen Professor of Music, University of Washington “Since the 1967 Tanglewood Symposium, the music education profession has engaged in an intense and on-going debate about the nature of multicultural music education. Marvelene Moore’s innovative series of Multicultural Symposia at the University of Tennessee has continued to broaden and enlighten this dialogue. Kaleidoscope of Cultures give music teachers an in-depth look at some of the most interesting philosophical discussions in the field, and also delivers practical classroom strategies from the best in the field. Moore’s book is a valuable contribution to the continuing exploration and understanding of multicultural music education.”—Will Schmid, past president, MENC: The National Association for Music Education