Jones Owen. The Grammar of Ornament

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

THE

GRAMMAR OF OR N A M E N T BY

OWEN JONES.

I L L U S T R AT E D

BY EXAMPLES

F R O M VA R I O U S S T Y L E S O F O R N A M E N T.

O N E H U N D R E D A N D T W E LV E P L AT E S .

LONDON:

P U B L I S H E D B Y D AY A N D S O N , L I M I T E D , G AT E S T R E E T, LINCO LN’S I N N FIELD S.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

P R E FA C E T O T H E F O L I O E D I T I O N .

IT would be far beyond the limits of the powers of any one individual to attempt to gather together illustrations of the innumerable and ever-vary ing phases of Ornamental Art. It would be barely possible if undertaken b y a Government, and even then it would be too voluminous to be generally use ful. All, therefore, that I have proposed to myself in forming the collection whi ch I have ventured to call the Grammar of Ornament, has been to select a few of the most promin ent types in certain styles closely connec ted with each other, and in which certain general laws appeared to reign independently of the individ ual peculiarities of each. I have ventured to hope that, in thus bringing i nto immed iate juxtapo sition the many forms of beauty which every style of orname nt presents, I might aid in arresting that unfortunate tendency of our tim e to be content with copying, whilst the fashion lasts, the forms peculiar to a ny bygone age, without attempting to ascertain, generally completely ignoring, the peculiar circumstances which rendered an ornament beautiful, because it w as approp riate, and which, as expres sive of other wants when thus transpl anted, as entirely fails. It is more than probable that the first result of sending forth to the world

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

tende ncy, and that this colle ction will be serio usly to incre ase this dange rous rms of beauty which many will be content to borrow from the past those fo n my desire to arrest have not already been used up ad nauseam. It has bee t h i s t e n d e n c y, a n d t o a w a k e n a h i g h e r a m b i t i o n .

as landmarks and aids to the student in his onward path, has, I trust, been fulfilled.

I t r e m a i n s f o r m e t o o ff e r m y a c k n o w l e d g m e n t t o a l l t h o s e f r i e n d s w h o h a v e

ghts which have If the student will but endeavour to search out the thou ssuredly hope to find b e e n e x p r e s s e d i n s o m a n y d i ff e r e n t l a n g u a g e s , h e m a y a

kindly assisted me in the undertaking.

t r e s e r v o i r. a n e v e r- g u s h i n g f o u n t a i n i n p l a c e o f a h a l f - f i l l e d s t a g n a n main facts, — In the follow ing chapt ers I have endea voure d to estab lish these

a s s i s t a n c e f r o m M r. J . B o n o m i , a n d f r o m M r. J a m e s Wi l d , w h o h a s a l s o c o n -

universal admiraFirst. That whenever any style of ornament commands laws which regulate tion, it will always be found to be in accordance with the

having afforded him the opportunity of forming a very large collection of

the distribution of form in nature.

an imperfect idea, and which I trust he may some day be encouraged to

rdance with these S e c o n d l y. T h a t h o w e v e r v a r i e d t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n a c c o e r y f e w. laws, the leading ideas on which they are based are v

p u b l i s h i n a c o m p l e t e fo rm .

have taken place T h i r d l y. T h a t t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s w h i c h t h r o w i n g o ff o f s o m e from one style to another have been caused by a sudden

M r. C . J . R i c h a r d s o n I o b t a i n e d t h e p r i n c i p a l p o r t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l s o f t h e

idea, like the old, fixed tramm el, which set thoug ht free for a time, till the new ventions. became again fixed, to give birth in its turn to fresh in

am also indebted to him for the very valuable essays on Byzantine and Eliza-

c h a p t e r, t h a t t h e L a s t l y. I h a v e e n d e a v o u r e d t o s h o w, i n t h e t w e n t i e t h y engrafting on the future progress of Ornamental Art may be best secured b

the Ornament of the Celtic races, has assisted in the Celtic Collection, and

y a return to Nature experience of the past the knowledge we may obtain b art, or to form a style, f o r f r e s h i n s p i r a t i o n . To a t t e m p t t o b u i l d u p t h e o r i e s o f

In the formation of the Egyptian Collection I received much valuable

tributed the materials for the Arabian Collection, his long residence in Cairo

Cairean Ornament, of which the portion contained in this work can give but

I a m i n d e b t e d t o M r . T. T. B u r y f o r t h e p l a t e o f S t a i n e d G l a s s . F r o m

E l i z a b e t h a n C o l l e c t i o n ; f r o m M r. J . B . Wa r i n g , t h o s e o f t h e B y z a n t i n e , a n d I

b e t h a n O r n a m e n t . M r. J . O . We s t w o o d h a v i n g d i r e c t e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o

written the very remarkable history and exposition of the style. M r. C . D r e s s e r, o f M a r l b o r o u g h H o u s e , h a s p r o v i d e d t h e i n t e r e s t i n g p l a t e N o . 8 o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c h a p t e r, e x h i b i t i n g t h e g e o m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f

f o l l y. I t w o u l d b e a t independently of the past, would be an act of supreme edge of thousands of once to reject the experiences and accumulated knowl

n a tu r a l flowers.

nce all the successful y e a r s . O n t h e c o n t r a r y, w e s h o u l d r e g a r d a s o u r i n h e r i t a oying them simply as labours of the past, not blindly following them, but empl

work with his admirable essays on the Ornament of the Renaissance and the

guides to find the true path.

M y c o l l e a g u e a t t h e C r y s t a l P a l a c e , M . D i g b y Wy a t t , h a s e n r i c h e d t h e

Italian periods. Whenever the material has been gathered from published sources, it has

to the judgm ent of In takin g leave of the subje ct, and finall y surre nderi ng it from being comp lete ; the publi c, I am fully aware that the colle ction is very far ly fill up for himse lf. there are many gaps which each artist , howe ver, may readi

been acknowledged in the body of the work.

s as might best serve My chief aim, to place side by side types of such style

reduced the whole of the original drawings, and prepared them for publication.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

The remainder of the drawings have been chiefly executed by my pupils, M r . A l b e r t Wa r r e n a n d M r . C h a r l e s A u b e r t , w h o , w i t h M r . S t u b b s , h a v e

T

The drawing upon stone of the whole collection was entrusted to the care o f M r. F r a n c i s B e d f o r d , w h o , w i t h h i s a b l e a s s i s t a n t s , M e s s r s . H . F i e l d i n g , W. R. Tymms, A. Wa r r e n , a n d S. Se d g f ie ld , w ith o c c a s io n a l h e lp , h a v e e x e c u te d t h e O n e H u n d r e d P l a t e s i n l e s s t h a n o n e y e a r.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FORM AND COLOUR, IN ARCHITECTURE AND THE DECORATIVE ARTS, WHICH ARE ADVOCATED THROUGHOUT THIS WORK.

M y s p e c i a l t h a n k s a r e d u e t o M r. B e d f o r d f o r t h e c a r e a n d a n x i e t y w h i c h he has evinced, quite regardless of all personal consideration, to render this work as perfect as the advanced stage of chromolithography demanded ; and I feel persuaded that his valuable services will be fully recognised by all in a ny wa y a c qua inte d with th e d iff ic u ltie s a n d u n c e r ta in tie s o f th is p r o c e s s .

P R O P O S I T I O N 1.

Messrs. Day and Son, the enterprising publishers, and at the same time the printers of the work, have put forth all their strength ; and notwithstanding the care required, and the vast amount of printing to be performed, the resources of their establishment have enabled them, not only to deliver the work with perfect regularity to the Subscribers, but even to complete it before the appointed time.

Gen eral principles.

The Decorative Arts arise from, and Beauty of form is produced by lines should properly be attendant upon, Ar- g r o w i n g o u t o n e f r o m t h e o t h e r i n chitecture. gradual undulations : there are no excrescences ; nothing could be removed P R O P O S I T I O N 2. Architectu re is the material expression a n d l e a v e t h e d e s i g n e q u a l l y g o o d o r of the wants, the faculties, and the senti- better. ments, of the age in which it is created.

OWEN JONES.

Style in Architecture is the particular form that expression takes under the influence of climate and materials at command. P R O P O S I T I O N 3.

9 A rg y l l P l a c e , Dec. 15, 1856.

P R O P O S I T I O N 6.

As Architectu re, so all works of the Decorative Arts, should possess fitness, proportion , harmony, the result of all which is repose. P R O P O S I T I O N 4.

On general form.

PROPOSITION 7.

The general forms being first cared for, these should be subdivided and ornamented by general lines ; the interstices may then be filled in with ornament, which may again be subdivide d and enriched for closer inspection .

Decoration of the surface.

P R O P O S I T I O N 8.

All ornament should be based upon a geometrica l constructio n.

True beauty results from that repose P R O P O S I T I O N 9. which the mind feels when the eye, the A s i n e v e r y p e r f e c t w o r k o f A r c h i - On proporintellect, and the affections, are satisfied t e c t u r e a t r u e p r o p o r t i o n w i l l b e f o u n d tion from the absence of any want. to reign between all the members which P R O P O S I T I O N 5. compose it, so throughou t the Decorative Constructi on should be decorated. Arts every assemblage of forms should Decoration should never be purposely b e a r r a n g e d o n c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e p r o p o rconstructe d. tions ; the whole and each particular That which is beautiful is true ; that which is true m e m b e r s h o u l d b e a m u l t i p l e o f s o m e must be beautiful. simple unit.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

PROPOSITION 15. Those proportions will be the most beautiful which it will be most difficult for the eye to Colour is used to assist light and detect. shade, helping the undulations of form Thus the proportion of a double square, or 4 to 8, will be less beautiful than b y t h e p r o p e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e v e r a l the more subtle ratio of 5 to 8 ; 3 to 6, colours. than 3 to 7 ; 3 to 9, than 3 to 8 ; PROPOSITION 16. 3 to 4, than 3 to 5.

On harmony and contrast.

These objects are best attained by the u s e o f t h e p r i m a r y c o l o u r s o n s m a l l s u rPROPOSITION 10. faces and in small quantities, balanced Harmony of form consists in the a n d s u p p o r t e d b y t h e s e c o n d a r y a n d t e rproper balancing, and contrast of, the tiary colours on the larger mas s es . straight, the inclined, and the curved.

PROPOSITION 19. The above supposes the colours to be used in their prismatic intensities, but each colour has a variety of tones when mixed with white, or of shades when mixed with grey or black On the contrasts and harmonious equivalents of tones, shades, and hues.

PROPOSITION 11.

Distribution. Radiation. Continuity.

The primary colours should be used should lines all decoration surface In on the upper portions of objects, the flow out of a parent stem. Every ornas e c o n d a r y a n d t e r t i a r y o n t h e l o w e r. ment, however distant, should be traced to its branch and root. Oriental practice. P R O P O S I T I O N 18.

PROPOSITION 12.

On the conventionality of natural forms.

On colour generally.

When a primary tinged with another p r i m a r y i s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h a s e c o n d a r y, the secondary must have a hue of the third primary.

(Field’s Chromatic equivalents.)

The primaries of equal intensities will On the proAll junctions of curved lines with portions by harmonise or neutralise each other, in the which hart h g i a r t s h t i w s e n i l d e v r u c f o r o curved mony in p r o p o r t i o n s o f 3 y e l l o w, 5 r e d , a n d 8 colouring is . r e h t o h c should be tangential to ea produced. blue,—integrally as 16. Natural law. Oriental p r a c t i c e i n a c The s econdaries in the proportions of cordance with it. 8 orange, 13 purple, 11 green,—integrally PROPOSITION 13. as 32. Flowers or other natural objects should The tertiaries, citrine (compound of not be used as ornaments, but convenorange and green), 19 ; russet (orange tional representat ions founded upon them a n d p u r p l e ) , 2 1 ; o l i v e ( g r e e n a n d sufficiently suggestive to convey the in- purple), 24 ;— integrally as 64. tended image to the mind, without deIt follows that,— are they object the of stroying the unity Each secondary being a compound of employed to decorate. Universall y obeyed t w o p r i m a r i e s i s n e u t r a l i s e d b y t h e r e in the best periods of Art, equally violated maining primary in the s ame proportions : when Art declines. thus , 8 of orange by 8 of blue, 11 of green by five of red, 13 of purple by 3 of yellow. PROPOSITION 14. Each tertiary being a binary comColour is used to assist in the devel- p o u n d o f t w o s e c o n d a r i e s , i s n e u t r a l i s e d opment of form, and to distinguish by the remaining secondary : as, 24 of o b j e c t s o r p a r t s o f o b j e c t s o n e f r o m o l i v e b y 8 o f o r a n g e , 2 1 o f r u s s e t b y 11 another. of green, 19 of citrine by 13 of purple.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

No composition can ever be perfect in which any one of the three primary colours is wanting, either in its natural state or in combinatio n.

When a full colour is contrasted with another of a lower tone, the volume of P ROPOSITION 24. the latter must be proportionally increased. When two tones of the same colour PROPOSITION 20. are juxtaposed, the light colour will Each colour has a variety of hues, obtained by a p p e a r l i g h t e r , a n d t h e d a r k c o l o u r admixture with other colours, in addition to d a r k e r. white, grey, or black : thus we have of yellow, —orange-yel low on the one side, and lemonyellow on the other ; so of red, —scarlet-red , and crimson-red ; and of each every variety of tone and shade.

PROPOSITION 17.

P ROPOSITION 23.

On the law of simultaneous contrasts of colours, derived from Mons. Chevruil.

P ROPOSITION 25. W h e n t w o d i ff e r e n t c o l o u r s a r e j u x t a posed, they receive a double modificati on ; first, as to their tone (the light colour a p p e a r i n g l i g h t e r, a n d t h e d a r k c o l o u r a p p e a r i n g d a r k e r ) ; s e c o n d l y, a s t o t h e i r hue, each will become tinged with the complemen tary colour of the other.

PROPOSITION 21. On the positions the several colours should occupy.

P ROPOSITION 26. In using the primary colours on moulded surfaces, we should place blue, Colours on white grounds appear which retires, on the concave surfaces ; darker ; on b l a c k g r o u n d s l i g h t e r. yellow, which advances, on the convex ; a n d r e d , t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e c o l o u r, o n t h e PROPOSITION 27. undersides ; separating the colours by Black grounds suffer when opposed white on the vertical planes. to colours which give a luminous compleWhen the proportions required by Proposition 18 mentary. cannot be obtained, we may procure the balance by a change in the colours themselves : thus, if the surfaces to be coloured should give too much yellow, we should make the red more crimson and the blue more purple, — i.e. we should take the yellow out of them ; so if the surfaces should give too much blue, we should make the yellow more orange and the red more scarlet.

PROPOSITION 22. The various colours should be so blended that the objects coloured, when viewed at a distance, should present a neutralised bloom.

PROPOSITION 28. Colours should never be allowed to impinge upon each other. P ROPOSITION 29. When ornaments in a colour are on a ground of a contrasting colour, the ornament should be separated from the ground by an edging of lighter colour ; as a red flower on a green ground should have an edging of lighter red.

On the means of increasing the harmonious effects of juxtaposed colours. Observations derived from a consideration of Oriental practice.

T

PROPOSITION 30. When ornaments in a colour are on a gold ground, the ornaments should be separated from the ground by an edging of a darker colour. PROPOSITION 31. Gold ornaments on any coloured ground should be outlined with black.

ground may be used without outline ; but a dark ornament on a light ground requires to be outlined with a still darker tint. P ROPOSITION 35. imitaI m i t a t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e g r a i n i n g o f On tions woods, and of the various coloured m a r b l e s , a l l o w a b l e o n l y, w h e n t h e e m ployment of the thing imitated would not have been inconsistent.

LIST

OF

P L AT E S .

PROPOSITION 32. P ROPOSITION 36. Ornaments of any colour may be sepaThe principles discoverable in the rated from grounds of any other colour works of the past belong to us ; not so by edgings of white, gold, or black. the results. It is taking the end for the means. PROPOSITION 33. PROPOSITION 37. Ornaments in any colour, or in gold, No improvement can take place in may be used on white or black grounds, the Art of the present generation until without outline or edging. all classes, Artists, Manufacturers, and PROPOSITION 34. the Public, are better educated in Art, In “self-tints,” tones, or shades of the and the existence of general principles is s a m e c o l o u r , a l i g h t t i n t o n a d a r k more fully recognised.

C H A P. I . O r n a m e n t o f S a v a g e Tr i b e s . Plate. No.

1 2 3

1 Ornaments from Articles belonging to various Savage Tribes, exhibited in the United Service and British Museums. 2 Ditto ditto ditto. 3 Ditto ditto ditto.

C H A P . II. 4 5 6 6* 7 8 9 10 11

Egyptian

Ornament.

1 The Lotus and Papyrus, types of Egyptian ornament. 2 Ditto ditto with Feathers and Palm-branche s. 3 Capitals of Columns, showing the varied applications of the Lotus and Papyrus. 3* Ditto ditto ditto. 4 Various Cornices, formed by the Pendent Lotus. 5 Ornaments from Mummy Cases in the British Museum and the Louvre. 6 Geometrical Ornaments from Ceilings of Tombs. 7 Ornaments with Curved Lines from Ceilings of Tombs. 8 Various Ornaments from Ceilings and Walls of Tombs.

C H A P . III. 12 13 14

Assyrian and Persian Ornament.

1 Painted Ornaments from Nineveh. 2 Ditt ditto. 3 Carved Ornaments from Persepolis, and Sassanian Ornaments from Ispahan and Bi-Sutoun.

C H A P . IV.

Greek

Ornament.

15 1 The various Forms of the Greek Fret. 16 2 17 18 19 20 21 22

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

3 4 Ornaments from Greek and Etruscan Vases in the British Museum and the Louvre. 5 6 7 8 Painted Greek Ornaments from the Temples and Tombs in Greece and Sicily.

T

C H A P . V.

P o m p e i a n Ornament.

C H A P . XII.

Indian Ornament.

Plate. No.

23 24 25

1 C ollection of Borders from different Edifices in Pompeii. ditto. 2 Ditto Pilasters and Friezes 3 Mosaics from Pompeii and the Museum a t Naples.

R o m a n Ornament.

CHAP. VI. 26 27

1 Roman Ornaments from Casts in the Crystal Palace. 2 Ditto from the “M u s e o Bresciano.”

Plate. No.

49 50 51 52 53 53* 54 54* 55

B y z a n t i n e Ornament.

CHAP. VII.

1 Carved Byzantine Ornaments. ditto. 2 Painted ditto. 2 9 * 2 * Ditto 3 0 3 Mosaics.

28 29

CHAP. VIII. 31 32 33 34 35

36 37 38

M oresque Ornament from the Alhambra.

41

1 Varieties of Interlaced Ornaments. 2 Spandrils of Arches. 3 Lozenge Diapers.

41* 42 42* 42*

ditto. 3 * Ditto 4 Square Diapers. ditto. 4 * Ditto ditto. 4 † Ditto

43

5 Mosaics.

39 40

CHAP. XI.

56 57 58

Hindoo Ornament.

1 Ornaments from a Statue at the Asiatic Society’s House. 2 From the Collection at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. 3 From the Collection at the India House.

C H A P . XIV. 59 60 61 62

Chinese Ornament.

1 2 Chinese Ornaments painted on Porcelain, and on Wood, and from Woven Fabrics. 3 4 Conventional Renderings of Fruits and Flowers.

Turkish Ornament.

1 Ornaments in Relief from Mosques, Tombs, and Fountains at Constantinopl e. 2 Painted Ornaments from the Mosque of Soliman at Constantinopl e. 3 Decoration of the Dome of the Tomb of Soliman I. at Constantinopl e.

CHAP. X.

C H A P . XIII.

A r a b i a n Ornament.

1 Arabian Ornaments of the Ninth Century from Cairo. Thirteenth Century ditto. 2 Ditto ditto. ditto 3 Ditto 4 Portion of an Illuminated Copy of the “ Koran.” 5 Mosaics from Walls and Pavements from Houses in Cairo.

CHAP. IX.

1 Ornaments from Metal-work from the Exhibition of 1851. 2 Ditto from Embroidered and Woven Fabrics and Paintings on Vases exhibited in the Indian Collection in 1851, now at South Kensington Museum. 3 4 5 5* 6 Specimens of Painted Lacquer-work from the Collection at the India House. 6* 7 Ornaments from Woven and Embroidered Fabrics and Painted Boxes exhibited at Paris in 1855.

P ersian Ornament.

1 Ornaments from Persian M S S . in the Brittish Museum. ditto. 4 5 2 Ditto ditto. 4 6 3 Ditto 4 7 4 From a Persian Manufacturer’s Pattern-Book, South Kensington Museum. ditto. ditto 47* 4*Ditto Museum. 4 8 5 From a Persian MS. South Kensington

C H A P . XV. 63 64 65

Celtic Ornament.

1 Lapidary Ornamentation. 2 Interlaced Styles. 3 Spiral, Diagonal, Zoomorphic, and later Anglo-Saxon Ornament.

C H A P . XVI. Mediæval Ornament. 66 67 67* 68 69 69* 70

1 Conventional Leaves and Flowers from Illuminated MSS. 2 Borders from Illuminated MSS. and Paintings. ditto. ditto 2*Ditto 3 Diapers from Illuminated MSS. and Backgrounds of Pictures. 4 Stained Glass of various periods. ditto. 4*Ditto ditto. 5 Encaustic Tiles

44

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

ILLUMINATED MSS. 71 72 73

1 Portions of Illuminated MSS. of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Thirteenth and Fourteenth ditto. ditto 2 Ditto Fourteenth and Fifteenth ditto. ditto 3 Ditto

T

C H A P . XVII. Renaissance Ornament. Plate. No.

74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Renaissance Ornaments in Relief, from Photographs taken from Casts in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. Enamels from the Louvre and Hotel Cluny. Ornaments from Pottery at South Kensington Museum. Ditto d i t t o ditto Hôtel Cluny and the Louvre. Ditto ditto ditto.

86* 87 88 89 90

Elizabethan Ornament.

1 2 Various Ornaments in Relief from the Time of Henry VIII. to that of Charles II. 3 Painted Ornaments and Ornaments on Woven Fabric, ditto.

C H A P . XIX. 86

ORNAMENT OF SAVAGE TRIBES.

Ornaments from Stone and Wood from the Collections of the Louvre and Hotel Cluny.

C H A P . XVIII. 83 84 85

C H A PTER I. — P LATES 1, 2 , 3 .

Italian Ornament.

1 Pilasters and Ornaments from the Loggie of the Vatican, reduced from the full-size Paintings at South Kensington Museum. 1* Ditto ditto ditto ditto. 2 Ornaments from the Palazzo Ducale, Mantua. 3 Ditto from the Palazzo Ducale and the Church of St. Andrea, Mantua. 4 Ditto from the Palazzo del Te, Mantua. 5 Ornaments from Printed Books.

C H A P . XX. 91 1 92 2 93 3 94 4 95 5 96 6 97 7 98 8 99 9 100 10

PLATE I. 1. Cloth. Otaheite.—UNITED S ERVICE MUSEUM. 2. Matting from Tongotabu, Friendly Islands. 3. Cloth. Otaheite.—U. S. M. 4. Cloth. Sandwich Islands.—U. S. M. 5–8. Cloths. Sandwich Islands.— BRITISH MUSEUM.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Cloth Matting from Tongotabu, Friendly Islands. Cloth. Otaheite.—U. S. M. Cloth. Sandwich Islands.—B. M. Cloth. Cloth made from Paper Mulberry, Feejee Islands.—B.M.

PLATE II. 1. South America.—U NITED SERVICE M USEUM. 2. Sandwich Islands. U. S. M. 3. Owhyhee. U. S. M. 4. New Hebrides. Inlaid Shield. U. S. M. 5. Sandwich Islands. U. S. M. 6. South Sea Islands. U. S. M. 7, 8. Sandwich Islands. U. S. M.

9, 10. Tahiti. Adze. 11, 12. Friendly Islands. Drum. 13, 14. Tahiti. Adze. 15. Sandwich Islands. 16, 17. New Zealand. 18–20. Sandwich Islands.

U. S. M. U. S. M. U. S. M. U. S. M. U. S. M. U. S. M.

Leaves and Flowers from Nature.

Horse-chestnut leaves. Vine leaves. Ivy leaves. Leaves of the Oak, Fig-tree, Maple, White Bryony, Laurel, and Bay-tree. Leaves of the Vine, Hollyoak, Turkey oak, and Laburnum. Wild Rose, Ivy, and Blackberry. Hawthorne, Yew, Ivy, and Strawberry-tree. Various Flowers in Plan and Elevation. Honeysuckle and Convolvulus. Passion Flowers.

PLATE III. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Owhyhee. Club.—UNITED S ERVICE M USEUM. Sandwich Islands. Club. U. S. M. New Zealand. Patoo-Patoo. U. S. M. Tahiti. Adze. U. S. M. New Zealand. Paddle. U. S. M.

6. 7. 8. 9.

New Zealand. Pajee, or War Club.—U. S. M. South Sea Isles. War Club. U. S. M. Handle, full size of Fig. 5. U. S. M. Feejee Islands. Club. U. S. M.

F ROM the universal testimony of travellers it would appear, that there is scarcely a people, i n however early a stage of civilisation, with whom the desire for ornament is n o t a s t r o n g instinct. The desire is absent in none, and it grows and increases with all in t h e ratio of their progress i n civilisation. Man appears everywhere impressed with the beauties of Nature which surround him, and seeks to imitate t o the extent of his power the works of the Creator. Man’s earliest ambition is to create. To this feeling must be ascribed the tattooing of the human face and body, resorted to by the savage to increase the expression by which he seeks to strike terror on his enemies or rivals, o r t o create what appears to him a new beauty.* As w e advance higher, from the * The tattooing on the head which we introduce from the Museum at Chester is very remarkable, as showing that in this very barbarous practice the principles of the very highest ornamental art are manifest, every line upon the face is the best adapted to develope the natural features.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

d e c o r a t i o n o f t h e r u d e tent or w i g w a m to t h e s u b l i m e w o r k s of a P h i d i a s a n d Praxiteles, t h e s a m e f e e l i n g i s everywhere a p p a r e n t : t h e h i g h e s t a m b i t i o n is s t i l l t o c r e a t e, t o s t a m p o n t h i s e a r t h t h e i m p r e s s o f a n individual mind. F r o m t i m e t o t i m e a m i n d stronger t h a n t h o s e a r o u n d will impress itself o n a g e n e r a t i o n , a n d c a r r y w i t h i t a host of o t h e r s of less p o w e r f o l l o w i n g i n t h e s a m e - t r a c k , y e t n e v e r so c l o s e l y a s t o d e s t r o y t h e i n d i v i d u a l a m b i t i o n t o c r e a t e ; h e n c e t h e c a u s e of s t y l e s , a n d o f t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f s t y l e s . T h e e ff o r t s o f a p e o p l e i n a n e a r l y s t a g e o f civilisation are like those of children, though presenting a w a n t o f p o w e r, they possess a grace and naïveté r a r e l y f o u n d i n m i d - a g e, a n d n e v e r i n m a n h o o d ’s d e c l i n e . the infancy of any art.

It is equally so in

Cimabue and Giotto have

not the material charm of Raphael or the manly power of Michael Angelo, b u t s u r p a s s t h e m b o t h i n g r a c e a n d earnest truth.

T h e very command of

w e a r e acquainted.

s u c c e e d s ; w h e n revelling i n i t s o w n successes, it as

N o . 2, the eightpointed star is f o r m e d b y e i g h t applications of

signally fails .

the same tool; as also the black flower with sixteen pointing

T h e p l e a s u r e w e receive i n c o n -

inwards

m o s t s a v a g e tribes a r i s e s f r o m o u r appreciation o f

plica t e d patterns of the Byzantine, A r a b i a n ,

and

Moresque

mosaics would be generated b y the same means.

d u c t i o n o f a b r o a d g e n e r a l effect b y t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f a f e w s i m p l e e l e m e n t s; v a r i e t y s h o u l d r a t h e r b e

t h e s i m p l e a n d i n g e n i o u s process b y w h i c h t h e r e s u l t

sought in the arrangement of the several portions of a design, t h a n i n t h e multiplicity of varied

is obtained.

forms.

In fact, what we seek i n every work of

The secret of

success in all ornament is the pro-

A r t , whether it be h u m b l e o r pretentious, i s t h e

T h e s t a m p i n g o f p a t t e r n s o n the coverings of the b o d y, when either of skins of a n i m a l s o r m a t e r i a l s u c h

e v i d e n c e o f m i n d, — t h e evidence of that desire to

a s t h i s , w o u l d b e t h e f i r s t s t a g e t o w a r d s o r n a m e n t a f t e r t h e t a t t o o i n g of t h e b o d y b y a n a n a l o g o u s p r o c e s s .

c r e a t e t o w h i c h w e h a v e referred, a n d w h i c h a l l ,

I n b o t h t h e r e w o u l d r e m a i n a greater variety and individuality t h a n i n s u b s e q u e n t processes, which w o u l d b e c o m e m o r e mechanical . T h e f i r s t n o t i o n s o f

It is

s t r a n g e , b u t s o i t is, t h a t t h i s e v i d e n c e o f m i n d w i l l

weaving, which would b e g i v e n by the plaiting of straws o r strips of bark, instead of using them as thin sheets, would have equally the same result of

be m o r e r e a d i l y found i n t h e r u d e a t t e m p t s a t

gradually forming

I n d i v i d u a l i t y decreases in the ratio o f t h e p o w e r o f production.

W h e n A r t i s ma n u f a c t u r e d b y c o m b i n e d

effort, we f a i l t o recognise t h o s e true i n s t i n c t s w h i c h constitute its

greatest charm. I.

The most com-

b y t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h e intention , a n d s u r p r i s e d at

o r n a m e n t o f a s a v a g e tribe than i n t h e innumerable productions o f a h i g h l y -advanced civilisation.

Plate

a n d s i x t e e n p o i n t i n g outwards.

a difficulty accomplished; w e a r e a t o n c e c h a r m e d

Female Head from New Zealand, in the Museum, Chester.

of trees.

O n t h e u p p e r left-hand corner o f p a t t e r n

templating t h e r u d e a t t e m p t s at ornament of the

with when they find it developed in others.

originated by individual

c r e a t i o n o f a l l t h e geometrical a r r a n g e m e n t s o f f o r m w i t h w h i c h

m e a n s leads t o their abuse : w h e n A r t struggles, it

f e e l i n g a n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t w i t h i n t h e m , are satisfied

effort , not

all the patterns in use there, W h e n M r . Brierly visited t h e i s l a n d o n e w o m a n w a s t h e d e s i g n e r o f certain number of yards of cloth. and for every new pattern she designed she received as a reward a lesson in composition which we The pattern No. 2, from the same place, is equally an admirable udicious than the general arrangem a y d e r i v e f r o m a n artist of a savage tribe. N o t h i n g c a n b e m o r e j Wi t h o u t t h e red s p o t s o n t h e y e l l o w g r o u n d t h e r e ment of the four squares and the four red spots. without the red lines round the would have been a great want of repose in the general arrangementt ; ll imperfect. H a d t h e s m a l l r e d r e d s p o t s t o c a r r y t h e r e d t h r o u g h t h e y e l l o w, i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n s t i ern would a g a i n h a v e been lost, triangles t u r n e d o u t w a r d s i n s t e a d o f i n w a r d s , t h e r e p o s e o f t h e p a t t g ; a s i t i s , t h e e y e i s centred in a n d t h e e ff e c t p r o d u c e d o n t h e e y e w o u l d h a v e b e e n that of squintin ntre square. The stamps which e a c h s q u a r e , a n d c e n t r e d i n e a c h group b y the red spots r o u n d t h e c e being a single stamp, we thus see and each leaf f o r m t h e p a t t e r n a r e v e r y simple, each triangle uncultivated, if guided b y a n i n by the most how readily the possessio n o f a s i m p l e t o o l , even are arranged, would lead to the stinctive o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e f o r m s i n w h i c h a l l t h e w o r k s o f N a t u r e

the m i n d t o a n appreciation of the proper disposition of

m a s s e s : t h e e y e o f t h e s a v a g e , a c c u s t o m e d o n l y t o l o o k u p o n N a t u r e ’s h a r m o n i e s , w o u l d r e a d i l y e n t e r i n t o t h e p e r c e p t i o n of t h e t r u e b a l a n c e both o f f o r m a n d colour; in point of fact, we f i n d t h a t i t i s so, t h a t i n s a v a g e o r n a m e n t the t r u e b a l a n c e o f b o t h i s a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d .

T h e ornaments o n this Plate are from portions o f clothing m a d e chiefly f r o m t h e b a r k

Patterns N o s. 2 a n d 9 a r e f r o m a d r e s s b r o u g h t b y M r. O s w a l d B r i e f l y f r o m To n g o t a b u , the

principal of the Friendly Island group.

I t i s m a d e f r o m t h i n sheets of the inner rind o f t h e b a r k o f

a species of hibiscus, beaten out and u n i t e d together s o a s t o f o r m o n e l o n g p a r a l l e l o g r a m of cloth, which b e i n g w r a p p e d m a n y t i m e s r o u n d t h e b o d y a s a petticoat, and l e a v i n g t h e c h e s t , a r m s , and s h o u l d e r s bare, forms the only dress of the natives.

N o t h i n g , therefore, c a n b e m o r e p r i m i t i v e , a n d y e t t h e

a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e p a t t e r n s h o w s t h e m o s t refined t a s t e a n d s k i l l .

N o . 9 i s t h e b o r d e r o n t h e edge

o f t h e c l o t h ; w i t h t h e s a m e l i m i t e d m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n , i t w o u l d b e difficult to i m p r o v e u p o n i t .

The

patterns are formed by small w o o d e n stamps, and although t h e w o r k i s s o m e w h a t r u d e and irregular in e x e c u t i o n , t h e i n t e n t i o n is e v e r y w h e r e a p p a r e n t ; a n d w e a r e a t o n c e s t r u c k w i t h t h e s k i l f u l b a l a n c i n g o f t h e masses, and the judicious correction of the tendency of t h e e y e t o r u n i n a n y o n e direction by o p p o s i n g t o t h e m l i n e s h a v i n g a n o p p o s i t e t e n d e n c y.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

A f t e r t h e formation of o r n a m e n t b y s t a m p i n g a n d w e a v i n g , w o u l d n a t u r a l l y f o l l o w t h e d e s i r e of f o r m i n g o r n a m e n t i n relief or carving.

The weapons for

d e f e n c e o r t h e c h a s e w o u l d first a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n .

T h e m o s t skilful and the b r a v e s t w o u l d d e s i r e t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e i r f e l l o w s b y t h e possession o f w e a p o n s , n o t o n l y m o r e u s e f u l , b u t m o r e b e a u t i u l . T h e s h a p e b e s t fitted

Plaited Straw from the Sandwich I s l a n d s .

f o r t h e p u r p o s e h a v i n g b e e n f o u n d b y e x p e r i e n ce, t h e e n r i c h i n g o f t h e surface by carving w o u l d naturally f o l l o w ; a n d t h e eye, a l r e a d y a c c u s t o m e d t o t h e geometrical forms p r o d uced by weaving, the hand would s e e k t o i m i t a t e t h e m b y a s imilar r e p e t i t i o n o f c u t s o f t h e k n i f e . The ornaments on Plate II. show this i n s t i n c t v e r y f u l l y. T h e y a r e e x e c u t e d w i t h t h e u t m o s t p r e c i s i o n , a n d exhibit great t a s t e a n d j u d g m e n t i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the masses. N o s . 1 1 a n d 1 2 are i n t e r e s t i n g , as s h o w i n g h o w m u c h t h i s t a s t e a n d s k i l l m a y e x i s t i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of g e o m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n s , w h i l s t t h o s e r e sulting from c u r v e d l i n e s , a n d t h e h u m a n f o r m more especially, r e m a i n i n t h e v e r y first stage.

T

T h e o r n a m e n t s i n t h e w o o d c u t s below a n d a t t h e s i d e s h o w a f a r h i g h e r a d v a n c e i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of curved lines, the twisted rope forming the type as it naturally w o u l d b e o f a l l curved lines in ornament . T h e u n i t i n g o f t w o s t r a n d s f o r additional s t r e n g t h w o u l d e a r l y a c c u s t o m t h e e y e t o t h e spiral l i n e , a n d w e a l w a y s find this f o r m s i d e b y s i d e w i t h

stripes and plaids, would have continued the bands o r r i n g s r o u n d t h e handle across the blade. The New Zealander’s instinct taught him better. He desired n o t o n l y t h a t his paddle should b e strong, but should appear so, and his ornament is so disposed t o give an appearance of additional strength t o w h a t i t would have h a d if the surface had remained undecorated. The centre band i n t h e length of the blade

Head of Canoe, New Guinea

geometrical patterns formed b y t h e interlacing of e q u a l l i n e s i n t h e o r n a ment of every savage tribe,and retained i n t h e m o r e advanced art of every civilised nation.

H a n d l e of a Paddle. — B. M .

is continue d round o n t h e other side, binding together t h e border on the edge, which itself fixes all the other bands . Ha d these bands run out like the centre one, they would have appeared to slip off. The centre one was the only one that could do so without disturbin g the repose. The swelling form of the handle where additiona l weight was required i s most beautiful ly contrived , a n d t h e springin g o f t h e swell i s well defined by t h e bolder pattern of the rings.* Head of Canoe, New Guinea. From the Side of a Canoe, New Zealand.

Club, Eastern Archipelig o.

T h e o r n a m e n t o f a s a v a g e t r i b e , b e i n g t h e result o f a n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t ,

i s n e c e s s a r i l y a l w a y s t r u e t o i t s p u r p o s e ; w h i l s t i n m u c h o f t h e o r n a m e n t of civilised n a t i o n s , t h e f i r s t i m p u l s e w h i c h g e n e r a t e d received f o r m s b e i n g enfeebled b y c o n s t a n t r e p e t i t i o n , t h e o r n a m e n t i s o f t e n t i m e s m i s a p p l i e d , a n d i n s t e a d o f f i r s t s e e k i n g t h e m o s t c o n v e n i e n t f o r m a n d a d d i n g b e a u t y, a l l b e a u t y i s destroyed, because all fitness, by superadding o r n a m e n t to ill-contrived f o r m .

If we would return to

* Captain Cook and other voyagers -repeatedly notice the taste and ingenuity o f the islanders o f t h e Pacific a n d South Seas : instancing especially cloths, painted ” in such an endless variety of figures that one might suppose they borrowed their patterns from a mercer’s shop in which the most elegant productions of China a n d Europe are collected, besides some original patterns of their own.” The “ thousand different patterns” of their basket-work, their mats, and the fancy displayed in their rich carvings and inlaid shell-work, are, likewise, constantly mentioned. Se e The Three Voyages of Captain Cook, 2 vols. Lond. 1841–42 ; D U M O N T D ’U RVILLE’ S Voyage au Pole Sud, 8vo. Paris, 1841 ; Ditto, Atlas d’Histoire, fol ; PRICHARD ’ S Natural History of Man, Lond. 1855 ; G. W. E ARLE ’ S Native Races of Indian Archipelago, Lond. 1852 ; KERR’S General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, London, 1811–17.

a m o r e healthy condition, w e m u s t e v e n b e a s little c h i l d r e n o r a s s a v a g e s ; we m u s t g e t r i d o f t h e acquired and artificial, a n d r e t u r n to and develope natural instincts. T h e b e a u t i f u l N e w Z e a l a n d p a d d l e , N o s . 5 – 8 , o n P l a t e I I I . , w o u l d r i v a l w o r k s o f t h e h i g h e s t civilisat i o n : t h e r e i s n o t a l i n e u p o n i t s s u r f a c e m is a p p lie d .

The general shape is most elegant, and the

decoration everywhere the best a d a p t e d t o d e v e l o p e t h e f o r m .

A m o d e r n m a n u f a c t u r e r, w i t h h i s

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

CHAPTER II.—PLATES 4, 5, 6, 6*, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. EGYPTIAN

O R N A M E N T.

PLATE IV. 1. The Lotus, drawn from Nature. 2.

Egyptian representation of the Lotus.

3. Another, in a different stage of growth. 4.

Three Papyrus Plants, and three full-blown Lotus Flowers with two Buds, held in the hand of a King as an offering to a God.

5. A full-blown Lotus and two Buds, bound together with Ribbons, the type of the Capitals of Egyptian Columns. 6.

7.

The Lotus and Buds in the form of a Column, bound round with Matting, from a Painting representing the Portico of a Temple. The Base of the Stem of the Papyrus, drawn from Nature ; the type of the Bases and Shafts of Egyptian Columns.

8. Expanding Bud of the Papyrus, drawn from Nature. 9. Another, in a less advanced stage of growth. 10. Egyptian representation of the Papyrus Plant ; the complete type of the Capital, Shaft, and Base of the Egyptian Columns. 11. The same, in combination with Lotus Buds, Grapes, and Ivy. 12. A combination of the Lotus and Papyrus, representing a Column bound with Matting and Ribbons. 13. Egyptian representation of the Lotus and Buds. 14, Representations of the Papyrus, from an Egyptian 15. Painting. 16. Representation of Plants growing in the Desert. 17. Representation of the Lotus and Papyrus growing in the Nile. 18. Another variety of Desert Plants.

PLATE V. 1. Fan made of Feathers, inserted into a wooden Stem in the form of a Lotus. 2. Feathers from the Head-dress of the Horses of the Royal Chariots 3. Another Variety, from Aboo-Simbel. 4. Fans made of dried Leaves. 5. Ditto. 6. Fan. 7. Royal Head-dress 8. Ditto. 9. Representation of a species of Lotus.

10. The true Lotus. 11. Insignia b o r n e b y certain Officers of the time of the Pharaohs. 12. Another variety. 13, 14, Gold and enamelled Vases in the form of the Lotus. 15. 16. A Rudder Oar decorated with the Lotus and the Eye, representing the Divinity. 17. Ditto, another variety. 18, 19. Boats made of Papyrus Plants bound together.

PLATE VI. 1.

2.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Capital of the large Columns of the Temple of Luxor, Thebes, of the time of Amunoph III., 1250 B . C ., according to Sharpe It represent s the full-blow n Papyrus, and around it Papyri and Lotus Buds alternating. Capital of the smaller Columns of the Memnoni um, Thebes. B.C. 1200. Represents a single Bud of the

3.

Papyrus decorated with the coloured pendent Fasciæ that are seen in the painted representations of Columns of Plate IV. Nos. 5, 6, 12. Capital of the smaller Columns of the Temple of Luxor, B .C . 1250. Representing eight Buds of the Papyrus bound together, and adorned w i t h pendent and coloured Fasciæ.

T

11. Capital from the unfinished hypæthral Temple in the Island of Philæ. Roman Period, B.C. 140. Composed of the Papyrus Plant in three stages of growth, and arranged in three tiers : the first composed of four full-blown and four large expanding Papyri ; the second tier, of eight smaller expanding flowers ; and the third tier, of sixteen buds : making in all a bundle of thirty-two plants. The stem of each plant may be traced, by the size and colour of its stalk, down to the horizontal bands or fasciæ. See Plate IV. Nos. 5, 6, 12. 12. Capital from the Temple at Koom-Ombos. The fullgrown Papyrus surrounded by various flowers. 13. Capital from the principal Temple, Philæ. Representing two tiers of the Papyrus, in three stages of growth. The first tier composed of eight plants, four full-blown and four expanding; the second tier composed of eight

buds : making sixteen plants. In this capital the circular form is not disturbed, as in No. 11. 14. Capital from the unfinished hypæthral Temple, Philæ. Composed of three tiers of the Papyrus Plant in three stages of growth. The first tier has eight fullblown and eight expanding plants ; the second tier, sixteen expanding flowers ; and the third tier, thirty-two buds of the Papyrus : in all, sixty-four plants. The stem of each plant is distinguished by its size and colour, and continued down to the horizontal bands which bind them together round the shaft. 16. Capital from the Portico of Edfu, B . C. 145. Represents the Palm-tree, with nine branches, or faces. The horizontal fasciæ of all Palm-tree Capital differ from the fasciæ of all the other capitals, inasmuch as there is always a pendent loop.

P L AT E V I * . 4. Capital from a temple in the Oasis of Thebes. Representing a collection of Acquatic Plants, with triangular Stalks tied round a single full-blown Papyrus. 5. Capital from the Portico of Edfu, B.C. 145, of similar structure to No. 4. 6. Capital from the principal Temple in the Island of Philæ, B.C. 106. The full-blown Papyrus surrounded by the same flower in various stages of growth. 7. Capital from a Temple in the Oasis of Thebes. 8.

Capital from the Colonnade of t h e Island of Philæ. Representing sixteen Lotus Flowers bound together in three tiers. Shown in elevation.

9. The Capital No. 8 seen in Perspective.

10. Capital from a Temple in the Oasis of Thebes. Representing eight Lotus Flowers bound together in two tiers. 15. Capital from the unfinished hypæthral Temple, Philæ. Composed of the Papyrus in two stages of growth, arranged in three tiers. The first is composed of four full-blown and four expanding flowers ; the second tier, of eight smaller, fullblown ; and the third tier, of sixteen, still smaller. 17. Capital of the Græco-Egyptian form, but of the Roman period. Very remarkable, as showing the Egyptian and Greek elements combined, viz. the Papyrus in two stages of growth, with the Acanthus leaf and the tendrils of the Honeysuckle.

PLATE VII. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7, 8, 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Ornament on the top of the Walls of a Tomb at Benihassan Ditto ditto. Ditto, from Karnac, Thebes. Ditto, from Gourna, Thebes. Ditto, from Sakhara. Decoration of the Torus moulding of some of the early Tombs in the neighbourhood of the Pyramids of Giza. From a wooden Sarcophagus. From the Tombs, El Kab. From the Tombs, Benihassan. From the Tombs, Gourna. Ditto. Ditto. From a Necklace. From the Wall of a Tomb, Gourna, immediately under the Ceiling.

17, 18, Portions of a Necklace. 19. 20. From the Wall of a Tomb. 21. From a Necklace

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

From the upper part of the Wall of a Tomb, Sakhara. Ditto, at Thebes. From a Necklace. From the Wall of a Tomb, Gourna. From a Sarcophagus. From the Wall of a Tomb. From a Sarcophagus. From the upper part of a Picture. Arrangement of Lines from dados. From a Sarcophagus at the Louvre. From the Wall of a Tomb, Gourna, representing the Lotus, in plan as well as in elevation. 33. From a Ceiling at Medinet Haboo. 34. Arrangement of Lines from dados, in Tombs. Nos. 1–5, 10, 11 always occur on vertical surfaces, and on the upper part of the walls of tombs and temples. Nos. 7– 9, 12, 14, 18, 20, are all derived from the same elements, viz. the Lotus in a pendent position, with a bunch of grapes intervening. This very constant Egyptian ornament in some of its forms so much resembles the Greek moulding, usually termed the egg-and-tongue, or egg-and-dart moulding, that we can hardly doubt that the Greek moulding was derived from this source. Nos. 13, 15, 24, 32 exhibit another element of Egyptian ornamentation derived from the separated leaves of the Lotus.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

PLATE VIII. by the interwoven strands of a rope ; and in No. 7 we have the chequered pattern, one of the earliest ornaments, evidently derived from the weaving together of different-colou red strands. In the lower part of No. 18 we have another very common ornament, derived from feathers.

The whole of the Ornaments on this plate are from Mummycases in the British Museum and the Louvre, and, like those of the last Plate, are mostly composed of the Lotus-flower and single leaves of the same plant. In No. 2, above the Lotus-leaves, is a white ornament on a black ground, very common in the tombs, suggested

PLATE IX. The Ornaments on this Plate are taken from Paintings on Tombs in various parts of Egypt, from original Drawings. They are chiefly patterns that could be produced by the loom, and a single glance will show that this is doubtless the origin of most of them. 1–8 are representations of Mats on which the kings stand. They were evidently formed of interwoven straws of different colours. The transition from this state to the formation of patterns, such as 9–12, 17–19, 21, would be very rapid, and they are most probably only repro-

ductions of woven articles of daily use. Nos. 9 and 10 may have suggested the fret to the Greeks, unless they arrived at it themselves by a similar process. 20 is from a Ceiling of a Tomb at Gourna. It represents the Trellis-work of a Garden Walk, covered with a Vine. It is by no means an uncommon ornament for the curved ceilings of small tombs, and usually occupies the whole ceiling of each excavation at the period of the nineteenth dynasty. 21–23 are derived from Mummy-cases in the Louvre, of a late period.

PLATE X. 1–5.

From Mummy-cases in the Louvre, at a late period. Geometrical arrangements of the single Lotus-leaf.

8, 9. From a Mummy-case. 10–24 are from Ceilings of Tombs in various parts of Egypt. In Nos. 10, 13–16, 18–23, are various examples of an 6. From a Tomb at Thebes. Each circle is formed of four Lotus-flowers and four Buds, the intermediate star ornament representing the unwinding of a p i l e o f probably intended for four Lotus-leaves. rope, which may have given the first suggestion of the volute. In No. 24 the continuous blue line is 7. From a Tomb at Thebes. evidently from the same type.

PLATE XI. 1, 4, 6, 7, are from Tombs at Thebes, and are further examples 21. Ornament on t h e Dress of the god Amun, from Abooof the Rope Ornament given in the last Plate. Nos. simbel. 2 and 3 are varieties of arrangements of Stars, very 22. From a Fragment in the Louvre. common on the ceilings both of tombs and temples. 23. Dado from the Tomb of Ramses, Biban el Moluk, proNo. 2 is formed on squares, No. 3 on equilateral bably representi ng, in diagram, a Papyrus-g rove, as triangles. it occupies a similar position to those dados of a 9. From a Mummy-case. later period which were formed of buds and flowers 10. From the Embroidery on a King’s Robe. of the papyrus. 11–16 are varieties of Borders from Paintings in Tombs. 24. From a very ancient Tomb at Giza, opened b y Dr. 17. From the Dress of a figure in one of the Royal Tombs Lepsius. The u p p e r p a r t r e p r e s e n t s t h e usual of Biban el Moluk. It represents the Scales of the Egyptian torus ; the lower portion is from the dado Armour worn by the Heroes and Gods of Egypt. of the same tomb, and s h o w s t h a t the practice of 18–20 are similar, and most probably were suggested by the imitating grained woods in painting is of the highest feathers of birds. antiquity.

T

EGY PTIA N

ORN AME NT

the monuT HE Architect ure of Egypt has this peculiari ty over all other styles, that the more ancient Egyptian Art in ment the more perfect is the art All the remains with which we are acquainted exhibit formed from the a state of decline Monume nts erected two thousand years before the Christian era are period too remote ruins of still more ancient and more perfect buildings We are thus carried back to a in direct successio n from our time to enable us to discover any traces of its origin ; and whilst we can trace e, and the Gothic, the Greek, the Roman, the Byzantin e, with its offshoots , the Arabian, the Moresqu r i g i n a l style, which from this great parent, we must believe the architect ure of Egypt t o b e a p u r e o ting point of arose with civilisati on in Central Africa*, passed through countless ages, to the culmina s is to the unknown perfectio n and the state of decline in which we see it Inferior as this state doubtles are inferior only to perfectio n of Egyptian Art, i t i s f a r b e y o n d a l l that followed after ; the Egyptian s on some bygone themselv es In all other styles we can trace a rapid ascent from infancy, rounded or discarded , to a style, to a culminat ing point of perfectio n, when the foreign influence was modified we have no traces period of slow, lingering decline, feeding o n i t s o w n e l e m e n t s I n t h e E g y p t i a n for inspirati on of infancy or of any foreign influence ; and we must, therefore , believe that they went y the ornamen t direct from nature This view is strengthe ned when we come to consider more especiall from the type of Egypt ; the types are few and natural types, the represen tation is but slightly removed from ; till, in much The later we descend in art, the more and more do we find original types receded type from which the ornamen t, such as the Arabian and Moresqu e, it is difficult to discover the original ornamen t has been by successiv e mental efforts develope d The lotus and papyrus, growing on the banks of their river, symbolising the food for the body and mind ; the feathers of rare birds, which were carried before the king as emblems of sovereignty ; the palm-branch, with the twisted cord made from its stems; these are the few types which form the basis of that immense variety of ornament with which the Egyptians decorated the temples of their gods, the palaces of their kings, the covering of their persons, their articles of luxury or of more modest daily use, from the wooden spoon which fed them to the boat which carried their similarly adorned embalmed bodies Following these types as they did in a across the Nile to their last home in the valley of the dead manner so nearly allied to their natural form, they could hardly fail to observe the same laws which the works of nature ever display ; and we find, therefore, that Egyptian ornament, however conventionalised, We are never shocked by any misapplication or violation of a natural principle On is always true the other hand, they never, by a too servile imitation of the type, destroyed the consistency of the representation A lotus carved in stone, forming a graceful termination to a column, or painted on the walls as an offering to their gods, was never such a o n e a s m i g h t b e p l u c k e d , b u t a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l * In the British Museum may be seen a cast of a bas-relief from Kalabshee in Nubia, representing the conquests of Ramses II over a black people, supposed to be Ethiopians It is very remarkable, that amongst the presents which these people are represented as bringing with them as a tribute to the King, besides the leopard-skins and rare animals, ivory, gold, and other products of the country, there are three ivory carved chairs precisely similar to that on which the King sits to receive them ; from which it would appear that these highly-elaborated articles of luxury were derived by the Egyptians from the interior of Africa.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

representation ; in either case the best adapted for the purpose it had to fill, sufficiently resembling the type to call forth in the beholder the poetic idea which it was sought to supply, without shocking his feeling of consistency Egyptian ornament is of three kinds : that which is constructive, or forming part of the monument itself, of which it is the outward and graceful covering of the skeleton within ; that which is representative, but at the same time conventionally rendered ; and that w h i c h i s simply decorative In all cases it was symbolic, and, as we have observed, formed on some few types, which were but slightly changed during the whole period of Egyptian civilisation Of the first kind, viz constructive ornament, are the decorations of the means of support and the crowning members of the walls The column only a few feet high, or one forty or sixty feet, as at Luxor and Karnac, was an enlarged papyrus plant : the base representing the root ; the shaft, the stalk ; and the capital, the full-blown flower, surrounded by a bouquet of smaller plants (No 1, Plate VI.), tied together by bands Not only did a series of columns represent a grove of papyri, but each column was in itself a grove ; and at No 17 of Plate IV we have a representation of a grove of papyri in various stages of growth, which would only have to be assembled as they stand, and be tied round with a string, and we should have the Egyptian shaft and its highly-ornamental capital ; and further, we have in Nos 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, on Plate IV., pointed representations of columns forming parts of temples, in which the original idea is unmistakably portrayed We may imagine it the custom of the Egyptians in early times to decorate the wooden posts of their primitive temples with their native flowers tied round them ; a n d t h i s c u s t o m , w h e n t h e i r art took a more permanent character, became solidified in their monument s of stone These forms, once sacred, their religious laws forbade a change ; but a single glance, however, at P l a t e s V I a n d V I * will show how little this possession of one leading idea resulted in uniformity The lotus and papyrus form the type of fifteen of the capitals we have selected for illustration ; yet how ingeniousl y varied, and what a lesson do they teach us! From the Greeks to our own time the world has been content with the acanthus leaf arranged round a b e l l f o r t h e c a p i t a l s of columns of all architectur e called classic, differing only in the more or less perfection of the modelling of t h e l e a v e s , o r t h e g r a c e f u l or otherwise proportions of the bell : a modificati on in plan has but rarely b e e n a t t e m p t e d A n d this it was that o p e n e d t h e w a y t o s o much developme nt in the Egyptian capital ; b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e circle, they s u r r o u n d e d i t w i t h f o u r, e i g h t , a n d sixteen other circles If t h e s a m e c h a n g e w e r e attempted with the Corinthian capital, it could n o t f a i l t o p r o d u c e a n e n t i r e l y new o r d e r o f f o r m s whilst still retaining the idea of applying the acanthus leaf to the surface of a bell-shape d vase

The shaft of the Egyptian column, when circular, was made to r e t a i n t h e i d e a o f t h e t r i a n g u l a r shape o f t h e p a p y r u s s t a l k , by three raised lines, which divided its circumfere nce into three equal portions ; when the column was formed by a union of four or eight shafts bound together, t h e s e h a d each a sharp arris on their outer face with the same intention The crowning member or cornice of an Egyptian building was decorated with feathers, which appear to have been an emblem of sovereignt y ; whilst in the centre was the winged globe, emblem of divinity The second kind of Egypti an orname nt results from the conven tional represe ntation of actual things on the walls of the temple s and tombs ; and here again, in the represe ntation s of offerin gs to the gods or of the variou s article s of daily use, in the paintin gs of actual scenes of their domes tic life, every flower or other object is portray ed, not as a reality , but as an ideal repres entatio n It is at the same time the record of a fact and an archite ctural decora tion, to which even their hierog lyphic al writin g, explan atory of the scene, by its symme trical arrang ement added e ff e c t I n N o 4 , o n P l a t e I V. , w e have an examp le in the represe ntation of three papyru s-plan ts and three lotus-f lowers , with two buds, in the hand of a king as an offerin g to the gods The arrang ement is symme trical and gracef ul, and

T

we here see that the Egyptians, in thus conventionally rendering the lotus and papyrus, instinctively obeyed the law which we find everywhere in the leaves of plants, viz the radiation of the leaves, and all veins on the leaves, in graceful curves from the parent stem ; and not only do they follow this law in the drawing of the individual flower, but also in the grouping of several flowers together, as may be seen, not only in No 4, but also in their representation of plants growing in the desert, Nos 16 a n d 1 8 o f t h e s a m e p l a t e , and i n N o 1 3 I n N o s 9 a n d 1 0 o f P l a t e V they learned the same lesson from the feather, another type of ornament (11 and 12, Plate V.) : the same instinct is again at work at Nos 4 and 5, where the type is one of the many forms of palm-trees so common in the country The third kind of Egyptian ornament, viz that which is simply decorative, or which appears so to our eyes, but which has doubtless its own laws and reasons for its application, although they are not Plates VIII., IX., X., XI., are devoted to this class of ornament, and are from so apparent to us paintings on tombs, dresses, utensils, and sarcophagi They are all distinguished by graceful symmetry The variety that can be produced by the few simple types we have referred and perfect distribution to is very remarkable On Plate IX are patterns of ceilings, and appear to be reproductions of woven patterns Side by side with the conventional rendering of actual things, the first attempts of every people to produce works of ornament take this direction

The early necessity of plaiting together straw or bark of trees,

for the formation of articles of clothing, the covering of their rude dwelling, or the ground o n w h i c h they reposed, induced the employment at first of straws and bark of different natural colours, to be afterwards replaced by artificial dyes, which gave the first idea, not only of ornament, but of geometrical arrangement Nos 1–4, Plate IX., are from Egyptian paintings, representing mats whereon the king stands ; whilst Nos 6 and 7 are from the ceilings of tombs, which evidently represent tents covered by mats same means

No

shadow, yet found no difficulty in poetically conveying to the m i n d t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e object they desired to represent They used colour as they did form, conventionally Compare the representation of the lotus (No 3, Plate IV.) with the natural flower (No 1) ; how charmingly are the characteristics of the natural flower reproduced in the representations ! See how the outer leaves are distinguished by a darker green, and the inner protected leaves by a lighter green ; w h i l s t t h e p u r p l e a n d y e l l o w tones of the inner flower are represented by red leaves floating in a f i e l d o f y e l l o w, which most completely recalls the yellow glow of the original We have here Art added to Nature, and derive an additional pleasure in the perception of the mental effort which has produced it The colours used by the Egyptians were principally red, blue, and yellow, with black and white to define and give distinctiveness to t h e v a r i o u s c o l o u r s ; w i t h g r e e n u s e d generally, though not universally, as a local colour, such as the green leaves of the lotus These were, however, indifferently coloured green or blue ; blue in the more ancient times, and green during the Ptolemaic period ; at which time, also, were added both purple and brown, but with diminished effect The red also, which is found on the tombs or mummy-cases of the Greek o r R o m a n p e r i o d , i s l o w e r i n t o n e than that of the ancient times ; and it appears to be a u n i v e r s a l r u l e t h a t , i n a l l a r c h a i c periods of a r t , t h e p r i m a r y c o l o u r s , b l u e , red, and yellow, are the prevailing colours, and these used most harmoniously and successfully Whilst in periods w h e n a r t i s practised traditionally, and not instinctively, there i s a t e n d e n c y t o e m p l o y t h e s e c o n d a r y colours and hues, and shades of every variety, though rarely with equal success We shall have many opportunities of pointing t h i s o u t i n subsequent chapters.

9, 10, 12, show how readily the meander or Greek fret was produced by the

The universality of this ornament in every style of architecture, and to be found in some

shape or other amongst the first attempts of ornament of every savage tribe, is an additional proof of their having had a similar origin

The formation of patterns by the equal division of similar lines, as by w e a v i n g , w o u l d g i v e t o a rising people the first notions of symmetry, arrangement, disposition, and the distribution of masses The Egyptians, in their decoration of large surfaces, never appear to have gone beyond a geometrical arrangement

Flowing lines are very rare, comparatively, and never the motive of the composition, t h o u g h t h e g e r m o f e v e n t h i s mode of decoration, the volute form, exists in their rope ornament (No 10, 13–16, 18–24, on Plate X., and 1, 2, 4, 7, Plate XI.) Here the several coils of rope are subjected to a geometrical arrangement ; but the unrolling of this cord gives the very form which is the source of so much beauty in many subsequent styles We venture, therefore, to claim for the Egyptian style, that though the oldest, it is, in all that is requisite to constitute a true s t y l e o f art , the most perfect T h e l a n g u a g e i n w h i c h it reveals itself to us may seem foreign, peculiar, formal, and rigid ; but the ideas and the teachings it conveys to us are of the soundest As we proceed with other styles, we shall see that they approach perfection only so far as they followed, in common with the Egyptians, the true principles to be observed in every flower that grows Lilac these favourites of N a t u r e , e v e r y o r n a m e n t s h o u l d h a v e i t s perfume; i.e the reason of its application It should endeavour to rival the grace of construction, the harmony of its varied forms, and due proportion and subordination of one part to the other found in the model When we find any of these characteristics wanting in a work of ornament, we may be sure that it belongs to a borrowed style, where the spirit which animated the original work has been lost in the copy The architecture of the Egyptians is thoroughly polychromatic,— they painted everything ; therefore we have much to learn from them on this head

They dealt in flat tints, and used neither shade nor

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

CHAPTER III.—PLATES 12, 13, 14.

ASSYRIAN AND PERSIAN ORNAMENT.

PLATE XII. 6–11. Painted Ornaments from Nimroud. 12–14. Sacred Trees from Nimroud.

1. Sculptured Pavement, Kouyunjik. 2–4. Painted Ornaments from Nimroud. 5. Sculptured Pavement, Kouyunjik.

The whole of the ornaments on this Plate are taken from Mr. Layard’s great work, The Monuments of Nineveh. Nos. 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, are coloured as published in his work. Nos. 1, 5, and the three Sacred Trees, Nos. 12, 13, 14, are in relief, and only in outline. We have treated them here as painted ornaments, supplying the colours in accordance with the principals indicated by those above, of which the colours are known.

PLATE XIII. 1–4. Enamelled Bricks, from Khorsabad.—FLANDIN & C OSTE . 5. Ornament on King’s Dress, from Khorsabad.—F. & C. 6, 7. Ornaments on a Bronze Shield, Ditto. F. & C. 8, 9. Ornaments on a King’s Dress, Ditto. F. & C. 10, 11. Ornaments from a Bronze Vessel, Nimroud.— L AYARD . 12. Ornament on a King’s Dress, from Khorsabad.— FLANDIN & COSTE.

13. Enamelled Brick, from Khorsabad. F. & C. 14. Ornament on a Battering Ram, Khorsabad.—F. & C. 15. Ornament from a Bronze Vessel, Nimroud.—L AYARD . 16–21. Enamelled Bricks, from Khorsabad.—FLANDIN & COSTE. 22. Enamelled Brick, from Nimroud.—L AYARD . 23. Ditto, from Bashikhah.—L AYARD . 24. Ditto, from Khorsabad.—FLANDIN & COSTE.

The ornaments Nos. 5, 8, 9, 12, are very common on the royal robes, and represent embroidery. We have restored the colouring in a way which we consider best adapted for developing the various patterns. The remainder of the ornaments on this Plate are coloured as they have been published by Mr. Layard and Messrs. Flandin and Coste.

PLATE XIV. 1.

Feathered Ornament in the Curvetto of the Cornice, Palace No. 8, Persepolis.—F LANDIN & COSTE.

2. 4.

Base of Column from Ruin No. 13, Persepolis.—F. & C. Ornament on the Side of the Staircase of Palace No. 2, Persepolis.—F. & C.

5.

Base of Column of Colonnade No. 2, Persepolis.—F. & C.

6. Base of Column, Palace No. 2. Persepolis. 7. Base of Column, Portico No. 1, Persepolis. 8. Base of Column at Istakhr. 9–12. From Sassanian Capitals, Bi Sutoun.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

F. & C. F. & C. F. & C. F. & C.

13–15. From Sassanian Capitals, at Ispahan.—F L A N D I N & C OSTE . 16. From a Sassanian Moulding, Bi Sutoun. F. & C. 17. Ornament from Tak I Bostan. F. & C. 18, 19. Sassanian Ornaments from Ispahan. F. & C. 20. Archivolt from Tak I Bostan. F. & C. 21. Upper part of Pilaster, Tak I Bostan. F. & C. 22. Sassanian Capital, Ispahan. F. & C. 23. Pilaster, Tak I Boston. F. & C. 24. Capital of Pilaster, Tak I Bostan. F. & C. 25. Sassanian Capital, Ispahan. F. & C.

T

ASSYRIAN AND PERSIAN ORNAMENT.

RICH as has been the harvest gathered by Mons. Botta and Mr. Layard from the ruins of Assyrian Palaces, the monuments which they have made known to us do not appear to carry us back to any remote period of Assyrian Art. Like the monuments of Egypt, those hitherto discovered belong to a period of decline, and of a decline much further removed from a culminating point of perfection. The Assyrian must have e i t h e r b e e n a borrowed style, or the remains of a more perfect form of art have yet to be discovered. We are strongly inclined to believe that the Assyrian is not an original style, but w a s borrowed f r o m t h e E g y p t i a n , modified by the difference of the religion and habits of the Assyrian people. O n c o m p a r i n g t h e b a s - reliefs of Nineveh with those of Egypt we cannot but be struck with the many points of resemblance in the two styles ; not only is the same mode of representation adopted, but t h e o b j e c t s r e p r e Egyptian.

sented are oftentimes so similar, that it is difficult to believe that the same style could have been arrived at by two people independently of each other. The mode of representing a river, a tree, a besieged city, a group of prisoners, a battle, a king in his chariot, are almost identical,—the differences which exist are only those which would result from the representation of the habits of two different people ; the art appears to us to be the same. Assyrian sculpture s e e m s t o b e a d e v e l o p m e n t of the Egyptian, but, instead of being carried forward, descending in the scale of

Assyrian.

perfection, bearing the same relation to the Egyptian as the Roman does to the

Greek. Egyptian sculpture gradually decline d from the time of the Pharao hs to that of t h e G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s ; the forms, which were at first flowin g and gracefu l, becam e coarse and abrupt ; the swellin g of the limbs, which was at first

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

rather indicated than expressed, became at last exaggerated ; the conventional was abandoned for an imperfect attempt at the natural. In Assyrian sculpture this a t t e m p t w a s c a r r i e d s t i l l farther, and while the general arrangement of the subject and the pose of the single figure were still conventional, an attempt was made to express the muscles of the limbs and the rotundity of the flesh ; in all art this is a symptom of decline, Nature should be idealized not copied. Many modern statues differ in the same w a y f r o m t h e Ve n u s d e M i l o , as do the bas-reliefs of the Ptolemies from those of the Pharaohs. Assyrian Ornament, we think, presents also the same aspect of a borrowed style and one in a state of decline. I t i s t r u e t h a t , a s y e t , w e a re but imperfectly acquainted with it ; the portions of the Palaces which would contain the most ornament, the upper portions of t h e w a l l s a n d t h e ceilings, having been, from the nature of the construction of Assyrian edifices, destroyed. There can be little doubt, however, that there was as much ornament employed in the Assyrian monuments as in the Egyptian : in both styles there is a total absence of plain surfaces o n t h e w a l l s , w h i c h a r e either

covered with subjects o r w i t h w r i t i n g , and in situations where these would have been inapplicable, pure ornament must have been employed to sustain the general effect. What we possess is gathered from the dresses on the figures of the b a s -reliefs, some few fragments of painted bricks, some objects of bronze, a n d t h e representations of the sacred trees in the bas-reliefs. As yet we have had no remains of their constructive ornament, the c o l u m n s a n d o t h e r m e a n s of support, which would have been so decorated, being everywhere destroyed ; the constructive ornaments which we have given in Plate XIV., from Persepolis, being evidently of a much later date, and subject t o o t h e r influences, would be very unsafe guides in any attempt to restore the constructive ornament of the Assyrian Palaces.

Egyptian.

Assyrian Ornament, though not based o n t h e s a m e t y p e s as the Egyptian, is represented in the same way.

In both styles the orna-

ments in relief, as well as those painted, are in the nature of diagrams. There is but little surface-modelling, which was the peculiar invention of the Greeks, who retained it within its true limits, but the Romans carried it to great excess, till at last all breadth of effect was destroyed. The Byzantines returned again to moderate relief, the Arabs reduced the relief still farther, while with the Moors a modelled surface became extremely rare.

In the other direction, the Romanesque is distinguished

in the same way from the Early Gothic, which is itself much broader

Assyrian.

in e ff e c t t h a n t h e l a t e r Gothic, where t h e s u r f a c e a t l a s t became so laboured that all repose was destroyed. With the exception of the pine-apple on the sacred trees, Plate XII., and in the painted ornaments, and a species of lotus, Nos. 4 and 5, the ornaments do not appear to be formed on any natural type, which still farther strengthens the i d e a t h a t t h e Assyrian is not an original style. The natural laws of radiation and tangential curvature, w h i c h w e f i n d i n Egyptian ornament, are equally observed here, but much less truly,— rather, as it were, traditionally than instinctively. Nature is not followed so closely as by t h e E g y p t ians, nor so exquisitely conventionalised as by the Greeks. Nos. 2 and 3, Plate X I I I ., are generally supposed to b e t h e t y p e s f r o m w h i c h t h e G r e e k s d e r i v e d s o m e of their painted ornaments, but how inferior they are t o t h e G r e e k i n p u r i t y o f f o r m and in the distribution of the masses !

T

on their The colours in u s e b y t h e A s s y r i a n appear to have been blue, red, white, and black, buff, white, painted ornaments ; blue, red, and gold, on their sculpture d ornamen ts ; and green, orange, and black, on their enamelle d bricks. of Roman The ornamen ts of Persepoli s, represent ed o n P l a t e X I V. , a p p e a r t o b e modifica tions a n i n f l um o a R details. Nos. 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, are from bases of fluted columns, which evidently betray cted on the same ence. The ornamen ts from Tak I Bostan,— 17, 20, 21, 23, 24, — a r e a l l c o n s t r u surface, such as principle as Roman ornamen t, presentin g only a similar modifica tion of the modelled we find in Byzantin e ornamen t, and which they resemble in a most remarkab le manner. outline, at Bi The ornamen ts, 12 and 1 6 , f r o m Sassania n capitals, Byzantin e i n t h e i r g e n e r a l earliest example Sutoun, contain the germs of all the ornament ation of the Arabs and Moors. It is the to have covered we meet w i t h o f lozenge-s haped diapers. The Egyptian s and the Assyrian s appear t h e f i r s t instance large spaces with patterns formed by geometri cal arrangem ent o f l i n e s ; b u t t h i s i s By the prinof the repetitio n of curved lines forming a general pattern enclosing a secondar y form. which covered the ciple containe d in No. 16 would be generate d all those exquisite forms of diaper domes of the mosques of Cairo and the walls of the Alhambr a.

Sassanian Capital from Bi Sutoun.—F LANDIN & C OSTE .

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C HAPTE R I V.—P LATES 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22.

G R E E K O R N A M E N T.

PLATE XV. A collection of the various forms of the Greek Fret from Vases and Pavements.

PLATE XVI.–XXI. Ornaments from Greek and Etruscan Vases in the British Museum and the Louvre.

PLATE XXII. 1 and 4. 3, 5–11. 12–17. 18. 19–21,24–26. 22 and 27. 29. 30–33.

From a Sarcophagus in Sicily.—HITTORFF. From the Propylaea, Athens.—HITTORFF. From the Coffers of the Ceiling of the Propylæa.—PENROSE. String-course over the Panathenaic Frieze. Published by Mr. PENROSE in gold only, we have supplied the blue and red. Painted Ornaments.—HITTORFF. Ornaments in Terra Cotta. Painted Ornament from the Cymatium of theraking Cornice of the Parthenon.— L. V ULLIAMY , the blue and red supplied. Various Frets, the traces of which exist on all the Temples at Athens. The colours supplied.

W E have seen that Egyptian Ornament was derived direct from natural inspiration, that it was founded o n a f e w t y p e s , a n d t h a t it remained unchanged during the w h o l e c o u r s e o f Egyptian civilization, except in the more or less perfection of the execution, the more ancient monuments being the m o s t p e r f e c t . We have further expressed our belief that the Assyrian was a borrowed style, possessing none o f t h e characteristics of original inspiration, b u t r a t h e r a p p e a r i n g t o h a v e been suggested by t h e Art of Egypt, already in its decline, which decline was carried still farther. Greek Art, on the contrary, though borrowed partly from the Egyptian and partly from the Assyrian, was the development of an old i d e a i n a new direction; and, unrestrained by religious laws, as would appear

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

to have been both the Assyrian and the Egyptian, Greek Art rose rapidly to a high state of perfection, from which it was itself able to give forth the elements of future greatness to other styles. It carried

almost universal, and t h a t t h e l a n d was overflowing with artists , whose hands and m i n d s w e r e s o trained as to enable them to execute these beautiful ornaments with unerring truth. Greek ornament was wanting, however, in one of the great charms which should always accompany ornament,—viz. Symbolism. I t was meaningless , purely decorative, never representativ e, and can hardly be s a i d t o b e constructive ; for the various members o f a G r e e k monument rather present surfaces exquisitely designed t o receive ornament, which they did, at first, painted, and in later times both carved and p a i n t e d . T h e o r n a m e n t was no part of the construction, as with the Egyptian : it could be removed, and the structure remained unchanged. On the Corinthian capital the ornament is applied, not constructed : it is not so on the Egyptian capital ; there we feel the whole capital is the ornament,—t o remove any portion of it would destroy it. However much w e a d m i r e t h e e x t r e m e and almost divine perfection of the Greek monumental sculpture, in its application t h e G r e e k s frequently went beyond the legitimate bounds of ornament. The frieze of the Parthenon was placed so far from the eye t h a t i t b e c a m e a d i a g r a m : the beauties which so astonish us when seen near the eye could only have been valuable so far as they evidenced the artist-worship which cared not that the eye saw the perfection of the work if conscious that it was t o b e f o u n d t h e r e ; but we are bound to consider this an abuse of means, and that the Greeks were in this respect inferior to the Egyptians, whose system of incavo relievo for monumental sculpture appears to us the more perfect. The examples of representativ e ornament are very few, with the exception of the wave ornament a n d t h e f r e t u s e d to distinguish water from land in their pictures, and some conventional renderings of trees, as at No. 12, Plate XXI., we have little that can deserve this appellation, b u t o f decorative o r n a m e n t t h e G r e e k a n d E t r u s c a n vases supply u s w i t h a b u n d a n t materials; a n d a s the painted ornaments of t h e Te m p l e s w h i c h have as yet been discovered in no way differ from them, we have

Termination of the Marble Tiles of the Parthenon.

l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t w e a r e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h Greek ornament in a l l i t s phases. Like t h e E g y p t i a n t h e t y p e s a r e f e w , b u t t h e conventional rendering i s m u c h further removed f r o m t h e types. In

L. V ULLIAMY.

t h e w e l l - k n o w n honeysuckle o r n a m e n t i t is difficult to recognize any a t t e m p t a t i m i t a t i o n , but r a t h e r a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o n w h i c h t h e flower grows ; and, indeed, o n e x a m i n i n g the paintings on the vases, we are rather tempted to believe that the various f o r m s o f t h e l e a v e s o f a G r e e k flower have been generated by t h e b r u s h of t h e p a i n t e r, according a s t h e h a n d i s t u r n e d u p w a r d s o r downwards i n t h e formation of t h e l e a f would the character be given, a n d i t is more likely that the slight resemblance t o t h e honeysuckle may have been an after r e c o g n i t i o n t h a n t h a t the natural flower should have ever served a s t h e m o d e l . In Plate XCIX. will be found a representation of the honeysuckle ; and how faint indeed is the resemblance .

W h a t is evident i s , t h a t t h e G r e e k s

i n t h e i r ornament were close observers of nature, and although t h e y d i d not c o p y, o r attempt to imitate, they w o r k e d o n t h e same principles.

The three great laws which we find everywhere in

nature—radiation from t h e p a r e n t stem, proportionate distribution of the areas, a n d t h e t a n g e n t i a l curvature of t h e l i n e s — are always obeyed, a n d i t i s t h e unerring perfection with which they are, i n t h e m o s t h u m b l e works as i n t h e h i g h e s t , which excites our astonishment, and w h i c h is only fully realised on a t t e m p t i n g to reproduce Greek ornament, so rarely done w i t h s u c c e s s .

A very

characteristic feature o f Greek ornament, c o n t i n u e d b y t h e R o m a n s , b u t abandoned d u r i n g t h e Upper Part of a Stele.

L. VULLIAMY.

Byzantine period, is, t h a t t h e v a r i o u s parts of a scroll grow out of each other in a continuous line, The Upper Part of a Stele.

L. V ULLIAMY.

the perfec tion of p u r e f o r m t o a p o i n t which h a s n e v e r s i n c e b e e n r e a c h e d ; a n d f r o m t h e very abunda nt remain s w e h a v e o f G r e e k ornam ent, w e m u s t believ e the presen ce of refine d taste was

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

as the ornament from the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. In t h e B y z a n t i n e , t h e A r a b i a n M o r e s q u e, a n d E a r l y English styles, t h e flowers flow off on either s i d e f r o m a c o n t i n u o u s l i n e .

We h a v e h e r e a n i n s t a n c e how s l i g h t a c h a n g e in any

T

generally received principle is sufficient to g e n e r a t e a n entirely new o r d e r o f f o r m s a n d ideas. Roman ornament is constantly struggling against this apparently f i x e d l a w. A t t h e h e a d of the Roman c h a p t e r i s a f i n e example, w h i c h m a y b e t a k e n a s a t y p e o f a l l o t h e r Roman ornament, which scarcely ever g o t b e y o n d t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f a v o l u t e s p r i n g i n g f r o m a s t e m f i t t i n g into

the double fret, No. 11, with the second line interlacin g with the first ; all the others are formed by placing these frets one under the other, running in different direction s, as at No. 17 ; back to back, as at Nos. 18 and 19 ; or enclosing squares, as at No. 20. All the other kinds are imperfec t frets,— that is, not forming a continuo us meander. The raking fret, No. 2, is the parent of all the other forms of interlacin g ornamen t in styles which succeede d the Greek. From this was first derived the Arabian fret, which i n i t s t u r n g a v e b i r t h to that infinite variety of interlace d ornamen ts formed by the intersec tion of equidist ant diagonal lines, w h i c h t h e M o o r s c a r r i e d t o s u c h p e r f e c t i o n i n the Alhambr a.

Greek.

Arabian. From the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens.

L. VULLIAMY

another stem, encirclin g a flower. The change which t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e B y z a n t i n e period in g e t t i n g r i d o f t h i s f i x e d l a w w a s a s i m p o r t a n t i n i t s r e s u l t s t o t h e developm ent of ornament as was the substitu tion of the arch by the Romans for the straight architrav e, or the introduct ion o f t h e p o i n t e d a r c h i n G o t h i c architec ture. These changes have the s a m e i n f l u e n c e i n the develop ment of a new style of o r n a m e n t a s t h e s u d d e n discover y of a g e n e r al law in science, or the lucky patented idea which in any work of industry suddenly lets loose thousand s of minds to examine and improve upon the first crude thought. Plate XXII. is devote d to the remai ns of colour ed ornam ents on the Greek monu ments . It will be seen that there is no differe nce whatev er in the charac ter o f t h e d r a w i n g t o t h o s e f o u n d o n the vases. It is now almost univer sally recogn ized, that the white marble temples of the Greeks were entirel y covere d with painte d ornam ent. Whate ver doubts may exist as t o t h e m o r e o r less colouring of the sculpt ure, there can be none as to the ornam ents of the mould ings. The traces of colour exist everyw here so strong ly, that in taking casts of the mould ings t h e t r a c e s o f t h e p a t t e r n are strong ly mark ed on the plast er cast. Wha t the parti cula r colo urs were , howe ver, is not so certa in. Different auth oriti es give them diffe rentl y : whe re one will see g r e e n , a n o t h e r f i n d s blue ,—o r imag ines gold wher e anot her sees brow n. We may be quite certa in, howe ver, of one poin t,—a ll thes e orna men ts on the mou lding s were so high from the grou nd, and so smal l in prop ortio n to the dista nce from whic h they were seen , that they must have been colo ured in a man ner to rend er them disti nct and to brin g out the patte rn. It is with this cons idera tion that we have vent ured to supp ly the colour to 18, 29, 31, 32, 33, whic h have hithe rto been publ ishe d o n l y a s g o l d o r b r o w n o r n a m e n ts on the white mar ble.

Plat e XV. In this Plat e are give n a colle ction of the diffe rent vari eties of t h e G r e e k f r e t , from the simp le gene ratin g form No. 3, to the mor e com plic ated mea nder No. 15. I t w i l l b e s e e n , that the variety of arrangement of form that can be prod uced by the inter lacin g of lines at righ t angl es in this form is very limi ted. We have, first, the simp le fret, No. 1, runn ing in one dire ction with a sing le line ;.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Arabian.

Moresque.

Celtic.

The knotted w o r k o f t h e C e l t s d i ff e r s from the Moresqu e interlace d patterns o n ly in adding curved terminat ions to the diagonal intersect ing lines. The leading idea once obtained , it gave b i r t h t o a n i m m e n s e variety of new forms. The knotted- rope ornamen t of the Greeks may also have had some influenc e in the formatio n both of t h e s e a n d t h e Arabian and Moresqu e interlace d ornamen ts.

Greek.

Hòe C h i n e s e f r e t s a r e l e s s perfect t h a n a n y o f these. T h e y a r e formed, like the G r e e k , b y the intersect ion of perpendi cular with horizont al lines, but they have n o t t h e s a m e r e g u l a r i t y, and the m e a n d e r i s m o r e o f t e n elongated i n t h e horizont al direction .

Chinese.

Chinese.

Chinese.

They are also most frequent ly used fragment ally,— that i s , t h e r e i s a repetitio n of one fret after the other, or one below the other, without forming a continuo us meander. The Mexican ornamen ts and frets, of which we here give some illustrati ons from Mexican pottery in the British Museum, have a remarkab le affinity with the Greek fret : and in Mr. Catherw ood’s illustrations o f t h e architec ture of Yucatan we have several varieties of the Greek fret : one From Yucatan. especially is thorough ly Greek. But they are, in general, fragment ary, like the Chinese : there is also to be found at Yucatan a fret with a diagonal line, which is peculiar. From Yucatan.

The ornaments on Plate XVI. have been selected to show the various forms of conventi onal leafage to be found on the Greek vases. They are all very far removed from any natural

T

type, and are rather constructed on the general principles which reign i n a l l plants, than attempts to represent any particular one. The ornament No. 2 is the nearest approach to the honeysuckle—that is, the leaves have the peculiar turn upwards of that flower, b u t i t c a n h a r d l y b e called an attempt to represent it. Several of the ornaments on Plate XVII. are much nearer to Nature : the laurel, the ivy, and vine will be readily distinguished. Plates XVIII., XIX., XX., and XXI., present further varieties from borders, necks, and lips of vases in the British Museum and the Louvre. Being produced by one or two colours, they all depend for their effect on pure form : they have

ORNAMENTS FROM MEXICAN POTTERY IN THE BRITISH MUSEU M.

mostly this peculiarity, that the groups of leaves or flowers all spring from a curved stem, with a volute at either end, and all the lines grow out of this parent stem in tangential curves. The individual leaves all radiate from the centre of the group of leaves, each leaf diminishing in exquisite proportion as it approaches the springing of the group. When we consider that each leaf was done with a single stroke of the brush, and that from the differenc es which appear w e m a y be sure no mechanic al aids were employe d, we must be astonished a t t h e h i g h s t a t e o f t h e Arts which must have existed for artists to be found in such numbers able to execute with unerring truth what it is almost beyond the skill of modern times even to copy with the same happy result.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

CHAPTER V.—P LATES 23, 24, 25.

POMPEIAN ORNAMENT.

PLATE XXIII. Collection of Borders from different Houses in Pompeii.—ZAHN’S Pompeii.

PLATE XXIV. Various Pilasters and Freizes from different Houses in Pompeii.—ZAHN’S Pompeii.

PLATE XXV. Collection of Mosaics from Pompeii and the Museum at Naples.—From the Author’s Sketches.

THE ornament of Pompeii has been so ably and so fully illustrated in Zahn’s magnificent work, that we have thought it only necessary for this series to borrow from him the materials for two plates, to illustrate the two distinct styles of ornament which prevail in the decorations of the edifices of Pompeii. The first (Plate XXIII.) are evidently of Greek origin, composed of conventional ornaments in flat tints, either painted dark on a light ground, or light on a dark ground, but without shade or any attempt at relief ; the second (Plate XXIV.) are more Roman in character, based upon the acanthus scroll, and interwoven with ornament in direct imitation of Nature. We refer the reader to Zahn’s work* for a full appreciation of the system of ornamentation in use at Pompeii. An examination of this work will show that this system was carried to the very limit of caprice, and that almost any theory of colouring and decoration could be supported by authority from Pompeii. The general arrangement of the decoration on the walls of the interior of a Pompeian house * Les plus Beaux Ornemens et les Tableaux les plus Remarquables de Pompeii, d’ Herculanum, et de Stabiæ, &c.,parGuillaume Zahn. Berlin, 1828.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

consists of a dado, about one-sixth of the height of the wall, upon which stand broad pilasters half the width of the dado, dividing the wall into three or more panels. The pilasters are united by a frieze of varying width, about one-fourth of the height of the wall from the top. The upper space is frequently white, and it is always subjected to a much less severe treatment than the parts below, generally representing the open air, and upon the ground are painted those fantastic architectural buildings which excited the ire of Vitruvius. In the best examples there is a gradation of colour from the ceiling downwards, ending with black in the dado, but this is very far from being a fixed law. We select from the colored illustrations in Zahn’s work several varieties, which will show how little this was the result of system :—

Diagram of the side of a Pompeian House.

Dado.

Pilasters.

Yellow

Green

Red

Red

which has never been accomplished in any restoration of the style. The reason is obvious ; the artists of Pompeii invented as they drew ; every touch of their brush had an intention which no copyist can seize. Mr. Digby Wyatt’s restoration of a Pompeian house in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, admirable and faithful as it is in all other respects, necessarily failed in this ; no one could possibly have brought greater knowledge, experience, and zeal to bear upon the realisation of that accuracy in the decorations which was so much desired than did Signor Abbate. The want of his perfect success consisted in the fact, that his paintings were at the same time too well executed and not sufficiently individual. The ornaments which are given on Plate XXIII., and which have evidently a Greek character, are generally borders on the panels, and are executed with stencils. They have a thinness of character compared with Greek models, which show a marked inferiority ; we no longer find perfect radiation of lines from the parent stem, nor perfect distribution of masses and proportional areas. Their charm lies in an agreeable contrast of colour, which is still further heightened when surrounded with other colours in situ.

Panels.

Frieze.

Red

Black

Black

Purple

to give rotundity, but not sufficiently so to detach them from the ground. In this the Pompeian

The ornaments from pilasters and friezes on Plate XXIV., after the Roman type, are shaded

Black

Yellow

Black

Red

artists showed a judgment in not exceeding that limit of the treatment of ornament in the round,

Black

Yellow

Green

Green

altogether lost sight of in subsequent times. We have here the acanthus-leaf scroll forming the

Blue

Yellow

Green

Green

Blue

Yellow

Black

Green

groundwork, on which are engrafted representations of leaves and flowers interlaced with animals, precisely similar to the remains found in the Roman baths, and which, in the time of Raphael,

Blue Yellow and Red

Blue White

(alternately)

Black

Grey

Yellow and Red

Black

(alternately)

Black

Black

Green and Red

White

(alternately)

became the foundation of Italian ornament. In Plate XXV. we have gathered together all the forms of mosaic pavement, which was such a feature in every home of the Romans, wherever their dominion extended. In the attempt at relief shown in several of the examples, we have evidence that their taste was no longer so refined as that of their Greek teachers. The borders, formed by a repetition of hexagons at the top and the sides of the page, are the types from which we may directly trace all that immense variety of Byzantine, Arabian, and Moresque mosaics.

The most effective arrangement appears to be black dado, red pilasters and frieze, with yellow, blue, or white panels, the uppe r part above the frieze being in whit e, with coloured decorations upon it. The best arrangem ent of colours for the ornaments on the ground appears to be, on the black grounds, green and blue in masses, red sparingly, and yell ow still more so. On the blue grounds, white in thin line s, and yellow in masses. On the red grounds, green, white, and blue in thin lines : the yell ow on red is not effective unless heighten ed with shade. Almost every variety of shade and tone of colour may be found at Pompeii. Blue , red, and yellow are used, not only in small quan tities in the ornaments, but also in larg e masses as grounds for the panels and pilaster s. The yellow of Pompeii, however, near ly approaches orange, and the red is strongly tinged wit h blue. This neutral character of the col ours enables them to be so violently juxtaposed without discord,—a result still further assi sted by the secondary and tertiary colours by which they are surr ounded. The whole style, however, of the deco ration is so capricious that it is beyond the range of true art, and strict criticism cannot be applied to it. It generally plea ses, but, if not absolutely vulgar, it oftentimes approaches vulg arity. It owes its greatest cha rm to the light, sketchy, free-hand manner of its execution, which it is quite impossible to rend er in any drawing ; and

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Fragment in White Marble from the Mattei Palace, Rome.—L. VULLIAMY.*

C H A P T E R V I . — P L AT E S 26, 27 .

R O M A N O R N A M E N T. PLATE XXVI. 4. Pilaster from the Villa Medici, Rome. 5, 6. Fragments from the Villa Medici, Rome. 3. Pilasters from the Villa Medici, Rome. Nos. 1–5 are from Casts in the Crystal Palace ; No. 6 from a Cast at South Kensington Museum. 1, 2. Fragments from the Forum of Trajan, Rome.

PLATE XXVII. 5. Fragment of the Soffits of the Architraves of the Roman Fragments of the Frieze of the Roman Temple at Temple at Brescia. Brescia. 6. From the Frieze of the Arch of the Goldsmiths, Rome. 4. Fragment of the Soffits of the Architraves of the Roman Temple at Brescia. Nos. 1–4 from the Museo Bresciano ; † No. 5 from TAYLOR AN d CRESY’S Rome. 1–3.

* Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Architecture, by Lewis Vulliamy, Architect.

London.

† Museo Bresciano, illustrato. Brescia, 1838.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

examples on Plates X X V I . a n d X X V I I . other, as in the cut.

T h e l e a v e s are flattened o u t , a n d t h e y lay one over the

ROMAN ORNAMENT. T H E real greatness of the Romans is rather to be seen in their palaces, baths, theatres, aqueducts, and other works of public utility, than in their temple architecture, which being the expression of a religion borrowed from the Greeks, a n d i n w h i c h probably t h e y h a d l i t t l e faith, exhibits a corresponding want of earnestness and art-worship. In the Greek temple it is everywhere apparent that t h e s t r u g g l e w a s t o a r r i v e a t a perfection w o r t h y o f t h e g o d s . In the Roman temple the aim was self-glorification. F r o m t h e base of the column to the apex of the pediment every part is overloaded with ornament, tending rather to dazzle by quantity than to excite admiration by the quality of the work. The Greek temples when painted were as ornamented as those of the Romans, but with a very different r e s u l t . The ornament was so a r r a n g e d t h a t i t t h r e w a coloured bloom over the whole s t r u c t u r e , a n d i n n o way disturbed the exquisitely designed surfaces which received it. The Romans ceased to v a l u e t h e general proportions of the s t r u c t u r e a n d the contours of the moulded surfaces, which were entirely destroyed by the elaborate surface-modelling of the ornaments carved on them ; and t h e s e o r n a m e n t s do not grow n a t u r a l l y f r o m t h e s u r f a c e , b u t a r e applied o n i t . T h e acanthus leaves under the modillions, and t h o s e r o u n d t h e b e l l o f t h e Corinthian capitals, are placed one before the other most unartistically. They are n o t e v e n b o u n d together b y t h e n e c k i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e s h a f t , b u t rest upon i t . U n l i k e i n t h i s t h e Egyptian capital, w h e r e t h e s t e m s of the flowers round t h e b e l l a r e continued t h r o u g h t h e n e c k i n g , a n d at the same time represent a b e a u t y a n d e x p r e s s a truth. The fatal facilities which t h e R o m a n system of decorati on gives for manufac turing ornamen t, by applying acanthus leaves to any form a n d i n a n y d irection, is t h e c h i e f c a u s e of the invasion of this ornamen t into most modern works. I t requires so l i t t l e t h o u g h t , and i s s o complet ely a manufac ture, that it has encourag ed architec ts i n a n i n d o l e n t n e g l e c t o f o n e o f their especial province s, and the interior decorati ons of building s have fallen into hands most unfitted to supply their place. In the use of the acanthus leaf the Romans showed but little a r t . T h e y received it from the Greeks beautiful ly conventi onalised ; they went much nearer to the general outline, but exaggera ted the surface-d ecoration . The Greeks confined themselv es to expressin g the principle of the foliation of the leaf, and bestowed all their care in the delicate undulatio ns of its surface. The ornamen t engraved a t t h e h e a d of t h e c h a p t e r i s typical of all Roman ornamen t, which consists universa lly of a scroll growing out of another scroll, encirclin g a flower or group of leaves. This example , however , is construc ted o n G r e e k principl es, b u t i s w a n t i n g in Greek refineme nt. In Greek o r n a m e n t t h e s c r o l l s grow out of each other in the s a m e w a y, but t h e y a r e m u c h more delicate a t t h e p o i n t of junction . The acanthus leaf is a l s o s e e n , as it were, in side elevatio n. The purely Roman method of using the acanthus leaf is seen in the Corinthi an capitals, and in the

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Fragment of the Frieze of the Temple of the Sun, Colonna Palace, Rome.—L. V U L L I A M Y .

The various capitals which we have engraved from Taylor and Cresy’s work have been placed in juxtaposition, to show how little variety the Romans were able to produce in following out this application of the acanthus.

The only difference which exists is in the proportion of the general form of the mass ; the decline in this proportion from that of Jupiter Stator may be seen readily. How different from the immense variety of Egyptian capitals which arose from the modification of the general p l a n o f the capital, even the introduction of the Ionic volute in the Composite order fails to add a beauty, but rather increases the deformity. The pilasters from the Villa Medici, Nos. 3 and 4, Plate XXVI., and the fragment, No. 5, are as perfect specimens of Roman ornament as could be found. As specimens of modelling and drawing they have strong claims to be admired, but as ornamental accessories to the architectural features of a building they most certainly, from their excessive relief and elaborate surface treatment, are deficient in the first principle, viz. adaptation to the purpose they have to fill. T h e a m o u n t o f design that can be obtained by working out this principle of leaf within leaf and leaf over leaf is very limited ; and it was not till this principle of one leaf growing out of another in a continuous line was abandoned f o r the adoption o f a continuous stem throwing off ornaments on either side, that pure conventional ornament received any develop-ment. The earliest examples of the change are found in St. Sophia at Constantinople ; and we introduce here an example front St. Denis, where, although the s w e l l i n g a t t h e stem and the turned-back leaf at the junction of stem and s t e m h a v e entirely disappeared, the continuous stem is not yet fully developed, as it appears in the narrow border top a n d b o t t o m . This principle became very common in the illuminated MSS. of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, a n d i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f Early English foliage. The fragments on Plate XXVII., from the Muses Bresciano, are more elegant than

From the Abbey of St. Denis, Paris.

those from the Villa Medici ; the leaves are more sharply accentuated and more conventionally treated. The frieze from the Arch of the Goldsmiths is, on the contrary, defective from the opposite cause.

T

We h a v e n o t thought it necessary to give in this series any o f t h e painted decorations of the Romans, of which remains exist in t h e R o m a n b a t h s . We h a d no reliable materials at command ; and, further, they are so similar to those at Pompeii, and show r a t h e r w h a t t o avoid than what to follow, that w e h a v e thought it sufficient to introduce the two subjects from the Forum of Trajan, in which figures terminating in s c r o l l s m a y b e said t o b e t h e foundation of that prominent feature in their painted decorations.

Temple of Jupiter Stator, Rome.

Temple of Vesta, Tivoli.

Arch of Trajan, Ancona.

Temple of Mars Victor, Rome.

Arch of Constantine, Rome.

Arch of Titus, Rome.

Pantheon, Rome.

Pantheon, Rome.

Portico.

The Acanthus, full size, from a Photograph.

Interior of Pantheon, Rome.

Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome.

Corinthian and Composite Capitals reduced from T AYLOR and CRESY’S Rome.* * The Architectural Antiquities of Rome, by G. L. Taylor and Cresy, Architects.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

London, 1821.

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R V II . — P L AT E S 2 8 , 2 9 , 2 9 * , 3 0 .

BYZANTINE

O R N A M E N T.

PLATE XXVIII. 1, 2, 3.

Stone Sculptured Ornament, Sta. Sofia, Constantinople. 6th century.—S ALZENBERG , Alt Christliche Baudenkmale, Constantinopel. 4, 5. From the Bronze Gates, Sta. Sofia.—SALZENBERG, u.a. 6, 7. Portions of I v o r y Diptychs, Beauvais Cathedral ; apparently Anglo-Saxon work of the 11th century. —WILLEMIN, Monuments Français inédits. 8. Portion of Bronze Door, Basilica of the Nativity, Bethlehem. 3rd or 4th century.—G AILHABAUD , L’Architecture et les Arts qui en dependent. 9–13. Stone Sculptures, from St. Mark’s, Venice. 11th century.— J. B. W. from Casts at Sydenham. 14, 15, 16. Portion o f a C a p i t a l , St. Michael’s Church, Schwäbis ch Hall. 12th Century.—H EIDELOFF , Ornamentik des Mittelalters.

17. From a Doorway, preserved at Murrhard Monastery. —H EIDELOFF , u. a. 18. Composition of Bosses, from St. Sebald, Nuremberg, and the Church of Nosson, Saxony.—H EIDELOFF . 19, 20. Friezes from t h e C h u r c h of St. John, Gmund, Swabia.—H EIDELOFF . 21. Romanesque Wood and Ivory Carving, in the Collection of Herr Leven, Cologne.—HEIDELOFF.

22. From the principal Bronze Door, Monreale, near Palermo.—J. B. W. 11th and 12th cen23. From the Bronze Door of the turies. Duomo, Ravello, near Amalfi.— J. B. W. 24, 25. From the Bronze Door of the Duomo, Trani. 12th century.—BARRAS ET L UYNES, Recherches sur les Monuments des Normands en Sicile. 26. Stone Sculpture, f r o m the small Cloister, Huelgas Monastery, near Burgos, Spain. 12th century. —J. B. W. 27. From the Porch of Lucca Cathedral. Circa 1204 A.D. —J. B. W. 28. From St. Denis (Porch), near Paris. 12th century. — J. B. W. 29. From the Cloisters of Sant’’ Ambrogia, Milan.—J. B. W. 30. From the Chapel of Heilsbronn, Bavaria.—HEIDELOFF. 31. From St. Denis.—J. B. W. 32. From Bayeux Cathedral. 12th century.—P UGIN , Antiquities of Normandy. 33. From St. Denis.—J. B. W. 34. Bayeux Cathedral.—PUGIN , u. a. 35. From Lincoln Cathedral Porch. Close of 12th century.—J. B. W. 36. From the Kilpeck Porch, Herefordshire. 12th century. —J. B. W.

PLATE XXIX. 1–6. Mosaics from Sta. Sofia, Constantinople. 6th century. —S ALZENBERG , Alt Christlich e Baudenkm ale von Constantinopel. 7. Marble Pavement, Agios Pantokrator, Constantinople. First half of 12th century.—S ALZENBERG, u. a. 8, 9. Marble Pavement, Sta. Sofia. 10–11. Mosaics, Sta. Sofia.—S ALZENBERG.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

12–15.

From Illuminated Greek MSS., British Museum.— J. B. W.

16, 17. Borders, from Illuminated Greek MSS.—CHAMPOLLION FIGEAC, Palæographie Universelle. 18.

The Centre, from St. Mark’s, Venice.—D IGBY W YATT, Mosaics of the Middle Ages.

T

PLATE XXIX*. 19. 20. 21, 22. 23. 24. 25.

Fron a Greek MS., British Museum.—J. B. W. The border beneath from Monreale.—DIGBY WYATT ’S Mosaics. From the Homilies of Gregory Nazianzen. 12th century.—CHAMPOLLION FIGEAC, u. a. From Greek MSS., British Museum.—J. B. W. From the Acts of the Apostles, Greek MS., Vatican Library, Rome.—DIGBY WYATT, u. a. St. Mark’s, Venice.—D IGBY W YATT, u. a. Portion of a Greek Diptych. 10th century. Florence. — J. B. W. (The fleurs-de-lys are believed to be of later workmanship.)

fully to understand t h a t , w e r e q u i r e d w h a t the ravages of time and the whitewash of the Mahom-

Enamel of the 13th c e n t u r y (French).—WILLEMIN, Monuments Francais inédits. 27. From an Enamelled Casket (the centre from the Statue of Jean, son of St. Louis).—DU SOMMERARD. Les Arts du Moyen Age. 28. From the Enamelled Tomb of Jean, son of St. Louis, A.D. 1247.—WILLEMIN, u. a.

26.

29. 30.

Limoges Enamel, probably of the close of 12th century.—W I L L E M I N , u. a. Portion of Mastic Pavement, 12th century. at St. Denis, near Paris.—WILLEMIN.

Preserved

22, 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33–35. 36–38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

period of the Byzantine epoch.

Such an invaluable s o u r c e of information has been opened to us

through the enlightenment of the present Sultan, and been made public to the world by the liberality of the Prussian Government ; and we recommend all those who desire to have a graphic idea of what Byzantine decorative art truly w a s , to s t u d y H e r r Salzenberg’s beautiful work on the churches and buildings of ancient Byzantium. In no branch of art, probably, is the observation, ex n i h i l o n i h i l f i t , m o r e applicable than in decorative art.

Thus, in the Byzantine style, we perceive that various schools have combined to form

its peculiar characteristics, and we shall proceed to point out briefly what were the principal formative causes. Even before the transfer of the s e a t o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e f r o m R o m e t o Byzantium, at the commencement of the fourth century, we see all the arts in a state either of decline or transformation.

PLATE XXX. 1, 2. Mosaics (opus Grecanicum) from Monreale Cathedral, near Palermo. Close of 12th century.— J. B. W. 3. Mosaics from the Church of Ara Coeli, Rome. —J.B.W. 4, 5. Monreale Cathedral.—J. B. W. 6. Marble Pavement, St. Mark’s, Venice.—J. B. W. 7–10. From San Lorenzo Fuori, Rome. Close of 12th century.—J. B. W. 11. San Lorenzo Fuori, Rome.—J. B. W. 12. Ara Coeli, Rome.—J. B. W. 13. Marble Pavement, St. Mark’s, Venice.—J. B. W. 14. San Lorenzo Fuori, Rome, —Architectural Art in Italy and Spain, by WARING AND MACQUOID. 15, 16. Palermo.—D IGBY W YATT , Mosaics of the Middle Ages. 17. From the Cathedral, Monreale.—J. B. W. 18. From Ara Coeli, Rome.—J. B. W. 19. Marble Pavement, S. M. Maggiore, Rome.—HESSEMER, Arabische und alt Italiänische Bau Verzierungen. 20. Marble Pavement, San Vitale, Ravenna.—HESSEMER, u. a. 21. Marble Pavement, S. M . i n Cosmedin, Rome.—HESSEMER , u. a.

medan had deprived us of, namely, a Byzantine building on a grand scale, executed during the best

Mosaic, St. Mark’s, Venice.—Specimens of the Mosaics of the Middle Ages, D IGBY W YATT. Baptistery of St. Mark, Venice.— Architectural Art in Italy and Spain. W ARING and M ACQUOID. SanGiovanni Laterano, Rome. From DIGBY W YATT ’S Mosaics of the MidThe Duomo, Civita Castellana. dle Ages. Ara Coeli, Rome.—J. B. W. San Lorenzo, Rome. Architectural Art in Italy and Spain, W ARING and MACAra Coeli, Rome. QUOID. San Lorenzo, Rome. San Lorenzo Fuori, Rome.—J. B. W. San Giovanni Laterano, Rome.—D IGBY W YAT T ’ S Mosaics of the Middle Ages. Monreale Cathedral.—J. B. W. Marble Pavement, S. M. Maggiore, Rome.—HESSEMER, u.a. St. Mark’s, Venice.—Mosaics of the Middle Ages, DIGBY WYATT. From the Baptistery, St. Mark’s, Venice.—J. B. W. From St. Mark’s, Venice.—Architectural Art in Italy and Spain. From the Duomo, Monreale.—J. B. W.

Certain as i t i s t h a t R o m e had given her peculiar style of a r t t o t h e numerous foreign peoples ranged beneath her sway, i t i s no less certain t h a t t h e h y b r i d art of her provinces had powerfully reacted o n t h e c e n t e r of civilization ; and even at t h e c l o s e of t h e t h i r d century had materially affected that lavish style of decoration which characterised the magnificent baths and other public buildings of Rome.

The necessity which Constantine found himself u n d e r, when newly settled in

Byzantium, of employing Oriental artists and workmen, wrought a still more vital and marked change in t h e traditional style ; and there c a n b e l i t t l e doubt b u t t h a t each surrounding nation a i d e d in g i v i n g i t s i m p r e s s to t h e n e w l y -formed school, according t o t h e state o f i t s civilisation and its capacity for Art, u n t i l a t last the motley mass became fused into one systematic whole during the long and (for Art) prosperous reign of the first Justinian.

a

BYZANTINE

ORNAMENT.

T H E vagueness with which writers on Art have treated the Byzantine and Romanesque styles of Architecture, even to within the last few years, has extended itself also to their concomitant decoration. This vagueness has arisen chiefly from the want of examples t o w h i c h t h e writer could refer ; nor was i t u n t i l t h e publication o f Herr Salzenberg’s great w o r k o n S t a . Sofia at Constantinople, that we could obtain any complete and definite idea of what constituted pure Byzantine ornament. San Vitale at Ravenna, though thoroughly Byzantine a s t o its architecture, still afforded us but a very incomplete notion of Byzantine ornamentation : San Marco at Venice represented b u t a phase of the Byzantine school ; and the Cathedral of Monreale, and other examples of the same style in Sicily, served only to show the influence, but hardly to illustrate the true nature, of pure Byzantine Art :

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

c

b

In this result we cannot fail to be struck w i t h t h e important influence exercised by t h e great temples and theatres built in Asia Minor during the rule of the Cæsars; in these we already see the tendency to elliptical curved outlines, acute-pointed leaves, and thin continuous foliage without the springing-ball and flower, which characterise Byzantine ornament.

On t h e f r i e z e of the theatre at

T

Patara (a), a n d a t t h e Temple of Venus at Aphrodisia s (Caria), are to be seen examples of flowing foliage such as we allude to. On the doorway of the temple erected by the native rulers of Galatia at Ancyra (b), in honour of Augustus, is a still more characteris tic type; a n d t h e pilaster capital of a small temple at Patara (c), inscribed b y Texier to t h e f i r s t century of the Christian era, is almost identical with one drawn by Salzenberg at S m y r n a (d), w h i c h h e believes to be of the first part of Justinian’s reign, or about the year 525 A . D . I n t h e absence of authentic dates we cannot decide satisfactori ly how far Persia influenced the Byzantine style, but i t i s certain that Persian workmen and artists were much employed at Byzantium ; a n d i n t h e remarkabl e monument s a t Tak-i-Bos tan, Bi-Sutoun, and Tak-i-Ghe ro, a n d i n several ancient capitals at Ispahan— given in Flandin and Coste’s great work on Persia— w e a r e struck at e once with their thoroughly Byzantine character ; but we are inclined to believe that they are posterior, or at most contempora neous, with the best period of Byzantine art, that is, of the sixth century. However that may be, we find the forms of a still

Thus we see that Rome, Syria, Persia, and other countries, all took part as formative causes in the Byzantine style of art, and its accompanying decoration, which, complete as we f i n d i t in Justinian’s time, reacted in its new and systemised form upon the Western world, undergoing certain changes in its course ; and t h e s e m o d i f y i n g causes, arising from the s t a t e o f religion, art, and manners in the countries where it was received, frequently gave i t a specific character, and produced in some cases co-relative and yet distinct styles o f o r n a m e n t in the Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, Lombardic, and Arabian schools.

Placing on o n e s i d e t h e question of how far Byzantine workmen or artists were

employed in Europe, t h e r e c a n b e no possible doubt that the character of the Byzantine school of ornament is very strongly impressed on all the earlier works of central and even Western Europe, which are generically termed Romanesque. Pure Byzantine ornament is distinguished by broad-toothed and acute-pointed leaves, which in springings of the teeth w i t h d e e p holes ; the running foliage is generally thin and continuous, as at Nos. 1, 14, and 20, Plate XXIX*., Plate XXIX.

The ground, whether in mosaic or painted work,

is almost universally gold ; t h i n i n t e r l a c e d patterns are preferred to g e o m e t r i c a l d e s i g n s .

The

introduction of animal or o t h e r f i g u r e s is very limited in sculpture, and in colour is confined principally to holy subjects, in a stiff, conventional style, exhibiting little variety or feeling ; sculpture f

in the accompanying example from Sta. Sofia (f); and at a later period, i.e. during the rule of the

d

found on the Roman column at Cussy, between Dijon and Chalons-sur-Saone.

sculpture are bevelled at the edge, are deeply channelled throughout, and are drilled a t t h e several

earlier period reproduce d so late as the year 363 A . D . ; and in Jovian’s column at Ancyra (e), erected during or shortly after his r e t r e a t w i t h Julian’s army from their Persian expedition, we recognize an application of o n e o f t h e most general ornamental forms of ancient Persepolis. At Persepolis also are t o b e s e e n the pointed and channelled leaves so characteris tic of Byzantine work, as seen

of Roman models ; the t y p e o f the present subject,—a common one in the Romanesque style,—being

is of very secondary importance. Romanesque ornament, o n t h e other hand, depended mainly on sculpture for effect : i t i s rich in light and shade, deep cuttings, massive projections, a n d a great intermixture of figure-subjects of every kind with foliage and conventional ornament.

The place of mosaic work is generally supplied

by paint ; in coloured ornament, animals are as freely introduced as in sculpture, vide No. 26, Plate XXIX*. ; the ground is no longer gold alone, but blue, red, or green, as at Nos. 26, 2 8 , 2 9 , Plate XXIX*.

In other respects, allowing for local differences, it retains much of the Byzantine character ;

Cæsars, we r e m a r k a t the D o r i c t e m p l e o f Kangovar (g) contours of m o u l d i n g precisely similar

and in the case of painted glass, for example, handed it down to the middle, and even the close of

to those affected in the Byzantine style.

the thirteenth century.

Interesting and instructive as i t i s t o trace the derivation of these forms in the Byzantine style, it is no less so to m a r k t h e transmission of them a n d o f others t o l a t e r epochs. Thus in No. 1, P l a t e XXVIII., w e p e r c e i v e t h e p e c u l i a r leaf, a s g i v e n in

g

One style of ornament, that of geometrical mosaic work, belongs particularly t o the Romanesque period, especially in Italy ; numerous examples of it are given in P l a t e X X X .

This a r t flourished

principally in the t w e l f t h and thirteenth centuries, and consists in the arrangement of small diamond-

Texier and i n Salzenberg, reappear at S t a . Sofia ; a t N o . 3,

shaped pieces of glass into a complicated series of diagonal lines ; the direction of which is now

P l a t e XXVIII. , i s t h e foliated St. Andrew’s cross within a

stopped, now defined, by means of different colours.

circle, so common a s a Romanesque a n d Gothic ornament.

7, 9, 11, 27, 31, are much simpler than those of the southern provinces and Sicily, where Saracenic

On the same frieze is a design repeated with but slight altera-

artists introduced their innate love of intricate designs, some ordinary examples of which a r e t o b e

tion at No. 17 from Germany.

seen in Nos. 1 , 5 , 3 3 , f r o m Monreale, near P a l e r m o .

The curved and foliated branch

The examples from central Italy, such as Nos.

It i s t o be r e m a r k e d that t h e r e a r e two

of No. 4 o f the sixth century ( Sta. Sofia) is seen reproduced,

distinct styles of design coexistent in Sicily : the one, such as we have noted, consisting of diagonal

with slight variation, at N o . 1 1 of the eleventh century (St.

interlacings, and eminently Moresque in character, as may be seen by reference to Plate X X I X .;

Mark’s).

the other, consisting of interlaced curves, as at N o s . 3 3 , 3 4 , 35, also from Monreale, in which we

The toothings of the leaves of N o . 1 9 (Germany)

are almost identical with those of N o . 1 (Sta. Sofia) ; and be-

may recognise, if not the hand, at least the influence, of Byzantine artists.

Altogether of a different

tween all the examples on the last row but one (Plate XXVIII.) i s t o b e remarked a generic resemblance in subjects from Germany, I t a l y, a n d Spain, founded on a Byzantine type.

character, though of about the s a m e p e r i o d , are Nos. 2 2 , 2 4 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 41, which serve as examples

The last row of subjects in this plate illustrates more especially the Romanesque style (Nos. 27 and 36) showing the interlaced ornament so affected by the Northern nation, founded mainly on a native type ; whilst at No. 35 (St. Denis) we have one instance out of numbers of the reproduction

so common at Sta. Sofia, as seen at Nos. 3, 10, and 11, Plate XXIX.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

of the Veneto-Byzantine style ; limited i n i t s range, being almost local, and peculiar in style.

Some

are more markedly Byzantine, however, as No. 23, with interlaced circles ; and the step ornament, The o p u s A l e x a n d r i n u m , or marble mosaic work, differs from the opus Grecanicum, or glass mosaic work, chiefly from the different nature o f t h e material ; the principal ( t h a t o f complicated

T

geometric design) is still the same.

The pavements of the Romanesque churches in I t a l y are rich

in examples of this class; the tradition of which was handed down from the Augustan age of Rome ; a good idea of the nature of this ornament is given in Nos. 19, 21, 36, 37, and 38. Local styles, on the system of marble inlay, existed in several parts of Italy during the Romanesque period, which bear little relation either to Roman or Byzantine models.

Such is No. 20, from

S a n Vi t a l e , Ravenna ; s u c h a r e the pavements of the Baptistery and San Miniato, Florence, of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries ; in t h e s e t h e e ff e c t i s produced by b l a c k and white marble only ; with these exceptions, and those produced by Moresque influence in the South of Italy, the principles both of the glass and marble inlay ornament are to b e f o u n d in ancient Roman inlay, in every province under Roman sway, and especially is it remarkable i n t h e various mosaics found at Pompeii, of which striking examples are given in Plate XXV. Important as we perceive the influence of Byzantine Art to have been in Europe, from the sixth to the eleventh century, and still later, there is no people whom it affected more than t h e g r e a t and spreading Arab race, who propagated the creed of Mahomet, conquered the finest countries of the East, and finally obtained a footing even in Europe.

In the earlier buildings executed by them at

Cairo, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Cordova, and Sicily, the influence of the Byzantine style is very strongly marked.

The traditions o f t h e Byzantine school affected more o r l e s s all the adjacent countries ;

in Greece they remained almost unchanged to a v e r y late period, and they have served, in a great degree, as the basis to all decorative art in t h e E a s t and in Eastern Europe.

J. B. WARING. September, 1856.

** * For more information on this subject, see “ Handbook ” to Byzantine and Romanesque Court at Sydenham.— WYATT and WARING.

BOOKS REFERRED TO FOR ILLUSTRATIONS . SALZENBERG. Alt Christliche Baudenkmale von Constantinopel. FLANDIN ET COSTE . Voyage en Perse. TEXIER. Description de l’Arménie, Perse, &c. HEIDELOFF . Die Ornamentik des Mittelalters. KREUTZ. La Basilica di San Marco. GAILHABAUD. L’Architecture et les Arts qui en dépendent. DU SOMMERARD. Les Arts du Moyen Age.

BARRAS

LUYNES (DUC DE). Recherches sur les Monuments de Normands en Sicile. CHAMPOLLION FIGEAC. Palæographie Universelle. WILLEMIN. Monuments Français inédits. HESSEMER. Arabische und alt Italiänische Bau-Verzierungen. DIGBY WYATT. Geometrical Mosaics of the Middle Ages. WARING AND MACQUOID. Architectural Arts in Italy and Spain. WARING. Architectural Studies at Burgos and its Neighbourhood. ET

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R V I I I .—P LATES 31, 32, 33, 34, 35.

ARABIAN

ORNAMENT,

FROM CAIRO.

PLATE XXXI. This Plate consists of the ornamented Architraves and Soffits o f t h e Windows i n t h e interior o f t h e Mosque of Tooloon, Cairo. They are executed in plaster, and nearly all the windows are of a different pattern. The main arches of the building are decorated in the same way ; but only a fragment of one of the soffits now remains, sufficiently large to make out the design. This is given in Plate XXXIII., No. 14. Nos. 1–14, 27, 29, 34–39, are designs from architraves round the windows. The rest of the patterns are from their soffits and jambs. The Mosque of Tooloon was founded A .D . 876–7, and these ornaments are certainly of that date. It i s t h e oldest Arabian building in Cairo, and is specially interesting as one of the earliest known examples of the pointed arch.

PLATE XXXII. 14. Soffit of one of the Main Arches in the Mosque of 1–7. From the Parapet of the Mosque of Sultan Kalaoon. Tooloon. NasiEn Mosque the in Arches 9, 16. Ornaments round 15–21. Ornaments on the Mosque of Kalaoon. reeyeh. 22. Wooden Stringcourse Pulpit. 11–13. Ornaments round curved Architraves i n t h e Mosque 23–25. From the Mosque of Kalaoon. Sultan Kalaoon.

The Mosque of Kalaoon was founded in t h e year 1284–5. All these ornaments are executed in plaster, and seem to have been cut on the stucco while still wet. There is too great a variety on the patterns, and even disparities on the corresponding parts of the same pattern, to allow of their having been cast or struck from moulds.

PLATE XXXIII. 1–7. From the Parapet of the Mosque of Sultan Kalaoon. 8–10. Curved Architraves from ditto. 12. Soffit of Arch, Mosque En Nasireeyeh. 13. From Door in the Mosque El Barkookeyeh. 14. Wooden Architrave, Mosque En Nasireeyeh.

15. Soffit of Window, Mosque of Kalaoon. 16, 17. Wooden Architraves. 18. Frieze round Tomb, Mosque En Nasireeyeh. 19. Wooden Architrave . 20–23. Ornaments from various Mosques.

PLATE XXXIV. .D. 1384. These designs were traced from a splendid copy of the Koran in the Mosque El Barkookeyeh, founded A

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

PLATE XXXV. Consists of different Mosaics taken from Pavements a n d w a l l s in Private Houses and Mosques in Cairo. executed in black and white marble, with red tile. Nos. 14–16 are patterns engraved on the white marble slab, and filled in with red and black cement. The ornament on the white marble on the centre of No. 21 is slightly in relief.

They are

The materials for these five Plates have been kindly furnished by Mr. James William Wild, who passed a considerable time in Cairo studying the interior decoration of the Arabian houses, and they may be regarded as very faithful transcripts of Cairean ornament.

I n t h e buildings which they constructed partly of old materials, they endeavoured, i n t h e new parts of the s t r u c t u r e , t o i m i t a t e t h e d e t a i l s b o r r o w e d f r o m o l d b u i l d i n g s . T h e s a m e r e s u l t followed as had already t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e R o m a n s t y l e t o t h e B y z a n t i n e : t h e i m i t a t i o n s were crude a n d i m p e r f e c t . B u t t h i s v e r y i m p e r f e c t i o n g a v e b i r t h t o a n e w o r d e r o f i d e a s ; t h e y n e v e r returned to the o r i g i n a l m o d e l , b u t g r a d u a l l y t h r e w o f f t h e s h a c k l e s w h i c h t h e o r i g i n a l m o d e l i m p o s e d . The Mohammedans, v e r y e a r l y i n t h e i r h i s t o r y, f o r m e d a n d p e r f e c t e d a s t y l e o f Ar t p e c u l i a r l y t h e i r T h e o r n a m e n t s o n P l a t e X X X I . a r e f r o m t h e M o s q u e o f To o l o o n i n Cairo, which was erected in 876, only 250 y e a r s a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f M o h a m m e d a n i s m , a n d w e i n t h i s m o s q u e a l r e a d y f i n d a style of a r c h i t e c t u r e c o m p l e t e i n i t s e l f , — r e t a i n i n g , i t i s t r u e , t r a c e s o f i t s o r i g i n , b u t b e i n g e n t i r e l y

own.

This result is very remarkable when compared

freed from any direct i m i t a t i o n o f t h e p r e v i o u s s t y l e .

ARABIAN

O R N A M E N T.

with the r e s u l t s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n i n a n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n .

It c a n h a r d l y be said that Christianity

produced an a r c h i t e c t u r e peculiarly its o w n , a n d entirely freed f r o m traces of paganism, until t h e t w e l f t h W H E N t h e r e l i g i o n o f M o h a m m e d s p r e a d w i t h s u c h a s t o u n d i n g r a p i d i t y o v e r t h e E a s t , t h e growing wants of a n e w civilisation naturally l e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n e w s t y l e o f A r t ; a n d w h i l s t i t i s certain t h a t t h e e a r l y e d i f i c e s o f t h e M o h a m m e d a n s w e r e e i t h e r o l d R o m a n o r B y z a n t i n e b u i l d i n g s adapted

or thirteenth c e n t u r y. T h e m o s q u e s o f C a i r o a r e a m o n g s t t h e m o s t b e a u t i f u l buildings in the w o r l d .

They are remarkable

a t t h e s a m e t i m e f o r t h e g r a n d e u r a n d s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e i r g e n e r a l f o r m s , an d f o r t h e r e f i n e m e n t a n d elegance which t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f t h e s e f o r m s d i s p l a y s . This elegance of ornamentation a p p e a r s t o have b e e n d e r i v e d from the Persians, from whom the Arabs are supposed t o h a v e d e r i v e d m a n y o f t h e i r a r t s . I t i s m o r e t h a n p r o b a b l e t h a t t h i s i n f l u e n c e reached them b y a d o u b l e p r o c e s s .

The a r t o f Byzantium already displays an Asiatic influence.

The

remains a t B i - S u t o u n , p u b l i s h e d b y F l a n d i n a n d C o s t e , a r e e i t h e r P e r s i a n u n d e r B y z a n t i n e i n f l u e n c e , o r, i f o f e a r l i e r d a t e , t h e r e m u s t b e m u c h o f B y z a n t i n e a r t w h i c h w a s d e r i v e d f r o m P e r s i a n s o u r c e s , so similar a r e t h e y i n g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r o f o u t l i n e .

W e h a v e already, in C h a p t e r I I I . , r e f e r r e d t o a n

ornament o n a S a s s a n i a n c a p i t a l , N o . 1 6 , P l a t e X I V. , w h i c h a p p e a r s t o b e t h e t y p e o f t h e A r a b i a n diapers ; a n d o n t h e s p a n d r i l o f t h e a r c h w h i c h w e h e r e i n t r o d u c e f r o m Salzenberg’s w o r k o n S t a . S o f i a , will be seen a s y s t e m o f d e c o r a t i o n t o t a l l y a t v a r i a n c e w i t h m u c h o f t h e G r æ c o - R o m a n features of that building, and w h i c h i t m a y n o t b e i m p o s s i b l e a r e t h e r e s u l t o f s o m e Asiatic influence. B e t h a t a s i t m a y, this spandril is i t s e l f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e surface decoration o f t h e A r a b s a n d M o o r s . I t w i l l be observed that, although t h e l e a f a g e w h i c h surrounds the c e n t r e i s s t i l l a reminiscence of t h e a c a n t h u s l e a f , i t i s t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t a t t h r o w i n g o ff t h e p r i n c i p l e o f leafage growing o u t o n e f r o m t h e o t h e r : the scroll i s c o n t i n u o u s w i t h o u t b r e a k . T h e p a t t e r n i s d i s t r i b u t e d all over t h e s p a n d r i l , s o a s to produce one even tint, which w a s e v e r t h e a i m o f t h e A r a b s a n d M o o r s .

T h e r e i s a l s o a n o t h e r f e a t u r e connected

with it,—t h e m o u l d i n g s o n t h e e d g e o f t h e a r c h a r e o r n a m e n t e d f r o m t h e surface, and t h e s o ff i t o f t h e arch is decorated i n t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e s o f f i t s o f A r a b i a n a n d M o r e s q u e a r c h e s . The collection o f o r n a m e n t s f r o m t h e M o s q u e o f To o l o o n , o n P l a t e X X X I . , a r e v e r y r e m a r k a b l e , as exhibiting in t h i s e a r l y stage o f A r a b i a n a r t the t y p e s o f a l l those arrangements o f f o r m which reach their culminating point i n t h e A l h a m b r a . T h e differences w h i c h exist result f r o m the less p e r f e c t i o n o f the distribution o f t h e f o r m s , t h e l e a d i n g p r i n c i p l e s a r e t h e s a m e . surface decoration.

T h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e first stage of

T h e y a r e o f p l a s t e r, a n d t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e p a r t t o b e d e c o r a t e d being first b r o u g h t

t o a n even face, t h e p a t t e r n s w e r e e i t h e r s t a m p e d o r t r a c e d u p o n t h e material, whilst s t i l l i n a p l a s t i c state, w i t h a b l u n t i n s t r u m e n t , w h i c h i n m a k i n g the incisions slightly r o u n d e d t h e e d g e s . We a t o n c e recognized that t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e r a d i a t i o n o f t h e l i n e s f r o m a p a r e n t s t e m a n d t h e t a n g e n t i a l c u r v a ture of those lines h a d b e e n e i t h e r retained by Graeco-Roman tradition, o r w a s f e l t b y t h e m from Spandril of an arch from Sta. Sophia.—SALZENBERG.

to their own uses, or buildings constructed on the ruins and w i t h t h e materials of ancient monuments, it is equally c e r t a i n t h a t t h e n e w w a n t s t o be supplied, a n d t h e n e w feelings to be expressed, must

observation of n a t u r e . Many of the patterns, s u c h a s 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 3 2 , 3 8 , still retain traces of this Greek origin : two flowers, o r a f l o w e r t u r n e d u p w a r d s a n d a n o t h e r d o w n w a r d s , f r o m e i t h e r e n d o f a s t a l k ; b u t

a t a v e r y e a r l y p e r i o d h a v e g i v e n a p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r t o t h e i r architecture.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

there was this difference, t h a t w i t h t h e Greeks the flowers or leaves do not form part of the scroll,

upper plane being boldly distributed over the mass, whilst those on the second interwove themselves

but grow out of it, whilst with the Arabs the scroll was transformed into an intermediate leaf. No. 37

with the first, enriching the s u r f a c e o n a l o w e r l e v e l ; by which admirable contrivance a piece of

shows the continuous scroll derived from the Romans, with the division at each turn of the scroll,so

ornament retains its breadth of e ff e c t w h e n viewed a t a distance, and affords most exquisite, and

characteristic of Roman ornament, omitted.

The ornament we engrave here from Sta. Sophia would

oftentimes most ingenious, decoration for c l o s e inspection.

Generally there w a s m o r e variety in

their surface treatment ; the feathering which forms so prominent a f e a t u r e o n the ornaments on

seem to be one of the earliest examples of the change.

Plates XXXII., X X X I I I ., was intermixed with plain surfaces, such as we see a t N o s . 17, 18, 32, Plate X X X I I .

Arabian.

Arabian.

Greek.

The o r n a m e n t No. 1 3 , P l a t e X X X I I I ., i s i n pierced metal, a n d i s a very near

Arabian.

Moresque.

T h e u p r i g h t patterns on this Plate, chiefly from the soffits of windows, and therefore having all an upright tendency in their lines , may be considered as the g e r m s o f a l l those exquisitely-designed patterns of t h i s c l a s s , where the r e p e t i t i o n o f the s a m e p a t t e r n s s i d e b y s i d e produces another or several others.

M a n y o f t h e p a t t e r n s o n t h i s P l a t e s h o u l d be doubled in t h e l a t e r a l direction :

our a n x i e t y t o e x h i b i t a s m a n y varieties as possible preventing t h e e n g r a v i n g o f t h e repeat.

Arabian.

Moresque.

Moresque.

approach to t h e perfection of distribution of the Moorish forms ; it finely exhibits the proportionate diminution of t h e f o r m s towards the centre o f t h e pattern, a n d t h a t fixed law, never b r o k e n b y the Moors, that however d i s t a n t a n ornament, or however intricate the pattern, i t c a n a l w a y s be traced to its branch and root. Generally, the main differences that exist b e t w e e n t h e Arabian a n d M o r e s q u e styles may be summed u p t h u s , the constructive features of t h e A r a b s possess more grandeur, and those o f t h e Moors more refinement and elegance.

With the exception of the centre ornament o n P l a t e X X X I I ., which is from the same mosque as t h e o r n a m e n t o n the l a s t p l a t e , the w h o l e o f t h e ornaments on P l a t e s X X X I I I . and X X X I V. are of the thirteenth century, i.e. four hundred years later than t h o s e o f t h e Mosque of Tooloon. The progress which the style h a d m a d e in this period may be s e e n a t a glance. As compared, however, with the Alhambra, which is of t h e s a m e p e r i o d , they are v e r y i n f e r i o r. T h e A r a b s never arrived a t t h a t s t a t e of perfection in the distribution o f t h e masses, o r i n t h e ornamenting o f t h e surfaces o f t h e o r n a m e n t s , in w h i c h t h e Moors so excelled . T h e g u i d i n g i n s t i n c t is the s a m e , but the execution is very inferior. In Moresque ornament the r e l a t i o n o f the areas of the o r n a m e n t to the ground is always perfect; there are n e v e r a n y gaps o r h o l e s ; in t h e d e c o r a t i o n of the surfaces of the ornaments also they exhibited much greater s t i l l , — there was less monotony. To exhibit clearly the difference, we r e p e a t t h e Arabian ornament, N o . 1 2 , f r o m P l a t e X X X I I I ., compared with two varieties of lozenge diapers from the Alhambra. The Moors also introduced a n o t h e r f e a t u r e into their surface ornament, v i z . t h a t there were o f t e n t w o a n d sometimes t h r e e p l a n e s on which t h e p a t t e r n s were drawn. The ornaments on the

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

The exquisite ornaments o n P l a t e X X X I V., f r o m a c o p y o f the Koran, will give a perfect idea o f A r a b i a n decorative art. We r e i t n o t f o r t h e introduction of flowers, which rather destroy t h e u n i t y o f t h e s t y l e , a n d which b e t r a y a Persian influence, it w o u l d b e impossible to find a better specimen of Arabian ornament. in form and colour.

A s i t is, however, it i s a v e r y perfect lesson both

The immense m a s s o f f r a g m e n t s of marble derived f r o m R o m a n ruins m u s t h a v e very early l e d t h e A r a b s to s e e k t o i m i t a t e the universal practice o f t h e Romans, of covering t h e f l o o r s of their houses and monuments w i t h m o s a i c patterns, arranged on a geometrical system ; and we have o n P l a t e XXXV. a g r e a t number o f t h e varieties which this fashion produced with t h e A r a b s . No better idea c a n b e obtained of what style in o r n a m e n t consists than by comparing the mosaics on P l a t e X X X V. w i t h t h e Roman mosaics , Plate X X V. ; t h e B y z a n t i n e , XXX. ; t h e Moresque, Plate XLIII. There is scarcely a form to be found in a n y o n e which does n o t e x i s t in all the others. Yet how strangely different is the a s p e c t o f t h e s e plates! I t is l i k e a n idea expressed in four different languages.

The mind receives from e a c h t h e s a m e modified conception, by the

sounds so widely differing.

T

The twisted cord, the interlacing o f lines, the crossing of two squares

, t h e equilateral

triangle arranged within a hexagon, are the starting-points in each ; the m a i n differences resulting in the scheme of colouring, w hich the material employed a n d t h e uses t o w h i c h they were applied, mainly suggested.

The A r a b i a n a n d the Roman are pavements, and o f l o w e r tones ; t h e Moresque

are dados ; whilst those of the brighter hues, o n P l a t e XXX., are decorations o n t h e constructive features of the buildings.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

CHAPTER IX.—PLATES 36, 37, 38.

TURKISH

O R N A M E N T.

PLATE XXXVI. 1, 2, 3, 16, 18. From a Fountain at Pera, Constantinople. 4. From the Mosque of Sultan Achmet, Constantinople. 5, 6, 7, 8, 13. From Tombs at Constantinople. 9, 12, 14, 15. From the Tomb of Sultan Soliman I., Constantinople.

10, 11, 17, 19, 21. From the Yeni D’jami, or new mosque, Constantinople. 20, 22.

From a Fountain at Tophana, Constantinople.

PLATE XXXVII. 1, 2, 6, 7, 8. From the Yeni D’jami, Constantinople. 3. Rosace in t he Centre of the Dome of t h e Mosque of Soliman I., Constantinople.

4, 5.

Ornaments in Spandrils under the Dome of the Mosque of Soliman I., Constantinople.

PLATE XXXVIII. Portion of the Decoration of the Dome of the Tomb of Soliman I., Constantinople.

T H E architecture of t h e T u r k s , as s e e n a t Constantinople, is in all its structural features mainly based upon the early Byzantine monuments ; their system of ornamentation, however, i s a modification of the Arabian, bearing about the same relation to this style as Elizabethan ornament does to Italian Renaissance. When t h e a r t of one p e o p l e i s adopted b y a n o t h e r having the same religion, but differing in natural character and instincts, we should expect to find a deficiency in all those qualities in which the borrowing people are inferior to their predecessors. And thus it is with t h e a r t of t h e Tu r k s as compared with t h e a r t o f t h e Arabs ; t h e r e i s the same difference i n t h e amount o f e l e g a n c e and refinement in t h e a r t of the two people as exists in their national character. We are, however, inclined to believe t h a t t h e Turks have rarely themselves practised the arts ; but that t h e y h a v e r a t h e r c o m m a n d e d the execution than been themselves executants. A l l t h e i r mosques and public buildings p r e s e n t a m i x e d s t y l e . On t h e s a m e buildings, side by side with ornaments derived from Arabian and Persian floral ornaments, we find debased Roman and Renaissance details, leading to the belief that these buildings have mostly been executed by artists differing in religion from themselves. In more recent times, the Turks have been the first of the Mohammedan

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

races to abandon the traditional style of building o f t h e i r forefathers, and t o a d o p t t h e prevailing

distribution of form, and in a l l t h e principles of ornamentation, as the most elaborate and important

fashions of the day i n t h e i r architecture ; the modern buildings and palaces being not only the work

article of decoration.

of European artists, but designed in the most approved European style.

The only examples we have of perfect ornamentation are t o b e found i n T u r k e y carpets ; but

The productions of the T u r k s a t t h e Great Exhibition of 1851 w e r e t h e least perfect of all the Mohammedan exhibiting nations.

these are chiefly executed i n A s i a Minor, a n d most p r o b a b l y n o t b y Turks.

The d e s i g n s a r e

thoroughly Arabian, differing from Persian carpets in being much more conventional i n t h e treatment

In Mr. M. Digby Wyatt’s admirable record of the state o f t h e Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century, w i l l b e found specimens of Turkish embroidery e x h i b i t e d i n 1851, a n d w h i c h may be compared w i t h t h e many valuable specimens of Indian embroidery represented i n t h e same work.

of foliage. By comparing Plate X X X V I I . with Plates XXXII. and XXXIII. the differences of style will be readily perceived.

The general principles of the distribution of form are t h e s a m e , but there are a

few minor differences that it will be desirable to point out. The surface of an ornament both i n t h e Arabian and Moresque styles is only slightly rounded, and the enrichment of the surface is obtained by sinking lines on this surface ; or where the surface was left plain, the additional pattern upon pattern was obtained by painting. The Turkish ornament, o n t h e contrary, presents a carved surface, and such ornaments as we find p a i n t e d i n the A r a b i a n M S S ., Plate XXXIV., i n b l a c k l i n e s on t h e g o l d flowers, are here carved on the surface, the effect being not nearly so broad as that produced by the sunk feathering of the Arabian and Moresque. Another peculiarity, a n d o n e w h i c h a t once distinguishes a p i e c e o f Turkish ornament from Arabian, is the great abuse which was made of the re-entering curve

A A.

This is very prominent i n t h e Arabian, but more especially in the Persian styles.

See Plate

XLVI. With the Moors it is no longer a feature, and appears only exceptionally. This peculiarity was adopted i n t h e Elizabethan ornament, which, through the Renaissance of France and Italy, was derived from the East, in imitation of the damascened work which was at that period so common. It will be seen on reference to Plate XXXVI. that this swell always occurs on the inside of the spiral curve of the main s t e m ; with Elizabethan ornament the swell often occurs indifferently on the inside and on the outside. It is very difficult, nay, almost impossible, thoroughly to explain by words differences in style of

A

ornament having such a strong family resemblance as the Persian, Arabian, and Turkish ; yet the eye Turkish.

readily detects them, much i n t h e s a m e way as a Roman statue is distinguished from a Greek. Turkish.

The

general principles remaining the same in the Persian, the Arabian, and the Turkish styles of ornament, there will be found a peculiarity in the proportions of the masses, more or less grace in the flowing of the curves, a fondness for particular directions i n t h e leading lines, and a peculiar mode of interweaving forms, the general form of the conventional leafage ever remaining the same.

The relative

degree of fancy, delicacy, or coarseness, with which these are drawn, will at once distinguish them as the works of the refined and spiritual Persian, the not less refined but reflective Arabian, or the unimaginative Turk. Plate XXXVIII. is a portion of the decoration of the dome of the tomb of Soliman I. at Constantinople ; it is the most perfect specimen of Turkish ornament with which we are acquainted, and nearly approaches the Arabian.

One great feature of Turkish ornament is the predominance of green and

black ; and, in fact, i n t h e modern decoration of Cairo the same thing is observed.

Green is much

more prominent than in ancient examples where blue is chiefly used. Turkish.

Elizabethan.

It w i l l r e a d i l y be s e e n , f r o m t h e simple matter o f t h e i r embroidery, that t h e a r t -instinct o f t h e Turks m u s t b e v e r y inferior to t h a t o f t h e Indians.

The I n d i a n e m b r o i d e r y i s a s p e r f e c t in

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R X.—P LATES 39, 40, 41, 41*, 42, 42*, 42†, 43.

MORESQUE

O R N A M E N T,

FROM THE ALHAMBRA.

PLATE XXXIX. INTERLACED ORNAMENTS. 1–5, 16, 18, are Borders on Mosaic Dados. 6–12, 14. Plaster Ornaments, used as upright and horizontal Bands enclosing Panels on the walls.

13, 15. Square Stops in the Bands of the Inscriptions. 17. Painted Ornament from the Great Arch in the Hall of the Boat.

PLATE XL. SPANDRILS OF ARCHES. 1. From the centre Arch of the Court of the Lions. 2. From the Entrance to the Divan Hall of the Two Sisters. 3. From the Entrance to the Court of the Lions from the Court of the Fish-ponds.

4.

From the Entrance to the Court of the Fish-pond from the Hall of the Boat.

5, 6.

From the Arches of the Hall of Justice.

PLATE XLI. LOZENGE DIAPERS. 1. Ornament in Panels from the Hall of the Boat. 2. ” ” from the Hall of the Ambassadors. 3. ” in Spandril of Arch, entrance to Court of Lions. 4. ” in Doorway of the Divan, Hall of t h e Two Sisters.

5. Ornament in Panels of the Hall of the Ambassadors. 6.

”

in Panels of the Courts of the Mosque.

7.

”

in Panels, Hall of the Abencerrages.

8.

”

over Arches, entrance to the Court of Lions.

PLATE XLI*. 9, 10. Ornaments in Panels, Court of the Mosque. 11. Soffit of Great Arch, entrance to Court of Fish-pond. 12. Ornaments in Si d es of Windows, Upper Story, Hall of Two Sisters.

13. Ornaments in Spandrils of Arches, Hall of the Abencerrages. 14, 15. Ornaments in Panels, Hall of Ambassadors. 16. ” in Spandrils of Arches, Hall of the Two Sisters.

PLATE XLII. SQUARE DIAPERS. 2. Panelling in Windows, Hall of the Ambassadors.

1. Frieze over Columns, Court of the Lions.

PLATE XLII*. 3. Panelling of the centre Recess of the Hall of the Ambassadors.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

4. Panelling on the Walls, Tower of the Captive.

T

PLATE XLII†. 5. Panelling on the Walls, House of Sanchez.

6. Part of the Ceiling of the Portico of the Court of the Fish-pond.

PLATE XLIII. MOSAICS. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5, 6. 7. 8.

Pilaster, Hall of the Ambassadors. Dado, ditto. Dado, Hall of the Two Sisters. Pilaster, Hall of the Ambassadors. Dados, Hall of the Two Sisters. Pilaster, Hall of Justice. Dado, Hall of the Two Sisters.

MORES QUE

9. Dado in centre Window, Hall of the Ambassadors. 10. Pilaster, Hall of the Ambassadors. 11. Dado, Hall of Justice. 12, 13. Dados, Hall of the Ambassadors. 14. From a Column, Hall of Justice. 15. Dado in the Baths. 16. Dado in Divan, Court of the Fish-pond.

ORNAM ENT.

O U R illustrations of the ornament of the Moors have been taken exclusively from the Alhambra, not only because i t i s t h e o n e of their works with which we are best acquainted, but also because it i s t h e o n e i n w h i c h t h e i r marvellous system of decoration reached its culminating p o i n t . The Alhambra is at the very summit of perfection of Moorish art, as is the Parthenon of Greek art. We can find no work so f i t t e d t o illustrate a G r a m m a r of Ornament a s t h a t i n which every ornament contains a grammar in itself. Every principle which we can derive from the study of the ornamental art of any o t h e r p e o p l e i s not only ever present here, but w a s b y t h e Moors more universally and truly obeyed. We find in the Alhambra the speaking art of the Egyptians, the natural grace and refinement of t h e G r e e k s , the geometrical combination s o f t h e Romans, t h e Byzantines, a n d t h e Arabs. The ornament wanted but one charm, which was the peculiar feature of the Egyptian ornament, symbolism. This t h e r e l i g i o n o f the Moors forbade ; but the w a n t w a s m o r e than supplied by the inscriptions, which, addressing themselves to the eye by their outward beauty, at once excited the intellect by the difficulties of deciphering their curious and complex involutions, and delighted the imagination when read, by the beauty of the sentiments they expressed and the music of their composition .

“There is no conqueror but God.” Arabic inscription from the Alhambra .

To t h e artist and those provided with a m i n d t o estimate the value o f the beauty to which they gave a life they repeated , Look a n d l e a r n . To the people they proclaim ed the might, majesty, and good d e e d s o f t h e k i n g . T o t h e king himself they never ceased declarin g that there was none powerful b u t G o d , that He alone was conqueror, and that to Him alone was for ever due praise and glory.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

The builde rs of this wonde rful structu re were fully aware of the greatn ess of their work. It is asserted in the inscrip tions on the walls, that this buildin g surpas sed all other buildin gs ; that at sight of its wonderful domes all other domes vanishe d and disappe ared ; in the playfu l exagge ration of their poetry, that the stars grew pale i n their light throug h envy of so much beauty ; and, what is more to our purpos e, they declare t h a t h e who should study them with attenti on would reap the benefi t of a commentary on decoration. We have endeav oured to obey the injunc tions of the poet, and will attemp t here to explain some of the genera l princip les which appear to have guided the Moors in the decora tion of the Alham bra— principles which are not theirs alone, but commo n to all the best period s of art. The princip les which are everyw here the s a m e , the forms only differ. 1.* The Moors ever regard ed what w e h o l d to be the first princip le in archite cture— to decorate constru ction, never to constru ct decora tion : in Moorish archite cture not only does the decora tion arise natura lly from the constr uction , but the constr uctive idea is c a r r i e d o u t in e v e r y d e t a i l o f t h e ornamentation of the surface . We believ e that true beauty in archite cture results from that “ repose which the mind feels when the eye, the intelle ct, a n d t h e a f f e c t i o n s a re satisfie d, f ro m t h e absenc e o f a n y want.” When an object is constru cted falsely, appear ing to derive or give suppor t withou t doing either t h e o n e or the other, it fails to afford this repose, and therefo re never can preten d to true beauty, howev er harmon ious it may be in itself : the Moham medan races, and Moors especia lly, have constan tly regarde d this rule ; we never find a useles s or superf luous orname nt ; every ornam ent arises quietly and natura lly from the surface decora ted. They ever regard the useful as a vehicle for the beauti ful ; a n d i n t h i s they do not stand alone : the same princip le was observ ed in all the best period s of a r t : i t i s only when art decline s that true princip les come to be disrega rded ; or, in an age of copyin g, like the presen t, when the works of the past are reprod uced withou t the spirit which animat ed the origina ls. 2. All lines grow o u t o f e a c h other in gradua l undula tions ; t h e r e a r e n o excres cences ; nothing could be remove d and leave the design equally good or better. In a genera l sense, if constru ction be proper ly attend ed to, there c o u l d b e no excres cences ; but we use the word here in a more limited sense : the genera l lines might follow truly the constru ction, and y e t t h e r e might be excres cences , such as knobs or bosses, which would n o t v i o l a t e the rule of constru ction, and yet w o u l d b e fatal to beauty of f o r m , if they d i d n o t grow out gradua lly from the genera l lines. There c a n b e n o beauty of form, no perfec t propor tion or arrang ement of lines, which does not produc e repose. All transit ions of curved l i n e s from curved , o r o f c u r v e d lines from straigh t, must be gradua l. Thus the transit ion w o u l d c e a s e t o be agreea ble i f t h e b r e a k at A w e r e too d e e p i n propor tion to the curves , a s a t B . Where t w o curves are separa te d b y a break (as in this case), they must, and with the Moors always A C B DD do, run parallel t o a n imagin ary line (c) where the curves would be tangential to each other : for were either to depart from this, as in the case at D , t h e eye, instead of following gradua lly down the curve, would run outwar ds, and repose would be lost.† * This essay on the general principles of the ornamentation of the Alhamb ra is partially reprinted from the “ Guide Book to the Alhambra Court in the Crystal Palace,” by the Author. † These transitions were managed most perfectly by the Greeks in all their molding s, which exhibit this refinement in the highest degree ; so do also the exquisite contours of their vases.

T

3. The general forms were first cared for ; these were subdivided by general lines ; the interstices were then filled in with ornament, which was again subdivided and enriched for closer inspection. They carried out this principle with the greatest refinement, and the harmony and beauty of all their ornamentation derive their chief success from its observance. Their main divisions contrast and balance admirably : the greatest distinctness is obtained ; the detail never interferes with the general form. When s e e n a t a distance, the main lines strike the eye ; as we approach nearer, the detail comes into the composition ; on a closer inspection, we see still further detail on the surface of the ornaments themselves. 4. Harmony of form appears to consist in the proper balancing and contrast of the straight, the inclined, and the curved. As in colour there can be no perfect composition in which either of the three primary colours is wanting, so in form, whether structural or decorative, there can be no perfect composition in which either o f t h e t h r e e primary figures is wanting ; and the varieties and harmony in composition and design depend on the various predominance and subordination o f t h e three.* In surface decoration, any arrangement of forms, as at A , consisting only of straight lines, is monotonous, and affords but imperfect pleasure ; but introduce lines which tend to carry the eye towards the angles, as at B , and you have at once an increased pleasure. Then add lines giving a circular tendency, as at C , and you have now complete harmony. In this case the square is the

A

B

C

leading form or tonic ; t h e a n g u l a r a n d curved are subordinate. We may produce the same result in adopting an angular composition, a s a t D : add t h e l i n e s as at E , and we at once correct t h e t e n d e n c y t o f o l l o w o n l y t h e a n g u l a r direction of the inclined lines ; but u n i t e t h e s e by c i r c l e s , as a t F , and we have still more perfect harmony, i.e. repose, for the

eye has now no longer any want that could be supplied.† 5. In the surface decorations of the Moors all lines flow out of a parent stem : every ornament, however distant, can be traced to its branch and root. They have the happy art of so adapting the ornament to the surface decorated, that the ornament as often appears to have suggested t h e general form as to have been suggested b y i t . In a l l c a s e s we find the foliage flowing out of a parent stem, and we are never offended, E D F a s i n m o d e r n practice, by t h e r a n d o m introduction of an ornament just dotted down, without a reason for its existence. However irregular the space they * There can be no better example of this harmony than the Greek temple, where the straight, the angular, and the curved are in most perfect relation to each other. Gothic architecture also offers many illustrations of this principle ; every tendency of lines to run in one direction is immediately counteracted by the angular or the curved : thus, the capping of the buttress is exactly what is required to counteract the upward tendency of the straight lines ; so the gable contrasts admirably with the curved windowhead and its perpendicular mullions. † It is to the neglect of this obvious rule that we find so many failures in paper-hangings, carpets, and more especially articles of costume : the lines of papers generally run through the ceiling most disagreeably, because the straight is not corrected by the angular, or the angular by the curved : so of carpets : the lines of carpets are constantly running in one direction only, carrying the eye right through the walls of the apartment. Again, to this we owe all those abominable checks and plaids which constantly disfigure the human form—a custom detrimental to the public taste, and gradually lowering the tone of the eye for form of this generation. If children were born and bred to the sound of hurdy-gurdies grinding out of tune, their ears would no doubt suffer deterioration, and they would lose their sensibility to the harmonious in sound. This, then, is what is certainly taking place with regard to form, and it requires the most strenuous efforts to be made by all who would take an interest in the welfare of the rising generation to put a stop to it.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

have to fill, they always commence by dividing it into equal areas, and round these trunk-lines they fill in their detail, but invariably return to their parent stem. They appear i n t h i s t o w o r k b y a process analogous to t h a t o f nature, as we s e e i n t h e vine-leaf ; the object being to distribute the sap from the parent stem to the extremities, it is evident the main stem would divide the leaf as near as may be into equal areas. So, again, of the minor divisions ; each area is again subdivided by intermediate lines, which all follow the same law of equal distribution, even to the most minute filling-in of the sap-feeders. 6. The Moors also follow another principle ; that of radiation from the parent stem, as we may see in n a t u r e w i t h t h e human hand, or in a chestnut leaf. We m a y s e e i n the example how beautifully all these lines radiate from the parent stem ; how each leaf diminishes towards the extremities, and how each area is in proportion to the leaf. The Orientals carry out this principle with marvellous perfection ; so also did the Greeks in their honeysuckle ornament. We have already remarked, in Chapter I V. , a peculiarity of Greek ornament, which appears to follow the principle of the plants of the cactus tribe, where one leaf grows out o f another. This is generally the case with Greek ornament ; the acanthus-leaf scrolls are a series of leaves growing out one from the other in a continuous line, whilst the Arabian and Moresque ornaments always grow out of a continuous stem. 7. All junctions of curved lines with curved, or of curved with straight, should be tangential to each other ; this also we consider t o b e a l a w found everywhere in n a t u r e , a n d t h e Oriental practice i s always in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h it. Many o f t h e Moorish ornaments are on the same principle which is observable in the lines of a feather and in the articulations of every l e a f ; a n d t o t h i s i s d u e t h a t additional c h a r m f o u n d in a l l p e r f e c t ornamentation, which w e c a l l the graceful. It m a y b e c a l l e d the melody of form, as what we have before described constitutes its harmony. We shall find these laws of equal distribution, r a d i a t i o n f r o m a p a re n t s t e m , continuity of line, and tangential curvature, ever present in natural leaves. 8. We would call attention to the nature of the exquisite curves in u s e by t h e A r a b s and Moors. As with proportion, we t h i n k t h a t those proportions will be the most beautiful which it will be most difficult for the eye to detect ; * s o w e think t h a t t h o s e compositions o f c u r v e s w i l l b e most agreeable, where the mechanical process of describing them shall be least apparent ; and we shall find it to be universally the case, that in the best periods of art all mouldings and ornaments were founded on curves of t h e h i g h e r o r d e r, such as the conic sections ; whilst, w h e n a r t declined, circles and compass-work were much more dominant. The researches of Mr. Penrose have shown that the mouldings and curved lines in t h e Parthenon are all portions of curves of a very high order, and that segments of circles were very rarely used. The exquisite curves o f t h e Greek vases are well known, and here we never find portions of circles. In Roman architecture, on the contrary, this refinement is lost ; the Romans were probably as little able to describe as to appreciate curves o f a high o r d e r, a n d w e f i n d , therefore, their mouldings mostly parts of circles, which could be struck with compasses. * All compositions of squares or of circles will be monotonous, and afford but little pleasure, because the means whereby they are produced are very apparent. So we think that compositions distributed in equal lines or divisions will be less beautiful than those which require a higher mental effort to appreciate them.

T

In the early works o f t h e Gothic period, the tracery would appear to have been much less the offspring of compass-wor k t h a n i n t h e later period, which has most appropriately been termed the Geometrical, from the immoderate use of compass-work. There is a curve ( A ) common to Greek Art, t o t h e Gothic period, and so much delighted i n b y the Mohammeda n races. This becomes graceful the more it departs from the curve which the union of two parts of circles would give. 9. A still further charm i s f o u n d in the works of the Arabs and Moors from their conventional treatment of ornament, which, forbidden as they were by their creed to represent living forms, they carried to the highest perfection. They ever worked as nature worked, but always avoided a direct transcript ; they took her principles, but did not, as we do, attempt to copy her works. In this, again, they do not stand alone : in every period of faith in art, all ornamentatio n was ennobled by the ideal ; never was the sense of propriety violated by a too faithful representatio n of nature. Thus, in Egypt, a lotus carved in stone was never such an one as you might have plucked, but a conventional representation perfectly in keeping with the architectural members of which it formed a part ; it was a symbol of the power of the king over countries where the lotus grew, and added poetry to what would otherwise have been a rude support. The colossal statues of the Egyptian s were not little men carved on a large scale, but architectural representations of Majesty, in which were symbolised the power of the monarch , and his abiding love of his people. I n G r e e k art, the ornament s, no longer symbols, a s i n Egypt, were still further conventio nalised ; and in their sculptur e applied to architecture, they adopted a conventio nal treatmen t both of pose and relief very different to that of their isolated works. In the best periods of Gothic a r t t h e floral ornamen ts are treated conventio nally, a n d a direct imitation of n a t u r e i s never attempte d ; b u t a s a r t declined , they became less idealised , and more direct in imitation . The same decline may be traced in stained glass, where both figures and ornamen ts were treated at first conventionally ; b u t a s t h e art declined, figures and draperies , through which light was to be transmitt ed, had their own shades and shadows. I n t h e e a r l y illuminat ed MSS. the ornamen ts were conventional, and the illuminat ions were in flat tints, with little shade and no shadow ; whilst in those of a later period highly-fin ished represent ations of natural flowers were used as ornament , casting their shadows on the page.

ON THE COLOUR ING OF MORESQ UE ORNAM ENT. When we examin e the system of colour ing adopte d by the Moors , we shall find, that as with form, so with colour, they follow ed certain fixed princip les, founde d on observ ations of nature’s laws, and which they held in commo n with all those nation s who have practis ed the arts with success. In all a r c h a i c s t y l e s of art, practis ed during period s of faith, the s a m e t r u e princip les prevai l ; and althou gh we find in all somew hat of a local or tempo rary charac ter, we yet discer n in all much that is eterna l and immut able ; the same grand ideas embod ied in differe nt forms, and expres sed, so to speak, in a differe nt langua ge. 10. The ancient s always used colour to assist in the develo pment of form, always employ ed it as a further means of bringin g out the constru ctive feature s of a buildin g.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Thus, in the Egyptian column, the base of which represented the root—t h e s h a f t , t h e stalk— the capital, the buds and flowers of the lotus or papyrus, the several colours were s o a p p l i e d that the appearance of strength in the column was increased, and the contours of the various lines more fully developed. In Gothic architecture, also, colour was always employed to assist in developing the forms of the panel-work and tracery ; and this is effected to an extent of which it is difficult to form an idea, in the present colourless condition o f t h e buildings. I n t h e slender shafts of their lofty edifices, the idea of elevation was still further increased by upward-running spiral lines of colour, which, while adding to the apparent height of the column, also helped to define its form. In Oriental art, again, we always find the constructive lines of the building well defined by colour ; an apparent additional height, length, breadth, or bulk, always results from its judicious application ; and with the ornaments in relief it developes constantly new forms which would have been altogether lost without it. The artists have i n t h i s b u t followed the guiding inspiration of Nature, in whose works every transition of form is accompanied by a modification of colour, so disposed as to assist in producing distinctness of expression. For example, flowers are separated by colour from their leaves and stalks, and these again from the earth in which they grow. So a l s o i n t h e human figure every change of form i s m a r k e d b y a c h a n g e o f colour ; t h u s t h e c o l o u r o f t h e h a i r, the eyes, the e y e l i d s a n d lashes, the sanguine complexion of the lips, the r o s y b l o o m o f the cheek, all a s s i s t i n producing distinctness, and in more visibly bringing out the form. We all know how much the absence or impairment of these colours, as in sickness, contributes to deprive the features of their proper meaning and expression. Had nature applied but one colour to all objects, they would have been indistinct in form as well as monotonous in a s p e c t . It i s t h e boundless variety of her tints that perfects the modelling and defines the outline of each ; detaching equally the modest lily from the grass from which it springs, and the glorious sun, parent of all colour, from the firmament in which it shines. 11. The colours employed by t h e M o o r s on their stucco-work were, in all cases, the primaries, blue, red, and yellow (gold). The secondary colours, purple, green, and orange, occur only i n t h e Mosaic dados, which, being near the eye, formed a point of repose from the more brilliant colouring above. It is t r u e t h a t , at the present day, the grounds of many of the ornaments are found to be green ; it will always be found, however, on a minute examination, that the colour originally employed was blue, which being a metallic pigment, has become green from the effects of time . This is proved by the presence of the particles of blue colour, which occur everywhere in the crevices : in t h e restorations, also, which were made by the Catholic kings, the grounds of the ornaments were repainted both green and purple. It may be remarked that, among the Egyptians and the Greeks, the Arabs and the Moors, the primary colours were almost entirely, if not exclusively, employed during the early periods of art ; whilst during the decadence, the secondary colours became of more importance. Thus, in Egypt, in Pharaonic temples, we find the primary colours predominating ; in the Ptolemaic temples, the secondary : so also on the early Greek temples are found the primary colours, whilst at Pompeii every variety of shade and tone was employed. In modern Cairo, and in the East generally, we have green constantly appearing side by side with red, where blue would have been used in earlier times. This is equally true of the works of the Middle Ages. In the early manuscripts and in stained glass, though other colours were not excluded, the primaries were chiefly used ; whilst in later times we have every variety of shade and tint, but rarely used with equal success. 12. With t h e M o o r s , as a general rule, the primary colours were u s e d o n t h e upper portions

T

of objects, the secondary and tertiary on the lower.

This also appears to be in accordance with a

natural law ; we have the primary blue in the sky, the secondary green in the trees and fields, ending with the tertiaries on the earth ; as also in flowers, where we generally find the primaries o n t h e buds and flowers, and the secondaries on the leaves and stalks. The ancients always observed this rule in the best periods of art. In Egypt, however, we do see occasionally the secondary green used in the upper portions of the temples, but this arises from the fact, that ornaments in Egypt were symbolical ; and if a l o t u s l e a f were used on the upper part of a b u i l d i n g , i t would necessarily be coloured green ; b u t t h e l a w i s true i n t h e m a i n ; the general aspect of an Egyptian temple of the Pharaonic period gives the primaries above and the secondaries below ; b u t i n t h e buildings of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods more especially, this order was inverted, and the palm and lotus-leaf capitals give a superabundance of g r e e n i n t h e upper portions of the temples. In Pompeii we find sometimes in the interior of the houses a gradual gradation of colour downwards from the roof, from light to dark, ending with black ; b u t t h i s i s b y no means so universal as to convince us that they f e l t i t a s a law. We have already shown in Chapter V. t h a t t h e r e a r e many examples of black immediately under the ceiling. 13. Although the ornaments which a r e f o u n d i n the Alhambra, a n d i n t h e Court o f t h e L i o n s especially, are at the present day covered with several thin coats of the whitewash which has at various periods been applied to them, we m a y b e s a i d to h a v e a u t h o r i t y for the whole of the colouring of our reproduction ; for not only may the colours be seen in the interstices of the ornaments in many places by scaling off the whitewash, but the colouring of the Alhambra was carried out on so perfect a s y s t e m , t h a t a n y one w h o w i l l m a k e this a s t u d y c a n , with almost absolute certainty, on being shown for the first time a piece of Moorish ornament in white, define at once the manner in which it was coloured. So completely were all the architectural forms designed with reference to their subsequent colouring, that the surface alone will indicate the colours they were destined to receive. Thus, in using the colours blue, red, and gold, they took care to place them in such positions that they should be best seen in themselves, and add most to the general effect. On moulded surfaces they placed red, the strongest colour of the three, in the depths, where it might be softened by shadow, never on the surface ; blue in the shade, and gold on all surfaces exposed to light : for it is evident that by this arrangement alone c o u l d t h e i r t r u e value b e o b t a i n e d . T h e s e v e r a l colours are either separated by white bands, or by the shadow caused by the relief of the ornament itself—and this appears to be an absolute principle required in colouring—colours should never be allowed to impinge upon each other. 14. In colouring the grounds of the various diapers the blue always occupies the largest area ; a n d t h i s i s in accordance with the theory of optics, and the experiments which have been made with the prismatic spectrum. The rays of light are said to neutralise each o t h e r i n t h e proportions of 3 yellow, 5 r e d , a n d 8 b l u e ; thus, i t requires a quantity o f b l u e e q u a l to the r e d a n d yellow put together to produce a harmonious effect, and prevent the predominance of any one colour over t h e o t h e r s . As i n t h e “ Alhambra,” yellow is replaced by gold, which tends towards a reddishyellow, the blue is still further increased, to counteract the tendency o f t h e r e d to overpower the other colours.

Arabian t o t h e G r e e k fret. T h e o r n a m e n t s on Plate X X X I X . are constructed o n t w o general principles : Nos. 1–12, 16–18, are constructed on one principle (Diagram No. 1), No. 14 on the other (Diagram No. 2). In t h e f i r s t series the l i n e s a r e equidistant, diagonally crossed by horizontal and

Diagram No. 1.

Diagram No. 2.

perpendicular lines on each square. But the system on which No. 14 is constructed, the perpendicular and horizontal lines are equidistant, and the diagonal lines cross only each alternate square. The number of patterns that c a n b e produced by these two systems would appear to be infinite ; and it will be seen, on reference t o P l a t e X X X I X ., that the variety may be still further increased by the mode of colouring t h e g r o u n d o r the surface l i n e s . Any o n e o f t h e s e patterns which w e h a v e engraved might b e made t o c h a n g e its aspect, by bringing into prominence different chains or other general masses. LOZENGE DIAPERS. The general effect of Plate XLI. a n d X L I *. will, we think, at once justify the superiority we have claimed for the ornament o f t h e M o o r s . Composed of but three colours, they are more harmonious and effective than a n y others i n o u r collection, and p o s s e s s a peculiar charm which all the others fail to approach. The various principles for which we have contended, the constructive idea whereby each leading line r e s t s u p o n a n o t h e r, t h e gradual transitions from curve to curve, the tangential curvatures of t h e lines, the flowing off of the ornaments f r o m a parent s t e m , the tracing of each flower to its branch and root, the division and subdivision of general lines, will readily be perceived in every ornament on the page. SQUARED DIAPERS. The ornament No. 1, o n P l a t e X L I I . is a good example of the principle we contend for, that to produce repose the lines of a composition should contain in equilibrium the straight, the inclined, and the curved. We have lines running horizontally, perpendicularly, and diagonally, again contrasted by circles in opposite directions. So that the most perfect repose is obtained, the tendency of the eye to run in any direction is immediately corrected by lines giving an opposite tendency, and wherever the eye strikes upon the p a t t e r n s i t is inclined t o d w e l l .

INTERLACED PATTERNS. We have already suggested, in Chapter IV., the probability that the immense variety of Moorish ornaments, which are formed by the intersection of equidistant lines, could be t r a c e d t h r o u g h the

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T h e blue ground o f t h e inscriptions and

ornamental panels and centres, being c a r r i e d o v e r t h e red ground b y t h e blue feathers, produces a most cheerful and brilliant effect. The leading lines of the ornaments Nos. 2-4, Plates XLII. and XLII*., are produced in the same way as the interlaced ornaments on Plate XXXIX. In Nos. 2 a n d 4 it will be seen how the repose

T

of the pattern is obtained by the arrangement of the coloured grounds ; and how, also, by this means an additional pattern besides that produced by form results from the arrangement of the colours. Pattern No. 6, Plate XLI†., is a portion of a ceiling, of which there are immense varieties in the Alhambra, produced by divisions of the circle crossed by intersecting squares. It is the same principle which exists in the copy from the illuminated Koran, Plate XXXIV., and is also very common on the ceilings of Arabian houses. The ornament No. 5, Plate X L I I † . , is of extreme delicacy, and is remarkable for the ingenious system on w h i c h i t i s constructed. All the pieces b e i n g s i m i l a r, it illustrates o n e o f the most important principles in Moorish design,—one which, more perhaps than any other, contributed to the general happy result, viz. t h a t b y the repetition of a few simple e l e m e n t s t h e m o s t b e a u t i f u l and complicated effects were produced. However m u c h d i s g u i s e d , the w h o l e o f t h e o r n a m e n t a t i o n o f t h e M o o r s i s constructed geometrically. Their fondness for geometrical forms is evidenced by t h e g r e a t use they made of mosaics, in which their imagination had full play. However complicated the patterns on Plate XLIII. may a p p e a r, they a r e a l l v e r y simple when the principle of s e t t i n g t h e m out i s o n c e understood. They all arise from the intersection of equidistant lines round fixed centres. No. 8 is constructed on the principle of Diagram No. 2, cited o n t h e other side, a n d i s the principle which produces the greatest variety ; in fact, geometrical combinations on this system may be said to be infinite.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R XI.—P L AT E S 44, 45, 46, 47, 47*, 48.

PERSIAN

O R N A M E N T.

PLATES XLIV., XLV., XLVI. Ornaments from Persian MSS. in the British Museum.

PLATES XLVII., XLVII*. From a Persian Manufacturer’s Pattern-Book, South Kensington Museum.

PLATES XLVIII. From a Persian MS. South Kensington Museum.

T H E Mohammedan architecture of Persia, if we may judge from the representations published in Flandin and Coste’s “ Voyages e n Perse,” does not appear t o have ever reached the perfection of the Arabian buildings of Cairo.

Although presenting considerable grandeur i n t h e m a i n features, the

general outlines a r e m u c h less pure, a n d t h e r e would appear t o b e a great want of elegance in all the constructive features as compared with those of Cairo. Their system of ornamentation also appears to us m u c h l e s s pure t h a n t h e Arabian and Moresque.

The Persians, u n l i k e t h e Arabs a n d t h e

Moors, were free to introduce animal life, a n d t h i s mixing u p o f subjects d r a w n f r o m real l i f e i n their decoration led t o a much less pure style of ornament.

Wi t h the Arabs and Moors, ornaments

with their inscriptions had to supply every want, and therefore it became of more importance in their structures, and reached a higher point of elaboration. Persian ornament is a mixed style ; combining the conventional, which is similar to the Arabian, and probably derived f r o m a common origin, with an attempt at the natural, which sometimes has influenced both the Arabian a n d Tu r k i s h styles, and is even felt in portions of the Alhambra.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

The great attention paid to the illuminating of manuscripts

T

in Persia, which, doubtless, were widely disseminated in Mohammedan countries, would readily spread the influence of this mixed style. The decorations of the houses of Cairo and Damascus, the mosques and fountains of Constantinople more especially, exhibit this mixed style ; groups of natural flowers are constantly found growing from a vase and enclosed in panels of conventional Arabian ornament. The ornament of modern India also feels this ever-present influence of the Persian mixed style. In a book-cover from t h e I n d i a House (P l a t e s L I I I . a n d L I V. ) i s a n example of this ; the outside is treated in the pure Arabian manner, whilst the inside (Plate L I V.) is quite Persian in character. The ornaments on Plate XLIV., from illuminated MSS. i n t h e British Museum, present also the mixed character we have referred to. The geometrical patterns are purely conventional ornament, and have great affinity with the Arabian, but are less perfect in distribution. Nos. 1–10, on the contrary, are from backgrounds of pictures, representing tapestry on the walls ; they possess great elegance, and the masses are well contrasted with the grounds. The patterns on P l a t e X LV. are chiefly representations of pavements and dados, and probably w e r e i n t e n d e d for glazed tiles, so abundantly u s e d b y the Persians. Compared w i t h t h e Arabian a n d Moresque mosaics, they e x h i b i t a marked inferiority, both i n t h e distribution of form and in the arrangement of colour. it will be observed that, throughout our Persian subjects, the secondary and tertiary colours are much more dominant than in the Arabian (Plate XXXIV.), or in the Moresque, where blue, red, and gold, are the prevailing harmonies, and, as may be seen a t a glance, with much increased effect.

The ornaments on Plate XLVI. have a much greater affinity with the Arabian ; Nos. 7, 16, 17, 21, 23-25, are very common ornaments for the heads of chapters in Persian MSS.. indeed t h e r e i s but little variety to be found in these, numerous as they are. Compared with t h e Arabian MSS. (Plate XXIV.), a great similarity will be found in all the leading lines of the construction of the ornaments, and also in the surface decoration of the ornaments themselves ; but the masses are much less evenly distributed. However, the same general principles prevail. Plates XLVII. and XLVII*. are arranged from a very curious Persian book at South Kensington Museum, which appears to b e a manufacturer’s pattern-book. The designs exhibit much elegance, and there is great simplicity and ingenuity displayed in the conventional rendering of natural flowers. Both these Plates and Plate XLVIII. are very valuable, as showing the extreme limit of this conventional rendering, reached, but not exceeded. When natural flowers are used as decoration, and subjected t o a geometrical arrangement, they can have neither shade nor shadow, as was the case with the later MSS. of the Mediæval School, see Plate L X X I I I .; without falling under that reproach so justly due to the floral papers and floral carpets of modern times. The ornament a t t h e t o p of Plate XLVIII., which forms the title-page to the book, as well as the borders throughout, present that mixed character of pure ornament, arranged in conjunction with the ornamental rendering of natural forms, which we have considered as characteristic of the Persian style, and which, we think, renders it so much inferior to the Arabian and the Moresque.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C HAPTER XII.—PLATES 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 53*, 54, 54*, 55.

I N D I A N O R N A M E N T, FROM THE EXHIBITIO NS OF 1851 AND 1855.

PLATES XLIX. Ornaments from Works in Metal, exhibited in the Indian Collection in 1851.

PLATES L., LI., LII. Ornaments from Embroidered and Woven Fabrics, and paintings on Vases, exhibited in the Indian Collection in 1851, and now at South Kensington Museum.

PLATES LIII., LIII*., LIV., LIV*. Specimens of Painted Lacquer-work, from the Collection at the India House.

PLATE LV. Ornaments from Woven and Embroidered Fabrics and Painted Boxes, exhibited in the Indian Collection at Paris in 1855.

T H E Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations in 1851 was barely opened to the public ere attention was directed to the gorgeous contributions of India. Amid the general disorder everywhere apparent in the application of A r t t o manufacture s, the presence of so much unity of design, so much skill and judgment in its application, with so much of elegance and refinement in the execution as was observable in all the works, not only of India, but of all the other Mohammeda n contributing countries, —Tunis, Egypt, and Turkey,— excited a degree of attention from artists, manufacturer s, and the public, which has not. been without its fruits. Whilst in the works contributed by the various nations of Europe, there was everywhere t o b e observed an entire absence of any common principle in the application of Art to manufactures ,— whilst from one end t o t h e o t h e r o f t h e v a s t structure there could be f o u n d b u t a fruitless struggle after novelty, irrespective of fitness, that all design was based upon a system of copying and misapplying

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

the received forms of beauty of every bygone style of Art, without one single attempt to produce an Art in harmony with our present wants and means of production—the carver in stone, the worker in metal, the w e a v e r a n d the painter, borrowing from each o t h e r, a n d alternately misapplying the forms peculiarly appropriate t o e a c h —there were t o b e found in isolated collections at the four corners of the transepts all the principles, all the unity, all the truth, for which we had looked elsewhere in vain, and this because we were amongst a people practising an art which had grown up with their civilisation, and strengthened with their growth. United by a common faith, their art had necessarily a common expression, this expression varying in each according to the influence to which each nation was subject. The Tunisian still retaining the art of the Moors who created the Alhambra ; the Turk exhibiting the same art, but modified by the character of the mixed population over which they rule ; the Indian uniting the severe forms of Arabian art with the graces of Persian refinement. All the laws of the distribution of form which we have already observed in the Arabian and Moresque Ornament are equally to be found in the productions of India. From the highest work of embroidery, or most elaborate work of the loom, to the constructing and decorating of a child’s toy or earthen vessel, we find everywhere at work the same guiding principles,—there is always the same care for the general f o r m , t h e s a m e absence of all excrescences or superfluous ornament ; we find nothing that has been added without purpose, nor that could be removed without disadvantage. The same division and subdivision of their general lines, which forms the charms of Moresque ornament, is equally to be found here ; the difference which creates t h e s t y l e i s n o t one of principle, but of individual expression. In the Indian style ornaments are somewhat more flowing and less conventionalised, and have, doubtless, been more subjected to direct Persian influence. The ornaments on Plate XLIX. are chiefly taken from Hookhas, of which there was an immense variety exhibited in 1851, and all remarkable for great elegance of outline, and for such a judicious treatment of the s u r f a c e d e c o r a t i o n t h a t every ornament tended t o f u r t h e r develope the general form. I t w i l l b e seen that there are two kinds of ornament,— the one strictly architectural and conventional : such as Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, which are treated as diagrams ; and the other, such as Nos. 13, 14, 15, in which a m o r e d i r e c t imitation of nature is attempted : these latter are to us very valuable lessons, showing how unnecessary it i s f o r any work of decoration to more than indicate the general idea of a flower. The ingenious way in which the full-blown flower is shown in N o . 1 5 , i n three positions in N o s . 1 4 a n d 1 5 , the folding back of t h e l e a f in No. 20, are very suggestive. the a r t i s t i s f u l l y expressed by m e a n s a s s i m p l e a s e l e g a n t .

The intention of

The u n i t y o f t h e surface of the

object decorated is not destroyed, as it w o u l d b e b y t h e European method o f m a k i n g t h e flower as near l i k e a n a t u r a l flower as possible, with its own light and shade and shadow, tempting you to p l u c k i t f r o m t h e surface. On t h e P e r s i a n , P l a t e X LV I I ., will b e s e e n a similar treatment of natural flowers ; the comparison shows how much of Persian influence there is in this floral style of India. In the application of the various ornaments to the different portions of the objects the greatest judgment is always shown. The ornament is invariably in perfect scale with the position it occupies ; on the narrow necks of t h e H o o k h a s a r e the small pendent flowers, the swelling forms of the base are occupied by the larger patterns ; at the lower edge, again, appear ornaments having an upward tendency, and, at the same time, forming a continuous line round the form to prevent the eye running o u t o f i t . Whenever narrow flowing borders are u s e d , as in N o . 2 4 , they are contrasted by others, with lines flowing in an opposite direction ; the general repose of the decoration is never for a moment lost sight of. In the equal distribution of the surface ornament over the grounds, the Indians exhibit an instinct

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

and perfection of drawing perfectly marvellous. The ornament No. 1, on Plate L., from an embroidered saddle-cloth, excited universal admiration in 1851. The exact balance obtained by the gold embroidery on the green and r ed grounds was so perfect, that it was beyond the power o f a E u r o p e a n hand to copy it with the same complete balance of form and colour. The way in which the colours are fused in all their woven fabrics, so as to obtain what they always appear to seek, viz. that coloured objects when viewed a t a d i s t a n c e should present a neutralised bloom, is very remarkable. A due regard to economy in the production of o u r P l a t e s h a s necessarily limited the number of printings, and we have not always, therefore, been able to obtain the proper balance of colour. The Indian collection at South Kensington Museum should be visited and studied b y a l l i n any way connected w i t h t h e production of woven fabrics. I n t h i s collection will be found the most brilliant colours perfectly harmonised— it is impossible to find there a discord. All the examples show the nicest adjustment of the massing of the ornament to the colour of the ground ; every colour or tint, from the palest and most delicate to the d e e p e s t a n d r i c h e s t s h a d e s , receiving j u s t t h e a m o u n t o f ornament t h a t i t is a d a p t e d to bear. The following general rules, which are applicable to all woven fabrics, may be observed :— 1. When gold ornaments are used on a coloured ground, where gold is used in large masses, there the ground is darkest. Where the g o l d i s used more thinly, there t h e g r o u n d i s lighter and more delicate. 2. When a gold ornament alone is used on a coloured ground, the colour o f t h e ground is carried into it by ornaments or hatchings worked in the ground-colours on the gold itself. 3. When ornaments in one colour are on a ground of c o n t r a s t i n g colour, the ornament is separated from the ground by an edging of a lighter colour, to prevent all harshness of contrast. 4. When, on the contrary, ornaments in a colour are on a gold ground, the ornaments are separated from the gold ground by an edging of a darker colour, to prevent the gold overpowering the ornament.— See No. 10, Plate L. 5. In other cases, where varieties of colour are used on a coloured ground, a general outline of gold, of silver, or of white or yellow silk, separates the ornament f r o m t h e ground, g i v i n g a general tone throughout. The carpets and low-toned combinations of colour, a black general outline is used for this purpose. The object always appears to be, in the woven fabrics especially, that each ornament should be softly, not harshly, defined ; that coloured objects viewed at a distance should p r e s e n t a neutralised bloom ; that each step nearer should exhibit fresh beauties ; and a close inspection, the means whereby these effects are produced. I n t h i s t h e y d o b u t c a r r y o u t the same principles of surface decoration w h i c h w e f i n d i n t h e architecture o f t h e Arabs a n d M o o r s . The s p a n d r i l o f a M o o r i s h a r c h , a n d a n I n d i a n s h a w l , are constructed precisely o n t h e same principles. The o r n a m e n t o n P l a t e LIII., from a book-cover a t t h e I n d i a House, i s a v e r y brilliant example of painted decoration. The general proportions of the leading lines of the pattern, the skilful distribution of the flowers over the surface, and, notwithstanding the intricacy, the perfect continuity of the lines of the stalks, place i t f a r b e f o r e any European effort of this class. On t h e i n s i d e o f the same cover, P l a t e L I V., the o r n a m e n t s a r e less conventional in their treatment ; b u t how charmingly is observed t h e l i m i t of the treatment of flowers on a flat surface ! This b o o k -cover offers i n i t s e l f a specimen of t w o m a r k e d styles, the o u t s i d e P l a t e LIII., b e i n g a f t e r the A r a b i a n m a n n e r, and the inside after t h e Persian.

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R XIII.—P L AT E S 56, 57, 58.

HINDOO

ORNAMENT.

PLATE LVI. Ornaments from a Statue in Basalt at the House of the Royal Asiatic Society.

PLATE LVII. 1. 2. 3. 4–6.

Burmese, of Glass.—CRYSTAL P ALACE. Burmese Shrine. C. P. Burmese Standard. C. P. From Burmese Shrine. C. P.

7–10, 12–17. Ornament s fro m t h e C o p i es o f t h e Paintings on the walls of the Caves at Ajunta.— CRYSTAL PALACE. 11. Burmese, from a Monastery near Prome.—C. P .

PLATES LVIII. 1. 2, 3. 4. 5. 6–9. 10. 11.

Burmese.—E AST I NDIA H OUSE . Burmese Shrine.—C RYSTAL P ALACE. Burmese Gilt Chest.—C. P. Hindoo.—U NITED S ERVICE MUSEUM. Hindoo Ornaments.—E. I. H. Burmese.—C. P. Hindoo .—U. S. M.

12. Burmese—BRITISH M USEUM. 13. Hindoo.—E. I. H. 14. Hindoo.—U. S. M. 15. Hindoo.—E. I. H. 16–19, 21. Burmese.—C. P. 20, 22–25. Burmese.—U, S. M. 26. Burmese.—C. P.

W E have not been able, w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l s a t comman d in this country, t o p r o c u r e sufficient illustrations for a fair apprecia tion of the nature of Hindoo ornamen t. In the works hitherto publishe d on the ancient architect ure of India, sufficien t attention has not been directed to the ornamen tal portions of the building s to enable us t o recognis e the true characte r of Hindoo ornament . In early publicati ons on t h e a r t o f E g y p t all the works of sculpture and ornamen t were so falsely rendered , that it h a s taken consider able time for the European public to become persuade d that there existed so much grace and refineme nt in the works of the Egyptians. The Egyptian remains, however , which have been transport ed to this country, the casts of others existing in Egypt, a n d t h e m o r e trustwort hy represen tations which have of late been publishe d, have placed this beyond doubt, and Egyptian art is taking i ts true place in the estimatio n of the public.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

When the same thing shall have been done for the ancient architect ure of India, we shall be in a better position t h a n w e a r e a t p r e s e n t t o f o r m a n o p i n i o n how far it is entitled to t a k e r a n k as a really fine art, or whether the Hindoos are only heapers of stone, one over the other, adorned with grotesqu e and barbaric sculpture . Had we possessed only picturesq ue views of the Partheno n and the Temples of Balbeck and Palmyra, we should unhesita tingly have s a i d t h a t t h e Romans were far greater architect s t h a n t h e Greeks. B u t t h e c o n t o u r o f a single mouldin g from the Partheno n would at once reverse the judgment , and proclaim loudly t h a t w e w e r e viewing the works of a people who had reached the highest point in civilisati on and refineme nt.

On Plate LV I I . w e have gathered together all the examples of decorative ornament that we could find on the copies of the paintings from the Caves of Ajunta, exhibited by t h e E a s t I n d i a Company at the Crystal Palace. As these copies, notwithstanding that t h e y a r e said to be faithful, are y e t b y a European hand, it is difficult to say how far they may be relied upon. In the subordinate portions, such as the ornaments, at all e v e n t s , t h e r e is so little m a r k e d character, that they might belong to any style. It is very singular, that in these paintings there should be so little ornament ; a peculiarity that we have observed in several ancient paintings in the possession of the Asiatic Society. There is a remarkable absence of ornament even on the dresses of the figures.

Althoug h ornamen t is most properly an accessory to architect ure, a n d should never be allowed to usurp the place of proper structura l features, or to overload o r to disguise t h e m , i t i s in all cases the very s o u l o f a n architect ural monume nt ; a n d b y t h e o r n a m e n t a l o n e c a n w e judge truly of the amount of care and mind which has been devoted to the work. All else in any building may be the result of rule and compass , but by the ornamen t of a b u i l d i n g w e c a n best discover how far the architect was at the same time an artist. N o o n e c a n peruse t h e E s s a y o n Hindoo Architec ture b y R a m R a z * without feeling that a higher state of architect ural perfectio n has been reached than the works publishe d up to the present time w o u l d l e a d us t o b e l i e v e . In t h i s w o r k n o t only are precise rules laid down for the general arrangem ent of structure s, but also minute direction s are given for the division s and subdivisions of each ornamen t. One of the precepts quoted by R a m Raz deserves to be cited, as showing how much the general perfectio n was cared for : “ Woe to them who dwell in a house not built accordin g to the proportions of symmetr y. In building an edifice, therefore , let all i t s p a r t s , from the basemen t to the roof, be duly considered.” Among the direction s for the various proportio ns of columns, bases, and capitals, is a rule for finding the proper diminuti on of the upper diameter of a column in proportio n to the lower. Ram Raz says, that the general rule adopted by the Hindoo architect s was to divide the diameter of the c o l u m n a t t h e base by a s m a n y p a r t s as there were diamete rs i n t h e whole height of the column, a n d t h a t o n e of t h e s e p a r t s w a s invariabl y d e d u c t e d t o f o r m t h e u p p e r diameter. From which it is apparent t h a t t h e h i g h e r the c o l u m n t h e l e s s it will diminish ; and that this was done because the apparent diminuti on of the diameter in columns of the same proporti on is always greater accordin g to the height. T h e b e s t specime ns of Hindoo ornamen t we have been able to procure are represent ed in Plate LVI., from a statue of Surga, or the Sun, in basalt, at the house of the Asiatic Society, and supposed to belong to a period between the fifth and ninth century A . D . The ornamen ts are very beautifu lly executed , and evidentl y betray Greek influenc e. The ornamen t No. 8 represen ts the lotus, seen as it were in plan, with the buds in side-elev ation : it is held in the hand of the god. I n t h e s a c r e d books quoted b y R a m Raz are several direction s to ornamen t the various architectural members with l o t u s e s a n d jewels ; which seem to b e t h e c h i e f types of the decorati on on the mouldin gs. The architect ural features of Hindoo building s consist chiefly of mouldin gs heaped up one over the other. Definite instructi ons are quoted b y R a m R a z for the varying proporti ons of each, and it is evident t h a t t h e whole value of the style will consist i n t h e m o r e o r less perfectio n with which these transitio ns a r e effected ; but, as we said before, we have no opportun ity of judging how far this is the case. * “ History of the Architectur e of the Hindoos.” By Ram Raz.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

London, 1834.

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R XIV.—P L AT E S 59, 60, 61, 62.

CHINESE

ORNAMENT.

PLATE LIX. The Ornaments, Nos. 1, 8–17, 24–28, 33–35, 40, 42, are Painted on Porcelain. Nos. 2–7, 18–23, 29–32, 36–39, 41, are from Paintings.

PLATE LX. The Ornaments, Nos. 1–12, 16, 19–24, are Painted on Porcelain. Nos. 17, 18, from Pictures. Nos. 13, 22, 23, from Woven Fabrics. Nos. 14, 15, Painted on Wooden Boxes.

PLATES LXI. The Ornament s, Nos. 1–3, are Painted on Wood. Nos. 4–6, 9, 10, 12–15, 17, 18, are Painted on Porcelain. Nos. 7, 8, 11, Woven Fabrics. No. 16, from a Picture.

PLATES LXII. Conventional Renderings of Flowers and Fruit, Painted on Porcelain.

N O T W I T H S TA N D I N G the h i g h a n t i q u i t y o f the civilisati on of the Chinese, and the perfectio n which all their manufac turing processe s reached ages before our t i m e , t h e y d o not a p p e a r t o h a v e made much advance i n t h e F i n e A r t s . Mr. F e rg u s s o n , in his a d m i r a b l e “ Handboo k of Architec ture,” observes that “ China possesse s scarcely anything worthy of t h e n a m e o f Architect ure,” a n d t h a t a l l their g r e a t e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s , w i t h w h i c h t h e l a n d i s c o v e r e d , “ a r e w h o l l y d e v o i d o f either architectu ral design or ornamen t.”

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

In their ornamen tation, with which the world is so familiar through the numerou s manufactured articles of every kind which have been imported into this country, they do not appear to have gone beyond that point which is reached by every people in an early stage of civilisatio n : their art, such a s i t i s , is fixed, a n d i s subject neither to progressi on nor retrogres sion. In the concepti on of pure form they are even behind the New Zealande r ; but they possess, in common with all Eastern nations, the happy i n s t i n c t o f harmonis ing colours. As this is more a faculty than an acquirem ent, it is just what we should expect ; the arriving at an apprecia tion of pure form i s a m o r e subtle process, and is the result of either more highly endowed natural instincts , or of the developm ent of primitive ideas by successiv e generatio ns of artists improvin g on each other’s efforts. T h e g e n e r a l f o r m s of many of the Chinese porcelain vases are remarkab le for the beauty of their outline, b u t n o t m o r e so t h a n t h e r u d e water-bo ttles of porous clay which the untutore d Arabian potter fashions daily o n t h e b a n k s o f the Nile, assisted only by the instincts of his gentle race ; and the pure form of the Chinese vases is often destroyed by the addition of grotesqu e or other unmeaning ornamen ts, built u p u p o n t h e surface, not growing f r o m i t : from which w e a rg u e , that they can possess an appreciat ion of form, b u t i n a minor degree. In their decorati on, both painted and woven, the Chinese exhibit only just so much art as would b e l o n g t o a primitiv e p e o p l e . T h e i r m o s t successf ul e f f o r t s a r e t h o s e i n w h i c h geometrical combina tions f o r m t h e basis ; b u t e v e n i n t h e s e , wheneve r they depart from patterns formed by the intersect ion of equal lines they appear to have a very imperfec t idea o f t h e distributi on of spaces. Their i n s t i n c t o f colour enables them, in some measure , to balance form, but when deprived of this a i d t h e y d o not a p p e a r t o b e equally successful. The d i a p e r s o n P l a t e LXIX. will furnish us with example s. Patterns 1, 8, 13, 18, 19, being generate d by figures which ensure an equal distribution, are more perfect t h a n N o s . 2, 4–7, 41, where the arrangem ent depends more upon caprice ; on the other hand, Nos. 28, 33, 35, 49 , and the o t h e r p a t t e r n s o f this c l a s s o n t h e P l a t e , are examples in which the instinct o f t h e a m o u n t of balancin g colour required would determin e the mass. The Chinese share with the Indian this happy power in their woven fabrics ; and the tone of the ground of any fabric is always in h a r m o n y w i t h the quantity of ornamen t w h i c h i t h a s to support. The Chinese are certainly colourist s, and a r e a b l e to balance with equal success both the fullest tones of colour and the most delicate shades. They are not only successfu l in the use of the primarie s, but also of the secondar ies and tertiaries ; most successfu l, perhaps, o f a l l i n the m a n a g e m e n t o f the lighter tones of pure colours,— pale blue, pale pink, pale green, prevailin g. Of purely ornamen tal or conventi onal forms, other than geometr ic patterns, the Chinese possess but very few. On Plate LX. are some example s in 1–3, 5, 7, 8. They have no flowing conventional ornament — such as we find in all other styles ; the place of this is always supplied by a representation of natural flowers interwov en with lineal o r n a m e n t : s u c h as N o s . 1 7 , 1 8 , P l a t e L X I . ; or of fruit, s e e P l a t e L X I I . In a l l c a s e s , however , their instinct restrains t h e m w i t h i n t h e t r u e limit ; and although the arrangem ent is generall y unnatura l and unartisti c, they never, by shades and shadows, as with us, violate consisten cy. In their printed paper-ha ngings, the whole treatmen t, both of figures, landscap e and ornamen t, is so far conventi onal, that however we may feel it to be unartisti c, we are not s h o c k e d b y an overstep ping of the legitima te bounds o f d e c o r a t i o n . In t h e i r f l o r a l patterns, moreove r, they always observe the natural l a w s o f r a d i a t i o n f r o m t h e p a r e n t s t e m , and tangential curvatur e : i t c o u l d n o t w e l l be otherwis e, as the peculiar ity o f t h e C h i n e s e is their fidelity in copying ; and we hence infer that they must be close observer s of nature. It i s t h e t a s t e to idealise upon this close observati on which is wanting. We have already referred in the Greek chapter to the peculiari ties of the Chinese fretwork. No.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

1, Plate LXI., i s a continuous meander l i k e t h e Greek ; Nos. 2–9, 18, specimens of irregular frets ; No. 4, Plate LX., a curious instance of a f r e t with a curved termination. On the whole, Chinese ornament is a very faithful expression of the nature of this peculiar people ; its characteristic feature is oddness,—w e cannot call it capricious, for caprice is the playful wandering of a lively imagination; but the Chinese are totally unimaginativ e, and all their works are accordingly wanting in the highest grace of art,— the ideal.

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R X V. — P L A T E S 6 3 , 6 4 , 6 5 .

C E LT I C

ORNAMENT.

PLATE LXIII. LAPIDARY ORNAMENTATION. 1. The Aberlemno Cross, formed of a single Slab, 7 ft. high.— CHALMERS, Stone Monuments of Angus. 2. Circular Ornament on the base of Stone Cross in the Churchyard of St. Vigean’s, Angusshire.—CHALMERS.

3. Central portion of Stone Cross in the Cemete ry in the Island of Inchbrayoe, Scotland. 4. Orname nt on the Cross in the Church yard of Meigle, Angusshire.—CHALMERS.

5. Ornament of Base of Cross near the old Church of Eassie, Angussh ire.—C HALMERS. N OTE .—In addition to the various orname nts observe d on the stones here figured, a peculiar orname nt occurs only in many of the Scotch crosses, which has been called the Spectacle Pattern, consisti ng of two circles, connected by two curved lines, which latter are crossed by the oblique stroke of a decorat ed Z. Its origin and meanin g have long puzzled antiquaries : the only other instance which we have ever met with of the occurrence of this orname nt is upon a Gnostic Gem engrave d in W ALSH ’ S Essay on Christian Coins. On some of the Manx and Cumber land crosses— as well as on that at Penmon , Anglesea—a pattern occurs analogous to the classica l one represen ted in our Greek Plate VIII. Figs. 22 and 27. It was probabl y borrowe d from the Roman tessellated pavements, on which it is occasionally found : it never occurs in MSS. or Metal-w ork.

PLATE LXIV. INTER LACED STYLE . 1–5, 10–22, 26, 42–44, are Border s of Interlac ed Ribbon Patterns, copied from Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS. in the British Museum, the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and the Libraries of St. Gall and Trinity College , Dublin. 6, 7. Interlaced Ribbon Patterns , from the Golden Gospels in the Harleia n Library in the British Museum.— H UMPHRIES. 8. Terminal Ornament of Initial Letter, formed of Interlaced and spiral lines, from the copy of the Gospels in the Paris Library, No. 693.—S ILVESTRE. 9. Interlaced Ornament, from Irish MS. at St. Gall.— KEILER. 23. Terminal Ornament of Initial Letter, from the Coronation Book of the Anglo-Saxon Kings, a production of Franco-Saxon artists.—H UMPHRIE S . 24. Termina l Interlac ed Orname nt, from the Tironia n Psalter in the Paris Library —S ILVESTR E . 25. Terminal Orname nt, with Foliage and naturally-drawn Animal s introduc ed, from the Golden Gospels.— HUMPHRIES. 27. Angulat ed Orname nt, with interlac ement, from the Bible of St. Denis. 9th century. 28. Pattern of Angulated Lines, from the Gospels of Lindisfarne. End of 7th century.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

29.

Interlaced P a n e l , from the Psalter of St. Augustine in the British Museum. 6th or 7th century. 30. Ornament formed of four Triquetræ conjoined, from the Franco-Saxon Sacramentarium of St. Gregory, in the Library of Rheims. 9th or 10th century.—S ILVESTRE . 31. Part of Gigantic Initial Letter, from the Franco-Saxon Bible of St. Denis. 9th century.—S ILVESTRE . 32. Quatrefoil Interlaced Ornament, from the Rheims Sacramentarium.— SILVESTRE. 33. Angularly Interlaced Ornament, from the Golden Gospels. (Magnified.) 34 and 37. Interlaced Ornaments, formed of red dots, from the Gospels of Lindisfarne. 35. Interlaced Triquetra l Pattern, from the Coronatio n Gospels of the Anglo-Saxon Kings. 36. Circular Ornament of four conjoined Triquetræ, from the Sacramen tarium of Rheims. (Magnified.) 38 and 40. Initial Letters from the Gospels of Lindisfarne, with interlaced Patterns, Animals, and Angulated lines. End of 7th century. (Magnified.) 39. Terminal Ornament, with Dogs’-heads, from the FrancoSaxon Sacramentarium of Rheims.—SILVESTRE. 41 and 45. Quadrangu lar Interlaced Ornament s, from the Missal of Leofric in the Bodleian Library.

T

PLATE LXV. S P I R A L , D I A G O N A L , Z O O M O R P H I C , A N D L AT E R A N G L O - S A X O N O R N A M E N T S . 1.

Initial Letter, from the Gospels of Lindisfarne. End of 7th century. British Museum. (Magnified.) 2. Ornament of angulated Lines, from the Gregorian Gospels. British Museum. (Magnified.) 3. Interlaced Animals, from the Book of Kells, in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin. (Magnified.) 4. Diagonal Pattern. Gospels of Mac Durnan, i n t h e Library of Lambeth Palace. 9th century. (Magnified.) 5 and 12. Spiral Patterns, from Gospels o f Lindisfarne. (Magnified.) 6. Diagonal Patterns, from Irish MSS. at St. Gall. 9th century. (Magnified.) 7. Interlaced Ornament, from ditto. 8. Interlaced Animals. Gospels of Mac Durnan. (Magnified.) 9, 10, 13. Diagonal Patterns. Gospels o f M a c Durnan. (Magnified.) 11. Diagonal Patterns, from Gospels of Lindisfarne. (Magnified. )

C E LT I C

14.

Terminal Border of Interlaced Animals, from Gospels of Lindisfarne. (Magnified.) 15 and 17. Panels of Interlaced Beasts and Birds, from Irish Gospels at St. Gall. 8th or 9th century. 16. Initial Q, formed of an elongated Angulated Animal, from Psalter of Ricemarchus, Trinity College, Dublin. End of 11th century. 18. One Quarter of Frame, or Border, of an Illuminated Page. of the Benedi ctional of Æthelg ar at Rouen. 10th century.—S ILVESTRE . 19. Ditto, from the Arundel Psalter, No. 155, British Museum. —H UMPHRIE S . 20. Ditto, from the Gospels of Canute, in British Museum. End of 10th century. 21. Ditto, from the Benedictional of Æthelgar. 22. Terminal Orname nt of Spiral Pattern, with Birds. Part of large Initial Letter in the Gospels of Lindisfarne. (Real size.) —H UMPHRIE S .

O R N A M E N T.

T H E genius of the inhabitants of the British Islands has, in all ages, been indicated by productions of a class or style singularly at variance with those of the r e s t o f t h e world. Peculiar a s a r e our characteristics at the present time, those of our forefathers, from the remotest ages, have been equally so. In the F i n e A r t s , our immense Druidical temples are still the wonder of the beholder ; and in succeeding ages gigantic stone crosses, sometimes thirty feet high, most elaborately carved and ornamented with devices of a style unlike those of other nations, exhibited the old genius for lapidary erections under a modified form inspired by a new faith. The earliest monuments and relics of ornamental art which we possess (a n d t h e y are far more numerous than the generality of persons would conceive,) are so intimately connected with the early introduction of Christianity into these islands,* t h a t w e a r e compelled to refer to the latter in our endeavours to unravel the h i s t o r y a n d peculiarities of C e l t i c A r t ; a t a s k which has hitherto been scarcely attempted t o be performed, although possessing, from its extreme nationality, a degree of interest equal, one would have thought, to that connected with the history of ornamental art in other countries. 1. H I S T O R I C A L E V I D E N C E —Without attempting to reconcile t h e various statements which have been made by historians a s t o t h e precise manner o f t h e introduction of religion into Britain, we have the most ample evidence, not only t h a t i t h a d been l o n g established previous t o t h e arrival of * The Pagan Celtic remains at Gavr’ Innis, in Brittany, New Grange, in Ireland, and, I believe, one Druidical monument near Harlech, in Wales, exhibit a very rude attempt at ornamentation, chiefly consisting of incised spiral or circular and angulated lines.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

St. Augustine in A . D . 596, but that in several important points of doctrine the old British religionists differed from the missionary sent by St. Gregory the Great. This statement is most completely borne out by still existing artistic evidences. St. Gregory sent into England various copies o f t h e Holy Scriptures, and two of these are still preserved ; one in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and the other in the Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. They are copies of the Holy Gospels, written in Italy, in the large uncial or rounded characters common in that country, and destitute of ornament ; t h e initial letter of each Gospel scarcely differing from the ordinary writing of the text, the first line or two being merely written i n r e d i n k , each Gospel preceded by a portrait o f t h e Evangelist (one only still remains, namely, that o f S t . L u k e ), seated under a round-headed arch, supported upon marble columns, and ornamented with foliage arranged in a classical manner. All the most ancient Italian manuscripts are entirely destitute of ornamental elaboration. The case is totally different w i t h t h e m o s t ancient manuscripts known to have been written in these islands ; and as t h e s e a r e the chief supports of our theory o f t h e independent origin of Celtic ornament, and as, moreover, we are constantly opposed by doubts as to t h e g r e a t a g e which has been assigned to these precious documents, we m u s t e n t e r i n t o a little palæographical detail in proof of their venerable antiquity. It is true, indeed, that none of t h e m are dated ; but in some the scribe has inserted his name, which the early annals have enabled us to identify, and thus to fix the period of the execution of the volume. In this manner the autograph Gospels of S t . Columba ; the Leabhar Dhimma, or Gospels o f S t . Dimma Mac Nathi ; the Bodleian Gospels, written b y M a c Regol ; and the Book of Armagh, have been satisfactorily assigned to periods not later t h a n t h e ninth century. Another equally satisfactory evidence exists, in proof of the early date of the volumes, in the unrivalled collection of contemporary Anglo-Saxon Charters existing i n t h e British Museum and other libraries, from the l a t t e r h a l f o f the seventh century u p t o t h e Norman Conquest ; and a l t h o u g h , a s Astle observes, “ these Charters are generally w r i t t e n i n a m o r e f r e e a n d expeditious m a n n e r t h a n t h e books written in the same ages, yet a similarity of character is observable between Charters and books written i n t h e s a m e c e n t u r y, a n d t h e y authenticate e a c h o t h e r.” Now i t i s q u i t e impossible to compare, for example, the Cottonian MS. Vespasian, A 1, generally known under t h e n a m e o f the Psalter of St. Augustine, with the Charters of Sebbi K i n g o f t h e East Saxons, A . D . 6 7 0 (Casley’s Catal. of MSS . p. xxiv. ) ; o f Lotharius King of Kent, dated at Reculver, A . D . 6 7 9 ; o r, again, the Charter o f Æ t h e l b a l d , dated A . D . 769, with the Gospels of Mac Regol or St. Chad; without being perfectly convinced that t h e M S S . are coeval with the Charters. A third species of evidence of t h e g r e a t a n t i q u i t y o f o u r v e r y ancient national manuscripts is afforded by t h e f a c t o f m a n y o f t h e m b e i n g still preserved in various places abroad, whither they were carried by the Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionaries. The great number of monastic establishments founded by our countrymen in different parts of Europe is matter of historical record ; a n d we need only cite the case o f S t . Gall, an Irishman, whose name has n o t o n l y b e e n g i v e n t o t h e monastic establishment which he founded, but even to the Canton of Switzerland in which i t i s situated. The monastic books of this establishment, now transferred to the public library, c o m p r i s e m a n y of the oldest manuscripts in Europe, and include a number of fragments of elaborately-ornamented volumes executed in these islands, and long venerated as relics o f t h e founder. In l i k e m a n n e r, the Book of the Gospels of St. Boniface is still preserved at Fulda with religious care ; a n d t h a t of. St. Kilian (an Irishman), the Apostle of Franconia, was discovered in his tomb, stained with his blood, and is still preserved a t Wu r t z b u rg h , w h e r e it is annually exhibited on t h e altar of the cathedral on the anniversary of his martyrdom. Now, all these manuscripts, thus proved to have been written in these islands at a period prior to the e n d o f t h e ninth century, exhibit peculiarities of ornamentation totally at variance with those

T

of all other countries, save only in places w h e r e t h e Irish or Anglo-Saxon missionaries may have introduced their own, or have modified the already existing styles. And here we may observe that, although our arguments are chiefly derived from the early manuscripts, the results are equally applicable to the contemporar y ornamental metal or stone-work ; the designs of which a r e i n many cases so entirely the counterparts of those of the manuscripts, a s t o l e a d to the conclusion that the designers of the one class of ornaments supplied also the designs for the other. So completely, indeed, is this the case in some of the great stone crosses, that we might almost fancy we were examining one of the pages of an illuminated volume with a magnifying glass. 2. P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F C E LT I C O R N A M E N T .—The chief peculiarities of the Celtic ornamentatio n consist, first, in the entire absence of foliage or other phyllomorph ic or vegetable ornament,— the classical acanthus being entirely ignored ; and secondly, in the extreme intricacy, and excessive minuteness and elaboration, of the various patterns, mostly geometrical, consisting of interlaced ribbon-work, diagonal or spiral lines, and strange, monstrous animals and birds, with long top-knots, tongues, and tails, intertwining in almost endless knots. The most sumptu ous of the manusc ripts, such for instanc e as the Book of Kells, the Gospels of Lindisf arne and St. Chad, and some of the manusc ripts at St. Gall, have entire pages covered with the most elabora te pattern s in compar tments, the whole forming beautif ul crucifo rm designs , one of these facing the comme ncemen t of e a c h o f t h e four Gospels . The labour employ ed in such a mass of work* must have been very great ; the care infinite , since the most scrutini zing examin ation with a magnify ing glass will not d e t e c t a n e r r o r in the t r u t h o f t h e lines, o r t h e regular ity of the interlac ing ; and yet, w i t h a l l t h i s minuteness, t h e m o s t harmon ious effect of colouri ng has been produced. Contrary to the older plan of commencing a manuscript with a l e t t e r i n noways or scarcel y differing from the remaind er of the text, the commen cement of each Gospel opposit e to these grand tessellated pages was orname nted i n a n e q u a l l y elabora te manner. The i n i t i a l l e t t e r w a s o f t e n o f gigantic size, occupyi ng the greater p a r t o f t h e page, which was comple ted b y a f e w of the followin g letters or words, each letter general ly averagi ng about a n i n c h i n height. In t h e s e i n i t i a l pages, as in those of the crucifor m designs , we find all the various styles of orname nt employ ed i n m o r e or less detail.

The most unive rsal and singularly diversified ornam ent emplo yed by artifi cers in metal , stone , or manu script s, consi sts of one or more narro w ribbo ns interl aced and knott ed, often excessively intric ate in their convo lution s, and often symm etrica l and geom etrica l. Plate s L X I I I . and L X I V. exhib it nume rous exam ples of this ornam ent in varied styles . By colou ring the ribbo ns with differ ent tints, either upon a colou red or black groun d, many charm ing effects are produ ced. Of the curio us intricacy of some of these desig ns, an idea may easily be obtai ned by follow ing the r i b b o n i n some of these patte rns ; as, for instan ce, in t h e upper comp artme nt in F i g . 5 o f P l a t e L X I I I . Some times two ribbo ns run paral lel t o e a c h o t h e r, b u t a r e interl aced altern ately, a s i n F i g . 1 2 o f P l a t e LXIV. When allow able the ribbo n is dilate d and angul ated to fill up partic ular space s in the desig n, as in Plate LXIV., Fig. 11. The simpl est modif icatio n of this patte rn of cours e is the doub le oval, seen in the angle s of Fig. 27, Plate LXIV. This occur s in Greek and Syria c MSS. , in R o m a n tessellated pavem ents, but rarel y in o u r e a r l y M S S . Anot her simpl e f o r m i s t h a t k n o w n a s t h e trique tra, which is extre mely comm on in MSS. and metal -work ; an instan ce in which four of these trique træ are introduced occurs in Plate LXIV., Fig. 36. Figur es 30 a n d 3 5 in the same Plate are modifications of this patter n. * In one of these pages in the Gospels of St. Chad, which we have taken the trouble to copy, there are not fewer than one and twenty of the most fantastic animals. hundred

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Another very distingui shing ornamen t profusely introduc ed into early work of all kind consists of monstrous animals, birds, lizards, and snakes of various kinds, generally extravag antly elongate d, with tails, top-knot s, a n d tongues, extended i n t o l o n g interlaci ng ribbons, intertwin ing together i n t h e most fantastic manner ; often symmetri cal, but often irregular, being drawn so as to fill up a required space. Occasion ally, but of rare occurren ce, t h e h u m a n figure is also thus introduc ed ; as on one of the panels of the Monasterboice Cross i n t h e Crystal Palace, where are four figures thus singular ly intertwined, and o n o n e o f the bosses of the Duke of Devonsh ire’s Lismore crozier are several such fantastic g r o u p s . I n Plate L X I I I . are g r o u p s o f animals thus i n t e r t w i n e d . The most intricate examples a r e t h e groups of eight dogs (Plate L X V. , F i g . 1 7 ) and eight birds (Plate LXV., F i g . 1 5 ) from one of the St. Gall MSS., and the most elegant is the marginal ornamen t (Plate LXV., Fig. 8) from the Gospels of Mac Durnan, at Lambeth Palace. In t h e l a t e r I r i s h and Welsh MSS. the edges of the interlace d ribbons touch each other, and the designs are far less geometri cal and much more confused . The s t r a n g e d e s i g n (P l a t e L X V. , F i g . 1 6 ) is no o t h e r t h a n the initial Q o f t h e Psalm Quid Gloriaris, f o m t h e P s a l t e r of Ricemarc hus, Bishop of St. David’s, A.D . 1088. It will be seen that it is intended for a monstro us animal, with one top-knot extended in front over its nose, and a second forming an extraordi nary whorl above the head, the neck w i t h a r o w of pearls, the body long and angulate d, terminat ed by two contorted legs and grim claws, and a knotted tail, which it would be difficult, indeed, for the animal to unravel. Very often, also, the heads alone of birds or beasts form the terminal ornamen t of a pattern, of which various examples occur in Plate LXIV., the gaping mouth and long tongue forming a not ungracef ul finish. The most characte ristic, however, of a l l t h e Celtic patterns , is that produced by t w o o r three spiral lines starting from a fixed point, their opposite extremiti es going o f f t o the centres of coils formed by other spiral lines. Plate L X V. , F i g s . 1 , 5, a n d 1 2 , are instance s of this ornamen t, all more or less magnifie d ; a n d F i g . 22, which is of the real size. Plate L X I I I . , F i g . 3 , shows how ingeniously this p a t t e r n m a y be converte d into the diagonal pattern. In t h e M S S ., and a l l t h e finer and more ancient metal and stone-wo rk, these spiral lines always take the direction of a C, and never that of n S. It is, therefore, evident, not only from the circumst ance, but also from the irregulari ty of the design itself, t h a t t h e central ornamen t in P l a t e L X I I I . , F i g . 1, was not d r a w n b y an artist skilled i n t h e genuine Celtic patterns, but indicate s a certain amount either of carelessn ess or of extraneou s influence . This pattern has also been called the trumpet pattern, from the spaces between any two of the lines forming a long, curved design, like an ancient Irish trumpet, the mouth of which is represen ted by the small pointed oval placed transvers ely a t t h e broad e n d . Instance s in metalwork of this pattern o c c u r i n several circular objects o f b r o n z e of unknown u s e , a b o u t a f o o t in diameter, occasionally found in Ireland ; also in small, circular, enamelle d plates of early Anglo-Saxon work, found in different parts of England . It i s m o r e rarely found in stone-work, the only instance of its occurrence in England , as far as we are aware, being on the font of Deerhurst Church. Bearing in mind t h a t t h i s ornamen t does n o t a p p e a r in MSS. executed in England after the ninth century, we may conclude that t h i s is the oldest ornamen tal font in this country. Another equally character istic pattern is composed of diagonal lines, never interlacin g, but generally arranged at equal intervals apart, forming a series of Chinese- like patterns,* and which, a s t h e letter Z, or Z reversed , seems to be the primary element, may be termed t h e Z pattern . I t is capable of great modification, a s m a y b e seen i n P l a t e L X V. , F i g s . 6 , 4 , 9 , 1 0 , 11 , a n d 1 3 . In t h e more elaborate MSS. it is purely geometri cal and regular, but in rude work it degenera tes i n t o a n irregular design, as i n P l a t e L X I I I . , F i g s . 1 and 3. * Several of the patterns given in the upper part of the Chinese Plate LIX. occur with scarcely any modification in our stone and metal-work, as well as in our MSS.

T

Another very simple ornament occasionally used in our MSS. consists of a series of angulated lines, placed at equal distances apart, forming a series of steps. See P l a t e L X I V., Figs. 28 a n d 3 6 ; and Plate LXV., Fig. 2. This is, however, by no means characteristic of Celtic ornament occurring elsewhere from the earliest period. T h e l a s t ornament we shall notice is, indeed, the simplest of all, consisting merely of red dots or points. These were in g r e a t u s e as marginal ornaments of the g r e a t i n i t i a l letters, as well as of the more ornamental details, and are, indeed, one of the chief characteristic s distinguishin g Anglo-Saxon and I r i s h M S S . Sometimes, also, they were even formed into patterns, as i n P l a t e LXIV., Figs. 34 and 37. 3. O RIGIN O F C E L T I C O RNAMENT.—The various styles of ornament described above were practised throughout Great Britain and Ireland from the fourth or f i f t h t o t h e tenth or eleventh centuries ; and as they appear in their purest and most elaborate forms in those parts where the old Celtic races longest prevailed, we have not hesitated to give the Celtic as their generic name. We p u r p o s e l y, indeed, avoid entering into the question, whether t h e I r i s h i n t h e f i r s t instance received their l e t t e r s a n d styles of ornament from the early British Christians, or whether it was in Ireland t h a t t h e l a t t e r were originated, and thence dispersed o v e r E n g l a n d . A careful examination of t h e l o c a l origin o f t h e e a r l y Anglo-Saxon MSS., a n d o f t h e R o m a n , Romano-Briti sh, and early Christian inscribed and sculptured stones of the western parts of England and Wales, would, we think, materially assist in determining this question. It is sufficient for our argument that Venerable Bede informs us, t h a t t h e British a n d I r i s h Churches were identical i n t h e i r peculiarities , and the like identity occurs in their monuments. It i s t r u e , indeed, that t h e A n g l o -Saxons, as well a s t h e Irish, employed all these styles of ornamentation. The famous Gospels of Lindisf arne, or Book of St. Cuthbert, preserv ed in t h e Cotton ian Librar y in the British Museum, is an unquestionable proof of such emplo yment ; and it is satisfactorily known that this volume was execut ed by Anglo-Saxon artists at Lindisfarne at the end of the seventh century. But i t i s equally true t h a t Lindisf arne was an establishment founded by the monks of Iona, who were the disciples of the Irish St. Columb a, so that i t i s not a t a l l surprising that their Anglo- Saxon scholar s should have adopte d the styles of ornam entatio n used by their Irish predecessors. The Saxon s, pagans a s t h e y were w h e n t h e y a r r i v e d i n E n g l a n d , had certain ly no peculiarities of orname ntal design of their own ; and no such remain s exist i n t h e north of Germany as would give the least suppor t to the idea that the orname ntation of Anglo- Saxon MSS., &c., was of a Teuton ic origin. Vario us have been the conje cture s when ce all these pecul iaritie s of ornam ent were deriv ed by the early Chris tians of these island s. One class of writer s, anxio us to overt hrow the indep enden ce of the ancie nt Britis h and Irish Churc hes, has referr ed them t o a Roma n origin , and has even gone so far as to suppo se that some of the grand stand cross es of Irelan d were execu ted in Italy. As, however, not a singl e Italia n MS. older than the ninth centu ry, nor a singl e piece of Italia n stone sculp ture having the slight est resem blanc e to t h o s e o f this coun try, can be produ ced, w e a t once d e n y t h e assertion. An examination of the magn ificen t work upon the Catac ombs of Rome , lately publi shed by the Frenc h Gove rnmen t, in which all the inscr iption s and mura l drawi ngs execu ted b y t h e early Chris tians are elaborately repre sente d, will fully prove t h a t t h e early Chris tian art and ornam entat ion o f R o m e had no share in devel oping that of these islands. It i s t r u e that the g r a n d tessel lated pages of the MSS. above described bear a certai n gener al resemblance to the tessel lated pavem ent of the Romans, and had they been found only in Anglo-Saxo n MSS. w e m i g h t have conje ctured that s u c h pavem ents existi ng in vario us parts of Engla nd, and whic h in the seven th and eight h centu ries must still have remained uncovered, were the origin als from which the illum inator of t h e M S S . had taken his idea ; but it is in the Irish MSS. , and in the MSS. which are clearl y tracea ble to Irish influence, that we find these pages

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

most elaborately ornamented, and we need hardly say that t h e r e a r e no Roman tessellated pavements in Ireland, the Romans never having visited that island. It may, again, be said that the interlaced ribbon patterns, so common in the MSS., &c., were derived from the Roman tessellated and mosaic work ; but in the latter the interlacing was of the simplest and most inartificial character, bearing no resemblance to such elaborate, interlaced knotwork a s i s t o be seen, for instance, in P l a t e L X I I I . In f a c t , i n the Roman remains the ribbons are simply alternately laid over each other, whilst in the Celtic designs they are knotted. Another class of writers insist upon the Scandinavian origin of these ornaments, which we are still perpetually accustomed t o h e a r c a l l e d R u n i c knots, and connected w i t h Scandinavian superstitions . It is certainly t r u e t h a t i n the Isle of Man, as well a s a t Lancaster and Bewcastle, we find Runic inscriptions upon crosses, ornamented with m a n y o f t h e peculiar ornaments above described. As, however, the Scandinavian nations were Christianised by missionaries from t h e s e islands, and a s o u r crosses are quite unlike those still existing in Denmark and Norway ; as, moreover, they are several centuries more recent than the oldest and finest of our MSS., there can be no grounds for asserting that t h e ornaments o f t h e MSS. are Scandinavian . A comparison of our plates with those contained i n t h e very excellent s e r i e s o f illustrations of the ancient Scandinavian relics i n t h e Copenhagen Museum, lately published,* is sufficient to disprove such an assertion. Only one figure (No. 398) i n t h e whole of t h e 4 6 0 representation s given i n that work exhibits the patterns of our MSS., a n d w e h a v e n o hesitation in asserting i t t o b e a reliquary of Irish work. That the Scandinavian artists adopted Celtic ornamentatio n, especially such as was practised about t h e e n d o f t h e tenth or eleventh centuries, is evident from the similarity between their carved wooden churches (illustrated i n d e t a i l by M . Dahl) and Irish metal-work o f t h e same period, such a s t h e C r o s s of Cong in t h e M u s e u m o f t h e R o y a l Irish Academy in Dublin. Not only the Scandinavian , but also the e a r l i e r a n d more polished artists of the school of Charlemagne and his successors, together w i t h t h o s e o f L o m b a r d y, adopted m a n y o f t h e peculiar Celtic ornaments in their magnificently illuminated M S S . They, however, interspersed with t h e m classical ornaments, introducing the acanthus and foliage, giving a gracefulness to their pages which w e l o o k for in v a i n i n the elaborate, but often absolutely painfully intricate, work of our artists. Our Fig. 25, in Plate LXIV., is copied from the Golden Gospels in the British Museum, a magnificent production of Frankish a r t o f t h e ninth century, in which we perceive such a combination of ornament. The Anglo-Saxon and Irish patterns were, however, so closely copied (always, however, o f a m u c h l a rg e r size) in some o f the g r a n d F r a n k i s h MSS. t h a t t h e term Franco-Saxo n has been applied t o t h e m . Such is the case w i t h t h e Bible of St. Denis i n t h e Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, of which forty pages are preserved in t h e Library of the British Museum. Plate LXIV., fig. 31, is copied from this MS. of the real size. It remains to inquire, whether Byzantium and t h e E a s t m a y not have afforded the ideas which the early Celtic Christian artists developed in the retirement of their monasteries into the elaborate patterns which we have been e x a m i n i n g . The fact that this style of ornament was fully developed before the end of the seventh century, taken in connexion with that of Byzantium having b e e n the seat of Art from the middle o f t h e fourth century, will suggest the possibility t h a t t h e British or Irish missionaries (who were constantly travelling t o t h e H o l y L a n d a n d Egypt) might h a v e there obtained the ideas or principles of some of these ornaments. To prove this assertion will, indeed, be * In the division of this Danish work devoted to the Bronze age we find various examples of spiral ornaments on metal-work, but always arranged in the S manner, and with but very few inartificial combinations. In the second division of the Iron period, we also find various examples of fantastical intertwined animals, also represented on metal-work. Nowhere, however, do the interlaced ribbon patterns, or the diagonal Z-like patterns, or the trumpet-like spiral patterns, occur.

T

difficult, because so little is known o f r e a l Byzantin e Art previous to the seventh or eighth century. Certain, however, it is that the ornament ation of S t . Sophia, so elaborate ly illustrate d by H. Salzenbe rg, exhibits no analogy with our Celtic patterns ; a much greater resembla nce exists, however, between the latter and the early monume nts of Mount Athos, represent ations of some of which are given by M. Didron, in his Iconogra phie d e D i e u . In our Egyptian Plate X . , F i g s . 10, 13–16, 18–23, and Plate X I . , F i g s . 1, 4, 6, and 7, will be perceived patterns formed of spiral lines or ropes, which may have suggeste d t h e s p i r a l pattern of our Celtic ornamen ts ; b u t i t w i l l be perceive d t h a t i n the majority of these Egyptian example s the spiral line is arranged like an S. I n P l a t e X . , Fig. 11, however, it is arranged C-wise, and thus t o a greater degree agrees with our patterns, although wide enough in detail f o r t h e m . The elaborat e interlace ments, so common in Moresqu e ornament ation, agree to a certain extent with the ornaments of Sclavonic, Ethiopic, and Syriac MSS., numerous examples of which are given by Silvestre, and i n o u r Palæogr aphia Sacra Pictoria ; and as all these, probably, had their origin in Byzantiu m or Mount Athos, we might be led to infer a similar origin in the idea,— worked out, however, in a different manner by the Irish and Anglo-Sa xon artists.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES. LEDWICK. Antiquities of Ireland. 4to. O’CONOR. Biblioth. Stowensis. 2 vols. 4to. 1818. Also, Rerum Hibernicarum Scriptores veteres. 4 vols. 4to. PETRIE . Essay on the Round Towers of Ireland. Large 8vo. BETHAM. Irish Antiquarian Researches. 2 vols. 8vo. O’NEILL. Illustrations of the Crosses of Ireland. Folio, in Parts. K ELLER , F ERDINAND . Dr. Bilder und Schriftzüge in den Irischen Manuscripten ; in the Mittheilungen der Antiq. Gesllsch. in Zürich. Bd 7, 1851. WESTWOOD, J. O. Palæographia Sacra Pictoria. 4to. 1843–1845. ” In Journal of the Archæological Institute, vols. vii. and x. Also numerous articles i n the Archæologia Cambrensis. CUMMING. Illustrations of the Crosses of the Isle of Man. 4to. CHALMERS. Stone Monuments of Angusshire. Imp. fol.

SPLADING CLUB . Sculptured Stones of Scotland. Fol. 1856. G AGE , J. Dissertation on St. Æthelwold’s Benedictional, in Archæologia, vol. xxiv. E LLIS , H. S IR Account of Cædmon’s Paraphrase of Scripture History, in Archæologia, vol. xxiv. GOODWIN, JAMES, B. D. Evangelia Augustini Gregori an, in Trans. Cambridge Antiq. Soc. No. 13, 4to. 1847, with eleven plates. B ASTARD , Le Comte de. Ornements et Miniatures des Manuscrits Françai s. Imp. fol. Paris. WORSAAE, J. J. A. Afbildninger fra det Kong. Museum i Kjöbenhavn. 8vo. 1854. And the general works of W I L L E M I N , S T R U T T , D E S OMMERAR D , L ANGLOIS , S H AW , S I LV E S T R E and C H A M P O L L I O N , ASTLE (on Writing) , H UMPHREY S , LA C ROIX , and LYSONS (Magna Britannia).

W e have thus endeavou red to prove that, even supposin g the early artists of these islands might have obtained the germ of their peculiar styles of ornamen t from some other s o u r c e than their own national genius, they had, between the period o f t h e introduc tion of Christian ity a n d t h e beginnin g of the eighth century, formed several very distinct systems of ornament ation, perfectly unlike in their develope d state to those of any other country ; and this, too, at a period when the whole of Europe, owing to the breaking up of the great Roman Empire, was involved in almost complete darkness as regards artistic productions. 4. L AT E R A N G L O -S AXON O RNAM ENT.—Ab out the midd le o f t h e tenth centu ry anoth er and equal ly striki ng style of ornam ent was empl oyed by some of the Angl o-Sax on artist s, for the decor ation of their finest MSS. , and equal ly unlik e that of any other count ry. It consi sted of a frame -like design , comp osed of gold bars entire ly surro undin g the page, the minia tures or titles being intro duced into the open space in the centr e. These frame s were ornam ented with foliag e and buds ; but, true to the interl aced ideas , the leave s and stems were interw oven togeth er, as well as w i t h t h e gold bars— the angle s being , moreo ver, decor ated with elega nt circle s, squar es, lozen ges, or quatr efoils . It would appea r t h a t i t was in the South of Engla nd that this style of ornam ent w a s m o s t fully elabo rated, the grandest examples havin g been execu ted at Wi n c h e s t e r, i n t h e Mona stery o f S t . Æthe lwold , in the latter half of the tenth centu ry. Of these the Bened iction al belon ging to the Duke of Devo nshire , fully illustr ated in t h e Achæ ologi a, is the most magn ificen t ; two other s, howe ver, now in the publi c library of Roue n, are close rivals of it ; as is also a copy of the Gospels in the librar y of Trinit y College, Cambridge. The Gospels of King Canu te in the Britis h Muse um is anoth er exam ple which has afforded us the Figur e 20 in Plate LXV. There can be l i t t l e d o u b t that t h e g r a n d MSS. of the Frank ish schoo ls of Charl emag ne, in which foliag e was introduced, were the origin als when ce our later Angl o-Sax on artist s adopt ed the idea of the introd uction of foliag e amon g their ornam ents. J . O . WESTWOOD.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R X V I . — P L AT E S 6 6 , 67, 67*, 68, 69, 69*, 70, 71, 7 2 , 7 3 .

MED IÆVAL ORNAMENT.

PLATE LXVI. CONVENTION AL L EAVES

AND

FLOWERS, from MSS. of different periods.

PLATES LXVII., LXVII*. COLLECTION

OF

B ORDERS, from Illuminated MSS., from the 9th to the14th century.

PLATE LXVIII. D IAPERS

ON

W ALLS , from Miniatures in Illuminated MSS.,from the 12th to the16th century.

PLATE LXIX. S TAINED G LASS 1, 5, 6, 8. Church at Attenberg, near Cologne. 3. Southwell Church, Nottinghamshire. 2, 4. Chapter-ho use, York Cathedral. 7. North Transept, York Cathedral.

OF DIFFERENT

PERIODS AND STYLES .

9, 11. Cathedral of Soisson. 10. St. Thomas at Strasburg. 13. Cathedral at Troyes. 14. Canterbury Cathedral.

PLATE LXIX*. S TAINED G LASS OF D IFFERENT PERIODS AND STYLES . 12, 17. St. Cunibert, Cologne. 15. Canterbury Cathedral. 16, 26. Abbey of St. Denis.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

18–24, 25, 27, 29. Cathedral of Bourges. 28. Cathedral of Angers.

T

PLATE LXX. ENCAUSTIC TILES.

13th and 14th centuries.

PLATE LXXI. ILLUMINATED MSS., No. 1. 1–12 are of the 12th century ; 13 is of the 13th century. 12 and 13 are from the Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages.— H UMPHREY S. The remainder of the Ornaments on this Plate from the British Museum .

PLATE LXXII. ILLUMINATED MSS., No. 2. 13, 14, of the 13th century. 1, 3–6, 8–11, 14th century. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 15, are from the Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages

2, 7, 12, 15, of the 15th century. ; 15, from a MS. in the possession of the Author.

The remainder from the British Museum. Early English.

We l l s .

COLLINS.

Warmington Church, Northamptonshire.

W. T W O P E N Y .

PLATE LXXIII. ILLUMINATED MSS., No. 3. MSS. from the Beginning to the End of the 15th century.

11–15, from the Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. The remainder from the British Museum.

MED IÆVAL ORN AM ENT. Wa r m i n g t o n C h u r c h , N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e .

T H E transit ion from the round arch, charact eristic o f t h e Roman esque style t o t h e Pointed style of the thirtee nth century, is readily traced in the buildin gs in which the two styles are interm ingled ; but the passag e from Roman esque Ornam ent to that which prevai led so univers ally i n t h e thirtee nth century is not so clear. All traces of the acanth us leaf have disapp eared, and we find a purely convention al style of orname nt univers ally prevale nt in all the buildin gs of the time. The neares t approach to this style is found in the illumi nated MSS. of the twelft h centur y, w h i c h a p p e a r t o have been derived in some of their feature s from t h e G r e e k M S S . The ornam ents are formed of a contin uous

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

W. T W O P E N Y .

Decorated.

Wells.

COLLINS

stem, throwing off leaves on t h e o u t e r s i d e , and terminat ing i n a f l o w e r. The general dispositio n and arrangem ent of the lines in any given space is exactly similar to the arrangem ent of Early English sculptured ornamen t. Early English Ornamen t i s t h e most perfect, both in principle and in executio n, of the Gothic period. There is as much elegance and refineme nt in modulati ons of form as there is in the ornamen t of the Greeks. It i s always in perfect harmony with the structural features, and always grows naturally from them. It fulfils every one of the condition s which we desire to find in a perfect style of Art. But it remained perfect only so long as the style remained conventi onal. As this style became less idealised and more direct in imitation , its peculiar beauties disappea red, and it ceased t o b e an ornamentatio n of structura l features, but became ornamen t applied.

T

In the capitals of the columns in the Early English architecture the ornament arises directly from the shaft, which above the necking splits u p i n t o a s e r i e s o f stems, e a c h s t e m terminating in a flower. This is analogous to the mode of decorating the Egyptian capital. In t h e Decorated style, on the contrary, where a much nearer approach to Nature was attempted, i t w a s n o longer possible t o t r e a t a natural leaf as part of the shaft ; and, therefore, the shaft is terminated b y a bell-shape,

O n P l a t e s L X V I I . and L X V I I * . , we give a selection o f b o r d e r s found on illuminated MSS., ranging from the n i n t h t o the fourteenth century ; and on P l a t e L X V I I I . diapers from walls, chiefly taken from the back-ground s of illuminations , from the twelfth to the sixteenth. There are very few of either class that could be worthy accompanime nts t o t h e pure conventional ornament o f t h e Early English style. I n t h e thirteenth century, beyond all others, architecture was in its zenith. The mosques of Cairo, the Alhambra, Salisbury, Lincoln, Westminster, all possess the same secret of producing the broadest

Stone Church, Kent.

round which the leave s are twine d. becam e the arrang emen t.

Published by the Topograph ical Society.

The more and more natur al these were made , the less artistic

The same thing occur s i n t h e bosse s which cover the intersections of the ribs. On the vaulti ng ; i n t h e E a r l y Engli sh bosse s the stems o f the flowe rs formi ng the bosse s are conti nuati ons of the moul dings of the ribs, whils t in subse quent perio ds the inters ectio ns of t h e r i b s were conce aled by the overl aying of the boss, which was here as m u c h a n appli catio n as was the acant hus leaf to the bell of the Corinthian capital. I n t h e spand rils of the arche s, so long as the conve ntional style was retain ed, one vigor ous main stem was distri buted over the spand ril, from which s p r a n g t h e leave s and flowe rs ; but when the natur al was attem pted, the stem cease d t o b e t h e guidi ng form of the ornam ent, and lost all grace in the endea vour to repre sent in stone the softne ss of natur e. The m a i n s t e m as a l e a d i n g feature gradu ally disap pears , and the spand rils are often filled with three imme nse leave s sprin ging from a twiste d stem in the centre . F r o m t h e few rema ins which still exist of the decor ation s o f t h e interi or of build ings , we are unable to form a very comp lete idea of this class of ornam ent of the thirte enth centu ry. The ornaments from illum inated MSS. a r e n o t a safe guide , as, after the twelf th c e n t u r y, t h e s t y l e is rarely very archit ectura l, and there were so many schoo ls of illum inatio n, and they borro wed so much one from the other , that there is often great mixtu re in the same illum inatio n. It is unlik ely, that while the sculp tured ornam ent was so unive rsally conve ntiona l, that the decor ated portio n of the same building could have depar ted from the style.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Wells Cathedral.

C O L L I N S.

general effects combine d with the most elaborate decoration. In all these building s there is a family likeness ; a l t h o u g h t h e forms widely differ, the principle s on which t h e y a r e b a s e d a r e the same. They exhibit the same c a r e f o r the leading masses of the composi tion, the same apprecia tion of the undulatio ns of f o r m , t h e same correct observat ion of natural principle s i n t h e ornamen tation, t h e same elegance and refineme nt in a l l t h e decoration. The attempt to reproduc e i n o u r t i m e a building of the thirteent h century must be vain indeed. Whitewashed walls, with stained glass and encausti c tiles, cannot alone sustain the effect which w a s arrived at when every mouldin g h a d i t s colour best adapted to develope its form, a n d w h e n , from the floor to the r o o f , n o t a n i n c h o f space but h a d i t s appropria te ornamen t ; an effect which must have been glorious beyond concepti on. So glorious a point, indeed, had the style reached that it was exhauste d by the effort,— t h e l i g h t b u r n t o u t ; n o t only architect ure, b u t a l l t h e decorativ e arts which accompanied it, immedia tely began to decline,— a decline which never stops t i l l t h e s t y l e dies out. I n t h e example s of encausti c tiles o n P l a t e L X X . i t w i l l b e s e e n t h a t t h e b r o a d e s t in effect, and the best adapted t o t h e i r purpose, are the earliest, such as Nos. 1 7 , 2 7 . Although there was never so much decline as to attempt an appearan ce of relief, yet a near approach t o a represent ation of the n a t u r a l f o r m s o f l e a v e s m a y b e s e e n i n No. 16 ; a n d a v e r y marked decline is observed in patterns such as N o . 2 3 , where tracery and the structura l features of buildings were represent ed.

T

On Plate LXV I. are arran ged a great varie ty of conve ntiona l leave s and flowe rs from illuminated MSS. Altho ugh many of them a r e i n the origin als highl y illum inated , we h a v e p r i n t e d them here in two colou rs only, to s h o w h o w possi ble i t i s to repre sent i n d i a g r a m the gener al chara cter of leaves. By adapt ing these leave s or flowe rs to a volut e stem, almos t a s m a n y styles in appearance could be produ ced as there are separa te ornam ents on the page. By a comb inatio n of different varieties they migh t be still furthe r incre ased, and b y a d d i n g to the stock by conve ntion alisin g the form of any natur al leaf or flowe r on the same princ iple, there need be no limit to an artist ’s inven tion. In Plate s LXXI ., LXXI I., LXXI II., we have endeavoure d to gathe r together types of the various styles of ornam ental illum inatio n from the twelf th to the end of the fiftee nth centu ry. There is here, also, evide nce of decli ne from the very earlie st point . On Plate L X X I . t h e l e t t e r N is not surpa ssed by any exam ple in the subse quent styles we have repro duced . H e r e the t r u e p u r p o s e of illumination is fulfilled ; in every way, it is pure decor ative writin g. The letter itself forms the chief ornament ; from this s p r i n g s a m a i n s t e m, sweep ing boldl y from t h e b a s e , swell ing o u t i n t o a grand volute exact ly at t h e p o i n t best adapt ed to contr ast with the angu lar line of the letter : this is beautifully sustai ned again by the green volute , which embr aces the upper part o f t h e N , and preve nts it falling over, and is so nicel y proportioned that i t i s able to susta in the red volut e which flows from it. The colours, also, are most beaut ifully balan ced and contr asted ; a n d t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e rotun dity of the stems is expressed, witho ut attem pting positi ve relief , is a f r u i t f u l lesson . There are an immense numb er o f M S S . i n t h i s s t y l e, and we consi der i t t h e fines t k i n d o f illum inatio n. The gener al chara cter o f t h e style is certa inly Easte rn, a n d w a s proba bly a devel opme nt o f t h e illumination of the Byzan tines. We believ e that, from its unive rsal prevalence, it l e d t o the adopt ion of the same princ iple so unive rsally i n t h e ornam entati on of the Early Engli sh, which follow s exact ly the same laws in the gener al distri butio n of form. This style, from const ant repet ition, gradu ally lost the pecul iar beaut y and fitnes s w h i c h i t had deriv ed from first inspi ration , and died o u t b y the scroll -work becom ing too m i n u t e a n d elaborate, as we see i n N o . 13 of t h e s a m e plate. We have no longe r the same balan ce of form, but the four series of scrol ls repea ting each other most monotonou sly. F r o m t h i s perio d w e n o long er find the initi al lette rs form ing the chie f orna men t on the page , but the gene ral text beco mes enclo sed eithe r in bord ers roun d the page , a s a t N o . 1, Plat e LXX II, or with tails on one side of the page , such as 9, 10, 11, 12. The bord er grad ually comes to be of more impo rtanc e, and from the vign ette form , which was at first gene ral, we grad ually arriv e through the man ner of N o . 1 5 to that of Nos. 7 and 2, wher e the bord er is boun ded o n t h e o u t e r edge by a red line, and the bord er is fille d up by inter med iate stem s and flow ers, so as to prod uce an even tint. N o . 8 i s a spec imen of a style very prev alen t in the four teen th cent ury, and whic h is very arch itect ural in char acter. It is gene rally to be foun d on small missals, and surro undi ng very beautiful mini ature s. The grad ual prog ress from the flat conv entio nal orna men t, N o s . 1 3 a n d 1 4 , t o t h e attem pt at rend ering the relie f of natu ral form s in Nos. 15, 7, 2, will read ily be trace d throu gh Nos. 9, 10, 11. Ther e is a l s o t o be rema rked a grad ual decl ine i n t h e i d e a of cont inuit y o f t h e m a i n stem s, and altho ugh each flow er or grou p of leave s in Nos. 15, 7, 2, may still be trace d to their roots , the arran ge men t is fragm entar y. U p t o t h i s perio d the orna men ts are still with in the p r o v i n c e o f the s c r i b e , a n d are all first outli ned with a blac k line and then colo ured , but on P l a t e L X X I I I . we s h a l l f i n d that t h e paint er bega n to usur p the offic e of the scrib e ; and the farth er we proc eed the more does the legitimate object of illum inati on seem to be depa rted from . We h a v e t h e first stage in No. 5, wher e a geom etric al arran geme nt i s o b t a i n e d with conventional

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

ornamen t enclosing gold panels, on which are painted groups of flowers slightly conventio nalised. In 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15 , we find conventi onal ornamen t interming led with natural flowers arranged i n a fragmentary w a y. All continuit y of design being abandone d, we arrive through this to N o . 11 , when a natural flower a n d a conventi onal ornamen t appear on the same stem, to Nos. 1 2 , 1 3 , where the painter has full sway, and represen ts flowers and insects casting their shadow on the page. When the art of illumina tion had arrived at this s t a g e i t could go no farther,— all ideality had fled—an d it ends in the desire to copy an insect so faithfully that it should appear to be alighting on the page. N o s . 1 , 2 , are specimen s of a peculiar style of Italian MSS., which was a revival in the fifteenth century of the system of ornamen t so prevalen t in the twelfth. It led to the style No. 3, where the interlaced pattern b e c a m e highly coloured on the gold ground. This style also died out in the same way, the interlacin gs, from b e i n g p u r e l y geometri cal forms, became imitation s of natural branches , and, of course, when it arrived thus far there could be no further progress. T h e character of t h e ornamen t on stained glass appears to follow much more closely that of t h e illuminat ed MSS. t h a n i t does the sculpture d ornamen t of the monume nts of the same period, and, like the ornamen t of the illumina ted MSS., it appears t o u s to be always in advance of structura l ornamen t. For instance ,—the stained glass o f t h e twelfth century possesses the s a m e breadth of effect, and is construc ted i n t h e same way, as the sculpture d ornamen t of the thirteent h, w h i s t t h e stained glass of the thirteent h century is, accordin g to our view, already in a state of decline. The same change has taken place which we have already observed on comparin g No. 13 with No. 12, Plate LXXI. The constant repetition o f t h e same forms has gradually led to an over-elab oration of detail, from which the general effect consider ably suffers. The ornamen ts are o u t o f scale w i t h t h e general masses. Now as i t i s one of the most beautiful features of the Early English style, that the ornamen t is in such perfect relation in point of scale and effect to the member s which it decorate s, this seems a very curious fact, if fact it is . On Plates LXIX. and LXIX*., a l l the ornaments from Nos. 12 to 28 are of the twelfth century. Nos. 3 a n d 7 are of the thirteenth . Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, are of the fourteent h, a n d w e think a m e r e glance at the general effect of the plates will establish what we have here advanced . I n t h e stained glass of the twelfth century we shall always find all the principle s which we have shown to belong to a t r u e style of art. We need only call attention here t o t h e very ingeniou s way in which the straight, the inclined, and the curved, are balanced and contraste d in all the diapers. I n N o s . 2 a n d 4 we have an example of a very common principle, which is thorough ly Eastern in character, viz. a continuous ground pattern forms a tint interlaci ng with a more general surface pattern. I n N o s . 1, 5, 6, 8, of the fourteent h century we see the commencement of the direct natural style, which ended i n t h e total neglect o f t h e true principle s of stained glass, when both ornamen ts and figures through which life w a s t o be transmitt ed, in t h e attempt to render them over-true , had their own shades and shadows.

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R XVII.—P L AT E S 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82.

RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT. PLATE LXXIV. 1, 8, 9.

Bas-reliefs from the Church of Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice. 2. Bas-relief from the Scuola di San Marco, Venice. 3. Bas-relief forming the continuation upwards of Fig. 2.

4, 6.

Bas-reliefs from the Church of San Michele in Murano, Venice.

5, 7. Bas-reliefs from the Scala dei Giganti, Venice.

PLATE LXXV. 1, 2.

From a Collection of C as t s taken u n d er t h e superintendence of Professor Varny, from the principal Cinque-cento Monuments of Genoa. 3. From the first Ghiberti Gate of the Baptistery, Florence.

4, 5, 8, 9, 11. From Genoa. 6. From Venice. 7. From the Church of Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. 10. From the Hôtel Bourgtheroulde, Rouen.

PLATE LXXVI. 1. Bas-relief by Andrea Sansovino, from the Church of Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome. 2. Bas-relief from the Church of Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice. 3. Bas-relief from the Hôtel Bourgtheroulde, Rouen. 4. Bas-relief from a Collection of Casts of the best Cinque-

cento Ornaments of Genoa, taken under the superintendence of Professor Varny. 5, 7, 8, 10. Bas-reliefs from Genoa. 6. Bas-relief from the Martinengo Tomb, Brescia. 9. Bas-relief from the Base of the “ Trois Graces” of Germain Pilon, in the Louvre.

PLATE LXXVII. 1–3.

4–8. 9. 10, 11. 12. 13. 14. 15–17. 18–20. 21. 22–24. 25. 26.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Ornaments enamelled on Copper in the early Limoges Champlevé style, from the Hôtel Cluny Museum, Paris. Ditto, of a later period. Ornaments from the background of a Picture, in the Hôtel Cluny. Enamels on Gold Ground, from the Louvre. Silver Inlay in Ivory, of the Sixteenth Century, from the Hôtel Cluny. From a Casket in the Hôtel Cluny. From a Powder-horn in Iron of the Sixteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. Similar objects in Boxwood, from the same Museum. From Sixteenth-cent ury Limoges Enamels, in the same Museum. From ditto, in the Louvre. Enamels on Gold Ground, Sixteenth Century, Louvre. Portion of an Ebony Cabinet of the Sixteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. Inlaid Ornament on a Dagger Sheath of the Sixteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny.

27, 28. From Pottery o f t h e Sixteenth Century, in the Louvre. 29. Limoges Champlevé Enamel on Copper, fro m the Hôtel Cluny. 30. Painted Ornaments, Hôtel Cluny. 31. From the Armour of Henri III., in the Louvre. 32. A Metal Plate in the same Museum. 33–35. From Metal Work, in the Louvre. 36. From the Armour of François II, in the Louvre. 37–39. Repoussé Ornaments in Copper, f r o m t h e H ô t e l Cluny. 40, 41. Limoges Champlevé Enamel, from the same Museum. 42–44. From Goldsmiths’ Work of the Sixteenth Century, in the Louvre. 45, 46. From a Picture in Limoges Painted Enamel, Sixteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. 47. Ornament in Copper, from the above. 48. Ivory Inlay in Ebony, from the above. 49. Painted Ornament, from the above. 50–53. Limoges Champlevé Enamel, from the above. 54–56. From Accessories to Pictures, from the above. 57–61. Limoges Champlevé Enamel.

T

PLATE LXXVIII. 1–36.

Ornaments taken from Specimen s of Hispano-Arabic, French, and Italian Earthenware, preserved in the South Kensington Museum, and principally from the Majolican Wares of Pesaro, Gubbio, Urbino, Castel Durante,and other Italian towns of the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeen th Centuries.

RENAISSANCE

PLATE LXXIX. 1–3. Ornaments selected from the faience, or enamelled Earthenware, of Bernard de Palissy, in the Hôtel Cluny. 4–10. From Specimens of Majolica, in the Hôtel Cluny. 11–13. From faience of the Fifteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. 14–18, 21. From faience of the Sixteenth Century, in the Louvre.

19, 20.

From Porcela in of the Seventeenth Century, in the Louvre.

22, 23. From the German Pottery, en grès, with Painted Glaze of the Sixteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. 24–33. From Earthen ware, French, Spanish, and Italian, in the Hôtel Cluny. 34.

From the Louvre.

PLATE LXXX. 1, 2. Ornaments from faience. 3–6. Ornaments from faience of the Sixteenth Century. 7–10. Ornament s from faience of the Seventeenth Century. 11, 12. From faience with Metallic Lustre. 13. From a Vase in Venetian Glass of the Sixteenth Century. 14–21. Front faience of the Sixteenth Century. 22, 23. From faience of an Earlier Date.

24–27. From Grès Flamand, or Earthenware. 28–32. From faience of the Sixteenth Century. 33. From a Carv ed Wood P a n e l of the Seven teenth Century. 34–38. From Enamelled Earthenware. 39–42. From Silk Embroidery on Velvet. N.B.—The whol e of the Spec imen s on this Plate have been derived from the Hôtel Cluny, Paris.

PLATE LXXXI. 1. From a Sideboard carved in wood, dated 1554, in the Hôtel Cluny. 2. Wood Panels of the Sixte enth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. 3. From an Oak Chair-back, in the Hôtel Cluny . 4–6. From Carved-Wood-sta lls of the Fifteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. 7–10, 25, 26, 35, 36. From Furniture, in the Hôtel Cluny. 11. End of a Beam of the end of the Fifteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. 12, 13, 20, 21, 39, 40. From Furni ture of the Sixteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. 14, 15. Fr o m Furni ture of the Fifte enth Centu ry, i n t h e Hôtel Cluny. 16. From a Sideboard, in the Hôtel Cluny.

17. Shutt er Pane ls of the end of the Fifteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. 18. Carved Orna ment from the Louv re. 19. From a Boxwood Comb, in the Hôtel Cluny . 22. Stone Balustrading, from the Château d’Ane t. 23. Stone Carving from the Louvre. 24. From a Chimneypiece, in the Hôtel Cluny . 27–30. Carving in Marb le from the celebrated Basin of the Fountain of the Château Gaillon, now in the Louvre . 31, 32. Stone carving, Seventeenth Century, in the Louvre. 33. Wood-carving from the Hôtel Cluny. 34, 38. From the Foun tain of the Château Gaillo n, Louvre. 37. From t h e Stock of an Arqu ebus of the Sixteenth Century, in the Hôte l Cluny.

PLATE LXXXII. 1–9.

Carved Orn ame nt from Oak Furn itur e of the Sixteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny. 10, 11, 19, 34. From the Bed of Francois I., in the Hôt el Cluny. 12, 13, 14, 32, 33. From Oak Furn iture of the Sixteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny.

ORNAMENT.

15–17. From a Sideboard of the Fiftee nth Centu ry. 18. From an Oak Sideboard, dated 1524 , in the Hôtel Cluny. 20–29. From Furn iture of the Sixte enth Centu ry, i n the Hôtel Cluny. 30, 31. Panel s of Shutt ers of the end of the Fifteenth Century, in the Hôtel Cluny.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

I F t w o intelligent students of Italian Art and Literature diligently set themselves to t r a c e , the one the latest date at which the direct, though lingering, light of Roman greatness waned to its feeblest glimmer in the land over which it had once shed its dazzling rays, and the other the earliest effort made to excite a veneration for what most historians declare to have almost utterly died o u t i n the lapse of ages—classical beauty— there is little doubt that they would not only meet, but cross one another, in the progress of their researches. The truth is, that the material monuments of the ancient Romans, scattered thickly o v e r t h e soil o f I t a l y, were so substantial and majestic, t h a t i t w a s impossible to live under their shadow and to forget them. Fragments of exquisite beauty, i n s t o n e , b r o n z e , and marble, were to be had for the trouble of turning up the soil that scarcely covered them ; a n d t h u s they were, from time t o t i m e , pressed into service for tombs, and as accessories in buildings, i n the construction of w h i c h t h e principles of A r t t o which t h o s e fragments owed their beauty h a d b e e n entirely lost sight of. Hence, the Gothic style was at once slow to take root i n I t a l y, and destined to bloom brilliantly, but for a short season. Almost concurrently with the introduction of the pointed arch into Northern Italy by a n Englishman, in the construction of St. Andrea, at Vercelli, early i n the thirteenth century, a n d w i t h t h e German w o r k s o f Magister Jacobus, a t A s s i s i , a p r o t e s t was commenced i n favour of the ancients and their arts by that great reviver of antique sculpture, Nicola Pisano. The close of the thirteenth century was further marked b y a complete revolution i n t h e world of letters. Dante, in his time, was scarcely less known as a Christian p o e t than a s a n emulator of the great Mantuan, a n d a profound student i n classical learning. In t h e fourteenth century, Petrarch and Boccaccio, intimate friends, spent long and laborious lives, not in writing Italian p o e t r y or prose, as is often fancied, b u t i n labouring incessantly i n t h e preservation and restoration to the world o f the long-lost texts of the Roman and Grecian authors. Cino da Pistoia and other learned commentators and jurists brought into fashion the study of the great “ Corpus” of ancient l a w, and maintained academies in which it was adopted as a text. Boccaccio it was who first g a v e t o I t a l y a lucid account o f Heathen Mythology, and who first instituted a c h a i r for the study o f t h e Grecian language a t Florence, bringing over Leontius Pilatus, a learned G r e e k , from Constantinople, t o be the first professor. These efforts at a revival of classical learning were seconded b y a numerous band of notables, among whom the names of John of Ravenna (Petrarch’s pupil), Lionardo Aretino, Poggio Bracciolini, Æneas Sylvius (ultimately P o p e P i u s II., 1458–1464), a n d C o s m o , t h e f a t h e r of the Medici, are m o s t popularly and familiarly known. It w a s a t a moment when t h e labours o f such men as these had accumulated in p u b l i c a n d private libraries all t h a t could be recovered of classical learning, that about the middle of the fifteenth century the a r t o f printing was introduced into Italy. Under the auspices of the Benedictines of Subiaco, the Germans Sweynheim and Pannartz s e t u p their press in t h e celebrated Monastery of Santa Scholastica, from which issued, i n t h e year 1 4 6 5 , their edition of Lactantius . Removing to R o m e i n 1467, the first-fruits of their labour was “ Cicero de Oratore.” Thus, while in Germany and France biblical and ecclesiastical literature, and i n England popular, first g a v e employment t o t h e printer ; i n I t a l y, classical, f o r a time, a l m o s t exclusively

T

engage d his attenti on. Nicholas Jenson, the French man, who was sent by Louis XI. to t h e ateliers of Fust and Scheff er, to learn “ le nouvel art p a r lequel on f a i s a i t d e s livres,” carried his acquired knowle dge from Mayen ce to Venice , where he invent ed the Italic charac ter, subsequently adopted by the learne d Aldus Manuti us. This remark able man, who was a n o l e s s learne d editor than he was zealous printer , f r o m a b o u t the y e a r 1 4 9 0 g a v e t o t h e w o r l d i n r a p i d success ion edition s of the Greek a n d L a t i n Classics. Among his earlies t works is one ever memor able i n t h e history of Art, the “ Hypne rotoma chia,” o r d r e a m o f Poliph ilus, written b y t h e learne d ecclesi astic F r a Colonna. It is profusely illustr ated with engravings on wood, the design of which has been frequen tly ascribed to no l e s s g r e a t a n a r t i s t t h a n A n d r e a Mante gna. Throu gh those illustra tions, which display a profou nd study of ancien t o r n a m e n t , t y p e s o f f o r m diamet rically oppose d to those of the middle ages were dissem inated over the Contin ent of Europe . The public ation of Vitruv ius at Rome, about 1486, at Floren ce in 1496, a n d a t Venice , with illustra tions, i n 1511, a s well a s o f Alberti’s great work, “ D e R e Ædific atoriâ,” a t Floren ce, in 1485, s e t t h e seal upon the classic al tenden cy of the age in matter s of Art, and afforde d the means of speedi ly transm itting to other countri es the details of ancien t design, so warmly taken up throug hout Italy. The success ors of the first Aldus at Venice, the Giolit i in the same city, a n d t h e Giunti a t F l o r e n c e , rapidly multip lied t h e standa rd classics ; and thus t h e a r t o f printin g speedil y c a u s e d a movem ent of reviva l to becom e cosmopolitan, which, had that noble art remain ed undiscovered, would very probab ly have been limited , to a great extent, to the soil of Italy. Long, howev er, as we have alread y asserte d, before the aspirat ions o f t h e first labourers in the mine of antiqui ty had been thus brough t to fruitio n, indicat ions had b e e n given i n t h e world of Art of an almost inhere nt antago nism on t h e p a r t of the Italian s to Gothic forms. In t h e ornaments which surroun d the ceiling s of the Church of Assisi, ascribe d to Cimab ue, the father of paintin g, the acanth us had been drawn with consid erable accuracy ; while Nicola Pisano and other master s of the trecent o, or thirtee nth centur y, had derive d many import ant eleme nts of design f r o m a study of antiqu e remain s. It was scarce ly, howev er, until the beginn ing o f t h e fifteen th centur y that the movem ent can be s a i d t o have borne really valuab le fruit. In its earlies t stage the Renaissance of Art in Italy was unques tionabl y a re v i v a l o f princi ples, and it was scarcel y until the middle of the fifteen th centur y that it came t o b e i n anywis e a literal reviva l. Conscious as we m a y b e , that in some produc tions of t h i s earlier stage, when Nature was recurr ed to for sugges tion, a n d t h e actual details of classic forms were compa rativel y unkno wn and unimit ated, t h e r e may e x i s t occasional deficiencies, suppli ed a t a later period , and u n d e r a more regula r system of educat ion ; we are yet free to confes s a prefere nce for the freshne ss and naïveté with which the pioneers worked, over the more comple te but more easily obtaine d graces of an almost direct reprod uction of the antique. T h e f i r s t great step in advanc e was taken by the celebr ated J a c o p o della Querci a, who having been driven f r o m h i s birth-p lace, Sienna , to Lucca, execut ed about t h e y e a r 1413, in the Cathedral o f t h a t city, a monum ent to Ilaria di Caretto , wife of Giunig i di Carett o, Lord of the City. In this interes ting work (of which a good cast may be seen in the Crysta l Palace) Jacopo exhibit ed a careful recours e to nature, both in the surroun ding festoon s of the upper part of the pedestal and the “ puttini, ” or chubby boys suppor ting them ; the simpli city of his imitati on being reveale d by the little bandy legs of one of the “ puttini .” His great work, howev er, was the founta in in the Piazza del Mercato Siena, which was comple ted at an expens e of two thousa nd two hundre d gold ducats , and even in its presen t sad state of decay offers unmist akable eviden ce of h i s r a r e ability. After his executi on of this capo d’oper a, he w a s known as Jacopo della Fonte ; this work brough t him much distinction, a n d h e was made Warde n o f t h e Cathed ral in t h a t c i t y, where, a f t e r a l i f e o f much labour and m a n y vicissit udes, h e d i e d i n the y e a r 1 4 2 4 , a g e d s i x t y-four . Althou gh o n e o f t h e unsuccessful

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

candidates for the second bronze door of the Florence Baptistery, as we shall presently see, he was much esteemed d u r i n g h i s life, and exercised a g r e a t a n d salutary influence on sculpture after his death. Great, however, as were his merits, he was far surpassed in the correct imitation of nature , and in grace, dexterity, and facility i n ornamental combination, by Lorenzo Ghiberti, who was one of his immediate contemporaries. In the year 1401, Florence, under an essentially democratic form of government, had r i s e n to be one of the most flourishing cities o f Europe. In this civic democracy the trades were distinguished as guilds, called “ Arti,” represented b y deputies (consoli) . Th e Consuls resolved i n the abovementioned year t o raise another gate o f bronze t o t h e Baptistery, as a pendant t o that o f Andrea Pisano, which h a d been previously executed in a very noble, but still Gothic style. The Signoria, or executive government, made known this resolve to the best artists o f I t a l y, and a public competition was opened. Lorenzo Ghiberti, a native of Florence, at that time very young (twenty-two), ventured on t h e trial, and with t w o o t h e r s , Brunelleschi and Donatello, was pronounced worthy. These two last-named artists appear to have voluntarily retired in his favour ; and in twentythree years from t h a t d a t e the gate was finished, and put up. The b e a u t y of its design a n d workmanship induced t h e Signoria to order another of him, which was ultimately finished about the year 1444. It would be impossible to overrate the importance of this work, either as regards its historical influence on a r t o r i t s intrinsic merit,—standing, as it does, unrivalled by any similar specimen in any age for excellence of design and workmanship. The ornament (for a p o r t i o n of which see Plate LXXV., F i g . 3 ), which encloses and s u r r o u n d s the p a n e l s , is w o r t h y o f the most careful s t u d y. Lorenzo Ghiberti belonged t o n o school, neither c a n i t b e s a i d h e founded one, h e received his education from h i s father-in-law, a goldsmith ; and h i s influence on Art i s t o be seen r a t h e r i n t h e homage and s t u d y his works received from m e n s u c h as Buonarotti and Raffaelle, than f r o m his formation of any school of pupils. He d i e d i n his native c i t y a t a good old age, in t h e y e a r 1455. One of h i s immediate followers, Donatello, imparted a life and masculine vigour to t h e a r t , which, in spite of all their beauty, were often wanting i n t h e compositions of Ghiberti ; and t h e qualities of both these artists w e r e h a p p i l y united i n t h e person of Luca della Robbia, who, d u r i n g his l o n g life (which extended from 1400 to 1480), executed an infinity of works, the ornamental details of which were carried out i n a style of the freest and most graceful analogy with the antique. In t h e person of Filippo Brunelleschi the talents o f t h e sculptor and the architect were combined. The former are sufficiently evinced b y t h e excellence of t h e trial-piece in which he competed with Ghiberti f o r t h e execution o f t h e celebrated g a t e s o f San Giovanni Battista ; a n d the l a t t e r, b y h i s magnificent Cathedral o f S t a . Maria d e l l a F i o r e a t F l o r e n c e . This combination of architectural and sculpturesque ability was, indeed, a distinguishing feature of the period. Figures, foliage, and conventional ornaments, were s o h a p p i l y blended with mouldings and other structural f o r m s , as to c o n v e y t h e idea that the whole sprang to life in one perfect form i n the m i n d o f the artist by whom the work was executed. A development of taste coincident w i t h t h a t noticeable in Tuscany took place at Naples, Rome, Milan, and Venice. At Naples, the t o r c h t h a t w a s l i t by Massuccio was handed on by Andrea Ciccione, Bamboccio, Monaco, and Amillo Fiore. At Rome, the opulence of the princes, and the g r e a t works undertaken b y t h e successive pontiffs, attracted to the Imperial city the highest procurable ability ; a n d hence it i s , t h a t i n the various palaces a n d churches fragments of exquisite decorative sculpture are still t o b e m e t with. Bramante, Baldassare Peruzzi, and Baccio Pintelli (of whom arabesques on the interior of the Church of Sant’ Agostino, one o f t h e earliest buildings of t h e p u r e revival executed in the Imperial, our woodcuts give some elegant examples), and even the great Raffaelle himself did not disdain to design ornaments

T

for carvers, o f t h e p u r e s t taste and most exquisite fancy. Of t h e perfection attained i n t h i s department of a r t b y the last-named artist, the celebrated wooden stalls of the choir of San Pietro dei Casinensi, a t Perugia, will long remain unquestionable evidence. T h e carrying o u t o f these carvings b y Stefano d a Bergamo does full justice to the admirable compositions of Raffaelle.

all the Lombard Cinque-centists, however, the highest admiration must be reserved for Agostino Busti, better known as Bambaja, and his pupil Brambilla, whose exquisite works in arabesque at t h e Certosa must ever remain marvels of execution. Our woodcuts, selected from t h e Piscina o f t h e High Altar, furnish some idea of the general style of the Pavian arabesques. At Venice, the first great names which call for notice are those of the Lombardi (Pietro, Tullio, Giulio, Sante, and Antonio), through whose talents that city was adorned with its most famous monuments. They were followed by Riccio, Bernardo, and Domenico di Mantua, and many other sculptors ; but their lesser glories are altogether eclipsed b y those o f t h e great Jacopo Sansovino. At Lucca, Matteo Civitale (born 1435, died 1501) fully maintained the reputation o f t h e period. Returning to Tuscany, we find, towards the close of the fifteenth century, the greatest perfection of ornamental sculpture, the leading characteristic of which, however, we now no longer find to b e t h e sedulous and simple imitation of nature, but rather a conventional rendering of the antique. The names of Mino de Fiesole— the greatest of the celebrated school of the Fiesolani— Benedetto da Majano, and Bernardo Rossellini, bring to our recollection many exquisite monuments which abound in the churches of Florence, and the other principal towns of the Grand Duchy. These artists excelled alike in wood, in stone, and in marble, and their works have been surpassed in this style of art only b y t h o s e of their predecessors we have already named, and by some few others, their contemporaries. Of these, Andrea Contucci, better known as the elder Sansovino, was pre-eminent in his art ; and it would appear impossible to carry ornamental modelling to greater perfection t h a n h e h a s exhibited in the wonderful monuments which form the pride of the Church of Sta. Maria del Popolo, at R o m e . His pupil, Jacopo Tatti, who subsequently took his

A t Milan, t h e important works of t h e Duomo, a n d t h e Certosa a t Pavia, created a truly r e m a r k able school of art ; among the m o s t celebrated mas-

Panel from the Piscina of the High Altar of the Certosa, Pavia.

ters of which may be noticed, Fusina, Solari, Agrati, Amadeo, and Sacchi. The sculptor’s talent h a d long been traditional in t h a t locality, and there can be no doubt t h a t t h e s e artists embodied i n the highest forms the lingering traditions o f t h e Maestri Comaschi, or Freemasons, of Como ; from whose genius many of the most celebrated buildings of the middle ages derived their highest graces of adornment. Of

Arabesques designed by Baccio Pintelli, f o r the Church of Sant’ Agostino, Rome.

Panels from the Piscina of the High Altar of the Certosa, Pavia.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

master’s name, may be regarded as his only rival.

Arabesques designed by Baccio Pintelli , for the Church of Sant’ Agostino, Rome.

Ornaments from the Piscina of the High Alta of the Certosa, Pavia. r

Of him, however, more hereafter.

Portions of Plasters from the Church of Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice.

T

Having thus succin ctly traced the historic al succes sion of the great sculpto rs of Italy, all of whom, it must constan tly be borne in mind, were orname ntists also, we procee d to point out some few of those lessons which m a y, as we concei ve, be derive d from a s t u d y o f their w o r k s b y the artist and artworkman. One of the most peculia r and most fascinating qualiti es of t h e b e s t Cinque-cento ornament in relief is the skill with which those by whom it was wrough t availed themse lves of the play of light a n d s h a d e produc ed by infinit e variati ons o f p l a n e , n o t o n l y i n surfac es paralle l t o t h e grounds from which the orname nt was raised, but brough t to a tangen t with i t a t ever-varying angles of impact. T h e difference in effect between a scroll of the volute form, in which the relief gradua lly diminishes from the startin g of the volute to its eye, and one in which the relief is uniform through out, is very great ; and i t i s t o their undevi ating prefere nce for the former over the latter, that the Cinque-cento artists are indebt ed for the infallib ly pleasin g results they attaine d a l i k e i n their simple st and most complicated combin ations of spiral forms. This refined apprec iation of delicat e s h a d e s o f r e l i e f i n sculptu re was carried to its greatest perfection by Donatello, whose author ity in matter s of taste was held in the highest possible esteem by the contem porary Floren tines, and whose examp le was follow ed with respec t and devoti on by all classes of artists. Not only w a s h e the first to practis e the bassiss imo relievo , in which the effect of projection and of rounde d modelling is obtain ed within appare ntly imprac ticable limits of relief, but he was the first to combin e that style of work with mezzo and alto relievo ; thus mainta ining an almost pictor ial divisi on of his subje ct into sever al plane s. Too good a maste r o f h i s c r a f t t o ever overs t e p t h e speci al conve ntion s o f sculp ture, Dona tello enrich ed t h e Flore ntine pract ice of the Cinqu e-cen tisti with many eleme nts deriv ed from the s i s t e r a r t of Paint ing. These inven t i o n s — f o r t h e y are almo st worth y o f t h e name , thoug h arriv ed a t only throu gh a sedul ous study of the Antiq ue— were adopt ed and imitated with the great est avidi ty by the ornam entists of the perio d ; and hence we may trace some o f t h e most pecul iar and striki ng technical excellence of the best Renai ssanc e carvi ng and mode lling. Ultim ately, a n d a t i t s acme of perfe ction , this syste m of regular arran geme nt of ornam ent in plane s was so ingen iously mana ged in relat i o n t o light and shade , that, viewe d f r o m a distan ce, the reliev o presente d only c e r t a i n p o i n t s symm etrica lly dispo sed with refer ence t o some domin ant geom etrica l figure s. An appro ach of a few paces served t o b r i n g t o the sense of vision t h e l i n e s and figur es conne cting the point s of great est salience. A yet neare r appro ach revea led the leafag e and delic ate tendr ils neces sary to conv ey a tangi ble idea of the type of natur e selec ted for conve ntion , while no inspe ction could b e t o o close to t e s t t h e artist’s perfe ct appre ciatio n of the refine ments of surface texture. The “ cisellatura,” or “ chasing,” of the best Italia n Cinqu ecento ornam ent, s u c h a s may be seen in the Chur ch of the Mirac oli, Venic e (Figs . 1, 8, 9, Plate L X X I V.), by the Lomb ardi ; i n t h e Churc h of Sta. Maria del Popo lo (Fig. 1, Plate LXX VI.), Rome , b y Sansovino ; in the gates o f t h e Bapti stery, Flore nce (F i g . 3 , P l a t e LXXV.), by Ghibe rti ; i n t h e carvi ngs of S a n M i c h e l e d i Mura no ( F i g s . 4 , 6 , Plate LXX IV.) ; the Scuo la d i San Marc o ( F i g . 2 , P l a t e LXXI V.) ; Small Pilasters of Marble Staircase i n t h e Church of Sta. Maria

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

dei Miracoli, Venice, Tullio Lombardo, A.D. 1485, about.

the Scala dei Giganti (Figs. 5, 7, Plate LXXIV. ) ; and other buildings at Venice, is beyond all praise. The fibres of a leaf or tendril are never misdirected, nor is Nature’s tendency to grace in growth perverted or misapprehended. Smoothness and d e t a i l are never added excepting where they have some specific function to perform ; and while labour is so prodigally bestowed as to show that every additional touch was a labour of love, it is never thrown away, as is too o f t e n t h e case i n t h e present day, in converting those portions of a design which should be secondaries or tertiaries in point of interest into primaries. In the hands of artists less profoundly impressed than was Donatello with a sense of the just limit of convention in sculpture, the importation of pictorial elements into bas-relief soon degenerated into confusion. Even the great Ghiberti marred the effect of many of his most graceful compositions by the introduction of perspective, and accessories copied too directly from nature. In many of the ornamental sculptures of the Certosa the fault is exaggerated until monuments, which should impress the spectator with grave admiration at t h e i r b e a u t y and dignity, serve only to amuse h i m — resembling dolls’ houses peopled by fairies, decked with garlands, hung with tablets, and fancifully overgrown with foliage, rather than serious works of Art commemorat ing the dead, or dedicated t o sacred uses. Another reproach which may with justice be addressed to many such monuments i s t h e incongruity of the association of ideas connected with their purport, and those suggested by the ornaments displayed in their friezes, pilasters, panels, spandrils, and other enriched features. Tragic and comic masques, musical instruments, semi-Priapic terminals, antique altars, tripods, and vessels of libation, dancing a m o r i n i , and hybrid marine monsters and chimeras, harmonise but ill with monuments reared in consecrated edifices or dedicated to religious rites. This fault of the confusion of things sacred and profane may not, however, be altogether j u s t l y laid u p o n the shoulders of the artists of the Renaissance, whose works served but to reflect the dominant spirit of an age in which the revival of mythologic symbolism was b u t a protest against the hampering trammels of ascetic tradition erected into dogmatism under the rulers of the East, and endorsed by the Church during those centuries when its ascendancy over an ignorant and turbulent population was at its greatest height. The m i n d s o f even t h e most religious men were imbued with such incongruous associations in t h e fourteenth century ; and it is not necessary to go further than the “ Commedia” o f Dante, which all the world of literature has designated as the Divine Epic, to recognise the tangled skeins of Gothic and classical inspiration with which the whole texture of contemporary literature was interwoven. T o the architect, the study of Italian Cinque-cento ornament in relief is o f n o less utility t h a n i t can possibly be to the sculptor, since i n n o s t y l e h a s ornament e v e r been b e t t e r spaced out, o r Small Pilaster of arranged to contrast more agreeably with t h e direction of t h e adMarble Staircase, Small Pilaster of the Giant’s in the Church of Staircase, Ducal Palace, Sta. Maria , dei jacent architectural lines by which it is bounded and kept in suborVenice, by Benedetto and Miracoli, Venice. dination. Rarely, if ever, is an ornament suitable for a horizontal Domenico da Mantua. position placed in a vertical one, or vice versâ ; and rarely, if ever, are the proportions o f t h e ornaments and t h e mouldings, or the styles and rails, by which regularity and symmetry are given to the whole, at variance with one another. In P l a t e s LXXIV., LXXV., and LXXVI., are collected a series

T

of spec imen s, in the majo rity of whic h grac efuln ess o f line, and a high ly artif icial , thou gh apparently natu ral, distr ibuti on of the orna men t upon its field , are the prev ailin g characteristics. The Lombardi, in their work s at the Chu rch of Sta. Mar ia dei Mira coli, Veni ce (Pla te LXX IV. , Figs . 1, 8, 9 ; Plate LXX VI., Fig. 2 ) ; Andr ea Sans ovin o at Rom e (Plat e LXX VI., Fig. 1 ) ; and Dom enico and Bernardino di Man tua, at Veni ce (Plat e LXX IV., Figs . 5 and 7), attai ned t h e high est perfe ction in these respects. At a subs eque nt perio d to t h a t i n whic h they flour ished the orna men ts were generally wrou ght in more unifo rmly h i g h relie f, and t h e stem s and tend rils were thick ened , and n o t so unifo rmly taper ed, the accid ental grow th a n d p l a y o f natu re w e r e less sedu lous ly imita ted, t h e field of the pane l was more fully cove red with enric hmen ts, and its whol e aspe ct made more bustl ing and less refin ed. The sculp tor ’s work asserte d itsel f in comp etitio n with the archi tect’ s : the latte r in self- defe nce, and t o keep the sculp ture down , soon began t o m a k e his mou ldin gs heav y : and a mor e ponderous styl e alto geth er crep t into fash ion. Of this tend ency to plet hor a in orna men t w e alre ady perc eive indi cati ons i n m u c h o f the Gen oese wor k repr esen ted i n Plat e L X X V., Figs . 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, and 11 ; and in Plat e LXX VI., Figs . 4, 5, 7, 8, and 10. Fig. 6 in the last-mentioned plat e, from the cele brat ed Mar tine ngo Tom b, at Bres cia, also clea rly exhi bits this tend ency to fillin g up. In t h e a r t o f pain ting , a mov emen t took plac e conc urre nt with that we have thus briefly noti ced in scul pture . Gio tto, t h e p u p i l of Cim abu e, thre w off the shac kles o f Gre ek t r a ditio n, a n d g a v e his who le hea rt to n a t u r e . His orna men t, like that of his mas ter, cons isted of a combination Verti cal Runn ing Orna ment from the Chur ch o f Sta. of pain ted m o s a i c w o r k , inte rlac ing Portion of Maria dei Miracoli,Ve nice. a Doorway in one of the Palaces of the Dorias near the bends, and free rend erin g of the acan Church of San Matteo, Genoa. t h u s . In his wor k at Ass isi, Nap les, Flo renc e, and P a d u a , he has inv aria bly sho wn a graceful app hen sion o f t h e bala nce essential ret o b e mai ntai ned betw een mur al pic ture s a n d mur al orn ame nts, i n qua ntit y, dist ribu tion , and rela both tive colo ur. The se r i g h t prin cipl es of bala nce wer e very generally und erst ood and a d o p t e d d u r i n g t h e fou rtee nth c e n t u r y ; a n d Sim one M e m m i , Tad deo Bar tolo Orc agn as, Pie tro d i Lorenzo, Spi , the nell o Are tino , and man y oth ers, wer e adm itte d mas ters of mur bell ishm ent. Th a t rare s t u d e n al emt of n a t u r e in the suc cee ding cen tury , Benozzo Gozzoli, was a no dili gen t stud ent of anti qui ty, as less m a y b e reco gnis ed in the arch itec tura l bac kgr oun ds to his pictures in the Cam po San to, a n d i n the nob le arabesques whi ch div ide h i s pict ure s a t S a n Gim ign ano . Andrea Ma nteg na, how eve r, it was who mov ed pai ntin g as Don atel lo had mov ed scu lptu re, and t h a t n o t figu res alon e, but in eve ry var iety in of orn ame nt bor row ed from the anti que . The mag nifi cen t cart oon s we are so fort una te as to possess of his at Ham pto n Cou rt, e v e n t o thei r min utes t dec ora tive deta mig ht hav e bee n dra wn b y a n ils, anc ien t Rom an . Tow ards the clo se of the fift een th cen tury, the style,

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

of polychromy took a fresh and marked t u r n , t h e peculiarities of which, in connexion with arabesque and grotesque ornament, we reserve for a subsequent notice. Turning f r o m Italy to France, which was the first of the European nations to l i g h t its torch at the fire of Renaissance Art, which h a d b e e n kindled i n Italy, we find t h a t t h e warlike expeditions of Charles VIII. and L o u i s X I I . infected the nobility of France with an admiration for the splendours of Art met with by t h e m a t Florence, Rome, and Milan. The first clear indication of the coming change might have been seen ( for i t w a s unfortunately destroyed i n 1 7 9 3 ) i n t h e monument erected in 1499 to the memory of t h e first-named monarch, around which female figures, i n g i l t b r o n z e , of the Virtues, were grouped completely i n t h e Italian m a n n e r. In t h e same year, the latter sovereign invited t h e celebrated F r a Giocondo, architect, o f Verona, friend a n d fellow-student o f t h e elder Aldus, and first good editor of Vitruvius, t o v i s i t France. He remained t h e r e from 1499 t o 1506, and designed f o r h i s royal master two bridges over the Seine, and probably many minor works which have now perished. The magnificent Château de Gaillon, begun by Cardinal d’Amboise i n t h e year 1502, has been frequently ascribed t o hi m , but, according t o Emeric David and other French archæologists, upon insufficient grounds. Th e internal evidence is entirely in favour o f a French origin, and against Giocondo, who was more of an engineer a n d student than an ornamental artist. Moreover, intermingled with m u c h t h a t is very fairly classical, is so m u c h Burgundian work, t h a t i t would be almost as unjust to Giocondo to ascribe i t t o him, as to France to deprive her of the credit of having produced, b y a French artist, h e r first g r e a t Renaissance monument.

Th e whole o f t h e accounts

which were published by M. Deville in 1850, set the question almost entirely at rest ; for from them we learn that Guillaume Senault was architect and master-mason. It is, however, j u s t possible that Giocondo may have been c o n s u l t e d by the Cardinal u p o n t h e general plan, a n d t h a t Senault and his companions, for the m o s t p a r t French, may have carried out the details.

The p r i n c i p a l Italian

by whom, if we may judge from the style, some of the most classical of the arabesques were wrought, was Bertrand d e Meynal, w h o h a d b e e n commissioned to carry from Genoa the beautiful Venetian fountain, so well known a s t h e Va s q u e d u Château de Gaillon, now i n t h e Louvre, and f r o m which (Plate LXXXI., Figs. 27, 30, 34, 38) we have engraved some elegant ornaments. Colin Castille, who especially figures i n t h e l i s t o f art-workmen as “ tailleur à l ’antique,” may very possibly have been a Spaniard who had studied i n Rome.

In a l l essential particulars, the portions o f Renaissance work

not Burgundian in style are very pure, and differ scarcely at all from good Italian examples. It was, however, i n the monument o f L o u i s XII., n o w a t S t . Denis, near Paris, a n d one o f the richest o f t h e sixteenth century, t h a t symmetry of architectural disposition w a s f o r t h e first time united t o masterly execution o f detail i n France. This beautiful work o f Ar t was executed between

1518 and 1530, under t h e orders o f F r a n c i s I . , b y J e a n Juste of Tours. Twelve semicircular arches inclose the bodies o f t h e royal pair, represented naked ; under every arch is placed a n apostle ; and at the four corners a r e f o u r l a rg e statues o f Justice, Strength, Prudence, a n d Wisdom : t h e whole being surmounted by statues o f t h e K i n g a n d Queen o n t h e i r knees. Th e bas-reliefs represent the triumphal entry o f L o u i s i n t o G e n o a , a n d t h e battle o f Aguadel, where h e signalised h i m s e l f by his personal valour. The monument o f Louis X I I . has been often ascribed t o Trebatti (Paul Ponee), b u t i t was finished before he came to France, as the following extract from the royal records proves. Francis I. addresses the Cardinal Duprat : — “ I l est d e u a J e h a n J u s t e , mon sculteur o rd i n a i re , porteur de c e s t e la somme de 400 escus, restans des 1200 que je lui avoie pardevant o r donnez pour la menage et conduite de la ville de To u r s a u l i e u d e St. Denis e n France, de la sculpture de m a r b r e d e feuz Roy Loys et Royne Anne, &c. Novembre 1531.” Not less worthy of study t h a n t h e tomb of Louis XII., and executed a t t h e s a m e period, a r e the

T

beautiful carvings i n a l t o and basso relievo, which ornamen t t h e whole exterior of the choir of the Cathedra l of Chartres ; the s u b j e c t s a r e taken from t h e lives of our Saviour and the Virgin, and from forty-one groups, fourteen of w h i c h a r e the w o r k o f J e a n Texier, who commenc ed i n 1514, after completi ng t h a t part o f t h e n e w clock-tow er erected by him . These composit ions a r e f u l l of truth

in size ; the largest of t h e groups, which a r e those which c o v e r the pilasters, being only eight or nine inches in breadth. Though so minute, the spirit of the carving, and variety of devices i n these ornaments, are marvellous. Masses of foliage, branches of trees, birds, fountains, bundles of arms, satyrs, military ensigns, and tools belonging to various arts, are arranged with much taste. Th e F. crowned— the monogram of Francis I . — is conspicuous in these arabesques, and the dates of the years 1525, 1527, and 1529, are traced u p o n the draperies. The tomb which Anne o f Brittany caused t o b e erected t o the memory of her father and mother was finished and placed i n t h e choir of the Carmelite Church at Nantes on the 1st o f January, 1507. It is the masterpiece o f a n artist of great ability a n d naïveté—Michel Colombe. The ornamental details are peculiarly e l e g a n t . The m o n u m e n t t o Cardinal d’Amboise, i n t h e Cathedral a t Rouen, was begun in t h e y e a r 1515, u n d e r Roulant l e Roux, master-mason o f t h e Cathedral. No Italian appears to have assisted i n i t s execution, a n d we m a y, therefore, fairly regard i t a s an expression of the vigour with which t h e Renaissance v i r u s h a d indoctrinated the native artists. It was i n 1530 a n d 1 5 3 1 t h a t F r a n c i s I. i n v i t e d Rosso a n d Primaticcio i n t o France, and those distinguished artists were speedily followed by Nicolo del’ Abbate, Luca, Penni, Cellini, Trebatti, and Girolamo della Robbia. Wi t h their a d v e n t , a n d the foundation o f t h e school a t Fontaineblea u, new elements were introduced i n t o t h e F r e n c h Renaissance, to which we shall subsequently advert. It would exceed t h e limits of our present sketch to enter fully i n t o the historical details connected with t h e a r t o f wood-c a r v i n g . It m a y s u ff i c e to point o u t t h a t every ornamental feature available for stone, marble, o r bronze, was rapidly transferred a l s o t o wood-work, a n d t h a t a t no period o f t h e history o f Industrial A r t h a s t h e talent o f t h e sculptor b e e n more gracefully brought to bear u p o n t h e enrichment of s u m p t u o u s f u r n i t u r e . Our P l a t e s , Nos. LXXXI. a n d L X X X I I ., furnish brilliant evidence o f t h e justice of our remarks o n t h i s head . Th e attentive student, however, as he g o e s o v e r t h e m , w i l l b e u n a b l e t o a v o i d perceiving a gradual withdrawing f r o m the original foliated ornament w h i c h formed the stock-in-trad e of the e a r l y Renaissance artists. He will next notice a heaping u p o f various objects and “ capricci,” derived from t h e antique, accompanied by a fulness of p r o j e c t i o n a n d s l i g h t tendency t o heaviness ; a n d t h e n , finally, h e w i l l recognise the general adoption o f a particular s e t of forms differing from t h e Italian, and altogether national, such as the conventional volute incised with small square or oblong indentations (Plate LXXXI., Figs. 17 and 20), and t h e medallion heads (Plate LXXXI., Figs. 1 a n d 17).

Portions of the Tomb of Francis II., Duke of Brittany, and his wife, Marguerite de Foix, erected by Anne of Brittany in the Carmelite Church at Nantes, by Michel Colombe, A.D. 1507

a n d beauty, t h e figures animated and natural, t h e drapery free and graceful , a n d t h e heads full of life ; b u t the arabesqu e ornamen ts, which almost entirely cover the projecti ng parts o f t h e pilasters, friezes, and moulding s of the base, are, perhaps, the most beautiful portions ; they are very diminutive

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T h e dawning rays o f t h e c o m i n g revival o f A r t i n F r a n c e c a n scarcely b e t r a c e d i n the painted glass o f t h e fifteenth century. Th e ornamen ts, canopies , foliage, a n d inscripti ons, are generally flamboya nt and angular in characte r, although freely and crisply made out, a n d t h e figures are influence d b y t h e prevailin g style o f drawing. The glass, although producin g a pleasing effect, is much thinner— especiall y t h e b l u e—t h a n t h a t o f t h e thirteent h c e n t u r y. An immense number of windows were executed d u r i n g t h i s epoch, and specimen s a r e to b e f o u n d more o r l e s s perfect in almost every large church i n France. St. Ouen, at Rouen, has some fine figures u p o n a white quarry ground in t h e clerestory windows ; a n d good example s of the glass of t h e century w i l l b e f o u n d in St. Gervais a t Paris, a n d Notre Dame a t Chalons-s ur-Marne . Many improvem ents were introduc ed i n t o t h e a r t a t t h e epoch o f t h e Renaissa nce. The first masters were employe d t o m a k e cartoons ; enamel was u s e d t o g i v e d e p t h t o t h e colours without losing the richness, a n d m u c h more white was employed . Many o f t h e windows are very little more than grisailles, as those designed by J e a n Cousin f o r t h e Sainte Chapelle a t Vincenne s ; one of those representing the angel sounding the f o u r t h trumpet i s admirab le both in composi tion a n d drawing. The Cathedral o f Auch also contains some exceedin gly fine examples of t h e work o f Arneaud Demole ; Beauvais also possesses a great deal of t h e glass of t h i s period, especiall y a very f i n e Jesse window,

T

the work o f Engueran d l e Prince ; t h e heads are grand, and t h e poses of t h e figures call to mind the works of Albert Dürer. T h e grisailles , which ornamen ted t h e windows i n t h e houses o f t h e nobility, a n d even of the bourgeoisie, although small, were executed with a n admirabl e delicacy, a n d i n drawing and grouping leave little to be desired. To w a r d t h e end of the sixteenth century t h e a r t began to decline, t h e numerou s glass-painters found themselv es without employm ent, a n d t h e celebrate d Bernard de Palissy, who had been brought u p t o t h e trade, l e f t i t t o engage i n another presentin g greater difficulti es, b u t which eventually secured h i m t h e highest reputatio n. To him, however, w e a r e indebted f o r the charming grisailles represen ting the story of Cupid a n d Psyche, from t h e designs of Raffaelle, which formerly decorated the Château of Ecouen, t h e residence of his great patron the Constabl e Montmorency. Renaissa nce ornamen t penetrat ed into Germany a t a n early p e r i o d, b u t w a s absorbed into the hearts o f t h e p e o p l e but slowly, u n t i l t h e s p r e a d o f books and engravin gs quickene d i t s general acceptati on. From an early period there had been a steady current of artists leaving Germany and Flanders to study i n t h e g r e a t Italian ateliers. Among them, men like Roger of Bruges, who spent much of his life in Italy, and died in 1464,—H emskerk, and Albert Dürer, more especially influenced their countrym en. Th e latter, who i n m a n y o f h i s engravin gs showed a perfect apprehen sion of the condition s of Italian design, leaning now t o t h e Gothic manner of his master Wohlgem uth, and now t o t h e Raffaellesque simplicit y of Marc’ Antonio. The spread of the engravin gs of the latter, however, i n G e r m a n y, unquestio nably conduce d t o t h e formatio n of the t a s t e o f men who, like Peter Vischer, first brought Italian plastic a r t i n t o fashion in G e r m a n y. Ev e n a t i t s b e s t the Renaissa nce of Germany is impure— her industrio us affection for difficulti es o f t h e hand, rather than o f t h e head, soon led her into crinkum- crankums ; and strap-work, jewelled forms, and complica ted monsters, rather animated than graceful, took t h e place o f t h e refined elegance o f t h e early I t a l i a n a n d French arabesqu es.

Arabesque by Theodor de Bry, one of the “ Petits Maitres” of Germany (1598), in imitation of Italian work, but introducin g strap-work , caricature , and jewelled forms.

I t may be well now t o turn from the Fine to the Indust rial Arts, and to trace the manifestation of t h e reviva l in the design s of contem porary manufa ctures. From the unchan ging and unchangeable nature of vitreou s and ceram ic produc ts, no histori cal eviden ce of style c a n b e more comple te and

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

satisfactory t h a n t h a t which t h e y afford, a n d hence w e h a v e devoted t h r e e e n t i r e P l a t e s (Nos. LXXVIII., LXXIX. , and L X X X . ) t o t h e i r illustration. Th e majority o f t h e specimens thereon represented h a v e b e e n selected f r o m t h e “ Majolica” o f Italy, o n w h i c h interesting w a r e a n d its ornamentation we proceed to offer a few remarks. T h e a r t of g l a z i n g pottery appears to have been introduced into Spain and the Balearic Isles by the Moors, by whom i t h a d long been known and used in the form of coloured tiles for the decoration of their buildings. The earthenware called “ majolica” is believed to derive its name from the Island of Majorca, whence the manufacture of glazed pottery is supposed to have found its way into Central Italy ; a n d t h i s belief is strengthened b y t h e fact of the earliest Italian ware being ornamented with geometrical patterns and trefoil-shaped “ foliations” o f S a r a c e n i c character (P l a t e s L X X I X . and LXXX., Figs. 31 a n d 1 3 ). It was first used by introducing coloured concave tiles among brickwork, and later in the form of encaustic flooring. The manufacture of this ware was extensively carried on between 1450 a n d 1 7 0 0 , i n t h e t o w n s of Nocera, Arezzo, C i t t a d e C a s t i l l o , Forli, Faenza (whence comes fayence), Florence, Spello, Perugia, Deruta, Bologna, Rimini, Ferrara, Pesaro, Fermignano, Castel Durante, Gubbio, Urbino, a n d Ravenna, a n d a l s o a t m a n y p l a c e s in the Abruzzi ; but Pesaro is admitted t o b e t h e first town in which it attained any celebrity. It w a s a t first called “ mezza,” or “ half” majolica, and was usually made i n t h e form of thick clumsy plates, m a n y o f large size. They are of a dingy grey colour, and often have a dull yellow varnish a t t h e b a c k . The texture is coarse and g r i t t y, b u t t h e g o l d e n a n d prismatic lustre is now and then seen, though they are more frequently o f a pearly hue. This “ h a l f ” majolica i s believed by Passeri a n d o t h e r s t o h a v e been made i n t h e fifteenth century ; a n d i t w a s n o t untill after that time that the manufacture of “ fine” majolica almost entirely superseded it. A mode of glazing pottery was also discovered by Lucca della Robbia, who was born at Florence in 1399. It i s s a i d t h a t h e u s e d f o r t h i s purpose a mixture of antimony, tin, and o t h e r mineral substances, applied a s a varnish to t h e s u r f a c e of the beautiful terra-cotta statues and b a s - reliefs modelled by him. The secret of this varnish remained in the inventor’s family till about 1550, when it was l o s t a t t h e d e a t h o f the last member of it. Attempts have been made a t Florence to revive the manufacture of the Robbian ware, but with small success, owing to the great difficulties attending it. The subjects of the bas-reliefs of Della Robbia are chiefly religious, to which the pure glistening white of the figures is well adapted ; the eyes are blackened to heighten the expression, and the white figures well r e l i e v e d b y t h e d e e p b l u e g r o u n d . Wreaths of flowers and fruits in their national tints were introduced b y t h e followers of Della Robbia, by s o m e o f whom the costumes were coloured, whilst the flesh parts were allowed to remain unglazed. Passeri claims the discovery of this coloured glaze a t a s t i l l e a r l i e r d a t e for Pesaro, where the manufactur e of earthenwar e was carried o n i n the fourteenth century ; b u t t h o u g h t h e a r t o f combining it with colour may have been known at that early time, i t h a d n o t a t t a i n e d m u c h celebrity until 1 4 6 2 , w h e n M a t t e o d e R a n i e r e o f Cagli and Ventura di Maestro Simone dei Piccolomin i of Siena established themselves at Pesaro, for the purpose of carrying o n t h e manufactu re of earthenwar e already existing there ; and it is not improbable that their attention was attracted b y t h e w o r k s o f D e l l a R o b b i a , who had been employed by Sigismond Pandolfo Malatesta a t R i m i n i . Some confusion appears t o h a v e arisen with respect to t h e precise process invented b y D e l l a Robbia, and looked upon by himself and his family as the really valuable secret. We feel little doubt that it consisted rather in the tempering and firing of the clay to enable it to burn large masses truly and thoroughly than in the protecting glaze, about which there appears to have been very little novelty or necessity for concealment. Prismatic lustre a n d a brilliant and transparen t white glaze were the qualities chiefly sought for in the “ fine” majolica a n d Gubbian ware ; t h e m e t a l l i c lustre was given b y preparatio ns o f lead,

T

silver, copper, and gold, and in this the Gubbian ware surpassed all others. The dazzling white glaze was obtained by a varnish made from tin, into which, when half-baked, the pottery was plunged ; the designs were painted before this was dry, and, as it immediately absorbed the colours, it is not to be wondered at that w e s o frequently find inaccuracies in the drawings. A plate of the early Pesaro ware in the Museum at t h e Hague bears a cipher, the letters of which a p p e a r t o be “ C. H. O. N.” Another, mentioned by Pungileoni, h a s “ G . A . T.” interlaced, forming a m a r k . These instances are rare, as the artists of these plates seldom signed their works. T h e subjects generally chosen were saints a n d historical events from Scripture ; but the former were preferred, and continued in favour t i l l t h e sixteenth century, when they were displaced by scenes from Ovid a n d Vi rg i l , though designs from Scripture were still i n u s e . The subject was generally briefly described with a reference t o t h e t e x t i n blue letters at the back of the plate. The fashion of o r n a m e n t i n g t h e w a r e w i t h t h e p o r t r a i t s of historical, classical, a n d l i v i n g persons, with the names a t t a c h e d t o e a c h , w a s o f r a t h e r later date than t h e s a c r e d themes . All these subjects are painted in a flat, tame manner, with little attempt at shading, and are surrounded by a kind of rude Saracenic ornament, differing completely from t h e Raffaellesque arabesques, which, in the latter years of Guidobaldo’s reign, were s o m u c h in fashion. The p l a t e s f u l l of coloured fruits in relief were probably taken f r o m t h e R o b b i a n ware. T h e decline of this manufacture caused b y t h e Duke’s impaired income and the want of interest i n t h e manufacture felt b y h i s successor, was hastened b y t h e introduction of Oriental china and the increased u s e o f plate i n t h e higher a n d m o r e wealthy classes ; still, though historical subjects were laid a s i d e , the majolica was ornamented with well-executed designs of birds, trophies, flowers, musical instruments, sea m o n s t e r s , &c., b u t t h e s e b e c a m e gradually m o r e a n d m o r e feeble in colouring and execution till, a t l a s t , t h e i r place was t a k e n b y engravings f r o m Sadeler and other Flemings. From a l l t h e s e causes the manufacture fell rapidly to decay, in s p i t e o f the endeavors m a d e t o r e v i v e i t b y Cardinal Legate Stoppani. T h e “ fine” majolica of Pesaro attained its greatest perfection during the reign of Guidobaldo II., w h o h e l d h i s c o u r t i n t h a t c i t y, a n d greatly patronised its p o t t e r i e s . From t h a t t i m e , the majolica o f Pesaro s o closely resembled t h a t o f Urbino, t h a t i t i s n o t possible to distinguish the manufacture of the two places from each o t h e r, the t e x t u r e o f t h e w a r e being alike, and the same artists being often employed i n both potteries. As early as 1 4 8 6 t h e P e s a r o ware was considered so superior t o a l l other Italian w a r e , t h a t a protection was g r a n t e d t o i t b y t h e l o r d of Pesaro of t h a t d a t e , not only forbid ding, under penalt y o f f i n e and confisc ation, the import ation of any k i n d o f foreig n potter y, b u t o r d e r i n g t h a t a l l foreig n v a s e s s h o u l d b e s e n t o u t o f t h e state within e i g h t d a y s . Th i s protec tion was confirm ed, i n 1532, by France sco Maria I. In 1569, a p a t e n t for twenty -five years, w i t h a p e n a l t y o f 5 0 0 s c u d i f o r i n f r i n g i n g i t , w a s g r a n t e d by Guidob aldo I I . t o Giaco mo Lanfra nco of P e s a r o , f o r h i s i n v e n t i o n s i n t h e constr uction of vases wroug ht in r e l i e f , of great s i z e a n d antiqu e forms , a n d h i s applic ation of g o l d t o them. In additio n to this, his f a t h e r a n d himsel f were freed from a l l t a x e s and impost s. F r o m i t s variety and novelt y, majoli ca was genera lly chosen b y t h e lords of the Duchy for their present s to foreig n princes . In 1478, Costan za Sforza sent to Sixtus IV. certain “ vasa fictilia ; ” and i n a letter f r o m Lorenz o the Magni ficent to Rober t Malate sta, he return s thanks f o r a presen t of a simila r kind. A servic e painte d by Orazio Fontan a from design s by Tadde o Zucca ro, was presented by Guidob aldo to Philip II. of Spain. A double service was also given b y h i m t o C h a r l e s V. The set of jars presen ted t o t h e Treasu ry o f L o r e t o by France sco M a r i a I I . w e r e m a d e by the order of Guidob aldo II., for the use of his own laborat ory ; some of t h e m a r e ornam ented w i t h a portrai t, or subjec t of some other descrip tion, and all are labelle d w i t h t h e n a m e o f a d r u g o r mixtur e. The

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

colours of these jars are blue, green, and yellow ; about 380 of them s t i l l remain in t h e Treasury of Loreto. Passeri gives an interesting classification of ornamental pottery, w i t h t h e terms made use of by the workmen to distinguish the various kinds of paintings u s e d i n ornamenting the plates, and also the sums p a i d t o the artists by whom they were painted. He g i v e s a curious extract f r o m a manuscript i n t h e handwriting of Piccolpasso, a “ majolicaro” of the middle of the sixteenth century, who wrote upon h i s a r t ; to understand which i t i s necessary to r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e bolognino was equivalent to the n i n t h p a r t , and t h e g ro s to the third part, of a paul (5 1–8pence) ; the livre was a third, and the florin two thirds of a petit écu ; and the petit écu, or écu ducal, two thirds of a Roman crown (now value four shillings and threepence one farthing).

Trophies.—This style of ornament consisted of ancient and modern arms , musical and mathematical instruments, and open books ; they are generally painted in yellow cameo on a blue ground. These plates were chiefly sold in the province (Castel Durante) i n which they were manufactured, one ducal crown a hundred being the sum p a i d t o the painters o f t h e m . This style was much affected b y t h e Cinque-centisti in marble and stone : witness the monument to Gian Galeazzo Visconti, in the Certosa, Pavia, and portions o f t h e Genoese doorway we engrave. Arabesques were ornaments consisting of a sort of cipher, loosely tied, and interlacing knots and bouquets. Work thus ornamented was sent to Venice and Genoa, and o b t a i n e d o n e ducal florin the hundred. Cerquate was a name given to the interlacing Pedestal forming part of a Doorway of the Palace, presented b y the Genoese to Andrea Doria. of oak-branches, painted i n a deep yellow upon a blue ground ; i t w a s called the “ Urbino painting, ” from the oak being one of t h e bearings o f t h e ducal arms. This k i n d o f decoratio n received fifteen g r o s t h e hundred ; and when, in addition , t h e bottom of the plate was ornamen ted, by having some l i t t l e s t o r y p a i n t e d u p o n it, the artist received one petit écu. Grotesques were the interlaci ng of winged male and female monsters , with their bodies terminate d by foliations or branches . These fanciful decoratio ns were generally painted i n white cameo u p o n a blue ground ; the payment for them being two écus the hundred , unless they were painted on commission from Venice, when the price was eight ducal livres. Leaves.— This ornamen t consisted o f a f e w branches o f leaves, small in size, and sprinkled over Their price was three livres. Flowers a n d Fruits.— These v e r y pleasing groups were s e n t to Venice, a n d t h e artists received for them five livres t h e hundred. An o t h e r variety o f t h e s a m e style merely consisted i n t h r e e or four large leaves, painted in one colour u p o n a different- coloured g r o u n d . Th e i r price w a s h a l f a florin the hundred. the ground.

T

Porcelain w a s t h e n a m e o f a s t y l e o f w o r k which consisted of the most delicate blue flowers, with small leaves and buds painted upon a white ground. This k i n d o f work obtained two or more livres the hundred. It was, in all probability, an imitation of Portuguese importations. Tratti were wide bands, knotted in different ways, with small branches issuing from them. Their price was also two livres the hundred. Soprabianco was a painting in white upon a white-lead ground, with green or blue borders round the margin of the plate. These obtained a demi-écu the hundred. Quartieri.— I n t h i s p a t t e r n t h e a r t i s t divided the b o t t o m o f t h e p l a t e i n t o six o r eight rays, diverging from t h e centre to the circumferenc e ; each space was o f a particular colour, upon which were painted bouquets of different tints . The painters received for this kind of ornament two livres the hundred. G r u p p i .—These were broad bands interwoven with small flowers. This pattern was larger than the “ tratti,” and was sometimes embellished by a little picture i n t h e centre o f t h e plate, in that case the price was a demi-écu, but without it only two jules.

Portion s of the Pilaste r of a Doorwa y in the Palace at Genoa, present ed by the Genoes e to Andrea Doria.

Cand elab ri.— This orna men t w a s a n u p r i g h t bouq uet exte ndin g from one side o f t h e plate to the othe r, the spac e on each side being fille d up with scatt ered leav es and flowers. The price of the Cand elab ri w a s t w o flori ns the hund red. The adjo inin g woo dcut show s how c o m m o n , how early, and how favo urite a subj ect this was with the best artis ts of the Cinq ue-c ento . To dwel l in deta il upon the meri ts and parti cular work s of artis ts, such as Maestro Gior gio Andreoli, Oraz io Font ana, and Fran cesco Xant o of Rovi go, wou ld be beyo nd the scop e of this notic e, and is the less nece ssary a s M r . Robi nson , in his Cata logu e of the Soul ages Colle ction , has so rece ntly thrown out som e n e w a n d high ly inter estin g spec ulati ons upon vario us diffi cult ques tions conn ected with the subj ect. Neit her will it be desir able here t o d o more t h a n to poin t o u t t h e inter estin g modifications of cera mic desig n and prac tice carri ed out in Fran ce throu gh the indo mita ble perseveran ce of Bernard de Pali ssy, mast er-po tter t o F r a n c i s I . In P l a t e L X X I X . F i g s . 1 , 3 , w e h a v e engr aved several spec imen s o f t h e deco ratio ns o f h i s eleg ant ware , whic h occu py a s t o d e s i g n , in refer ence to other mon umen ts of the Fren ch Renaissance, muc h the same posit ion t h a t t h e desig n o f t h e e a r l y majolica does t o t h e mon umen ts o f t h e Itali an reviv al. Alth ough that style bega n t o m a k e its appearance in

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

the works of t h e F r e n c h jewellers i n t h e r e i g n of L o u i s X I I ., when the extensive patronage of the powerful Cardinal d’Amboise gave considerable impetus to the art, it was under Francis I. who invited to his Court the great master of the Renaissance—Cellini—that the jeweller’s a r t r e a c h e d i t s h i g h e s t perfection. To rightly appreciate, however, t h e precise condition a n d nature o f the precious metal-work, i t i s necessary t o pass in r a p i d review the leading characteristics o f t h e admirable school o f enamellers, whose productions i n the fifteenth century, and much more in the sixteenth, served to disseminate f a r a n d w i d e s o m e o f the most elegant ornaments which have ever been applied to metalwork. About the e n d o f the fourteenth century, the artists of Limoges found not only that the old champlevé enamels,—of which, in Plate LXXVII., Figs. 1, 3, 4, 8, 29, 40, 41, 50, 53, 57, 61, we have given, for the sake of contrast, numerous examples,— had entirely gone o u t o f fashion, but t h a t almost every goldsmith either imported the translucid enamels from Italy, or executed them himself with more or less skill, according to his talents. In this state of things, instead of attempting competition, they invented a n e w manufacture, the processes of which belonged solely to t h e enameller, a n d enabled him to dispense entirely with the b u r i n o f t h e goldsmith. The first attempts were exceedingly rude, and very few of t h e m n o w remain ; but that the a r t progressed slowly is evident f r o m t h e fact, that it is not until the middle of the fifteenth century that specimens are to be found i n a n y quantity, or possessing any degree of merit. The process was this :— The design was traced with a sharp point upon an unpolished plate of copper, which was then covered w i t h a t h i n c o a t of transparent enamel. The artist, after going over his t r a c i n g w i t h a t h i c k b l a c k line, filled i n t h e intervals with the various colours, which were, for the most part, transparent, the black lines performing the office of the gold strips of the cloisonné work. The carnations presented the greatest difficulty, and were, first of all, covered over with the black colour, and the high l i g h t s and half-tints were then modelled upon that with opaque white, which occasionally received a few touches of light transparent r e d . The last operation was t o a p p l y t h e gilding, a n d t o affix the imitations of precious stones,—alm ost the last trace of t h e Byzantine school, Lower portion showing the springing of scroll-work of a small Pilaster, b y t h e L o m b a r d i, i n t h e C h u r c h of Sta. which had formerly exercised s o m u c h influence in Aquitaine. Maria dei Miracoli, Venice. The appear ance o f t h e finishe d works was very similar t o t h a t o f a l a r g e and coarse translu cid enamel,— a resemb lance not unlike ly t o h a v e been intenti onal, more especi ally as specim ens o f the latter were never made of a n y considerable size, and were therefo re fit t o s u p p l y t h e p l a c e of ivory in the construction of those small triptyc hs which were s o necessa ry an a p p e n d a g e t o t h e chamb ers and oratories of the rich in the middle ages. Accordingly, we find nearly all the early painted enamels are either in the form of triptyc hs or diptyc hs, or have origina lly formed parts of them ; a n d a great

T

numbe r preser ve t h e i r origina l brass frames , and are suppos ed by antiqu aries to have been produced i n t h e atelier of Monve arni, as the name o r initials of t h a t master are genera lly found upon them. A s t o t h e o t h e r artists , they followed, unfortu nately, t h e b u t t o o commo n practic e o f most of the workm en of the middle ages, and, with the except ions of Monve arni a n d P. E . Nichol at, or, as the inscrip tions have been more correct ly read, Penica ud, their names are buried in oblivion. A t t h e comme ncemen t of t h e sixteen th c e n t u r y t h e Renais sance h a d m a d e g r e a t progress ; and among other change s, a great taste for paintin gs in “ camaie u,” or “ grisail le,” had sprung up. The atelier s o f Limog es a t once adopte d t h e n e w fashion, and w h a t m a y b e called the second series of painted ename ls was the result. The proces s was very nearly the same as t h a t employed with regard t o t h e carnations of the earlier specimens, and consist ed in, firstly, coverin g the w h o l e plate of copper over with a b l a c k enamel, and then modell ing t h e lights and half-tin ts with opaque white ; those parts requiri ng to be coloure d, such a s t h e faces and t h e foliage , receivi ng glazes of t h e i r approp riate tints —touc hes of gold are almost always used to comple te the picture ; and, occasio nally, when more than ordina ry brillian cy was w a n t e d , a t h i n g o l d o r s i l v e r l e a f , called a “ pallion ,” was applie d upon t h e b l a c k ground , a n d t h e glaze afterw ards superp osed. All these proces ses a r e t o be seen in the two pictur es of Franci s I . a n d H e n r y I I ., execut ed b y Leonar d Limou sin, f o r t h e decoration of the Sainte Chapelle, but which have now been remov ed t o t h e Museu m of the Louvr e. Limoges, indeed, owed no small d e b t o f gratitu de t o t h e former monar ch, who not o n l y establi shed a manufa ctory in the town, but made its directo r, Leonar d, “ peintre , émaill eur, valet-de-cham bre d u R o i ,” giving him, a t t h e s a m e time, the appella tion of “ le Limou sin,” to disting uish him from the other and still more famou s Leonar do da Vinci. And, indeed , the Limou sin was no mean artist, wheth er we regard his copies of the early Germa n and Italian master s, o r t h e origina l portrai ts o f t h e m o r e celebrated of his contem porarie s, such a s those o f t h e D u k e o f G u i s e , t h e Consta ble Montm orency, Catherine de Medic is, and many others— execute d, we must remem ber, i n the most difficu lt materi al which has ever y e t b e e n employ ed for the purpos es of art . The works of Leonar do extend from 1532 to 1574, and contem porane ously with him flouris hed a large school of artist-e namell ers, many of whose works quite equall ed, if they did not surpas s , h i s o w n . Among t h e m w e m a y mentio n Pierre Raymond a n d t h e families of t h e Penica uds, and the Courteys, Jean and Susann a Court, and M . D . Pape. The eldest o f t h e family o f t h e Courte ys, Pierre, was n o t o n l y a good a r t i s t , b u t h a s t h e reputat ion of having m a d e t h e largest-sized ename ls which have ever been execut ed (nine of these are preserved in t h e M u s e u m o f t h e Hôtel de Cluny —the o t h e r t h r e e , M. Labart e inform s u s , a r e i n Englan d) for decora ting the facade of the Châtea u de Madri d, upon w h i c h buildi ng large sums w e r e lavished by Franci s I. a n d H e n r y I I . We should observ e that t h i s last phase o f Limog es ename lling was not confine d, like its predec essor, to sacred subjec ts ; but, o n t h e contra ry, the m o s t distinguished artists d i d n o t disdain to design vases, caskets , basins, ewers, cups, salvers , a n d a v a r i e t y of o t h e r articles of every- day life, which were afterw ards entirel y covere d w i t h t h e black ename l, a n d t h e n decorated w i t h medall ions, & c . i n t h e opaque w h i t e . At t h e comme nceme nt o f t h e n e w manufa cture, the subjects of most of t h e ename ls were furnish ed from t h e prints of the Germa n artists, such as Martin Schoen, Israel van Mecke n, &c. These were afterwa rds suppla nted by those of Marc’A ntonio Raimondi a n d other Italian s, which, in their turn, gave way about t h e middle of t h e sixteen th centur y t o the works of Virgili us Solis, Theodo re de B r y, Etienn e de l’Aulne , and others of t h e petits- maître s. T h e produc tion of t h e painte d enamel s was carried on w i t h great activit y a t Limoges, during the whole of t h e fifteen th, sixteen th, a n d sevent eenth centur ies, and f a r i n t o t h e eighte enth, when it finally expire d. The l a s t artists were t h e familie s o f t h e Nouail lers a n d Laudin s, whose best works are remark able for the absenc e of the paillon s, and a somew hat undeci ded style of drawing. I n conclusion, it remain s for us only to invite the studen t t o cultiva te the beautie s, as sedulously

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

as he should eschew the extravagancie s, o f t h e Renaissance style. Where great l i b e r t y i s afforded in Art no less t h a n i n Polity, great responsibility is i n c u r r e d. In those styles in which the imagination of the designer can be checked only from within, he is especially bound t o s e t a r e i n upon his fancy. Ornament let h i m have i n abundance ; but i n its composition l e t h i m be modest and decorous, avoiding over-finery a s h e would nakedness. If h e h a s no story to tell, let h i m be content with floriated forms and conventional elements i n h i s enrichments, which please the eye without making any serious call upon the intellect ; then, where he r e a l l y wishes to a r r e s t observation by the comparatively direct representation of material objects, h e m a y be t h e m o r e sure of a t t a i n i n g his purpose. In a style which, like t h e Renaissance, allows o f , a n d indeed demands, t h e association o f t h e S i s t e r A r t s , let the artist never lose sight of t h e unities and specialties of each. Keep them a s a well-ordered family, on t h e closest a n d m o s t harmonious relations, b u t never permit o n e t o assume t h e prerogatives of another, or e v e n t o issue from its o w n , to invade its Sister’s province. So ordered and maintained, those styles are noblest, richest, a n d best adapted to the complicated requirements of a highly artificial social system, i n which, a s i n t h a t o f t h e Renaissance, Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, a n d the highest technical excellence i n Industry, m u s t unite before its essential a n d indispensable conditions of effect can be efficiently realised. M . D I G B Y W YAT T.

BOOKS R E F E R R E D T O F O R ILLUSTRAT IONS. L I T E R A RY A N D P I C TO R I A L .

ALCIATI (A.) Emblemata D. A. Alciati, denuo ab ipso Autore recognita ; ac, quœ desiderabantur, imaginibus locupletata. Accesserunt nona aliquot ab Autore Emblemata suis quoque eiconibus insignita. Small 8vo., Lyons, 1551. ANTONELLI (G.) Collezione dei migliori Ornamenti antichi, sparsi nella città di Venezia, coll’ aggiunta di alcuni frammenti di Gotica architettura e di varie invenzioni di un Giovane Alunno di questa I. R. Accademia. Oblong 4to., Venezia, 1831. BALTARD. Paris et ses Monumens, mésurés, dessinés, et gravés, avec des Descriptions Historiques, par le Citoyen Amaury Duval : Louvre, St. Cloud, Fontainbleau, Château d’Ecouen, &c. 2 vols. LargeFolio. Paris, 1803–5. C. BECKER AND J. VON H EFNER . Kunstwerke und Geräthschaften des Mittelalters und der Renaissance. 2 vols. 4to. Frankfurt, 1852. BERGAMO (STEFANO DA). Wood-carvings from the Choir of the Monasteryof San Pietro at Perugia, 1535. (Cinque-cento.) Said to be from Designs by Raffaelle. BERNARD (A.) Recueil d’Ornements de la Renaissance. Dessinés et gravésà l’eau-forte. 4to. Paris, n. d. CHAPUY. Le Moyen- Age Pittoresque. Monumens et Fragmens d’Architecture, Meubles, Armes, Armures, et Objets de Curiosité Xe au XVIIe Siècle. Dessiné d’après Nature, par Chapuy, &c. Avec un Texte archéologique, descriptif, e t historique, par M. Moret. 5 vols. small Folio. Paris, 1838–40. CLERGET ET GEORGE. Collection portative d’Ornements de la Renaissance, recueillis et choisis par Ch. Ernest Clerget. Gravés sur cuivre d’après les originaux par C. E. Clerget et Mme. E. George. 8vo. Paris, 1851.

D’AGINCOURT, J. B. L. G. S. Histoire de l’Art par ses Monumens, depuis sa Décadence au IVe . Siècle, jusqu’à son Renouvellement au XVIe . Ouvrage enrichi de 525 planches. 6 vols. Folio. Paris, 1823. DENNISTOUN (J.) Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino, illustrating the Arms, Arts, and Literature of Italy from 1440 to 1630. 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1851. DEVILLE (A.). Unedited Documents on the History of France. Comptes de Dépenses de la Construction du Château de Gaillon, publiés d’après les Registres Manuscrits des Trésoriers du Cardinal d’Amboise. With an Atlas of Plates. 4to. Paris, 1850. ——— Tombeaux de la Cathédrale de Rouen ; avec douze planches, gravées. 8vo. Rouen, 1837. DURELLI (G. & F.) La Certosa di Pavia, descritta ed illustrata con tavole, incise dai fratelli Gaetano e Francesco Durelli. 62 plates. Folio. Milan, 1853. DUSSIEUX (L.) Essai sur l’Histoire de la Peinture sur Email. 8vo. Paris, 1839. GAILHABAUD (J.) L’Architecture du V e. au XVI e . Siècle et les Arts qui en dependent, le Sculpture, la Peinture Murale, la Peinture sur Verre, la Mosaïque, la Ferronnerie, &c., publiés d’après les Travaux inédits des Principaux Architectes Français et Etrangers. 4to. Paris, 1851, et seq. G HIBERTI (LORENZO). Le tre Porte del Battisterio di San Giovanni d i Firenze. 46 plates, engraved in outline by Lasinio, with description i n French and Italian. Folio, half morocco. Firenze, 1821. HOPFER. Collection of Ornaments in the Grotesque Style, by Hopfer.

T

IMBARD. Tombeauxde Louis XII. et de François I., dessinés et gravés au trait, par E. F. Imbard, d’après des Marbres du Musée des Petits Augustins. Small Folio. Paris, 1823. J UBINAL (A.) Récherches sur l’Usage et l’orlgine des Tapisseries à Personnages, dites Historiées, depuis l’Antiquité jusqu’au XVI e Siècle inclusivement. 8vo. ph. Paris, 1840. DE LABORDE (LE COMTE ALEXANDRE). Les Monumens de la France, classés chronologiquement, et considérés sous le Rapport des Faits historiques et de l’Etude des Arts. 2 vols. Folio. Paris, 1816–36. DE LABORDE. Notice des Emaux exposés dans les Galeries du Musée d e Louvre. Première partie, Histoire et Descriptions. 8vo. Paris, 1852. LABARTE (J.) Description des Objets d’Art qui composent la Collection Debruge-Duménil, précédée d’une Introduction Historique. 8vo. Paris, 1847. L ACROIX ET S ERÉ . Le Moyen Age et l a Renaissance, Histoire et Description des Mœurs et Usages, du Commerce et de l’Industrie, des Sciences, des Arts, des Littératures, et des Beaux Arts en Europe. Direction Littéraire de M. Paul Lacroix. Direction Artistique de M . Ferdinand Seré. Dessins fac-similes par M. A. Rivaud. 5 vols. 4to. Paris, 1848–51. L ENOIR (ALEX.) Atlas des Monumens des Arts libéraux, mécaniques, et industriels de la France, depuis les Gaulois jusqu’au règne de François I. Folio. Paris, 1828. ——— Musée des Monumens Français ; ou, Description historique et chronologique des Statues en Marbre et en Bronze, Bas-reliefs et Tombeaux, des Hommes et des Femmes célèbres, pour servir à l’Histoire de France et à celle de l’Art. Ornée de gravures et augmentée d’une Dissertation sur les Costumes de chaque siècle. 6 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1800–6. MARRYAT (J.) Collections towards a History of Pottery and Porcelain in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Centuries, with a Description of the Manufacture ; a Glossary, and a List of Monograms. Illustrated with Coloured Plates and Woodcuts. 8vo. London, 1850. MORLEY (H.) Palissy the Potter. The Life of Bernard Palissy of Saintes, his Labours and Discoveries in Art and Science, with an outline of his Philosophical Doctrines, and a Translation of Illustrative Selections from his Works. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1852.

PASSERI (J. B.) Histoire des Peintures sur Majoliques faites à Pésari et dans les lieux circonvoisins, décrite par Giambattista Passeri (de Pésaro). Traduite de l’Italien et suivie d’un Appendice par Henri Delange. 8vo. Paris, 1853. QUERIERE (E. DE LA). Essai sur les Girouettes, Epis, Crêtes, &c., des Anciens Combles et Pignons. Numerous plates of Ancient Vanes and Terminations of Roofs. Paris, 1846. RENAISSANCE. La Fleur de la Science de Pourtraicture et Patrons de Broderie. Façon Arabicque et Ytalique. Cum Privilegio Regis. 4to. Paris. REYNARD (O.) Ornemens des Anciens Maîtres des XV., XVI., X V I I . et XVIII. Siècles. 30 plates, comprising copies of some of the most ancient and rare Prints of Ornaments, Alphabets, Silverwork. Folio. Paris, 1844. S ERÉ (F.) Les Arts Somptuaires de Ve. au XVIIe Siècle. Histoire du Costume et de l’Ameublement en Europe, et des Arts que en dependent. Small 4to. Paris, 1853. SOMMERARD (A. D U). Les Arts au Moyen Age. (Collection of the Hôtel de Cluny.) Text, 5 vols. 8vo. ; Plates, 6 vols. Folio. Paris, 1838–46. V ERDIER ET CATTOIS. Architecture Civile et Domestique, au Moyen Age et à la Renaissance. 4to. Paris, 1852. WARING AND MACQUOID. Examples of Architectural Art in Italy and Spain, chiefly of the 13th and 16th centuries. Folio. London, 1850. WILLEMIN (N. X.) Monuments Français inédits, pour servir à l’Hist o i r e des A r t s, d e p u i s l e V I e . Siècle jusqu’au commencement du

X V I I e . Choix de Costumes civiles et militaires, d’Armes, Armures, Instruments de Musique, Meubles de route espèce, et de Décorations intérieures et extérieures des Maisons, dessinés, gravés, et coloriés d’après les originaux. Classés chronologiquement, et accompagnés d’un texte historique et descriptif, par André Pottier. 6 vols. small Folio. Paris, 1806–39. WYATT, M. DIGBY, AND J . B.WARING. Hand-book to the Renaissance Court in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. London, 1854. WYATT, M. DIGBY. Metal Work and its Artistic Design. London, 1851.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

CHAPTER

X V I I I . — P L AT E S 83, 84, 85.

E L I Z A B E T H A N O RNA MEN T.

PLATE LXXXIII. 1 The centre portion of the Ornament in a Stone Chimneypiece, formerly in the Royal Palace, Westmins ter, now in the Robing Room of the Judges’ Court of Queen’s Bench. 2. Stone Carving from an old House, Bristol. James I. 3. Frieze, from Goodrich Court, Herefordshire. Time of Henry VIII. or Elizabeth. Flemish Workmans hip. 4. Ornaments in a Church Pew, Wiltshire. Elizabeth. 5, 7. Wood C a r v i n g f r o m B u r t o n Agnes i n Yorkshire . James I. 6. Wood Carving over a Doorway to a House near Norwich. Elizabeth.

8. Wood Carving, from a Pew, Pavenham Church, Bedfordshire. James I. 9. Wood Carving, from a Chimneypiece, Old Palace, Bromley, near Bow. James I. 10, 15. Carving in Stone from the Tomb at Westminst er Abbey. James I. 11, 12, 13. Wood Carving, from Montacut e, i n Somersetshire. Elizabeth. 14. Stone Carving, Crewe Hall. James I 16. Wood Carving, from the Hall of Trinity College, Cambridge.

PLAT E LXXXIV. 1.

Stone Ornament, Burton Agnes, Yorkshire. James I. 2. Painted Ornament, Staircase, Holland House, Kensington. James I. 3. Wood Carving, Holland House. 4. Ditto, ditto. 5. Wood Carving, Aston Hall, Warwickshire. Late James I. 6. From an Old Chair. Elizabeth. 7.

Stone Orname nt from one o f t h e Tombs a t Westminster. Elizabeth.

8, 9. Ornaments from Burton Agnes, Yorkshi re. James I. 10. Wood Diaper, Old Palace, Enfield. Elizabeth. 11.

Wood Diaper, Aston Hall.

12, 16.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

James I. Wood Orname nts, from t h e Pewing , Pavenham Church, Bedfordshire. James I.

13, 14. From Burton Agnes. The last of late date pub. Charles II. 15, 24, 26. Stone Diapers, from C r e w e Hall, Cheshire. James I. 17. Ornament on a Bethesdan Marble Chimneypiece, Little Charlton House, Kent. 18, 20. Wood Ornaments, in Peter Paul Pindar ’s House, Bishopsgate. James I. 19, 21. Wood Ornament, from Burton Agnes, Yorkshire. James I. 22. From a Cabinet. James I. French Workmanship. 23. From a Tomb, Westminster Abbey. James I. 25. From a Tomb, Aston Church. James I. 27. Wood Carving, from the Staircase, Aston Hall, Warwickshire. Late James I. 28. Plaster Enrichment t o a Panel Ceiling at Cromwell Hall, Highgate. Charles II.

T

PLATE LXXXV. 1, 15, 18. Diapers from Burton Agnes, Yorkshire. 2. Wood Diaper, from the Hall of Trinity College, Cambridge. 6, 8. Ditto, ditto. Late James I. 3. Fr o m Drapery i n a To m b a t Westminster. Elizabeth. 4. Wood Diaper, from an old House at Enfield. James I. 5. Plaster Diaper, from an old House near Tottenham Church. Elizabeth. 7. Needlework Tapestry. Elizabeth. (1–4size.) From the collection of Mr. Mackinlay. The ground, light green ; the subject in light yellow, blue, or green ; the outline, yellow silk cord.

9. Patte rn from Drap ery i n a Tomb at Westm inster. Elizabeth. 10. From a Damask Cove r to a Chair at Know le, in Kent. James I. 11. Appliqué Needlework. James I. or Charl es I. In the collection of Mr. Mackinlay. The ground in dark red ; the ornam ent in yello w s i l k ; outline, yellow silk cord. 12, 14, 16, 17. Patterns from Dresses, Old Portra its. Elizabeth or Jame s I. 13. Appliqué Needlework. James I. or Charl es I. Byan Italia n Artis t.

been formed, w e must look for t h e greater number of artists

Lucas d e Heere o f Ghent, Cornelius

Ketel o f Gouda, Marc Garrard o f Bruges, H . C . Vroom o f Haarlem, painters ; Richard Stevens, a Hollander, w h o executed the Sussex monument i n Boreham church, Suffolk : a n d Theodore Haveus of Cleves, who was architect o f t h e four gates, Humilitatis, Vertutis, Honoris, e t Sapientiæ, a t Caius College, Cambridge, and, moreover, designed a n d executed t h e monument of Dr. Caius about the year 1573.

Besides these we approach now a goodly array of English names, t h e most remarkable being

the architects,—Robert a n d Bernard Adams, the Smithsons, Bradshaw, Harrison, Holte, Thorpe, and Shute (the latter, author of the first scientific work on Architecture in English, A . D . 1563), Hilliard the goldsmith a n d jeweller, a n d Isaac Oliver, t h e portrait-painter. Most of the above-named architects were employed also during the early p a r t of the seventeenth century, at which time t h e knowledge of the new style was still more extended by S i r Henry Wotton’s “ Elements of Architecture.”*

Bernard

Jansen and Gerard Chrismas, both natives of Holland, were much i n vogue during the reign of James I. and Charles I., and to them is due the facade of Northumberland House, Strand.

E L I Z A B E T H A N O R N A M E N T. P RIOR to describin g the character istics of what is common ly termed t h e Elizabeth an style, it will be well to trace briefly the rise a n d progress of the revival o f t h e Antique i n England t o i t s final triumph o v e r t h e l a t e Gothic s t y l e i n the sixteenth c e n t u r y. The first introduc tion of the Revival into England dates from the year 1518, when Torrigian o was employe d by Henry V I I I . to design a monume nt in memory o f Henry VII., which still exists in Westmin ster Abbey, and which is almost a pure example of the Italian school at that period. In t h e same style, and of about the same date, is the monume nt of the Countess of Richmon d at Westmin ster ; Torrigian o designed this also, and, very shortly afterward s, went to Spain, leaving, however, behind him several Italians attached to the service of Henry, by whom a taste for the same style could not be otherwis e than propagat ed. Amongst the names preserve d t o u s a t this t i m e a r e Girolamo da Trevigi, employe d a s a n architect and engineer, Bartolom eo Penni, and Antony Toto (del ’Nunziat a), painters, and the well-kno wn Florentin e sculptor, Benedett o da Rovezzano : to these may be added, though a t a later period, John of Padua, who appears to have been more extensive ly employe d than a n y o f the others, and, amongst other importan t works, designed old Somerse t House i n 1549. But it was n o t a purely Italian influence which aided in the developm ent of the new style in this country ; and already we find the names of Gerard Hornebande, o r Horebou t, o f G h e n t , Lucas Cornelis, John Brown, a n d Andrew Wright, serjeantpainters to the king. In the year 1524 the celebrate d Holbein came to England , and t o him a n d John of Padua is mainly due the naturaliz ation of the new style in this country, modified b y t h e individua l genius and German education of t h e one, a n d t h e local models a n d reminisc ences of the other, by whom many features of the earlier Venetian school of the Revival were reproduc ed, with great modificat ions, however, in this country. Holbein died i n 1 5 5 4 , b u t J o h n of P a d u a survived him m a n y years, and designed the noble mansion of Longleat about the year 1570. On t h e occasion of t h e funeral of Edward VI. A . D . 1553, we find in t h e r u l e for t h e processio n (Archæo l. vol. xii. 1796) the n a m e s o f Antony Toto (before mentione d) , Nicholas Lyzarde, painters, and Nichola s Modena, carver ; a l l t h e other names of master-m asons, &c., b e i n g English. Somewh at later, during t h e r e i g n o f Elizabeth , we find only two Italian names, Federigo Zucchero (whose house at Florence , said to have been designed by himself, would rather serve to show that the English style of architect ure had influence d him, than vice versâ), and Pietro Ubaldini , painter of illumina ted books. I t is f r o m Holland that, a t t h i s period, when t h e Elizabeth an style m a y b e justly said to have

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Before t h e close o f J a m e s I.’s reign—i.e. i n 1619— t h e name o f Inigo Jones brings u s very nearly to the complete downfall of the Elizabethan style, on the occasion of the rebuilding of Whitehall Palace ; an example which could hardly fail of producing a complete revolution in Art.

Th e Palladian

style o f t h e s i x t e e n t h century h a d been, moreover, introduced e v e n before t h i s b y S i r Horatio Pallavicini, in h i s house (now destroyed) a t Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire ; a n d although Nicholas Stone and h i s son, architects and sculptors, appear t o h a v e continued t h e old style, especially in sepulchral monuments, i t was displaced speedily for t h e m o r e pure, b u t less picturesque fashion of the best Italian schools. Thus, taking the date o f Torrigiano’s w ork a t Westminster, 1519, a n d t h a t of t h e commencement of Whitehall b y Inigo Jones i n 1619, w e m a y include most of the works o f art during that century as within the so-called Elizabethan period. In t h e foregoing list o f artists, w e perceive a fluctuating mixture of Italian, Dutch, and English names. In t h e first period, or during the reign of Henry VIII., the Italian names are clearly dominant, and amongst them w e a r e justified i n placing Holbein himself, since his ornamental works i n metal, &c—for example, t h e goblet designed b y h i m for Jane Seymour, a n d a dagger and sword, probably executed f o r t h e king— exhibit a purity a n d gracefulness o f style worthy o f Cellini himself. The arabesques painted by him i n t h e large picture o f H e n r y VIII. and his family a t Hampton Court, though more grotesque a n d heavy, are s t i l l close imitations of cinque-cento models ; a n d t h e ceiling of the Royal Chapel of St. James’s Palace, designed by him in 1540, i s quite in t h e style of many rich examples at Venice and Mantua. During t h e reign o f Elizabeth w e m e e t with a g r e a t preponderanc e o f D u t c h names, f o r this country was bound both by political a n d religious sympathy w i t h Holland ; and although t h e greater number are described as painters only, yet we must remember how closely all the Arts were connected in those days, painters being frequently employed t o design models f o r ornament, both painted and carved, and e v e n for architecture ; a n d i n t h e accessories o f their own pictures was found frequent scope for ornamental design,—as, f o r example, may b e seen in t h e portrait of Queen Mary, painted by Lucas d e Heere, having panelled compartment s o f geometrical interlaced forms, filled u p with jewelled foliage.

During the early part of Queen Elizabeth’s reign we are, then, justified in concluding that a very important influence must have been exercised on English Art through the medium of the Protestant States o f the Low Countries, and of Germany also.† It w a s during this period, also, that * The works of Lomazzo a n d D e L o r m e a r e s a i d t o h a v e b e e n translated i n t o E n g l i sh d u r i n g t h e r e i g n of Elizabeth, b u t I have never met with copies o f them. † The remarkable m o n u m e n t of Sir Francis Ve r e (time, J a m e s I.) at We s t m i n s t e r, is a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l i n d e s i g n with t h a t of Englebert of Nassau, in t h e cathedral o f Breda (s i x t e e n t h century).

T

Heidelbe rg Castle was principa lly built (1556–15 59) ; a n d it would n o t appear unlikely that it may have had a n effect on English Art when we remembe r that t h e Princess Elizabeth , daughter of James I., held court here as Queen of Bohemia , at the beginnin g of the seventee nth century. A t the latter part of Elizabeth’s reign, and during that o f J a m e s I . , English artists are numerous, and appear, with the exception of Jansen and Chrismas , to have the field t o themselve s ; consequently it is a t t h i s period that we expect t o find a more decidedl y native school. And, i n fact, it is now that we m e e t with the names of English designers connecte d with such buildings (and with their concomitant decoratio n) as Audley E n d , Holland House, Woollaton, Knowle, and Burleigh. Thus we may expect t o meet with t h e purest Italian ornamen t in the works of the artists of Henry VIII.’s reign ; and this will be found t o b e the case, not only on the subjects we have already mentioned, b u t i n t h e examples given i n P l a t e LXXXII I., Nos. 1 a n d 3 . During Elizabeth’s reign we perceive b u t a slight imitation o f Italian models, a n d a complete adoption o f t h e style of ornamen t practised by the decorativ e artists of Germany and the Netherla nds. In t h e reign of James I. we find the same style continued by English artists, but generally in a larger manner, as at Nos. 5 and 11, Plate LXXXIV. , from Aston Hall, built a t t h e latter part of his reign. There is little, then, t h a t can be justly termed original in t h e character o f t h e ornamen t o f t h i s period, a n d i t i s simply a modifica tion of foreign models. Even at t h e close o f t h e fifteenth century may be s e e n t h e g e r m s o f t h e open scroll-work in many decorativ e works i n Italy, s u c h a s stained glass and i l l u m i n a t e d books. Th e beautifully executed ornamen tal borders, &c. of Giulio Clovio (1498–15 78) , p u p i l o f G i u l i o Romano, present in many parts all the characte r o f Elizabeth an scroll, band, nail-head , a n d festoon-w ork : the same may be remarked o f t h e stained-g lass windows o f t h e Laurenti an Library, Florence , by Giovanni da Udine (1487–1561) ; an d still m o r e noticeab le i s i t i n t h e frontispi eces of Serlio’s great work on Architec ture, publishe d i n P a r i s i n 1 5 1 5 . As regards another main feature i n Elizabeth an ornament, viz. the complica ted a n d fanciful interlace d bands, w e must s e e k i t s origin i n the numerou s and excellent designs of t h e class of engraver s known as the “ petits-m aîtres” o f Germany and the Netherlands, and more particula rly i n those o f Aldegrev er, Virgilius Solis o f Nurembe rg, Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, and Theodore de Bry, who sent f o r t h t o the w o r l d a great number of engraved ornamental designs during the sixteenth century. Nor should we forget to mention, a t t h e close of this century, t h e v e r y fanciful a n d thorough ly Elizabet han composi tions, architect ural and ornamen tal, o f W. Dieterlin, which Vertue asserts were used by Chrismas in his designs for the façade of Northumberland H o u s e . These w e r e t h e principa l sources from which the so-calle d Elizabet han style of ornament was mainly founded ; and w e m a y here remark, that whilst i t i s evident t h a t decoratio n ought, and indeed in some cases must, v a r y i n its characte r, accordin g t o t h e different subjects and materials o n w h i c h i t i s applied, a n d whilst t h e Italian masters, recognisi ng this æsthetica l fact, did i n most instances carefully abstain from carrying t h e pictorial s t y l e i n t o sculptur ed a n d architectu ral works, confinin g i t t o i t s j u s t limits, s u c h a s illumina ted books, engravin gs, Damasce ne metal-wo rk, and other purely ornamen tal subjects, —so, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e artists employe d i n England during t h e period of w h i c h w e t r e a t c a r r i e d t h e pictorial style o f ornamen t i n t o every branch o f Art, and reproduc ed even o n t h e i r building s the unfettere d fancies o f t h e decorativ e artists as they received them through t h e medium of the engraver. A s regards the character istics of Elizabeth an ornamen t, they may be described a s consisting chiefly o f a grotesqu e and complica ted variety o f pierced scroll-wo rk, w i t h curled edges ; interlaced bands, sometim es o n a geometri cal pattern, b u t generally flowing a n d capriciou s, as s e e n , for example, on No. 12, P l a t e LXXXIII ., a n d Nos. 2 6 a n d 27, P l a t e LXXXIV. ; s t r a p a n d nail-head bands ; curved and broken outlines ; festoons, fruit, and drapery, interspersed with roughly- executed figures of human beings : grotesqu e monsters a n d animals, w i t h here a n d there large a n d flowing designs o f natural

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

branch and leaf ornament, as shown i n No. 7 , Plate LXXXIII., a noble example of which still exists also on the great gallery ceiling at Burton Agnes, in Yorkshire ; rustications of ball a n d diamond work, panelled compartment s often filled w i t h foliage o r coats-of-arms ; grotesque arch-stones a n d brackets are freely used ; and t h e carving, whether in stone or wood, is marked by g r e a t boldness a n d effect, though roughly executed. Unlike the earliest examples of t h e Revival on t h e Continent, especially i n France a n d S p a i n , t h e s e ornaments a r e n o t applied t o Gothic forms ; b u t t h e groundwork or architectural mass i s essentially Italian in i t s nature (except in t h e case of windows) : consisting o f a rough application o f t h e orders o f architecture o n e o v e r another, external walls with cornice and balustrade, a n d internal walls bounded with frieze a n d cornice, with flat o r covered ceilings ; even the gable ends, w i t h their convex a n d concave outlines, so common i n t h e style, were founded on models of t h e early Renaissance school a t Venice. The coloured patterns of diaper w o r k —on wood, on t h e dresses of t h e monumental statues, a n d on tapestries,—sh ow i n m o s t cases m o r e justness a n d purity o f design than t h e carved work : the colours, moreover, being rich and strongly marked. A great quantity of this kind of work, especially the arras, with which walls and furniture were constantly decorated, no d o u b t came from t h e looms of Flanders, and in some cases from Italy, since t h e first native factory o f t h e kind w a s established at Mortlake in the year 1619. Nos. 9, 10, 11, a n d 1 3 , P l a t e LXXXV., are the m o s t Italian in t h e i r character o f the examples given ; No. 1 3 being stated, indeed, t o b e t h e design of a n Italian artist. Nos. 12, 14, a n d 16, also of a g o o d Italian character, being taken from portraits o f t h e time o f Elizabeth a n d J a m e s I ., are probably the work of Dutch o r Italian artists. Nos. 1, 4, 5, 15, and 18, though i n t h e Italian taste, are marked by m u c h originality ; whilst Nos. 6 a n d 8 a r e i n the ordinary Elizabethan style. Fi n e examples of coloured ornament are still preserved i n t h e p a l l belonging t o t h e Ironmongers’ Company, date 1515, the ground o f w h i c h i s g o l d , with a rich and flowing purple pattern ; s i m i l a r i n e v e r y respect t o t h e painted antependium s o f several a l t a r s a t Santo Spirito, Florence (fifteenth century), and probably of Italian manufacture. At St. Mary’s Church, Oxford, is preserved a r i c h pulpit hanging of gold ground with a blue pattern ; and at Hardwicke Hall, Derbyshire, i s a fine piece of tapestry o f a yellow silk ground, with a crimson and gold t h r e a d p a t t e r n . Bu t , perhaps, the m o s t beautiful specimen o f t h i s k i n d o f w o r k i s in the possession of the Saddlers’ Company, a gold pattern o n a crimson velvet pall,* m a d e i n the early part of the sixteenth century. Although in those we have referred to, a n d i n t h e examples given in Plate LXXXV., two colours only are principally relied on for effect, yet in other subjects every variety of colour is freely used ; gilding, however, being generally predominant over colour— a taste probably derived from Spain, where t h e discovery of gold in t h e N e w World led to a n extravagant u s e o f it as a means of decoration i n t h e reigns of Charles V. and Philip II. An example of this style may be seen i n t h e magnificent chimneypiec e, with elaborate gilt carving c o m b i n e d w i t h b l a c k marble, now preserved i n t h e Governor’s room a t t h e Charterhous e. By the middle of the seventeenth century the more marked characteristic s of the style had completely died out, and w e lose sight, not without some regret, of that richness, variety, a n d picturesqueness ; which, although deficient in good guiding principles, and liable to fall into straggling confusion, could not fail to impress the beholder with a certain impression of nobility and grandeur. J . B . WARING. October 1856. * For these, see Shaw’s very beautiful w o r k o n t h e “ A r t s o f t h e Middle Ages.”

T

BOOKS REFERRED TO. H . S H A W . Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages. ” T h e Decorative Arts of the Middle Ages. ” Details of Elizabethan Architecture. C . J . R I C H A R D S O N . Studies of Ornamental Design. ” Architectural Remains of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I. ” Studies from Old English Mansions. J O S E P H N A S H . The Mansions of England in the Olden Time.

S. C. H A L L . Th e Baron ial Halls of Engla nd. J O S E P H G W I L T . Encyc lopæd ia of Archit ecture . H O R A C E W A L P O L E . Anecd otes of Painti ng in Engla nd. Archæ ologia , vol. xii. (1 7 9 6 ). The Builde r (sever al Articl es by C. J. R I C H A R D S O N ), 1846. D A L L AWAY . Anecd otes of the Arts in Engla nd. C L AY T O N . Th e Ancie nt Timbe r Edific es of Engla nd. B R I T T O N . Archit ectura l Antiqu ities of Great Britai n.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C H A P T E R X I X .—P LATES 86, 86*, 87, 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 0 .

ITALIAN ORNAMENT. PLATES LXXXVI,. LXXXVI*. A series of Arabesques, painted i n Fresco b y Giovanni d a Udine, Perino del Vaga, Giulio Romano, Polidoro da Carravaggio, Francesco Penni, Vincenzio da San Gimignano, Pellegrino da Modena, Bartolomeo da Bagnacavallo, and possibly other artists, from designs by Raffaelle, selected from the decorations of the Loggie, or central open Arcade of the Vatican, Rome.

PLATE LXXXVII. A series of Arabesques painted in Fresco on a white ground, in the Palazzo Ducale at Mantua.

PLATE LXXXVIII. A series of Arabesques painted in Fresco on partially-coloured grounds, for the most part in the Palazzo Ducale at Mantua.

PLATE LXXXIX. A series of Arabesques, painted in Fresco on fully-coloured grounds, in the Palazzo del Te, at Mantua, from Designs by Giulio Romano.

PLATE XC. A series of Specimens of Typographic Embellishments of the Sixteenth Century in Italy and France ; selected from works published by the Aldines, the Giuntas, the Stephans, and other celebrated Printers.

S HORTLY after the commenceme nt of the sixteenth century, that movement towards the restoration of the antique which w e h a v e recognised in Italy as fragmentary and imperfect during the fifteenth, became systematised, and consequently invigorated, mainly through the means of popularisation, afforded by the arts of printing and engraving. Through them translations of Vitruvius and Alberti, copiously illustrated a n d a b l y commented upon, w e r e speedily i n t h e possession of every designer of eminence in the country, and without its limits also ; while, before t h e close of t h e century, t h e treatises of

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Serlio, Palladio, Vignola, a n d Rusconi, presented permanent records o f t h e z e a l w i t h which the monuments of antiquity had been studied. But inasmuch a s t h e requirements o f t h e Italian Social

system o f t h e sixteenth century differed from those of the Imperial ages o f Rome, so o f a necessity the nature of the monuments created to supply those wants materially differed. I n t h e Renaissance styles of the fifteenth century the artist’s attention had been mainly directed to the imitation of ancient ornament ; i n t h e sixteenth, however, it was principally the restoration of ancient proportions, both of the five orders and of architectural symmetry generally, that engaged the designer’s attention ; pure ornament having been to a great extent neglected in its details, and considered only in its mass as a decorative adjunct to architecture. Those arts which during the fifteenth century had been so frequently united in the persons of the maestri, under whom great monuments had been carried into execution, i n t h e sixteenth became individualised. The genius of such intellectual giants as Raffaelle and Michael Angelo could alone maintain the triple attributes of painters, architects, and sculptors, i n d u e relative subordination ; when, in a f t e r t i m e s , m e n s u c h a s B e r n i n i a n d P i e t r o da Cortona attempted similar combinations, the result was little else than general confusion and failure. As t h e r u l e s of Art became more complex, academies arose in which the division-of-labour system was introduced. The consequences, with certain rare and notable exceptions, were obvious ; architects thought of little e l s e b u t plans, sections, a n d elevations, i n which the setting out of columns, arches, pilasters, entablatures, &c., was all in all ; painters worked more in their studios, and less in the buildings, their works were t o a dorn ; forgetting altogether general decorative effect, and looking only to anatomical precision, powerful chiar’oscuro, masterly composition, and breadth of tone and handling. Sculptors of a high class deserted ornamental carving and gave their attention, almost exclusively, to isolated statues and groups, o r monuments in which general effects of beauty were made subservient to the development of the plastic features alone. Ornament was left in a great degree to accident or caprice in its design, and to second-rate artists in its execution. Favourable specimens of such ornaments may be seen in our woodcuts. The painted arabesques of the Italian style, and the stucchi with which they were occasionally accompanied, form so remarkable an exception to the above, that it will be well to reserve them for special notice. Although the architecture which Raffaelle has left t o u s i n the Pandolfini Soffite Panel, from one of the Genoese Palaces. Palace at Florence, and the Carffarelli, late Stoppani, at Rome, is excellent ; i t i s i n his connexion with the subject of arabesqu e t h a t h i s celebrity a s a n ornamentist consists, a n d w e s h a l l n o t therefore f u r t h e r allude t o h i m h e r e . Neither shall w e dwell upon the

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

works of Baldassare Peruzzi, interesting though they be, since, so far as ornament was concerned, they approached so closely t o t h e antique a s t o offer n o striking individuality. Bramante, too, is t o be regarded r a t h e r a s a Renaissance artist t h a n i n any other light. It i s t o t h e great Florentine, whose fervid genius, impatient o f restraint, broke away from tradition, that we m u s t look for that germ of self-willed originality t h a t infected all his contemporaries in every department of a r t , a n d engendered a license which, i t i s vain t o d e n y, ultimately, and in feebler hands than his, resulted i n a departure from taste and refinement in every branch of art. Michael A n g e l o w a s b o r n i n 1 4 7 4 o f t h e n o b l e Florentine family o f t h e Buonarrotti, descendants of t h e Counts of Canossa : h e w a s a p u p i l o f Domenico Ghirlandaio ; and having early distinguished himself by h i s talent for sculpture, he was invited t o study i n t h e school founded for its culture by Lorenzo d e Medici. On the banishment o f t h e Medici family from Florence i n 1494, Michael Angelo retired to Bologna, where he worked a t t h e tomb of St. Dominic ; after some little time he r e t u r n e d t o Florence, a n d , before h e w a s twenty-three years of age, he had executed t h e celebrated “ Cupid,” which w a s t h e cause o f h i s being invited t o Rome, a n d a l s o h i s “ Bacchus.” At R o m e , amongst many o t h e r w o r k s by him, is the “ P i e t a ” s c u l p t u r e d by o r d e r o f Cardinal d’Amboise, a n d n o w i n St. Peter’s.

Th e g i g a n t i c s t a t u e o f “ David,”

at

Florence, w a s h i s n e x t great

performance ; and a t twenty-n i n e years of a g e h e returned t o Rome, summoned by Julius II. for t h e purpose of erecting his mausoleum ; for this building the “ Moses” at San Pietro in Vincoli, a n d the “ Slaves” i n t h e Louvre, were originally destined, but it was completed o n a smaller scale than was at first intended. The painting of the Sistine Chapel was t h e n e x t work undertaken b y him, a n d one of his greatest, whether w e r e g a r d t h e sublimity o f t h e performance, o r t h e influence which it exercised o n contemporary a r t , a s w e l l a s o n t h a t o f after-t i m e s .

In 1 5 4 1 he

completed his vast fresco of the “ L a s t Judgment,” painted for Pope Paul I I I .

The

remainder of his long life was chiefly devoted to t h e construction o f St. Peter’s, on which work he was employed a t the t i m e o f h i s death, i n 1564, a n d f o r which he refused all remuneration. I n everything executed during t h e l o n g life o f Michael Angelo t h e desire for novelty seems to have divided his attention from the study of excellence alone. His daring innovations in ornament a r e n o less striking t h a n i n o t h e r departments of design. Hi s l a r g e b r o k e n pediments a n d mouldings, his sweeping consoles and

Vert i cal Ornam ent from

Genoa. scrolls, h i s d i r e c t imitation (saving a n a l l o y o f exaggeration) o f N a t u r e in some of his enrichments, a n d t h e amount o f plain face h e uniformly preserved i n h i s architectural compositions, brought new elements into t h e field, which were greedily snapped u p b y men of less inventive

power than h e himself possessed. The s t y l e o f t h e Roman School o f Design was altogether changed through Michael Angelo ; a n d Giacomo della Porta, Domenico Fontana, Bartolomeo Ammanati, Carlo Maderno, a n d , l a s t n o t least, Vignola himself, s o far a s ornament was concerned, adopted, with a few of his beauties, m a n y o f h i s defects, t h e greatest being exaggeration of manner. At Florence, Baccio Bandinelli a n d Benvenuto Cellini were a m o n g h i s ardent admirers a n d imitators. Happily Venice escaped the contagion i n a great degree,—o r, a t least, resisted its influence longer than almost any other part of I t a l y. This immunity was d u e , i n a g r e a t degree, t o t h e counteracting influence of a genius less hardy than t h a t of Michael Angelo, but far more refined, and scarcely less universal. We allude, of course, t o t h e greatest of t h e t w o Sansovinos— Giacopo.

T

T h i s noble artist was born a t Florence , o f a n ancient family, i n the y e a r 1477. Having at an early a g e displayed a remarkab le predispo sition f o r A r t , h e w a s placed b y his mother with Andrea Contucc i o f Monte Sansovin o (of w h o m we h a v e briefly spoken i n Chapter XVII. ) , then working at Florence , who, says Vasari, “ soon perceived t h a t the young man promised to become very eminent.” Their attachme nt speedily assumed such a characte r t h a t , being regarded almost a s father and son, Jacopo w a s n o longer called “ d e ’ Ta t t i ,” b u t “ d i Sansovino ;” an d a s h e was then named so is he called now, and ever will be. Having distingui shed himself by his abilities a t Florence , and being considered a young m a n o f great genius a n d excellent character, he was taken t o Rome by Giuliano da S a n Gallo, architect t o P o p e J u l i u s I I . At R o m e h e a t t r a c t e d t h e notice o f Bramante , and made a large copy in wax of the “ Laocoon” (under Bramante’s direction), i n competition with other artists, among whom w a s Alonzo Berrugue te, the celebrate d Spanish architect. Sansovino ’s w a s adjudged to b e t h e b e s t , a n d a cast was t a k e n o f i t i n bronze, which finally coming into t h e possession of the Cardinal d e Lorraine , was taken b y h i m into France i n the y e a r 1534. Sa n Gallo falling ill was obliged t o leave Rome, a n d Bramant e, therefore , found a dwelling for Jacopo i n the s a m e house with Pietro Perugino , who was then painting a ceiling f o r Pope Julius i n t h e To r r e Borgia, and who was s o pleased w i t h Jacopo’s ability t h a t he caused h i m t o prepare many models in wax for his use. He a l s o became acquaint ed w i t h Luca Signorell i, Bramant ino di Milano, Pinturicc hio, Cesare Cesariano, famous f o r h i s comment aries on Vitruviu s ; and was finally presented t o a n d employe d by t h e Pope (J u l i u s ). He w a s i n a fair w a y o f advancem ent, when a serious illness caused him to return to his n a t i v e city. He r e h e recovere d, a n d successfu lly competed w i t h Bandinel li and others for a large m a r b l e figure. He was i n continua l employm ent a t this t i m e , and among other works h e executed for Giovann i Bartolini the beautifu l “ Bacchus” (now i n the Gallery degli Uffizii a t Florence). I n the year 1514, great preparati ons being made at Florence for the entry o f Leo X ., Jacopo was employe d i n making various designs for triumpha l arches a n d statues, w i t h which t h e Pontiff was s o m u c h pleased, t h a t Jacopo Salviati t o o k h i s friend Sansovin o t o k i s s t h e feet o f t h e Pope, by whom he was received very kindly. Hi s Holiness immedia tely gave h i m a n order to make a design f o r t h e façade o f S a n Lorenzo a t Florence , which would s e e m t o have given s o m u c h satisfaction, t h a t Michael Angelo, who was t o compete with him for the control of i t s construc tion, would appear t o have outwitte d Sansovino, and effectual ly prevente d his success; fo r, says Vasari,.“ Michael Angelo was determin ed t o k e e p a l l f o r himself.” No t dishearte ned, however , h e continue d i n Rome, and was employed both i n sculpture and architect ure, a n d gained t h e g r e a t honour of being the successful competit or f o r t h e C h u r c h o f S t . J o h n o f t h e Florentin es, against Raffaelle , Antonio d a Sangallo, a n d Balthaza r Peruzzi. Whilst superinte nding t h e commen cement o f t h e w o r k s h e fell, and was s o severely h u r t t h a t he left t h e city. Various causes l e d t o t h e suspensio n o f t h e works until the pontifica te of Clement , when Jacopo returned and recomme nced i t . Fr o m that period h e was engaged i n e v e r y w o r k o f importan ce a t Rome, u n t i l , o n t h e 6 t h o f M a y , 1 5 2 7 , t h a t city was taken and sacked b y t h e French. J a c o p o sought refuge in Venice, intending to visit France, where the King had offered him employment. Th e Doge, Andrea Gritti, however, persuaded h i m t o remain, a n d to undertak e the restoration o f the cupolas o f S t . Mark’s. This work h e performe d so satisfacto rily, t h a t he was appointed ProtoMaestro t o t h e Republic , assigned a house, and provided with a stipend. The duties of this office he performe d with such sagacity and diligence, t h a t by various improvem ents a n d alteration s of the city he materiall y added to t h e income o f t h e State. Among h i s finest works here—an d, indeed, among the finest examples of Italian A r t anywher e— are t o be noted, the Libreria Vecchia, the Zecca or Mint, the Palaces Cornaro a n d M o r o , t h e Loggia round t h e Campani le of St. Mark, the Church of San Georgio d e i Greci, t h e Statues o f the Giant’s Staircase , t h e monume nt of Francesc o Veniero, and the bronze

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

gates o f t h e Sacristy. His character a s depicted by Vasari (edit. Bohn, vol. v. p . 426) is eminently agreeable, sagacious, amiable, courageous, a n d active. He appears t o have been generally honoured, and had a large school o f pupils, amongst whom may be mentioned Tribolo and Solosmeo Danese, Cattaneo Girolamo o f Ferrara, Jacopo Colonna of Venice, Luco Lancia of Naples, Bartolommeo Ammanati, Jacopo d e Medici of Brescia, a n d Alessandro Vittoria o f Trent. He died o n t h e 2d of November, 1570, aged ninety-three ; “ and (as Vasari tells us) notwithstanding t h a t t h e years of his life had come t o an end in the pure course of nature, yet all Venice lamented his loss.” It i s mainly to the happy influence exerted by Sansovino that the School o f Venice is indebted for its celebrity i n ornamental bronze-work. Turning f r o m I t a l y to France, we resume t h e thread o f national progress, interrupted b y the introduction i n t o t h e service of Francis I . (circa A . D . 1530) of those Italian artists who formed what is familiarly known a s t h e “ School o f Fontainebleau.” Th e leading and most popular member of that fraternity was Primaticcio, a master whose style o f drawing was founded upon t h e Michael-Angelesque system of proportion, somewhat attenuated i n l i m b , and moulded into a somewhat more artificial and serpentine line of grace. The manner of arranging and defining drapery peculiar to t h e Fontainebleau masters exerted a singular influence u p o n t h e native artists, a n d t h a t not only in t h e corresponding department o f a r t , b u t i n ornament generally. Th e peculiar crinkled folds of t h e garments, disposed, not as they would obviously fall if left t o themselves, but as they would best fill up voids in composition, induced a general levity i n the treatment o f similar elements, and led t o that peculiarly fluttering style which may b e recognised i n t h e works of a l l those artists who reflected a n d reproduced the prevalent mode of the d a y.

Among t h e most remarkable o f these, and, moreover, a m a n o f singular originality

of intellect, stands conspicuous the renowned Jean Goujon, who was born in France early in the sixteenth century. Hi s principal works are (for, happily, t h e y have for the most part survived to o u r days) the “ Fontaine d e s Innocents,” at P a r i s (1550) ; t h e gallery of the “ Salle des C e n t Suisses,” now “ des Caryatides,” supported by four colossal female figures, which a r e considered among his best works.

The

celebrated Diana o f Poitiers, called “ Diane Chasseresse, ” a small and very beautiful bas-relief o f the same subject, his wooden doors t o the Church o f S t . Maclou a t Rouen, his carvings of the Court of the Louvre, and his “ Christ a t t h e Tomb,” i n t h e Museum of t h e Louvre. Goujon partook warmly o f the enthusiasm t h e recovery o f t h e writings of Vitruvius excited universally, a n d contributed a n essay in respect t o t h e m i n Martin’s translation.

He w a s unfortunately shot during t h e massacre of S t . Bar-

tholomew, whilst working on a scaffold a t t h e Louvre, in 1572.

An artist who had imbibed even more

of the Italian spirit of t h e School o f Fontainebleau t h a n did Jean Goujon, narrowly escaped sharing his fate. Barthélemy Prieur was o n l y saved f r o m immolation by the protection o f t h e Constable Montmorency, whose monumental effigy he was ultimately destined t o place upon its pedestal. Contemporary with Goujon a n d Prieur was Jean Cousin, the most ardent disciple o f Michael-Angelesque form.

He is

principally known a s t h e sculptor o f t h e noble statue o f Admiral Chabot, a n d , as w e h a v e already stated (Chapter XVII.), by his designs for stained glass.

Prominent, however, among the artistic band

of the period, w a s Germain Pilon, who was born a t Loué, n e a r Mans.

The statues a t t h e Convent of

Soulesmes a r e a m o n g h i s earliest works. About the year 1550 his father sent h i m t o Paris, a n d in 1557 his monument t o Guillaume Langei du Bellay was placed i n t h e Cathedral of Mans. About the same time h e executed the monument o f Henry II. a n d Catherine d e Medici, i n t h e Church o f St. Denis, near Paris, from a design by Philibert d e Lorme.

One of his best works was the monument to

the Chancellor de Birague. The beautiful and well-known group o f the “ Three Graces,” cut out of one solid block of marble, was intended t o support a n u r n containing the hearts o f H e n r y I I . a n d Catherine d e Medici ; i t i s now in the Louvre. In o r d e r to g i v e a n idea o f t h e ornamental style o f Pilon, we h a v e engraved the base of this monument, see P l a t e LXXVI., Fig. 9 .

The statues and bas-reliefs o n t h e monument

T

of Franci s I . are by Pilon a n d Pierre Bontemps. After 1590 no works of his are known , and Kugler gives i t a s the date of h i s death. T h e length of limb and artificial grace peculi ar to the school of Fontai neblea u was pushed to the farthe st p o i n t of extrava gance b y Franca villa, o r Pierre Franch eville, of Cambr ay (born 1548), who introdu ced i n t o France the e v e n greater wiriness o f t h e style of John o f Bologna, whose pupil he had been during many years. The genera l charac teristic s of t h e style o f ornam ent preval ent during the first half o f t h e sevent eenth centur y, and which served as a n induct ion into what is generally known a s Louis XIV. wo r k , cannot b e better studied t h a n i n t h e apartm ents of Marie d e Medici , executed for her i n t h e Palace of t h e Luxem bourg, Paris, about 1620. T h i s manne r was succee ded by that o f L e Pautre , an artist of great cleverness a n d fertility. Our woodcut gives an idea of his style.

ornamental vases, altars, friezes, pilasters, &c., groups, or single figures, busts, o r heads, i n medallions or on architectural backgrounds; fruit, flowers, foliage, and animals, intermixed with tablets of various forms, bearing allegorical inscriptions. An infinite variety of such gems o f beauty offered themselves to the notice of the artists of t h a t period w h o visited Rome for the express purpose o f m a k i n g drawings of such remain s ; and in transferring t h e subject so sketched t o the modern arabesques, i t w a s scarcely possible t h a t t h e early artists should avoid also transferring t o their paintings somewhat of the formal character inseparable from the sculptured and material character o f t h e objects from which their original drawings had been made. Such circumstances may go far to explain the difference we cannot fail to recognise between t h e imitation and t h e object imitated, i n many of t h e f i r s t attempts t o reproduce t h e painted decorations o f t h e Romans of Imperial times. Among s u c h diligent students, none was more conspicuous than was Pietro Perugino during his residence i n Rome at the latter part of t h e fifteenth century.

Ho w f u l l y and to what good purpose he accumulated studies o f ancient ornament was shown by the immediate commission h e received from his fellowtownsmen to decorate the v a u l t s of their Exchange, or “ Sala di Cambio,” with frescoes, in which the ancient style a n d c e r t a i n an t i q u e subjects should b e vividly reproduced. Th i s beautiful w o r k o f a r t , f o r s u c h it proved t o b e , was executed soon a f t e r his r e t u r n to P e r u g i a from Rome; and manifests how deeply he must have drunk at the classic fountain of antique Art. It is, without d o u b t , t h e first complete reproduction o f the “ grotesques” of the ancients, and is singularly interesti n g , not o n l y a s establishing the claim of Pietro to be

Panel for a Ceiling, from a Design by L E P A U T R E .

Leavin g for awhile the subjec t of sculpt ured Italian a n d F r e n c h Ornam ent, i t m a y be well to advert t o t h a t of painte d ; the more especially a s for a short time, during which a great degree of zeal for t h e preserv ation of old Roman vestige s o f polych romatic decora tion was exercised, a very high and remark able degree o f perfec tion a n d beauty w a s attaine d. It i s e v e r t o b e borne i n mind that a very wide differe nce existed betwee n the painte d a n d carved arabes ques o f t h e ancien ts. The latter d u r i n g t h e period o f t h e Early Renaissance were almost entirel y neglec ted, whilst t h e former were imitate d w i t h great succes s, a s may be seen from the interes ting pilaste r panels , design ed b y Baccio Pintell i f o r the Churc h o f Sant’ Agosti no a t Rome, and which form t h e subjec t o f o u r woodcuts on the next page. The study of ancien t R o m an a n d Greek sculptu res was natura lly followe d by t h a t o f the antique decora tions i n marble and stone which throug hout Italy abound ed so profusely, a n d which every day’s excava tion brough t t o light, — s uch, for instanc e, as perfect remain s or shatter ed fragments of

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

regarded a s t h e first great a n d accurate reviver of this graceful s t y l e o f decoration, b u t a s having b e e n the “ trial-piece” on which so many “ ’prentice hands” were exercised, whose efforts subsequently carried i t t o the highest perfection. Th e principal scholars of Perugino, whose labours there is little doubt materially aided i n t h e elaboration of these graceful fancies, were Raffaelle, then aged six-

Arabe sque desig ned by Baccio P i n t e l l i f o r the Churc h of Sant’ Agost ino, R o m e.

teen or seventeen; Francesco Ubertini, better known as Bacchiacca ; an d Pinturicchio. An d i t i s curious to t r a c e t h e influence o f t h e success of t h i s t h e i r first attempt upon the after career of each of the three. It

Arabesque designed by Baccio Pintelli for the Church of Sant’ Agostino, Rome.

T

led immediately t o t h e employment o f Raffaelle a n d Pinturicchio, in conjunction, in the decoration of the celebrated Library at Sienna, and subsequently, to t h e cultivation of such studies o n the part of t h e f o r m e r as induced h i s composition o f t h e inimitable arabesques o f t h e Loggie o f t h e Vatican, & c . & c.; an d o n t h a t o f the latter artist to the execution of the ceilings of the choir of Sta. Maria del Popolo, and t h o s e of t h e Apartamenti Borgia, & c . a t Rome. Bacchiacca became so completely enamoured of the style, that his whole life was devoted to painting animals, flowers, &c. in “ grotesque” decoration ; an d h e ultimately became famous throughout Italy a s a perfect master of t h a t variety of design. In freedom and cleverness of drawing, in harmony of colour, in brilliancy of touch, in nice balance of the “ pieni” and “ vuoti,” a n d in close imitation of the paintings of the ancient Romans, this specim e n i s one o f t h e most successful t h a t h a s e v e r been executed, although, in delicacy of finish and refined study, it can scarcely be expected to equal the subsequent productions o f Giovanni da Udine and Morto da Feltro. During the s t a y o f Raffaelle i n Rome, under t h e pontificate of Leo X. , h e was commissioned by t h a t pontiff t o decorate a n arcade, which h a d b e e n constructed during the reign of h i s predecessor, J u l i u s I I . , b y Bramante, whose daughter Raffaelle married. It was determined, t h a t while t h e theme of the necessary decorations should be sacred, their style a n d manner of execution should rival t h e finest remains of ancient painting which had been discovered a t Rome u p t o that period. The general designs appear to have been made by Raffaelle himself, and the details t o h a v e been carried out by a chosen band of assistants, who unquestionab ly entered with wonderful zeal into the realisation o f t h e great work. It was by their hands, controlled by the exquisite taste of t h e great Urbinese, t h a t those celebrated “ loggie,” which have ever s i n c e their execution been a theme o f admiration for all artists, were created. We have given a careful selection, showing the principal ornamental motives comprised i n them i n P l a t e LXXXVI. These arabesques c a n n o t fairly b e compared w i t h t h e ancient, a s t h e former were executed by t h e g r e a t e s t masters o f t h e a g e , a n d a r e applied t o t h e decoration o f a n edifice o f t h e highest magnificence a n d importance, whilst t h e l a t t e r w e r e t h e productions o f a less distinguished period

in the Loggie of t h a t imaginary world with the symbols of Christianity.” Such are among the general conclusions to which that profound student of ancient polychromy, M . Hittorff, has arrived, a n d it is impossible not t o concur i n t h e i r propriety ; while condemning, however, such faults of ensemble, we must not lose sight of t h e exquisite graces of detail wrought o u t i n their execution b y Raffaelle and “ Proceeding from t h e Vatican t o t h e Villa Madama, we find, immediately o n entering his scholars. its halls, that divisions create a less confusing general effect. In a l l t h e principal decorations there is a better regulated proportion, a n d greater symmetry ; and i n t h e magnificent roofs, notwithstanding the multiplicity o f t h e i r ornaments, a more gratifying a n d calming influence i s e x e r t e d u p o n us. Here, where all t h e principal subjects represent scenes from the mythology o f t h e ancients, we find a pervading unity conceived more in t h e s p i r i t of the ancients. If w e adopt the general opinion, and look upon t h i s beautiful work a s a second undertaking conceived b y Raffaelle i n t h e spirit o f the Loggie, and executed entirely b y Giulio Romano a n d Giovanni d a Udine, we see how t h e favourite pupils of the incomparable master succeeded i n avoiding faults against good taste, which h e a n d his contemporaries cannot f a i l t o h a v e recognised i n h i s former work, favourably a s i t was received by the popular voice, not only of courtiers, b u t of artists.” Unlike the arabesques o f t h e Vatican, which are executed, for t h e m o s t p a r t , upon white ground, those of t h i s delicious suburban retreat are, for the most p a r t , worked out u p o n variously coloured grounds—a habit to which Giulio Romano appears to have been more partial than either Raffaelle o r Giovanni da Udine. The villa itself was built by Romano and h i s fellow-labourer for Pope Clement VII., when Cardinal Giulio de Medici, t h e f i r s t designs having been given b y Raffaelle. The work w a s s t i l l incomplete when it w a s partially destroyed b y Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, to revenge himself upon Clement VII., who had burnt fourteen o f h i s castles i n t h e Campagna o f Rome. The v i l l a i s n o w rapidly going

o f A r t , a n d those n o w i n existence ornament buildings o f a class relatively f a r l e s s important to Imperial magnificence t h a n t h e Vatican w a s t o Papal. The comparison m i g h t be fairer if we could but recall the faded glories of t h e Palace of t h e Cæsars, o r t h e “ Golden House” o f Nero. “ T h e ancient arabesques have, i n almost every instance, a l l t h e i r p a r t s k e p t u p o n a reduced scale, in order t o favour t h e apparent extent of t h e locality they decorate ; i n addition to which they generally manifest a predominatin g general proportion between their several parts. They never present s u c h striking differences i n s c a l e between t h e principal subjects a s w e find i n t h e arabesques of Raffaelle, t h e component p a r t s o f which a r e sometimes a s unreasonably large a s they sometimes are unreasonably s m a l l . Th e g r e a t e r i s often p l a c e d beside and above t h e less, thereby emphaticising the dissonances, a n d b e i n g t h e more offensive b y a deficiency i n symmetry, a s w e l l a s i n t h e very choice o f t h e motives for decoration. Thus, close t o t h e richest arabesques, presenting, o n a very small scale, elegant a n d minute combinations of flowers, f r u i t , animals, h u m a n figures, and views of temples, landscapes, & c , we find calices of flowers putting forth twisted stalks, leaves, a n d blossoms — a l l which, with reference to the adjoining and first-describe d arabesques, are of colossal proportion ; thereby n o t o n l y injuring t h e accompanyin g decorations, b u t a l s o destroying t h e grandeur of the whole architectural design. Lastly, on examining the choice of subjects with respect to the association of i d e a s indicated thereby, a n d t h e decorations i n t h e symbols and a l l e g o r i e s employed to convey them, we find that the works of the ancients, who reverted t o n o other source t h a n t h e i r mythology, appear to g r e a t advantage, in p o i n t o f unity of idea, when compared with the prevailing intermixture

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Detail of a P o r t i o n o f a S t u c c o Ceiling in the Palazzo , Mattei di Giove, Rome, by CARLO M A D E R N O .

to decay; bu t t h e grandeur o f t h e three arches still remaining is sufficient to s h o w t h a t t h e design was worthy of Rafflaelle ; an d t h a t i t w a s his i s proved beyond a d o u b t , b y a l e t t e r t o Francesco Maria, Duke o f Urbino, written b y Castiglione, as well a s b y some drawings, which, together with the letter, are still i n existence. T h e Vi l l a M a d a m a was purchased after t h e confiscation o f t h e Medicis property, i n 1537 , by

T

Margare t, daughter o f Charles V. , and widow of D u k e Alexand er d e Medici, a n d from her title of Madama t h e v i l l a takes i t s name. Th e building w a s partially restored, though n e v e r completed, and Margare t resided there o n h e r marriage with Ottavio Farnese. The crown o f Naples afterwards became possessed of i t , with the rest of t h e Farnese property, through a marriage with that family. So large a number of arabesqu e decorations were executed by t h e pupils and followers of Raffaelle, and so great was the skill acquired by them i n t h i s art, t h a t i t i s now difficult t o ascertain to whom we owe the beautiful arabesques which still decorate many o f t h e palaces and countryhouses in the neighbou rhood o f Rome. Af t e r t h e p r e m a t u r e d e a t h o f Raffaelle , t h e bond t h a t had united the brotherho od which h a d gathered around his person was snapped, a n d those who had s o ably worked with h i m spread themselv es in various direction s througho ut Italy, carrying with them the experience a n d knowled ge they had acquired i n the conduct of t h e great undertak ings placed under his charge. Thus sown broadcas t over the land were the elements of painted arabesqu e decoratio n. In proportion, however, as the artists, by whom subsequent works were undertake n, removed from the classic influences of Rome, their styles became more pictorial, and less purely decorative ; and i n t h e seventeenth century the arabesque manner became almost entirely merged in such florid decorations as suited the extravagant ideas of architect ural magnific ence nourishe d by t h e Jesuits. In t h e d a y s of Bernini, and a t a later period i n those of Borromini, t h e Stuccato re triumphe d in every species of flourish, while in the scanty openings left between the flutterin g wings and draperies of angels and saints suspende d in vaults and cupolas in mid-a i r, the decorativ e painter was allowed t o place little else t h a n t h e perspecti ve tricks of t h e Padre Pozzo and his school. Before leaving the subject o f arabesqu e altogethe r, i t m a y b e w e l l t o trace a f e w anomalies in its varied local aspects. As m a y reasonab ly be inferred, t h e presence of ancient remains has almost invariabl y affected the local style of ornamen t in those spots where they have most abounded . Thus a t R o m e the school of arabesqu e ornamen t most nearly approach ed t h e antique, while in cities such a s Mantua, Pavia, a n d Genoa, other and distinct types and influences m a y b e traced. The Mantuan system o f ornamen tation, for instance , m a y b e distinctly subdivid ed into the school of nature and t h a t o f conventio nal vigour approach ing caricatur e, imported by Giulio Romano, a n d a reflex of the favourite Paganism of Rome. In t h e deserted chamber s of t h e Palazzo Ducale a r e f a s t fading into nothingn ess the graceful frescoes, of which we have presented numerou s specimen s i n Plates LXXXVII. a n d LXXXV III. ; executed for the m o s t p a r t u p o n a white ground. Leaves, flowers, and tendrils, frequentl y wind round a central reed, as at Figs. 7 and 9, Plate LXXXV II. ; and in such cases Nature appears a s t h e directly inspiring deity. In other instances , a s i n Figs. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , and 6, of the same plate, a simple style of conventi on is followed, in which t h e h a n d o f the artist sweeps out as wayward fancy prompts a n ever-recu rring, y e t rarely monoton ous, series of scrolls a n d curves ; the leading points of which a r e generall y accentua ted by calices, a n d t h e dominan t lines of which are adorned, and from time t o t i m e interrupt ed, by foliage of parasitic growth. A m a r k e d differenc e of s t y l e i n t h e decoratio n o f t h e s a m e b u i l d i n g i s inaugura ted in the specimen s (Figs. 1 , 2 , 4 , a n d 5), we have collected i n Plate LXXXV III. In t h e m t h e artist has withdraw n himself farther from nature, retaining a t t h e same time a n e v e n more pictorial mode of represen tation than i n t h e earlier a n d p u r e r examples . Fa r b e i t from u s t o assert t h a t beauty of t h e highest and m o s t architect onic characte r may n o t b e obtained i n ornamen t entirely conventional i n conceptio n ; but certain i t is, t h a t t o b e agreeabl e such ornamen t should be expressed in a simple a n d f l a t style o f treatmen t, b o t h a s regards light, shade, a n d colour. In d i r e c t proportio n as the elements of which a n ornamen t is compose d have been taken with more o r less divergenc e from the ordinary aspect of nature, so should the mode be varied in which that ornamen t should be portrayed. Thus, i n t h e m o r e refined arabesqu es o f P l a t e LXXXV II. , i n which t h e f o r m s of growing plants

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

have been freely sketched from the garden and field, an amount of delicate modelling and indication of accidental effect i s admissible, which i n t h e representation o f t h e more absolutely conventional elements o f t h e specimens given i n P l a t e LXXXVIII. , strikes u s a s somewhat officious a n d feeble. Already i n t h e bustle o f line, t h e fluttering ribbons, and vague jewelled forms o f N o . 5, a n d i n the monotonous masques a n d foolscaps of No. 1 (Plate LXXX.), may be traced that tendency to caricature which disfigured so m u c h that the genius o f Romano threw off with masterly power, but unfortunately with too great fecundity.

So long, a s a t t h e Villa Madama, a n d i n o t h e r of h i s Roman works, his

exuberance was controlled b y association with artists o f purer taste than himself, there i s little with which to reproach him ; b u t w h e n h e subsequently emerged into the “ Gran Signore” a t Mantua, his vanity fairly intoxicated h i m , a n d w i t h much t h a t w a s beautiful h e blended n o t a l i t t l e that was ridiculous. The s p e c i m e n s of h i s arabesques, which we h a v e collected i n P l a t e LXXXVIII. , illustrate at once his ability a n d h i s weakness a s a n ornamentist. Unable to divest himself of his recollections of the antique, a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e too e g o t i s t i c t o b e c o n t e n t w i t h i t s careful reproduction, the motives h e borrowed from i t a s s u m e an aspect of u n q u i e t rarely to be recognised i n t h e remains of classic antiquity. Th e motives he d e r i v e d from N a t u r e are equally maltreated, s i n c e h e gathered flowers from her bosom only to crush t h e m i n his rude grasp. There are y e t , however, a daring i n his fancy, a n d a r a r e sweep and certainty i n h i s handling, which must secure for h i m a n honourable niche i n t h e Temple of A r t . Like “ Van who wanted grace, yet never wanted wit,” i t i s o n the score of taste t h a t h e w h o i n h i s t i m e was o n e o f i t s chief arbiters most frequently fails. This fallibility is stamped upon s e v e r a l o f t h e ornaments w e h a v e engraved i n P l a t e LXXXIX., w h i c h a r e taken principally from the Palazzo d e l Te , a t Mantua. Thus, i n N o . 2, a scroll ornament freely dashed out is entirely s p o i l t b y t h e ludicrous object from which i t springs. Again, i n N o . 3 , t h e ridiculous masques seem sneering a t t h e graceful forms which surround them ; a n d i n N o . 4, nature a n d the antique a r e a l i k e maltreated. No. 6 i n t h e s a m e plate “ points a” severe “ moral. ” Servile, where an ornament should b e m o s t f r e e i n t h e disposition o f i t s main lines ; and free, where deference to some received t y p e o f form ceases t o b e servile, i n t h e accessory elements of which i t i s composed,

Typographic O r n a m e n t from one o f the productions of the early Parisian Press.

( Stephans’ Greek Testament.)

his running s c r o l l , w h i c h i s adapted from o n e o f t h e common est patterns o f a n t i q u i t y, betrays at once Giulio’s feebleness of imaginat ion, a n d h i s want of t a s t e . The peculiar influence of local association upon styles of ornamen t, which we have already noticed in the case of arabesqu es, may be traced with equal facility i n t h e best typograp hic and xylographic illustrations o f t h e e a r l y printers. Thus, i n t h e ornamen ts, Figs. 4–7, 9–1 6 , Plate XC. , taken from the celebrated “ Etymolo gion Magnum ,” printed a t Venice in the year 1499, the forms of the ornament, and the almost even distribut ion of the “ pieni” a n d “ vuoti, ” have been evidently based o n t h e style of those Oriental o r Byzantin e fragmen ts i n w h i c h Venice was s o pre-emin ently rich. Many o f the Aldine initial letters i n t h e l a s t -named plate, appear a s though they might h a v e b e e n engraved by

T

the very same hands that ploughed out the damascene patterns in the metal-work of the period. The Tuscan Bible of 1538 presents us with endless conventional renderings o f t h e ordinary Cinque-cento sculpture, which abounded in the churches of Florence. Nor a r e t h e specimens of the Parisian press less worthy of the veneration of the virtuoso. I n t h e productions o f t h e Stephans ( Fig. 2 9 , from the celebrated Greek Testament), of Colinæus, h i s p u p i l (Fig. 3 ) , of M a c é Bonhomme, o f Lyons, i n 1558, Theodore R i h e l o f Frankfort, in 1574, Jacques d e Liesveldt o f Antwerp, i n 1554, J e a n P a l i e r a n d Regnault Chauldière o f Paris, may be f o u n d m a n y a g r e e a b l e a n d interesting illustrations o f l o c a l differences in ornamental detail of a semi-antique character. Returning t o I t a l y, a n d t o i t s purer style, before briefly proceeding to t r a c e t h e “ first causes” o f t h e general decline of revived Classical Art, w e propose glancing at one or two branches of industry i t w o u l d be u n f a i r t o altogether pass over. The first and most interesting of them is that of Venetian Glass— a commodity which helped t o s p r e a d t h e f a m e o f Ve n i c e f a r a n d wide over the habitable globe. T h e t a k i n g of Constantinop le b y t h e Turks, i n 1 4 5 3 , drove t h e skilled Greek workmen thence t o I t a l y ; a n d a t t h a t period t h e glass-manufa cturers of Venice learned from t h e exiled Greeks their modes of enriching their productions by colouring, gilding, and enamelling. In t h e early part of the

established the first glass-houses o n t h e island ; and from i t w e learn t h a t they were the following : Fo r a b o u t two Muro, Leguso, Motta, Bigaglia, Miotti, B r i a t i Gazzabin, Vistosi, a n d Ballarin. centuries the Venetians contrived t o retain t h e i r valuable secret, a n d monopolised t h e glass trade of Europe ; b u t a t t h e commencement o f t h e eighteenth century, the taste for heavy cut glass began to prevail, and t h e t r a d e was dispersed t o Bohemia, France, a n d England. Many very splendid works i n t h e precious metals were executed a t t h i s period. A very large amount of these is supposed to have been melted down, in Italy, about the date of the sack of Rome ; and in France t o p a y t h e ransom of Francis I. ; and much more was, no doubt, re-fashioned i n aftertimes ; but t h e Cabinet o f t h e Grand D u k e o f Tuscany a t Florence, and t h e Museum o f t h e Louvre a t Paris, still c o n t a i n f i n e collections o f jewelled a n d enamelled c u p s a n d o t h e r objects, which sufficiently a t t e s t t h e s k i l l a n d t a s t e of t h e goldsmiths a n d jewellers of the sixteenth century. One of the richest jewels which t h e fashion of the period introduced, and which continued to be used for a considerable time, was the “ enseigne, ” a species of medal generally worn in the h a t s o f the nobles, and i n t h e head-dress o f t h e ladies. Th e custom o f g i v i n g presents o n a l l important occasions furnished constant employment t o t h e jewellers of b o t h countries, a n d i n t h e vicinity o f t h e courts, even during t h e m o s t troubled periods. Th e restoration o f p e a c e i n Italy, b y t h e conventions of Château Cambresis, a n d i n F r a n c e a t t h e accession o f H e n r y IV. , caused a n increased demand for the goldsmiths’ productions; an d subsequently t h e magnificence o f t h e Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin paved t h e w a y f o r t h e a g e o f “ Louis le Grand” in France, for whom numerous fine works of art were executed b y t h e Parisian goldsmith, Claude Ballin, who, together w i t h Labarre, Vincent, P e t i t , J u l i a n Desfontaines, a n d others, w o r k e d i n t h e Louvre. On e o f t h e objects which greatly employed the ingenuity o f t h e jeweller a t t h i s period was the “ aigrette,” which was generally worn Fr o m this t i m e t h e style o f t h e French jewellery rapidly declined, perfection of by the nobility. workmanship i n metal-w o r k having been transferred t o bronze a n d brass, i n w h i c h l a s t a l l o y, the chasings of t h e celebrated Gouthier, i n t h e days o f L o u i s XVI., were above all praise. Of designs for such work we engrave two pleasing specimens of the Parisian b u r i n . The wiriness and frivolity of this class of ornament were redeemed by its faultless execution.

O r n a m e n t s d e s i g n e d for Marquetry by Fay, i n t h e style of Louis Seize.

Panels designed b y F a y, i n t h e style Louis Seize.

sixteenth century, t h e Venetians appear t o h a v e invented t h e a r t o f introducing threads of coloured a n d opaque white ( latticinio) glass into t h e substance o f t h e articles they manufactured , forming a beautiful and enduring enrichment, suitable, from the lightness o f i t s character, t o t h e delicate forms o f t h e objects to which it was applied. The secret of this art was most jealously guarded by the State ; a n d t h e severest penalties were enacted against any workmen who should divulge it, o r exercise their craft in any other country. On the other hand, the masters of the glass-houses at Murano received great privileges, and even the workmen were n o t classed with ordinary artisans. In 1 6 0 2 a gold coin was s t r u c k a t M u r a n o , w i t h t h e avowed object o f handing down t o posterity the n a m e s o f those who

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

Arabesque b y Theodore de Bry, one of the “ Petits-Maître s.”

The details o f t h e a r t , a n d i t s popularity, were not without their influence upon general design ;

T

for since the delic ate draug htsme n and engra vers of the day w e r e much emplo yed by the goldsmiths in work ing out t h e i r desig ns a n d patte rns, i t follow ed, a s n o unna tural conse quenc e, that many of t h e forms pecul iar to jewel ers’ work were introd uced into decor ations desig ned for altogether different purpo ses. This was especially the case in Germ any, and m o r e partic ularly i n Saxon y, where a great deal o f a mixed style of Renaissance a n d basta rd Italia n, with strap and ribbo n-wo rk, cartouches, and intric ate comp licati ons of archi tectu ral memb ers, w a s execu ted for t h e Elect ors. The engraving we prese nt o f a decor ation comp osed by Theod ore de Bry affords no bad illust ration of the way in which motiv es expre ssly adapt ed for enam elling in the style of Cellini were throw n togeth er, to make up the ordin ary grote sque o f t h e d a y. It i s b y n o mean s in the work s o f Theod ore de B r y alone that such solecisms are t o b e found ; for in t h e Frenc h etchi ngs of Etien ne de Lauln e, Gilles l’Egaré and others , the same featur es are presented. Engra vers a n d desig ners of this class were also much emplo yed, both in Germ any and France, in provi ding mode ls for the dama scene work, which was long popul ar in both these count ries, as well as in Italy.

These artists were Lorenzo Bernini a n d Francesco Borromini. The former was t h e son of a Florentine He evinced a n unusually precocious t a l e n t for sculpture ; and sculptor, a n d w a s b o r n in 1589. whilst yet a youth, was fully employed, not only as a sculptor, but a s a n architect. He resided almost entirely a t Rome, where h e designed t h e fountain o f t h e Barcaccia i n t h e Piazza d i Spagna, the celebrated Triton i n the Piazza Barberini, and t h e large fountains of the Piazza Navona ; the College de Propaganda Fide ; t h e great hall and façade o f t h e Barberini Palace, facing t h e Strada Felice ; a campanile to S t . Peter’s (afterwards t a k e n down) ; the Ludovico Palace, o n t h e Monte Citorio ; the celebrated Piazza of St. Peter’s ; and the great staircase from St. Peter’s to the Vatican, besides Busts by Bernini were eagerly sought after by the sovereigns and nobles numerous other works. of Europe ; so much so, that when he was sixty-eight years of age, Louis XIV. , who was unused to be refused anything, and much less to be forced to beg, was actually obliged to write supplicatory letters to the Pope, and to Bernini, requesting the sculptor’s presence at Paris. During his residence there, though he did but little, he is said to have received five golden louis a-day, and at his departure

I t i s remar kable , t h a t altho ugh w e find t h a t t h e Crusa ders boug ht Orien tal a r m s a t Damascus, a n d some times b r o u g h t t h e more elabo rate articl es t o Europ e, a s i n t h e case o f t h e “ Vase de Vincennes,” no attem pts shoul d have been made t o imita te t h e manu factu re until t h e middl e of the fiftee nth centu ry, when we find i t i n u s e i n Italy f o r decor ating t h e plate -armour, which was then adopt ed i n t h a t count ry. It i s most proba ble t h a t the art w a s first introd uced b y t h e great trading cities , s u c h a s Venic e, Pisa, a n d Geno a, f r o m t h e East, a n d w a s afterw ards t a k e n u p a s a more perm anent decor ation for armo ur t h a n parcel-gild ing by t h e artist s of Milan , which city was then to Euro pe w h a t Damascus had been t o t h e East, viz. the great empo rium for t h e best arms and armour. S o exclu sively, indee d, was t h e a r t , i n t h e first instan ce, emplo yed upon weapons, t h a t t o t h e very l a s t t h e Italia n write rs desig nate i t u n d e r the t i t l e o f “ lavor o all azzimina.” At the beginning of t h e sixtee nth centu ry, t h e a r t began to be exerc ised o u t o f Italy ; a n d i t i s b y n o mean s improbable t h a t i t w a s taugh t t o t h e work men of Franc e and Spain b y those trave lling artist s whom the good taste, o r possi bly t h e v a n i t y, of t h e kings o f those count ries attach ed t o t h e i r courts . Proba bly the fines t existi ng speci men of dama sceni ng is t h e armo ur of Franc is I., now in the Cabin et de Médailles, a t Paris . Both t h i s a n d t h e shiel d i n H e r Majes ty’s possession a t Wind sor have been attrib uted to t h e famo us Cellini ; b u t o n comp aring them w i t h any of his know n works , the drawi ng of the figures indic ates rathe r a n Augs burg artist than t h e broad style which Celli ni h a d acqui red from his study of t h e work s of Mich ael Angelo. F r o m t h a t t i m e down t o t h e midd le o f t h e seven teent h centu ry a g r e a t numb er of arms were decor ated with damascening, of which the Louvr e, the Cabin et de Médailles, and t h e Musé e d’Artillerie, conta in nume rous fine specimens; an d t h e name s o f Mich ael Ange lo, Negr oli , t h e Piccinini, and Cursi net, m a y b e menti oned a s excelling in dama scene work , as w e l l a s i n t h e a r t o f t h e armourer gener ally. In o u r o w n country, t h e proce ss does n o t appea r t o h a v e b e e n m u c h exercised; parcel- gilding, engra ving, blacking, and russe ting, being well receiv ed as substitutes ; a n d t h e few specimens we possess w e r e proba bly impo rted, o r captu red i n o u r foreig n wars, a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e splen did suits of armo ur broug ht t o Engla nd b y t h e Earl o f Pemb roke after t h e battle o f S t . Quen tin. A s i t h a s been our pleas ant task t o recor d how Frenc h Ornam ental Art was regenerated by imitation o f Italia n mode ls i n t h e sixtee nth centu ry, s o i t n o w becom es o u r l e s s agree able duty to note how delete rious a n influence was exerc ised i n t h e seven teenth from the same proce dure. There can b e no doubt that two highly-gifted, but overrated, Italia n artists , s e t durin g their lives upon pinnacles which made t h e m t h e “ obser ved of all observers,” effect ed a n imme nse amou nt o f misch ief t o Frenc h Art.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

O r n a m e n t a l Composition, from a design by L E P AUTRE .

fifty thousand crowns, with an annual pension of two thousand crowns, and one of five hundred for his sons, who accompanied him. Louis, which is now at Versailles.

On his return to Rome, he made an equestrian statue in honour of Besides his works in architecture, sculpture, and bronze, he appears

to have had a decided mechanical turn ; and, moreover, to have painted as many as five hundred pictures in the Case Barberini and Chigi. He died in the year 1680. Francesco Borromini was born near Como, in the year 1599. Apprenticed at an early age to Carlo Maderno, he speedily became both a brilliant carver and architect.

On Maderno’s death he

T

succeede d to the charge of the works at St. Peter’s under Bernini, with whom he very shortly quarrelled. F r o m h i s fervid imaginat ion a n d rare facility as a draughts ma n and designer, he soon obtained ample employm ent ; and in his capriciou s vagaries, every tendency to extravagance that Bernini’s style possesse d Borromi ni contrived t o caricatur e. Until near his death, i n 1 6 6 7 , he continue d sedulously occupied in subvertin g all known principle s of order and symmetr y, n o t only t o his own enrichment, b u t t o t h e admiratio n of the leaders of fashion of t h e d a y. Th e anomalie s h e introduce d into design, t h e dispropo rtionate moulding s, broken, contraste d, and r e -entering curves, interrupt ed and crooked lines and surfaces, became the mode of the day, and all Europe was speedily busy in devising similar enormitie s. In France t h e fever raged speedily, a n d t h e p o p l a r style, i n place o f t h e quaint but picturesq ue forms t o b e seen i n t h e engravin gs of Du Cerceau, 1576—s ubstitute d t h e m o r e elaborate, but less agreeable ones t o b e found in Marot, 1 7 2 7 — a n d Mariette, 1726–7. Borromin i’s works, which were published in the year 1725— a n d Bibiena’s , which were not much purer, a n d which were given t o t h e world i n 1740— had a large circulation, and tended t o confirm t h e public taste i n facility and elaborati on versus simplicit y a n d beauty. Despite t h i s debasing influence, many o f t h e French artists o f t h e t i m e , both of Louis XIV. a n d X V., in the midst o f t h e i r extravaga nce, made many beautiful ornamen tal designs, showing i n t h e m a s e n s e of capriciou s beauty o f l i n e rarely surpassed . In some o f L e Pautre’s designs ( reign o f Louis XIV. ) , t h i s quality m a y b e recognise d, as well a s i n many of t h e interior decoratio ns given i n Blondel’s works published during t h e reign o f Louis XV. De Neufforg e is, however, t h e master of the ceremon ies i n t h i s latter court o f revels, and does sufficiently graceful fooling i n t h e 9 0 0 plates comprise d i n h i s great body of Ornamen t. To dwell u p o n individua ls a m o n g t h e mass o f clever ornamen tal designers , draughts men, a n d engravers, to whom the Grand Monarqu e a n d t h e brilliant court of his successo r gave good p a y a n d plenty of work, would be out of place here. There is one, however, Jean Berain, who cannot be passed over, seeing t h a t h e h e l d the special appointm ent of “ Dessinat eur des Menu s Plaisirs d u Roi” (Louis X I V.), and that to him we are indebted f o r t h e best designs which will render the name o f B u h l famous so long

the “ rocaille” a n d grotto-work o f t h e latter ; degenerating a t l a s t i n t o a l l t h e eccentricities of “ Chinoiserie. ” Fr o m t h i s style o f approaching inanition, ornament revived under Louis X V I . to an elegant though liney style, corresponding i n s o m e degree t o t h a t introduced i n t o this c o u n t r y by Th e genius o f t h r e e very a b l e men Robert Adams, principally i n h i s buildings i n t h e Adelphi. exercised a beneficial influence over industrial design a t a period shortly preceding t h e Revolution— Reisner, t h e cabinet-maker, celebrated f o r h i s exquisite marquetry ; Gouthier, brass-chaser t o Marie Du r i n g t h e Revolution Chaos Antoinette; an d Demontreuil, carver i n w o o d t o t h e royal family. reigned, a n d o u t o f i t came o r d e r i n t h e s h a p e o f a n u t t e r abjuration o f t h e “ colifichets” of the Monarchy i n favour o f t h e Republican severity o f a David.

P a n e l s u i t a b l e f o r R e i s n e r M a r q u e t r y, designed by F AY .

As t h e Republic, however, ripened into

Fri eze style, Louis S e i z e by F AY .

the Empire, the “ m o d e ” from s t e r n Republican grew magnificent Imperialist. The b e s t artists were liberally employed b y Napoleon I., and t h e talent of Percier, Fontaine, Normand, Fragonard, Prudhon, and Cavelier, developed i n i t s highest perfection the graceful and learned, but stiff and cold, “ style d e l’Empire.” Wi t h t h e Restoration, t h e antique w e n t o u t of fashion, and confusion again ensued. The native ability o f t h e country, however, a i d e d b y judicious a n d liberally conducted educational institutions, soon revived the public interest, and an enthusiasm for rivals of a somewhat archæological nature supervened. Th e monuments o f t h e middle ages a n d o f t h e Renaissance w e r e cared for, sought for, restored, a n d imitated o n a l l hands ; and o u t o f t h e manifold studies s o made, styles of eclectic character, b u t approaching originality, are rapidly forming themselves throughout the country. France is, it m u s t b e confessed, a t t h e present time, master of the field i n t h e distribution and execution of ornament o f almost e v e r y class ; b u t s o rapid a n d hopeful i s t h e progress now taking place i n t h i s country, that it is by no means impossible that a n historian writing some few years hence may, happily, be enabled to place t h e Allies, as they should be, upon a footing of equality.

F r i e z e O r n a m e n t , L o u i s Seize, by F AY .

a s a taste f o r beaut iful furni ture exists . He contr ibuted mater ially t o t h e decor ation of t h e Galerie d’Apollon o f t h e Louv re, and of the State apart ments i n t h e Tuile ries, a s i s elega ntly testified in a work publi shed i n t h e year 1710 . Anot her large collec tion o f h i s admi rably sport ive desig ns was engra ved by Daigr emon t, Scoti n, and other s. With the adven t of Louis XV. to t h e thron e in 1715— t h e mann er o f desig ning g r e w far more “ rococ o” an d “ baroc que” th a n i t h a d been durin g the great est p a r t o f h i s predecessor’s reign . In s p i t e o f t h e f i n e talen ts a n d good exam ple s e t b y the archi tect Soufflot i n h i s works , t h e twiste d a n d foliat ed scrol ls and s h e l l o f t h e forme r grew into

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

M. DIGBY WYATT.

T

BOOKS REFERRED TO FO R ILLUSTRAT IONS. LITERARY AND PICTORIAL. ADAMS (E.) The Polychromatic Ornament of Italy. 4to. London, n. d. ALBERTI (L. B.) De Re Ædificatoria Opus. Florent. 1485, in folio. ALBERTOLLI, Ornamenti diversi inventati, &c., da. Milano. In folio. D’ANDROUET DU CERCEAU. Livre d’Architecture. Paris, 1559, in folio. D’AVILER, Cours d’Architecture, par. Paris, 1756, in 4to. BIBIENA, Architettura di. Augustæ, 1740, in folio. BORROMINI (F. ) OpusArchitectonicum. Romæ, 1725, in folio. CLOCHAR (P. ), Monuments et Tombeaux mésurés et dessinés en Italie, par. 40 Plans and Views of the most remarkable Monuments in Italy. Paris, 1815. DEDAUX. Chambre de Marie de Médicis au Palais du Luxembourg ; ou, Recueil d’Arabesques, Peintures, et Ornements qui la décorent. Folio, Paris, 1838. D IEDO E ZANOTTO. Sepulchral Monuments of Venice. I Monumenti cospicui di Venezia, illustrati dal Cav. Antonio Diedo e da Francesco Zanotto. Folio, Milan, 1839. DOPPELMAYR (J. G.) Mathematicians and Artists of Nuremberg, &c. Historische Nachricht von den Nurnbergischen Mathematicis und Künstlern, &c. Folio, Nürnberg, 1730. GOZZINI (V.) Monumens Sépulcraux de la Toscane, dessinés par Vincent Gozzini, et gravés par Jerôme Scotto. Nouvelle Edition, augmentée de vingt-neuf planches, avec leur Descriptions. 4to. Florence, 1821. GRUNER (L.) Description of the Plates of Fresco Decorations and Stuccoes of Churches and Palaces in Italy during the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. With an Essay by J. J. Hittorff on the Arabesques of the Ancients compared with those of Raffaelle and his School. New edition, largely augmented by numerous plates, plain and coloured. 4to. London, 1854. ————— Fresco Decorations and Stuccoes of Churches and Palaces in Italy during the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, with descriptions by Lewis Gruner, K.A. New edition, augmented by numerous plates, plain and coloured. Folio, London, 1854. ————— Specimens of Ornamental Art selected from the best Models of the Classical Epochs. Illustrated by 80 plates, with descriptive text, by Emil Braun. (By Authority.) Folio, London, 1850. MAGAZZARI (G.) The most select Ornaments of Bologna. Raccolta de’ piu scelti Ornati sparsi per la Città di Bologna, desegnati ed incisi da Giovanni Magazzari. Oblong 4to., Bologna, 1827. D E N EUFFORGE , Recueil élémentaire d’Architecture, par. Paris (1757). 8 vols. in folio. PAIN’S British Palladio. London, 1797, in folio.

PALLADIO. Architettura di. Venet. 1570, in folio. PASSAVANT (J. D.) Rafael von Urbino und sein Vater Giovanni Santi. In zweitheilen mit vierzehn abbildungen. 2 vols. 8vo. 1 vol. folio, Leipzig, 1839. PERCIER ET FONTAINE, Recueil de Décorations intérieures, par. Paris, 1812, in folio. PERRAULT, Ordonnance des cinq spèces de Colonnes, selon les Anciens, par. Paris, 1683, in folio. P HILIBERT DE LORME, Œuvres d’Architecture de. Paris, 1626, in folio. PIRANESI (FR.) Différentes Manières d’orner les Cheminées,&c. par. Rome, 1768, in folio. and other works. PONCE (N.) Description des Bains de Tite. 40 plates, folio. RAPHAEL. Life of Raphael, by Quartremère de Quincy. 8vo. Paris, 1835. Recueil d’Arabesques, contenant les Loges du Vatican d’après Raphael, et grand nombre d’autres Compositions du même genre dans le Style Antique, d’après Normand, Queverdo, Boucher, &c. 114 plates, imperial folio. Paris, 1802. RUSCONI (G. ANT.), Deli’ Architettura, lib. X., da. Venez. 1593, in folio. SCAMOZZI, Idea del’ Architettura da. Venez. 1615. 2 vols. in folio. SERLIO (SEB.) Tutte le Opere d’Architettura di. Venet. 1584, In 4to. ————— Libri cinque d’Architettura di. Venet. 1551, In folio. Terme de Tito. A series of 61 engravings of the paintings, ceilings, arabesque decorations, &c., of the Baths of Titus, engraved by Carloni. 2 vols. in 1, atlas —Folio, oblong. Rome, n. d. TOSI AND BECCHIO. Altars, Tabernacles, and Sepulchral Monuments of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, existing at Rome. Published under the patronage of the celebrated Academy of St. Luke, by MM. Tosi and Becchio. Descriptions in Italian, English, and French, by Mrs. Spry Bartlett. Folio. Lagny, 1853. VIGNOLA, Regola dei cinque Ordini d’Architettura, da. In folio. VOLPATO E D OTTAVIANO. Loggie del Raffaele nel Vaticano, &c. Roma, 1782. *ZAHN (W.) Ornamente aller Klassischen Kunst-Epochen nachden originalen in ihren eigenthümlichen farben dargestellt. Oblong folio. Berlin, 1849. ZOBI (ANT.) Notizie Storiche sull’ Origine e Progressi dei Lavori di Commesso in Pietre Dure che si esequiscono nell’ I. e R. Stabilimento di Firenze. Second Edition, with additions and corrections by the author. 4to. Florence, 1853.

* From this interesting work the materials for Plates LXXV II., LXXVIII., LXXIX., have been derived.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

C HAPT ER XX.— P LATES 91-100.

LE AV ES A N D FL OW ER S FR OM NATU RE .

PLATE XCI. Horse-c hestnut Leaves. Full size, traced from Natural Leaves.

PLATE XCII. Vine Leaves. Full size, traced from Natural Leaves.

PLATE XCIII. 1. Ivy Palmata.

2, 3, 4, and 5. Common Ivy.

Full size, traced from Natural Leaves.

PLATE XCIV. Scarlet Oak.

2. White Oak. 3. Fig-tree. 4. Maple. 5. White Bryony. All full size, and traced from Natural Leaves.

6. Laurel. 7. Bay-tree.

PLATE XCV. 1. Vine.

2. Holly.

3. Oak.

4. Turkey Oak. 5. Laburnum. All full sized, and traced from Natural Leaves.

PLATE XCVI. 1. Wild Rose. 2. Ivy.

3. Blackberry. All full size, and traced from Natural Leaves.

PLATE XCVII . awthorn , Yew, Ivy, and Strawberry-tree. All full-size, and traced from Nature.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

PLATE XCVIII. Plans and Elevations of Flowers. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Isis White Lily. Daffodil. Narcissus. Onion. Dog-Rose.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Mouse-ear. Honeysuckle. Mallow. Ladies’smock. Speedwell. Harebell

13. Glossocomia clematidea. 14. Convolvulus. 15. Primrose. 16. Pe r i w i n k l e . 17. Clarkia. 18. Leycesteria formosa

PLATE XCIX. 1. Honeysuckle.

2. Convolvulus. Full size.

PLATE C. Passion Flowers.

Full size.

By t h e ornam ent o f a buildi ng, we can judge more truly of the creativ e power w h i c h t h e artist has b r o u g h t t o b e a r u p o n t h e w o r k . Th e g e n e r a l propor tions o f t h e buildi ng m a y b e good, the mould ings m a y b e m o r e o r l e s s accura tely copied f r o m t h e m o s t a p p r o v e d models ; b u t t h e very instant that ornam ent is attemp ted, w e s e e how far the archite ct is at the same time the artist. It is the best measu re o f t h e c a r e and refinem ent bestow ed upon the work. To p u t ornam ent i n the right place is not easy ; to render that ornam ent at the same time a superad ded beauty and an expression of the intenti on of the whole work, is still more difficult. Unfort unatel y, i t h a s b e e n t o o m u c h t h e practic e in our time to aband on to hands most unfitted for t h e t a s k t h e adornm ent of t h e structu ral feature s of buildin gs, and more especia lly their interio r decorations. T h e f a t a l facilit y of manuf acturin g ornam ent which t h e revive d u s e o f t h e a c a n t h u s l e a f has given, has tended very much t o t h i s result, and deaden ed the creativ e instinc t in artists’ minds. What could so readily be d o n e b y anothe r, they have left t h a t o t h e r to do ; and so far have abdica ted their high positio n o f t h e archite ct, the head and chief. H o w, t h e n , i s t h i s universal desire for progress to be satisfied—ho w is any new style of ornament t o b e invented or developed ? So m e w i l l probably s a y, A n e w s t y l e o f architecture must first be found, and we should be beginning a t t h e wrong end to commence with ornament. W e d o n o t t h i n k s o . We h a v e already shown that the desire for works of ornament is co-existent w i t h t h e e a r l i e s t a t t e m p t s o f civilisation of every people ; a n d t h a t architecture a d o p t s ornament, does not create it. T h e Corinthian order of architecture is s a i d t o h a v e b e e n suggested by an acanthus leaf found growing round a n e a r t h e n pot ; but the acanthus leaf existed a s a n ornament long before, or, at a l l

L E AV E S A N D F L O W E R S F R O M N AT U R E . W E have endeavoured to show in t h e preceding chapters, that in the best periods of art, all ornament w a s r a t h e r b a s e d u p o n a n observation o f t h e principles which regulate the arrangement o f form in nature, t h a n o n a n a t t e m p t t o i m i t a t e t h e absolute forms o f t h o s e works ; a n d t h a t whenever this limit was exceeded in any art, it was one of the strongest symptoms o f decline: true a r t consisting in idealising, and not copying, t h e forms of nature. We t h i n k i t desirable to insist rather strongly o n t h i s point, as, in the present uncertain state in which we are, there seems a general disposition arising to reproduce, as faithfully as may be possible, natural form as works of ornament. The w o r l d h a s become weary of t h e e t e r n a l repetition of the same conventional forms which have been borrowed from styles which have passed away, and therefore can e x c i t e i n u s b u t l i t t l e sympathy. There h a s r i s e n , w e s a y, a u n i v e r s a l cry of “ Go back to nature, a s t h e ancients did ;” we s h o u l d b e amongst t h e f i r s t to e c h o t h a t c r y, b u t i t will depend m u c h o n w h a t w e g o t o s e e k , h o w f a r w e may succeed. If w e g o t o Nature a s t h e Egyptians and the Greeks went, we may hope ; b u t i f w e go t h e r e l i k e t h e C h i n e s e , o r e v e n a s t h e Gothic artists o f t h e fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, we should gain b u t l i t t l e . We h a v e already, i n t h e floral carpets, floral papers, and floral carvings of the present day, sufficient evidence to s h o w t h a t n o art c a n b e produced by such means ; and that t h e m o r e closely nature is copied, t h e f a r t h e r w e are removed from producing a work of art. Although ornament is most properly only an accessory to architecture, a n d s h o u l d never be allowed t o u s u r p the place of structural features, or to overload o r t o disguise t h e m , i t i s i n all cases the very soul of an architectural monument.

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

events, the principle o f i t s growth was observed i n t h e conventional ornaments. It w a s t h e peculiar application of this leaf t o t h e formation of t h e c a p i t a l of a column which w a s t h e sudden invention that created the Corinthian order. T h e principle o f t h e foliation, and e v e n t h e general form of the leaves, which predominate in the architecture o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h century, existed long before i n t h e illuminated MSS. ; a n d derived as they were, most probably, from t h e E a s t , have given an almost Eastern character to Early English ornament. The architects of the t h i r t e e n t h century were, therefore, very familiar w i t h t h i s system of ornamentation ; a n d w e cannot doubt, t h a t o n e cause o f t h e adoption so universally o f t h i s style during t h e thirteenth century a r o s e f r o m t h e great familiarity with i t s leading forms which already existed. T h e floral style, in direct imitation of nature, which succeeded, was also preceded by the same style in works of ornament.

Th e facility of painting flowers in direct imitation of nature in t h e pages of a

missal, induced an attempt to rival them in stone in the buildings of the time. T h e architectural ornament of the Elizabethan period is mostly a reproduction of the works o f t h e loom, the painter, a n d t h e e n g r a v e r.

In any borrowed style, more especially, this would b e s o .

The

artists i n t h e Elizabethan period w e r e necessarily much m o r e f a m i l i a r with the paintings, hangings, furniture, metal-work, a n d o t h e r articles of luxury, which England received from the Continent, than they w o u l d b e w i t h t h e architectural monuments ; a n d i t i s t h i s familiarity with the ornamentation o f t h e p e r i o d , but imperfect knowledge o f t h e architecture, which l e d t o t h e development of those peculiarities which distinguish Elizabethan architecture from the purer architecture of the Revival. W e therefore think w e a r e justified i n t h e belief, t h a t a n e w style of ornament may be produced independently o f a n e w s t y l e o f architecture ; and, moreover, t h a t i t would b e o n e of t h e readiest means of arriving a t a n e w style; f o r instance, if we could only arrive at the invention of a new termination to a means of support, one of the most difficult points would be accomplished.

T

The c h i e f features o f a b u i l d i n g which form a style, are, first, the means of support ; secondly, t h e m e a n s o f spanning space between the supports ; and, thirdly, the formation of t h e roof. It i s the decoration of these structural features which gives the characteristic s of s t y l e , a n d t h e y all follow so naturally one f r o m t h e other, t h a t t h e invention of one will command the rest. It would a p p e a r, at f i r s t s i g h t, that t h e means o f v a r y i n g these structural features had been exhausted, and t h a t w e have nothing left b u t t o u s e e i t h e r one o r t h e other o f t h e systems which have already r u n t h e i r course. If w e r e j e c t the use of the column and horizontal beam of t h e G r e e k s and Egyptians, the round arch of the Romans, the pointed arch and vault of the Middle Ages, and the domes o f t h e Mohammedan s, i t w i l l b e asked—W h a t i s l e f t ? We shall perhaps be told t h a t a l l t h e means of covering space have already been exhausted, a n d t h a t i t were v a i n t o l o o k for o t h e r f o r m s . Bu t c o u l d n o t t h i s have b e e n s a i d i n a l l t i m e ? Co u l d t h e E g y p t i a n have ever imagined t h a t a n y o t h e r m o d e of spanning space would e v e r b e f o u n d t h a n h i s h u g e blocks of stone? Co u l d t h e Mediæval architect have ever d r e a m e d t h a t his airy vaults c o u l d b e surpassed, a n d t h a t g u l f s could be crossed by hollow tubes of iron? Le t u s n o t d e s p a i r ; the w o r l d h a s n o t seen, m o s t a s s u r e d l y, t h e l a s t o f t h e architectural systems.

If w e a r e n o w passing through a n a g e of copying, and architecture with us exhibits a want of vitality, the w o r l d h a s passed through similar periods before. Fr o m t h e present chaos there will arise, undoubtedly, (i t m a y n o t b e i n o u r time), a n architecture which s h a l l be w o r t h y o f the high advance which man has made in every other direction towards the possession of t h e t r e e of knowledge. To return t o o u r subject, How is any new style of a r t o r n e w style o f ornament t o b e formed, or even attempted t o b e formed? In t h e first place, w e h a v e little h o p e t h a t w e are d e s t i n e d t o see m o r e t h a n the commencem ent o f a change ; the architectural profession i s a t t h e present time too m u c h u n d e r t h e influence of past education o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t o o m u c h influenced by an illinformed public o n the other: but the rising generation in both classes are born under happier auspices, a n d i t i s t o t h e m w e m u s t l o o k f o r h o p e i n t h e future. It i s f o r their u s e t h a t w e have gathered together this collection of the works o f t h e p a s t ; n o t t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e slavishly copied, b u t that artists should, b y an attentive examination o f t h e principles which pervade a l l t h e works of the past, and w h i c h h a v e excited universal admiration, b e l e d t o t h e creation o f n e w forms equally beautiful. We believe t h a t i f a s t u d e n t i n t h e a r t s , earnest i n h i s s e a r c h after knowledge, w i l l o n l y l a y aside a l l t e m p t a t i o n t o indolence, will examine for himself the works of t h e p a s t , compare t h e m w i t h the works of nature, b e n d h i s m i n d t o a thorough appreciation o f t h e principles which r e i g n i n each, he cannot f a i l t o b e himself a creator, a n d t o individu alise new forms, instead of reproduc ing t h e forms o f t h e p a s t . We t h i n k i t impossib le t h a t a student fully impresse d with the law o f t h e universal fitness of things in nature, with the wonderfu l variety of form, y e t a l l arranged around some few fixed laws, the proporti onate distribut ion of a r e a s , t h e tangenti al curvatur es of lines, a n d t h e radiation f r o m a p a r e n t stem, whateve r type he m a y b o r r o w f r o m Nature, i f h e w i l l dismiss f r o m h i s mind the desire to imitate it, but will only seek to follow still the p a t h w h i c h it so plainly shows him, we d o u b t n o t t h a t n e w forms of beauty w i l l m o r e readily arise under h i s h a n d , than c a n e v e r follow f r o m a continua tion i n t h e prevailin g fashion of resting o n l y o n t h e works o f t h e p a s t for present inspirati on. It will require b u t a f e w minds t o g i v e t h e f i r s t i m p u l s e : the w a y o n c e p o i n t e d out, others will follow, readily improvin g, refining upon each other ’s efforts, till another culmina ting point o f A r t s h a l l b e again reached, to subside into decline and disorder . Fo r t h e present, however, we a r e f a r e n o u g h removed from either stage. We h a v e b e e n desirous t o a i d t h i s moveme nt t o t h e extent o f o u r power ; a n d i n t h e t e n plates of leaves and flowers which accompany this chapter, we have gathered together many of those natural types which we thought best calculat ed to a w a k e n a recogniti on of t h e n a t u r a l l a w s which prevail in

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

the distr ibuti on of form . But, inde ed, these laws will be foun d to be so univ ersal that they are as well seen in one leaf as i n a thou sand . The sing le exam ple of the ches tnut leaf, Plate XCI ., contains the who le o f t h e laws whic h are to be foun d in Natu re ; no art can rival the perfe ct grac e of its form , the perfe ct prop ortio nal distr ibuti on o f t h e area s, the radia tion from the pare nt stem , the tang entia l curv ature s of the lines , or the even distr ibuti on of the surfa ce deco ratio n. We may gath er this from a sing le leaf. Bu t i f w e furth er stud y the law of their grow th, we may see in an assem blage of leav es o f t h e v i n e or t h e i v y, t h a t t h e same law whic h prev ails’ in the form ation of the sing le leaf prev ails also in the asse mbla ge of leav es. As i n t h e ches tnut leaf, Plate XCI., the area of each lobe diminishes in equa l prop ortio n as it appr oach es the stem , so in any combination of leaves each leaf is everywhere in harm ony with t h e g r o u p ; a s i n o n e leaf the area s are so perfe ctly distr ibute d t h a t t h e repo se of t h e e y e i s main taine d, it is equa lly s o i n t h e grou p ; we neve r find a dispr opor tiona te leaf interfering to destr oy the repo se of the grou p . This univ ersal law of equi libri um is everywhere appa rent in Plates XCV III., XCI X., C. Th e same laws prev ail i n t h e distr ibuti on of lines o n t h e surfa ce of flow ers ; n o t a l i n e u p o n t h e surfa ces but tend s more sure ly to deve lop the form,—n ot a line whic h coul d be remo ved, a n d l e a v e t h e f o r m m o r e p e r f e c t , a n d t h i s , why ? Beca use t h e b e a u t y a r i s e s naturally from the l a w o f t h e grow th of e a c h p l a n t . The life- blood,—th e sap, a s i t leave s the stem , take s the read iest way of reac hing the conf ines of the surfa ce, howe ver varie d that surfa ce may be ; the grea ter the dista nce it h a s t o trave l, or the weig ht it has to supp ort, the thick er will be its subs tanc e. (See Convolvulus, XCV III., XCI X.) O n P l a t e XCV III. we have show n seve ral varie ties of flow ers, in plan and elev ation , from which i t w i l l b e s e e n t h a t t h e basi s of all form is geom etry, the impu lse whic h form s the surfa ce, start ing f r o m t h e cent re w i t h e q u a l force , nece ssari ly stop s a t e q u a l dista nces ; the resu lt is symm etry and regu larit y. Who , then , w i l l d a r e s a y t h a t t h e r e i s noth ing left for u s b u t t o copy t h e f i v e o r seve n-lobed flow ers o f t h e thirt eent h cent ury ; t h e Hone ysuc kle of the Gree ks o r t h e Acan thus of the Rom ans,— t h a t t h i s alon e can prod uce art,—is Natu re so tied? See how vario us the form s, and how unva rying the princ iples . We feel pers uade d that ther e is yet a futu re open to us ; we have but to arou se from o u r s l u m b e r s . The Crea tor has not mad e all thing s beau tiful , that we shou ld thus set a limi t to our adm irati on ; o n t h e cont rary, a s a l l H i s work s are offer ed for our enjo ymen t, so are they offer ed for o u r stud y. They a r e t h e r e t o awak en a n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t impl ante d in us,— a desir e t o emu late in the work s o f o u r h a n d s the orde r, the symm etry, the grac e, the fitne ss, whic h the Crea tor has sown broa dcas t over the earth .

L o n d o n : — DAY AND SON, LIMITED, Gate Street , Lincol n’s I n n Fields .

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

view 1868 color plates

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T

Owen Jones. The Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. cary collection, rochester institute of technology

T