Issues of identity in the Mahabharata

ISSUES OF IDENTITY IN T H E M A H B H m T A

BY LISA LIAS

ABSTRACT This thesis deals with the nature of identity in the Indian epic known as the Mahabheata. The question of what constitutes identity and whether or not it is in fact a

tangible concept in the world view of the epic is explored by looking at three different

"cases" which appear in the epic. The first case is a comparison of the characters VyfM and K q a , whose lives

bear remarkable similarities as well has significant differences. The second case is an examination of the use of disguise as a means of revealing identity. This involves comparing the story of Nala and Damaymd to the story of the Piiqdavas' thirteenth year of exile, spent in the court of Vita The final case is that of Kgna, whose identity appears more fluid than that of other characters in the epic. Together, these cases give a sense of the epic view of identity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dr. Pierre Ausloos

Jessie D.Garrison Dr. Alf HUtebeitel Dr. Sharon G.Lias

Dr. Joe Martin Dr. David Rodier

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u.*

...

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. ............................................. m Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. FALLEN WOMEN,BASTARD SONS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3. COME AS YOU ARE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7

4. Kw?M.'S CONSCIOUSNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 4 6 5. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The issue of identity is something with which a reader is confronted many times in the Mahabhaata. There are so many instances in which standard ideas of what constitutes identity are subverted, that the careful reader ultimately begins to question received ideas about what it is that makes a person who he is. Furthermore, those received ideas are replaced by precious little. What is left in the end is the concept expressed in the Upaniyids that we are not, in essence, anything that can be named or grasped. Of course, the action of the epic does not tend to revolve around the characters

agonizing over issues of identity. While there are some obvious exceptions to this, Kmqa's concerns about his origins b

a prime example, it is for the most part activity of

a more external nature that occupies the characters. The plot slows at times, and there are many digressions from it, but it is never lost. Even so, in the Mahabhada philosophy is inseparable from the plot, and issues of identity are among the philosophical topics which arise. Here, three "case studies" in which the nature of identity is dealt with will be examined. The first of these involves looking at Vyiisa and Kiqa. The remarkable parallels between the lives of their mothers seem to imply some kind of relationship between these two men, despite the lack of interaction between them. Their "relationship" is ultimately much more about the counterpoint they provide to one another from opposites sides ofthe

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about the concept of identity cannot be reduced to a simple statement - looking at the two of them together in fact raises more questions than it answers. Nonetheless, there is a level on which they complete each other, as will be demonstrated. After looking at Vgsa and Kwa, the topic of disguise will be taken up. This is

an unavoidable subject when looking at identity in the Mafiabhaau,because it is employed numerous times, both in the main plot and in stories within the story. For the purposes of this discussion, we will confine ourselves to two episodes of disguise which, like Vgsa and K q a , seem to have a relationship. These episodes are that of the Piiqdavas' time in the court of King V S t a during the thirteenth year of their exile, and that of Nala and Damayanti. An effort will be made to understand what "disguise" in fact reveals, as paradoxical as that may seem. As with V y h and K q a , there is not a simple

answer. Even so, the fact that the story ofNala and Dmayanti is told to Yudhisthira prior to the Piindavas' tenure in VirSta's court is a set up for the reader, who cannot fail to notice parallels between the two stories. There is a degree to which entertainment value is involved in the proximity and similarity of the two episodes in question. The humorous elements of the Piindavas disguise sequence is a definite contrast with the more uniform pathos of Nala c m d h a y a n t i . In addition, it is not out of the question that repetitive elements and recurring motifs are evidence of the oral tradition origins of the epic. But

after acknowledging these things, there is still something to be learned about identity in the

Mahabhaata by investigating the two episodes together. The filial look at identity will use as its basis the character of ICqga.. The obvious

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reason for this is that Q-ga is a character for whom identity is a tool. Though he is the Divine, he has taken form. Though subject to all that taking form involves (including,

finally, death), he is not form's slave. The ways in which he manipulates identity and his fluidity within it will be examined in detail. In as much as the individual's unity with the

divine is part of Qsp's message in the epic, his example in regard to identity is perhaps

the most important "statement" about the issue of all those which will be examined.

CHAPTER 2: FALLEN WOMEN, BASTARD SONS 1. Kips and V y h

Of all the offspring in the Mahabhirata who result from special circumstances,

and clearly there are many, there are two individuals who are in a category of their own by virtue of being the secret progeny of women who were virgins both before conception and after the birth of these sons. The sons in question, K q a and VyGa,

are each blessed by their fathers at birth - IWga with armor and earrings, V y h with the admirable qualities of the ideal brahmin. It is here that the similarities between V y h and Kaqa end, however. While Vyka lives at peace with himself and his origins from the moment of his birth, going so far as to relieve his mother of the responsibility of nurturing him in any way, K q a is a character whose lack of peace with himself and his identity becomes a significant element of the plot of the epic. Hence on one level of identity, it is Vyiisa and K e a who are each other's opposite.

This is not to negate the obvious Arjuna/Kama polarity which operates on the grosser level of plot. But just as Arjuna can be seen as what Kama might have been

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legitimate and committed to the dharmic rather than the adhame forces - so too does V y h present an alternative: a seff-Iegitimizationachieved by means of jnana and karma*

Needless to say, The Mahabha-ata is not a product of the twentieth century and

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to dissect the characters from the point of view of modern psychology, while perhaps

an interesting undertaking, would fail to yield insights regarding the world view of the era which produced the epic. This world view and its definition or definitions of identity is what will be pursued here. Foremost among indicators of identity are the individual's v-4

the societal

group into which one is born, and &4wma, the stage of life one is in, inasmuch as these things define one's duty. Simply put, the dharma of a king is not, to make a topical example, the dharma of a cart driver's son, nor is the d h a m of a twenty-five year old the same as that of an octogenarian. But in addition to these broad categories, there are other, more refined categories of duty which go further to define the individual. There is for example kuladhanna, which is family duty; stridham, which constitutes the duties of a woman; gimadharma, which is the duty pertaining to authority, and many others. That the boundaries of these dharmas may at times overlap and even conflict is made clear on a number of occasions in the epic. The Kaurava patriarch Dhrtarastra, to give an obvious example, is frequently depicted as being torn between his rajadham and his kuladharma. Still, the act of sorting out and acting in accordance with wadham - one's

own

, the distillation of the many, sometimes competing duties defined by an

individual's birth, age, situation, marital status, financial status, geographic location, gender, etc.

- is, to a degree, what life is all about.

This is exactly what Arjuna is

doing, for example, when he stops the entire epic in its tracks to ask, "Shall I fight?"

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VyW, however, is a tricky case. He is said to be a brahmin, and is accepted as such, but is the illegitimate offspring of a brahmin fa/w and a mother who is part btriya, part divine, and adopted by a barge man. From a strictly legal point of view, Vy&a's v a r y categorization is not straightforward, and yet this does not become an issue in the story as it does for K m y . This may be because of his status as one who has removed himself from the world, and yet the fact is that V y b is not entirely

removed, as his many activities in the epic, not the least of which is fathering Piindu and Dhrtarii@a, show.

Outsiders: This is the word that best describes both Vyka and K q . However, the significant difference between them is the fact that one has chosen his alien status, essentially from the moment of his birth and the other has had it thrust upon him, also at birth. While V y W is welcomed and revered, or at the very least shown respect when he makes an appearance in the epic, Kany spends his life in the epic somewhat unsuccessfully trying to shake his status as "the cart-driver's son. " It is one of the story's ironies that of these two men, it is VyW, the man with no need or craving for status who enjoys the respect and recognition of the Piiqdavas, something for which K-

will ultimately go to war against those he knows to be his brothers.

This irony is not a coincidence. Examining the respective arcs of V y i h and Kama, their

ive journeys through the epic, reveals a certain symmetry which

begins with the similarities between their mothers, ~ u n and d Satyavad. Any comparison of these two men must therefore begin with their mothers.

2.

Kun6 and Satyavad

Without Kund and Satyavad, there would be no Mahsbheata, since they are the mothers, respectively, of the principal characters, the Piindavas, and their grandfather, the "author" of the poem, V y k Married to kings whose roles are much briefer than their own, these two women take an active role in the lives of their children and make decisions which have an impact on the entire epic. The parallels in their biographical data are too striking to be coincidental. What begins to become apparent when examining the data is a

relationship between the two women. Beyond being members by marriage of the same

family,they embody certain themes and vibrate with certain resonances which forge a link between them. Therefore, an analysis of ~unri/Satyavadwill provide insights into the

nature of the relationships between their first-born sons, Karpa and Vyka.

To begin at the beginning, both ~ u n and d ~atyavatiare adopted children. The circumstances of Satyavati's adoption are somewhat more dramatic than Kuno's and play a greater role than Kund's in the subsequent events of her life. Satyavad was the result of a union, albeit a circuitous one involving a go-between in the form of a bird, between an apsara and king Uparichara of Cedi. Because her mother, the apsara Adrika, had been condemned by Brahma to live as a fish, it was a fisherman who discovered the king's two children, and a fisherman who was given the female twin, Satyavac to raise. Despite her

fishy odor, ~atyavadattracts the attention of the sage ParGara while working on her adoptive father's ferryboat. She raises objections to his advances, but not only does he

8 answer these (taking care, in the process, of the problem of her lost virginity by guaranteeing its restoration), but grants her a boon of her own choosing as well. Hence, what would seem on the surface to be an occasion of sin becomes Satyavad's means of advancement in the world, for she remains a virgin and chooses as her boon the replacement of her fishy odor with a permanent, wondrous perfume. She also becomes the mother of VyEsa, and this too will pay off. Like Satyavd, Kund is also the recipient of a boon early in life, connected with the sexual act. Her childhood devotion to Durviisas, an "awesome brahmin of strict

vows" (1: 113,33), inspires him to give her the ability to call on any god she chooses for the purpose of having a child. At once the parallel and the contradiction with Satyavati's situation is apparent: Kun6 too, can and will have a liaison with beings to whom she is not married, but in her case it will be she who selects her mates. It is her initiative, therefore,

as opposed to Parasara's in the case of Satyavati, which results in her firstborn son, Kaqa. Like Satyavad, Kun6 is mindful of the importance of virginity, and like Satyavati, she is able to make a deal with her lover, the Sun, and retain her virginity despite giving birth to his child. And, like Satyava6, she is separated from her firstborn at birth, though, in yet another inversion of events, in Kun6's case it is she who sends her son down the

river in a basket, while in Satyavati's case it is her phenomenal son who retires to the forest of his own volition at birth. Having spent exciting girlhoods, both women end up the same family when the time comes for them to settle down. It eventually becomes incumbent upon both of them

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to arrange for a surrogate to continue the family line, as it is only they, by virtue of their secret pasts, who can perform this miracle. Of course, Satyavad calls upon her firstborn to assist her in the creation of her grandchildren, whereas Kunti certainly does not summon kmp. Her action in invoking her mantra once again for the sake of her husband

is, in fact, almost a negation of K q a , a correction of her previous misuse of the power she was given. The irony, of course, is that not only can she not negate Kaqa by having a new family, but the birth of the Pwdavas is the birth of the grievance which will propel

him into the arms of the Kauravas, for of all ~ u n t ? schildren, only Kaqa was rejected. Kund creates Durycxihana's greatest friend in the conflict to come, just as Satyavad, by involving Vy&a as she does, puts in place a friend of the Piindavas second only to

Rs~a.In this regard, the parallel stories can be said, to result in a pair of "opposites" in Vyika and Karqa. Though from early on Arjuna is established as Kqa's counterpart -

The wrathful Duryodhana is the great tree, K q a its crotch, 6 k u n i the branches, Duhsana the plentiful blossoms and fruits, and the witless King Dh@uiispa the root. The law-minded Yudhiis the great tree, muna its crotch, ~himasenathe branches, Miidri's two sons the plentiful blossoms and fruits, and m ~ a Brahman, , and the brahmins the root. (1: 1,65-67) it will be shown on another, less literal level, that the opposition of Kaqa and Vyiisa, grounded in their parallel birth stories, continues through the epic. But to return to the mothers,

~ u n and 6 Satyamti: both women have a secret

LO event in their past? and both have taken steps to make it appear as if it never happened, and yet ~ u n dwill pay for her indiscretion K m y will redouble his commitment to fight the P@&vas when he learns his true relationship to them - and Satyavati will not* She will, in fact, benefit from the aid of her secret son. Examination of the facts in search of what accounts for this discrepancy in outcomes yields two significant points of divergence in the stories of Kun6 and Satyava6. First? there is the issue of who was the Wtiator'' in the encounters which

resulted in the births of Kaqm and Vyasa. Mile Satyavati was approached by

,in ~unt?scase it is she who summom the God who fathers her son. She has a s e x d power over any god she chooses; this is Durvihs' gift to her, and she uses it i1lWadvisedIy.Though, like Satyavad?she regains her virginity, she considers her experience ~miseonduct''(I: 104,13), whereas Satyavati, the passive participant in her version of the same event, seems fie of self-rwrimi~tion. Of course Satyavati is not forced to engage in analysis of her actions, as Kun6

will be, and the m a n lies in the second significant diffierence between the stories of the two women in question. UnIilce Kund, Satyamti has a son who is completely selfsufficient at birth and abandons her, an exact inversion of what occurs between Kunti and K e a . What's more, and more to the pint, Vyiha d m not grow up unaware of who he k. Not only is he born a small adult who? unlike K p a , has a wmplete grasp

of his situation, but he c ~ m v e n t any s of the kinds of issues that K p a manif~ts, most notably the p i n of rejection, by doing the rejecting himself, and retiring instantly

11

to the woods. By eschewing the standard adherence m the &ma, and taking on the status of sage which puts him in a sense outside the strictures of

vary^,

V y h defines

himself largely by negation of the very things by which Kary seeks to create his identity.

3. Their mother*^ Sons Having examined their origins*an emimtion of the impact of those origins on

Kanp and Vyiisa is in order. It is dmost too obvious to note that a lack of selfknowledge and an impulse to establish by force an identity beyond that of the sonn is K-*s

'&Z'S

defining characteristic. Dury&a~*spandering to this area of

vulnerability in K a r y - m&ing him a king so he can fight Arjuna and asking eternal Mendship in return - is arguably the best tactical move against the Pwdavas Dwyodhana will make in the entire epic (the dice game, while ~Rective,is nut his idea). Kang, having a strong sense of honor*doesn't forget this favor and cannot bring himelf to abandon D w o d h a ~ or , the parents who raked him for that matter, even when offered the chance to bewme a Pindava. His honor, winerahility and wwiskncy make Karpa* despite his alliances, pdge-holding and bellicosity*an extremely sympathetic character. From the moment he is shamed in fkont of the assembly at the t o m e n t , his fmt encounter with his brothers* K a q a emerges as one of the few c h a t e m in the M d a h e -

whose

mothtiom are completely apparent and whose resolve never fluctuates - it is he, for

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example, who instigates a war party against the Pib&was while they are serving their thirteen y a m in exile as required. Wendy Daniger has called brqa "one of the great tragic figures of the Mdah*dan (Dmiger 18 ), and indeed he is, in that the sarne quest that seems petty in Duryodhana - the overthrow of the Piindavas - seems almost admirable in kuya, or at the very least understandable. Though he is their equal and

demonstrates this by means of fats and tenacious wmge long before his origins are revealed, the Piindavas mmhenfly denigrate him. The r q o w i b i l i ~for this, uItima&ly, is Kund's. Her boon is her curse* When she uses her mantra? the child she

bears will not simply walk away, as satyavath son d m e What we have in K a y , then, is not an evil opposite of V y h ? but rather a

demommtion of the road not taken. His smry is an indictment of vammr&hm

as a mains of self definition though it's necessity as a system of governance is not questioned. K a r is ~ sent, help^^ to arrest his own cc~urse,down the river of life at birth* VyW is born on the island that protects him f b m the flow. d Looking at the respective relationships of VyEw and K k y to ~ m u p sheds still more light on the influence of these diflerences. In the epic, the nature of a rela~omhipwith the Piindavas is o k n largely

with ~mupadk Without question, she is an dependent upon the nature of a reiaio~h@ ine@ part of their mllective being. Using her as a reference point? it is, therefore, pasible to establish in more detail the KhyNyiisa opposition, in particular b u e it

is around her that their paths crass initially, however indirectly.

13 Karga's second encounter with his brothers is at Draupadits Svayamvara. Karry is among the m y @triyats assembled to win the princess, seemingly able now to call himself one of them. Failing like the rest in an effort to string the bow, he is astonished and outraged when Arjuna, disguised as a Brahmin, easily accomplishes what no others have, hitting the target as we11 as stringing the bow. It is at this juncture that the battle between these two which was narrowly avoided before nearly comes to pass. However, Kany wihdmws, convinced that the power of a Brahmin, which he still believes Arjuna to be, is unbeatable. The wnflict ist to all appearances, between K a n y and Arjuna. S i m u l ~ e o ~ i y , the conflict is between Qatriyas and Brahmins, the issue being whether Brahmins, which the Piindavas are in this episodet may participate in the bridegroom choice. lt is on both of these levelst the persod and the swio-political, that Vyiisa, not physialiy present at the Svaymvm, is represented and comes into conflict with K m . First, it is V y i h who is responsible for the Kndavas presence at the event, having decreed head of time that ~ r a u p would d ~ be the wife of all five brathers. He

has sent them in, and they act with his blessing. Any conflicts that arise, such as

K-3

challenge of Arjuna, can therefore be seen as conflicts with Vyka and a

contradiction of his will. His appearan= later at the wedding to tell the story of the Five Inchist a justification of the proposed polyandryt underscores his involvement and lack of disinterest. In addition, it is V y h who has wme up with the specific choice of brahmin as

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a disguise for the Piindavas after the Lacquer House episode, a choice which serves to make the PSqc!aw "like" V y w . This underscores the first way in which Vyh's presence is feltTand when Karxg backs out of the fight with the "brahmin" A.rjuna, he is ceding the day to V y h and VyiWs plans as much as he is to ArjunaTthough he

will certainly r e m to fight again.

~raupad* then, is a character through which Kimy and Vyiisa make indirect contact with one another. This idea is amplified in light of Alf Hiltebeitel's conception of Draupad and Vyiisa as two of the "three hna"of the Mdahaata (Hiltebeitel 76). He points out that above and beyond the fxt that V y h and Draupad share t agrees with the Qsna's m e , they are aIso of dark complexion like him, a f ~which

name Krsna, "black," and which Hiltebeitel refers to as a "sign of the times" (621, black being the designated color of the degenerate Kali yuga. Of even more significance to the topic under discussion here is Hikebeitel's obsewation of the "three Krgy'sm "propensity ta mediatea (69) on behalf of the Piiqtjavas. Since d l three take part in this activity at different times, (egoRraupadi at the dice game, Krgqa on the "peace missionmbefore the war and Vyiisa during the war), a success for one, when it occurs, am be interpreted as a success for dl, as well

as sumss for the Piindarn,

There is a degree to which lkaupad and V y h can be said to be linked as characters then, and Kamass next involvement with ~ n u p which ~ , takes place at the dice game, am be seen as the next step in the conflict of interest between V y i k and

15

Kaqa which began at the Svayamvara. ~raupaditherefore continues as an interface

between the two. It is interesting to note that Kany does not take part in the planning of the dice game. He has a discussion with Dhrtarii+ and Duryodhana just before the Sakuni's plan is hatched in which he expressly rules out any form of trickery - Duryodhana presents a long list of possibilities - as a means of taking the P&@avaswealth. He advocates war, fought in the open, and is thus shown in stark contrast to Duryodhana. When the dice game is planned soon thereafter, K q a is absent and does not reappear in the action until the throw which will decide Draupadi's fate are in the air. "Karna,

Duhsasana, and their cronies were mightily pleased . . .' (11:58,40). Hence, though he does not advocate non-martial conflict - desiring instead conflict that is aboveboard and essentially fair in that the enemy can fight back - he is back on board the moment ~raupadiis brought into the scenario, again demonstrating that she is a lynchpin in the conflict for K a q a as well as for others. A small detail in the subsequent action is worth mentioning at this point. The

son of a suta who works for the household is sent by Duryodhana to bring Draupadi out

from the women's quarters once she is lost. (This becomes necessary when Vidura, VyEsa's third son in the household, unequivocally refuses to do so.) What is accomplished by this, on one level, is a face to face meeting of V y W and Kaqa by proxy, though in this case the term suta refers to a son of a bard. The result is Ka,ry7s

nightmare. The sola's son confronts one of the "three Qys"

as an equal, "Come

16

enter the house of D

m

. To your chores I must lead you, ~ ~ j f l a s e*i(11:60,16), !

and learns in no uncertain terms that he is not an equal, for in the end he follows her

command, taking her great question on the d h a m back out to the assembly, and leaving her where she is. Even so, at the end of the day, Sapjaya will cite to

DM-a

the fact that the suta 's son approached Q!+as i one of the day's significant

transgressions (W2,Q. At the utterance by Duhsasana of the epithet "Slave!* in reference to Draupadi when she is at last dragged forward, K q reacts again, "heartily laughing" as she is shaken. This time, however, the "cronies' remain silent and only K-,

&&miand

Duryodhana fail to realize that things have now gone too far. The issue of whether or not she has been won legally, the central question of the scene, is not doubted by Kama, and he takes the opportunity not only to say so, but to malign her character, calling her a whore by virtue of her polyandry. He takes a more active role than Duryodhana in the ongoing discussion, and in a tableau which will be echoed when Arjuna's father, Indra, strips &my of his god-given armor, K a n y demands the

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stripping of all the Piindavas and of Draupadi, though this last insult will not come to pass* Just as Vyiisa is the base of the P@@vas, serving them in various capacities as

Bruce Sullivan has pointed out, (Sullivan 27), ~raupad,as one of the "three K r ~ a s " of Hiltebeitel's schema serves to support them as well. Nowhere is this more evident

than the moment at the 'false* ending of the dicing scene when she rescues her

husbands with the boons granted her by D

m

. At this point, brqa, who so

recently called her a whore, says, Of all the women of mankind, famous for their beauty, of whom we have heard, no one have we heard accomplished such a deed! While the Parthas and the Dhartarastras are raging beyond measure, KrisnS Draupadi has become the salvation of the Pandavas! When they were sinking, boatless and drowning, in

the plumbless ocean, the Pancali became the Pandava's boat to set them ashore (11: 64,l). Though ~hirnafinds this observation yet another humiliation in a day of humiliations, Karna's admiration, and more importantly his recognition of DraupadI as more than

simply a woman is unmistakable. Implicit in his statement is the acknowledgment of Draupadi's power, which has cut through all the testosterone in the room and prevailed, or so it seems. It is a reprise of the moment in which the siita 's son suddenly gives her the respect to which she is entitled and leaves the women's quarters. It is another point for Vyha, both in his capacity as an advocate of the Pedava cause and as a resonator of Draupadi, one of the co-Kpqas. Having examined ways in which Draupadi serves

as a conduit between V y h and h q a , it remains to examine other ways in which they connect.

4. Contact

When the Pmdavas have established themselves in a hermitage in the forest and Vidura has returned from visiting them after a falling out with D

~ Duryodhana ~

once again becomes agitated, fearing that Vidura.will influence Dhqtwiisp to bring the

,

18

Piindavas back. In order to soothe him, K m p suggests that the PMdavas be attacked,

despite their adherence to the rules of the exile they are enduring. But no sooner are

the chariots in motion when V y h steps in to stop them, having seen what was afoot by virtue of his power as a seer. Again, a ria's son is corrected by a Krtp.~a.Again

K a n y strains against the d h a m , in this case by knowingly setting out to violate the

terms of the exile agreement and make war before the thirteenth year is complete, and again he is thrown back, but this time, for the first time, it is K q and Vyka meeting without stand-ins on either side. Certainly this transgression is more serious than the technical foul of challenging Arjuna at the tournament prior to the Svayevara, since he is in reality Arjuna's equal - the fact is that Arjuna does not refuse to fight him again after that first encounter, so even he doesn't take the strictures of vany too much to heart when faced with a capable opponent. But despite the raised stakes and the escalation of hostilities

which V y h stops in this instance, the epic does not depict the meeting of Vyiisa and

Kmy. That it has taken place is recorded, but not what was said. Nonetheless, there has been a progression in which, as Kary's frustration drives to him to more drastic steps, the two characters move from indirect contact in which ~raupadplays a central role, either as a bone of contention or as one of the three mas,to actual contact. Though they will not speak again, K a n y and Vyasa's interaction is not yet over. Beyond the obvious - the fact that they are on opposite sides in the central conflict of the epic - a special relationship and opposition between them continues to make itself

19

apparent. While in exile, Yudhis&h is discussing with J3hima the strength of the

Kaurava camp, and he says can't sleep for thinking of K ~ a ' skill. s At that instant, Vyiisa appears and tells him that he will dispel his fears "with an argument that is

found in the Rules" (111:37,24) What he tells Yudhitghh is in fac ""conjuration*with which Arjuna will be able to obtain weapons from the gods. Though it would be an overstatement of the case to say that this magic is given as a specific response to Yudhi$hira's fears about Kaqa, the fact is that it is at the mention of his Karqa-induced insomnia that V y h appears. So it seems that Yudhisthira fears his side may be unequal to the task of confronting an army with Kaqa at its head and V y h concurs enough to convey magic. He is motivated to contribute some of the powers he

possesses as an ascetic to the conflict, almost as if in acknowledgment of something in K q a which only he can address.

5. V y W and Karqa's Dance Having reviewed these relevant episodes, it is now possible to look at the arc of these two character's interaction. They begin "together" in a sense, their mothers being enactors of the same story up to the moment of the births of their frst-born sons. They then parallel each other, moving away from their mothers at birth and landing in the position of outsiders to society. From this position, which one embraces and the other fights with all that's in him, they will make contact with one another. This contact will, of course, take place by means of V y i b and Karp's activities in regard

to the Piindavas and Draupd.

A word about the Pfindavas is in order at this point. Though they are the

protagonists of the epic, they, like K y p , serve as a medium in which the nature of other characters is revealed. This is shown time and again by means of a certain passivity in the face of adversity and unfairness, albeit a passivity enforced by Yudhi-

on his brothers and Draupadi. One obvious example is the fact that

Duryodhana could avoid the Great War by simply giving the Piindavas a tiny fraction of their Kingdom on which to live. Duryodhana is incapable of making this gesture, a

tiny one on his part and far less than the Pi@davasare entitled to, to avert disaster. The passivity of the Pwdavas in this instance lays bare Duryodhana's essence for the audience. Another example is given when ~raupadi,incensed at the outcome of the dicing, argues that to accept fete and fail to act on one's own behalf is foolish (111:3 1).

In the face of Yudhighira's calm, the fiery core of Yiijfkse~is revealed. Through these, among other examples, the way in which the Piindavas shed light on other characters is demonstrated. This revelatory influence is no less evident in regard to V y h and Kama - and to their relationship

- who interact via the Pi@davas. At the Svayarpvara of ~raupadi,

where VyiW is represented by the Pfin@vasdressed, as per his instructions, as

brahmins, the first contact of the two characters in question is made. What is revealed is K q ' s attempt to come in from his outsider position, and succeeding inasmuch as he is included among the other Iqatriyas vying for Draupadi, but failing inasmuch as he

21

not only fails to bend the bow but is intimidated when he comes face to face with Arjuna, doubly V y h ' s man at this event.

But to return to an analysis of the "arc" of the interaction between Vy& K-a,

and

it is apparent that, from this indirect contact at Draupadi's Svayqvara, Vyka

and Karqa move closer but still do not meet. Their next encounter will be at the dicing, an event which neither would have had happen, given the power to prevent it. K-a

fails to prevent it when he counsels for oven tactics against the Piindavas, and

Vy&a fails, as Bruce Sullivan has pointed out, in his role as priest of the Rajasuya of

which the dicing is the final event (Sullivan, 59). V y i b will, in a sense, be represented by Draupadi at the dicing, and again Kaqa will be inspired by respect which will

temper his baser emotions. Not only does the -a's son employee of the palace fail to extract Draupadi from the women's quarters, bringing instead her question to the assembly, but in addition K a r p himself stops laughing at her and pays her respect when she rescues the P@davas. This is not unlike his honorable withdrawal from the fight with Arj*unaat the Rajasuya and is the second time Kaqa demonstrates his ability to discern what is appropriate when in the orbit of his counter-self, V y i h .

Having taken these steps toward one another, at last K q a and V y i h meet face to face when Kanp leads the effort to attack the P@@vas in exile. Having transgressed against what is right, something of which he has not previously been

guilty, VyGm and he are forced to confront one another, and, just as he did when operating by proxy, Vyiisa prevails.

22

In what would seem to be a kind of ultimate encounter between VySsa and Yudhighh speaks of the effect Xanp is having on him and Vyha responds by giving magic to the Piiydavas which will allow Arjuna to get the apocalyptic weapons. He therefore agrees to fight Kaqa at last, and the confrontations which have been defered in the past will have a payoff. This may be because K k p becomes more aggressive over the course of the story, instagating not only the first abortive attack on the Piindavits in exile but the later 'cattle expeditionwas well - the result of which is the Piindavas, in a spectacular exhibition of family duty, or kuladharma, rescuing Duryodhana from the Gandharvas. But it is possible that an alternate explanation gets more at the root of what draws

Vy&a and Kama together. It can be argued that they were born to come together and in the way they do, which is to say via the Piir@vas. Having sprung from such similar circumstances, they clearly have a relationship to one another. But parallel lines do not intersect, and their drama is not played out directly.

There is yet another significant way in which Vyiisa and Karpa are parallel characters, and that has to do with the fact that both play a role in the downfall of the Bhhta clan. Though they seem to work on opposite sides in the conflict which leads to the war and V y i k would seem to favor an avoidance of hostilities, in fact it is a war which must occur. The juncture between the mas having been reached, a great resolution must take place, leading to a new beginning. This being the case,Vy&a and

23

Kaqa can almost be said to be working together, though on the surface this is far from apparent.

To clarify this idea, a consideration of Bruce Sullivan's assesment of VyW's failings will come into play.

use V y h "fails in his most important undertakings"

(57), he is ultimately a more efficient agent of destruction than any of the Kauravas.

His failures are three in number, and Sullivan ultimately places them in the context of Dum6zil's concept of the three sins (64). In the first place, he is responsible for 'fathering flawed sons."(64) The implications of this are multiple. Vyiisa's son PZndu will find himself unable to procreate by conventional means and will therefor ask of

Kun6 something which will reopen her past - the use of her mantra. This will set the stage for a great deal. Her sons being children of the gods puts them in the position of playing out the mythic battle against the demons in the form of the Kauravas. The exclusion of her first son from her life results in his being among the fiercest opponants of the Piindavas. Hence Vyika's son Pwdu, married to an echo of Vyh's mother. as

has been discussed, is a character whose flaws and mistakes have far-reaching implications. Vyiha's son DhpwiQp is no less problematic than his brother. Born blind because of his mother's timorousness at the sight of Vyiisa, he is often said to have the sight of insight but often fails to use it where his own children are concerned. This

second weak spot in V y S d s progeny has obvious repercussions, the most significant of which is that Doryodhana is not restrained.

24

So in attempting, at his mother's request, to aid the Bhhta dynasty by fathering the much needed sons,Vy&a spawns the seeds of the great war. This is his first failure. His second failure takes place when his Pfiqdava grandsons establish a separate kingdom, Indraprastha, from their cousins. Though this separation would seem a solution to the rivalry between the camps, it serves to launch the most important event of the epic - the dicing.

Once established in the new kingdom,Yudhi$hira holds a Rajasuya, or consecration as universal monarch. This is a somewhat provocative thing to do under ideal circumstances, as it involves a ritual, or in this case literal, subjugation of all other monarchs. Beyond that, however, every ritual in the vedic tradition entails risk, in that an imperfectly performed rite may backfire on the performer or on those for

whom it is performed, and this is what happens in this case. In the dice game, traditionally the culminating act of a Rajasuya, the rite turns on those for whom it is done. The ritual game is played for real stakes, the kingdom is lost - not once but twice. The responsibility for this is Vyasa's as presiding priest of the Rajasuya. VyiW's third failure is his inability to to "reconcile the combatants." (61)

Though it must be remembered that not even the other male m a was able to achieve this aim, even by revealing his true form to the assembled court, the fact remains that having spawned Piindu and D

.

.. whose sons now stand on the brink of war, and

having conducted the Rajasuya which ended with the disasterom dicing match,Vw

25

fails at this last chance to fix what has gone wrong. This being the case,a stronger case for a Vyasa/Kaqa correspondence begins to emerge. Not that V y W wants to fail. Certainly there is no reason to think that he ever acts with less than good faith and an intention that his contributions, be they as patriarch or priest, have beneficial results. So, that he and K q a want exactly opposite things where the war is concerned can't be denied. But as is so often the case, in the epic as in life, the d h a m is subtle. It is possible for there to be a unity of purpose in what seems to be turmoil, and for those who seem to be foes to be working toward a greater common goal, to be part of a larger enterprise. It is in this light that V y i h and

Kaqa can be seen as a pair, two agents of destruction, one positive and the other negative. While VyW is immune from the kinds of considerations which motivate

-

Karqa as he moves through the world resentment, jealousy, disatisfaction - and therefore can be said to act from a more detached if not enlightened point of view, in the larger scheme of things, this doesn't really matter. He is no less subject to (he workings of the system which demands the Great War than any other participant. Though his karma has resulted in a birth which will keep him off the actual field of battle,considering the message of the Gita it

mes plain that it doesn't especially

matter where one's role places one. V y h has played his part, K q a has played his, and their combined efforts have brought about the unavoidable conflagration.

26

6. From Within and From Without So Vy-

is a character who remains on the outside, periodically visiting, often

in order to accomplish one of the failures discussed above, while h a , his more human shadow, finds his way in from the cold in order to work in his own, straightforward way to bring about the war, advocating it to Duryodhana at every oportunity. They work, in a sense, in conceit, one as a participant, a human subjectively seeking a kind of justice for himself, the other as a seer, "objectively" seeking what is best for all and helping the story arrive at what must be, though what must be differs from the scenario he seeks. To think of K p a as V y b in disguise may not be a stretch. In Karpa, born, like Vyiba, miraculously, is the dhanna of the time in which he lives, guiding his actions. K e a is the same man as Vy-,

sent down a different path. The initial split

between the two characters in question is that Kaqa lacks self-knowledge on the most

basic level. This causes him to grasp at identity, allying himself with Duryodhana in the process. And yet he displays a sagelike discipline - cutting off his armor, his only legacy, without flinching, enduring the sting of an insect while his gum sleeps. These are things which reveal a selflessness generally found in ascetics - like VyW. This idea of *a

as a disguised Vy&i

to the Upanigidic idea of the

atman as the true self which is present in all humans no matter how obscured by superficial ideas of identity. And yet Karxy's quest for his worldly identity is not treated by the epic as unworthy. Identity or lack thereof is treated in a number of

27

places in the Mahabhaata,and in a telling p

K-,

,the Pihdavas themselves must, like

live as people whom they are not.

Disguise is a device used save one's life and avoid disaster throughout world literature, and In the

harm, it is no different. In the case of the Piindavas after

the dice game, staying in disguise in the thirteenth year of exile is a punishment as well. Clearly then, looking at this punishment of the Piiqidavas and at unhappy K q a , loss of identity is a great misfortune. It is interesting that Karqa does not accept the offer of inclusion in the Piint$ava fold when it is offered to him; in fact it's a stunning moment. His identity, denied him for so long, is presented to him, and he turns it down. It is a significant artifact in a consideration of the nature of identity in the epic. On the surface it seems the gesture of a proud and angry man, unwilling to be mollified in the eleventh hour, and indeed that is part of what's going on. But at the same time, viewed in the context of a series

of episodes involving enforced disguise which will now be examined,Kma's rejection of his Pi@iava self has a number of other resonances.

CHAPTER 3: COME AS YOU ARE 1. Disguise

There are a number of instances in the Mahabha'ata in which disguise is a key element. The two significant occasions on which the PQ+vas abandon their true identities - once after the Lacquer House murder attempt and a second time to meet the terms of the final dice game - give two perspectives on a loss of identity event.

On the one hand, it may be necessary to assume a disguise in order to simply save one's life, as is the case when the Pwdavas "become" brahmins after fleeing the lacquer house. In such a case, when the loss of identity is a choice - though one heavily influenced by circumstances - the Piirjidavas are able to cultivate a freedom within the constraints of their situation. It is, of course, in disguise that they attend the Svayuyvara of their future wife and win her. On the other hand, loss of identity can be imposed as a punishment. The terms of

the final dice match include not only twelve years of exile in the forest, but also a final year

in which the identities of the losers must be scrupulously hidden while living in society on

pain of incurring another twelve-year exile. This scenario, in which disguise is not

assumed voluntarily as a life-saving measure, casts loss of identity in an ignominious light. It is the insult the Kauravas wish to inflict above and beyond the injury of a twelve year camping trip.

28

It is context,then, that dictates whether or not disguise is a misfortune on the mundane level. On another level however, context has no relevance, fortune and misfortune no meaning. The transfornative function of disguise or loss of identity in the Mahabhaaa, something which occurs on the level of universal law - from which place Rsna is speaking when he gives the Bhagavad Gfi~andreveals his true identity - is not a

process which can be defined in terms of good and bad. Process is process, and ultimately, the entire issue of identity in the MahSbhiirata cannot be separated from the concepts of v a q w and &ma on the one hand, the Pii~@avas being "bound up with these classifications" (Hiltebeitel 195), and the concept o f m o b on the other. The process which potentially leads from the former to the latter will be the focus here.

2. The Book of Virata and Nala and Damayanti

Two stories of disguise in the epic stand out for the way they resonate with each other. One, involving the PiQdavas, is the story of the thirteenth year of exile mentioned previously, told in the Book ofViip. The other, the story of Nala and ~amayanti,is one of the many stories within the story of the epic. The relationship between the two stories is underscored by the fact that Yudhi@ira is told the story of Nato andDmaymti-at the beginning of the twelve years of exile. Nala andDamqyandis therefore, on the narrative level, a teaching story for Yudhi-.

For the reader of the epic of course, a

superimposition of the two stories reveals correspondences and divergences which serve to illustrate the transforamative function of disguise.

29

That King Nala has a lot in common with the Piindavas in general and Yudhi$hka in particular is apparent from the outset. Above and beyond being "endowed with all good virtues," he, like Yudhis~hira,"loved to gamble" and "spoke the truth." (111:50,3). In addition, he attends a S v a y ~ v a r in a order to obtain his wife. In an interesting reversal, instead of being presented with "five Indras" as would-

be husbands as ~raupadiis after her Svayamvara, Nala's beloved Damayanti comes face to face with one would-be mortal husband multiplied by five - a result of the gods attempting to find a way around the human Damayan6's preference for Nala. Hence, though the situation is an inversion ofDraupadi's story, it is simultaneously an echo on an imagistic level of "The Five Indras," the story told by V@sa to justify Draupadi's polyandry. In Nda and h a y a n & however, instead of establishing inherent divinity as it does for the Piibyjavas, the image of the five identical beings is used to establish NaIa's mortality inasmuch as Darnayand is able to perceive that they are not, in fact, truly identical. So unlike the Piindavas, Nala's relationship with the gods is neither familial nor

karmic, (though his name, Nala, suggests a connection with Nara, and therefore to Aquna

as well as, indirectly, to Vipu). Draupadi gets five husbands who are connected to the gods in both ways, whereas Damayad picks the one out of five Nalas who lacks divine connection of this sort. Nonetheless, once llamayand selects the mortal Naia, the gods forge a relationship with him, giving him special gifts:

6akra, Saci's pleased husband, gave the N m i a n the privilege of seeing the god in person at (us sacrifices, and an unimpeded course wherever he walked. The

o b l a d o n - e g Fire God bestowed on i k his own presence wherever the Bl&ad.hanwanted it, and entrance to places that were hninous with fire itseE Y a m gave b a taste for food and utter firmness in the Law. The Lord of the Waters granted him the presence of water where the M e wanted it, and a most garland. All together they gave hirn twin children. And afker havins so made their gifts, the Gods returned to heaven. @I:54,29-33) Nala has been approved by the gods as Darnayanth mate, there is no question, and their sanction hiis been mdksted by their gifts. Like Yudhi@iraafter his Ejasiiya, Nala is "at the head of aN the kings" (JE50,1), and like Yudhi@iratheygas wiI1 be his dodd.

As the gods leave the wedding ofNda and Dmayan6, they encounter the pgas "W?' and cbDviipara,'7 who, made jealous by Darnayan6's choice of a mortal man, decide to ruin Nala by means of a dice game. The unavoidable pardel in the M&&hautu proper is that Duvo&ana '?was born on earth &om a portion of KaIi" (36l,8O), and ~akuniis '%hereborn DvSpara" @:6471). By means of this detail, therefore, the reader is

given something which provides at [east a possible explanation for Yudhisthira's seemingly inexplicable perfiommce at the dicing, Kali being present in Duryodhana in addition to the epic being set at the juncture of the same two y g m which are incarnate in Nu~ud h q r n d : Kdi is unable to take possesion ofNala and create the gmbhg obsession in

him until he d e s a mistake which jmpardiza his ritual purity, but, even so, the point driven home is that, though there is no conclusive prooc the evil ofthe Ku!@gu codd be at the root ofYudhig@ba's

fIaw.

Just as in Y u & w s case,it is a M y member who takes advantage ofthe gambling obsession that overtakes Nala U&e Y

u however, ~ Nala does ~ not

3I

stake his w$e when god& by his tormenter. At the suggestion that he do so, Nda "made no reply" @57$).

This being the case,the story ofNda and ~amayandtakes no

position on the enduring question ofwhether or not Y

u

d had~a right ~ to stake his

w%e. The two wives in question, confkonted with destitute husbands, both declare their intention not to abandon their husbands, rather they pledge to share whatever hardship awaits them, and both wearing inwffi6mt cIothing, leave their palaces. In the case of Damayand, despite her best intentions, loyalty wiD not be enough to keep her spouse by

her side. It is worth noting that both Draupad and Damayad pose a question following the

loss of their husbands' kingdom, Damayad to the absent M a , and Draupadi to ksea. W e on the level of plot these questions save dEerent fbnctions, ultimately, both probe

the issue ofidentity. In Draupad?~mse, the question and answer unit "penetrates to the mythologid identities of the principal figures," (Hilt&eitei89), while Damayand attempts to penetrate mt of the mythology of Nala as BEhuka. Both women, however, essentially seek explanations for their respective predicamentsvs h e , &om both their points of view, it should not have happened. Neither really gets an explanation in response, but Draupadi does get a degree of satidkction fiom mqa's assurance that the wives ofthose responsibie for her grief will some day weep just as she does @ 13, 115-16) I: The diflkrence in the results of the questioning is the difkmnce, quite simply, between Nda and I Q q y Ndds n m e ~ ~ ~ g g ethes name f s Nam, the m m who is

32

found by the side of Narayana, or Vigu. There would seem, therefore*to be an imptied relationship on same level b a e e n Nala and W s y . Nda's disguise, that of a dwarf goes m e r to create a corndon with Kyy, r d a m t as it is of Visnussmatar Vhana. But unlike Atjuna, a character openly called Nan at certain points, NaIa's connection with Vieu is a distant one. The incongruity between man and god in NaIak case is in fact emphasized by the respective questiodmwer units of Draupadi and Darnayand. Further comparison of the two svives d continue in the context of comparing details ofthe thirteenth year with Nukz md D r n ~ d :

3. The Impact of disguise

The disguise sequences of Nda's and the P@davasYsrespective stories diier sharply in that for the Piiqdavwyand their wifle, the period of disguise is a shared t h e in which they stay together and keep a mutual secret about who all of them really are. For

Nala and Dmayand7their separation mans that they are unaware when the other assumes a new identity, md in Nda's case a new physical form. h addition, Nala does not choose his disguise, but instead has it bestowed upon him by one who seeks to heIp him. W l e

they have been forced to assume new identities, it is the Pwdavas themselves who select

just what those identities will be, and their choices are as amusing as they are apt, ally in the cases of Axjm and Yu&*

By remain@ together, the P@c!aw are able not only to ddmd their w%e, but also to make up for past Mure in h t regard by replaying the &shonohg of Draupadi

33

scene with the unfortunate

yet another m2ak son - two other son's of siifas

(Kaqa and the employee in the dicing szbha) precede him in the story. "I'his h e , however, the r d t s ofthe enmuter are acceptable to h u p d - Kbka is Uled. Dmayan6, on the other hand, done in the world, is nearly aten by a snake and must then contend with the attentions of ha- rescuer. Like ~ r a u p a din the dicing m b k 7she is able to overcome the one who misuses her by means of a rescue tnirade baause she is a woman who follows the law in both thought and deed. For those m e reasons7later she is able, like mup pad, to find employment as the maid to a queen (111:62722-49and

N:8,20-32). Nda, meanwhile7meets a make of his own, does him a service, and by virtue of the snake's magic is tmnsfiormed into his disguise. Here then, is a significant dEerence between the situation of Nala and that of the Piigdavas: Nala7sdisguise is bestowed upon him as a boon. None the less7it will be true that for YudKghq as for Nda, the period of

disguise will provide a catharsis from which each will merge fiee of the compulsion to gamble, both having leaned the secret of s u c c d l dicing.

Having been ~ o r m e dNala's , story enters a phase which contains hit the gems of each of the Piindavas experiences in disguise. Like the PNdavas, Nda immediately seeks employment with a king. Like Nakda he works with horses and like

Bhha he ~ ~ o kLike s . Y u & m he is interested in dice, but, d i k e his disguise identity, k t Nala 1-s

and purge himself of BMi.

it is as Biihuka,

the secret he needs in order to both master the dice

34

Eventually hiboth stories, the tirne of ioss of identity ends, and the characters emerge improved. The demons which brought about the reversal of fortune having been exorcized, normalcy is restored, The trm&orrni.ng bction of loss of identity is asserted in both cases. A precedent for this within the culture of India may be the Holi fbtival,

which kicks off the new year7in which, within a proscribed time and context, the existing social structure is undermined, caste distinctions are subverted, and appropriate are maed out to those who have offended their neighbors during the year "punish~nents'~

(Van Buitenen 4 5 ) . This cathartic process having been endured, the new year then begins with a best foot forward. Just as the Piindava7exile is twelve years, in same versions of

Nula d D m q m a - ~iss also the length of t h e Nda and maya and are married before his g m b h g obsession is activated by Kali (Shulmm 3). It is possible, therefore, that the analogy to Holi drawn by van Buitenen regarding the thirteenth year may also hold true for Nala md DmqmfiI

4. Nda and I3amayad in the Epic

What is the impact ofhcludhg the story of Nda and maya anti in the epic? Certainly the h a t i c justification of telling the tale to Yudhis@h

because ofthe

parallels with his own We are plain. But for the reader, outside of both stories, there is an aggregate effm achieved by receiving both, or rather a hmony/tasion which results

fkom playing ciifikent notes on the same theme.

Primary among these ck@e~g"notes" is the situation ofthe women involved in

35

the respective stories. As mentioned earlier, unlike Yudhi~hira,Nala does not wager his wife as a last resort to his dice match. He does, however, commit a sin of sorts when, like Draupd (and Sits for that matter), Darnayand chooses to follow her husband into poverty instead of seeking comfortable refuge along with her children, at the home of a relative. Nala's sin, which is said to be more of Kali's influence, is that having lost his kingdom, he abandons his faithful wife in the middle of nowhere, running offwhile she is asleep and leaving her to fend for herself. As a result, Damayan6 is not only attacked by a snake but she is also approached improperly by the hunter who rescues her from the beast. She has no recourse but to save herself from this man. The fact that she manages to do so by virtue, literally, of her virtue saying, "If even in my heart I have never thought of any man but Nala, so let this brute who lives off animals fall dead!" (111:60,36)in no way diminishes Nala's failure toward her in this situation. Certainly Draupadi found herself in a situation very nearly worse than this when in the dicing sabha she found no rescue from improper advances though her husbands were physically present. But later, when she is abducted by Jayadratha in the forest during exile, she is not, like Damayanti, on her own, but is rescued and avenged. This demonstrates a redemptive value in the hardship the PEqdavas have suffered by being exiled. The Ptindavas failed their wife in the dicing sabha, and her humiliation there leads her to be among the most vocal proponants of war with the Kauravas. But when she suffers indignity at the hands of Jayadratha her husbands are no longer the same men who sat and watched her degredation without acting on her behalf. The same can

36

certainly be said ofBhima's handling of

who molests Draupadi during the

thirteenth year and pays with his life. These examples support the idea that in the epic "a person gains in power and esteem if he undergoes hardship" (Van Nooten 72). Their punishment, the austerity required of them under the terms of the dicing, has, in fact, rehabilitated the Piiqdavas morally, or at the very least clarified certain ambiguities regarding the dharma which confused things for them previously. Of Yudhighira for example, it has been said that "[Mis moral nature, instead of undergoing any disintegration, unfolds itself develops, and achieves fullness simply as a result of the forest-exile caused by the game of dice" (Bose 23). Van Buitenen, too, feels that the Book of the Forest "serves to build up the character of Yudhis~hira(van Buitenen 77). Putting aside modem ideas of "character development," which simply do not apply to the epic, it is nonetheless clear that just as Yudhi@himrecieves teachings that bolster his essential integrity,

and Bhima also have experiences in the Book of the Forest

which amplify their strengths and, for lack of a more appropriate phrase, develop them as characters. In the case of Muna, a series of adventures in which he succeeds in pleasing the gods, leading to his obtaining weapons from the gods &va,~arna,Vamna, Kubera, and Indra. This, of course, serves not only to enhance Arj'una's status as a great warrior

but also has significance for the great battle which is the climax of the epic. In addition, while on his five year sojourn to the world of Indra, Arj'una learns singing and dancing at Indra's suggestion. These skills will, of course, be an integral part of his disguise in Virata's court. ~hhna,in addition to meeting his match in the form of a boa constrictor

37

who can only be subdued by Yudhi@h's powers of discourse, finds himself unequal to the task of lifting the tail of a monkey. The monkey in question is Bhima's brother Hanilman, who explains the system of theyugas to Bhima, gives one of the many didactic speeches of The Book of the Forest, and, finally, promises to lend his voice to Bhima's on the field of battle, thus increasing the already formidable impact of his war-cry. Elhima, therefore, is humbled on ocassion; but also leaves the forest with additional power.

5. PMdavas in Disguise

The thirteenth year is the zenith of the time of hardship and learning for the Pwdavas, in that they must be in disguise and must hide themselves away, becoming persone non grata. The specific disguises, though chosen by the Pandavas and Draupad themselves, point directly at key weaknesses of the family members. Having been granted the boon that they would not be found out during the thirteenth year, there is no reason they could not choose any identity they wish. Their choices, self-mocking and insightful, have depth. Having lost his kingdom and even his family through gambling, and having

since learned the secret of the dice.Yudhi@hiraselects the role of Royal Dicing Master. Bhima,, known as "Wolf-Belly" for his appetite, decides to be a chef as well as a wrestler. the most masculine and skilled combatant, selects as his role that of a transvestite

dancing and singing teacher. Draupd, who "does not know how to do the work that women do" (TV:3,14 ), will do just that, opting to become a chambermaid. Nakula and Sahadeva decide to take care of horses and cows, respectively, as their disguise,

referencing their heritage as the sons of the Asvins. If these last choices lack the irony of the others, and they do, it is because distinctive charactenZatoon for the youngest Piigdavas on which to base such irony is lacking. Still, the identities of the family members have been turned inside out inthe thirteenth year. They are discovering the nature of self by toying with it, or rather inverting it, and in the process they will clarify their identities.

In contrast to the PZhdavas, Nala's period of disguise is not the culmination of a time of testing and deprivation. Nala saves a snake from a fire, at which point: [Tlhe Snake Karkotaka said soothingly to Nala "I have changed you, so that people will not know you. And because of whom you have been maimed with great sorrow, oh Nala, he shall henceforth dwell in you and hurt from my poison. As long as he does not leave you, while hurting in all his limbs from my poison, so long will he dwell in you in agonies of pain, great king! I have made you immune to the one who out of anger and rancor cheated you, while you were innocent and undeserving of it, king of the people. You will have nothing to fear from tusked preditors or enemies and the knowers of spells, tigerlike king. You yourself shall suffer no pain from the poison, king, and in battles you shall always be victorious. . . .Depart today, sovereign of Nigdha, for the lovely city of Ayodhyii. The Icing shall impart to you his shrewdness with dice in return for your shrewdness with horses. . .When you have become skilled with the dice, you will be reunited with fortune and rejoin your wife - banish grief from your heart! - and your kingdom and your two children; this I tell you is the truth. Whenever you want your own appearance back, king of men, think of me and don this garment. When you are clothed in this garment you will regain your own appearance" (ni:63,14-22). Not only is Nala's disguise not punishment, it is a fairly desirable arrangement. The benefits are spelled out for him right up front. Kali will feel the poison; Nala will not. Kali's influence over Nala is no more, animals and magicians will not be able to harm him, and he will always win in a battle. Best of all, he will learn the dice and get his family back. But most significant to the present discussion, it is he, Nala, who decides when the period of disguise is over. Though he, like the PQ@vas, will gain by means of suffering,

39

disguise for him is not a way of commenting upon himself and revealing or arriving at a hard-won self-awareness, any more than it is a penance. The purpose of disguise for Nala, therefore, is essentially restricted to the pragmatic level, being linked as it is to the poisoning of Kali and the gaining of knowledge of the dice. The influence of the kalipga is not so easily dispensed with in the Mahabharata proper, and the purpose of disguise, ultimately, has more to do with the svadhcvma of the Piindavas and Draupadi. The impact of the two stories taken together, like so many instances in the Mahabharala in which a theme or motif is echoed, is that the concept of identity is put

through an x-ray. In a sense the thirteenth year can be seen as a development of Nala's experience, in which the reader moves from Nala's perspective, one of passivity in which he is the puppet of both Kali and the benevolent snake, to the assertiveness of the Pandavas, in which control of the situation is gradually wrested by them from the external forces which have created it. Identity is not, ultimately, ~aSrmadharma,name or reputation, but rather that entity spoken of many times in the Upanisads which stands apart and recognizes that social identity is both a construct and a vehicle. As such, the

social identity has value and is to be acknowledged as well as protected, because it is by

means of this vehicle that the individual gets beyond this level of existence and achieves

er objectives. Certainly this is the perspective of the Swkyha system in Hindu philosophy, in which "the purpose of experience is to provide both enjoyment a n d liberation forpmgd' (Chappie, 116). Though it is only one of the philosophical schools which receive expression in the epic, in the cases under discussion here in which disguise

is employed, a Samkyha interpretation comes easily.

6. Nala in Disguise

-

A significant lesson of the Nala Thirteenthyear continuum is that part of spiritual

maturity is to actively exercise the will in every aspect of life, and not be borne along mindlessly, hoping for fortune that is "good" and not "bad." Nala is certainly a comforting example to Yudhitghka of a "man more unlucky than [he himself]was" (111:49,35) in that he does not evolve through his experience. The Pedavas brilliant deconstruction of their

own selves in the thirteenth year take them beyond successful completion of their obligation under the terms of the dice game into a place which prepares Arjuna and the reader for the philosophical ground of the Bhagavad G\l&

In contrast, Wda in disguise is no more himself than Nala on the throne" (Shuhan 19). While the P@davas ultimately find themselves by means of disguise, and emerge dressed in white and "godlike" (IV:65,1-5),prepared to face the enemies who have sought to deprive them of their selves, Nala endures all his changes of fortune seemingly unchanged by experience. Shulman, making a distinction between gaining knowledge of the dice and knowledge of the self, persuasively argues that Nala's own words to Darnayan6 at the end of his ordeal are the clearest evidence of this (p 7):

It was not my own fault that I lost my kingdom, it was Kali's doing, my timid, and also that I deserted you. You yourself most virtuous in the Law, had cursed him before, when you were in the forest and sorrowfully suffered with me who had lost my robe. (01:74,16-17) While he has a valid point about the influence of Kali, the phrase "it wasn't my fault" does

41

not have the ring of an evolved human being. Shulman goes so far as to suggest that this emperor is nothing but clothes, an empty suit so to speak, be it the suit of a charioteer or a

king, whose "identity depends, in moments of doubt, upon the outside voice of ~amayant?' - citing as evidence that it is she who picks him out from among the gods at her Svayqvara and calls him out of his disguise at the end (Shulman 17). It is true, furthermore, that in answer to ~amayand'sdirect question "Gambler, where are you that cut up my dress and left?" (111:67,9-1 O), Nala does not give a direct answer but rather obfuscates, saying "Women of family fend for themselves, though landed in trouble. . .

11

(111:68,7). It may be going too far to say that Nala's answer could be paraphrased as "not

I" (Shulman 11). However, because of its wording this answer does seem to contain a negation, deflecting focus from where the question leads: Nala himself. That Yudhisthira takes more responsibility for himself overall than Nala could be a function of the fact that his family is with him, though of course that is a function of the fact that he does not seek and take advantage of an opportunity to escape from their presence. The point to be made here though, is not Yudhighh's moral superiority to NaIa. To do so would be to

miss the point more pertinent to this discussion: It is the Kqsna-based solidity of Yudhi@hids self or rather Self, and the Selves of his family - a solidity that Nala lacks which causes disguise to be a beneficial process in the case of the Piipdavas and merely an adventure for Nala.

Certainly, as has been mentioned it is

in which a large part

of whatever "solidity" Yudhiighira has manifests itself - which is to say that he is not

42

so terribly different from Nala fundamentally. (Nala, in fact, has a clear

nec

"excuse" for his gambling obsession, something that is never definitively established for Yudhighh.) What separates them is that, where Nala's story is that of a man "whose identity boundaries have been subjected to one shock after another" (Shulman 14), those shocks result in neither a renewed sense of selfnor a redefined self. Yudhighira's exile and disguise actually succeed in strengthening his identity. If the terms of the last dice game were met by the Kauravas, and the follow-up to the thirteenth year was that the PMdavas,

unimpeded, return to their kingdom, there would be no basis on which to contend that there is an ultimate, significant difference between the story ofNala and that of the thirteenth year. But the terms are not met, and the thirteenth year is followed, despite all efforts to avert it, by the Great War. The Great War of the MoAaWwoto, while horrific on one level, is the necessary culmination of an age and also of the journey of the Pandavas.

7. Conclusion

One underlying concept of the epic "is the belief that the human soul is tied to

earthly existence by fetters which through great effort may be broken. (Van Nooten 71). Foremost among those fetters is conditioned thought and recieved identity. Though adherence to the dharma, ostensably a requisite for mo&a, would seem to imply an adherence to vcm@iFama, at the same time the conceptual framework of maS-canadharmaitself is a potential trap. The inclusion of two somewhat anti-social

43 Ssrmas at the end of the system, while meant to be helpful to the individual seeking

release, is no guarantee that roles will be transcended. To digress briefly, it is interesting to note that the Dharma Siitras do not view the aa'amas as a successive system. Though by the time of the Dharma h t mthe idea of the Ssrmas as consecutive was in place, this was not always the way they were seen. Instead, each i S m a was a potential "life-style

choice" open to a twice-born male (Flood 62). But more to the point, the mind being what it is, being a sonyastn can become just another role. If one has passed through the iiikzmas in succession, enacting in turn the part of student and then householder, the

danger of continuing to play a part even as a forest dweller and renunciate is real. Certainly within the context of the epic this is worthy of consideration, there being various instances in the epic in which a kind of spiritual barter system is described, in which it is stated that execution of particular behaviors such as those of a brahmacharm will bring specific benefits, such as long life (Vora 192).

The B h g d Gç'gapproachethe problem of role-playing from another angle, asserting that one should play one's role, but in full awareness. As he prepares to begin

the Great War, Arjuna knows his role but does not want to play it. What is revealed to

-

him is that what one's role is in life is not the significant issue lives come and go. Doing the action incumbent upon one, whatever that action is, with detachment is what matters:

Thy jurisdiction is in action alone; Never in its fruits at any time. Never should the Suits of action be thy motive; Never let there be attachment in the to inaction. Fixed in Yoga, perform actions,

Having abandoned attachment, Conquerer of Wealth. Having become indifferent to success or failure. It is said that indifference is Yoga. ('I 47-48) I It is the thirteenth year, above and beyond the special relationship of Krsna and that has prepared Arjuna to be the receiver of this message, in that he has an understanding of the relationship of social identity to the whole person, or at the very least has the ability not to confuse the two. It is true that unlike Nala, none of the Piindavas actually undego a metamorphisis, and there is no dearth of humor to be found in the image ofArjuna decked out like a woman, so defining a characteristic is his masculinity. And

yet, for one year he lives among the women and forges bonds with them as Brhannadii the transvestite. Even after fighting a battle, an Arjuna-like undertaking, he does not forget to bring the clothing of the defeated side back to the girls of the court for their dolls as he has promised. So commited was he to this role, so real is the person he has created, that despite the fact that he was never actually a eunuch, he cannot marry the princess Uttarii, Viriita's daughter, whom he has only known as Brhannada, but must instead be her father-

in-law.

This flies inthe face of the idea of identity as an imutible truth. Certainly in the world-view of the epic it is accepted that identity can change radically from one lifetime to the next, and that the individual does in fact have some influence over that process. The key, of course, is knowledge of how the laws of karma work combined with a will. The story of Amba, who orchestrates her own rebirth as &haq@n in order to face Bhisma on the field of battle, is an extreme example. What the Pii@avas do in the thirteenth year is

45

simply a temporary change of identity within one lifetime, but it is a revelation to them, and therefore the reader, about a greater truth. They see the fluidity of what is commonly

held to be the self. This, along with m a ' s partiality towards him, is the basis of Aduna's ability to be the reciever of the Gi'tiE Though it stands on its own as a poem and work of philosophy, a reader is also better prepared for the Gfiififit is encountered in context: having travelled the contineurn from Nala through the thirteenth year. The Pihdavas' story, from

through! the Book of Viriip,

could be thought of as the road not taken by Nala. Nala andDamaym6is told before the Piiqdavas arraive at Virap's court, and this makes sense structurally. But it also seems as if the story of Nala is as much a a warning as it is a tale meant to comfort. What profit is it, after all, for a man to lose his whole world if as a result he doesn't gain a soul?

C W T E X 4: KRJZfA'S CONSCIOUSmSS I. Paradoxid Rsna

In m n a the M d a h e d a presents a character for whom identity is not an issue. a s many i n c o n ~ a e n and ~ a conm&dom have created issues for readers and scholars, but Fsna himself moves though the epic with ease, becoming whatever he must in my given & a a ~ o nEssentially, . he employs four different personas, which can be isolated f?om one another. It should be stated at this point that the idea of ccpersonas7' is merely a mechanism for discussing the many aspects of a cornpiex character in an involved epic, and to use this idea for the purpose of discussion is not to assert that these personas are completely

distinct Born one mother.

hd-4

there are tirnes tkou@out the M&ah*da

when

there is a dual or even triple perspective at work in Krsqa. He goes to the Kauravas before the Great War, for example, seemingly as a diplomat, actually as a partisan of the Piindavas, and ultimate~yas a god. But a review of m a ' s movement in the epic will reveal his use of his own personas.

Kyyfs first actual appearance in the story is at Thtupadh S v a y w m . Attention goes to him briefly just &er the a n i d ofthe Go&, when he and his brother, Mma, size up the Piindavas. This %hot" of(I 12,178), :

is shadowy. While Riha is " p I o u ~ ~ m &

is not described In a sense, the posiibilitiw ofwho this person might be

47

are?at this point, endless, though the bard U@mvas has stated at the outset that the extols m n a * svirtues as a divinity. The next exposures ofT+ga establish his public side - the persona which will always appear before ~ u n and/or 6 groups of me% and will come to the fore when issues about the law arise. The duties of etiquette will be included in descriptive passages hvoiving what will be referred to as the ''Dim&'' persona. Hence, in the potterk house after the S a y e m as eisewhere*the feet of ~ u n will d be touched by her nephew in greeting (I 12,183). :

Issues of law come up twice in the S v a y ~ v m sequence, and the d i m e d persona ofKr!qa i m d a t e l y gets involved. The Erst incident takes place when the Kin~s become angry that "brahmins"have won ~raupadi.&spa shply says that Dmupadi "was won accordiig to lawy"and the kings*though still grumbling, disperse (I: 12,181). Krsy is not a king, (as his foe &iupiiia will unwisely point out in book II)? but in this instance and thou&out the work, people who are at dl intuitive have utmost respect for him. At the Svayaq~vara,m n a knows what the b g s do not: The " b r e s " are the Piindavas, and

eligible to vie for Draupad. This lcind of knowledge on the part of the Dignified persona

is brought into play again when, in an efE0i-t to undermine the Kuru a m p before the war tells m a that his true identity as Km6's oldest son entides him to the

begins,

kingdom. In both instances&sqa uses knowledge of true identities in an attempt to avoid violence.

The second law question in the S v a y q i m sequenw is that of the pdymdrous

48

d a g e o f h p a d . Here, there is no voiced input h m &*a - he is not told about the mmgement, though he walks in just after Y

u ~ makes m the l i d decision. It does

nut seem too much of8 stretch, however, to view the thing ofKrsca3sentrance as a way of inserting an hpficii bI&g

0x1the situation.

This is borne out later by his giving of

lavish wedding Ms,and serving to I d them into the Khiiryjava Tract. This kadership position in travet wiII in t h e be taken over by ~raupadi- KisnE - who, like the di@ed persona of Rsna,maintains an ever present awareness of the law, albeit for persod reasons.

2. The Friend

When Aijuna goes to five in the forest afler entering a room in which Yudhiqhira and Draupadi are alone together*a violation of the agreement between the brothers regardiig their mutual w8e7another ofIQs+a3spersonas appears. Tiis Krsqa is the intimate fiend of Arjuna, and there is less formula to be found in the text when this persona, which wiil be d e d the "Friend"penom, and Arjuna get together. As soon as m q a finds Arj~naat Prabhik, the iatter's tour of the sacred places is over. The two, who were subtly equated during the S m m v m as being among the only ones who could defeat K p a , begin their career as "the two K & y a s I t by enjoying food, music7actors and

h c e m on Mt. M a t a h . K@pyi7s Friend persona is dmys ready to enjoy himseff - his house in Dvihkii is filled with npkasurabIethings'' - and adventure - it is he who suggests that A@ma aMua his sister sub^^^ One wundm if the suggestion is made,

49

say%b

as

m SubhadrS mi@ not choose M*unaifgiven a choice, or essentially

because abducting a girl is an enjoyable pastime. These are, after all, the same two who laugh while wreaking havoc in the KXndava Forest. The Kh@&va Forest sequence starts when the two

as express a desire to

p k y in the water. The informality between this Friend persona and Arjuna is a true

departure fiom the behavior seen between Qsna and anyone other than b*unaas well as a departure fiom the interaction of any of the Piindavas with one another. The Piincjavas never seem to become boisterous in the way the two &*as

do, but rather maintain a

degree of resewe. The brothers and Draupadi play in the water together during the exile

in Book

but the unpreciictabk quality of the ArjunaKrsna relationship is unique to

those two. This Ieaps out at the reader immediately and mdces the whale Khiiqdava Forest sequence seem even more of a digression fiorn the main thread than some of the inset stories, at

in tone. When the fire comes to them in the form of a brahrnin and

states his request that they make it possible for him to bum the forest, the only question

the two have is whether or not he can provide the weapons for the task. Carnage ensues. The Dignified persona, concaned about whether or not an act is lawfbl, is not in attendance. Mer the fact, a voice announces, d m ex machinu, that Q%a and Arjuna are the divine pair N m and

~~~ So the two

*.

are redeemed. Nonetheless,

the s a p a c e is jarring, ifody bemuse of Aijuna's laughter during it. Though this is not a major plot-moving sequmw, something si@mt is gained by Arjuna in this episode: "I%eGiipjhmbow. He a h wins the admiration of his father,

50

hdm,who &er fEhg to arrest the onslaught of the two K$pym grants them boons. Arjm requests weapons as his boon, which is not sqrisbg. Krga, on the other hana

asks for the eternal fiendship ofArj*una. This is a strangely humble request, and a rather tender one in the & m a t h of so testoaaonechuged a sequence. This is a profinent example of the mprediaabw ofthe Friend persona When the two return and teH Yudhi$hira of their adventure and that the D h v a , May%who was spared by Axjunk is going to build a great haLI worthy of him, &?na becomes di

ed again, and before

shedding a tear at bidding his sister fieweIl- the Digdied persona is more sentimental than the Friend persona where Subhad6 is concerned - he asks Kunth leave to go, as is proper.

3. The Tricker

It is in the Digdied persona that he returns to hdraprastha soon thereer. This wiU quickIy give way to the " Wily'' K g p , however, which seems such a departure fiom

ed self and is the subject of much discussion. Yu&igha sends for him to probe the question of the legitimacy of his perfiormhg the Ejasiya, for a seer has declared he is

to be the universal sovereign then ~~~s

expresses his belief in Yudhis~hira'sworthiness and

the obstacles to e x d g the plan. It is this explmation which brings out

the active, clever, and tricly persona of K y p , which will be d e d the 'Widy" persona.

He tens Yudhighin that King J-ciha

must be killed befire the REj-

can take

place, b e a m he is oppressing dl the other monarchs a d is in fbct going to d c e them

51

all to Rudra. Even so, one is led to wonder, at least for a moment, whether he is in part seizing the opportunity to settle old scores, since he has mentioned that Jaxibapdha has been

ing his people. What's more, the king of Cedi, Sisupala, who is JaWqdha's

ally, is usurping the title of Supreme Person, a fact which chafes him. &spa in this very human, worldly persona has personal problems with both of these kings. When K&qa arrives at Indraprastha, the familiar greetings take place and there is a strong formula element to the language. Yudhima even tells Qsna that he is being consulted because he is "above anger and desire" ffl: 12,40). Praise is ubiquitous in the MahSbh3atv; it is a social convention to which the reader becomes accustomed. Its use

at this moment serves to heighten the effect, therefore, when immediately thereafter, Krs~a expresses his feelings of anger towards Jarasamdha. That is when Krsna's persona begins to shift out of strict dignity into a more human form which will demonstrate a capacity for deceit.

m ~ 'way s of dealing with the problem of JaEsarpdha involves subterfuge, despite the fact that he says that one can be fearless when attacking "with a policy that is found in the rules" (TI: 16,3). The ends, it seems, justify the means. This is a precedent for

ma,and it is strange, because he seems to arrive at it quite easily, without exploring other possibilities. In a reversal, kjuna and hi ma along with Rsna, disguise themselves

as brahmins, not to protect themselves as in the past, but to kill someone else. Their behavior before they even get to JarSswpdha stands out, because they seem, inexplicably, to behave like thugs. The three infiltrate the residence of Jarkaq~dha,who, despite their

52

best efforts to aggravate him, remains amazingly polite for some time. At last a fight is agreed upon, and ~ h m i wrestles a the king for thirteen days, at the end of which, in a tactic worthy of Br'er Rabbit, mqa says to Bhima, "One should not lay hold of an enemy who is exhausted and press him in a match, for if he is pressed he might give up the spirit entirely.

So don'tpress the long, Bhima." (Emphasis added). And that is the end of JarZsapdha. Bhi'ma promptly squeezes the life out of him. The loyalty of the other kings having been obtained by freeing them from Jacsarpdha and the world having been conquered by Yudhi

's brothers, the Rajasiiya

can now proceed, and m n a can go back to the Dignified persona. It is Qsna who has essentially been asked for permission by Yudhi-

to perform the Rajasiiya. His status

as Supreme Person is being solidified in the text, and yet it is not quite there yet: he will be

openly challenged on this point at the Rajama.

4. The Divine

The issue of identity and of mistaken identity comes up time and again in the

Mahsbhaata, and in the incident involving Sisupala, a character who in past lives has met his fate at the hands of other avatars of Visy, it plays a central role. Incensed that the

first guest gift has been given to ma,who is neither a king nor, in the opinion of &i~pala, the elder of the gathering, tkupiila launches into a tirade against Krsna and

Y u & w Yudhi-

attempts to calm him, and hism ma tries to explain who Qsna

actually is, in the process lending some credence to the concept o f m a being made up of

personas, including one which is divine: All of you must agree that he, fully accomplished teacher, father and guru, is to be honored and worthy of honor! Priest,teacher, eligible son-in-law, snataka, friend, king - all this is @$ke&, and therefore Acyuta stands honored. For Fsna alone is the origin ofthe worlds as well as their dissolution, for Kga's sake is all that exists here offered" @:3 5,20-24) Still, Sibpala will not back down, and amidst a purple torrent of insults likens Krsqa to a hypocritical goose who, when exposed as an egg-eater, was killed by the other buds (11:38,30-38). $isupala will not get as many chances to recant as Duryodhana will have

chances to prevent the war, but he will get quite a few. Unfortunately for him, the

Dignified persona of K p a has his limits, and the hundred indulgences Rsna promised Sisupala's mother he would give her son are exhausted. A very short time after casting aspersions on Kr+s

wife, ~ukmid,$isupalatsinner radiance is united with Krsna, his

head having been disunited from his body. Krsna truly loses his temper for the first time when he slays &hipala. With this act

the Dignified -a

who fights enemies, is established. Thus far the only "fighting" he has

done has been in the KhQdava Forest in which those killed were not human and could not fight back. Furthermore, he seemed to be Arjuna's deputy in that instance. There, he was

in the guise of the Friend persona. In the JarSmpdha incident, the Wily persona was present and m a ' s role was one of pulling hi ma's strings. He will behave much the same way in the war with the Kauravas. But with the killing of &iupala, &%a's

manliness is established. This assures that he will not be like Bhisma, who, though not to be dismissed as a force in the story, is limited as a man,and is mocked at one point, due to

54

his celibacy. Similarly, D -

*

a is hampered, in his case because he is blind. &hpala

says: "As a marriage is to a eunuch, as a show to a blind man, so this royal honor [the guest gift] is to you Madhusiidana, who are no king" (11:34,20). For K g p to have the

authority to speak the Bhagavad Gi'tSlater on, even though he is a god at that point, it is necessary that he be a complete man by the standards of the epic, as well as being a god. If he isn't, he can't lecture Arjuna, who faces the prospect of leading so many to their deaths. Having taken human form, he must be an exemplary man. ~isupala'staunts can't be left unanswered. When m n a is in the guise of a man, he can't allow what no other

man would tolerate to be done to him. As always, in keeping with custom, when he has killed f%upala and is ready to depart, he does not fail to ask Kund's leave before doing so. When he later joins the Pwdavas in the forest after the dicing, he will have a battle story which reenforces the manliness which has been established in the Sisupiila incident. In addition, he needs a very good excuse to offer ~raupadiwhen she demands of him an explanation for the terrible humiliation she suffered in the dicing sabha, implying that he let her down. She wants to know why he failed to give her lawful defense in the dicing sabha as a god,though later it turns out that, in fact, he was behind the impressive sari trick. Even so, sometimes the demands of one persona are in conflict with the duties of

another.

There is, however, a greater

ce to m a ' s absence from the dicing sabha,

a significanceto which ~raupadiis not privy. In the case ofthis scene, it is his absence

which is the point. The episode has been well summed up: It is altogether fitting that the destructive dice game, which has dissolved the royal relationship and identities ofDraupadi and the Pqtjavas, has occurred in Kgya's absence. As Biardeau has shown so well, in the symbolism of the praiaya that pervades the epic at many points, the destructive role of 6iva is counterbalanced by the reconstitutive role of Vi~u-Nadyqa.(Hutebeitel90). What Draupadi sees as %a's

failure in this instance is in essence definitive proof of his

divinity. In the battle against Salva, the battle which ostensibly kept him from the dicing,

Kqqa must actually do combat with an enemy who is prepared for him and knows wizardry. This insures that K r p ' s credentials as a warrior are completely valid, though

he himself will never do combat again in the epic: he doesn't have to. He's shown that he can fight as a man,and he is a god. When he comes to the Pik$avas after they have begun their exile in the forest, before Draupadi says one word, he speaks in no uncertain terms of the destruction which will befall Duryodhana and his allies. He also says, "One who serves with trickery

deserves to be killedt8(in:13,6). This coming from K r s who, ~ though by no means evil is not above a little trickiness if it expedites his purposes, makes one wonder exactly what is m y t s definition of "trickery." It seems at this point as if he will actually do combat himself when the war comes. When Qypexpresses his wrath,Arjuna gives an account of w

s past lives and also a kind of laudatory hymn to him, discussing various aspects

of his divinity: "At the end of the eon you dissolve all creatures, Madhusiidana, and havingmade the world your own within your very seS, you remain thereafter, enemy

56

burner" (111:13,34). While K q g p is absorbed by the bellicose aspect of his Dignified persona, Arjuna feels compelled to remind him of the Divine persona which has yet to make its appearance, though the absence from the dice game has provided a forewarning of its existence. Arjuna calms him because, "he seemed prone to bum down the creatures" (HI:I3J). His reactions are those of a man when in that form, but he has a god's power,

and must be aware of who he is.

5. The Divine and the Human

All but the unfortunate Sisupiila acknowledge the Divine aspect of Kqna early on,

but it is not until the astonishing and utterly unique speech of MZrkvdeya, a sage who visits the Pedavas at

a in a divine form. In his surreal vision, that K r ~ appears

the seer walks the barren planet when the dissolution of the world has come and

encounters Kgna as a small child in a tree. The haunting quality of this single image stands out from the text much in the way @gaysrevelation to Aijuna does in the

Bhagavad instances the

only in Markandeya's vision the world has already ended. In both who presents himself though awesomely divine, engages with a

human being in his ultimate perceivable guise. It is a radically intimate act in both instances. "Surely, not even the Gods know me as I really am, brahmin, but out of love for you I shall declare the manner in which I create this world," M a tells Markedeya (in:i 87,l).

The Bhagavad G& takes place in a crisis moment,when the opposing forces are

57

poised for their conflict. Though the session with Markedeya does not occur at an equally precipitous juncture,it does take place during the exile, which is something of a prolonged crisis. The difference in the two situations is emphasized by the proximity of

the divine in each. The BfiagavadG&for Arj*unais an experience of direct apprehension, whereas what Mkkandeya relates is all story within story. This is to say that no one sitting with him there at Kamyaka has any first-hand knowledge of the divine persona at this point, though faith that this is Qna's true identity abounds. So like the Friend, the Dignified and the Wily personas, the Divine persona, which is the basis for the others, waits for the appropriate conditions to make itself known, and chooses the degree of manifestation based on the exigencies of the situation.

The revelation of the Divine persona does not preclude a return to any other persona. Furthermore, by using the body of a man esna becomes subject to the human condition. The scene in which R ~ a ' wife, s Satyabhama, asks Draupadi if she uses "a special ablution, spells," or "herbs" to keep her five husbands happy is evidence in this regard which borders on the comic (111:222,1). Ostensibly, she is prepared to give spells a try if~raupadiendorses them, and yet her husband is a god. That particular fact about

Q-ga never comes up in the conversation. In fact, h u p a d i vehemently opposes the use of magic and potions because of the harm they can cause, as ifmsna's divinity has no

bearing whatsoever on whether or not he can be controlled or harmed in this way. For the purposes of the discussion between the two women, IQyp is a mortal man who is to be worshiped like a god because he is a husband, not because he is Vigu. This home-

58

economics digression seems not to be intended to inform the reader about Krsya as much

as about running a household and virtuous behavior for women. Even so, it stands out simply because it follows Markandeya's vision by fewer than a hundred pages. More to the point, of course, are the actions of K&na himself. He will manifest each of his personas again in the period leading up to and including the Great War. The dominant persona in *a

during this period is the Dignified, and yet the Divine persona

can be sensed very close to the surface in Kqqa to a greater degree than ever before. It is Qsna who gives early impetus to the campaign of diplomacy between the rival factions, though his loyalty to the Piipjavas remains. Peace would certainly be the best for everyone, so Krsna does have his fiend's interests at heart. Earlier, however, he said in no uncertain terms that the earth would "drink the blood" of Duryodhana and his allies. The scene in which JQma is approached by Arjuna and Duryodhana is quite even-

handed on the surface. The Dignified persona is the man the two supplicants encounter, but the aura of the Divine persona permeates the scene, reminiscent as it is of "Visry AnantGyin, Visnu asleep and reclining on the serpent Ananta or

whose awakening

signals the dawn of a new kalpd' (Hiltebeitel 107). It is Arjuna's awareness of this, as well as Duryodhana's complete lack of awareness which determines the outcome. The decision to give Arjuna the first choice seems to be based not on his friendship with Krsqa but because he displays a proper attitude towards him. Without even knowing the identities of the two supplicants, looking at the tableau there can be no doubt which has positioned himselfin such a way as to make the god receptive.

6. Relationships Between the Personas

Just as the Dignified persona has begun to reveal aspects of the Divine, there has been a subtle evolution in the Friend persona as well. When Sayjaya encounters Krsqa and Arjuna on his mission from Dwariispa the Bacchus-like image of Rsna, who, like Arjuna is "drunk with mead," (V:58,5) immediately reestablishes the Krsqa who frolicked with his friend in an earlier and more innocent time. Now, however, circumstances are different and rather than going off; the two Krsna's have secluded themselves within the Pwdava camp. Still, they display the informality between themselves which characterized their friendship: "I noticed that K&vats feet rested in *unats lap, and great-spirited Wuna's feet lay on m q a and Satyabhama" (V:58,7). In addition to recalling the early depiction of the -a/Axjuna

bond this image presents itself like a mythic tableau of

young gods and their consorts, thus bringing an aura of the Divine persona into the scene

- an example of simultaneity of personas in Mna.

In support of this idea of the implied

presence of the divine is the fact that there are others who may not approach the group. Arjunafs son Abhimanyu and the twins are not allowed to invade the privacy of these, their

family members. This is a remarkable detail considering that Abhimanyu is also the son of m a ' s sister and the twins are semi-divine, as well as being husbands of Draupadi. They a s .There is a special chemistry between are clearly not in the same league as the two m

this pair. Who but Arjuna could "nudge" K r p "in order to prompt him to speak?" (V:5 8,l4).

60

When he speaks, "thundering like the Chastiser of Paka," (V:58,29)the Friend

penma, who hdped Arjtma bum the Khlhdava Forest, comes through loud and clear: 4cMerup plentifbl s&mst give fws to the brahmhs, take pleasure in wives and sons, for great danger is upon you!" (V:S&19). He furthermore declares that because Draupad cried out for him when she was in the hands ofthe Kauravas?he is in debt to her and therefore is backing Arjuna. There is no mention of M*una9schoosing him over the

use of an army in Ikihkii. There is no mention of the loyalty owed to both sides. The Friend persona is here out of loyalty to and deep &&on

for Arjuna, ~raupadi,and the

otherst nut out of obligation incurred by Arjuna7schoice. The youthfbl extravagance and aggressiveness of the Friend persona are absent when next Rsqa is consuited about the impending war. It is now the Dignified Rsna who presents his opinions. He again advocates diplomacy and resolves to go to the

R

g a s himself It seems, however?that the effort is simply a gesture on the part of

the Dignified IQyy to do everything possi%leppointless though it may be, to prevent the war. In this way*the Piindavas will be entering the conflict l a ~ l l y having , been given no alternative save absuhte destitution. This seems stightly ironic in light of the fact that -a

is involved in some of the rule bending which takes place during the war itseK most

notably hryodhana's death. That, however, is not the work of the D i m m i k e lQyp, but rather the W d y D ~ K$ya. e

This final attempt at avoiding the war is &ed

out by the ~

~ K y p , eand he is d

on his pard- On his way he will not stay in any Iodge set up for him along the way by

61

hryodhana, thus avoidoig$dYatsmistake of accepting hospitality, which indebted him to Duryodham This act in turn leads to Yudhighh's first dubious piece of behavior. &sea is also d m o n m h g that he is not impartial and won't try to seem so. He refises D~ariigra'shospitality and stays with Vicfura, the best of all men on the DErtariis$a side, though margin&&

due to his origins.

What makes this sequence memorable is the miramlous presence of heavenly seers at the find peace-talks. The ground is prepared by their presence for the revelation of the thirty thumb-sized gods which spring fkom mqa's body. This event, in conjunction with the a p p m c e of the seers, can be seen as a greater act of compassion than the

MZrkandeya vision or the Arjuna vision, The reason for this is that in this case?there is no fiendship nor respect between fisna and the witness for whom it is intended. Instead, someone completely undeserving ofthis sort ofgift is given it, and f d s to understand what it is. Now the Pihdavas and m a can rightfblly declare their bIame~essnessfor the war.

The element of divinity seems to build as the epic progresses. This is appropriate, and not mhcidentd. The work itselfbecomes h ~ ~ h gmore l y focussed as the war approaches?and it is this which deepens -a

in what seems like an organic way rather

than m imposed way. The Friend persona is the one whkb, at first?seem not to fit, being the most ~

~a s p a ofthe 1 god. ~ But when ~ thiss persona reappm and is shown to us

tinugh the eyes of the devotee, Sqjaya, he is tinged with a divinity?as is Arjunq the "other" K p y 'Both were anointed with sanddwood paste md wore gadancis, h e robes,

62

and the adoment of celestial ornaments" (V:58,6). The D h a is certainly subtle. Though *a

is perhaps not subject to it, he does

in fkt adhere to it under certain circumstances. He takes on the role ofarnbassador for

the P@c!avas because, he says, even if he is u m c c w he will gain merit. As a man, gaining merit may have some value for him, and yet this motivation does not sound

completety convincing. As for preventing the war,he says it ain't be done before he leaves on his mission. Perhaps as a god he wants to fhd those human situations in which a person is suddenly receptive to the divine despite themsefves, and the onset of war is such a situation.

7. The Whole

The multiple personas of K i g i p may not seem to create a coherent character and attempts have been made to disentangle and explain the various sources which have d t e d in the m n aof the MdSh*@a. However, comp&g the Book of Vi6ta with

Nalu d D m q m f i * hshown that the epic embraces the use of masks and that consistency of identity for its own sake is no virtue in the epic world-vim. Adherence to the m

a is not accomplished by mahanid adherence to my dogma. W i t h the

M d a h a m , therdore?Q ~ a ' s b c o n ~ s a e can e be seen

IS the pinnack

of seK

mastay, in that he is in no way confined by identity?but rather contains it. For the

average person, this mi@ lead to insanity - in the B k g d G& jut a glimpse of the

hck of boundaries which is the d i t y of Qyy is nearly too much for Arjuna to bear.

63

K@qa is, thedore, not an marchist seeking, by means ofthe example of his pIasticity, to undermine the teadings of an ordered society, though i!iihpiila implies that this is indeed the impact ofhis influence (It34). There is no question that K q y does instruct other characters to break the xules of M i w e on more than one occasion. But the paradox of Q n a is that his personal i n c o ~ a e n and q unlasdbl advice - those things which fiom one point of view can legitimately be called

ic - are in fact the working of the & m a .

Whether the Chat War is interpreted as the battle ofthe ego to r d i e the A m h m identity as Sukthankar asserts, the battle of the devm and m r m relived

as Biardeau believes, or what Hikebeitel &s the c4strugglefor sovereignty," it is a war which must take place. Qsyt, with d his personas and inconsistencies, is therefore an agent of the &-a.

From his non-intewention in the dice game onward, he uses his

personas to do guide events as the inevitable war approaches.

h addition, Kgna's personas demonmte the relativity ofthe "reality" of conventiod ideas of identity This is in keeping with much of what Krsca b ~ g tos the

Mdahaaa, hasmuch as seeming conmdiction is so oiten his m&s

operdi.

Nowhere is this more evident than in the B k g m d G hitself which somehow combines Yipparedy wntradktory pairs of antithesis into a single systematic worId-vie$* (Roy 4). There is no other character in the epic who could mnh&@y convey the GhZ It requires a character who integrates and synthesizes &spaate elements even within himself There is an argument that in the Gaii and in +a,

what exists today is not an

e f f d e synthesis but rather blatant h t q o l a ~ o aW d regard to the pMosopGd

strands which coexist in the Gi?& the foUowing rebuttal is not insignificant: If the combination of these apparently mnm&aov forms of thought were proof of rehandling and additions in the t e then we must regard the whole of the Upanisadic and h d c literature as wen as theVedanta Sutra as throughout rehandled and prohwly interpolated (Roy 13). Whether this overstates the case or not, the fact remains that diversity of perspective within one work is not problematic within the antext of the philosophid tradition of the sub-

continent and within the context of the epic. On the mntmyydiversity of perspective could nearIy be called a h h a r k of these things. However it is that the difKerent dements of the Gitiicame together- and however it is that the @spa of the epic can be desmibed in terms of

his "personas7*what is important is that rather than lacking coherence, what is reflected is a world-view in which no effort is made to condense or s h p w the reality of existence, or even human perceptions of existence7into a single definition. This is a great strength of the

M&ah&&a, and one ofthe reasons that it continues to intrigue the modem reader. The m a of the Mdahada, then, can be said to embody something essential abwt the tradition kom which he arises. He succeeds in doing so, in a sense, by viitue of the &ct that he is made up ofthese samh@ydispmte personas. His fluctuation of identity is not unlike the henotheism of the Vedic literature - that henotheism which gave way to the Upanisadk concept of a~ all-pervading Brahman. Q q d s revelation of that ultimate reality within himelfmakes hixn a character whose very being spans tt vast range ofpMompkd

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION The preceding chapters show that the Mahaharaga raises many issues about the nature of identity but takes no definitive position about it. K w a seeks his identity passionately. At the same time V@a, who shares key elements of Karqa's biography, does not share his obsession with the past. The PZindavas lose one set of identities for another, but return to themselves born anew and honed for the inevitable battle. Krspa changes himself at will. His example is that of the identity as a vehicle, connected to but distinct from the Self. So, as stated no definitive position is taken regarding the nature of identity. This is not to say, however, that no insights are put forward on this topic. The three cases examined here are examples of glimpses of the reality of the Self placed throughout the epic. Each glimpse provides just an idea of one aspect of a whole which cannot be described. It is a more oblique approach to revealing truth than a pithy "Tat tvam ast," butlheMahab

teaches all of its lessons obliquely. Repetition of a given theme is

something one finds throughout the epic, and the theme of identity is no different. By revisiting the question and approaching it from different perspectives the epic

communicates, if nothing else, the complexity of reality of being human.

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