Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark
Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark
Rikki E. Watts
Baker Academic A Division of Baker Book House Co Grand Rapids, Michigan 49516
© 1 9 9 7 b y J. C. B . M o h r ( P a u l Siebeck) Reprinted October 2000 by Baker Academic a division of Baker Book H o u s e C o m p a n y P.O. B o x 6 2 8 7 , G r a n d R a p i d s , M I 4 9 5 1 6 - 6 2 8 7 with permission of the copyright holder T h i s b o o k first a p p e a r e d in 1 9 9 7 a s Isaiah's New Exodus and Mark, v o l u m e 8 8 in W i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u m N e u e n T e s t a m e n t , 2 d series, p u b l i s h e d b y J . C . B . M o h r ( P a u l S i e b e c k ) , P.O. B o x 2 0 4 0 , D - 7 2 0 1 0 T u b i n g e n , G e r m a n y . P r i n t e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a All r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . N o p a r t o f t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , s t o r e d in a r e t r i e v a l s y s t e m , or transmitted in a n y form o r b y any m e a n s — f o r example, electronic, photocopy, r e c o r d i n g — w i t h o u t t h e p r i o r w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e publisher. T h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n is b r i e f q u o t a t i o n s in printed reviews.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Watts, RikkiE. Isaiah's n e w E x o d u s in M a r k / Rikki E . Watts.—[Rev., u p d a t e d ed.]. p.
a n . — (Biblical s t u d i e s l i b r a r y )
Includes bibliographical references a n d indexes. ISBN 0-8010-2251-7 (paper) 1. Bible. N . T . M a r k — C r i t i c i s m , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , e t c . 2 . Bible. N . T . M a r k . — R e l a t i o n t o t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t . 3 . Bible. O . T . — R e l a t i o n t o M a r k . 4 . Bible. O.T. I s a i a h — R e l a t i o n t o M a r k . 5 . Bible. N . T . M a r k — R e l a t i o n t o I s a i a h . 6 . Bible. O . T — Q u o t a t i o n s in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . I. Title. II. S e r i e s . BS2585.2.W36
2000
,
226.3 06—dc21
00-057924
F o r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a c a d e m i c b o o k s , r e s o u r c e s for C h r i s t i a n l e a d e r s , a n d all n e w r e l e a s e s a v a i l a b l e f r o m B a k e r B o o k H o u s e , v i s i t o u r w e b site: http: / / www.bakerbooks.com
Preface
This b o o k is a revised version o f a doctoral thesis, outlined in papers read to the S N T S special study group o n ' T h e U s e o f the O T in the N T ' ( U K ) and to the C a m b r i d g e N e w T e s t a m e n t S e m i n a r in Easter T e r m 1 9 8 9 , and submitted for the d e g r e e o f D o c t o r o f Philosophy w h i l e at J e s u s C o l l e g e C a m b r i d g e in 1990. T h e revision consists primarily o f s o m e updating and, in taking a d v a n t a g e o f the r e m o v a l o f the w o r d limit, s o m e structural r e a r r a n g e m e n t , extra detailing and reformulating o f selected a r g u m e n tation, and the addition o f two n e w chapters. T h e u p d a t i n g e n a b l e d m e to interact with articles, m o n o g r a p h s , and commentaries—notably
R. H. G u n d r y ' s
published since the original submission. The Way of the Lord
massive
work
on
Mark—
O n e m o n o g r a p h in particular—
by Joel Marcus of Glasgow University (1992)—has
two chapters that gratifyingly offer independent support to elements o f the thesis as originally proposed.
T h e structural rearrangements a m o u n t e d to
laying out the material m o r e in keeping with the literary structure o f M a r k as I u n d e r s t a n d it.
T h i s entailed b r e a k i n g up and m o v i n g s o m e o f the
o r i g i n a l t h e s i s c h a p t e r s into different
sequences.
Some
arguments,
primarily those related to J e s u s and the Isaianic 'servant' materials, h a v e b e e n rearranged and supported with further detail.
Finally, the two n e w
chapters cover materials not able to b e treated in the original submission: C h a p t e r 2 , 'History as Hermeneutic: the Role o f I deol ogy in C o m m u n i t y Self-Understanding' w h i c h originally occupied three brief p a r a g r a p h s in the t h e s i s ' C o n c l u s i o n , a n d C h a p t e r 9, ' I s a i a h ' s P r o m i s e a n d M a l a c h i ' s Threat: Part 2: Arrival in J e r u s a l e m ' , w h ic h deals with the third and final section of M a r k (i.e. chs. 1 1 - 1 6 ) . I would
a l s o l i k e gratefully
to a c k n o w l e d g e all t h o s e w h o
have
contributed to attaining what at the outset seemed an impossible goal. It is easy to forget, in hindsight, what a quantum leap it is from merely longish e s s a y s , to a (hopefully) substantial b o o k .
M y d e b t to m a n y is great.
vi
Preface
W i t h o u t t h e s u b s t a n t i a l financial a s s i s t a n c e o f a F e l l o w s h i p from
the
C h u r c h o f t h e P i o n e e r s (and D r . R o b e r t C o o l e y , P r e s i d e n t o f G o r d o n Conwell
Theological Seminary, who
encouraged
me
to a p p l y ) ,
an
exceedingly munificent Tyndale H o u s e Research G r a n t over several years, an A m e r i c a n Friends o f C a m b r i d g e S c h o l a r s h i p , several allocations from J e s u s C o l l e g e B a n e F u n d , g e n e r o u s help from the P C C o f St. B a r n a b a s , C a m b r i d g e , a n d o u r m a n y friends in the U n i t e d S t a t e s , in
particular
H a r o l d and W e n d y J a c o b i , and in Australia, including our c o m m u n i t y at Truth and Liberation C o n c e r n (Melbourne, Australia), A n d y and D a p h n e C a l l o w , and the R e v . R o s s and J e n n i G r e e n , this thesis c o u l d not h a v e been completed.
The Bible College of Victoria and Regent College,
V a n c o u v e r , k i n d l y a l l o w e d m e to e x t e n d a visit to the latter so as to include several w e e k s at Tyndale House, C a m b r i d g e , in order to finish the last half of the final chapter during Michaelmas term, 1995. I a m e s p e c i a l l y grateful
to m y s u p e r v i s o r ,
Rev. Dr.
Christopher
R o w l a n d , n o w the D e a n I r e l a n d ' s P r o f e s s o r o f H o l y S c r i p t u r e in the University o f Oxford, for his ready availability, thoughtful criticisms, and gracious g o o d h u m o u r . A n excellent supervisor, h e allowed just the right b a l a n c e b e t w e e n r o o m to p u r s u e w h a t e v e r interests m i g h t arise and the n e e d to k e e p the p r o j e c t w i t h i n a r e a s o n a b l e t i m e f r a m e .
The Lady
M a r g a r e t ' s P r o f e s s o r o f D i v i n i t y in the U n i v e r s i t y o f C a m b r i d g e , D r . M o r n a H o o k e r , also kindly supervised m e for o n e term, and h e r m a n y pertinent o b s e r v a t i o n s and clarity o f w r i t i n g h a v e h e l p e d m e greatly. Professor H o o k e r , correctly in m y view, alerted scholarship to the m a n y e a s y a s s u m p t i o n s m a d e about J e s u s ' relationship to the so-called Servant of Isaiah.
H e r w o r k h e r e w a s s e m i n a l a n d a l t h o u g h I w i l l o n several
occasions b e g to differ it is only with the greatest respect. Drs. Bill L a n e , H. G . M . W i l l i a m s o n , D o n C a r s o n , R e v . R . T . F r a n c e (who introduced m e to M a r k and in w h o s e class this thesis b e g a n ) , and the m e m b e r s o f t h e C a m b r i d g e N e w T e s t a m e n t S e m i n a r and o f t h e S N T S special s t u d y g r o u p o n ' T h e U s e o f the O T in the N T ' ( U K ) h a v e all contributed
t h r o u g h their k i n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t , thoughtful
comments,
and gracious criticisms. T h a n k s are also due to m y Professors at GordonC o n w e l l Theological Seminary, Drs. D o u g l a s Stuart, G a r y Pratico, Christy W i l s o n , T. D a v i d G o r d o n , and particularly D r s . M e r e d i t h K l i n e , G o r d o n Hugenberger, and epecially G r e g Beale for their inspiration and instruction
vii
Preface
on the use o f the O T in the N T . Very special thanks are due to Dr. G o r d o n D . F e e a n d h i s wife M a u d i n e .
G o r d o n h a s p r o v e n a d e a r friend
and
h o n o u r e d m e n t o r , w h o i n t r o d u c e d m e to N T studies, in p a r t i c u l a r t h e practice o f e x e g e s i s , and w h o s e integration o f a passion for Christ a n d a sharp mind h a v e profoundly shaped b y life. I w i s h also to t h a n k m y former fellow students at C a m b r i d g e and the courteous secretarial and library staff at T y n d a l e House—a truly wonderful e s t a b l i s h m e n t — f o r their i n n u m e r a b l e k i n d n e s s e s a n d a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g m y time there, especially Dr. Steven Meyer, Dr. Peter H e a d , R e v . Dr. J o h n Kleinig, Dr. Paul W a g n e r , R e v . Dr. Michael T h o m p s o n , Dr. B r e n t K i n m a n , R e v . Dr. M a r k D e v e r , D r . S t e v e n Smith, R e v . Dr. M a r k L a b b e r t o n , R e v . D a v i d D e b o y s — w h o w a s an exceptionally helpful librarian—and last b u t not least the W a r d e n , R e v . Dr. Bruce Winter. O n m y return to Australia M r s . R o s D e v e n i s h a n d M r s . K a t h y C a d d i e , the librarians at the B i b l e C o l l e g e o f V i c t o r i a , w e r e e v e r helpful in facilitating inter-library l o a n s d u r i n g the a n t i p o d e a n s u m m e r s o f 1993-5, w h e n m u c h o f this r e v i s i o n took place. R e v . D r . C o l i n K r u s e helped w i t h s o m e o f the proof-reading. K e n W a d e , a student assistant at B.C.V., kindly undertook the exceedingly o n e r o u s and thankless task o f compiling the indices w h i c h h e c o n t i n u e d e v e n after graduation.
M y B C V teaching assistants, W e s t a n J o h n s o n , a n d
Ian W r a g g h a v e b o t h b e e n o f considerable help. Scot Becker, m y teaching assistant at R e g e n t h a s also laboured hard and long in the final correlation and checking o f the indices. N o n e o f the a b o v e , o f course, are in any w a y responsible for errors o r deficiencies w h i c h m a y h a v e r e m a i n e d .
A s this b o o k w a s s u b m i t t e d in
camera-ready c o p y , I h a v e d o n e m y best to detect a n d eradicate errors— v o l u n t e e r p r o o f r e a d e r s h a v e h e l p e d in places—but I find proofing m y o w n work m o s t difficult. Consequently, I sincerely apologise to readers in advance for a n y mistakes that h a v e slipped through. I a m delighted to e x p r e s s m y appreciation to Prof. D r . M a r t i n H e n g e l and Prof. D r . Otfried Hofius for accepting this b o o k for publication in the W U N T 2 series. M y genuine thanks, too, to the publisher and the editors for their c o n s i d e r a b l e p a t i e n c e o v e r the six years that h a v e elapsed s i n c e the offer o f publication w a s first made. M y induction into the ' b u s y n e s s ' o f a teaching post, the introduction of a new degree program by
the
Australian C o l l e g e o f T h e o l o g y , and then the recent m o v e o f o u r family to
viii
Preface
R e g e n t C o l l e g e , V a n c o u v e r , m e a n t that the p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e text for publication h a s been considerably delayed. Finally, I wi sh to dedicate this b o o k to m y parents. Pastor and Mrs. E . S. Watts, b o t h n o w with the Lord, w h o trained m e in the w a y that I should go, to m y parents-in-law, Ian and Pauline Noble, w h o provided encourage m e n t and m u c h s u p p o r t , and e s p e c i a l l y to m y l o v e l y wife and
true
c o m p a n i o n , C a t h e r i n e , and our special children, S t e v e n and Rebecca, for their unfailing confidence and loving support over the years.
Summer Regent
1997 College,
Rikk E . Watts Vancouver
Table of Contents
Preface
v
Table of Contents
ix
Abbreviations
xv
Introduction
1
I.
Outline
5
II.
L i m i t a t i o n s and A s s u m p t i o n s
7
Chapter
1. Scholarship
on
the
OT
in Mark
9
I.
Introduction
9
II.
Survey
9
IE.
Chapter
a)
A.
M. Farrer
b)
P. C a r r i n g t o n
c)
O.
Piper
11
d)
E. C. Hobbs
12
e)
S. S c h u l z
13
f)
J. B o w m a n
15 16
g)
A.
Suhl
h)
H.
Anderson
17
i)
W . M. Swartley
19
j)
H.
C. Kee
20
k)
M. D. G o u l d e r
22
1)
W . S. V o r s t e r
23
m)
J. D . M . D e r r e t t
24 24
n)
M. D. H o o k e r
o)
W.
p)
R. S c h n e c k
Roth
25 26
Analysis
2.
History
27
as Hermeneutic:
Understanding I.
9 10
Introduction
Ideology
and Community
Self29 29
Table
X
II.
of
Contents
T h e Social F u n c t i o n o f I d e o l o g y
34
a)
Ideology: A Provisional Definition
34
b)
W e b e r : Social Relation a n d Social Interaction
36
c)
Ellul: T h e F o u n d i n g M o m e n t a n d t h e M e d i a t o r i a l R o l e o f I d e o l o g y
37
d)
T h e M e d i a of Ideology: Icon a n d Symbol
40
HI.
I d e o l o g y a n d Crisis
45
IV.
M a r k : O T and Ideology—History as Hermeneutic
47
3.
53
Chapter
Mark's
Introductory
I.
Introduction
n.
Mark's Opening
m.
The Citation
IV.
53 Sentence
55 57
a)
An
b)
T h e Function of M a r k l:2f
Early Gloss?
57 58
OT Sources a)
V.
Citation
61
Texts
61
OT Contexts a)
b)
63
E x o d u s 23:20
63
(i)
66
E x o d u s 23:20 a n d the H i s t o r y of T r a d i t i o n
M a l a c h i 3:1
67
(i)
Malachi and Exodus
71
(ii)
Malachi and Isaiah
73
(iii)
E x o d u s or Isaiah?
74
( i v ) M a l a c h i 3:1 a n d t h e H i s t o r y o f T r a d i t i o n c)
VI.
76
(i)
The Consolation: A n n o u n c e m e n t of the N E Deliverance
79
(ii)
Isaiah 4 0 : 3 a n d the H i s t o r y of Tradition
T h e Origin and Function of the Citation
I.
82
85
a)
T h e Origin of the Citation
85
b)
T h e F u n c t i o n of the Citation
86
c)
The Isaiah Ascription
88
VII. C o n c l u s i o n
Chapter
74
Isaiah 40:3
4.
The Markan
90
Prologue
91
Introduction
91
n.
E x t e n t o f the P r o l o g u e
91
HI.
Isaianic Materials in M a r k ' s P r o l o g u e
96
a)
T h e Gospel a n d the K i n g d o m of G o d
96
(i)
M a r k 1 : 1 , 1 5 : 'Apxf| T O 0 c u a y y c A i o u
. . . KTjpuaaaiv T O c v i a y v ^ o v
(ii)
M a r k 1:15: ...ryyyiKCV TI fiaoikeia T O 0 0 € O O
96 99
Table
b)
xi
The Baptism
102 1
(i)
M a r k 1:10: . . . €i6€i> a x i ^ o j i e v o u s
(ii)
M a r k 1:11: 2 d € i 6 \A6g jiov 6 aycwwos, (a)
c)
of Contents
Z u € i 6 mog
roxtg ovpavoxsg
102
kv o o \
107
jiou
109
(b)
... 6
(c)
. . . c v a o l €u6oKT)aa
OtyfltTFTITOS'
112
114
Other (i)
118
M a r k 1:13:
. . . flv \1€TOL
TCJV
118
G^piuv
IV.
Isaianic N e w E x o d u s T h e m e s in t h e Prologue
119
V.
Conclusion
120
Chapter
5. The Significance
of the Prologue
for Mark's
Literary
Structure I. II.
m.
Chapter
123
Assessment
124
a)
T h e 'Way':
b)
Galilee a n d Jerusalem
8:22/27 - 10:45/11:1
124 132
Mark's Isaianic N E
6. Jesus Mark
I.
123
T h e Markan Structure
as Yahweh-Warrior
134
and Israel's
NE Healer
in
1:16 - 8:21/26
137
Introduction
137
II.
T h e Distribution of Miracles
139
HI.
J e s u s a n d t h e Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r
140
a)
T h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r in Isaiah
140
b)
Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r I m a g e r y in M a r k
144
(i)
The Beelzebul Controversy—Jesus, Demons, a n d the Yahweh-Warrior
(ii)
(iii)
c)
T h e 'Strong M a n ' Saying
(b)
T h e Literary Function of the Controvesy
152
(c)
Summary
156
Isaiah's Nations a n d Mark's D e m o n s
146
157
(a)
The Gerasene Demoniac—Demons, Tombs, and Pigs
157
(b)
Military Imagery
159
(c)
The Calming of the Storm
160
(d)
The Ultimate Oppressors
163
(e)
J e w o r Gentile?
164
Mark's Literary Scheme
166
(iv) Eiiayyc'Xiov a n d the Warrior
167
Summary
168
I V . J e s u s a n d t h e Isaianic Healings a)
144
(a)
T h e H e a l i n g o f Israel in Isaiah's N E
169 170
xii
Table
V.
VI.
Chapter
of
Contents
b)
J e s u s a n d the Healing of Israel
172
c)
Summary
177
Jesus and the Isaianic N E Provision for Israel
177
a)
T h e P r o v i s i o n for I s r a e l in I s a i a h ' s N E
177
b)
I N E Feedings
178
in M a r k
Conclusion
7.
Isaiah's
179
Promise
... and Malachi's
Threat: Part 1:
Judical
Blinding
183
I.
Introduction
183
H.
Isaiah 6:9f a n d M a r k 4:12
184
a)
T h e M a r k a n Setting: T e n s i o n B e t w e e n J e s u s a n d Israel's L e a d e r s h i p
184
b)
Textual Matters
186
c)
Theivo
d)
I s a i a h 6 in C o n t e x t
e)
Clause
(i)
Rebellion as the P r e c u r s o r to Isaiah 6
188
(ii)
I s a i a h 6: I r o n i c J u d g e m e n t o n I d o l a t r o u s W i s d o m
190
(iii)
J u d g e m e n t Effected: T h e E n c o u n t e r w i t h A h a z
IV.
Chapter I.
193
(iv) Summary
194
M a r k ' s Beelzebul Controversy a n d the Parables C h a p t e r
194
(i)
Isaiah a n d the Beelzebul C o n t r o v e r s y
194
(ii)
Israel's L e a d e r s a n d Blinding J u d g e m e n t
197
(iii)
The C r o w d s , Outsiders, a n d Insiders
199
(iv) The
HI.
187 188
Disciples
f)
The
g)
Conclusion
205
'Parable Theory'
206 209
Isaiah 29:13 in M a r k 7:6f
210
a)
T h e M a r k a n Setting: Tension O v e r P u r i t y
210
b)
Textual Matters
213
c)
I s a i a h 2 9 in C o n t e x t
213
d)
I s a i a h 2 9 in M a r k 7
216
e)
Conclusion
218
Conclusion
8.
218
The Way of Yahweh's
NE:
Mark
8:21/26
- 10:45/11:1
The Disciples' Incomprehension
221 221
a)
Introduction
b)
Themes
c)
M a r k 8:14-21 a n d M a r k 4:1-34: the Feedings as Parables
226
d)
T h e Parable-Feedings a n d Jesus' Identity
228
e)
Jesus' Identity, Peter's Confession, a n d the ' W a y '
236
and Emphases
221 223
Table of Contents
II.
Blindness and Understanding: M a r k ' s ' W a y ' Section Introduction
239
b)
Isaiah a n d the N E ' W a y ' as the ' W a y ' of Y a h w e h ' s W i s d o m
240
(i)
Idolatry, Blindness, a n d the Rejection of Y a h w e h ' s W i s d o m
240
(ii)
R e s t o r a t i o n of Sight: Being T a u g h t by Y a h w e h
241
(iii) L e a d i n g t h e B l i n d in t h e I N E
243
(iv) Conclusion
247
T h e ' W a y ' in M a r k
247
(i)
'Blindness' and the Disciples
248
(ii)
Healing of Sight a n d the W a y of the C r o s s
250
d)
Jesus a n d the Isaianic 'Servant'-Teacher
252
e)
Conclusion
256
Jesus: Suffering 'Servant' and S o n of David?
257
a)
Introduction
257
b)
J e s u s a n d I s a i a h ' s 'Suffering S e r v a n t ' : t h e I N E a n d M a r k 1 0 : 4 5
258
(i)
O T S e t t i n g o f J e s u s ' Suffering: M a r k 9 : 1 2
259
(ii)
O T S e t t i n g o f J e s u s ' Suffering: t h e P a s s i o n P r e d i c t i o n s
c)
IV.
239
a)
c)
IE.
xiii
265
(iii) T h e P a s s i o n P r e d i c t i o n s a n d M a r k 1 0 : 4 5
269
( i v ) M a r k 10:45 and Isaiah 53
270
(v)
284
Concluding Considerations
Jesus and the Son of David
287
Conclusion
290
Excursus: Misplaced Miracles?
Chapter
9.
Isaiah's
Promise
... and Malachi's
291
Threat: Part 2: Arrival
Jerusalem
in 295
I.
Introduction
295
U.
The 'Triumphal' Entry
296
in.
a)
The INE Expectation of Yahweh's Return
b)
Jesus' Entry into J e r u s a l e m
J e s u s and the T e m p l e
296 304
310
a)
Introduction
b)
The Fig-Tree and Temple
310 311
c)
Jesus a n d the Temple Incident
318
(i)
Introduction
318
(ii)
The INE and the Temple
319
(iii) T h e I N E a n d t h e N a t i o n s
319
( i v ) Jesus, Isaiah 56:7, and the T e m p l e
322
(v)
Jesus, J e r e m i a h 7:11, and the T e m p l e
325
d)
Which Mountain? T h e Meaning of the Mountain-Moving Saying
332
e)
The Question About Jesus' Authority
338
f)
T h e Parable of the Vineyard and the Wicked Tenants
339
(i)
The Isaiah Context
340
(ii)
T h e P a r a b l e in M a r k
342
xiv
Table of
g)
IV.
V.
Chapter
Conclusion
348
The W o r d s of Institution: J e s u s ' Death and Isaiah's Servant? ... 349 a)
Introduction
349
b)
M a r k 14:24: T h e C u p Saying
351
c)
O t h e r Possible Allusions to Isaiah 5 0 and 5 3
362
d)
Conclusion
T h e Short E n d i n g of M a r k a)
VI.
Contents
' F o r they w e r e afraid
Conclusion
10.
Conclusions
365
365 365
367
369
I.
Observations
369
II.
Assessment
374
III.
IV.
a)
Introduction
374
b)
T h e A r g u m e n t from the Philosophy of Science
375
c)
T h e A r g u m e n t from Social Science
377
d)
Mark's Audience and OT Awareness
379
Conclusions
381
a)
In R e s p o n s e t o t h e S u r v e y o f R e c e n t S c h o l a r s h i p
381
b)
In R e l a t i o n t o t h e T h e s i s P r o p e r
382
Implications and Suggestions for Further Research
387
Bibliography
389
I n d e x of P a s s a g e s
435
I n d e x of M o d e r n A u t h o r s
459
Index of Subjects
470
Abbreviations
Abbreviations of p r i m a r y G r e e k and J e w i s h sources follow L o e b and JBL convention—in respect o f the Q u m r a n writings, I have elected to stay with the older abbreviations since they m a y help the reader m o r e than a merely numerical designation—and those o f series and journal titles as laid out in JBL, NT A, and OTA.
T h e s e will not b e repeated here. Standard reference
w o r k s are c i t e d e i t h e r b y a u t h o r , for e x a m p l e , S c h u r e r , 2 . 2 3 1 , o r b y abbreviated author(s), for e x a m p l e , B D B , 123. References to multi-volume editions are indicated b y v o l u m e and page number, separated b y a period, for example, 1.115. In the case o f works such as TDNT, articles are cited b y author, v o l u m e , and p a g e n u m b e r , for e x a m p l e , J e r e m i a s , TDNT, These standard works
5.701ff.
are n o t i t e m i s e d in t h e s e l e c t b i b l i o g r a p h y .
Footnotes in articles and b o o k s are signified b y page n u m b e r followed b y n. or nn., for e x a m p l e , 101n35. Footnotes within this b o o k are referred to as fn. or fnn., for e x a m p l e , fn. 104 w h e n within the s a m e Chapter, and p. 3 4 , fn. 8, w h e n not. In the interests o f space, bibliographic entries in the footnotes are cited b y author, o n e significant w o r d from the title, a n d p a g e n u m b e r , for e x a m p l e , H a h n , Titles,
345n42. Exceptions are the major c o m m e n t a r i e s o n
Isaiah and M a r k , a n d the w o r k s listed b e l o w , w h i c h are referred to b y author only, for e x a m p l e , W e s t e r m a n n , 2 0 3 (meaning his c o m m e n t a r y o n Isaiah), and M a r c u s , 5 7 (see the w o r k referred to b e l o w ) . Occasionally in order to avoid confusion a key-word title is given, for e x a m p l e , G u n d r y , Mark,
3 4 1 , w h i c h refers to the c o m m e n t a r y .
In the case of c o m m e n t a r i e s
p a g e n u m b e r s are c o m m o n l y given only if considered necessary, otherwise the reference is to the discussion under the passage being considered. Ambrozic, A. M M ,,
Boucher, M M ,,
The The Hidden Kingdom: A Redaction-Critical Study of the References to the Kingdom of God in Mark's Gospel C B Q M S 2 ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C : C a t h o l i c Biblical A s s o c i a t i o n of A m e r i c a , 1 9 7 2 ) . The The Mysterious Parable C B Q M S 6 ( W a s h i n g t o n : Catholic Biblical Commission, 1977).
xvi
Abbreviations
B u r k i l l , T. A . ,
Mysterious
Revelation.
An
Examination
of the Philosophy
of St.
Mark's
Dewey, J.,
Gospel ( I t h a c a : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 3 ) . Markan Public Debate S B L D S 4 8 ( C a l i f o r n i a : S c h o l a r s P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) .
Grimm, W.,
Die
J u e l , D.,
Bern: Peter L a n g , 1 9 8 1 ) . Messiah and Temple: The Trial
Verkundigung
Jesu
und
Deuterojesaja
ANTI 1 (Frankfurt a m Main,
2
Kelber, W . H., Kertelge, K., K i n g s b u r y , J. D., v a n der Loos, H., Marcus, J.,
M a r t i n , R. P . ,
of Jesus
in the Gospel
of Mark
S B L D S 31
(Missoula: Scholars Press, 1977). The Kingdom in Mark ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 7 4 ) . Die Wunder Jesu im Markusevangelium: Line redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung S A N T 2 3 (Munich: Kosel, 1970). The Christology of Mark's Gospel ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 8 3 ) . The Miracles of Jesus N o v T S u p p 9 ( L e i d e n : E . J . Brill, 1 9 6 8 ) . The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis in the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville, Kentucky: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n Knox, 1992).
Marxsen, W.,
Mark: Mark
Mauser, U.,
t r a n s J . B o y c e et al ( N e w Y o r k / N a s h v i l l e : A b i n g d o n , 1 9 6 9 ) . Christ in the Wilderness: The Wilderness Theme in the Second and
Evangelist and Theologian ( G r a n d R a p i d s : Z o n d e r v a n , 1 9 7 2 ) . the Evangelist: Studies on the Redaction History of the Gospel
Its Basis
in the Biblical
Tradition
Gospel
S B T 3 9 ( N a p e r v i l l e , 111.: A l e c
R. A l l e n s o n , 1 9 6 3 ) . Pryke, E. J.,
Redactional
Quesnell, Q.,
University, 1978). The Mind of St. Mark: Interpretation and Method through the Exegesis of Mark 6.52 A n B i b 3 8 ( R o m e : P o n t i f i c a l Biblical I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 6 9 ) .
Richardson, A., Raisanen. H.,
Style
in
the
Markan
Gospel
SNTSMS
33
(Cambridge:
The Miracle Stories of the Gospels ( L o n d o n : S C M , 1 9 5 9 ) . The 'Messianic Secret' in Mark's Gospel trans. C. Tuckett,
SNTW
(Edinburgh: T & T Clarke, 1990). Robinson, J. M . , The Problem of History in Mark S B T 2 1 ( L o n d o n : S C M , 1 9 5 7 ) . Schneck, R., Isaiah in the Gospel of Mark, I-VIII B D S 1 ( V a l l e j o , C A : B I B A L , 1 9 9 4 ) . S t o n e h o u s e , N . B . , The Witness of Matthew and Mark to Christ (Philadelphia: Presbyterian Guardian, 1944). Funktion der alttestamentlichen
Suhl, A.,
Die
Trocme,
Markusevangelium (Guttersloh: G e r d M o h n , 1965). The Formation of the Gospel According to Mark t r a n s . P .
Zitate
und
Anspielungen
W e e d e n , T. J . ,
(London: SPCK, 1975). Mark—Traditions in Conflict
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1971).
im
Gaughan
Introduction In his 1978 survey o f M a r k a n scholarship, H. C. Kee observed: T h e history of recent research o n the G o s p e l of M a r k c a n b e seen as the r e c o r d of a n a t t e m p t to d i s c e r n the a i m of the evangelist a n d so to d i s c o v e r the p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h g i v e s c o h e r e n c e t o all t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e S e c o n d G o s p e l .
1
A decade later W . R. Telford noted that 'further investigation n e e d s to b e conducted into its (i.e. the G o s p e l ' s ) place in the theological history o f early Christianity'.
2
M . A . Tolbert's subsequent remark that 'no consistent inter 3
pretation o f the G o s p e l in all its parts has yet been e l i c i t e d ' suggests that K e e ' s observation still a p p l i e s .
4
This b o o k continues the line o f inquiry.
M a r k a n studies, recently reaching flood-like proportions and s h o w i n g little sign o f abating, h a v e variously located M a r k ' s m a i n concerns in his 5
portrayal o f eschatological conflict, use o f the miracle traditions, standing o f the K i n g d o m o f G o d , instructing his c o m m u n i t y ,
9
7
6
under
8
treatment of the d i s c i p l e s , interest in
concept o f d i s c i p l e s h i p ,
10
Christology,
m o r e recently, in a straightforward apology for the C r o s s .
12
11
and
Given Mark's
considerable interest in the O T , attempts h a v e b e e n m a d e to postulate a M a r k a n p r o g r a m either reflecting events in Israel's h i s t o r y , the E x o d u s , 1
14
or b a s e d o n l e c t i o n a r i e s
15
and c a l e n d a r s .
13
in particular
16
'Recent', 3 5 3 . 'Introduction', 22. Sowing, x i .
2
3
4
S e e t h e s u r v e y s in H u r t a d o , ' G o s p e l ' ; P o k o m y , ' M a r k u s e v a n g e l i u m ' ; L a n e , ' P r e s e n t ' , a n d t h e c o m m e n t s of G u n d r y , 1022ff. 5
Robinson. K e r t e l g e ; K o c h , Bedeutung;
6
7
8
9
1
0
1 1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
Schenke,
Wundererzahlungen.
A m b r o z i c ; K e l b e r ; cf. M a r c u s , Mystery. W e e d e n ; S c h m a h l , Zwdlf. R e p l o h , Lehrer; S c h w e i z e r , ' L e i s t u n g ' ; B e a v i s , Best, Following.
Audience.
Perrin, 'Christology'; Kingsbury. Gundry. D e r r e t t , Making; R o t h , Hebrew; also here Miller a n d Miller, E . g . F a r r e r , Study; H o b b s , ' E x o d u s ' ; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' . G o u l d e r , Calendar. Carrington, Primitive.
Midrash.
2
Introduction
V a r i o u s studies h a v e e x a m i n e d the G o s p e l from the s t a n d p o i n t s o f narrative c r i t i c i s m ,
17
rhetorical c r i t i c i s m ,
18
and reader r e s p o n s e ,
19
while
others s o u g h t the k e y to M a r k ' s literary structure in ancient d r a m a t i c , biographical, sociological,
2 1
24
rhetorical,
22
and r e a d i n g 25
socio-political, Marxist,
23
26
conventions.
20
Still others offer
and structuralist a n a l y s e s .
27
In
spite o f this plethora o f approaches—or p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f it—agreement as to that ' p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h g i v e s c o h e r e n c e ' to M a r k ' s t h e o l o g i c a l e m p h a s e s a n d literary structure has continued to elude scholars. W h i l e this hiatus m a y indicate that n o overarching unity exists, m a n y of
these
studies
have
highlighted
Mark's
theological and
literary
sophistication—although this should not b e overstated as has s o m e t i m e s b e e n the c a s e .
2 8
It s e e m s generally agreed that the Gospel is neither merely
'a passion narrative with an e x t e n d e d introduction' (Kahler) n o r s i m p l y strung together 'like pearls on a string' (Schmidt). Consequently, to deny the existence o f an overarching s c h e m a m a y well b e premature. T h i s a t t e m p t to i n v e s t i g a t e M a r k ' s o r g a n i s a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s b u i l d s u p o n s e v e r a l lines o f earlier e n d e a v o u r .
First, it a s s u m e s that the final
form o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l is the best guide to w h a t it w a s that the author w i s h e d to c o m m u n i c a t e .
29
It would s e e m that it is not merely M a r k ' s o w n
material o r his adaptations o f his sources, but also w h a t h e h a s taken up
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
2
2
W i l l i a m s , Gospel, Dewey. F o w l e r , Loaves,
R h o a d s - M i t c h i e , Story;
a n d Reader;
B i l e z i k i a n , Liberated;
K e r m o d e , Genesis;
Best,
Gospel.
Tannehill, 'Disciples'.
Standaert.
T a l b e r t , Gospel; C a n c i k , ' G a t t u n g ' ; H a d a s a n d S m i t h , Heroes. R o b b i n s , Teacher; T o l b e r t , Sowing. Beavis, Audience. K e e , Community; N e y r e y , ' P u r i t y ' ; W a t s o n , 'Social'; M a c k , Myth. M y e r s , Binding; W a e t j e n , Reordering. Belo, Reading. V i a , Ethics; M a l b o n , Narrative. A s n o t e d b y e.g. M e a g h e r , Clumsy, a n d R a i s a n e n , 16ff. N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e o f t h e w e a k n e s s e s o f R a i s a n e n ' s o t h e r w i s e s a g e c r i t i c i s m s is h i s f a i l u r e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e 'occasional' d i m e n s i o n of M a r k ' s G o s p e l a n d therefore the possibility that M a r k m a y h a v e a s s u m e d s o m e k n o w l e d g e o n t h e p a r t o f h i s r e a d e r s . S o e.g. R a i s a n e n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e e p i s o d e o f J e s u s ' t e m p t a t i o n is ' s t r a n g e l y i n c o n c l u s i v e ' ( 1 6 n 6 4 ) , tells u s m o r e a b o u t h o w t h e t e x t s t r i k e s R a i s a n e n t h a n it d o e s a b o u t h o w it m i g h t h a v e a p p e a r e d t o M a r k ' s i n t e n d e d a u d i e n c e . T h i s is all t h e m o r e likely if M a r k ' s g o s p e l is n o t a t h e o l o g i c a l s u p e r - n o v a b u t i n s t e a d r e p r e s e n t s t r a d i t i o n s w i t h w h i c h his ' c o m m u n i t y ' w a s a l r e a d y w e l l a c q u a i n t e d . 2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
9
See L a n e ' s c o m m e n t s , 'Present', o n the recent c o m m e n t a r i e s of P e s c h a n d Schmithals; G u n d r y , 18ff; cf. G u t t g e m a n n s , Candid.
3
Introduction
unaltered, b o t h in t e r m s o f individual p e r i c o p a e and their order, that together provide a reliable indication of his concerns. I a m also persuaded b y those w h o have urged that the O T is founda tional to M a r k ' s t h o u g h t conviction
that 31
Weltanschauung,
the
world. NT
3 0
and
O n e also n o t e s h e r e C. H. D o d d ' s OT
authors
share
the
same
and that o f Francis Foulkes, w h o saw the basis of this
continuity to b e in the belief that 'as God had acted in the past h e would act in the f u t u r e ' .
32
T w o o t h e r factors c o n t r i b u t e d to the genesis o f this b o o k .
A s an
Australian student studying in the United States I w a s fascinated b y m y lecturers' occasional references to 'four-score and seven years a g o ' and the uniformly ' k n o w i n g ' response o f m y A m e r i c a n fellow-students.
Only on
learning that the p h r a s e w a s the first line o f A b r a h a m L i n c o l n ' s famous Gettysburg address did its significance b e c a m e apparent.
B y evoking the
F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s ' ideology these few w o r d s functioned as a h e r m e n e u tical indicator, pointing not so m u c h to the text o f Lincoln's address per se (as in D o d d ' s 'text p l o t ' ) , b u t to the larger interpretation o f A m e r i c a n history w h i c h L i n c o l n ' s s p e e c h a s s u m e d and w i t h w h i c h it interacted. This
raised
the
possibility, given
Dodd's
shared-Weltanschauung
hypothesis, that M a r k ' s use o f O T citations might also function in a similar manner.
K e e ' s recognition that O T citations appear at crucial junctures in
M a r k only served to strengthen this c o n j e c t u r e .
33
T h e second contributing item, complementing and supporting the first, w a s the w o r k of J a c q u e s Ellul and Paul Ricoeur, both of w h o m stress the formative
influence
understanding.
34
of a
group's
founding
moment
on
its
self-
This is especially so in times of uncertainty or internal
conflict. T h e s e theories are significant on two counts. First, Israel's founding m o m e n t was the Exodus. Not only did it shape the national identity and character but the prophets of the Babylonian exile 3
0
In a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e e x a m i n e d in C h a p t e r 1: F i t z m y e r , ' J u d a i c ' ; B e st, Story, 140ff; a n d n o w M a r c u s , Way; cf. K l i n e , ' O r i g i n s ' . O n t h e c i t a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e p e r i o d , including the u n i q u e implications for the O T a s a u t h o r i t a t i v e literature, the d e g r e e of freedom to v a r y w o r d i n g , a n d the constraints u p o n s a m e , see the excellent w o r k of Stanley, Language. 3 1
According, 1 3 3 . S e e M a r s h a l l ' s s u r v e y o f r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n , ' A s s e s s m e n t ' . Acts, 9 . K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' . F o l l o w i n g t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s in its o r i g i n a l f o r m J o e l M a r c u s , Way, h a s a l s o a r g u e d s t r o n g l y a l o n g t h e s e lines. R e s p e c t i v e l y , ' m ^ d i a t e u r ' , a n d ' F u n c t i o n ' a n d 'Science'; s e e C h a p t e r 2 . 3
2
3
3
3
4
4
Introduction
u s e d it as t h e p a r a d i g m for the deliverance they a n n o u n c e d .
35
It is not
surprising that s e v e r a l e m e r g e n t g r o u p s w i t h i n J u d a i s m , i n c l u d i n g the m o v e m e n t k n o w n a c c o r d i n g to Acts as 'the W a y ' , should also describe themselves in these t e r m s .
36
Second, the tensions b e t w e e n the ' W a y ' and the larger J e w i s h c o m m u nity, with the o n e claiming over against the other to b e the legitimate heir of the n o r m s and prophetic traditions o f the past, only m a k e it m o r e likely that the former's bona fides
should b e couched in such historic terms.
There is, h o w e v e r , the danger o f anachronism.
EUul and R i c o e u f w e r e
discussing m o d e r n societies. Nevertheless, the basic m o d e l — t h e role o f the founding m o m e n t in times o f conflict—appears appropriate; at least on a surface reading of the N T materials.
G i v e n t h e difficulty o f
reconstructing the mental world of ancient societies, authors, and readers, the applicability o f the model m a y finally h a v e to b e j u d g e d in terms o f its ability to m a k e m o r e and better sense o f the M a r k a n d a t a .
37
T h e s e factors form the b a s i s u p o n w h i c h the original contribution o f this b o o k is argued.
N a m e l y , as his o p e n i n g editorial citation indicates,
Mark's fundamental
h e r m e n e u t i c for interpreting and p r e s e n t i n g J e s u s
derives from two sources: A ) a positive s c h e m a w h e r e b y J e s u s ' identity and ministry is p r e s e n t e d in terms o f I s a ia h ' s N e w E x o d u s (hereafter N E ) ;
3 8
and B ) a negative s c h e m a b y w h ic h J e s u s ' rejection b y the nation's leaders a n d his a c t i o n in t h e T e m p l e is cast in t e r m s o f the p r o p h e t M a l a c h i ' s warning; a w a r n i n g w h i c h itself c o n c e r n e d the delay o f t h e Isaianic N E (hereafter I N E ) . T h i s dual perspective o f salvation and j u d g e m e n t — b o t h within the context o f the I N E — s e e m s to provide the fundamental literary and theological structure of Mark's Gospel.
T h i s is n o t to d e n y
the
presence o f other concerns (e.g. discipleship, M a r k 13) or O T themes (e.g. S o n o f M a n C h r i s t o l o g y ) , b u t instead suggests only that they presented within the larger literary and theological s c h e m e proposed herein.
3
5
3
6
3
7
3
8
S e e e.g. t h e s u r v e y in F i s h b a n e , Biblical,
3 5 6 - 6 8 , a n d earlier, ' M o t i f .
F o r f u r t h e r c o m m e n t e.g. H o r s l e y , ' F i g u r e s ' , 2 7 7 - 2 8 5 . S o a l s o T o l b e r t , Sowing, 1 0 - 1 3 . O n a p r o d i g i o u s a t t e m p t t o a r t i c u l a t e a g e n e r a l i s e d first c e n t u r y J e w i s h w o r l d v i e w , s e e n o w W r i g h t , People. O t h e r s c h o l a r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s a n d in v a r y i n g g u i s e s s u c h a m o t i f , e.g. S w a r t l e y , B e s t , L a n e , b u t h a v e n o t s o u g h t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s in a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g m a n n e r c o n c e n t r a t i n g p r i m a r i l y o n M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e a n d hi s ' w a y ' s e c t i o n . S u b s e q u e n t t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f this t h e s i s a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r o a c h a l o n g t h e s e lines h a s b e e n a r g u e d s t r o n g l y b y M a r c u s , Way.
5
Outline
I. Outline C h a p t e r 1 s u r v e y s m o d e r n scholarship concentrating primarily o n the O T and M a r k ' s literary s t r u c t u r e o r his overall attitude to the O T .
Other
relevant w o r k s are discussed at appropriate junctures later in the book. Chapter 2 concerns the social function o f ideology—namely its s c h e m a tisation o f historical m e m o r y as the foundation o f c o m m u n i t y identity— as a theoretical basis for w h a t the rest of the b o o k argues exegetically. T h e postulated constructs o f social theory on the o n e h a n d , and t h e practical results of exegesis on the other, can stand alone and s o confirm e a c h other. C h a p t e r 3 a r g u e s that in line w i t h ancient literary c o n v e n t i o n , M a r k 1:1-3, M a r k ' s o n l y editorial O T citation and opening sentence, c o n v e y s the conceptual framework for his story. Isaiah 40:3 presages the inauguration of t h e l o n g - a w a i t e d I N E w h i l e the M a l a c h i 3 : 1 / E x o d u s 23:20 conflation o m i n o u s l y highlights the threat inherent in Y a h w e h ' s N E c o m i n g . C h a p t e r 4 submits that the I N E also explains the p r o l o g u e ' s integration of O T motifs. J o h n is M a l a c h i ' s Elijah w h o prepares the w a y for Y a h w e h ' s long-delayed I N E c o m i n g . c u a y y c X i o v connotes the Isaianic conception o f G o d ' s in-breaking reign, signalled b y the rent h e a v e n s and the descent o f the Spirit (Isa 6 3 ) . T h e v o i c e declares J e s u s to b e true 'servant'-Israel (son of G o d , Isa 4 2 ) w h o will deliver ' b l i n d ' Israel, the Davidic M e s s i a h (also son of G o d , Ps 2 ) , and perhaps the 'unique' Son o f G o d (Gn 2 2 ) . C h a p t e r 5 c o n t e n d s that M a r k ' s three-fold structure c o m p r i s i n g J e s u s ' powerful ministry in Galilee a n d b e y o n d , his leading his ' b l i n d ' disciples along the ' W a y ' , a n d arrival in J e r u s a l e m e c h o e s the I N E s c h e m a w h e r e Y a h w e h as W a r r i o r a n d H e a l e r delivers his p e o p l e from b o n d a g e , leads the 'blind' along the N E w a y o f deliverance, and arrives at Jerusalem. C h a p t e r 6 p r o p o s e s that M a r k ' s a s y m m e t r i c distribution o f miracles is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h an I N E h e r m e n e u t i c .
J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s ( M a r k ' s first
miracle) are linked to the Isaianic Yahweh-Warrior (3:22-30; Isa 4 9 ) and his healings (blind, d e a f / d u m b , and lame,) and feedings are inaugural signs o f the N E (Isa 3 5 ; 2 9 ) . T h e s e c t i o n ' s final healing m i r a c l e (7:31ff; 8:22ff is transitional) s u m m a r i s e s the p e o p l e ' s a m a z e d response, ' H e h a s d o n e all things well!'.
A t the s a m e t i m e several o f J e s u s ' actions i m p l y that his
sonship goes b e y o n d earlier categories: he is also the S o n o f G o d .
6
Introduction
C h a p t e r 7 argues that J e s u s ' outright rejection b y J e r u s a l e m ' s leaders at t h e c r u c i a l B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y ( M k 3 ) e c h o e s I s r a e l ' s first E x o d u s rebellion against Y a h w e h ' s Spirit (Isa 63) and results in the division and j u d g e m e n t o f Israel, n o w effected through the parables (Isa 6 in M k 4 ) . T h e only other confrontation b e t w e e n leaders 'from J e r u s a l e m ' a n d J e s u s prior to his arrival in J e r u s a l e m ( M k 7) is presented in similar terms (Isa 2 9 ) . C h a p t e r 8 discusses the ' W a y ' section w h i c h is framed b y the G o s p e l ' s only 'sight' miracles.
P i c k i n g up o n M a r k ' s interest in the d i s c i p l e s '
i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ( ' b l i n d n e s s ' a n d ' d e a f n e s s ' ) , it is a r g u e d that J e s u s ' leading his ' b l i n d ' disciples in the ' W a y ' echoes w i s e Y a h w e h ' s leading the ' b l i n d ' a l o n g the ' u n k n o w n ' N E w a y (Isa 42:16).
T h e passion predictions
i n d i c a t e that, in Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , the I N E is to b e effected b y the suffering a n d death o f true messianic 'servant' Israel ( M k 10:45; Isa 5 3 ) . T h e t w o t h e m e s — J e s u s as the o n e w h o fulfils the I N E b u t w h o is rejected b y Israel's leaders—intersect in M a r k ' s account o f the e v e n t s o f J e s u s ' arrival and death in Jerusalem. C h a p t e r 9 a r g u e s that, although J e s u s ' ' t r i u m p h a l e n t r y ' is c o n s o n a n t w i t h Y a h w e h ' s arrival, his cursing o f the fig tree and T e m p l e cleansing reflect the threat i m p l i e d in t h e o p e n i n g M a l a c h i citation a n d M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J o h n as Elijah.
At the s a m e t i m e , J e s u s ' rejection a n d
death e c h o e s the career of the enigmatic Isaianic 'suffering servant'. C h a p t e r 10 d r a w s o n the P h i l o s o p h y o f S c i e n c e , a p p l y i n g the theory selection criteria o f consilience, simplicity, and a n a l o g y to a r g u e that an I N E h y p o t h e s i s is the best explanation o f the p h e n o m e n a o b s e r v e d .
The
concept o f ' i d e o l o g y ' is reviewed to offer an explanation as to h o w the idea of presenting J e s u s in these terms could h a v e arisen.
II. Limitations and Assumptions 1. ' M a r k ' is used to refer to the b o o k ' s author, but implies nothing as to his identity. 2. W i t h o u t d e n y i n g the i m p o r t a n c e o f o t h e r influences, in k e e p i n g w i t h M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation a n d the i m p o r t a n c e o f the I N E for J e w i s h e x p e c t a t i o n , this b o o k c o n c e n t r a t e s o n M a r k ' s u s e o f I s a i a h . influences are discussed only as they relate to this central concern.
Other
Limitations
and
7
Assumptions
3. T h e N T m a k e s little use o f n o n - O T texts. W h i l e p e r h a p s due to the u n i q u e authority granted the O T , it m a y b e that m a n y apocalyptic a n d pseudepigraphical texts w e r e not widely k n o w n or accepted. There is also the p r o b l e m o f d a t i n g : to w h a t e x t e n t do later texts (e.g. r a b b i n i c a l materials, T a r g u m s ) reflect earlier traditions?
( A n d again h o w
widely
k n o w n and accepted w e r e they?) B y w a y o f contrast. S y n a g o g u e worship and T e m p l e i n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d h a v e m a d e the O T far m o r e
familiar.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h i l e reference is frequently m a d e to a r a n g e o f ancient literature, it s e e m s w i s e initially to grant priority to O T materials. 4. A n a c h r o n i s t i c l a n g u a g e such as ' D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' is a v o i d e d s i n c e M a r k is hardly likely to h a v e thought in these terms.
Similarly, titles like
Servant S o n g s and Suffering Servant are prefaced b y 'so-called' or written in lower case and placed in inverted c o m m a s .
This is not to e x c l u d e the
possibility that s o m e sort o f integrated reading of these Isaianic texts, with a coalescing o f the figure(s) described therein, might h a v e b e e n u n d e r w a y in the first century; only that it is not assumed. 5. ' M e s s i a h ' , ' m e s s i a n i c ' , a n d related e x p r e s s i o n s d o n o t i m p l y the existence o f a m o n o l i t h i c expectation within J u d a i s m (even if, as I think, in an understandable reaction to past simplifications ' m e s s i a n i c ' diversity is s o m e t i m e s o v e r p l a y e d ) .
39
It is equally important to recognise that this
d o e s not m e a n that M a r k (or his a u d i e n c e ) shared a similarly conception.
diffused
Indeed, the opposite s e e m s m o r e likely in that the focussing
of these ideas in the person of Jesus w o u l d have exercised a consolidating effect on w h a t might h a v e been, in other contexts, less consciously related concepts.
In this respect, w h i l e recourse is often m a d e to the w a y s in
w h i c h various O T texts and expressions appear to h a v e b e e n understood within c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s J e w i s h traditions, it must b e b o r n e in m i n d that
3
9
S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in e.g. H o r b u r y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a n o l o g y ' a n d Messiah; N e u s n e r , Judaisms; H o r s l e y a n d H a n s o n , Bandits; a n d W r i g h t , People, 170-81, 307-20. Here as always caution should be exercised. T h u s e.g. o n e i m p l i c a t i o n o f V a n d e r K a m , ' E n o c h ' , a n d K e e , ' C h r i s t o l o g y ' , is t h a t d i f f e r e n t titles d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y different figures. Likewise, the scarcity of references to a D a v i d i c m e s s i a h o r his links w i t h t h e ' k i n g d o m o f G o d ' m a y n o m o r e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e w e r e n o t c e n t r a l i d e a s t h a n a s i m i l a r d e a r t h o f r e f e r e n c e s t o c o v e n a n t i n d i c a t e t h a t this w a s n o t a n i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t ( o n t h e l a t t e r , W r i g h t , People, 2 6 0 f f , c i t i n g S a n d e r s , Paul, 4 2 0 f ) - G i v e n s u c h t e x t s a s J e r 23:5ff; 30:9f; 3 3 : 1 4 - 2 6 ; E z e k 3 4 : 2 0 - 3 1 ; 3 7 : 1 5 - 2 8 ; e t c . ( a n d 2 S a m 7 is after all a c o v e n a n t ) , it s e e m s m o r e l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s w e r e l a r g e l y a s s u m e d — n o t e t h e u n a f f e c t e d w a y in w h i c h J e s u s ' D a v i d i c m e s s i a h s h i p is m e n t i o n e d — w i t h e x c e p t i o n s b e i n g j u s t t h a t ; cf. H o r b u r y , 'Messianic'.
8
Introduction
this b o o k d e a l s w i t h their setting in M a r k ' s G o s p e l , a G o s p e l w h i c h not o n l y apparently post-dates the Pauline literature b u t also p r e s u p p o s e s an e m e r g e n t Christian perspective w h i c h m a y well h a v e integrated not only these concepts but also 'other motifs and passages o f the O T not previously regarded as " m e s s i a n i c " ' .
40
6. Methodologically, an allusion is considered m o r e likely w h e n :
41
A ) linguistic parallels and conceptual congruence are marked; B ) either the linguistic or conceptual parallels or b o t h tend t o w a r d s being u n i q u e to the proposed O T source passage; C ) t h e m e s e v o k e d b y the allusion not o n l y c o h e r e w i t h b u t also clarify the m e a n i n g of the M a r k a n passage u n d e r consideration; D ) the explanatory function o f the allusion displays a high degree of c o n g r u e n c e with broader M a r k a n t h e m e s (this assumes a certain degree of thematic c o h e r e n c e in M a r k ' s presentation o f Jesus); E ) there is a similar application o f the O T source passage elsewhere. This last criterion is not as w e i g h t y as the others listed.
A l t h o u g h it
m a y lend support to a similar use in M a r k , neither the a b s e n c e of such nor e v e n the presence of a different application e l s e w h e r e can b e taken to establish the negative. M a r k m u s t b e allowed the creative possibility of s e e i n g things in a n e w light.
T o this extent, the M a r k a n c o n t e x t
m u s t a l w a y s b e given hermeneutical priority. 7. T o m a x i m i s e agreement o n the data , if not its interpretation, I have b y and large restricted myself to those texts w h i c h a substantial proportion o f M a r k a n c o m m e n t a t o r s hold to reflect a specifically Isaianic i n f l u e n c e .
42
8. In k e e p i n g w i t h m y beliefs a n d w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e o r p o l e m i c a l intent, B C and A D are used for dates, and the designations O l d Testament and N e w T e s t a m e n t for the major divisions o f the Christian Bible. 9. Finally, in k e e p i n g with first century J e w i s h and Christian practice, the deity is referred to in the generic masculine. 4
0
4
1
4
2
D u n n , 'Messianic', 3 6 6 , a l t h o u g h his 'not p r e v i o u s l y r e g a r d e d ' o u g h t t o be qualified b y 'in t e r m s o f t h e e v i d e n c e w e n o w h a v e a v a i l a b l e ' . S e e a l s o C h a r l e s w o r t h ' s s t a t e m e n t , 'Messianology', 1 0 , that b y at least ten y e a r s after the crucifixion 'Christ' b e c a m e for Christians Jesus' proper n a m e which m a y be taken to imply s o m e degree of consolidation as t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e t e r m ; cf. H e n g e l , ' B e t w e e n ' a n d ' P a u l ' . T h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l m a t t e r is n o t o r i o u s l y v o l u m i o u s , b u t s e e t h e n u a n c e d d i s c u s s i o n in T h o m p s o n , Clothed, 2 8 - 3 6 , t o w h o s e w o r k I a m i n d e b t e d , a n d a l s o e.g. H a y s , Echoes, a n d S t a n l e y , Language. I n c l u d i n g those w h e r e Isaianic c i t a t i o n s / a l l u s i o n s a r e c o m b i n e d w i t h o t h e r sources, e.g. M a i 3:1 a n d E x 2 3 : 2 0 in l:2f; J e r 7:11 in 11:17.
Chapter 1: Scholarship on the OT in Mark
I. Introduction This chapter s u r v e y s seriatim rather than in narrative form o n l y t h o s e w o r k s w h i c h either p r o p o s e a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g O T influence o n M a r k ' s l i t e r a r y / t h e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o r d i s c u s s , as their m a i n focus, M a r k ' s overall attitude to the O T . Specialised studies such as those b y U. Mauser, on the w i l d e r n e s s , L . H a r t m a n n , on M a r k 1 3 , H.-J. Steichele, o n the suffering S o n o f G o d motif, a n d m o r e recently J o e l M a r c u s , o n M a r k a n Christology, are not included here, being discussed along with other secondary literature if and w h e n appropriate in the b o d y of the book.
II. Survey a) A. M. Farrer, (1954)
A Study
in Mark
(1951),
and, St. Matthew
and St.
Mark
A. M . Farrer's m o n o g r a p h s are a m o n g the earliest in recent gospel studies to deal e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h the O T ' s influence on M a r k . G i v e n M a r k ' s frequent puns, Farrer feels that a sophisticated literary approach is justified and thus argues for a two-fold unifying literary-theological pattern. First, M a r k 'like all Christians sees o u r salvation t h r o u g h J e s u s as a spiritual e x o d u s and a conquest o f the promised l a n d ' (pp. 5 5 f ) . S e c o n d , M a r k developed this motif using a triple cycle o f 'twelve-plus-one' callings (the twelve disciples plus Levi), healings, and loaves (the five and s e v e n l o a v e s plus the e u c h a r i s t ) to indicate J e s u s ' institution o f N e w Israel (pp. 69f). 'Thirteen' disciples is not problematic because, on the one hand, Israel w a s really c o m p o s e d o f thirteen tribes, E p h r a i m a n d M a n a s s e h replacing J o s e p h , and since, on the other, Levi had n o tribal allotment and so is not i n c l u d e d . M a r k ' s a w a r e n e s s o f this c o m p l e x i t y is e v i d e n t in Levi's individual treatment and absence from the list o f twelve. a
2
1
2
T h i s a n d o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s refer t o Study A d d e d in his s e c o n d s t u d y ,
Matthew.
unless otherwise indicated.
10
Scholarship
on OT in
Mark
J e s u s ' miracles provide further support. T h e legion e x o r c i s m is set b y the sea a n d J e s u s is accused o f being an agent o f B e e l z e b u b , a play ^ 3 T , corresponding to Zebulun (cf. G e n 49:13), and Jairus is reminiscent o f Jair the f a m o u s M a n a s s e h i t e j u d g e (pp. 324ff). O f the thirteen healings, one involves a gentile w h i c h points to s o m e t h i n g greater for t h e m (pp. 305f). T h e healings o f the paralytic and o f the shrivelled limb before a critical l e a d e r s h i p c o r r e s p o n d to M o s e s ' m i r a c l e s o f the ' c r a w l i n g ' staff and leprosied h a n d w h e n confronted w i t h the J e w i s h l e a d e r s ' u n b e l i e f (Ex 4:4ff). J e s u s ' retreat to the sea (3:7ff) and the d r o w n i n g o f the d e m o n i c s w i n e (5:1-20) c o n f o r m to Israel's e s c a p e and the destruction o f Pharaoh (pp. 76ff). T h e Transfiguration is a n e w Sinai and the e n s u i n g teaching 'across J o r d a n ' prior to entering Jericho ( M k 9 , 1 0 ) marks the beginning of a n e w conquest (pp. 110-3). A l t h o u g h noting s o m e helpful parallels, particularly with the E x o d u s , Farrer's intriguing theory is unconvincing. It is unclear w h y the callings and healings should b e determinative—little in M a r k suggests such—and h e overlooks the 'fourteenth' loaf in the boat (8:14). Aside from the identi fication o f healings with individual tribes, Farrer's structural patterning often s e e m s contrived and inconsistent—frequent lapses are attributed to M a r k ' s c r e a t i v e f r e e d o m — w h i l e in r e t r o s p e c t his d i v i s i o n s cut a c r o s s M a r k a n structural units, for example, one cycle breaks the series o f conflict stories (2:12) and another the n o w widely-recognised ' W a y ' section (10:32). b) P. Carrington, The Primitive to Mark (1961)
Christian
Calendar
(1952),
and,
According
Appearing about the s a m e time as Farrer's work, P. Carrington's proposal, elaborated in his later commentary, belongs to that stream o f Anglo-Saxon scholarship w h i c h w a s particularly concerned w i t h the influence o f early Christian liturgy. Carrington argues that M a r k ' s gospel w a s originally a distillation o f lectionary readings in keeping with the J e w i s h calendar and later a d a p t e d to the R o m a n Julian year. T h e hermeneutical k e y is found in the Passover and Pentecost allusions in the feedings of the five and four thousands which, w h e n recognised, enable the rest o f M a r k to b e assigned to calendrical and h e n c e liturgical schedules (although M a r k 13 has to do double-duty and the passion narrative does not quite conform). The chapter divisions of Vaticanus provide external verification, w h i l e internal s u p p o r t is found in M a r k ' s ' m a jo r triads', especially the three M a r k a n m o u n t a i n s . T h e s e divide the Galilean G o s p e l ( M a r k 1-10) into four s e c t i o n s w h i c h the agricultural p a t t e r n o f the s e e d parables 3
4
3
Primitive,
4
Ibid.,
94ff.
xiii.
Piper,
'Unchanging
11
Promises'
relates to the r h y t h m and i m a g e r y o f seed-time (the seed parables) a n d harvest (the Transfiguration), symbolising the growth o f spiritual under standing. This goes b a c k to J e s u s ' o w n utilisation o f these festivals as occa sions for his preaching, for e x a m p l e , the nuptial s y m b o l i s m o f M a r k 2:1822 which w o u l d b e interpreted, via the T a m m u z myth, as being connected with the restoration o f the T e m p l e . Indeed 'it m i g h t well b e that J e s u s would ... possibly play the part o f the bridegroom' in local celebrations. 5
T h e c r o w d ' s ordering in the feeding (read at Passover) recalls the Sinai host (Ex 19:21) and the ' s h e e p without a s h e p h e r d ' recalls M o s e s ' d e a t h (Nu 27:16f, pp. 12f). T h e feeding o f the four thousand occurs at Pentecost because the presence o f the c r o w d s with J e s u s reminded M a r k o f the first giving of the L a w on the first Pentecost (Ex 19:11; p. 163). M a r k 8:13-21, a key passage in view o f M a r k ' s concern with spiritual insight, is a midrash on Psalm 7 8 , which describes Y a h w e h ' s guidance of, and provision for, his rebellious p e o p l e d u r i n g the E x o d u s . M o s e s ' offer to die for Israel is reflected in 8:31 ff w h i l e his ascent o f Sinai is seen in the Transfiguration (Ex 19:9; pp. 192-6). T h e s e and other echoes demonstrate that 'the story o f the gospel in Galilee, from the parables to the Transfiguration, is a n e w Exodus saga with a n e w Shepherd gathering a n e w people for G o d ' (p. 170). A l t h o u g h stimulating, C a r r i n g t o n ' s lectionary h y p o t h e s i s h a s g a i n e d little a c c e p t a n c e . A p a r t from the lack o f e x t e r n a l e v i d e n c e for t h e derivation o f Christian lectionaries from the J e w i s h calendar (cf. C o l 2:16), there is n o n e that the G o s p e l s functioned as proposed, or that, apart from the passion narrative, the chapter divisions o f V a t i c a n u s w e r e related to liturgical u s e . O n internal grounds, the important m o u n t a i n 'triad' h a s in fact n o s e c o n d m o u n t a i n — i t is ' i m p o r t e d ' from J o h n 6:3—while t h e frequent 'ironing out' o f offending verses w h e n they do not fit the theory tells against the proposal's plausibility. 6
c) O. Piper, 'Unchanging Promises: Exodus in the New Testament' (1957) O t t o P i p e r ' s m o r e g e n e r a l article again suggests the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e E x o d u s event—from deliverance to conquest—noting its significance for the O T (especially H o s e a and Isaiah) and the N T (p. 3 ) . T h e cons pi cuous place of the wilderness in M a r k (1:4, 12, 13, 3 5 , 45) and its association with the kerygma is to b e explained b y the use o f the ' E x o d u s as the model for the original Gospel story' (p. 17). Malachi 3:1 and E x o d u s 23:20 together present the Baptist as the ' a n g e l ' w h o goes before the chosen people in the desert while J e s u s ' baptism is at 5
According, 67ff, h e r e a f t e r ' p p . ' . S e e t h e c r i t i q u e s in D a v i e s , ' R e f l e c t i o n s ' ; M o r r i s , ' L e c t i o n a r i e s ' , Jewish, T a l b e r t , What?, 14f . 6
2 3 - 6 , 29f;
12
Scholarship
on OT in
Mark
o n c e the e s c a p e through the R e d Sea and the pre-conquest crossing o f the J o r d a n (p. 1 8 ) . T h e perplexing crisscrossing o f Galilee and J e s u s ' journeys into Phoenicia and Caesarea Philippi ( M k 7-8) e c h o Israel's wanderings and 'the fact that of all J e s u s ' visits to Jerusalem only the last o n e is mentioned in Mark, a n d that it is described as the entry o f a conqueror', s h o w s that it is regarded as the goal of this N e w Exodus migration. Jesus is the s e c o n d M o s e s , 'not primarily as L a w g i v e r h o w e v e r , b u t as the leader o f his p e o p l e to the promised g o a l ' (p. 18). M a r k 10:45 reflects M o s e s ' offer in E x o d u s 32:32, and the w o r d s o f the Institution, 'chosen for their close r e s e m b l a n c e with E x o d . 2 4 : 8 ' , present the n e w c o v e n a n t in an E x o d u s setting (p. 1 9 ) . P i p e r w i s e l y r e c o g n i s e s that n o t e v e r y t h i n g in M a r k ' s gospel can b e explained on the basis of Exodus. Instead, it provides the typological framework within w h i c h the material w a s arranged (p. 19). Piper h a s surely noted a n u m b e r o f interesting parallels, although not all w o u l d a c c e p t h i s identifications. H o w e v e r , s i n c e s o m u c h o f the G o s p e l ' s material and present order is unaccounted for, o n e w o n d e r s if he w o u l d b e m o r e justified in speaking o f several E x o d u s c a m e o s instead of a n o v e r a r c h i n g framework. d)
E. C. Hobbs,
'The Gospel of Mark and the Exodus'
(1958)
In a relatively u n k n o w n P h . D . thesis from the U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , E . C. H o b b s takes up Farrer's spiritual E x o d u s m o d e l and posits an even m o r e systematic E x o d u s influence o n the progression o f M a r k ' s narrative (pp.67f). T h e e s c a p e t h r o u g h the R e d Sea is e c h o e d in M a r k 3:6-19 w h e r e the leaders' hostility t o w a r d J e s u s , J e s u s ' m o v e m e n t toward the sea and the m o u n t a i n , a n d h i s m i r a c u l o u s s i g n s c o r r e s p o n d r e s p e c t i v e l y to the h a r d n e s s o f P h a r a o h ' s heart, M o s e s ' w i t h d r a w a l across the sea and the c o v e n a n t at Sinai, and the signs w h i c h M o s e s performs. In the larger section o f 4:35 - 5:20, the storm and the disciples' fear during the night, the opposition e n c o u n t e r e d on the other side, the d r o w n i n g o f the pigs, and the ' d r e a d ' that falls on the n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r y s i d e e c h o the fearful n i g h t a t t e n d i n g t h e e x o d u s c r o s s i n g , P h a r a o h ' s r e s i s t a n c e to I s r a e l ' s deliverance, the d r o w n i n g o f P h a r a o h and his armies, a n d the fear that descends o n the lands of E d o m and M o a b . Israel's w i l d e r n e s s j o u r n e y also p r o v i d e s the m o d e l for the e x t e n d e d midrash in M a r k chapters 5-8 where, for e x a m p l e , the two healings o f the d a u g h t e r s o f Israel (5:21-43), the rejection o f J e s u s at Nazareth, and the sending o u t o f the twelve disciples (6:1-29) correspond to the healing o f M a r a h ' s bitter w a t e r s (Ex 15:22-26) and the t w e l v e springs and s e v e n t y p a l m s at E l i m (15:27; pp. 40-2). T h e two feedings replicate the provision
Schuh,
'Markus
und das Alte
13
Testament'
of m a n n a , a n d the objections o f the Pharisees (8:11-13) parallel M i r i a m and A a r o n ' s opposition (Nu 12:1-15). N u m e r o u s parallels exist b e t w e e n Sinai and the transfiguration—the six d a y s , the three associates, the building o f the tabernacles, G o d s p e a k i n g from the c l o u d , the shining, and the failure o f the disciples as the golden calf incident—while M a r k 10:1 - 11:11 is a second giving o f the law, again 'across J o r d a n ' , before arrival in Jericho (pp. 45-8). Finally, J e s u s ' passing through 'the waters o f death' fulfils his creation of the n e w Israel (p. 6 8 ) . H o b b s takes up b u t modifies Farrer's 'twelve-plus-one' s c h e m e w h e r e the call o f L e v i is proleptic o f the Gentiles and thus parallels the G e n t i l e healing (pp. 5ff). M a r k ' s point in structuring his threefold 'twelve-pluso n e ' s y m b o l i s m around these parallels is to indicate that just a s Israel w a s called from b o n d a g e , saved t h r o u g h the sea from the threat o f death and destruction, a n d sustained in her hunger, so too the church is called from b o n d a g e , is healed through b a p t i s m which cleanses and raises from death, and is fed o n the eucharist (p. 5 5 ) . A n u m b e r o f H o b b s ' s u g g e s t i o n s are p e r s u a s i v e , for e x a m p l e , t h o s e linking the Transfiguration with Sinai. But, as h e prudently recognises, a n u m b e r o f other E x o d u s connections are marginal, for e x a m p l e , M a r k 5-6, and s o m e p e r h a p s incidental, s o M a r k 8:11-13. In t e r m s o f his general thesis, h o w e v e r , to t h e extent H o b b s follows Farrer the s a m e criticisms apply. In t e r m s o f his o w n contribution, the three-fold interpretation o f the c h u r c h ' s E x o d u s is tenuous—not least c o n s i d e r i n g M a r k ' s a p p a r e n t l a c k o f i n t e r e s t in a s s o c i a t i n g h e a l i n g s w i t h b a p t i s m . A particular weakness o f H o b b s (and Farrer before him) is his failure in varying degrees to integrate M a r k ' s c l e a r e r O T citations and allusions w i t h the overall E x o d u s s c h e m a o f their proposals. e) S. Schulz, 'Markus und das Alte Testament' (1961) Influenced p e r h a p s b y m o r e continental interests, S. S c h u l z locates h i s discussion o f M a r k ' s u s e o f the O T within the milieu o f e m e r g i n g Gentile Christianity. Presupposing a distinction b e t w e e n the pre-Pauline Hellenistic fcwn'os-kerygma a n d the diverse Palestinian J e s u s - t r a d i t i o n s , Schulz s a w M a r k as the first attempt to c o m b i n e the two (p. 1 8 5 ) . T h e 7
7
S c h u l z ' i n i t i a l d i s t i n c t i o n , a p p a r e n t l y f o l l o w i n g H e i t m u l l e r , ' P r o b l e m ' , is q u e s t i o n a b l e , n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e t e r m i n o l o g y is v a g u e , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e a c o n v i n c i n g h i s t o r i c a l reconstruction of the origins of a pre-Pauline Hellenistic Christianity h a s yet to be p r o p o s e d . H e n g e l , ' B e t w e e n ' , 27ff, a r g u e s t h a t t h e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o G r e e k o f l a r g e p a r t s o f the synoptic tradition 'did n o t begin in Antioch, E p h e s u s o r R o m e but at a v e r y early s t a g e in P a l e s t i n e itself' a n d w a s t h e w o r k o f t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g J e w s in J e r u s a l e m in o r d e r t h a t t h e y m i g h t p r o c l a i m J e s u s ' s a y i n g s a n d a c t i v i t y t o v i s i t i n g m e m b e r s o f t h e D i a s p o r a , cf. W e n h a m , Redating. T h i s t e n d s t o u n d e r m i n e S c h u l z ' a s s e r t i o n , 1 8 4 , t h a t ' P a u l u s h a t in d e r
14
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on OT in
Mark
influence o f the former can b e discerned in M a r k ' s use o f the Son o f G o d title, in the 'sogenannte Messiasgeheimnis', in the discussions o f Pharisaic piety and M o s a i c Torah, and in M a r k ' s e m p h a s i s on the passion—Schulz a p p r o v i n g l y cites K a h l e r ' s aphoristic s u m m a r y — w h i c h reflects the prePauline Hellenistic k e r y g m a ' s concern with J e s u s ' death (pp. 187f). A n y interest M a r k s h o w s in the historical J e s u s and the unity o f his preaching and deeds is primarily an attempt to actualise Philippians 2:8, 'being found in fashion as a m a n ' which resulted in the creation of the Gospel as a n e w genre (pp. 186f). Consequently, M a r k u s k o m m t a l s o n i c h t evolutiv
v o n einzelnen alttestamentlichen Schriftstellen zu
s e i n e r T h e o l o g i e , s o n d e r n u m g e k e h r t : allein v o m K y r i o s - K e r y g m a u n d u b e r h a u p t d e r kerygmatischen Tradition des Heidenchristentums b e k o m m t er die palastinischen J e s u s t r a d i t i o n e n u n d d a m i t d a s A l t e T e s t a m e n t in d e n B l i c k p u n k t ( p . 1 8 8 ) .
M a r k ' s v i e w o f the O T is, therefore, s o m e w h a t ambivalent. F r o m the s t a n d - p o i n t o f G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y , the M a r k a n J e s u s rejects I s r a e l ' s Heilsgeschichte ( M k 12:1-12), the L a w having no positive function as it did for Paul w h e r e Christ is its telos. T h e O T T o r a h and Pharisaic M i s h n a h stand in o p p o s i t i o n to the W i l l o f G o d as revealed in the o b e d i e n c e o f Christ (pp. 193ff). O n the contrary, this obedience is a matter of doing good and saving life ( M k 3:4), even on the Sabbath, even to the extent of saving G e n t i l e s , a n d i n d e e d e v e n to the p o i n t o f death. A t this j u n c t u r e , however, M a r k is willing freely to draw on the whole of the O T for justifi cation (cf. 3:4ff; 10:lff; l l : 1 5 f f and 12:28ff). M a r k ' s use of the O T , therefore, derives p r i m a r i l y from its capacity to justify his presentation o f J e s u s , viewed through the lens o f his kerygmatic tradition: D i e b e s o n d e r e t h e o l o g i s c h e L e i s t u n g d e s M a r k u s b e r u h t n u n a b e r d a r i n , dafi e r d i e s e s IITTTIKOOS' j i e x p i 0 a v « T o u a l s G e h o r s a m g e g e n i i b e r d e m i m A l t e n T e s t a m e n t m a n i f e s t g e w o r d e n e n , ursprunglichen Gotteswillen interpretiert hat (p. 196).
W h i l e it s e e m s incontrovertible that s o m e o f M a r k ' s c o n c e r n s w o u l d have found special relevance in Gentile Christianity, as they w o u l d in any c o m m u n i t y facing the question of the relationship o f J e w s and Gentiles, it hardly follows that Philippians 2:8 provides the hermeneutical rubric for Mark. In addition, although the M a r k a n J e s u s is clearly c o n c e r n e d with the L a w , S c h u l z ' stress o n the G o s p e l as an attempt to reinterpret it v o n ihm u b e r n o m m e n e n k e r y g m a t i s c h e n Tradition des H e i d e n c h r i s t e n t u m s keinerlei Jesusuberlieferung - mit A u s n a h m e wenigen Spruchgutes im paranetischen Z u s a m m e n h a n g u r g e m e i n d l i c h e n C h a r a k t e r s i i b e r n o m m e n ' in t h a t t h e P a l e s t i n i a n J e s u s t r a d i t i o n s m a y in f a c t b e t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n of, a n d n o t a ' b e z i e h u n g s l o s p a r a l l e l ' t o , t h e s o - c a l l e d p r e Pauline Hellenistic fcyrios-kerygma. Further, the a s s u m p t i o n of Hellenistic syncretism as t h e g r o u n d s f o r t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e title Kyrios is q u e s t i o n a b l e (cf. H e n g e l ' s d e t a i l e d a r g u m e n t ' C h r i s t o l o g y ', 33ff).
Bowman,
Mark
and
New
Christian
Haggadah
15
a p p e a r s r e d u c t i o n i s t i c , and his e m p h a s i s o n the ' k y r i o s - k e r y g m a ' al s o seems at o d d s with M a r k ' s interest in J e s u s ' pre-exaltation career. Ultimately, the c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s o f S c h u l z ' theory is undermined b y his terms o f reference and his presuppositions c o n c e r n i n g the origin o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l . W h i l e h e correctly n o t e s the role o f the O T in J e s u s ' conflict w i t h the J e w i s h l e a d e r s h i p , h e fails to c o n s i d e r s e r i o u s l y t h e significance of, for e x a m p l e , M a r k ' s citation in l:2f, the O T i m a g e s in the prologue, or even the vineyard parable. In the case o f the latter, it is the J e w i s h l e a d e r s ' o v e r s i g h t o f G o d ' s p e o p l e that is r e v o k e d , n o t I s r a e l ' s Heilsgeschichte. f) J. Bowman, The Gospel of Mark and the New Christian Haggadah (1965) S e e k i n g to u n c o v e r ' h o w and w h y the G o s p e l as a literary form c a m e a b o u t ' (p. 3 1 1 ) , J o h n B o w m a n ' s m o n o g r a p h returns to a liturgical focus. Noting that the E x o d u s w a s the J e w i s h paradigm for deliverance and that the Passover m e a l b e c a m e the focal m e m o r i a l meal for Christians (p. 9 1 ) , B o w m a n suggests that just as the J e w i s h m e a l w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y an e x p l a n a t o r y haggadah, so too the annual Christian equivalent w a s accompanied b y M a r k as its haggadah—the Passover being the o n e festival which clearly stands out in the Gospel (p. 158). Such a u s a g e explains w h y not only individual incidents in J e s u s ' life but the w h o l e G o s p e l itself is a midrash o n selected O T passages (p. xii). Thus J e s u s ' divine election, his being driven into the wilderness, and his forty day temptation is a midrash on M o s e s ' call. T h e call of the first four disciples, the a m a z e m e n t o f the crowds, and the opposition to Jesus, reflect the E x o d u s tradition o f the response of the elders, the initial belief o f the people, Pharaoh's response, and the slaves' anger with M o s e s (Ex 4:29ff; cf. 5:21ff; pp. 108-15). M a r k ' s characteristic references to hardening (3:5; 6:52; 8:17; 10:5) are a deliberate point o f contact with the Exodus—but ironically here of the r e d e e m e r ' s o w n people (pp. 121, 136, 180)—and the Transfigu ration and the feedings reflect Sinai and the wilderness provision (pp. 157). W h e r e a s the signs a n d w o n d e r s o f the first M o s e s b r o u g h t p l a g u e s , t h e miracles o f the second removes them (pp. 159, 176). T h e relative lack o f 'testimonies' in M a r k as c o m p a r e d to M a t t h e w is not b e c a u s e M a r k w a s written for Gentiles, after all they w o u l d not h a v e h a d the n e c e s s a r y O T b a c k g r o u n d . Instead, Mark presupposes the testimonia either b e c a u s e his G o s p e l represents a stage w h e n the blatant scaffolding o f 'that it might b e fulfilled' is largely dismantled, or because its early J e w i s h hearers w e r e so w e l l versed in the fulfilment s c h e m a that they did not need them pointed out (pp. 19f).
16
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on OT in
Mark
A l t h o u g h several o f B o w m a n ' s observations are helpful, others are less so. F o r e x a m p l e , seeing in the healing o f the leper a haggadah o n the healing o f M o s e s ' leprous h a n d , and in the cure o f the issue o f b l o o d a 'direct c o u n t e r ' to M o s e s ' plague o f b l o o d on E g y p t (pp. 1 1 3 , 147) s e e m s rather too clever. G r a n t e d that there are occasions w h e n J e s u s could b e understood in M o s a i c terms (e.g. the feedings and transfiguration), it is not clear that all, or e v e n most, o f J e s u s ' actions are so cast. T h e fundamental w e a k n e s s o f B o w m a n ' s independent proposal, h o w e v e r , is that h e does not establish any constitutive literary criteria for a Passover haggadah, nor does he explain w h y , for example, there are n o M a r k a n equivalents o f the questions and answers. Last but not least, w e have no evidence that M a r k was ever used in a yearly celebration of a Christian Passover. g) A. Suhl,
Die Funktion
der alttestamentlichen
Zitate
und
Anspielungen
im Markusevangelium (1965) Published in the s a m e year as B o w m a n ' s work, A. S u h l ' s v o l u m e m a r k s a major shift in e m p h a s i s . Reflecting a redaction-critical a p p r o a c h , it is c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y with M a r k ' s m o r e explicit u s e o f the O T a n d still remains the only m o d e r n m o n o g r a p h to do s o at length. Suhl proposes that M a r k ' s O T citations are not a matter o f '»Weissagung und Erfullung«, sondern um Auslegung des Jesusgeschehens mit Hilfe des AT: I n d e m m a n das N e u e in den »Farben« des Alten erzahlte' (p. 4 7 ) . M a r k merely w a n t s to s h o w t h a t J e s u s ' h i s t o r y u n f o l d s KCLTA Tag ypatya'g, as 'schriftgemafi' not ' B e w e i s ' (pp. 157ff)—the e m e r g e n c e o f the p r o m i s e and fulfilment s c h e m a arising only with the delay o f the parousia. 8
S u h l ' s thesis, stolidly following the view o f his doctoral supervisor W . Marxsen, labours under two presuppositions. First, in v i e w o f the i m m i n e n c e o f the parousia, M a r k has abandoned all sense o f history and has n o r o o m for Heilsgeschichte b e c a u s e all h a s b e e n o v e r t a k e n b y the apocalyptic present. Second, M a r k ' s gospel is ' A n r e d e ' not 'Bericht' (pp. 925). Vital for S u h l ' s argument here is Paul's use of Kara Tag ypafydg in 1 Corinthians 15:3f. H e contends that Paul does not have salvation history in m i n d — K a r a Tag ypatydg is Schriftgemaflheit not Schriftbeweis (pp. 34ff)—and therefore, since it is a Gentile gospel, neither does Mark. Apart from the weaknesses of M a r x s e n ' s existentialist thesis, questions are rightly raised w h e n S u h l ' s easy acceptance o f it leads h i m to dismiss what might otherwise b e seen as the plain meaning of a text. Contra Suhl, M a r k 14:49 does appear to address fulfilment (see also 7:6 and 14:21) and
8
A s ' q u a l i f i z i e r t e S p r a c h e ' , 1 6 9 , cf. 6 9 ; a s m a t e r i a l for t h e p r e s e n t p r e a c h i n g , 1 4 ; a s illustration, 137.
Anderson,
'OT in Mark's
Gospel'
17
his argument that the plural, ypafyai, reflects the Pauline plural, ypafyds, and thereby disallows any fulfilment motif, is hardly convincing. Surd's treatment then does little to allay the suspicion that his presuppositions are s k e w i n g his e x e g e s i s . Furthermore, it is not clear that ' A n r e d e ' and ' B e r i c h t ' are m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e (cf. 1 C o r 15:lff) and the t y p o l o g i c a l character o f Paul's c o m m e n t s elsewhere (1 Cor 10:1-11; 2 Cor 3:7-12; R o m 4; 5:12-21; a n d 9-11), despite S u h l ' s denials, suggests that Paul does h a v e Heilsgeschichte in m i n d . 9
M a t t h e w and L u k e m a y well have a m o r e p r onounced u s e o f the O T , b u t it is m i s t a k e n to j u d g e M a r k ' s ' i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a ' b y t h e i r s . Granted, too, that not e v e r y O T citation or allusion in M a r k necessarily invokes the Schriftbeweis s c h e m a , it is nevertheless difficult to i m a g i n e that a p r o p h e t i c u t t e r a n c e l i k e Isaiah 4 0 : 3 , w h i c h h e l d c o n s i d e r a b l e significance for Israel's future (see Chapter 3 ) , w o u l d not h a v e implied a fulfilment motif. I n d e e d , w h y should M a r k bother at all to present his account o f J e s u s as c o n f o r m i n g to the O T in only the 'broadest s e n s e ' ? W h e n viewed against an implicit prophetic b a c k g r o u n d , it is difficult to accept that Suhl has produced sufficient evidence to establish his case. h) H. Anderson 'The Old Testament in Mark's Gospel' (1972) Partly in r e s p o n s e to S u h l , H. A n d e r s o n sets out to ' e x a m i n e the m a i n features of M a r k ' s use o f the Old Testament and to inquire to w h a t extent, if any, this b e a r s u p o n his aim and intention in his overall portrayal o f Jesus Christ' (p. 218). Recognising that M a t t h e w and L u k e subscribe to a promise-fulfilment formula, A n d e r s o n n o t e s that there are few fulfilment p h r a s e s in M a r k (1:15 and 14:49). H o w e v e r , given that b e g i n n i n g s and e n d i n g s p r o v i d e important clues to design and intent, it is significant that, although M a r k ' s c o n c l u s i o n c o n t a i n s ' n o e x p r e s s allusion to S c r i p t u r e p r o p h e c y ' , h i s introduction contains the only occasion w h e n M a r k himself appeals to the O T (p. 281). G r a n t e d the questions surrounding M a r k l : l f f are c o m p l e x , the unity of verses 1-13 suggests that Mark's linking o f J o h n and Jesus with the O T cannot easily b e dismissed (pace Suhl; pp. 2 8 3 - 5 ) . Instead, these verses are constitutive o f M a r k ' s overall interest in the O T , but, and herein lies A n d e r s o n ' s thesis, M a r k ' s point is that the work o f J o h n and Jesus are in conformity, not with 'the letter o f the Old Testament and its fulfilment', but with a m o r e general expression of the divine will (p. 286). A l t h o u g h the c o m b i n a t i o n o f Isaiah 56:7 and J e r e m i a h 7:11 in M a r k 11:17, the use o f 6e\ in M a r k 8:31, and Psalm 118:22f in M a r k 12:1-11 are
9
S e e G r a s s e r ' s r e v i e w in TLZ 9 1 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 6 6 7 - 9 .
18
Scholarship
on OT in
Mark
10
' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ' , that is, h a v e an element o f futurity (pp. 287, 2 9 3 ) , they are not s e e k i n g to p r o v e anything b y m a t c h i n g a specific Scripture to an event. M a r k w i s h e s only to demonstrate J e s u s ' conformity to that 'set of Old T e s t a m e n t ideas concerning the persecution o f G o d ' s true servants ... by his impenitent p e o p l e . . . ' (p. 2 9 9 ) ' . . . under which the Christ goes forward through suffering and death to eventual vindication and victory' (p. 2 9 7 ) . All this is in keeping with M a r k ' s prominent 'detainment' motif—as in the m e s s i a n i c secret, parable theory, and c o m m a n d s to silence. J u s t as J e s u s ' final vindication is 'held in s u s p e n s i o n ' so that the framework o f suffering and passion must first b e encountered, so too M a r k ' s avoidance of the p a s t fulfilment o f the O T in J e s u s ' life enables h i m to focus his c o m m u n i t y ' s a t t e n t i o n o n its future in the light of t h e d e l a y o f the parousia. L i k e w i s e , the teaching o f M a r k ' s J e s u s actually supersedes and transcends Scripture rather than m a k i n g 'the Scripture point to himself as its fulfilment'—a fact w h i c h tells against D o d d ' s suggestion that it w a s Jesus himself w h o w a s behind the N T ' s creative use of the O T (p. 304). It is also 'detainment', not a Gentile audience unfamiliar with the O T , nor a J e w i s h o n e s o well-verged that it n e e d e d n o help in recognising fulfilment, nor yet b e c a u s e the Gospel represents a stage w h e n fulfilment formulae scaffolding had been dismantled, which explains Mark's ' c o m p a r a t i v e n e g l e c t o f t e s t i m o n i e s ' (p. 3 0 5 ; pace B o w m a n ) . C o m p a r e d then to M a t t h e w and L u k e , M a r k stands 'at a rudimentary stage o f the Christian c o m m u n i t y ' s apologetic e n d e a v o u r s to d e m o n s t r a t e from the Old Testament the relations between J e s u s and that which is the messianic vocation' (p. 306). A l t h o u g h rightly critical o f Suhl, A n d e r s o n ' s proposal is also o p e n to question. His 'detainment' motif hypothesis, namely that M a r k is 'acutely c o n s c i o u s o f h a v i n g s o m e t h i n g n e w to s a y ' w h i c h i n v o l v e s the 'as yet undisclosed secret o f w h o J e s u s really i s ' (p. 305), seems unlikely. Aside from w h e t h e r M a r k is confronting the delay in the parousia, h o w realistic is the a s s u m p t i o n that n o - o n e in M a r k ' s original audience w o u l d h a v e b e e n a w a r e o f w h o J e s u s 'really i s ' , particularly given the p r o l o g u e ? Further, if A n d e r s o n is correct, one would expect to see considerable use o f testimonies after the passion narrative, but this is not the case. N o r need 'detainment' b e the only explanation o f what Anderson perceives as J e s u s ' r e t i c e n c e in a p p l y i n g S c r i p t u r e to h i m s e l f — a s s u m i n g o f c o u r s e that 1 0
Following Fitzmyer's 'eschatological' and 'modernising' categorisation of O T usages in Q u m r a n a n d t h e N T , ' U s e ' , 3 1 6 , w h e r e t h e f o r m e r c a t e g o r y e x p r e s s e s s o m e t h i n g t h a t is yet to be a c c o m p l i s h e d , while the latter involves not only the taking o v e r of a n a n a l o g o u s s i t u a t i o n in t h e O T a n d r e - a p p l y i n g it t o a n e w s i t u a t i o n , b u t a l s o t h e s e n s e o f c o m p l e t e n e s s o r fulfilment.
Swartley,
'Study'
and
19
'Function'
Anderson's perception is correct and not simply a failure to appreciate the highly allusive fashion in w h ic h M a r k ' s J e s u s uses the O T (e.g. Chapter 6 below). M o r e problematic, h o w e v e r , is his distinction b e t w e e n fulfilment and a 'general e x p r e s s i o n o f the divine w i l l ' . T h i s s o u n d s rather like S u h l ' s Farbe, and the s a m e criticisms apply. A n d e r s o n ' s categorisation o f M a r k as representing a rudimentary stage reveals the fundamental issue: the c o m m o n failing o f using M a t t h e w as a yardstick for Mark. M u c h to b e preferred is an attempt to appreciate the O T texts as they were most likely understood a m o n g M a r k ' s contemporaries, and w h e n this is done, given the thorough-going J e w i s h character o f the J e s u s story, it is difficult to escape the impression that, for example, l : 2 f would h a v e had s o m e kind o f fulfilment c o n n o t a t i o n . i) W. M. Swartley,
'A Study of Markan
Structure'
(1973);
cf 'The
Structural
Function of the Term 'Way' (Hodos) in Mark's Gospel' (1980) Reflecting a shift b a c k from redactional to m o r e literary concerns, W . M . Swartley's little-known Princeton Ph.D. dissertation is a full-scale attempt to understand M a r k entirely in terms of an E x o d u s paradigm. Observing that, although Farrer, Hobbs, Piper, and others had recognised a distinctive M a r k a n use o f the O T , little had b e e n d o n e to relate these insights to the Gospel's literary structure, Swartley sets out to rectify the situation. M a r k ' s i n t r o d u c t o r y c i t a t i o n is p r o g r a m m a t i c for the t h e m e s o f c o v e n a n t . T e m p l e , a n d cultic p u r i t y ( M a l / E x ) , a n d ' w a y ' a n d ' d e s e r t ' (Isaiah). T h e s e are variously picked up in M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section, in the T e m p l e cleansing, a n d M a r k ' s transitional locations such as ' b y the s e a ' (1:16-20), ' o n the m o u n t a i n ' (3:13-35), and 'in the w i l d e r n e s s ' (6:7-31). D e r i v i n g from e v e n t s a n d p l a c e s w h i c h s t r u c t u r e d I s r a e l ' s E x o d u s m e m o r i e s , t h e s e motifs l i k e w i s e p r o v i d e the G o s p e l ' s six-fold literary framework. That s o m e of t h e m are not immediately o b v i o u s c o m p l e ments the secretive nature of M a r k ' s material (cf. 4:34 and 13:14). 1 1
T h e 'sea' motif (1:16; 3:7) delineates 1:21 - 3:6 as the place o f deliverance for the n e w Israel (pp. 103-8). O p e n i n g with 'the mountain', 3:13 - 6:6 re flects the Sinai event with its election of a n e w c o m m u n i t y (3:13-19, 31-35) and G o d ' s self-disclosure (via parables and miracles, 4:1 - 5:43), while the Nazareth rejection e c h o e s the golden calf incident (6:1-6; pp. 109-12). T h e 'wilderness' theme characterises 6 : 7 - 8 : 2 1 ( 2 6 ) with G o d ' s provision (6:30-44 and 8:1-10), guidance and testing (cf. the disciples' incomprehension, 6:52), and the p e o p l e ' s rebellion (cf. the Pharisees rejection o f Jesus, 8:1 If). T h e p o s i t i v e G e n t i l e r e s p o n s e (7:24-37) e c h o e s those w i l d e r n e s s traditions 1 1
' S t u d y ' , 36ff, h e r e a f t e r ' p p . ' ; 1:14 - 3 : 6 / / 3 : 1 3 - 6 : 6 a / / 6 : 7 - 8 : 2 1 / / 8 : 2 7 - 1 0 : 5 2 ; 1 1 : 1 -
13:37; 14:1 - 1 5 : 4 7 ; w i t h 1 6 : 1 - 8 a s e p i l o g u e .
20
Scholarship
on OT in
Mark
w h i c h h a d c o n n o t a t i o n s o f h o p e (pp. 86ff), a n d t h e ' W a y ' s e c t i o n ' s presentation o f J e s u s ' teaching on messiahship and discipleship reflects O T ethical and eschatological features (particularly Deutero-Isaianic, pp. 68-80). Finally, the ' T e m p l e ' t h e m e (covering two panels, 11:1 - 1 6 : 8 ) represents M a r k ' s u s e o f the T e m p l e ' s fate to s y m b o l i s e the failure o f the J e w i s h m i s s i o n (e.g. 11:12-25) and the success of the G e n t i l e o n e (e.g. 12:1-12, pp. 92-101). T h e e m p h a s i s on 4'pTjuoc; and 686$ in M a r k l : 2 f speak of the isolated wilderness and so highlight the secrecy c o m p o n e n t (e.g. 6:31-35) which characterises the nature of J e s u s ' self-disclosure on the ' W a y ' . S w a r t l e y d e v e l o p s this last idea in a later e s s a y , a r g u i n g that the interleaving o f typological exodus- and entrance- motifs ( M k 9 is a n e w Sinai) w i t h discipleship themes reveals that M a r k ' s ' W a y ' is ' T h e W a y of D i s c i p l e s h i p (Suffering and C r o s s ) that L e a d s to the ( P r o m i s e d L a n d ) Kingdom of G o d ' . M a r k , finally, is a m i s s i o n a r y d o c u m e n t w i t h an apologetic for the eclipse of Judaism expressed in the w a n i n g o f Jerusalem and the increased prominence of Galilee (p. 226). 1 2
S w a r t l e y ' s attempt, first, to take seriously the f o r m a t i v e n a t u r e o f Israel's founding event, and second, to integrate possible e c h o e s within one overarching literary structure, is to b e applauded. It cannot, however, b e d e e m e d a success. Although the analyses o f the ' W a y ' and ' T e m p l e ' p a n e l s h a v e m u c h to c o m m e n d t h e m , o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n s fail to convince: the m o s t significant sea story occurs not in the ' s e a ' section but in the ' m o u n t a i n ' section, and M a r k 9 reflects m o r e Sinai influence than the brief reference in 3:13ff. T h e treatment of M a r k a n motifs is sometimes inconsistent: the Pharisees' hostility in 8:1 I f reflects the wilderness rebel lion w h i l e their opposition in 2:1 - 3:6 is cast in other t e r m s . S w a r t l e y ' s h y p o t h e s i s rests o n the integration o f earlier t r a n s i t i o n a l s w i t h later panels, b u t c a n these brief and relatively obscure transitional c o m m e n t s bear the load placed on them, Mark's 'secrecy m o t i f notwithstanding? It is difficult to avoid the feeling that Swartley's structure is b e i n g read into rather than out o f the text. Finally, apart from one or two exceptions (for example, l:2f; 11:17), Swartley makes little attempt to correlate M a r k ' s use of O T citations or m o r e explicit allusions with his overall structure. j) H. C. Kee, 'The Function of Scriptural Quotations and Allusions in Mark 11-16' (1975) In this article j u s t prior to his monograph on M a r k , H. C. K e e seeks 'to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h o f the Scriptures are M a r k ' s favorites (sic) and then to discover h o w h e h a s interpreted and adapted Scripture in the service of
1
2
' S t r u c t u r a l ' , 8 2 . S w a r t l e y h a s r e c e n t l y r e s t a t e d hi s p o s i t i o n in
Scripture.
Kee,
'Function
of Scriptural
Allusions'
21
his o w n theological and literary a i m s ' (p. 166). Although not covering the w h o l e of the g o s p e l — K e e deals primarily with the last third o f the b o o k but other sections are briefly mentioned—his focus on M a r k ' s use o f the OT, and the fact that it is here that Mark most frequently appeals to the O T , merits its inclusion in this survey. N o t i n g at least 5 7 q u o t a t i o n s and 160 a l l u s i o n s to S c r i p t u r e , K e e criticises S u h l ' s arbitrary decision to limit his investigation to explicit and e x t e n d e d quotations as i n a d e q u a t e 'for tracing the fuller h e r m e n e u t i c a l picture'. H e then o b s e r v e s that M a r k not only 'clearly prefers prophetic and eschatologically interpreted passages o f Scripture' but e m p l o y s these quotations at the most crucial points in his developing a r g u m e n t (p. 1 7 3 ) . Similarly striking is his 'synthesis' technique where, in close analogy with for instance the Florilegium, t w o a p p a r e n t l y u n c o n n e c t e d O T texts are brought together in order to m a k e a n e w claim (so M a i 3:1 with possibly Ex 23:20 and Isa 40:3 in l:2f; the v o i c e in 1:11; Z e c h 9:9 and 10:10 with Ps 118:25-26 in M k 11:1-11; pp. 175ff). T h u s , fulfilment is not merely an apologetic device, nor is the appeal to Scripture merely to embellish or 'to g i v e specific c o n t e n t to a s i m p l e k e r y g m a t i c f o r m u l a ' (p. 1 7 9 ) . T h e Scriptures are instead M a r k ' s 'indispensable presupposition', a 'necessary link with the biblical tradition that M a r k sees redefined and c o m p r e h e n d e d through J e s u s ' (ibid). M a r k ' s ' H e g e l - l i k e ' synthesis centres on three re-definitions. His re definition o f the covenant people invokes Isaiah and Zechariah, o f the law almost exclusively appeals to Torah, and o f the h o p e o f r e d e m p t i o n uses Daniel w h e n dealing w i t h the nature o f the path to victory (that is, the necessity of suffering as a path to vindication), and both Isaiah and Daniel w h e n re-defining t h e e n e m y . C h r i s t o l o g i c a l l y , D a n i e l i n f l u e n c e s the p i c t u r e o f J e s u s as the p r o p h e t w h o unfolds the h i d d e n m e a n i n g o f Scripture w h e r e a s Isaiah modifies the traditional nationalistic treatment o f the S o n o f D a v i d w h o b e c o m e s an eschatological agent t h r o u g h w h o m light c o m e s to the blind. A s with Q u m r a n , there is n o conflict b e t w e e n the c o n c e r n for law (rules o f a d m i s s i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e o f fellowship) and for eschatology (pp. 177f). In keeping with his interest in apocalyptic, K e e places considerable, but not exclusive, store on Daniel. But in view of the use of the blinding texts from the classical prophets (cf. Isa 6 in M k 4 ; Isa 29 in M k 7 and J e r 5 : 2 1 / Isa 6:9 in M k 8:18), K e e ' s distinction b e t w e e n them and Daniel on the basis o f hidden meaning seems unwarranted. Likewise, Kee's concentration on D a n i e l in d e a l i n g w i t h the suffering m o t i f is not in k e e p i n g w i t h the e v i d e n c e . O n his o w n analysis o f M a r k 14-15, citations, allusions, and
22
Scholarship
on OT in
Mark
influences from the so-called Servant S o n g s considerably o u t w e i g h those from D a n i e l ( p p . 1 7 0 f f ) . If, in addition, M a r k 1-10 is regarded as the context for chapters 11-16, then the allusions to Isaiah 42:1 in M a r k 1:11 (which K e e recognises) and 53:3 in 9:12 along with at least the influence of 53:10-12 in 10:45 further strengthen the case for s o m e Isaianic c o m p o n e n t (cf. Isa 40:3 in M k l:2f). These criticisms aside, however, K e e ' s observations o n M a r k ' s ' s y n t h e t i c ' m e t h o d , his preference for eschatological texts, and his p l a c e m e n t o f appeals to the O T at crucial junctures in his narrative, serve to highlight the importance of the O T for Mark. 13
k) M . D. Goulder, The Evangelist's Calendar (1978) In yet a n o t h e r British revival o f the liturgical a p p r o a c h , M . D . G o u l d e r r e v a m p s the lectionary theory arguing that M a r k is to b e understood on the b a s i s o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e O T l e c t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d h a v e accompanied the reading of the Gospel. A s i d e from t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e a s s u m p t i o n s i n h e r e n t in s u c h a task, wh i ch it should b e noted G o u l d e r undertakes in painstaking fashion, the connections o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n the reconstructed readings and M a r k vary greatly. It s e e m s strange that Isaiah 3 4 f is proposed as the O T lection for M a r k 1:1-20, a selection which in any case runs right over a major M a r k a n division, w h e n M a r k h i m s e l f s p e a k s o f Isaiah 4 0 (p. 2 4 6 ) . It b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y difficult to feel any certainty w h e n , in d e a l i n g w i t h other readings, G o u l d e r h a s to refer to O T lections past or future in o r d e r to explicate the significance o f the passage (pp. 249f). Other connections seem tenuous. F o r e x a m p l e , G o u l d e r outlines a series o f 'fulfilments' o f ElijahElisha themes in M a r k 5:35 - 8:1-10 based on the lections from 3 K i n g d o m s l:7-4:42ff. N a b o t h is a t y p e o f J o h n the B a p t i s t and a p o s t a s y is the thematic link b e t w e e n J e s u s at Nazareth and Elijah on C a r m e l . Nazareth, where J e s u s could d o no mighty work and is rejected, reflects Elijah's great miracle w h i c h c a u s e s the c r o w d ' s confessional response. G i v e n the notunlimited range o f O T themes and the fact that the N T h a s its roots in the O l d , o n e w o n d e r s if m a n y o f G o u l d e r ' s points o f contact are m o r e c o incidental than intentional. In terms o f literary structure, a n u m b e r o f Goulder's divisions run right across recognised Markan intercalations: 3 : 2 1 / 2 2 - 3 0 / 3 1 - 3 5 ; 5 : 2 1 - 4 / 2 5 -
1 3
F o r D a n i e l , c i t a t i o n s : D n 7 : 1 3 in M k 1 4 : 6 2 ; allusions: D n 1 2 : 1 0 ( L X X ) in M k 1 4 : 3 8 . F o r I s a i a h , c i t a t i o n s : 5 0 : 6 in M k 1 4 : 6 5 ( i g n o r i n g 5 3 : 1 2 in 1 5 : 2 8 ) ; a n d a l l u s i o n s : p o s s i b l y 5 3 : 1 2 in 1 4 : 2 1 ; Tg. Isa 5 3 : 5 in 1 4 : 5 8 ; p o s s i b l y I s a 5 3 : 7 in 1 4 : 6 0 ; I s a 5 3 : 6 ( L X X ) in 1 5 : 1 5 ; I s a 5 0 : 2 f in 1 5 : 3 3 ; Isa 5 3 : 9 in 1 5 : 4 3 a n d 4 6 . K e e ' s ' l o w e s t ' c a t e g o r y , 'influences', h a s D n 7 : 2 1 , 2 5 in 1 4 : 2 1 ; 1 0 : 1 6 - 1 9 in 14:34ff; a n d 7 : 2 5 in 1 4 : 3 5 ; w h i l e I s a 5 3 : 3 - 5 is s e e n in 1 4 : 6 5 . W e i g h t i n g this, for the sake of a r g u m e n t 3-2-1, gives Daniel '10' c o m p a r e d to the so-called Songs's '18'.
Vorster,
'Function
of OT in
23
Mark'
3 4 / 3 5 - 4 3 ; 6 : 7 - 1 3 / 1 4 - 2 9 / 3 0 ; and 1 1 : 1 2 - 1 4 / 1 5 - 1 9 / 2 0 - 3 5 . It is hard to believe that this is M a r k ' s intention. G o u l d e r p r o v i d e s i n t e r e s t i n g i n s i g h t s o n the O T b a c k g r o u n d o f different events. H o w e v e r , in terms o f his overall hypothesis, perhaps the m o s t telling aspect is the c o n s i d e r a b l e u n c e r t a i n t y a n d fluidity o f the weekly readings which, w h e n c o m b i n e d with the concerns a b o v e , tends to call the w h o l e rather inflexible construction into q u e s t i o n .
14
I) W. S. Vorster, 'The Function of the Old Testament in Mark' (1981) W . S. V o r s t e r ' s article reflects the trend a w a y from Redaktions-geschichte to narrative analysis. His contention is that M a r k uses the O T as a 'literary' m e a n s to put across his narrative point o f view. R e m i n i s c e n t o f S u h l , V o r s t e r ' s M a r k is l i k e w i s e not interested in promise-fulfilment nor w i t h t h e O T c o n t e x t (for e x a m p l e , l : 2 f ) , b u t i n s t e a d w a n t s to e s t a b l i s h 'perspectives through w h ic h the reader is presented with this story' (p. 6 2 ) . A l t h o u g h M a r k e s c h e w s using the O T within the promise-fulfilment s c h e m a , h i s G o s p e l is s t r u c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g to p r e d i c t i o n - f u l f i l m e n t techniques. M a r k 14:27f c o n t a i n s c o m b i n e d p r e d i c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s , v e r s e 2 7 from Z e c h a r i a h 13:7 a n d v e r s e 2 8 from J e s u s himself, w h i c h respectively find fulfilment in 14:49 and 16:7f. T h e significant point is that ' t h e s e q u o t a t i o n s form p a r t o f the M a r k a n n a r r a t i v e o f J e s u s and are fulfilled in that narrative' (p. 70). For Vorster, this ' e m b e d d e d n e s s ' in the narrative is further b o r n e out b y Pryke's observation that M a r k s o m e t i m e s suspends his quotation in the m i d d l e o f a s e n t e n c e , so that 'they sound as if they are the w o r d s o f the narrator or narrated figure although they stand in p a r e n t h e s i s ' (ibid.). Similarly, M a r k l : 2 f d o e s not present J o h n ' s history as fulfilment but simply as part o f the story o f Jesus. T h e fact that the great majority o f O T quotations are o n the lips o f J e s u s is taken b y Vorster as further support for his narrative theory. 1 5
16
W h i l e it is true that M a r k ' s avoids M a t t h e a n fulfilment interjections, this h a r d l y d e m o n s t r a t e s that M a r k is u n i n t e r e s t e d in fulfilment: t h e criticisms applied to S u h l ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f O T p r o p h e t i c literature also pertain here. G r a n t e d too M a r k ' s general confinement o f O T quotations a n d their ' f u l f i l m e n t s ' to t h e n a r r a t i v e , this o n l y tells u s a b o u t h i s n a r r a t i v e s t y l e ; it d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w t h a t h e is t h e r e b y disinterested in O T Heilsgeschichte. Vorster's attempt to reconcile M a r k ' s
1
4
1
5
1
6
Cf. his a d m i s s i o n in Midrash, 227n2. E . g . l : 2 f a s p r e d i c t i o n , cf. l : 4 f f a s f u l f i l m e n t ; s o 1:7 a n d l:9ff; c i t i n g P e t e r s e n , Literary, 49ff. 1:1-4; 7 : 6 - 8 ; 1 0 : 5 - 8 ; 1 4 : 2 7 f ; P r y k e , Redactional, 37.
24
Scholarship
on OT in
Mark
lack of fulfilment formula vis-a-vis Matthew, with his apparent p r e d i c t i o n / f u l f i l m e n t structure is, therefore, ultimately unconvincing. m) J. D. M . Derrett, The Making of Mark (1985) J. D. M . Derrett's c o m m e n t a r y constitutes another reading o f M a r k through the grid o f the first 'trek' o f Israel from Egypt to C a n a a n . Involving an e x o d u s , a n invasion, and a triumph, J e s u s is presented as a second and greater M o s e s / J o s h u a . T h i s G o s p e l ' o f s e r m o n o u t l i n e s ' is to b e interpreted on the basis of precise passage b y passage parallels to sections of the H e x a t e u c h — n a m e l y the first half o f E x o d u s , parts o f N u m b e r s , and nearly all o f Joshua—although 1 S a m u e l , Lamentations, Canticles, Daniel, Isaiah 5 3 , and P s a l m 22 influence later chapters. T h e c o m p l e x citation at t h e o u t s e t ( M k l : 2 f ) — M a r k ' s o n l y explicit editorial u s e o f t h e O T — m e r e l y serves to inform us that h e intends to d r a w from all three sections o f the J e w i s h Scripture. O n the other h a n d , the s i n g l e w o r d d T r c ' x e i in t h e G e t h s e m a n e a c c o u n t recalls Y a h w e h ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t in D e u t e r o n o m y 1:6 and 2:3 that the first trek is about to end. Likewise, passing over the question of the possible significance o f the clear-cut O T quotation in the parables section, Derrett proceeds instead into a highly speculative haggadah on the m a n n a traditions. A s this Chapter has suggested, the idea that M a r k ' s gospel o w e s a great deal to Israel's history appears to have a solid basis. But Derrett's quixotic j o u r n e y p r o c e e d s along s u c h subtle p a t h s that it b e c o m e s increasingly difficult to follow h i m , not least because his eclectic method and ingenious use o f material a p p e a r to lack any consistent controls. T o o m u c h is built o n the s c a n t i e s t allusion a n d insufficient attention g i v e n to c l e a r O T parallels for Derrett's undoubtedly innovative reading to carry conviction. n) M. D. Hooker,
'Mark'
(1988)
A l t h o u g h at first sight M a r k a p p e a r s to m a k e little u s e o f t h e O T , M . D . H o o k e r r e c o g n i s e s that this is largely b e c a u s e o f his distinctive approach. Not only is the opening quotation significant, 'his story is good n e w s precisely b e c a u s e it is the fulfilment o f Scripture', but ' J e s u s ' w o r d s a n d a c t i v i t i e s c o n s t a n t l y e c h o O T s c e n e s a n d l a n g u a g e , until w h a t is "written" o f the S o n o f M a n (9:12; 10:21) is finally fulfilled' (p. 220). D u e to space limitations. H o o k e r ' s article focuses on M a r k ' s use o f the Pentateuch, and thereby his v i e w of the law. In the conflict o v e r the P h a r i s e e s ' and s c r i b e s ' traditions, M a r k 7:1-23 s h o w s that while J e s u s upholds the L a w (vv. 1-13; cf. N u 30:2; Dt 23:21-23) his authority is e v e n greater than that o f the L a w (vv. 14-23). T h e s a m e is b o r n e o u t in e x a m i n a t i o n s o f 12:18ff a n d 2 8 - 3 4 (p. 2 2 4 ) , and s e v e r a l P e n t a t e u c h a l allusions (2:1-10; 2:23 - 3:6; cf. 1:44). T h r e e other allusions
Roth,
Hebrew
Gospel
25
recalling incidents in M o s e s ' life serve likewise to demonstrate that J e s u s is either M o s e s ' successor (6:34, cf. N u 27:17) or his superior (9:2-13; cf. E x 24:15f; Dt 18:15), w h i l e 9:38-40 (cf. N u 11:26-29) s h o w s J e s u s acting as did Moses. M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p to the L a w is therefore s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s , and results at least o n c e in J e s u s a b r o g a t i n g o n e aspect of the L a w (10:10ff; cf. also 7:19). Since such challenges o c c u r in private, they reflect the fact that 'neither J e s u s nor the earliest generation of Christians regarded the teaching of M o s e s abrogated ... but interpretation ... led inevitably to the point o f rupture—a point w h i c h had not yet b e e n reached w h e n M a r k w r o t e ' (p. 228). H o o k e r ' s observation that M a r k ' s J e s u s is faithful to the L a w and yet above it, judges b y the L a w and yet decisively re-evaluates it w h e n his o w n acts are called into question, is well put, and accurately reflects the tensions in a c o m m u n i t y c o m i n g to terms with past and present. On a smaller point, h o w e v e r , it is n o t entirely o b v i o u s that J e s u s ' abrogations are s o p r i v a t e as to b e left for a later g e n e r a t i o n to resolve, s i n c e the p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t s a n d their c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n s c a n h a r d l y b e r e c o n c i l e d w i t h M o s e s (7:14f and 10:5ff). B e this as it m a y , the ' t e n s i o n ' inherent in the response o f M a r k ' s J e s u s to the L a w is not dissimilar to K e e ' s account o f M a r k ' s larger s c h e m e o f 'redefinition'. B o t h p h e n o m e n a suggest that an i m p o r t a n t M a r k a n c o n c e r n is the question o f h o w past traditions a n d expectations a r e to b e reconciled with w h a t M a r k is c o n v i n c e d is their present fulfilment. o) W. Roth Hebrew Gospel: Cracking the Code of Mark (1988). Inspired b y several M a r k a n features, n a m e l y , the expectation that 'Elijah must c o m e first' ( M k 9:11-13), M a r k ' s introduction (Ex 23:20 and Mai 3:1), and his portrayal o f the Baptist, W . R o t h ' s suggestion is that the G o s p e l ' s 'conceptual-narrative p a r a d i g m ' follows 1 K i n g s 17 to 2 Kings 13 such that J e s u s ' Elisha plays successor to J o h n ' s Elijah as they re-establish the L o r d ' s reign. Accordingly, the Gospel is c o m p o s e d o f four a c t s — C o m m i s s i o n i n g of the K i n g d o m ' s Bringer (1:1-13), his Authentication ( 1 : 1 4 - 7 : 3 7 ) , Confrontation with Apostasy (8:1 - 1 5 : 3 9 ) , and Vindication (15:40 - 1 6 : 8 ) . E v i d e n c e is found in J e s u s ' sixteen m i r a c l e s u p to 7:37 ( e q u a l l i n g Elisha's miracles, cf. ' a l l ' in 2 K g s 8 : 4 / M k 7:37), and parallel feedings, M k 6:32ff/2 Kgs 4:42f, and resuscitations, M k 5:21ff/2 K g s 4:18ff). Just as Elisha extends Elijah's miracles b y eight, so too J e s u s e x t e n d s E l i s h a ' s (but n o t J o h n ' s ? ) b y e i g h t (after 7:37 a n d including the r e n d i n g o f t h e T e m p l e curtain). A s Elisha traversed the land after the departure of his 'master', so also Jesus after J o h n ' s egress. Further, J e s u s ' preaching of the ' g o o d n e w s '
26
Scholarship
on OT in
Mark
e c h o e s the four l e p e r s ' a n n o u n c e m e n t in 2 K i n g s 7:9, a n d ' r e p e n t and b e l i e v e ' r e p r e s e n t s ' t h e invitation to accept the scriptural p a r a d i g m o f divine intervention that the gospel p r e s e n t s ' (p. 1 1 , p r e s u m a b l y 1-2 K g s ) . The seed parable's ' o n e hundred fold' recalls 2 Kings 1:9-12 (two fifties) and 18:13, and thus the three ' p o o r ' soils e c h o the responses o f Jezebel, A h a b , and J e h o r a m . Peter's threefold denial before the cock c r o w s twice reflects Elijah's threefold refusal to leave Elisha and his two-fold e n d o w m e n t with, his master's spirit. If this s e e m s esoteric it is only because it is inherent in M a r k ' s parabolic enterprise w h i c h is 'pointedly a j o u r n e y o f discovery b y speaking the secret o f the kingdom—without ever unveiling it' (p. 19). Roth is correct in interpreting J e s u s ' miracles within the O T prophetic tradition rather than H e l l e n i s m , but e v e n so, m o s t o f his parallels s e e m either forced, co-incidental (does J u d a s ' kiss really echo the kissing o f Baal in 1 K g s 19:18?), or due to the broad intertextuality o f biblical themes (cf. pp. 92ff). H i s p a r a d i g m fails to take seriously M a r k ' s o n e clear editorial citation—Malachi's Elijah does not precede a n e w Elisha—and his outline cuts across otherwise clear indications o f literary structure (e.g. the ' W a y ' section) or thematic markers (Jesus' only two confrontations w i t h leaders from J e r u s a l e m — b o t h i m p o r t a n t a n d b o t h o u t s i d e J e r u s a l e m — o c c u r before R o t h ' s 'Confrontation' section). 7
p) R. Schneck, Isaiah in the Gospel of Mark, I-VIII (1994)A R. S c h n e c k ' s thesis g r o w s out o f the contrasting claims o f M . A . B e a v i s (Isaiah is M a r k ' s favourite book) and A . C. Sundberg (Daniel is p r i m a r y ) , finding in favour o f Beavis. Noting allusions to Isaiah in e v e r y chapter o f M a r k , S c h n e c k also finds extensive parallels b e t w e e n the t h e m e s o f the original Isaianic context and the M a r k a n setting. This indicates that M a r k uses O T t e x t s s u c h that their o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t s inform h i s n a r r a t i v e (pp. 2 4 5 f ) . T h e s a m e applies to c o m b i n e d citations. M a r k does this not only b e c a u s e Jesus fulfils O T hopes (pace Suhl; p . 249) but also because h e is following J e s u s ' o w n use o f Scripture (with Dodd; p. 251). O v e r a r c h i n g O T m o d e l s for M a r k are rejected, h o w e v e r , since ' w e can hardly e x p e c t to discover that any N T author w o u l d e v e r u s e the Isaian 18
1 9
2 0
1
7
A r e v i s i o n o f h i s 1 9 9 2 t h e s i s , S c h n e c k ' s w o r k c a m e t o m y a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e final stages of the p r e p a r a t i o n of this book. C o n s e q u e n t l y , I h a v e b e e n u n a b l e to interact e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h S c h n e c k in t h e b o d y o f m y e a r l y C h a p t e r s , a l t h o u g h c o m m e n t m a y b e f o u n d in t h e f o o t n o t e s . 1 8
R e s p e c t i v e l y , Literary, 1 1 0 , a n d T e s t i m o n i e s ' , 2 7 4 , c i t e d o n p . 1. I s a i a h in p a r e n t h e s e s : M a r k 1:1a ( 4 0 : 9 ) , 2 - 3 ( 4 0 : 3 ) , 1 0 ( 6 3 : 1 9 a ) , 1 1 ( 4 2 : 1 ) ; 2 : 7 ( 4 3 : 2 5 26), 1 6 - 2 0 (58:2-7), 2 0 (58:8); 3:27 (49:24-25); 4:12 (6:9-10), 2 4 (Tg. 27:8); 5:1-20 (65:1-7); 6:344 4 (55:1-3), 3 9 - 4 0 (25:6), 5 2 (6:9-10); 7:6-7 (29:13), 3 2 (35:5); 8:17b (6:9-10), a n d 2 5 (42:6-7). W i t h M a r c u s b u t pace J u e l , Messianic. 1 9
2
0
Analysis
27
c o r p u s as a m o d e l or p a r a d i g m ... in c o m p o s i n g a n e w w r i t i n g ' (p. 3) because 'the prophetic material is quite diverse and the different pericopae do not appear to b e organically constructed' (ibid). It is not clear, however, that a m o d e l or p a r a d i g m m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y b e ' l i t e r a r y ' — I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 m a k e s considerable use o f the E x o d u s 'event'. Given, too, the prologue's function in a n t i q u i t y , that M a r k ' s is replete with imagery from Isaiah 4 0 66 (pp. 40ff, 60ff) surely implies something about his overall agenda. W h i l e not e v e r y identification is equally convincing (for e x a m p l e , Isa 53:2-7 in 2:16-17 and 53:8 in 2:20), Schneck marshals considerable support for his case—at least for M a r k 1-8. This limitation is problematic since Schneck cites K e e ' s study on M a r k 11-16 but fails to mention K e e ' s support for a p r i m a r i l y D a n i e l l i c i n f l u e n c e ; i n d e e d , t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e is n o t discussed. Nevertheless, S c h n e c k ' s work is w e l c o m e since at the least h e s h o w s not only that Isaiah is o f considerable importance for M a r k , but also provides good evidence to suggest that M a r k was aware o f the O T context. 21
III. Analysis N u m e r o u s studies o n M a r k ' s u s e o f the O T have e x a m i n e d his technique (Suhl, K e e , Vorster, S c h n e c k ) , his view o f the L a w (Schulz, H o o k e r ) , the i m p a c t o f O T Heilsgeschichte (Farrer, P i p e r , H o b b s , S w a r t l e y , D e r r e t t , Roth), the influence o f J e w i s h / C h r i s t i a n religious observance (Carrington, B o w m a n , G o u l d e r ) , and his attitude to fulfilment (Suhl, Ander s on, K e e , Vorster, Schneck). Several features emerge. In terms o f technique, M a r k tends to conflate O T references and to place them at critical points in his argument (Kee). H e not only avoids editorial interjections, b u t h a s the great majority o f O T quotations in the m o u t h o f Jesus. L o n g e r quotations are not infrequently suspended in mid-sentence (Vorster). M a r k al s o prefers certain c a t e g o r i e s o f texts for particular concerns: the Torah w h e n h e re-defines the L a w (Kee, H o o k e r ) , Isaiah and Zechariah with regard to the re-definition o f G o d ' s n e w people, and Daniel and Isaiah w h e n re-defining redemption (Kee). M a r k ' s v i e w o f J e s u s ' relationship to t h e O T L a w is n o t o f major concern in this b o o k , except to note that M a r k ' s Jesus judges his critics b y its standards, and yet decisively re-evaluates it in the light o f his o w n p e r s o n a n d m i s s i o n ( H o o k e r ) . It m a y n o t surprise us then if M a r k ' s understanding o f the O T reflects a similar approach.
2
1
See C h a p t e r 2, 54f.
28
Scholarship
on OT in
Mark
A n u m b e r of scholars observed the influence o f Israel's Heilsgeschichte on Mark, n o t a b l y the E x o d u s , suggesting that h e intends to present the message and person o f Jesus in such terms. In a n u m b e r o f cases there is g o o d e v i d e n c e that this is so. H o w e v e r , the scholars reviewed have b e e n m o r e successful in d e m o n s t r a t i n g this influence o n individual sections than o n t h e t h e o l o g y and literary structure o f the G o s p e l as a w h o l e . Further, there has often been little effort to integrate M a r k ' s explicit uses of O T texts w i t h t h e v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r e s p r o p o s e d ( S w a r t l e y is a partexception). On balance, no suggestion along these lines has been satisfactory, lectionary and n e w haggadah hypotheses even less so. In v i e w o f b o t h the teleological aspect o f the p r o p h e t s and M a r k ' s c o n s i d e r a b l e interest in t h e m (especially Isaiah) it is likely that h e has fulfilment in m i n d (Kee, H o o k e r , Schneck; pace Suhl, A n d e r s o n , Vorster). A r g u m e n t s to the contrary tend either to j u d g e M a r k in terms o f M a t t h e w or appear to suffer from a predisposed point o f view. It s e e m s M a r k , at least in the case o f Isaiah, uses O T texts to allude to their original contexts with the a i m of illuminating his o w n narrative (Schneck). Given the sometimes overly complex, contrived, a n d / o r selective nature o f the analyses surveyed, D. E . N i n e h a m ' s early scepticism as to the existence o f any 'single and entirely coherent masterplan' for M a r k might appear justified. S i m i l a r reservations are e x p r e s s e d b y M a r t i n w h o approvingly cites J . M . Robinson's critique of such approaches in that their 'argument is not built upon w h a t M a r k clearly and repeatedly has to say, b u t u p o n inferences as to the basis o f the M a r c a n order, a subject u p o n which M a r k is s i l e n t ' . R o b i n s o n has put his finger on an important matter: does M a r k really remain silent as to his order? It is generally agreed that certain sections o f the G o s p e l betray c o n s c i o u s structuring, for e x a m p l e , the ' W a y ' section. But if here, w h y not elsewhere? A n d w h y , for instance, d o nearly all the miracles o c c u r o n l y in the first eight chapters? T h e difficulty with the scepticism expressed b y N i n e h a m and others is that it is based o n negative e v i d e n c e . A critique o f the m o d e l s offered to date d o e s n o t p r o v i d e grounds for denying the possibility that M a r k m a y h a v e had an outline in mind. All that can b e said is that these models do not adequately describe the data. Is there a w a y forward? This b o o k suggests that there is. A n d it is to b e found in t e r m s o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t and ideology's role in maintaining social cohesion. 22
23
2
2
2
3
Mark, 2 9 ; c i t i n g C a d b u r y , Making, 8 0 , w h o a s s e r t s t h a t t h e r e 'is s c a r c e l y a n y thorough-going theological theory that permeates the whole narrative'. Evangelist, 9 1 ; a n d History, 1 2 .
Chapter 2: History as Hermeneutic: Ideology and Community Self-Understanding Inherent
in ideology's
energies
of a group's
schema
by which
that various interpretative elements
the group
texts
framework.
is the mediation
moment.
defines
and motifs
schema, of that
social function founding
This provides
and understands
become
associated
their use in a given
schema
and
Mark's
thereby
literary
provides
of the ideals an
itself.
To the
with elements
of
context
to
serves
an implicit
use of OT texts may function
and
interpretative
this
extent this invoke
hermeneutical way.
I. Introduction In his ground-breaking b o o k o n J e s u s ' parables, K e n n e t h Bailey stresses the i m p o r t a n c e o f c o m m o n tacit k n o w l e d g e in the interaction b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d his a u d i e n c e . Englishman
relates
B y w a y o f illustration, h e e x p l a i n s t h a t w h e n the
tale
of King Arthur
and
Camelot
to
an his
c o u n t r y m e n , e v e r y o n e k n o w s exactly h o w the characters are e x p e c t e d to act. For example, knights obey the king, carry out daring quests, and rescue damsels in distress.
L i k e w i s e , castles, dark forests, and so on, are n e v e r
explained b u t are s i m p l y a s s u m e d as familiar images. This p o o l of shared expectations a n d s t o c k figures constitutes the ' g r a n d p i a n o ' u p o n w h i c h the English story teller deftly plays. I m a g i n e t h e n a n E n g l i s h m a n t e l l i n g t h e s a m e s t o r y a b o u t Sir L a n c e l o t t o A l a s k a n E s k i m o s . O b v i o u s l y t h e m u s i c o f t h e " g r a n d p i a n o " will n o t b e h e a r d b e c a u s e t h e p i a n o is in t h e m i n d s o f t h e E n g l i s h l i s t e n e r s w h o s h a r e a c o m m o n c u l t u r e a n d h i s t o r y w i t h t h e s t o r y teller. I n t h e c a s e o f t h e p a r a b l e s o f J e s u s , we are the Eskimos.*
Bailey's thesis is that in order to appreciate fully the point o f J e s u s ' parables w e too m u s t enter into their world of shared expectations w h e r e e v e r y o n e k n o w s h o w a rich m a n o u g h t to b e h a v e , h o w the S a m a r i t a n s are b e n e a t h contempt, and h o w seasonal pressures w e i g h heavily u p o n a day labourer seeking w o r k in an agrarian society. Only then will w e b e in a position to identify those 'points o f reference'—usually stereotypical characters and situations—which 1
Through,
xiv.
aroused
in
the
original
hearers
the
particular
30
History
as
Hermeneutic
e x p e c t a t i o n s , g e n e r a t e d a n d c o n d i t i o n e d b y the daily interplay o f social roles a n d m o r e s , u p o n w h i c h the point of the story turns.
It is these
u n s t a t e d b u t u n i v e r s a l l y k n o w n e x p e c t a t i o n s . Bailey a r g u e s , that
the
parables p r e s u p p o s e and against which they are told such that their 'main p o i n t s , c l i m a x e s , b i t s o f h u m o r (sic), a n d i r o n y are all h e i g h t e n e d b y " v a r i a t i o n s o n a t h e m e , " that is, b y c h a n g i n g , r e i n f o r c i n g , rejecting, intensifying, etc., the k n o w n pattern of attitude and b e h a v i o u r . '
2
T h e a i m o f this C h a p t e r is to s u g g e s t that a s i m i l a r a p p r o a c h m a y explain aspects o f M a r k ' s use o f O T texts and images.
P e r h a p s they too
function as k e y s o n a larger ' g r a n d p i a n o ' so that M a r k ' s ' m a i n points, climaxes ... and i r o n y ' are also ' h e i g h t e n e d ... b y c h a n g i n g , reinforcing, rejecting, intensifying, etc., the k n o w n p a t t e r n ' not, h o w e v e r , o f social 'attitude and behaviour', but of a similarly assumed pattern of O T interpretation and e x p e c t a t i o n .
3
As briefly stated in the 'Introduction', it w a s while studying at a North A m e r i c a n S e m i n a r y that I e x p e r i e n c e d h o w this m i g h t w o r k .
During a
lecture o n e o f m y A m e r i c a n professors underlined his point with a brief statement w h i c h included the phrase 'four score and seven years a g o ' . T h e class responded to this as one, whereas I failed to see the relevance o f this additional and archaically phrased comment.
O v e r m o r n i n g coffee, I
asked w h a t had h a p p e n e d eighty-seven years ago, and w a s m e t with blank puzzlement.
T h i s surprised m e . Further discussion w a s just as unhelpful
until the p h r a s e w a s retranslated b a c k into the original.
Immediately a
2
Ibid. S e e a l s o B a x a n d a l l , Painting, w h e r e h e a r g u e s t h a t t h e 1 5 t h C . I t a l i a n p a i n t e r s p r e s u p p o s e d their c o n t e m p o r a r i e s ' sensitivity to the influence of significant social trends such as the m o r a l i s m of religious preaching, the p a g e a n t r y of social dancing, the s h r e w d n e s s o f c o m m e r c i a l g a u g i n g , a n d t h e r e n e w a l o f i n t e r e s t in t h e g r a n d e u r o f L a t i n o r a t o r y t h a t w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e i r t i m e . T h u s B a x a n d a l l s e e s in G i o v a n n i B e l l i n n i ' s w o r k a n example of the 'interaction b e t w e e n the painting and the visualising activity of the public m i n d — a p u b l i c m i n d w i t h d i f f e r e n t f u r n i t u r e a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s f r o m o u r s ' , 4 8 . It is this ' p u b l i c m i n d ' t h a t p r o v i d e d t h e t r u e m e d i u m f o r t h e p a i n t e r , i.e. t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e a u d i e n c e t o s e e m e a n i n g in h i s w o r k . O n t h e c o n g r u e n c e b e t w e e n l i t e r a t u r e a n d a r t in this respect see Ricoeur, 'Function'. 3
In its c o n c e r n w i t h t h e w a y in w h i c h t e x t s a n d i m a g e s f u n c t i o n e d in i n v o k i n g e l e m e n t s o f a g e n e r a l i s e d first c e n t u r y J e w i s h w o r l d - v i e w , t h i s s t u d y c o m p l e m e n t s b o t h B u r r i d g e ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e G o s p e l s , What?, a s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n g e n r e , p i o i , a n d t h e w o r k of o t h e r s w h o a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e r e a d e r s ' ( h e a r e r s ' ) e d u c a t i o n a n d l i t e r a r y k n o w l e d g e , cf. e . g . B i l e z i k i a n , Liberated; B e a v i s , Audience; a n d T o l b e r t , Sowing. For a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e l i n e a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c w o r l d - v i e w in q u e s t i o n a l s o f r o m w i t h i n a n a r r a t i v e f r a m e w o r k , s e e n o w W r i g h t , People.
31
Introduction
chorus o f recognition informed m e that this w a s the first line o f A b r a h a m Lincoln's Gettysburg address. S p e a k i n g at the dedication o f the national c e m e t e r y h o n o u r i n g the site of arguably the greatest battle in the A m e r i c a n Civil W a r , Lincoln, in this t i m e of great crisis, r e m i n d e d his hearers o f the ideals u p o n w h i c h the nation w a s founded.
It w a s fidelity to these ideals, Lincoln suggested, that
not only justified the N o r t h ' s c o m m i t m e n t to its present c o u r s e o f action, a n d thereby sanctified the deaths o f these thousands o f her m e n , but also s u m m o n e d h e r to e v e n greater efforts.
O n l y in so doing c o u l d the North
lay true claim to the heritage o f W a s h i n g t o n , Jefferson, and others.
Here
then, in spite o f e m p l o y i n g a m e r e ten sentences scribbled o u t during the train ride to the site, L i n c o l n m a n a g e d in a m o s t e x t r a o r d i n a r y w a y to e n c o m p a s s the s w e e p o f A m e r i c a n self-understanding and to capture the n a t i o n ' s s e n s e o f destiny.
T h i s , I d i s c o v e r e d , w a s w h a t 'four score a n d
seven . . . ' really m e a n t in that lecture room setting. Several points s h o u l d b e n o t e d . the first line o f a f a m o u s address.
O b v i o u s l y the part-citation refers to But it clearly d o e s m u c h m o r e .
The
phrase is a pointer not merely to the text o f Lincoln's speech b u t instead to the ' h i s t o r y ' w h i c h that s p e e c h b o t h a s s u m e s and interprets.
A n d this
'history' is not m e r e l y the i m m e d i a t e event o f Gettysburg or e v e n the Civil W a r , but instead the setting o f these events within the broader c o m p a s s o f U.S. 'history' as a w h o l e .
Furthermore, this broader setting is predicated
on those founding e v e n t s to w h i c h Lincoln himself alludes. E v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , this ' h i s t o r y ' is not the ' o b j e c t i v e ' , detailed, e v e n q u i e s c e n t v e r s i o n o f t h e a c a d e m i c elite, b u t r a t h e r a p o p u l a r i s t , highly processed and digested, yet pungent and persuasive 'history', cast in terms of the p a r a m e t e r s set b y the F o u n d i n g Fathers m y t h o l o g y .
4
That is,
although the text is a part-citation, its primary function is to allude to a n d therefore to i n v o k e , a p o w e r f u l h e r m e n e u t i c a l f r a m e w o r k
originating
w i t h the F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s , n a m e l y , the i d e o l o g i c a l l y s h a p e d recounting o f the ' e s s e n c e ' o f U . S . history.
popular
In this s e n s e the part-citation
functions very m u c h like the 'point o f reference' in a parable.
4
T h r o u g h o u t t h i s C h a p t e r ' m y t h ' is u s e d n o t t o i m p l y falsity o r d e c e p t i o n , b u t r a t h e r t h a t w h i c h in a t t e m p t i n g t o d r a w o u t a s fully a s p o s s i b l e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a n e v e n t t e n d s t o w a r d the heroic a n d poetic.
32
History
as
Hermeneutic
T h e procedure is almost unconscious. Again, as in the case of Bailey's account o f the parables, it seemingly requires n o great mental effort on the part o f informed listeners to m a k e the n e c e s s a r y c o n n e c t i o n — i t s i m p l y strikes t h e right c h o r d on the h e a r e r ' s m e n t a l ' g r a n d p i a n o ' .
T h e point
b e i n g , h o w e v e r , that the w h o l e p r o c e s s p r e s u p p o s e s a tutored a u d i e n c e whom
it is s i m p l y a s s u m e d
will m a k e the right
c o n n e c t i o n s ; the
untutored (such as this Australian) occupying the place TOU 16IOJTOU. O n l y t h e barest m i n i m u m o f ' t e x t ' w a s s u p p l i e d .
T h e extent o f the
a l l u s i o n / c i t a t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d primarily b y the n e e d to e n s u r e that the correct c o n n e c t i o n is m a d e — w i t h p e r h a p s s o m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n for g o o d style. S i n c e in this case it is a part-citation, style is already fixed, b u t the archaic character o f the expression naturally aids identification. In spite of its apparently fragmentary form, these few w o r d s are perfectly adequate to the task. This particular instance serves to illustrate the w a y in w h i c h the true significance of a brief and e v e n fragmentary citation m a y g o far b e y o n d w h a t m i g h t otherwise appear to b e the case.
A l t h o u g h to the untutored
the c i t a t i o n m i g h t s e e m o f little i m p o r t a n c e , the fact r e m a i n s that to trained h e a r e r s it h a s considerable allusive p o w e r and t h e r e b y serves to i n v o k e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e h e r m e n e u t i c a l framework. T h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l o g y m a y h e l p to e x p l a i n the m e c h a n i c s o f the process.
S u p p o s e a g i v e n h i s t o r y is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a j o u r n e y t a k e n
t h r o u g h a n e x p a n s e o f land.
T h e r e are c e r t a i n features: hills, v a l l e y s ,
grassy plains, u n u s u a l bluffs, small trees, large forests, rivers, m o u n t a i n s , deserts, a n d so on, w h i c h represent c o n c r e t e e v e n t s . A t t e m p t i n g to c o m p r e h e n d this history corresponds to m a p p i n g the j o u r n e y , a n d j u s t as all m a p s h a v e to b e selective as to which features are to b e included, s o too a given history must
also m a k e j u d g e m e n t s
as t o w h i c h e v e n t s
are
significant (crossing a lake) a n d w h i c h are not (stepping o v e r a p u d d l e ) . C o m p l e t i n g the a n a l o g y , i m a g i n e a grid s y s t e m o v e r l a y e d o n t h e m a p w h i c h e n a b l e s easy reference to its various parts, and allow that this grid system represents various texts describing or interacting with those events. N o w neither the m a p n o r the grid system are real in the sense that the events t h e y ' m a p ' are real.
T h e grid reference ('four score and s e v e n ' ) is
simply a shorthand w a y o f using the grid system (here including L i n c o l n ' s address) to refer to the m a p (the schematised version o f significant events)
33
Introduction
that is designed to m a k e sense o f the j o u r n e y through the landscape (the c o u r s e o f the m y r i a d events t h e m s e l v e s ) .
T h e point here is that neither
the citations / a l l u s i o n s n o r the texts they point to exist alone.
T h e y find
their m e a n i n g w i t h i n the larger interpretation o f that o n - g o i n g history w h i ch the texts themselves presuppose and with w hi ch they interact. Returning to M a r k , I suggest that his 'grand p i a n o ' is a schematised interpretive ' m a p ' o f Israel's ' h i s t o r y ' a n d that his O T part-citations or a l l u s i o n s m a y function as ' g r i d r e f e r e n c e s ' to that m a p w h i c h g i v e s expression and order to Israel's interpretation of h e r history, n a m e l y the O T . In other words, it m a y well b e that M a r k uses s o m e of his O T texts in m u c h the s a m e w a y as L i n c o l n or m y Professor used their 'points o f reference'; that is, to indicate to his h e a r e r s / r e a d e r s w h a t particular aspect of their c o m m o n tacit u n d e r s t a n d i n g
h e h a s in m i n d .
This, of course,
raises the s a m e problem Bailey refers to: h o w are w e , as ' E s k i m o s ' listening to M a r k ' s ' C a m e l o t ' , to u n c o v e r the n a t u r e and c o n t e n t o f this tacit knowledge? H o w might it b e structured, and what is its basis? T h e first question will b e addressed throughout the following several Chapters as w e s e e k to ascertain the significance o f particular O T texts within Israel's larger historical self-understanding.
T h e s e c o n d question
occupies the remainder o f this Chapter, which is an attempt to lay out in a 5
s u m m a r y m a n n e r h o w social t h e o r y m a y go s o m e w a y toward providing a theoretical e x p l a n a t i o n o f this p r o c e s s . Function
of Ideology)
6
T h e first section (The
Social
outlines the w a y in which, according to J a c q u e s Ellul
and Paul R i c o e u r , i d e o l o g y facilitates social cohesion. particularly through
i d e o l o g y ' s revivification
T h i s is effected
o f the g r o u p ' s
founding
m o m e n t such that it b e c o m e s A ) the shared and almost unconscious basis of t h e g r o u p ' s self-definition a n d B ) its i n t e r p r e t a t i v e understanding
the w o r l d .
7
framework
for
In order to do this, h o w e v e r , the g r o u p ' s
ideology m u s t b e inculcated from birth. This requires that it b e accessible 5
F o r sage warnings on the dangers of positivism, reductionism, relativism, and deter m i n i s m i n h e r e n t i n t h e u n c r i t i c a l u s e o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e m o d e l s , s e e H e r i o n ' s r e m a r k s in 'Reconstruction'. D o d d ' s d i s c u s s i o n . According, r e f e r s t o t h e s h a r e d Weltanschauung of O T and N T authors but does not g o b e y o n d a surface probing of the matter; see below. T o s p e a k b l a n d l y o f a c o m m u n i t y ' s ' i d e o l o g y ' , a s if it w e r e o n e h o m o g e n o u s a n d indivisible w h o l e , clearly d o e s n o t d o justice to the m o r e c o m p l e x , v a r i e g a t e d , a n d a m o r p h o u s n a t u r e o f t h e r e a l i t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f this e x e r c i s e it s e e m s justifiable t o t r e a t a s a u n i t t h o s e m a j o r c o n s t r u c t s a b o u t w h i c h t h e g r o u p w o u l d b e in b r o a d agreement. 6
7
34
History
to all m e m b e r s o f the group. schematised icon
as
Consequently, ideology's re-telling m u s t b e
into digestible ' s l o g a n s ' .
and t h e symbol
Hermeneutic
T h e m e d i a o f this s c h e m a are the
w h i c h , b y m e a n s o f iconic
augmentation,
s e r v e as
shorthand references to ideology's larger interpretive framework. T h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n (Ideology
and Crisis)
examines what
transpires
w h e n a c o m m u n i t y ' s present experience contradicts the future projected b y its i d e o l o g y .
G i v e n the i m p o r t a n c e o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e link w i t h the
founding m o m e n t , and therefore the c o m m u n i t y ' s heritage, o n e approach is to re-present
the prevailing ideology w h e r e b y p r e v i o u s l y u n c o n n e c t e d
' i c o n s ' are j u x t a p o s e d so as to explain the unexpected present.
However,
the n e w w a y s o f seeing reality engendered b y these juxtapositions m a y b e rejected b y m e m b e r s o f the c o m m u n i t y if they e x c e e d its doxic
threshold.
T h i s m a y lead to a debate o v e r w h o are the heirs o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s traditions w h i c h is then carried out in terms of fidelity to the m o r e s o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t .
T h e C h a p t e r concludes w i t h an outline
of h o w this model might explain aspects o f M a r k ' s use of the O T .
II. The Social Function of Ideology a) Ideology:
A Provisional
Definition
T h e issues involved in the continuing debate s u r r o u n d i n g the definition of 'ideology' 8
8
a n d its relationship to ' m y t h ' a n d ' u t o p i a n t h o u g h t '
are
T h e t e r m , g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n c o i n e d b y D e s t u t t d e T r a c y in 1 7 9 6 t o r e f e r to a science of ideas that w o u l d allow the reconstruction of society on a rational basis, w a s s o o n u s e d p e j o r a t i v e l y t o d e s c r i b e ' a n a i v e l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t , n o t a b l e for its a b s t r a c t n e a t n e s s b u t lacking a genuine understanding of the c o m p l e x givens of h u m a n nature a n d of historical r e a l i t y ' , B l u h m , Ideologies, 2 , b e f o r e b e i n g d e n o u n c e d b y M a r x a s a d e s t r u c t i v e f a l s e h o o d . S o m e r e l e v a n t a r e a s o f d e b a t e i n c l u d e : A ) is i d e o l o g y i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e a s m o s t a s s u m e o r is t h e r e a p o s i t i v e o r a t l e a s t n e u t r a l r o l e a s p e r e.g. G e e r t z , ' C u l t u r a l ' ; E l l u l , ' m £ d i a t e u r ' ; R i c o e u r , ' S c i e n c e ' ? B ) d o e s it p r o p e r l y b e s e t o n l y t h o s e c l a s s e s w i s h i n g t o l e g i t i m a t e t h e i r d o m i n a t i o n o f o t h e r s , e.g, E n g e l s , Anti-Duhring; A r e n d t , Origins; o r d o e s it h a v e w i d e r a p p l i c a t i o n t o a n y s y s t e m o f a c t i o n o r i e n t e d b e l i e f s , e . g . S e l i g e r , Ideology, o r is it i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m all h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s e.g. M a n n h e i m , Ideology; G e e r t z , ' C u l t u r a l ' ; M a n n i n g i n O ' S u l l i v a n , Structure, i x ? C ) is t h e c o n c e p t a p p l i c a b l e o n l y t o p o s t E n l i g h t e n m e n t s o c i e t i e s , e.g. H a b e r m a s , Towards, 99; M u l l i n s , ' I d e o l o g y ' ; o r t o p r e - m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s ( i n c l u d i n g a n c i e n t I s r a e l ) a s w e l l , e.g. M e s z a r o s , Philosophy, xi; to s o m e extent G e e r t z , ' C u l t u r a l ' ; a n d n o t e t h e a m b i g u i t y in B o u d o n , Analysis, 11, 3 3 , 201; J . Thompson, Surveys; K . T h o m p s o n ( e d . ) . Beliefs, 2 4 ; M a c l n t y r e , Against, 5ff; C o o l e , ' P h e n o m e n o l o g y ' , 1 3 6 f ? I n t e r e s t i n g l y , f e w biblical s c h o l a r s w h o u s e t h e t e r m s e e m a w a r e o f t h e s e a s p e c t s o f t h e d e b a t e . It h a s a l s o b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t d u e t o t h e s e a n d o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e s u b s t a n t i v e ' i d e o l o g y ' b e a b a n d o n e d a n d its c r i t i c a l c o m p o n e n t — n a m e l y t h e d i s t o r t i n g o r
35
Introduction
complex, and as yet apparently u n r e s o l v e d .
9
d e g r e e o f uncertainty into the discussion.
H o w e v e r , while n o t ignoring
Naturally, this introduces a
the importance of accurate definitions, our particular concern is with the dynamics
involved
in
ideology's
shaping
of
community
self-
u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; particularly as it is described b y Ellul and Ricoeur.
But
before proceeding t w o preliminary c o m m e n t s ought to m a d e . First, the term ' i d e o l o g y ' has acquired negative connotations, due not only to its characterisation b y Karl Marx as 'false consciousness' but also in m o r e m o d e r n times to the A m e r i c a n positivist s c h o o l o f social t h e o r y where
it h a s
maintenance presumed
come
to
be
associated
with
of totalitarian regimes.
here.
That
ideology
No
the
establishment
such
is often
and
value judgement
used
to l e g i t i m a t e
is
unjust
d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f p o w e r — u s u a l l y to the d e g r e e that it is l i n k e d
with
authority—is indisputable, but w h e t h e r this is essential or inherent in the unifying role o f ideology is another m a t t e r .
10
Second, it is well to offer at least a provisional definition o f 'ideology'. Norman Gottwald
in his materialist
reconstruction
of
pre-monarchical
Israel defines ideology as the: consensual
religious
correlated served,
to in
other a
interpretations
of over
which
the
social
energize other
structurally within
(sic)
social
relations the
embedded
the
comprehensive
distinctive
and
against
were
phenomena
m o r e o r less
a n d a l s o to define polemically
ideas social
larger
social
m a n n e r , to and
Israelite
in
provide
historical social
and
system,
system
functionally and
explanations
experience
which or
of
Israel
oppositionally
or
systems}*
legitimating function to w h i c h ideas a n d m y t h s a r e p u t — b e retained b y m e a n s of the adjective 'ideological', see H a n n i n e n a n d Paldan, Rethinking. 9
O n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m y t h , Utopia, a n d i d e o l o g y , s e e e s p e c i a l l y H a l p e r n , 'Myth', and Mullins, 'Ideology'. H o w e v e r , the fact that m o d e r n ideologies sometimes e m p l o y m y t h s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d i c h o t o m y often p o s i t e d b e t w e e n m o d e r n h i s t o r i c a l t i m e a n d p r e - m o d e r n m y t h i c a l t i m e is p r o b l e m a t i c . F o r a h e l p f u l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e l i g i o n a n d i d e o l o g y , s e e G r i m e s , 'Ideology'. 1
0
On the relationship between ideology and authority, and the latter's catalytic influence o n the e m e r g e n c e of the dissimulating a n d distorting potential of the former, see t h e d i s c u s s i o n in R i c o e u r , 'Science', 2 2 8 . 1 1
Tribes, 6 6 ; G o t t w a l d ' s italics. A l t h o u g h h a v i n g n o ' p r i n c i p l e d o b j e c t i o n s ' t o t e r m s like ' r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s ' o r ' t h e o l o g y ' w h i c h a r e o f t e n e m p l o y e d in d e s c r i b i n g I s r a e l ' s c o n s t i t u t i v e c o n c e p t s a n d a t t i t u d e s , G o t t w a l d p r e f e r s t h e t e r m ' i d e o l o g y ' in t h a t it t a k e s a c c o u n t of the relationship b e t w e e n religion a n d social structures. This choice, h o w e v e r , s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s p r e s u p p o s i n g e i t h e r a n y a s s e s s m e n t a s t o t h e t r u t h o r falsity o f religious ideas or 'any particular view about the genetic or causal relationship between the r e l i g i o u s i d e a s a n d t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f I s r a e l ' , 6 6 . In s p i t e o f t h e l a t t e r d i s c l a i m e r it b e c o m e s increasingly e v i d e n t that G o t t w a l d ' s application of his m o d e l s leaves h i m in a p o s i t i o n w h e r e I s r a e l ' s e a r l y r e l i g i o n is in f a c t a r e s u l t o f t h e ' e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l
36
History
as
Hermeneutic
C o u c h e d in s o m e w h a t less technical t e r m i n o l o g y , b u t t h e r e b y p e r h a p s m o r e convenient, J a m e s Luther A d a m s regards ideology as: . . . t h a t c o m p o s i t e m y t h b y w h i c h a s o c i e t y o r g r o u p identifies itself, n o t o n l y f o r itself b u t also for o t h e r societies a n d g r o u p s . A n ideology posits the g r o u p ' s g o a l s a n d the j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e g o a l s in t e r m s o f w h i c h t h e g r o u p d e a l s w i t h o t h e r g r o u p s a n d w i t h c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n t h e g r o u p ; it d e f i n e s a n d i n t e r p r e t s t h e s i t u a t i o n ; . . . it m a k e s possible g r o u p action. A n ideology articulates a m y t h of origin a n d a m y t h of mission
n o t m e r e l y in a
g e n e r a l w a y . . . b u t a l s o in r e l a t i o n t o t h e s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h t h e g r o u p finds i t s e l f .
1 2
T h e implications o f the various details will b e discussed as this C h a p t e r progresses.
B u t , in the m e a n t i m e , w e can p e r h a p s e x p r e s s the salient
c o m p o n e n t s o f these definitions in a m o r e w o r k a b l e , although obviously p r o v i s i o n a l , definition w h e r e ' i d e o l o g y ' is that framework
by which
and projects b) Weber:
itself Social
a group
not only
over against Relation
other
and Social
all-pervasive
understands
itself
interpretive
but also
justifies
13
groups.
Interaction
Ricoeur b e g i n s his discussion of the social function o f ideology with M a x W e b e r ' s analysis o f social d y n a m i c s and its dual concepts o f social action and social r e l a t i o n .
14
Social action occurs w h e n individual agents perceive
their b e h a v i o u r as m e a n i n g f u l behaviour
toward
the
and when they mutually
behaviour
of
others.
The
orient
their
concepts
of
'meaningfulness' and ' m u t u a l orientation' imply the existence o f a larger social framework.
Here
Weber introduces
'social relation'
which
e m p h a s i s e s those stable and predictable m e a n i n g systems w h i c h provide the c o m m o n context within w h i c h social action o c c u r s .
15
It is precisely at
the n e x u s o f social action and social relation that the p h e n o m e n o n o f i d e o l o g y a p p e a r s , in that i d e o l o g y is i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h
the
establishment and maintenance of stable and predictable m e a n i n g systems w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s are integral to the fundamental
n e e d o f a g r o u p to
explain itself, 'to give an i m a g e o f itself to itself, to represent and realise
i n t e r e s t s ' o f t h e t r i b a l c o n f e d e r a c y w h i c h it t h e n s e r v e s t o l e g i t i m a t e . S e e t h e c r i t i q u e in H e r i o n , ' R e c o n s t r u c t i o n ' , 1 5 ; a l s o G o t t w a l d , Tribes, 642-49, w h e r e his functionalist r e c o n s t r u c t i o n g r o u n d s Y a h w i s m in t h e s o c i a l e g a l i t a r i a n i s m o f p r e - m o n a r c h i c a l I s r a e l i t e society. 1 2
1
3
'Faith',
466.
C f . B a l l a n d D a g g e r , Ideals, 1 - 3 , w h o s u g g e s t it is a g e n e r a l l y s y s t e m a t i c s e t o f i d e a s which serves to explain, evaluate, orient, a n d motivate. 'Science', 222f. S e e W e b e r , Theory, 1 1 2 - 2 3 . 1
4
1
5
Ellul:
itself'.
16
Founding
Moment
and Mediatorial
37
Role
In the sense that ideology is a function of the need o f a group to
p r o v i d e a rationale for its e x i s t e n c e , it is a 'natural ingredient o f social life'.
17
c) Ellul:
The Founding
Moment
and the Mediatorial
Role
of
Ideology
At this point R i c o e u r , relying h e a v i l y on Ellul, d r a w s attention to the formative influence o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t u p o n its selfperception—its ' i m a g e o f itself to i t s e l f .
N o t only true o f m o r e m o d e r n
e x a m p l e s , as in the c a s e o f the A m e r i c a n F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s m e n t i o n e d above, the s a m e can clearly b e seen with regard to Israel where, as is widely recognised, h e r E x o d u s m e m o r y h a s not o n l y i m p o s e d its categories o n other e v e n t s , for i n s t a n c e , c o n q u e s t and S e c o n d E x o d u s , b u t h a s also profoundly shaped her social and legal s t r u c t u r e s .
18
Thp w a y in w h i c h this past influence is effected in the p r e s e n t is t h r o u g h the a c t i o n o f i d e o l o g y w h i c h s e r v e s to b r i d g e the h i s t o r i c a l distance b e t w e e n the inaugural event and present social c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
19
and thereby to foster social cohesion. (Indeed, it is doubtful if any such c o m m u n i t y c o u l d c o n t i n u e to exist if this indirect c o n n e c t i o n with its inaugural
2 0
p a s t w e r e b r o k e n . ) T h i s is d o n e , first, b y c o n v e y i n g the
convictions o f the founding fathers such that they b e c o m e t h o s e o f the c o m m u n i t y a n d , s e c o n d , b y p r o p a g a t i n g the e n e r g i e s o f the m o m e n t b e y o n d their first 'effervescence' into the f u t u r e .
founding
21
T h e most striking e x a m p l e o f this 'domestication b y m e m o r y ' is found in the ritual r e - e n a c t m e n t s , or revivifications, o f the founding
moment.
H e r e the c o m m u n i t y ' s history is retold, the values, energies, and ideals e n s h r i n e d in its founding m o m e n t i n c u l c a t e d , and the c o m m u n i t y re constituted t h r o u g h succeeding generations. exemplary. enactments.
1
6
1
7
1
8
2 2
Israel's Passover haggadah
is
T h i s inculcation is not, h o w e v e r , restricted to ritual reS i n c e life b e g i n s n o t as isolated individuals b u t w i t h i n a
'Science', 2 2 5 .
B o u d o n , Analysis, 1 1 . S e e e.g. F i s h b a n e , Interpretation, 3 5 8 - 3 7 9 ; L o e w e n s t a m m , Evolution, espec. 23-68; D a u b e , Pattern; a n d D o r o n , ' M o t i f . V a n S e t e r s , Search, a r g u e s t h a t t h e b i b l i c a l a u t h o r s , in line w i t h o t h e r e a r l y G r e e k h i s t o r i a n s , w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r o v i d i n g t h e i r readers with a sense of identity. 1
9
2
0
2
1
2
2
' m e d i a t e u r ' , c i t e d in R i c o e u r , ibid., 2 2 5 f . Ibid. Ibid. See especially, Harris, Exodus.
38
History
as
Hermeneutic
social m a t r i x , ideological c o n s c i o u s n e s s is also formed, less overtly but p e r h a p s m o r e pervasively, at the level o f e v e r y d a y life.
H e r e the social
m e a n i n g s o f s h a r e d p r a c t i c e s are signified a n d a s s i m i l a t e d at a preconscious level and as contingent activities begin to resonate they result in t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n h i s t o r i c a l Gestalt, ideology.
23
an e x i s t e n t i a l e x p r e s s i o n o f
S o , for example, those social mores and legal structures which
David D a u b e noted had b e e n profoundly shaped b y the E x o d u s , b y their very structuring o f Israelite society, reflect back and confirm at an everyday existential level the values o f that e v e n t .
24
This leads to the further observation that just as motives in individual agents s e r v e n o t o n l y to justify but also to m o t i v a t e , s o t o o in societal terms ' i d e o l o g y is a l w a y s m o r e than a reflection o n the past', it is also 25
'justification
and project'.
T h a t is, i d e o l o g y ' s account o f the
founding
m o m e n t furnishes categories n o t o n l y for e x p l a i n i n g a n d justifying the present b u t also for conceiving the future—which is not u n e x p e c t e d since 26
the m i n d tends to a p p r e h e n d the n e w in terms o f the o l d — a n d
herein
lies its d y n a m i s m and power. It is, therefore, not a dead thing o f the past, b u t e n l i v e n s the present and activates t o w a r d the future.
T h i s is w h a t
A d a m s refers to w h e n h e defines ideology as positing a g r o u p ' s goals and its justification o f those goals, linking an articulation o f a m y t h o f origin with the g r o u p ' s mission. Likewise Gottwald w h e n h e speaks o f ideology serving n o t only 'to provide explanations ... o f distinctive social relations' but also 'to energize (sic) the Israelite social system' (cited above). T h u s , L i n c o l n ' s a p p e a l to the F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s n o t o n l y justifies Gettysburg in the present but also undergirds and structures his vision o f the future.
Israel's prophets too, in addressing an Israel presently in exile,
c o u c h Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e o f a future d e l i v e r a n c e in the l a n g u a g e imagery
of
the
nation's
Exodus/Conquest. 2
2 7
founding
moment,
namely,
the
and first
T h e s a m e d e p e n d e n c e u p o n t h e i m a g e s o f the
3
M e r l e a u - P o n t y in C o o l e , T h e n o m e n o l o g y ' , 1 3 6 - 7 . W h a t M e r l e a u - P o n t y is d e s c r i b i n g h e r e is t h e p e d a g o g i c a l r e s u l t o f i d e o l o g y b e i n g ' s t r u c t u r a l l y e m b e d d e d ' ( a s p e r G o t t w a l d , see above). Cf. Geertz, 'Cultural'. Pattern; passim; cf. D o r o n , ' M o t i f . R i c o e u r , ibid., 2 2 6 . R i c o e u r , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 1 2 5 . Cf. H e i d e g g e r ' s n o t i o n o f t h e t e m p o r a l p r o j e c t i o n o f Dasein w h e r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g is t i e d t o t h e ability t o p r o j e c t p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t h e s h a p e o f w h i c h a r e predicated u p o n the constructs of m e m o r y . 2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
F o u l k e s , Acts, in p a r t i c u l a r s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e a s o n f o r this p h e n o m e n o n l a y in Israel's belief in t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f Y a h w e h ' s a c t s — i f h e h a d d o n e s o o n c e h e w o u l d a c t t h u s
Ellul:
Founding
Moment
and Mediatorial
Role
39
founding m o m e n t c a n b e o b s e r v e d in several ' p r o p h e t i c ' m o v e m e n t s in the N T era, w h e r e , for instance, T h e u d a s p r o m i s e s that the J o r d a n will b e divided once more, another prophet
announces the repetition of the
miracle of J e r i c h o u p o n the walls o f J e r u s a l e m , and the w e a v e r J o n a t h a n foretells miracles in the w i l d e r n e s s .
28
Likewise, various rabbinic traditions
regarded the E x o d u s as the m o d e l for the deliverance o f the last d a y s ,
2 9
with an e x p e c t a t i o n in s o m e circles that the M e s s i a h w o u l d b e revealed d u r i n g the P a s s o v e r .
30
N u m e r o u s studies o n the N T literature similarly
indicate that E x o d u s traditions are significant.
31
It is in t e r m s o f this e x p l a n a t o r y and^ justificatory c a p a c i t y that t w o closely related c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i d e o l o g y b e c o m e a p p a r e n t .
First, the
c o n v i c t i o n s a n d e n e r g i e s o f the founding m o m e n t b e c o m e the ' o v e r a l l ' interpretative s c h e m a for the g r o u p not o n l y for internal interaction b u t also for its u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s t o r y , a n d i n d e e d the w h o l e
world.
3 2
S e c o n d , this interpretative s c h e m a is at the e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l level o f the Greek
6OK€IV
or F r e u d ' s 'rationalisation' in that ideology's 'transformative
p o w e r can b e preserved only on condition that the ideas w h i c h it c o n v e y s become opinions'.
3 3
F o r ideology to b e unifying and socially cohesive it
m u s t not o n l y p r o v i d e an overall interpretative s c h e m a b u t this s c h e m a m u s t also b e c o m e the atmosphere in which the group as a w h o l e lives and thinks.
I d e o l o g y , therefore, is not propositional but presuppositional a n d
n o t j u s t for s o m e b u t for the w h o l e g r o u p .
It is, b y its v e r y n a t u r e ,
a g a i n . If s o , t h e n t h i s b e l i e f a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i d e o l o g y ' s c a t e g o r i e s w o u l d t e n d t o reinforce one another. 2
8
2
9
3
0
3
1
3
2
3
3
R e s p e c t i v e l y : J o s e p h u s : Ant. 2 0 . 9 7 - 9 ; 2 0 . 1 6 8 - 7 2 a n d B.J. 2 . 2 6 1 - 3 ; Ant. 2 0 . 1 6 8 - 7 2 ; cf. M a u s e r , 56ff; T h e i s s e n , Sociology, 6 0 ; B a r n e t t , ' P r o p h e t s ' ; H e n g e l , Zealots; Mendels, ' M e s s i a n i s m ' ; N e u s n e r , Judaisms; H o r s l e y a n d H a n s o n , Bandits; a n d W r i g h t , People, 1 7 0 81, 307-20. C f . D a v i e s , Sermon, 2 5 - 9 3 , 1 1 1 - 2 1 ; K i t t e l , TDNT, 2.657ff; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 4.856-64, a n d t h e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n i n B o k s e r , ' M e s s i a n i s m ' . B e n - S i r a , in h i s o n e e x t e n d e d p r a y e r f o r d e l i v e r a n c e , p r a y s f o r a r e p e t i t i o n o f ' s i g n s a n d w o n d e r s ' in a final r e d e m p t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d o n E x o d u s c a t e g o r i e s . Sir 3 3 : 6 L X X ; cf. t h e berakoth o f t h e Tefillah ( 7 , . 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 4 , 1 6 ) . In a n a l o g y t o the E x o d u s , the e n d - t i m e glory w o u l d be r e v e a l e d o n the 1 4 / 1 5 t h of N i s a n (Mekhilta o n E x 1 2 : 4 2 , R . J o s h u a b . H a n a n i a h , c . 9 0 ; cf. Tg. Yerus. I E x 2 1 : 4 2 ; Tg. Yerus. II E x 1 5 : 1 8 cf. 1 2 : 4 2 ) , a n d l a t e r , Ex. Rab. 1 8 . 1 2 o n 12:24: ' L e t this s i g n b e in o u r h a n d s : o n t h e d a y w h e n I w r o u g h t s a l v a t i o n f o r y o u , o n t h a t v e r y n i g h t k n o w t h a t I w i l l r e d e e m y o u ' ; cf. Ex. Rab. 5 1 : 1 o n E x 1 2 : 2 ; J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, 2 0 7 ; B l a c k , Aramaic, 1 7 3 . E . g . N i x o n , Exodus; T e e p l e , Mosaic; C h a v a s s e , ' J e s u s ' ; G o p p e l t , Typos, 67ff; B r u c e , Development, 3 2 - 3 9 ; D o d d , According, 74-88; M a n e k , 'Exodus'; Piper, 'Origin'; 'Unchanging'; Smith, 'Typology'; Swartley, Scripture. R i c o e u r , ' S c i e n c e ' , 2 2 6 . G o t t w a l d a n d A d a m s n o t e this e x p l a n a t o r y d i m e n s i o n . Ibid.
40
History
as
Hermeneutic
uncritical about its o w n existence, b e i n g thought from 3
through. *
instead o f thought
Ideology is not so m u c h what the group understands about the
world, as it is the lens through which the world is understood.
This is the
sort o f thing that Wolfhart P a n n e n b e r g describes w h e n h e says that the historical events o f a given people ... ... h a v e n o m e a n i n g a p a r t f r o m t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s in w h i c h m e n live. T h e e v e n t s o f h i s t o r y s p e a k t h e i r o w n l a n g u a g e , t h e l a n g u a g e o f facts; h o w e v e r , this l a n g u a g e is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e o n l y in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n s a n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s in w h i c h t h e g i v e n e v e n t s o c c u r .
3 5
T h e presuppositional and ineluctable character o f ideology c a n clearly b e s e e n in that n e i t h e r L i n c o l n n o r I s r a e l ' s p r o p h e t s b e t r a y a n y whatsoever
to e s t a b l i s h t h e n o r m a t i v e
founding m o m e n t s .
character of their
This m u c h is s i m p l y a s s u m e d .
urgency
respective
It is the stuff and
substance o f w h o they are. Again there is little question that the E x o d u s functioned in this w a y for Israel in the first century. d) The Media
of Ideology:
Icon and
Symbol
A corollary here is that ideology cannot then b e a matter of c o m p l e x e s of difficult a n d / o r detailed facts such as might suit a scholarly recital.
If
ideology's 'overall' interpretative schema is to b e c o m e the opinion not just of s o m e b u t o f all then such intricacies must b e pared d o w n and moulded into a form sufficiently neat and m a n a g e a b l e to b e c o m p r e h e n d e d b y the group at large; a process which necessarily involves idealisation if ideology is to m a i n t a i n its justificatory and m o t i v a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . account
of
schematic'.
3 6
the
founding
moment
is
therefore
Ideology's
'simplifying
and
Further, given that ideology at this level is concerned with
revivifying the founding
m o m e n t a n d thus transforming
an historical
singularity into the typical and cyclical, it is not surprising that its account o f the f o u n d i n g
m o m e n t often t a k e s o n m y t h i c qualities s i n c e m y t h
stresses the latter over against the f o r m e r .
3
4
3
5
3
6
3
7
Ibid.,
37
227.
T h i s e l t o n , Horizons, 8 0 , c i t i n g P a n n e n b e r g , History, 152-3. R i c o e u r , ibid., 2 2 6 . L a s h , ' I d e o l o g y ' , h a s p o i n t e d o u t h o w all r e c o u n t i n g s o f h i s t o r y t h a t s e e k t o d i s c e r n m e a n i n g r e q u i r e t h e u s e o f a n a l o g y a n d m e t a p h o r s i n c e t h e y a r e all n o t o n l y f r o m finite p o i n t s o f v i e w b u t a l s o c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f l a n g u a g e . O n t h e m y t h i c q u a l i t y of f o u n d i n g m o m e n t s , s e e M u l l i n s , ' C o n c e p t ' , 5 0 5 . T h e m y t h i c b o t h e x p r e s s e s a n d is a p p r o p r i a t e d b y t h e c o n s e n s u a l s i d e o f i d e o l o g y w h i c h is itself c o n c e r n e d w i t h u n i f y i n g ' a r o u n d ' r a t h e r t h a n ' o v e r a g a i n s t ' , i.e. w i t h t h e g r o u p ' s i n t e r n a l s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x t e r n a l , cf. H a l p e r n , ' M y t h ' , 1 3 7 .
Media
Since
ideology
of Ideology:
constitutes
Icon and
the
41
Symbol
group's
'overall'
interpretative
framework, its s c h e m a t i s i n g tendency inevitably impresses its categories on the c o m m u n i t y ' s understanding o f its subsequent history w h i c h itself is also simplified and s c h e m a t i s e d .
Israel's v i e w of h e r history, at least as
recorded in its S c r i p t u r e s , s e e m s then to b e structured a r o u n d s e v e r a l major
events
or
periods:
Creation,
Patriarchs,
Exodus-Conquest,
M o n a r c h y , Exile, Return, with the culmination to b e found in s o m e sort o f expectation o f a greater r e s t o r a t i o n .
38
Interestingly, in nearly e v e r y case
these events are related to key personalities, for example, A d a m , A b r a h a m , M o s e s - J o s h u a , D a v i d - S o l o m o n , various p r o p h e t s , and a p p a r e n t l y
some
sort o f messianic figure. Furthermore, these events themselves tend to b e described in w a y s w h i c h b r i n g out their c o n t i n u i t y w i t h the c o n c e r n s , themes, and trajectories o f the founding
moment.
39
It is precisely at this point that the operation o f s y m b o l s and i m a g e s c o m e s into play.
Since ideology simplifies and schematises a n d therefore
is 'readily e x p r e s s e d in m a x i m s , in slogans, in lapidary f o r m u l a s '
40
it is
especially suited to the iconic and the symbolic. Because icons and symbols are n o t m e r e s h a d o w s
or c o p i e s o f reality b u t a r e c r e a t i v e i m a g e s
representing w a y s o f p e r c e i v i n g the world, they h a v e inherent in t h e m 'the p o w e r to c o n d e n s e , spell out, and develop reality'; a c o n c e p t w h i c h D a g o g n e t t e r m s iconic
41
augmentation.
It is particularly this ability to
a b b r e v i a t e that e n a b l e s t h e m to function
as c o m p a c t a n d
powerful
conveyors o f extensive w e b s o f m e a n i n g and, w h e n used in combi nat i on, to b e c o m e p o w e r f u l ideology's o p i n i o n s .
means of conveying and
invoking matrices of
42
C o n s e q u e n t l y , the s y m b o l i c revivifications o f the past e a r l y b e c o m e ritualised
and
stereotyped,
characterised by convention
have and
their
8
3
9
vocabulary, 43
idealisation —once again
Passover celebration is a case in point.
3
own
and
are
Israel's
Reinforced from youth, the icon
S e e e.g. D a n i e l s , Hosea, w h o a r g u e s t h a t H o s e a u n d e r s t o o d t h e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l in terms of four m a i n periods: Patriarchal, Exodus-Covenant-Wilderness, Canaanisation, a n d Renewal. In t h e c u l t i c r e c i t a l o f I s r a e l ' s o r i g i n s e v e n A b r a h a m ' s c a l l is s u b s e r v i e n t t o t h e l a r g e r E x o d u s m o t i f , Dt. 26:5ff. R i c o e u r , ibid., 2 2 6 . 4
0
4
1
4
2
4
3
C i t e d in R i c o e u r , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 1 3 6 . Cf. R i c o e u r ' s d i s c u s s i o n in ' F u n c t i o n ' . R i c o e u r , ibid.
42
History
as
Hermeneutic
and the s y m b o l of, for e x a m p l e , the Passover m e a l enable w h o l e tableaux of i d e o l o g y ' s interpretative s c h e m a to b e i n v o k e d .
Furthermore,
iconic or s y m b o l i c function is not limited to i m a g e s or objects. P a s s o v e r haggadah
this
A s the
d e m o n s t r a t e s , texts also function in this w a y .
My
Professor's use o f 'four score and seven' indicates that it w a s not merely an allusion to a famous speech, but that it had b e c o m e , due to its associations, a 'textual' icon within an ideological s c h e m a .
M o r e g e r m a n e p e r h a p s to
the argument of this b o o k is that a similar case can b e m a d e for Isaiah 40:3 in intertestamental and later J u d a i s m .
44
G i v e n this close connection b e t w e e n the schematic and the iconic and symbolic, it is not surprising that ideology's account o f subsequent events is couched in terms o f those icons and symbols integral to its revivification of the founding m o m e n t .
4 5
T h u s the warrior m o t i f associated w i t h the
first E x o d u s b e c o m e s a prominent e l e m e n t in later d e l i v e r a n c e s .
46
There
is also a reflexive dimension present. Not only do the symbols and images of the founding m o m e n t project forward into the accounts o f subsequent history, exercising a concomitant shaping of the portrayal o f those events, but their very use in that later history instils their use in earlier accounts w i t h a d d i t i o n a l significance, t h e r e b y e x e r c i s i n g a c u m u l a t i v e effect on their s i g n i f i c a t i o n o v e r t i m e .
4 7
S o , for instance, the w a r r i o r m o t i f n o
longer s p e a k s o f o n l y the E x o d u s m o m e n t b u t also entails associations from its applications in later scenarios. In this sense i c o n and s y m b o l are to ideology w h a t the stereotypical figure a n d situation are to the social b a c k g r o u n d o f the parables.
They
function as pointers to those larger frames o f reference within w h i c h they operate and, b y invoking particular aspects o f those frames, they signify what particular hermeneutical templates their present settings presuppose. This it s e e m s is precisely h o w the phrase 'four score and seven years a g o ' functions.
B y w a y o f its s y m b o l i c c h a r a c t e r it i n v o k e s that
larger
ideologically shaped hermeneutical framework. 4
4
4
5
4
6
S e e e.g. S n o d g r a s s , ' S t r e a m s ' ; a n d C h a p t e r 3 , infra. This m a y well explain not only the p h e n o m e n o n noted by Gunkel, Schbpfung, w h e r e i n t h e f u t u r e is i n d e e d s h a p e d b y t h e p a s t , b u t a l s o t h e b a s i s o f t h o s e s i m i l a r i t i e s o n w h i c h t h e w h o l e e n t e r p r i s e o f t y p o l o g y is b a s e d . S e e C r o s s , Canaanite,
9 1 - 1 1 1 ; a n d e.g. 1 Q M 1 2 : 1 0 - 1 4 ; 1 9 : 2 - 8 ; W i s 5 : 1 6 - 2 3 ; S i r 3 5 : 2 2 -
36:17. 4
7
S e e C a s t o r i a d i s , Imaginary, 120ff, f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s a n d influences w h i c h earlier traditions of s y m b o l s i m p o s e o n later usage.
Media
O n e final c o m m e n t .
of Ideology:
Icon and
43
Symbol
T h a t i d e o l o g y is s c h e m a t i c implies that it also
tends t o w a r d the hierarchical.
W h i l e certain events are m o r e significant
t h a n others a n d so s e r v e to p r o v i d e the framework within w h i c h t h o s e o t h e r s are u n d e r s t o o d , e a c h o f these l a r g e r e l e m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s
may
e n c o m p a s s a series o f events. S o , Israel's retelling o f its inaugural event— the E x o d u s / C o n q u e s t — i n c l u d e s reference to a schematised pattern of ideas and motifs, for e x a m p l e , the dividing and crossing o f the sea, deliverance as the c o m p l e m e n t o f the destruction of P h a r a o h ' s armies, the presence o f Y a h w e h represented b y the cloud and the storm theophany at Sinai, desert w a n d e r i n g and miraculous provision, the giving of the L a w , covenant, the o c c u p a t i o n o f the l a n d , and t h e like, all o f w h i c h stand t o g e t h e r in a conceptual cluster as the predicate of the overarching subject: the founding event. Similarly, the N e w E x o d u s o f Isaiah reflects the s c h e m a originating in the first E x o d u s , in that it too e n v i s a g e s several c o m p o n e n t s — n a m e l y deliverance, journey,
and
arrival
in J e r u s a l e m — a n d
these
too
are
delineated further with their attendant motifs of, for e x a m p l e , Y a h w e h as warrior and shepherd ( I s a 4 0 : 1 0 f ) 4
8
4 8
A l t h o u g h the p a r a d i g m a t i c influence of the E x o d u s on Isa 4 0 - 5 5 h a s been widely a g r e e d t o b y s c h o l a r s ( s e e C h a p t e r 3 ) , s o m e h a v e t e n d e d t o m i n i m i s e its r o l e . S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 1 8 5 - 1 9 0 , w h o s e e s 4 9 : 2 0 f (sic, p r o b a b l y 4 8 : 2 0 f ) ; 5 2 : l l f ; a n d 5 5 : 1 2 f a s l a t e r a d d i t i o n s , d e n i e s t h a t t h e N E p r o v i d e s a m a j o r t h e m e . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f this b o o k t h e s e t e x t s a r e t o b e i n c l u d e d . H e r r m a n n ' s a s s e r t i o n , Heilserwartungen, 297ff, that t h e E x o d u s tradition has 'nur noch eine relative Bedeutung' a n d functions instead as r e m i n i s c e n c e fails t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e i c o n i c q u a l i t y a n d t h e r e f o r e e v o c a t i v e p o w e r o f t h e s e i m a g e s within the context of Israel's ideological self-conception. Kiesow, Exodustexte, d e n i e s a n y c o n s i s t e n t p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e u s e o f E x o d u s i m a g e r y , b u t fails t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e W a r r i o r a n d j o u r n e y - t o - s h r i n e m o t i f s a r e i n t e g r a l t o t h e e a r l i e s t a c c o u n t s (cf. E x 1 5 , P s 7 8 ) , w h i l e S i m o n - Y o f r e ' s a r g u m e n t , ' E x o d o ' , 5 3 0 - 5 3 , t h a t e.g. 4 8 : 2 0 - 1 a n d 5 1 : 9 - 1 1 d e r i v e f r o m Ps 7 8 does not give d u e weight to the E x o d u s traditions behind that psalm. H a a g , 'Weg', 3 9 , a r g u e s t h a t b e h i n d 'Die K o m b i n a t i o n d e r b e i d e n B e g r i f f e ... « W i i s t e » .. u n d ... « S t e p p e » ' lies t h e H o s e a n i c s y m b o l i s m o f j u d g e m e n t t o w h i c h t h e E d e n i c ' r e d e m p t i o n ' m a t e r i a l s a r e c o n t r a s t e d . H o w e v e r , in t e r m s o f t h e l i t e r a r y a p p r o a c h t a k e n h e r e , ' w a y ' a n d ' h i g h w a y ' t e r m i n o l o g y h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d in Isa 3 5 a s E x o d u s j o u r n e y i m a g e r y (albeit w i t h w i s d o m c o n n o t a t i o n s ) . R e c e n t l y B a r s t a d , Way, a p p e a r s t o d e n y t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l r e t u r n o f t h e e x i l e s w a s s e e n a s a N E m o d e l l e d o n t h e flight f r o m E g y p t . A l t h o u g h h e a l l o w s s o m e influence of the earlier tradition h e sees the l a n g u a g e as m e t a p h o r i c a l w i t h the i m a g e r y deriving from a w i d e r a n g e of motifs, n o t just the E x o d u s , a n d asserts that 'passages dealing w i t h t h e w i l d e r n e s s a n d d e s e r t ... s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s p o e t i c a l a l l u s i o n s t o Y a h w e h ' s e n c r o a c h m e n t u p o n the c o u r s e of history', 20. Granted that Barstad s h o w s h o w various N E m o t i f s c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s o r i g i n a t i n g e l s e w h e r e , h e fails to d o j u s t i c e t o t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c n a t u r e o f t h e E x o d u s a s t h e m o d e l par excellence o f Y a h w e h ' s ' e n c r o a c h m e n t u p o n the c o u r s e of h i s t o r y ' o n Israel's behalf. F r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of social theory, in t e n d i n g t o t r e a t all m o t i f s in a m o n o c h r o m a t i c m a n n e r , B a r s t a d , like H e r r m a n n , h a s failed t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e p r i m a c y o f f o u n d i n g m o m e n t i d e o l o g y a n d its i n f l u e n c e o n t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l f r a m e w o r k of Israelite readers.
44
History
as
Hermeneutic
It naturally follows that ideology's icons and symbols, to the extent that they s e r v e to i n v o k e e l e m e n t s within its s c h e m a , will l i k e w i s e a s s u m e a s i m i l a r q u a s i - h i e r a r c h i c a l structure c o n s i s t i n g o f central a n d elements.
4 9
peripheral
Consequently, in ideology's schematic account o f the E x o d u s ,
v a r i o u s c o n s t i t u t i v e e l e m e n t s s u c h as the i n a u g u r a l
Passover
meal,
w a n d e r i n g in the desert, provision, guidance, protection, and s o on, can b e invoked through various icons or s y m b o l s such as the paschal l a m b , 'forty years', m a n n a , and fiery cloud respectively. T h e salient point here is that it is this quasi-hierarchical relationship of i d e o l o g y ' s iconic a n d s y m b o l i c shorthand that facilitates identification o f precise areas of ideology's m a p . Certain icons or s y m b o l s , either singly or in combination, indicate w h i c h general event within the overall s c h e m a is in view, w h i l e others, o n c e the general event has b e e n identified, serve to focus attention m o r e precisely on a particular aspect o f that event.
This
process o f d e m a r c a t i o n is particularly important in that s y m b o l s , d u e to their a b b r e v i a t e d nature, tend to imprecision the m o r e o v e r a r c h i n g they become.
F o r e x a m p l e , in the Australian e x p e r i e n c e the t e r m ' A N Z A C
(Australia and N e w Zealand A r m y C o r p s ) is s o m e t h i n g o f an icon which e v o k e s i m a g e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Australian i n v o l v e m e n t in W o r l d W a r I. H o w e v e r , the r a n g e o f associated motifs is so extensive and diverse (for example,
bronzed
young
men,
bravery,
naivete, camaraderie,
A u s t r a l i a n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Britain, etc.) that the t e r m often further definition to indicate just what aspect is in view.
the
requires
However, when
c o m b i n e d with a n o t h e r iconic term, n a m e l y , ' G a l l i p o l i ' (the s c e n e o f a costly b u t unsuccessful battle d u r i n g that p e r i o d ) then particular senti m e n t s s u c h as the futility o f war, inept leadership, national identity, and the like, tend to c o m e to the fore. E v e n so, the use o f l a n g u a g e like 'such a s ' a n d ' t e n d t o ' i n d i c a t e s that m o r e p r e c i s e articulation m a y w e l l b e necessary,
depending
on
what
the
speaker
or
author
wishes
to
communicate. By w a y o f s u m m a r y : in this section I have suggested that a group's selfperception and its u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the world is decisively shaped b y its ideology w h i c h mediates the values and energies o f the founding m o m e n t to the present.
4
9
Integral to the p r o c e s s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g are appeals to
C a s t o r i a d i s , Imaginary,
127.
Ideology
and
45
Crisis
various c o m p o n e n t s o f i d e o l o g y ' s schematic representation o f the g r o u p ' s history. T h e s e are invoked in the minds o f informed hearers or readers b y m e a n s of i c o n s a n d s y m b o l s w h o s e quasi-hierarchical n a t u r e facilitates s o m e degree o f precision as to which particular aspect o f ideology's s c h e m a is being considered.
III. Ideology and Crisis Ideology continues to b e mobilising only in so far as it continues to justify, for the generative p o w e r o f ideology resides in its ability to d e m o n s t r a t e that the g r o u p w h o assents to it, is right to b e w h a t it i s .
5 0
It is w h e n the
'realities actually experienced b y the group ... (are) unassimilable through the principal s c h e m a ' , w h e n 'novelty seriously threatens the possibility for t h e g r o u p to r e c o g n i s e ... i t s e l f , that n e w
interpretations
formulations o f the r e g n a n t i d e o l o g y b e c o m e i m p e r a t i v e .
51
or
even
A t this point
ideology is n o longer quiescent b u t its opinions, forced b y events from the s h a d o w s into the foreground o f m o r e c o n s c i o u s thought, m u s t in s o m e w a y b e defended if they are to continue as 'opinions'. A g r o u p ' s response to this crisis m a y v a r y d e p e n d i n g on the d e g r e e o f t e n s i o n o r s o c i a l 'strain',
52
a n d o n w h e t h e r or not i d e o l o g y ' s interpretative f r a m e w o r k is
able adequately to a c c o m m o d a t e the n e w circumstances. Either there is a d e n i a l o f t h e p r e s e n t a n d an affirmation o f t h e p a s t , o r t h e r e is a repudiation o f the past along with its interpretative ideology.
Mediating
b e t w e e n these t w o e x t r e m e s is the attempt to re-configure or reinterpret the ideological s c h e m a in order to demonstrate that the g r o u p ' s ideology can account for the p r e s e n t .
53
T h i s approach is obviously preferable if it is
desirable to maintain continuity with the founding event.
5
0
5
1
5
2
5
3
Ricoeur, 'Science', 2 2 5 . Ibid., 227; h e n c e t h e i n n e r a n t i n o m y o f i d e o l o g y a s ' t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e r e a l a n d yet the obturation of the possible'. S e e G e e r t z ' d i s c u s s i o n , ' C u l t u r a l ' , 218ff. T h i s is s o m e w h a t a k i n t o F i s h b a n e ' s d i s c u s s i o n . Interpretation, 443-503, of the m a n t a l o g i c a l e x e g e s i s o f p r o p h e t i c t e x t s t h a t o t h e r w i s e a p p e a r t o b e u n f u l f i l l e d a n d is r e f l e c t e d in Q u m r a n pesher t e c h n i q u e . S e e a l s o R o w l a n d , Open, 1 4 5 f , w h o i n d e s c r i b i n g a p o c a l y p t i c ' s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t in a n d i n d e b t e d n e s s t o I s r a e l ' s h i s t o r i c a l selfu n d e r s t a n d i n g p o i n t s o u t h o w apocalyptic, a p p e a l s t o divine revelation in o r d e r to e x p l a i n events o t h e r w i s e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h Israelite traditions.
46
History
as
Hermeneutic
S i n c e t h e m e d i a o f i d e o l o g y are the icon and s y m b o l , o n e w a y o f accomplishing component
this
is b y
icons and
redefining
and
reinterpreting
symbols or by bringing
together
ideology's previously
unrelated s y m b o l s or icons so that n e w w a y s o f seeing are o p e n e d up in o r d e r to e x p l a i n t h e p r e v i o u s l y u n e x p l a i n a b l e p r e s e n t .
54
R i c o e u r , in
discussing the nature o f metaphor, speaks of the 'increase in reality' which occurs w h e n two previously remote semantic fields are b r o u g h t together, engendering a semantic clash and shattering a prior c a t e g o r i s a t i o n . is precisely w h a t transpires in J e s u s ' parables.
55
This
U s i n g k n o w n 'points of
reference' to e v o k e particular social expectations, he then creates a reality which contradicts t h e m or calls them into question, forcing his hearers to reassess their perspective. T h e perfect e x a m p l e here is the so-called ' G o o d S a m a r i t a n ' — a clash o f previously remote semantic fields to b e sure.
Or,
on a n o t h e r tack, o n e m a y h a v e as subject a Davidic c o n c e p t o f M e s s i a h w h i c h h a s certain ideological predicates s u c h as p o w e r , glory, military success, and so on. But w h e n this subject is predicated with 'suffering' and ' l o w l y s e r v i c e ' — a n d these t w o also h a v e a p l a c e in I s r a e l ' s ideological s c h e m a — t h e n the sort o f clash R i c o e u r describes occurs, again w i t h the possibility o f o p e n i n g up n e w w a y s o f seeing. This, it s e e m s , is precisely what Paul is doing in 1 Corinthians 1:18-25 w h e n he draws attention to the bizarre notion o f a 'crucified Messiah'. G i v e n the s o r t s o f e x a m p l e s j u s t n o t e d , this n a t u r a l l y r a i s e s the possibility o f alienating m e m b e r s o f the group since it necessarily requires a realignment o f older patterns o f thinking which they for various reasons m a y not b e w i l l i n g to accept. i m p r o b a b l e or u n p e r s u a s i v e .
T h e n e w p e r s p e c t i v e m a y a p p e a r either In R i c o e u r ' s w o r d s , b a s e d o n the G r e e k
6 o K € t v a s n o t e d a b o v e , it will e x c e e d those m e m b e r s ' doxic
56
threshold
O n c e this happens, debate m a y well follow as to w h o are the true heirs of the c o m m u n i t y ' s traditions, w h i c h is then carried out in terms o f fidelity to the i d e a l s a n d e n e r g i e s o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t .
So
J e r o b o a m sets up his golden calves and declares, ' T h e s e are the g o d s w h o brought y o u out o f Egypt', and Lincoln appeals to the Founding Fathers. If 5
4
5
5
5
6
T h i s is e s s e n t i a l l y t h e p r o c e s s R i c o e u r d e s c r i b e s in h i s t r e a t m e n t o f m e t a p h o r , 'Function', 130. R i c o e u r , ibid., 1 3 0 f . B a s e d on his earlier discussion of the epistemological level at w h i c h ideology operates, see section (c), p a g e 37, above.
Mark:
OT and
47
Ideology
a major issue in the N T is the question of w h o is the true Israel, then it is not surprising that N T writers should appeal to Israel's founding m o m e n t to m a k e their case. In c o n c l u d i n g these t w o sections it m u s t b e stressed that, although I h a v e tried to adduce appropriate examples, the preceding discussion o f the social function o f ideology is essentially theoretical. It is not reality, b u t rather an attempt to formulate a tool that c a n help in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a reality which undoubtedly is far m o r e c o m p l e x than any o n e approach (or m i n d ? ) can c o m p r e h e n d .
T h e m o d e l p r o p o u n d e d h e r e is an attempt to
analyse M a r k ' s G o s p e l from o n e particular perspective, and o n l y to the extent that the m o d e l p r o v i d e s a m o r e satisfying e x p l a n a t i o n than h a s previously b e e n offered should it warrant attention.
T h e final section o f
this C h a p t e r w i l l s e e k to o u t l i n e h o w t h e t h e o r y m i g h t s u g g e s t
an
approach to aspects o f M a r k ' s use o f the O T with the aim o f discovering that 'overall perspective' w h i c h gives coherence to his Gospel.
IV. Mark: OT and Ideology—History as Hermeneutic The thorough-going Jewishness of Mark's Gospel seems
undeniable.
W h i l e m u c h o f this c o u l d b e d u e to the cultural setting of M a r k ' s story— Jesus w a s a J e w living in Palestine—that M a r k never appeals, for instance, to n o n - J e w i s h literature to e l u c i d a t e his account, s u g g e s t s that m o r e is involved.
T h a t h e o n o c c a s i o n feels the n e e d to explain J e w i s h c u s t o m s
also indicates that this is not b e c a u s e h e is writing only to J e w s w h o m a y not h a v e b e e n au fait
w i t h p a g a n literature, b u t suggests rather that the
M a r k a n J e s u s c a n o n l y p r o p e r l y b e c o m p r e h e n d e d in t e r m s o f J e w i s h categories, and particularly those derived from the O T . T h i s b e i n g s o , the n e x t question is, w h a t w a s the nature o f these O T categories, h o w w e r e they organised, and h o w did they operate? A s such things tend to b e the d o m a i n o f tacit knowledge, attempts to a n s w e r these questions will necessarily involve s o m e degree o f speculation. But w e are not without any evidence at all, for while M a r k ' s Gospel m a y not explicitly a n s w e r such questions, it is nevertheless an artefact apparently on the basis o f s o m e sort o f understanding o f the O T .
wrought
48
History
as
Hermeneutic
C. H. D o d d earlier suggested that the foundations of N T theology rested on the shared Weltanschauung
of the N T and O T authors, an idea further
d e v e l o p e d b y F r a n c i s F o u l k e s w h e n h e s a w the acts o f G o d as b e i n g paradigmatic for the J e w s ' subsequent comprehension o f their history and structure o f their future e x p e c t a t i o n .
57
This approach will b e recognised as
fully consistent w i t h the p r e c e d i n g discussion o f the mediatorial role of ideology and further s u g g e s t s that M a r k ' s categories for
apprehending
Jesus are to b e located and understood within an ideologically schematised u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Israel's history.
U l t i m a t e l y g r o u n d e d in the n a t i o n ' s
founding m o m e n t and inculcated b y m e a n s o f the various J e w i s h festivals celebrated t h r o u g h o u t the year, this self-understanding w a s b y its very nature s c h e m a t i c and simplifying—it had to b e if it w a s to carry out its unifying function.
W i t h i n this f r a m e w o r k v a r i o u s i c o n s and s y m b o l s ,
including textual ones, served to evoke the various images and energies of that founding m o m e n t . It is p e r h a p s indicative o f the basic validity o f this m o d e l that, as the survey in the p r e v i o u s C h a p t e r d e m o n s t r a t e s , m a n y s t u d e n t s o f M a r k have intuitively recognised the importance o f Israel's early history for the hermeneutic that his Gospel applies to Jesus. N u m e r o u s scholars focused in particular on Israel's founding m o m e n t and h a v e seen in the various M a r k a n motifs a n d n a r r a t i v e s iconic or s y m b o l i c r e f e r e n c e s to e v e n t s within the larger Exodus framework.
Naturally enough, the next step was
to attempt to explain M a r k on the basis of an overarching E x o d u s schema. So far, all o f this is in keeping with w h a t o n e might h a v e expected on the basis o f the social function o f ideology. A p r o b l e m arises, h o w e v e r , in that t h e s e a t t e m p t s h a v e m e t with indifferent success. W h i l e there are isolated events and motifs w h i c h to varying degrees s e e m deliberately to e c h o E x o d u s categories, for instance, the feedings, the M o u n t o f Transfiguration, the sea crossings, and perhaps the d r o w n i n g o f the swine, w h e n taken as a literary unit M a r k does not seem to adhere to an Exodus schema. T h e explanation o f this apparent contradiction, I w o u l d suggest, is two fold. First, Israel's self-understanding not only derived from her ideologi cally s h a p e d
remembrance of her founding
moment, but was
also
p o w e r f u l l y , if n o t d e c i s i v e l y , influenced b y h e r p r o p h e t s w h o w h i l e 5
7
According
a n d Acts
respectively.
Mark:
OT and
49
Ideology
w o r k i n g w i t h i n the a m b i t o f earlier traditions also transformed
them.
5 8
All ideology necessarily has s o m e forward-looking dimension, b u t Israel's distinctive prophetic tradition represents a specially potent impetus in this direction. C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h i l e m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e correctly n o t e d the formative influence o f the first Exodus, they have often failed to allow for the prophetic transformation o f that founding m o m e n t into the future hope of a N E .
5 9
In other words, Israel's future lay in n o mere repetition o f
h e r founding m o m e n t , b u t in the m o r e glorious p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n o f a greater and m o r e p o r t e n t o u s N E .
That M a r k freely appeals to various
icons or s y m b o l s e v o c a t i v e o f the first E x o d u s w i t h i n a N E s c h e m a is hardly surprising given the prototypical role o f the former for the latter. This, I think, is the particular failing o f the approach o f scholars such as Suhl w h o , w h i l e rightly detecting that M a r k ' s Gospel is cast in the colours of the O T , w e r e unable to grasp the implications of this colouring. A second w e a k n e s s o f previous approaches is their double failure, first to appreciate the n e c e s s a r i l y s c h e m a t i c n a t u r e of i d e o l o g y , a n d then to discern the priorities which considerations here.
g i v e it its s t r u c t u r e .
There are
two
First, p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f o u r b o o k i s h training,
scholars tend to seek explanations for the relationship between the O T and N T primarily in textual terms, often without giving d u e attention to the interaction b e t w e e n the text and w h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n in the m i n d s o f their authors and first readers, b y which I mean, not only h o w various O T texts w e r e interpreted b u t the role o f i d e o l o g y in g i v i n g s h a p e to the significance o f those texts. This is precisely Bailey's point in his treatment of the parables w h e n h e argues that their proper context is the matrix o f first century Palestinian social m o r e s and expectations.
In t e r m s o f o u r
discussion, D o d d , w h o s e pointing to a c o m m o n Weltanschauung
showed
the w a y forward, nevertheless s e e m e d to m i s s the crucial point w h i c h is that the texts themselves presuppose mental m a p s as m u c h as they seek to form and influence t h e m . mentally a time when
N o w if Israel's founding m o m e n t is funda
s h e is e l e c t e d b y Y a h w e h , t h e n s u r e l y
her
relationship w i t h Y a h w e h ought to b e a key consideration in h e r history, as indeed the biblical text bears out. If so, then it m a y well b e that Israel's
5
8
5
9
S e e e.g. t h e w o r k o f F i s h b a n e , Interpretation. M a u s e r , Wilderness, s i m i l a r l y t e n d s t o d o w n p l a y t h e s e c o n d E x o d u s i n p r e f e r e n c e t o t h e first. S e e n o w a l s o M a r c u s , 2 3 - 2 6 .
50
History
as
Hermeneutic
i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u a l o f h e r h i s t o r y is u l t i m a t e l y cast in t e r m s o f the initiative o f Y a h w e h in his saving acts and o f Israel's response (cf. e.g. Ps 78). T h e i m p o r t a n c e of D o d d ' s textplots then m a y lie not so m u c h in the surface o f the O T textplot, that is, a place w h e r e textual ' g e m s ' lying upon the surface could b e had for the picking, but in the underlying 'subtext' of the r e l a t i o n a l d y n a m i c b e t w e e n Y a h w e h a n d I s r a e l .
60
In other w o r d s ,
certain O T texts m a y b e appealed to b y M a r k b e c a u s e they invoke, within an ideologically s c h e m a t i s e d m e m o r y o f Israel's history, s o m e aspect of Yahweh and witness.
Israel's historical relationship
to w h i c h that t e x t b e a r s
For e x a m p l e , if Isaiah 6 describes Y a h w e h ' s m e a n s of j u d g e m e n t
u p o n a n already idolatrous Israel w h o h a s rejected his w i s d o m , then its use in M a r k m a y well presuppose that a similar impasse has b e e n reached. T h e s e c o n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n is that these m e n t a l m a p s are n e c e s s a r i l y s c h e m a t i c a n d simplifying.
A c o m p a r i s o n o f the first E x o d u s a n d its
derivative N E h o p e such as w e h a v e in the prophets suggests a c o m m o n underlying
s c h e m a o f d e l i v e r a n c e , j o u r n e y , and a r r i v a l at Y a h w e h ' s
d w e l l i n g ( w h e t h e r Sinai or J e r u s a l e m / Z i o n ) .
6 1
If so, then it is this simple
pattern, rather t h a n the m o r e c o n v o l u t e d a c c o u n t s that w e find in the E x o d u s n a r r a t i v e s t h e m s e l v e s — w h i c h texts I w o u l d a r g u e
presuppose
such a s c h e m a in any case—to w h i c h w e should b e looking. This is not to say that s u c h m a p s m u s t therefore b e simplistic and
mono-dimensional.
A s will b e c o m e apparent throughout the b o o k , even a basic s c h e m a allows ample opportunity for development and complexity, b u t in an hierarchical fashion w h i c h allows for accessibility in spite o f the complexity. E a c h n e w level o f sophistication a s s u m e s a prior level o f integration. O n c e this prior level has i n v o k e d the required o v e r a r c h i n g s c h e m a , one can focus m o r e precisely o n an aspect within that s c h e m a b y using various 'icons' to invoke frameworks relevant to the particular aspect desired.
For
instance, o n c e M a r k establishes that h e is operating within a N E s c h e m a , then a n fitting textual ' i c o n ' , p e r h a p s a text associated with the Y a h w e h W a r r i o r , c a n indicate w h e r e in the N E s c h e m a o n e is operating, namely, 6
0
6
1
S u n d b e r g , ' T e s t i m o n i e s ' , is o f t e n c i t e d a s h a v i n g d i s c r e d i t e d D o d d ' s ' t e x t p l o t ' hypothesis, but w h e n e x a m i n e d carefully Sundberg's a r g u m e n t s stand 'open to criticism at e v e r y p o i n t ' , M a r s h a l l , ' R e c e n t ' , 5ff. It a p p e a r s t h a t I s a 4 0 - 5 5 a s s u m e s s u c h a s c h e m a ; s e e W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' . E v e n t h e A b r a h a m i c s t o r y is o n e o f d e p a r t u r e , j o u r n e y a l o n g a n u n k n o w n w a y , a n d a r r i v a l in t h e p r o m i s e d l a n d . T h i s itself m a y w e l l o r i g i n a t e in a r e v e r s a l o f t h e F a l l : c a s t o u t f r o m Y a h w e h ' s b o u n t i f u l g a r d e n / p r e s e n c e , w a n d e r i n g , c i t y o f C a i n , cf. G a g e , Gospel.
Mark:
OT and
51
Ideology
the deliverance section. N o t only so, but that ' i c o n ' also invokes a partic ular set o f expectations on which basis M a r k draws his picture o f Jesus. W h a t w e ought to h a v e in m i n d , I suggest, is the ideologically shaped s c h e m a of Israel's history cast in terms o f Y a h w e h ' s and Israel's relation ship in w h i c h various texts act as hermeneutical pointers e v o k i n g sections of this schema. I a m not proposing that every appeal to the O T necessarily functions in this w a y , only that it is not unlikely that a n u m b e r of M a r k ' s citations a n d a l l u s i o n s d o , a n d if so m a y lead to the d i s c o v e r y o f a n overarching unity, a s s u m i n g for the m o m e n t that s u c h unity exists. A t this point w e n o t e s o m e o f the conclusions o f Christopher S t a n l e y ' s work.
6 2
A l t h o u g h appearing after the b u l k o f m y o w n had b e e n done, it
articulates with precision w h a t had at best b e e n intuitive in the approach taken here.
In order better to locate P a u l ' s citational m e t h o d in its first
century context, Stanley s u r v e y e d citational techniques and tendencies in both J e w i s h and Graeco-Roman authors and concluded that Paul generally a d h e r e d to the a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e s o f his day.
First, the j o i n i n g o f t w o
originally discrete verses or even commingling the language of such verses into a single ' q u o t a t i o n ' to address a special literary o r rhetorical c o n c e r n is n o t u n c o m m o n .
6 3
S e c o n d , w h e t h e r the author u s e s verbatim
or a d a p t e d citations s e e m s d e t e r m i n e d solely b y ' h o w well t h e original w o r d i n g coincided with the point that the later author w a n t e d to m a k e in adducing the p a s s a g e ' .
64
Third, it is c o m m o n practice for an author either
to o m i t various e l e m e n t s considered extraneous, to c h a n g e the g r a m m a r , or e v e n to r e p l a c e a w o r d or p h r a s e with another in o r d e r to help the r e a d e r / h e a r e r a p p r e h e n d the point o f the original text as the later author understood i t .
65
Finally, 'the m o s t noteworthy point about the adaptations
. . . i s the s h e e r o b v i o u s n e s s and e v e n naivete with w h i c h m a n y o f t h e m are carried out', w h i c h in the light o f the ease with w h i c h various changes could b e detected suggests the social acceptability o f such p r a c t i c e s .
66
s o m e b r i e f c o m m e n t s o n the w a y Graeco-Roman h e a r e r s w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e d the ' t e x t ' , S t a n l e y then p r o p o s e s that ' " i n t e r p r e t i v e
After have
render
i n g s " are thus a n integral part o f every public presentation o f a written
6
2
6
3
6
4
6
5
6
6
Language. Ibid., 3 4 2 . O n M a r k ' s u s e o f this t e c h n i q u e s e e a l s o K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 175ff. Ibid. Ibid., 3 4 3 f f . Ibid., 3 4 7 f . S e e a l s o t h e w o r k o f F i s h b a n e , Interpretation, cited above.
52
History
as
Hermeneutic
text, a reality w e l l u n d e r s t o o d and p e r h a p s e v e n anticipated b y ancient audiences'.
6 7
T h i s is e v e n m o r e s o in the J e w i s h m i l i e u w h e r e the
reinterpretation o f texts w a s inherent in their u s e o f the Scriptures (e.g. Chronicles 'rewriting' o f Kings, and the so-called 'rewritten B i b l e ' ) .
68
O n the basis o f S t a n l e y ' s findings, it s e e m s highly likely that informed r e a d e r s / h e a r e r s w o u l d not o n l y h a v e n o t e d a l t e r a t i o n s b u t also h a v e recognised that the altered form was o f interpretative significance. It is not too big a step to suggest that they m a y also h a v e b e e n generally a w a r e of the original context o f a given passage and so h a v e b e e n equally alert to the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c h a n g e s b e t w e e n the o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t a n d the p r e s e n t setting.
(Perhaps the J e w i s h leaders' response to w h a t s e e m s to b e J e s u s '
retelling o f Isa 5's vineyard parable in M k 12:lff is an e x a m p l e o f this very process.)
T h i s 'sensitivity' parallels w h a t Bailey p r o p o s e d r e g a r d i n g the
parables, a n d further undergirds what w e have suggested with respect to a similarly a s s u m e d pattern o f O T interpretation a n d e x p e c t a t i o n .
Since
there s e e m s n o reason to suggest that M a r k operates any differently from Paul or h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , o u r reading o f his use o f O T citations and allusions will seek to take this awareness into account. T o return to the question o f a M a r k a n s c h e m a , in addition to the use of the E x o d u s m o d e l , m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e o b s e r v e d the influence o f the b o o k o f Isaiah, particularly c h a p t e r s 4 0 - 5 5 , o n M a r k ' s G o s p e l and especially s o in the prologue. This in itself already offers s o m e encourage m e n t that an N E s c h e m a , particularly that o f Isaiah w h o is p e r h a p s the greatest o f all N E exponents, might b e o f i m p o r t a n c e for M a r k .
However,
for w h a t e v e r reason this observation has b e e n confined to isolated sections of M a r k a n d until recently very little has been d o n e to d e v e l o p it in terms of his overall outline and subsequent d e v e l o p m e n t .
69
It is with a v i e w to
further exploring this link that w e n o w turn to e x a m i n i n g M a r k ' s opening sentences.
6
7
Ibid., 3 5 2 ; s e e a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f a s i m i l a r d y n a m i c w i t h r e g a r d t o c l a s s i c a l G r e e k d r a m a in W a t l i n g ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o S o p h o c l e s ' Theban Plays, 1 1 - 1 2 . Ibid., 3 5 0 - 5 3 . M a r c u s , Way, h a s n o w r e c e n t l y e m p h a s i s e d t h e p r o g r a m m a t i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e 1:1-3 f o r t h e G o s p e l w h e r e J e s u s is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h ' Y a h w e h ' s t r i u m p h a l m a r c h t h r o u g h t h e w i l d e r n e s s t o Z i o n in a n a c t of h o l y w a r o n b e h a l f o f h i s p e o p l e ' , 2 0 0 . 6
8
6
9
Chapter 3: Mark's Introductory Citation Mark's
only editorial
programmatic 'sandwich' NE
for
structure,
OT citation,
Perhaps
the Isaianic
components
as the conceptual
component
adds
occurring
his Gospel. framework
an ominous
in his opening reflecting invoke
of his work
dimension
while
his
the prophecies the
by highlighting
in Yahweh's
sentence,
is
characteristic of
the
Exodus/Malachi
the threat
inherent
coming.
I. Introduction Although M a r k ' s prologue is generally understood as setting the stage for his Gospel, there is considerable diversity o f opinion as to what that 'stage' is.
R. H. Lightfoot p r o p o s e d that the introduction, b y giving an insight
into a C h r i s t o l o g y w h i c h remains secret t h r o u g h o u t m o s t o f the G o s p e l , 'puts into the readers'
h a n d s ... the key w h i c h is designed to unlock the 1
meaning of the contents o f the b o o k ' while Martin Dibelius regarded the baptism as the cue for a Gospel o f secret epiphanies.
2
T. A. Burkill saw the
Gospel turning o n the struggle to understand the mystery o f J e s u s , already disclosed in the prologue as Messiah and unique Son o f G o d . c o m m e n t a t o r s t o o k a related a p p r o a c h , interpreting
3
Mark's
Numerous prologue,
particularly the voice from heaven, as 'anticipating the crucial points in the history h e relates', n a m e l y , the recognition that J e s u s is the Messiah (8:29) and ultimately the S o n o f G o d ( 1 5 : 3 9 ) .
4
J . M . R o b i n s o n and others
understood J e s u s ' initial victory over Satan in the desert as setting the tone for the ensuing eschatological conflict with the d e m o n s , the c o s m o s , and h u m a n hardness o f heart.
1
History,
2
Tradition,
5
L. E. K e c k , s o m e w h a t akin to E. Schweizer and
61ff. 2 3 1 f.
Yates, 'Form', also began with Jesus' baptism which he suggested
p r e f i g u r e d I s r a e l ' s ' c l e a n s i n g ' a s effected b y J e s u s in t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e w o r k . 3
4
Mysterious,
5 ; cf. M a t e r a , ' P r o l o g u e ' , 1 2 - 1 5 .
L a n e , 4 5 ; cf. e.g. H o o k e r , Message, 47-142. 5
5 ; P e s c h , 1.97; G n i l k a , 1.39f; E r n s t , 3 1 ; K i n g s b u r y , 6 0 ,
Problem, 1 4 1 f a n d 3 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; e a r l i e r h i n t e d a t b y S t o n e h o u s e , 2 1 ; cf. B u r k i l l , 21ff; a n d t h e a p o c a l y p t i c s t r u g g l e e n v i s a g e d b y K e e , 7 5 ; P e s c h , 1 . 9 8 . M a u s e r , 9 3 f , u n d e r s t o o d t h e differing r e s p o n s e s — a l l c o m e f r o m J u d e a a n d J e r u s a l e m ( 1 : 5 ) , w h i l e o n l y o n e
54
Introductory
Citation
Ernest Best, sees the 'way o f discipleship' as the primary concept with M a r k introducing his gospel with 'the call to follow and the p a r a d i g m for doing so'.
6
Others are impressed b y the presence o f O T motifs, particularly in the
opening citation, a n d either read M a r k ' s G o s p e l in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s as a 7
repetition o f the first E x o d u s , or, o b s e r v i n g a l o n g with R. G u e l i c h that Mark casts his b e g i n n i n g 'in the light o f Isaiah', stress this as setting the general 'eschatological t o n e ' o f w h a t f o l l o w s .
8
S o , for e x a m p l e , O t t o Betz,
w h o discerns p r i m a r i l y Deutero-Isaianic b u t also Daniellic influences in M a r k ' s prologue, sees the first half o f the G o s p e l reflecting the D e u t e r o Isaianic Warrior w h o is also the Daniellic Son o f M a n , w h i l e in the second part this Son of M a n is revealed as Isaiah 5 3 ' s ' G o t t e s k n e c h t ' .
9
Granted that M a r k is p r o b a b l y not a first-rate literary genius, it s e e m s untenable to attribute this lack o f c o n s e n s u s to M a r k a n ineptitude given the skill evident in, for e x a m p l e , his carefully constructed ' W a y ' s e c t i o n and thoughtful p l a c e m e n t and combination o f O T t e x t s .
11
10
T a k e n together
with M a r k ' s apparent a w a r e n e s s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y literary techniques (e.g. his use o f chiasm and hinge s t r u c t u r e s ) ,
12
these factors suggest that h e also
understood the i m p o r t a n c e o f his prologue.
In literary antiquity the role
of the prologue w a s , by convention, to provide 'an indication o f w h a t is to b e said so that hearers can k n o w beforehand w h a t the w o r k is a b o u t ' .
13
In
the first century A D , Q u i n t i l l i a n s p e a k s h i g h l y o f H o m e r b e c a u s e 'his proems m a d e his listeners attentive b y his m e n t i o n o f the greatness o f the theme and o p e n to instruction b y his swift s k e t c h o f t h e p l o t ' .
1 4
One
hundred years later, Lucian asserts that the g o o d historian 'will m a k e what
G a l i l e a n is m e n t i o n e d ( 1 : 9 ) — a s f o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e o n - g o i n g t e n s i o n b e t w e e n G a l i l e e a n d J e r u s a l e m ; cf. L o h m e y e r , Galilaa; M a r x s e n , 5 4 - 1 1 6 . ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 7 0 ; cf. S c h w e i z e r , ' C o n t r i b u t i o n ' , 421ff, 431ff; B e s t , Following, 15ff. S w a r t l e y , ' S t r u c t u r a l ' ; H o b b s , ' E x o d u s ' ; F a r r e r , Study; P i p e r , ' U n c h a n g i n g ' ; D e r r e t t , Making; cf. M a u s e r ; K e l b e r , 67ff, ' P a r o u s i a ' , 1 0 9 ; S a h l i n , ' S a l v a t i o n ' , 8 3 ; D r u r y , ' M a r k ' . 6
7
8
' B e g i n n i n g ' , 1 2 , w h o n o t e s a n u m b e r o f I s a i a n i c i n f l u e n c e s in t h e p r o l o g u e ; a l s o L a n e , 4 3 , a n d S t e i c h e l e , Sohn, 52ff. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o n e o f t h e s e a u t h o r s d e v e l o p t h i s i n s i g h t m u c h b e y o n d t h e p r o l o g u e . B u t s e e n o w a l s o M a r c u s w h o a r g u e s for t h e p r i m a r y i n f l u e n c e o f Isaiah's m e s s a g e o f s a l v a t i o n . 9
'Jesu', 7 2 . R e s p e c t i v e l y : e.g. I s a 4 0 : 3 , 4 2 : 1 in v v . 2f, 1 1 ; a n d ' d e r S t a r k e r e n ' , cf. v v . 7, 12f; D n 7 : 1 0 - 1 4 . S e e C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 7. 1
0
1 1
1
2
1
3
1 4
A s n o t e d b y K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' ; s e e a l s o n o w M a r c u s , passim. S t o c k , ' H i n g e ' ; v a n Iersel, I j e t e k e n i s ' , a n d ' L o c a l i t y ' . A r i s t o t l e , Rhetoric, 1 4 1 4 b . Cf. B i l e z i k i a n , Liberated, 5 2 - 5 8 ; B e a v i s , Audience, Institutionis, 1 0 . 1 . 4 8 f , t r a n s . R u s s e l l - W i n t e r b o t t o m , Ancient, 1 5 9 , 3 8 7 .
32f.
Mark's
Opening
55
Sentence
is to c o m e easy to understand and quite clear, if he sets forth the causes and outlines the m a i n e v e n t s ' n o t i n g that e v e n if 'the subject matter requires no preliminary exposition ... he will use a virtual preface to clarify what h e is g o i n g to s a y ' .
1 5
S o w i d e s p r e a d w a s this c o n v e n t i o n that w h e t h e r y o u
were dealing with 'history, epideictic oratory, philosophical dialogue, political treatise or w h a t e v e r , y o u r first s e n t e n c e h a d to a n n o u n c e w h a t you were writing'.
16
T h e reasons for these rules w e r e eminently practical,
since: The technique of ancient b o o k production, the physical nature of the v o l u m e n did n o t a l l o w t h e r e a d e r e a s i l y t o s c a n t h e b o d y o f t h e w o r k t o a s c e r t a i n its subject. T h e first s e n t e n c e a n d first p a r a g r a p h p e r f o r m e d m u c h o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e title p a g e a n d list o f c o n t e n t s in a m o d e r n c o d e x .
1 7
G i v e n this n e a r u n i v e r s a l a g r e e m e n t b y a n c i e n t a u t h o r i t i e s o n t h e p u r p o s e o f the p r o l o g u e , h o w is o n e to a c c o u n t for the w i d e variety o f r e a d i n g s offered b y m o d e r n interpreters?
It is p r o p o s e d h e r e that the
present hiatus is largely d u e to a failure to appreciate fully the ' i c o n i c ' function of M a r k ' s o p e n i n g m i x e d citation in establishing the interpretive f r a m e w o r k for h i s G o s p e l .
T h e rest o f this C h a p t e r will s e e k first to
d e t e r m i n e t h e l e n g t h o f the o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e and t h e n to d i s c e r n its hermeneutical implications.
II. Mark's Opening Sentence A l t h o u g h 1:1 h a s c o m m o n l y b e e n regarded as a distinct unit, G u e l i c h h a s recently u r g e d that ' t h e u s e o f
Ka9a>c; y c y p a i T T a i
a n d the c o m p a r a b l e
function o f apxri in other » h e a d i n g s « m a k e the reading o f 1:1 w i t h 1:2-3 imperative'.
18
Citing parallels in Q u m r a n (with
3VD
"MfcO,
e.g. 1QS 5:17;
8:14, w h e r e it also introduces Isa 40:3; C D 7:19; 4QFlor 1:12), in the L X X (e.g. 2 K g s 14:6, cf. D a n 9:13 ( 8 ) ) , and in the N T (e.g. M k 7:6 (cf. 9:13; 14:21); L k 2:23; Acts 7:42; 13:33; 1 C o r 1:31; 2:9 etc.), he points out that in the N T w h e n Ka9o>c;/a>c; y c y p a T T T a i
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
Hist.,
is u s e d as a technical formula to i n t r o d u c e an O T
53.
E a r l , ' P r o l o g u e ' , 8 5 6 ; cf. S m i t h , ' T h e o r y ' , w h o n o t e s f o u r c a t e g o r i e s . Ibid. M y a i m h e r e is n o t t o c a t e g o r i s e M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e , b u t t o s t r e s s its i m p o r t a n c e . ' B e g i n n i n g ' , f o l l o w i n g A r n o l d , ' M k 1,1'; cf. K i l p a t r i c k , ' P u n c t u a t i o n ' ; A m b r o z i c , 18f. For a s u m m a r y of earlier views, Wikgren, ' A P X H ' .
56
Introductory
quotation,
1 9
Citation
it n e v e r b e g i n s a n e w t h o u g h t ,
p r e c e d i n g with the f o l l o w i n g .
21
2 0
b u t i n s t e a d l i n k s the
Verses 1 and 2 f b e l o n g together.
Mark's
'heading' reads: T h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e g o s p e l o f J e s u s M e s s i a h , [Son o f G o d , ] a s is w r i t t e n in I s a i a h t h e prophet, way; His
'Behold I send m y m e s s e n g e r before y o u r face, w h o shall p r e p a r e y o u r
t h e v o i c e o f o n e c r y i n g in t h e w i l d e r n e s s : P r e p a r e t h e W a y o f t h e L o r d , m a k e paths straight'
2 2
and should b e construed as reflecting the concerns of the entire w o r k .
23
But G . A r n o l d h a s argued that in extra-biblical literature the anarthrous and verbless use o f apx*i pertains either to the i m m e d i a t e introduction o f a literary w o r k o r to the b e g i n n i n g o f a m a i n s e c t i o n as distinct from preceding preliminary c o m m e n t s .
2 4
A s there are n o preceding c o m m e n t s ,
verse 1 b e g i n s the i m m e d i a t e introduction and therefore verses I f f relate o n l y to t h e p r o l o g u e .
2 5
H o w e v e r , e v e n a l l o w i n g the first s e n t e n c e to
introduce the p r o l o g u e alone, the p r o l o g u e itself, both in terms of literary convention and o n empirical g r o u n d s (witness the opinions noted a b o v e ) , introduces the c o n c e r n s and t h e m e s o f the b o d y o f the w o r k .
It w o u l d b e
m o s t u n u s u a l if t h e t h e m e s e v o k e d in t h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e
were
fundamentally different from those dealt with in the b o d y o f the work. C l e a r l y then M a r k ' s citation is crucial.
A s part o f the h e a d i n g it is
p r o g r a m m a t i c for the prologue and therefore the w h o l e G o s p e l , w h i l e oic; y c y p a i T T a i also suggests that it is epexegetical of v. 1: the ' g o s p e l ' o f Jesus Christ is that g o s p e l about w h i c h Isaiah wrote.
That this is M a r k ' s only
explicit e d i t o r i a l O T c i t a t i o n in the G o s p e l a d d s to its s i g n i f i c a n c e .
1 9
Cf. F i t z m y e r , ' U s e ' , 7ff.
2 0
Pace T a y l o r w h o s e e x a m p l e s d o n o t d e a l w i t h t h e w h o l e p h r a s e . E . g . L k 2:23; A c t s 7:42; R o m 1:17; 2:24; 1 C o r 1:31; 2 : 9 . M a r k n e v e r b e g i n s a s e n t e n c e w i t h K a S o f c , Schweizer, 30. In s p i t e o f a v e r b l e s s o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e ; G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 1 4 n 2 6 ; cf. S t o n e h o u s e , 8f; K i l p a t r i c k , ' P u n c t u a t i o n ' ; A m b r o z i c , 1 8 ; n o w S c h n e c k , 2 9 - 3 1 . Contra L a g r a n g e ' s objection, 1, t h a t t h i s r e q u i r e s a n a r t i c l e w i t h ' A p x T j , t h e w o r d n e v e r h a s o n e in M a r k a n d f u r t h e r t h e a b s e n c e c a n b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v e r s e is a h e a d i n g , G o u l d , 2 n l ; T a y l o r , 1 5 2 . T u r n e r , ' T e x t ' , 1 5 0 ; L a g r a n g e , I f ; a n d L a n e , 4 2 , t a k e v v . 1-4 a s c o m p r i s i n g a s i n g l e s e n t e n c e w i t h v v . 2 f b e i n g p a r e n t h e t i c a l . S e e n o w a l s o G u n d r y , 3 0 f ; B o r i n g ' s s u r v e y in, ' B e g i n n i n g ' . 2 1
2 2
2 3
E . g . H a e n c h e n , 3 8 n l ; M a r x s e n , 1 3 8 ; M a r t i n , 2 8 ; P e s c h , 1.75; a n d m o r e r e c e n t l y M a r c u s ,
12-47. 2 4
' M k 1 , 1 ' . C f . o n t h e o n e h a n d , I s o c r a t e s , Phil. 1; P h i l o , de Sob. 1 § 1 ; Spec. Leg. 1 § 1 ; T a c i t u s , Hist. 1.1.1; a n d o n t h e o t h e r , P o l y b i u s , 1.5.1; D i o n . H a l . , Ant. Rom. 1.8.4; J o s . , B.J. 1.30. H o s 1:2 is n o t a p p l i c a b l e a s it is n o t t h e h e a d i n g o f t h e b o o k . S o e.g. A r n o l d , ' M k 1,1'; C r a n f i e l d , 3 4 f ; L o h m e y e r , 9ff; L a n e , 4 2 ; ' M e y e r , 1 6 ; G u e l i c h , 'Beginning'. 2 5
An
Early
57
Gloss?
H o w e v e r , the w e l l - k n o w n difficulty here is that M a r k d o e s not in fact quote Isaiah; at least not immediately.
Ill The Citation a) An Early
Gloss?
O n e w a y o f resolving this difficulty has b e e n to argue that verse 2 is a very early gloss. ascription,
B)
T h e w a r r a n t s n o r m a l l y a d v a n c e d are: A ) t h e i n c o r r e c t the lack o f agreement b e t w e e n
aoO
(v. 2c) and
auTou
(v. 3 c ) ,
C ) the m i x i n g o f a m e r g e d H e b r e w text w i t h o n e that a p p e a r s to derive from the L X X , D ) M a t t h e w and L u k e cite Isaiah 40:3 and the c o m b i n e d E x o d u s / M a l a c h i passages in different contexts, and E ) verse 2 b breaks the natural
connection
quotation.
between
the
Isaiah
reference
and
the
Isaiah
26
A l t h o u g h h a v i n g s o m e force t h e s e a r g u m e n t s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y compelling.
T h e m a t t e r o f t h e ' i n c o r r e c t ' ascription is s u s c e p t i b l e to
another explanation (see b e l o w ) . T h e lack o f agreement presupposes that M a r k w o u l d h a v e felt c o n s t r a i n e d to a s s i m i l a t e , b u t this h a s to b e demonstrated not a s s u m e d .
Although this degree o f merging o f different
text types is u n u s u a l in the N T , singularity is not in itself a sufficient g r o u n d for i n a u t h e n t i c i t y .
27
T h e later divergence o f b o t h M a t t h e w and
L u k e ( a s s u m i n g M a r k a n priority) m a y b e e x p l a i n e d b y a preference for c o m m o n ' Q ' materials, b u t in any case it is not clear that they should b e d e t e r m i n a t i v e for M a r k .
2 8
C o n t r a r y to b r e a k i n g the natural flow, M a r k
m a y have intentionally s a n d w i c h e d the E x o d u s / M a l a c h i text b e t w e e n the Isaiah ascription and quotation to ensure that it was understood within an Isaianic framework (see also b e l o w ) — a technique w h i c h is not altogether u n k n o w n in h i s w o r k .
F i n a l l y , the l a c k o f textual e v i d e n c e and
the
coherence o f these verses—including the M a l a c h i / E x o d u s allusion as will
2
6
E . g . L a g r a n g e ; S t e n d a h l , School, 5 1 ; B e s t , Temptation, 1 1 4 n l ; R o b i n s o n , 'Elijah'. L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 2 0 7 , r e g a r d s it a s a s e r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t y . L a c h m a n n ' s c o n j e c t u r e , N A , that vv. 2-3 should be deleted h a s found few followers; see Wellhausen, 4, w h o mentions E w a l d , a n d H i r s c h (cf. H a e n c h e n , 4 0 ) . 2 6
2
7
2
8
B u t cf. M k 1 1 : 1 7 , 13:24f; a n d M t 2:6; 2 1 : 5 p a r . J n 1 2 : 1 5 ; S t e n d a h l , School, G u n d r y , Use, 9 1 f ; 120f. A s Taylor admits.
99ff, U 8 f f ;
58
Introductory
Citation
M a l a c h i / E x o d u s allusion as will b e a r g u e d later—has c o n v i n c e d m o s t recent c o m m e n t a t o r s o f their authenticity. b) The Function
of Mark
1:2/
M a n y h a v e seen M a r k ' s o p e n i n g m i x e d citation as particularly important for his presentation, but in different w a y s . M o s t often M a r k ' s selection o f these particular texts has b e e n explained on the basis o f his c o n c e r n to introduce J o h n .
T h u s the p h r a s e kv TTJ cprfuc^ carries w i t h it ' t h e full
weight o f a great religious tradition embracing high hopes and promises as w e l l as d e e p s h a d o w s o f j u d g e m e n t '
2 9
and, as the setting for J o h n ' s
ministry, it b o l s t e r s the prophetic a n d eschatological significance o f his activity.
30
Verses 4ff, it is suggested, m a y even comprise a verse-by-verse
commentary
on the O T citation where John who
appears
'in
the
wilderness' proclaiming the 'stronger' ' c o m i n g o n e ' echoes the 'messenger' w h o 'cries in the wilderness' and thus 'prepares the w a y ' .
3 1
This line has
b e e n taken up recently b y R. H. G u n d r y w h o argues with s o m e vigour that ' v v 2b-3 ... covers only those verses w h o s e subject matter corresponds to the O T quotations, i.e. vv 4 - 8 ' .
3 2
W h i l e this v i e w is not without merit in that J o h n is clearly located at the b e g i n n i n g o f J e s u s ' ministry (cf. Acts 1:21-22; 13:24-25 a n d the other G o s p e l s ) , s e v e r a l factors indicate that this a s s e s s m e n t m a y n o t go far enough.
T h e unity o f v e r s e s 1-3 suggests that ' t h e b e g i n n i n g ' a n d the
substance o f w h a t is actually beginning, T O V cOayyc'Xiov 'IriaoO XpiaToO, o u g h t n o t to b e artificially separated.
G i v e n , too, the role o f o p e n i n g
sentences in antiquity—for e x a m p l e , G u n d r y admits that o n his v i e w the p l a c e m e n t o f the quotations in the superscription rather than at the close 33
of the narrative is ' u n n a t u r a l ' — o n e would expect them to b e descriptive of the w h o l e work, not merely o f M a r k ' s brief account o f J o h n . Moreover, the e m p h a s i s o n preparation (KcnaoKevdoei
and € T o i j i a a a T € )
3 4
allows n o
2 9
O n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d e s e r t m o t i f , e s p e c i a l l y in M k 1:3, 4 , 1 3 , M a u s e r ; T a l m o n , '"Desert"'; W r i g h t , 'Spirit'. 3 0
Marxsen, 37; Robinson, 25. L o h m e y e r , 9. Mark, 3 1 . L a t e r , h o w e v e r , G u n d r y s e e m s t o c o n t r a d i c t h i m s e l f w h e n h e a r g u e s t h a t M a r k ' s ' c o m b i n a t i o n s o f . . . p r o n o u n s p r e p a r e for G o d ' s a d d r e s s i n g J e s u s in v. 11', 3 5 . Ibid., 3 4 . S t e n d a h l , School, 5 1 ; L o n g e n e c k e r , Apostolic, 1 3 8 , s e e KajaoKtvdoei a n d kro\\uxoaT€ as uniting t h e t w o p a s s a g e s o n t h e basis of a c o m m o n e x p r e s s i o n — t h e p h r a s e o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e o n l y in I s a 5 7 : 1 4 a n d 6 2 : 1 0 , b o t h o f w h i c h d e a l w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f t h e e x i l e s . O n this s o r t o f c o m b i n a t i o n a s a r a b b i n i c m e t h o d s e e fn. 1 7 1 , b e l o w . 3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
Function
mistaking J o h n ' s subordinate r o l e terminology {odog
3 5
59
ofl:2f
and the three-fold repetition o f ' w a y '
(bis), Tpipouc;) naturally raises the question as to w h o s e
' w a y ' is being prepared; the answer can hardly b e the w a y of J o h n . A l o n g similar lines, the little that is said o f John, namely, his call for repentance (v. 4 ; M a i 3 : 1 , 2 3 ) , his
baptism
3 6
his u n w o r t h i n e s s (v. 7 ) , the anticipatory character o f
(v. 8 ) ,
3 7
and
the
inclusion
of otherwise
insignificant details c o n c e r n i n g his food and c l o t h i n g , consistent with
Malachi's Elijah whose
primary
38
apparently
is r e m a r k a b l y
role was
that
of
forerunner (cf. 9:11-13). Finally, as noted earlier, several points o f contact h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n the opening citation a n d M a r k ' s account o f Jesus in the b o d y of the Gospel. There is thus a prima facie
case that l:2f,
although naturally n o t excluding J o h n in that h e is clearly related to the 'beginning', actually i m p l y a great deal about Jesus, w h o is, after all, the central focus o f M a r k ' s ' g o o d n e w s ' .
39
Other scholars, recognising that the Gospel as a w h o l e is also in v i e w , tend to offer only general and largely unexplored observations to the effect that these v e r s e s capture 'to a r e m a r k a b l e degree the e s s e n c e o f M a r k ' s story',
40
or indicate that the Gospel concerns the fulfilment o f the citation's
promises. 68og
4 1
F o r those w h o do attempt to go further, the appearance o f
in both halves o f the citation is often seen as proleptic o f 8:27 - 10:52
such that 'Jesus is about to begin to go "on the w a y " whi ch is prepared b y
3
5
3
6
3
7
3
8
3
9
4
0
4
1
R o b i n s o n , 24f; A m b r o z i c , 19f. L a n e ; cf. B o w m a n , 1 0 5 f ; R o b i n s o n , 24f. T h i s is c l e a r e r in L u k e , s e e H o o k e r , Jesus,
73nl.
W i n k , John, 4 . W i n k , John, 2f, 13f, 1 1 0 ; H o o k e r , Message, Si; H e n g e l , Charismatic, 35ff; K i n g s b u r y , 5 8 f ; pace K r a e l i n g , John, 14ff. T h e d e s e r t p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e in J e w i s h e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d w a s in s o m e t r a d i t i o n s r e g a r d e d a s t h e h a b i t a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t s (Mart. Isa. 2 : 8 - 1 1 ) . L e a t h e r g i r d l e s a r e still w o r n t o d a y b y s o m e o r t h o d o x J e w s a n d a m a n t l e o f a n i m a l s k i n m a y h a v e b e e n s t a n d a r d g a r b for t h e p r o p h e t s (cf. Z e c h 1 3 : 4 ) . O t h e r s , e.g. B o c h e r / J o h a n n e s ' , 7 5 f ; G u e l i c h ; a n d G u n d r y , t r a n s l a t i n g bV2 a s ' h a i r y m a n ' ( L X X : a v f | p Saovg, Tg.: p i > 0 1 3 3 ) , r e j e c t this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s e e i n g i n s t e a d a g e n e r a l p r o p h e t i c / d e s e r t - d w e l l i n g i m a g e ( Z e c h 1 3 : 4 ; cf. V i e l h a u e r , ' T r a c h t ' ) . H o w e v e r , g i v e n t h a t 2 K g s 2 : 1 3 f L X X t r a n s l a t e s ' m a n t l e ' w i t h uTiXoaTTf, ' s h e e p s k i n ' o r ' r o u g h s k i n ' (Tg. Ps.-J. t o 2 K g s 2:8 h a s m S B l © i.e. ' c o a r s e c l o a k ' ( J a s t r o w ) ) a n d s i n c e frequently m e a n s 'owner', M a r k m a y b e m o r e p r e c i s e , e s p e c i a l l y g i v e n 9 : 1 3 . S e e a l s o C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 8 4 , fn. 3 . S e e n o w B u r r i d g e , What, 2 5 6 , w h o c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e G o s p e l s b e l o n g t o t h e g e n r e Bios' a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e ' k e y t o t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m u s t b e t h e p e r s o n o f t h e i r s u b j e c t , Jesus of Nazareth'. Kingsbury, 56f—an insight which unfortunately he neither substantiates n o r d e v e l o p s ; cf. M e y e r , 16f; B o w m a n , 1 1 ; S c h w e i z e r ; L a n e ; P e s c h ; S c h w e i z e r ; B e t z , ' J e s u ' , 7 2 ; G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 7. G r u n d m a n n , 2 6 ; S c h w e i z e r , 29ff; W i n k , John, 2; L a n e , 4 5 ; A m b r o z i c , 2 0 ; E r n s t , 3 1 ; e t c .
60
Introductory
John
the
Baptiser
and
which
Citation
ends
in
Jerusalem'.
4 2
The
most
c o m p r e h e n s i v e attempt to understand M a r k ' s structure in terms o f l : 2 f is that o f Swartley w h o discerns (not without s o m e effort) a recapitulation of Israel's first E x o d u s w a y .
4 3
A few d r a w attention to M a r k ' s c o m p l e x o f
J e s u s ' c u r s i n g o f t h e fig-tree and c l e a n s i n g o f the T e m p l e (11:12-21) s u g g e s t i n g that it m a y reflect the threat implied b y M a l a c h i 3 : 1 .
4 4
More
recently B e a v i s h a s noted the importance o f Isaiah for M a r k : h e is quoted as often as all the other O T prophets c o m b i n e d ,
45
is the o n l y o n e n a m e d
(bis: 1:2; 7:6) and shares m a n y c o m m o n motifs with M a r k : a Spirit-filled figure w h o b r i n g s a n e w m e s s a g e o f deliverance to an Israel that suffers from s p i r i t u a l b l i n d n e s s a n d d e a f n e s s .
46
Finally, as n o t e d earlier, Joel
M a r c u s h a s since argued for the p r o g r a m m a t i c nature o f M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation in terms o f the Isaianic N e w E x o d u s w h i c h h e briefly develops, particularly
in t e r m s o f t h e G o s p e l ' s literary s t r u c t u r e .
47
Strangely,
h o w e v e r , apart from p a s s i n g c o m m e n t s on a p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n with J o h n the Baptist a n d the T e m p l e and fig tree c o m p l e x , n o o n e s e e m s to grant
much
weight
Malachi/Exodus
to
the
fact t h a t
Mark
t e x t s in h i s c i t a t i o n a n d
has that
also included they
too might
the be
programmatic. C o n s e q u e n t l y , in order better to appreciate the hermeneutical function of this c o m p o s i t e quotation, it will b e n e c e s s a r y to d e t e r m i n e the O T sources o f M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation and then to e x a m i n e their O T contexts and the w a y in w h i c h they m a y h a v e b e e n understood in S e c o n d - T e m p l e Judaism.
4
2
4
3
4
4
4
5
B e s t , Following, 1 5 ; ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; e.g. a l s o L u z , ' G e h e i m s m o t i v ' , 2 5 ; A m b r o z i c , 19f; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' ; K e l b e r , 6 7 ; M a l b o n , Narrative, 68ff. S e e t h e r e v i e w i n C h a p t e r 1, 19ff. S w a r t l e y is i n d e b t e d b o t h t o K e l b e r , ' K i n g d o m ' , a n d Kingdom, w h o s e e s t h e e n t r y o f J e s u s i n t o J e r u s a l e m a s e c h o i n g t h e D e u t e r o n o m i c m o t i f o f e n t r y i n t o t h e p r o m i s e d l a n d , a n d t o W i n d i s c h , 'Spriiche'. D o d d , According,
7 1 ; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 1 4 5 ; T e l f o r d , Barren,
163.
Audience, 1 1 0 ; 1:2; 4 : 1 2 ; 7 : 6 ; 1 1 : 1 7 ; 12:lff, b u t s e e a l s o 1 3 : 2 4 , 2 5 . C f . M a i 3:1 in 1:2; Z e c h 1 3 : 7 in 1 4 : 2 3 ; D n 7 : 1 3 in 1 3 : 2 6 a n d 14:62; J e r 7:11 in 11:17. Ibid. Way, 1 2 - 4 7 . 4
6
4
7
61
Texts
IV. OT Sources** a)
Texts MarA: 2 : 2 /
Exodus LXX
•I6ou
i6ou
T
diToaTeXXa) TOV
ayycXov
TOV
dyycXov
Tipo
TrpoaaSnou
iva
(J>uXd?X)
kv
OO\)
i6ou
uou
TOV
dyycXdv
-[-ID©*?
o*€
KAI
Isaiah
€TTlpX€l|;€Tai
€V
€ToiudaaT€ TT|V
66OV
exjQeiag Tag r
66OV
€ll6€{aS"
TIOICITC
TPIPOUS*
aviToO
1:2:
T
'YIP
US
KUpiOU
TOU
0€OO TJUGJV
€yu> in
rwr
TTOl€lT€
Tpipous*
3
|AOU
"DIM
rag
'In t h e p r o p h e t s ' (A W / * Mk
« - N P
POCSVTOS'
T f j €piiu(p
TT|V
TTpoaO)TTOU
MT
'ETOiudaaT€ KUpiOU
nasi
40:3
LXX <|>a>VT|
|iou
66ov TTP6
€ V T f i 4plfoup
nan
°€ya)
733*7
aou
t x ) 66*
0>vf| p O W V T O S "
MT
€4a*noaT€XXa)
GOV
T
6 6 O V
3:1
LXX
run
-d:k
€ya)
uou
KaTaaKcudaei
TT)V
MT
aTToaTcXXa)
TTpO TfpOaOJTTOU og
Malachi
23:20
2ft) r e f l e c t s t h e m i x e d c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c i t a t i o n .
KALW/l^gu
V
g
d
sy
h
8
sa™ b o "
18
] t e x t : B D 0 28* 565 p c lat c o ;
probably a n assimilation to E x a n d / o r M a i ( L X X ) , o r E x ( M T ) , o r M t 3:3. 2
A / 1 13 <m f f f 1 v g 11:10
c l
sy
h
1
sa "
5 5
w h i c h m a y e c h o M a i 3:1. 4
einrpooeev
b o P ] t e x t : N B D K L P W © 700* al l a t saP b o P ' , r e f l e c t s M t r
T O U 0€OO
T u r n e r ' s s u g g e s t i o n ('Text', 1 5 0 ) t h a t Ex 23:20: M T "l* ^]
T
1
AUTOU
T\\L&V D it] a n a s s i m i l a t i o n t o t h e L X X ;
reflects M t a n d L k s e e m s u n w a r r a n t e d .
*0 ut <5 D. M a y b e e x p l a i n e d e i t h e r b y i n f l u e n c e o f M T v. 2 3 ,
"OK^Q, o r b y M a i 3:1 w h i c h a p p e a r s t o d r a w o n this t r a d i t i o n ( s e e b e l o w ) . Mai 3:1 L X X :
0
cyuS A Q W K
c
L u c ] omit: B K* C. P e r h a p s a n a s s i m i l a t i o n t o E x .
In spite of the Isaiah ascription, verses 2 f a p p e a r to b e a conflation o f E x o d u s 23:20, M a l a c h i 3 : 1 , and Isaiah 4 0 : 3 . In terms of the M a l a c h i text both Mark's K a T a a K € u d £ a > , w h i c h s e e m s to render the M T ' s m© as a piel whereas the L X X ' s empXcTTO) suggests a Q a l ,
4 8
49
and his shift from first person
S e e e.g. G u n d r y , Use, 9 - 1 2 ; S t e n d a h l , School, 4 7 - 5 4 ; a l s o S t e i c h e l e , Sohn, 5 2 - 7 7 . T h e fluidity and c o m p l e x i t y of b o t h the H e b r e w a n d G r e e k O T textual traditions m e a n s that d e t a i l e d a n a l y s e s o f this k i n d s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s t e n t a t i v e a n d i n d i c a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n a b s o l u t e o r a s s u r e d ; s e e e.g. t h e d i s c u s s i o n in S t a n l e y , Language, 37-51. B y t h e t i m e o f t h e N T cmpAcTTu) m e a n s 'to l o o k a t , g a z e a t ' ( B A G D , L N , L S J M ) o r ' t o a p p e a l for h e l p ' ( M M ) , w h i l e d i r o a K c u d ^ o ) , t h e p r e d o m i n a n t c h o i c e in t h e v e r s i o n s for t h e p i e l o f H3D in t h e c o n t e x t o f ' p r e p a r i n g a " [ 1 1 ' ( A q . , S y m . , T h e o d . cf. I s a 4 0 : 3 ; 5 7 : 1 4 ; 6 2 : 1 0 ; 4 9
62
Introductory
to second
(TTIV 6 6 O V a o u ) ,
Citation
apparently in the interests o f his Christology,
suggest that the M T rather than the LXX is the source. D u e to the similarities b e t w e e n E x o d u s 23:20 and Malachi 3:1 there has b e e n s o m e question as to w h i c h is in v i e w in verse 2. Earlier scholarship regarded the w h o l e as deriving primarily from M a l a c h i , c o m m e n t a t o r s , usually on the basis o f ocnooriWu Trpo T r p o a c j T r o u a o u
50
but s o m e recent
(v. 2 b ) and the phrase
(v. 2c), consider it a direct quotation from E x o d u s 23:20
LXX partly enriched b y Malachi 3:1 M T .
5 1
However, the latter option is not
as certain as might initially appear. In the first place any attempt to discern origins merely on the basis of form m u s t reckon with the fact that Malachi 3:1 L X X already betrays the influence o f E x o d u s 23:20 a n d vice
52
versa.
Second, Malachi's (LXX)
c^aTToaTcXXa), although k n o w n to the N T but used almost exclusively b y Luke, is n e v e r u s e d b y M a r k w h o instead prefers dTroaTc'XXo) (20 t i m e s ) .
53
Consequently, it is difficult to tell whether M a r k ' s choice reflects a formal parallel w i t h E x o d u s 23 or a stylistically influenced rendition o f Malachi 3. Third, since M a r k ' s rendering o f m s in verse 2 e suggests the M T , his omis sion o f t h e e m p h a t i c c y a ) (v. 2a) a n d his T O V a y y c X o ' v u o u (v. 2 c , cf. Ex 23:20's "[K^B) suggests the M T of Malachi. Fourth, although the position of the p h r a s e
TTpd T r p o a w T T o u a o u
(v. 2 d ) is consistent w i t h E x o d u s 2 3 ,
M a r k ' s addition o f a o u (v. 2f) m a k e s it ambivalent, in that in E x o d u s it is Israel in v i e w w h e r e a s in M a l a c h i 3 a s i m i l a r e x p r e s s i o n refers Yahweh—in Mark's version both
apparently
refer to J e s u s .
to
More
i m p o r t a n t l y p e r h a p s , M a r k ' s a p p a r e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J o h n as ' E l i j a h ' suggests that he intended at least s o m e allusion to Malachi. The
s e c o n d h a l f o f the citation is a l m o s t v e r b a t i m Isaiah 4 0 : 3 L X X
except that M a r k substitutes Christological reasons.
auTou
for
TOU SCOU TIUCJV,
again for apparently
It is c o m m o n l y held that M a r k uses Isaiah 4 0 to
p iel o f rns in t h e c o n t e x t o f ' p r e p a r i n g a "|"lT ( A q . , S y m . , T h e o d . cf. I s a 4 0 : 3 ; 5 7 : 1 4 ; 6 2 : 1 0 ; M a i 3 : 1 ) , is n e v e r u s e d in t h i s c o n t e x t in t h e L X X a n d d o e s n o t a p p e a r in t h e N T . Cf. H a n h a r t , ' B e d e u t u n g ' , w h e r e t h e c o n t r o l l i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e H e b r e w f o r m r e s u l t e d in t h e d i v e r s i t y o f N T ' s L X X r e a d i n g s ; a l s o M a n s o n , T e a c h i n g ' , 315ff. E . g . M o u l e ; T o y , Quotations, 3 1 f ; T u r p i e , Old, 5 9 f ; D o d d , According; Swete; and Alexander. E . g . G u n d r y , Use, s e e s a m i n i m a l influence o f M a i 3 . P e s c h , 1 . 7 8 ; G u e l i c h , 1.7f. T h e L X X r e f l e c t s t h e i n t e r p l a y o f t h e t w o H e b r e w texts: E x 2 3 : 3 0 , -JK^Q, b u t L X X : T O V a y y e A o v piou, cf. M a i 3 : 1 , "OK^ft; a n d M a i 3 : 1 , "3371, L X X : l 6 o u kyu; cf. E x 2 3 : 2 0 , "D3K *33n. 5 0
5 1
5 2
5 3
m
It a l s o o c c u r s in t h a t e n d i n g o f M a r k c o n t a i n e d in L * 0 9 9 , 0 1 1 2 , 2 7 4 S , 5 7 9 , e t c .
Exodus
63
23:20
explain the desert setting o f J o h n ' s ministry and that this d e p e n d s o n the L X X ' s syntactical rendering o f iv T T J 6 6 ( 5 ; misrepresents the M T .
5 5
54
the implication b e i n g that it
But M a r k ' s use o f the L X X m a y not b e a matter o f
such transparent apologetics. T h e r e is evidence to suggest that the M T and 56
L X X testify to competing renderings o f a H e b r e w Vorlage. Massoretic accentuation,
W h i l e the late
perhaps reflecting a perceived
parallelism
b e t w e e n - D I M and nznyu, is supported b y 1QS 8:14 and 9:19f, the L X X rendering is e n d o r s e d b y the O T Peshitta, the V u l g a t e , a n d exposition.
57
a s s i m i l a t i o n t o the N T , period
5 9
rabbinical
Although the Vulgate, and possibly the Peshitta, m a y reflect 5 8
the rabbinic testimony
from t h e
Amoraic
implies that the L X X reading remained a valid alternative.
This,
in addition to the matter o f the imperfect parallelism—"OlDD precedes H3Q, whereas mnjn follows "KB*—indicates s o m e uncertainty about the original force of the H e b r e w .
60
V. OT Contexts a) Exodus
23:20
T h e Exodus text belongs to the B o o k o f the Covenant (20:22 - 23:33) which, set in the context o f Israel's account o f her founding m o m e n t , the
ultimate
constitutive
document
of the
nation's
represents
identity
and
significantly exhibits several features a m e n a b l e to c o v e n a n t renewal (i.e. revivification) p r a c t i c e s .
61
T h e preponderance o f s e c o n d p e r s o n singular
imperatives is suited to the M o s a i c office o f c o v e n a n t mediator, and the 5
4
E . g . M a r x s e n , 20ff; E d g a r , ' R e s p e c t ' , 5 7 ; N i n e h a m ; P e s c h ; F i t z m y e r , I J s e ' , 3 1 8 .
5
5
E . g . S t e n d a h l , School
5
6
F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g B o c k , Proclamation,
5
7
5
8
5
9
6
0
6
1
48. 95.
D e l i t z s c h , Isaiah; E d e r s h e i m , Life, 2 . 7 4 4 ; M i c h a e l i s , Matthew, 1.116. The Tg's p o i n t i n g is d i s p u t e d : S t e n n i n g f o l l o w s t h e M T ; w h e r e a s G u n d r y , Use, 1 0 ; a n d E d e r s h e i m , ibid.; t h e LXX. Pace S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 1 4 5 , it is u n c l e a r h o w t h e d e l e t i o n o f "DlQn d e eschatologizes Isa 40:3, especially w h e n cpi^u^ remains. On the unresolved question of the Jewish or Christian origin of the Peshitta, W i i r t h w e i n , Text, 8 0 f . S t r - B , 1.96f; 2 . 1 5 4 ; b u t cf. B r a u d e , Pesikta, 5 8 7 , o n P i s k a 2 9 / 3 0 b : 6 , w h i c h f o l l o w M T . G u n d r y , Use, 1 0 , a l s o n o t e s t h a t t h e s y n t a x c o u l d c o n n e c t 13B w i t h K"np *?ip, a n d t h a t H3"U>n c o u l d b e a l a t e i n s e r t i o n t o m a t c h t h e r e being n o c o m p e l l i n g r e a s o n for t h e LXX t o d e l e t e it. T h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e c o n d line is n o t i n v e r t e d a r g u e s against inverted parallelism. C h i l d s , Exodus, 455f; Patrick, 'Covenant'; Chirichigno, 'Narrative', 473f; Steichele, Sohn, 6 4 . I a m i n d e b t e d t o C h i l d s for this a n d m u c h o f t h e following.
64
Introductory
Citation
i n t r o d u c t o r y a l t a r l a w (20:24ff) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c o n c l u d i n g festival c a l e n d a r i n s t r u c t i o n s (23:14ff) points to a cultic setting.
T h e c o n t e n t is
p e r m e a t e d w i t h c o v e n a n t t h e o l o g y in that s i n c e G o d h a s r e v e a l e d his n a m e h e requires legitimate w o r s h i p and therefore his n a m e is n o t to b e reviled (22:28), s e x u a l license and idolatry are prohibited (20:26; 22:19), the w e a k are to b e protected (22:21ff), and justice d o n e (23:2, 8 ) . c o m m a n d s are s u m m a r i s e d in the m o t i v a t i o n MT)
6 3
, l
6 2
T h a t these
? ]vnn tinp""»tf3» (22:30,
highlights the centrality o f Y a h w e h ' s and Israel's relationship in the
m o r e s a n d energies o f her founding m o m e n t . T h e e p i l o g u e (23:20-33), from w h i c h M a r k ' s text is taken, s t a n d s out from the p r e c e d i n g material o n several counts. Its style, with its series of p r o m i s e s a n d w a r n i n g s , differs s t r i k i n g l y from t h e p r e c e d i n g statutes. W h e r e a s the focus previously w a s on Y a h w e h ' s presence at Sinai, n o w it is o n the p r e s e n c e o f the ^K^fc and life in the land (last m e n t i o n e d in 13:5). F i n a l l y , its r e q u i r e m e n t o f o b e d i e n c e is c o u c h e d n o t in t e r m s o f the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g laws as o n e m i g h t expect, b u t instead in terms of Israel's relationship to the m e s s e n g e r 'in w h o m is m y n a m e ' . T h e p a s s a g e m a y b e outlined as f o l l o w s : 1.
64
O n the w a y (vv. 20-21) a. T h e 'Messenger/Angel's' b . Israel's
task (v. 2 0 )
responsibilities
i. S t i p u l a t i o n s ( v . 2 1 a ) ii. W a r n i n g s ( v . 2 1 b ) 2.
In the L a n d (vv. 22-33) a. Yahweh's a c t i o n : d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e nations
(vv. 22-23)
b . Israel's o b l i g a t i o n : i. C o m m a n d s a g a i n s t i d o l a t r y ( v . 2 4 ) ii. B l e s s i n g s f o r o b e d i e n c e ( v v . 2 5 - 2 6 ) a. Yahweh's a c t i o n : d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e nations ( v v . 2 7 - 3 1 ) b . Israel's o b l i g a t i o n : i. C o m m a n d s a g a i n s t i d o l a t r y ( v v . 3 2 - 3 3 a ) ii. W a r n i n g a g a i n s t d i s o b e d i e n c e (v. 3 3 b , c )
V e r s e s 2 0 - 2 1 i n t r o d u c e Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e d "^K^D,
65
defining h i s role
and outlining Israel's relationship to h i m . His task is to keep Israel iv T T J 66(3 (LXX) and to lead t h e m into the p r o m i s e d land (cf. v. 2 3 a ) . Israel, on
6
2
6
3
6
4
6
5
O n t h e s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e E x o d u s , D a u b e , Exodus; cf. 2 3 : 1 5 w i t h 2 3 : 9 . C f . P a u l , Covenant, 36ff; G r e e n b e r g , ' P o s t u l a t e s ' , l l f . C h i l d s , Exodus, d i v i d e s v v . 2 0 - 2 2 , 2 3 - 2 6 , a n d 2 7 - 3 2 o n f o r m a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t a k i n g v v . 2 3 a n d 2 7 a s u n c o n d i t i o n a l p r o m i s e s , b u t t h e l o g i c o f v. 2 2 s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e l a t t e r s h o u l d also be understood as conditional. L X X , V u l g a t e a n d m r e a d -DK^Q, cf. v . 2 3 .
Exodus
65
23:20
the other h a n d , is w a r n e d against d i s o b e d i e n c e
66
since he will not p a r d o n
their transgression i3"jp3 ^ t f **? —this latter phrase s u g g e s t i n g the virtual identity o f Y a h w e h a n d the " ^ f t .
6 7
This seemingly abrupt transition from
the divine p r e s e n c e d u r i n g the C o v e n a n t p r o m u l g a t i o n at Sinai (19:lff) to the ^K^fc-related s t i p u l a t i o n s a n d w a r n i n g s e m p h a s i s e s the c o v e n a n t a l d i m e n s i o n o f the ^K'p&'s r o l e .
6 8
T h e c o n d i t i o n a l s e n t e n c e (v. 2 2 ) w h i c h
i n t r o d u c e s t h e s e c o n d h a l f i n d i c a t e s that m a t t e r s relating to the l a n d p r e s u p p o s e a particular state o f relationship: Israel m u s t b e o b e d i e n t ' o n the w a y ' . T h e rest o f the 'in the l a n d ' material comprises a pair o f parallel sections, e a c h o f t w o parts, a n d again I s r a e l ' s relationship to Y a h w e h is crucial.
E a c h section outlines the responsibilities o f b o t h parties: Y a h w e h
will prosecute H o l y W a r against the nations (vv. 2 2 - 2 3 , 27-31 ) is to destroy the inhabitants' cults (vv. 24-26, 3 2 - 3 3 ) . Several points should b e noted.
6 9
and Israel
70
A l t h o u g h it is difficult to ascertain the
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e ' m e s s e n g e r ' a n d Y a h w e h , the o n l y
apparent
r e a s o n for t h e d i s t i n c t i o n m a d e b e t w e e n t h e m in v e r s e s 2 0 - 2 3 is that Y a h w e h is r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e n a t i o n s ' d e s t r u c t i o n w h i l e t h e ^ K ^ f c is related to the j o u r n e y along the w a y . 3 3 b , c) a n d
S e c o n d , the stipulations (vv. 2 5 - 2 6 ,
c o n d i t i o n a l p r o m i s e s o f p r o v i s i o n , h e a l t h , fertility,
and
longevity d e p e n d on Israel's rejection of pagan influences and o b e d i e n c e to Y a h w e h , and imply that possession o f the land is b a s e d on Israel's faithful maintenance
of her covenantal relationship
to Y a h w e h .
The
final
c o m m a n d s are also identical to those at the b e g i n n i n g (20:23): Israel is to h a v e n o other gods w h i c h again stresses the relational dimension. In conclusion, 23:20-33 constitutes a final w a r n i n g prior to the sealing of the c o v e n a n t (24:1-18) and its primary c o n c e r n is that the 'integrity o f Israel's relationship
to Y a h w e h b e g u a r a n t e e d ' .
7 1
T h i s is entirely in
k e e p i n g w i t h t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e o f the b o o k , n a m e l y , the c o v e n a n t a l c o m i n g pf t h e d e l i v e r i n g p r e s e n c e o f Y a h w e h to h i s p e o p l e .
6 6
B u t this
" D "iQrr^K, lit. ' d o n o t b e b i t t e r a g a i n s t h i m ' , L X X : UT| omciSci auTai. G n 2 4 : 7 , 2 7 , 4 0 , 4 8 , 5 6 ; N u 2 0 : 1 6 cf. 1 4 : 1 6 ; N o r t h , ' S e p a r a t e d ' , a f t e r a n e x t e n s i v e s u r v e y , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e b a s i c s e n s e o f ^K^tt is ' p r e s e n c e ' ; for a r e v i e w o f t h e five m a i n t h e o r i e s , F i c k e r , THAT, 1.906ff. K n i g h t , Narration, 152. K o h l e r , Hebrew, 98f. C o v e n a n t - m a k i n g w i t h f o r e i g n n a t i o n s is p r o s c r i b e d s i n c e it c o n s t i t u t e s a n i m p l i c i t r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e o t h e r p a r t y ' s d e i t i e s , H y a t t , Exodus, 2 5 2 . 6
7
6
8
6
9
7
0
7
1
D u r h a m , Exodus, 3 3 7 .
66
Introductory
Citation
c o m i n g o f t h e p r e s e n c e is also a m a t t e r o f h o l i n e s s ; sin will n o t b e tolerated.
72
Consequently, obedience to the
4
^K ???
is the presupposition of
Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g as W a r r i o r on I s r a e l ' s behalf, and I s r a e l ' s c o n t i n u e d blessing in the land depends on her keeping covenant faithfulness. (i) Exodus
23:20 and the History
of
Tradition
G i v e n the presence of the enigmatic messenger figure, it is not surprising that E x o d u s 2 3 : 2 0 figured heavenly chief s e r v a n t .
73
prominently
in s p e c u l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g a
T h e Apoc. Abr. 10:1-14 refers to the angel Yahoel
in w h o m G o d ' s n a m e dwells (an allusion to E x 23:20f). In Philo the angel of E x o d u s 23:20, w h o bears the n a m e o f G o d , is seemingly identified with the L o g o s (Quaest.
Exod. 2:13 cf. De Agr. 5 1 ; Migr.
Abr. 174) and the figure
of M e t a t r o n / E n o c h in 3 Enoch appears to b e influenced b y E x o d u s 23:20 (cf. 12:5, ' m y n a m e is in h i m ' ) .
7 4
E x o d u s 23:20 is also appealed to in b.
Sanh.
38b w h i c h tells o f a debate b e t w e e n a rabbi and a 'heretic' over whether worship should b e given to another other than G o d . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the t h e m e s o f the delivering p r e s e n c e and Israel's disobedience w e r e , however, brought out in less speculative literature. the late Exodus
Kabbah
In
(although p e r h a p s indicative o f earlier traditions
as reflected in the haftarah ingly, a r e i n t e r w o v e n .
for Ex 23:20, see b e l o w ) both themes, interest First, t h e r e is the r e m e m b r a n c e o f Y a h w e h ' s
presence at the founding m o m e n t to protect and deliver the fathers which b e c o m e s the b a s i s and p a r a d i g m for the future expectation o f protection and deliverance o f the children (Ex. Rab. 32:6, 9; cf. Midr.
Ps 9 0 : 9 ) .
75
This
future h o p e is expressed in 32:9: ' A n d it will b e similar in the future, w h e n h e will reveal himself, and redemption will c o m e for Israel, as it is said', citing M a l a c h i 3 : 1 , " B e h o l d , I send m y messenger, and h e will clear a w a y before y o u r face". But, second, there is a clear recognition that the sending of the angel w a s the direct result o f Israel's faithlessness and idolatry (Ex. Rab.
7
32:1-3, 5, 7; cf. Midr.
2
Ps 17:3)—this duality s e e m s to h a v e b e e n an
A l s o D u r h a m , Exodus, xiii: ' t h e B o o k o f E x o d u s m a y b e s e e n a s a s e r i e s o f i n t e r l o c k i n g concentric circles spreading o u t w a r d s from the narratives of the c o m i n g of Yahweh'; C a s s u t o , Exodus, 4 8 3 f . H u r t a d o , One, passim. C f . A l e x a n d e r , OTP, 1.243ff. ' H e w h o g u a r d e d the patriarchs will also g u a r d the children', citing also: G n 24:7; 4 8 : 1 6 ; E x 3 : 2 ; J u 6 : 1 1 - 4 ; a n d M a i 3 : 1 ; s e e a l s o S t e i c h e l e , Sohn, 6 5 . 7
3
7
4
7
5
Malachi
67
3:1
important feature o f Israel's recollection o f h e r founding m o m e n t as in, for instance. Psalms 106:19-23, N e h e m i a h 9:9-25, and Isaiah 63:8-10. T o the extent that these passages reflect older traditions, they suggest that an a p p e a l to E x o d u s 23:20 m a y w e l l h a v e e v o k e d n o t o n l y t h e m e m o r y o f Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e and redemption at the founding m o m e n t as the m o d e l for the future h o p e o f presence and redemption, b u t also the p o i g n a n t m e m o r y o f I s r a e l ' s faithless rebellion w h i c h o c c a s i o n e d t h e sending of the "^J^fe. It might also serve this purpose in Mark. b) Malachi
3:1
In spite o f uncertainty over the date of composition, it is generally agreed that t h e h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g o f M a l a c h i is o n e o f d i s a p p o i n t m e n t
and
frustration
the
in t h e
light of the
Return
having
failed
to m e e t
expectations fuelled b y the pictures o f N E redemption offered in Isaiah 4 0 5 5 / 6 6 and the prophecies o f Haggai and Z e c h a r i a h .
76
Far from the nations
flocking to J e r u s a l e m , the returnees w e r e still subject to Persian rule (1:8). T h e land h a d n o t b e c o m e a p a r a d i s e b u t instead locusts a n d d r o u g h t r u i n e d the c r o p s (3:11).
T h e r i g h t e o u s l a n g u i s h e d w h i l e the w i c k e d
prospered (2:17; 3:14f). Consequently, a crisis o f faith had apparently arisen and doubts w e r e b e i n g expressed concerning the utility of serving Y a h w e h (1:2,13; 2:17; 3:14). It is against this b a c k g r o u n d o f discontent that a brief i n t r o d u c t o r y disputation reaffirms Y a h w e h ' s c o m m i t m e n t to Israel ( l : 2 - 5 ) .
7 7
Charges
are then levelled against both the priesthood (1:6 - 2:9) and the people as a w h o l e (2:10-16) claiming that it is they, and not Y a h w e h , w h o h a v e b e e n unfaithful.
This establishes the perspective assumed b y the disputations o f
the second half w h i c h focus on the prophet's central contention: Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g has b e e n delayed b e c a u s e o f the nation's sin. T h e subsequent call for preparation reaffirms the certainty o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g (2:17 - 3 : 5 )
7 8
and is followed b y a reiteration o f his desire for the n a t i o n ' s r e p e n t a n c e (3:6-12)
7
6
Malachi, 7
7
7
8
7
9
79
and then a final w a r n i n g concerning the fates o f the wicked and
S e e e.g. V e r h o e f , Malachi, 2 8 4 , 2 9 4 ; E l l i g e r , Propheten, 1 7 ; A c k r o y d , Exile, 2 6 0 f .
188; Glazier-McDonald,
O n the linear a n d concentric pattern of the six major disputations see, W e n d l a n d , ' L i n e a r ' ; cf. Pfeiffer, ' D i s p u t a t i o n s w o r t e ' ; B o e c k e r , ' B e m e r k u n g e n ' ; F i s c h e r , ' N o t e s ' . P e r h a p s t o e s t a b l i s h a n e w c o v e n a n t , v o n H o o n a c k e r , douze, 7 3 1 . G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , Malachi, 1 7 5 , 2 0 4 ; W e n d l a n d , ' L i n e a r ' .
68
Introductory
the r i g h t e o u s ( 3 : 1 3 - 2 1 M T ) .
80
Citation
T h e epilogue repeats the call to reformation,
again in v i e w o f the c o m i n g day o f Y a h w e h w h i c h is to b e h e r a l d e d b y Elijah lest Y a h w e h find the p e o p l e u n p r e p a r e d and curse the land (3:2224)M
M a r k ' s citation b e l o n g s to the fourth d i s p u t a t i o n (2:17 - 3 : 5 ) .
8 2
The
p r o p h e t ' s accusation that his hearers are w e a r y i n g G o d with their w o r d s (v. 1 7 a )
8 3
introduces the central concern: the question o f Y a h w e h ' s justice
in v i e w o f his failure to c o m e to his p e o p l e . uncertain,
85
84
T h e a d d r e s s e e s ' identity is
b u t considering the tendency to address the p e o p l e as a w h o l e
(1:1; 2 : l l f ; 3:5, 6-9f, 13f) and as the sins (v. 5) appear to constitute a repre sentative list, it s e e m s that the prophet has the nation in m i n d .
However,
the p r i m a c y o f the priests' unfaithfulness in the disputations (1:6 - 2:16) and here (e.g. the threat to the T e m p l e and priests precedes that directed at the people) should not b e overlooked, especially as the m a i n t e n a n c e o f the c o v e n a n t is contingent on the sincere o b s e r v a n c e o f the cult and faithful instruction.
86
B o t h the p e o p l e and their leaders are responsible, although
the latter, b e c a u s e o f their position, are clearly m o r e so. T h e a d d r e s s e e s next d e m a n d p r o o f (v. 1 7 b ) . B y w a y o f r e s p o n s e the p r o p h e t first cites their c o m p l a i n t against Y a h w e h : ' E v e r y o n e w h o does evil is g o o d in the sight o f the Lord and h e delights in t h e m . ... W h e r e is the G o d o f j u s t i c e ? ' (2:17c, cf. 3 : 1 5 ) ,
87
Yahweh with covenant faithlessness.
88
w h i c h is t a n t a m o u n t to indicting H e then declares Y a h w e h ' s inten
tions w h i c h , together with the prophet's outline o f their complaint, appear to form a chiastic pattern centred on Y a h w e h ' s presence and justice: A. (2:17c) A l l w h o d o evil a r e g o o d in Y a h w e h ' s e y e s ( a b s e n c e o f justice) B. ( 2 : 1 7 d ) W h e r e is t h e G o d o f j u s t i c e ? ( a b s e n c e of Y a h w e h ) B.* ( 3 : 1 ) I a m sending... ( m y p r e s e n c e is c o m i n g ) A . ' (3:2f)
8
0
8
1
8
2
8
3
W h o can stand?
( m y justice is c o m i n g )
3:22ff M T b e i n g a p p e n d i c e s . W e n d l a n d , ' L i n e a r ' , 1 1 4 , s e e s h e r e a s u m m a r y o f t h e w h o l e in a c a l l f o r r e f o r m a t i o n , preparation, returning to Y a h w e h a n d the threat of punishment, S e l l i n , Zwdlfprophetenbuch, 5 5 5 ; V e r h o e f , Malachi, 176; or Diskussionswort, D e i s s l e r , Zwolfpropheten, 330. T h e sinful n a t u r e o f t h e s e w o r d s is s u g g e s t e d b y I s a 43:22ff; B a l d w i n , Haggai, 2 4 2 . G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , Malachi, 1 2 4 ; V e r h o e f , Malachi, 2 8 3 . Alternatives are: the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y , a n i m p i o u s , pious, o r in-between faction; see t h e d i s c u s s i o n in V e r h o e f , Malachi, 283ff. A h l s t r o m , Joel, 97; G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , Malachi, 262f. Verhoef, Malachi. S m i t h , Micah, 3 2 7 ; V e r h o e f , Malachi, 1 7 6 . 8
4
8
5
8
6
8
7
8
8
Malachi
69
3:1
In this notorious crux, w e are told that Y a h w e h is going to send *OK*7& to p r e p a r e his w a y (3:1a, b), a n d then ynKn will s u d d e n l y c o m e to h i s temple (vv. l c , d). H o w e v e r , this coming, in spite o f the p e o p l e ' s claim to 'delight' in rvnan The
ijK'po, will
not b e pleasant (vv. 2a, b ) .
8 9
major question here c o n c e r n s the identity o f these three figures
and their r e l a t i o n s h i p to o n e a n o t h e r . identifies "OK^B as E l i j a h .
91
90
F o r o u r p u r p o s e s 3:23 ( M T )
Although s o m e h a v e seen ynKn as indicating a
'general recognition o f s u p e r i o r i t y ' ,
92
there are other considerations: A ) it is
Y a h w e h for w h o m the p e o p l e wait (2:17), B ) it is ' h i s ' temple to which h e c o m e s , C ) although not occurring alone like this as a reference to Y a h w e h 1
is used o f h i m (cf. n W * ? ynK, Zech 4:14; 6 : 5 ) ,
93
and D ) the c o m i n g
which is to b e prepared for is the anlam ^iian mrr D1* (cf. 3:23MT). T a k e n t o g e t h e r t h e s e p o i n t s s u g g e s t that "|i"iHn is n o n e o t h e r t h a n Y a h w e h himself.
94
This leaves the perplexing question o f the identity o f the figure
in the parallel expression, nnan ^K^E, a unique appellation in the O T . D. L. Peterson sees "OK^fc and r r i a n
^K^n
9 5
as o n e and t h e s a m e : a
covenant enforcer u p o n w h o s e success the c o m i n g of Y a h w e h d e p e n d s (cf. v. 5 ) .
9 6
Although the latter assertion is questionable—3:24b ( M T ) suggests 9 7
otherwise —arguments
advanced
in s u p p o r t o f this
identification
include A ) the c o m m o n substantive "iK^fc naturally suggests that the t w o 'messengers' are identical, B ) the third person reference (3:1b) indicates that the messenger is distinct from Y a h w e h , and C ) the structure of the passage, 8
9
9
0
9
1
9
2
9
3
9
4
9
5
9
7
V e r h o e f , Malachi, 176ff. S e e o v e r v i e w s in v a n d e r W o u d e , ' E n g e l ' , a n d M a l c h o w , ' M e s s e n g e r ' . T h e l a t t e r a r g u e s t h a t t h e rvnan "^H^Q is p r o l e p t i c o f t h e i d e a o f a p r i e s t l y M e s s i a h p e r h a p s d e r i v i n g from Z e c h 6:9-14. M o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s r e g a r d v v . 2 3 f M T a s a s e c o n d a r y a t t e m p t t o identify t h e f i g u r e in 3:1, cf. M a l c h o w , ' M e s s e n g e r '. F o r a d e f e n c e o f its o r i g i n a l i t y s e e e.g. G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , Malachi, 261-70. BDB, 1 1 ; e.g. Isbell, Malachi, t h r e e titles. S e e F r a n c e , Jesus,
5 9 ; F r a n c e , Jesus,
91n31, w h o sees one figure behind the
91n31.
E . g . S m i t h , Micah, 3 2 8 ; G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , Malachi, 1 3 0 ; P e t e r s o n , Late, 4 2 f ; R u d o l p h , Haggai, 2 7 8 ; V e r h o e f , Malachi, 2 8 8 f ; Cf. K o h l e r , Theology, 3 1 ; E i s s f e l d t , TWAT, 1.66. T h e e x a c t s p h e r e o f this c o v e n a n t is u n c l e a r : i.e. is it Sinai tic, L e v i t i c a l ( 2 : 1 0 ; 3 : 3 ) , o r t h e n e w c o v e n a n t o f J e r e m i a h 3 1 : 3 1 w h i c h w o u l d fit w e l l w i t h t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a s p e c t o f 3:1-3? M c K e n z i e a n d Wallace, 'Covenant', 5 5 5 , note that 3:7-12 exhibits s t r o n g parallels w i t h t h e fertility c o n c e r n s o f H o s 2 : 1 6 - 2 4 (cf. L e v 2 6 : 1 6 ; D t l : 1 3 f ; 2 8 : l l f , 1 8 , 2 8 ) w h i c h s u g g e s t s the Sinaitic. 9 6 P e t e r s o n , Late, 4 2 ; s e e n o w a l s o W e b b , John, 250ff. G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , Malachi, 1 3 1 .
70
Introductory
Citation
w i t h the p r e p a r a t o r y m e s s e n g e r a n d Y a h w e h b e i n g paired in v e r s e l a - d and then their respective roles explained (the messenger, w . l e - 4 , a n d the Lord, v. 5 ) , is 'better understood' w h e n the messengers are i d e n t i c a l . H o w e v e r , these warrants are not without p r o b l e m s .
98
A l t h o u g h the u s e
o f the third person (ND'nan) suggests a figure distinct from Y a h w e h , the Lord h i m s e l f is s o described (Ki^) in which case mm
m a y simply m e a n
'utterance o f Y a h w e h ' . L i k e w i s e , verses 2-4 could also b e a third person reflection o n Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g , b u t in a n y c a s e h a r d l y require t h e t w o messengers to b e identical. S e c o n d , the severe p u r g i n g (vv. 2-4, cf. Isa 65f; Zech. 13:9) s e e m s m o r e c o n s o n a n t with the e v e n t s o f v e r s e 5 a n d o f the mm D1' t h a n the actions o f a forerunner (cf. 3 : 2 3 M T ) .
99
Third, the ' d a y o f
his c o m i n g ' (v. 2 a ) m o r e easily refers to the L o r d w h o after all is t h e o n e w h o s e c o m i n g is c e n t r a l (Ki:r, v. l c ) .
Fourth, the parallelism of the
relative clauses, ontfpso onir-raftj and D^sn on»—\m, and t h e fact that they are the only figures w h o ' c o m e ' (KiT and *o~n3n, v. l c , f), suggest that "jinHtn 4
and nnsn ^K??? are closely related.
Finally, given that t h e m a i n concern
throughout is with t h e long-delayed b u t greatly desired c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h a n d that n o w h e r e in the b o o k is t h e r e a n y i n d i c a t i o n that t h e p e o p l e 'delight' in a forerunner, it s e e m s best to identify nnan ^H^B with Y a h w e h himself. B u t h o w is this to b e understood? T h e u n u s u a l designation itself m a y provide the k e y since it e c h o e s the enigmatic mm ^K^fc w h o s e identity, as seen earlier, appears to m e r g e with that o f Y a h w e h a n d w h o s e n a m e is ' a s y n o n y m o f "the L o r d " (ynK) ... i.e. Y a h w e h , n o t in Himself, h o w e v e r , b u t in a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r m ' . 9
8
9
9
1 0 0
It
S e e n o w e s p e c i a l l y W e b b , John, 250ff. G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , ibid. A c c o r d i n g t o A h l s t r o m , Joel, 6 6 , 6 9 , t h e e x p r e s s i o n ' m e s s e n g e r o f t h e c o v e n a n t ' ( 3 : 1 ) is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e g r e a t a n d t e r r i b l e ' d a y o f Y a h w e h ' (3:23 M T ) in w h i c h Y a h w e h m a k e s w a r u p o n his enemies, re-establishes his c o v e n a n t with t h e faithful, a n d b r i n g s r i g h t e o u s n e s s (HplS) f o r t h o s e w h o r e m a i n . 1 0 0 D r i v e r , Minor, 3 1 8 ; a n d m o s t o t h e r s e . g . M a r t i , Dodekapropheton, 4 7 3 ; Smith, Micah, 3 2 8 ; V e r h o e f , Malachi, 2 8 9 ; v o n H o o n a c k e r , douze, 7 3 0 f ; C h a r y , prophetes, 176H; R u d o l p h , Haggai, 2 7 8 ; L a g r a n g e , ' p r o p h e t e s ' , 8 2 ; D e i s s l e r , Zwdlfpropheten, 3 3 1 ; GlazierM c D o n a l d , Malachi, 1 3 3 ; s e e fn. 6 7 . W e b b , John, 2 5 0 f , r e j e c t s G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d ' s v i e w t h a t t h e ' m e s s e n g e r s ' a r e d i s t i n c t viz. 3 : 1 a d e s c r i b e s a p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e a n d t h e m e s s e n g e r o f t h e c o v e n a n t is t h e m m "]«^Q o f E x 2 3 : 2 0 . H i s r e f u t a t i o n o f G l a z i e r - M a c D o n a l d ' s a p p e a l t o E x 2 3 is e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t A ) t h e o r d e r o f a p p e a r a n c e i n E x 2 3 : 2 0 s u p p o r t s h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s i n c e in b o t h c a s e s t h e m e s s e n g e r p r e c e d e s Y a h w e h , a n d B) t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e m m "JH^D in E x 2 3 d i f f e r s f r o m n n a n -|K*?D, cf. M a i 3 : l e - f . T h e d i f f i c u l t i e s h e r e a r e t h a t A ) t h e a r g u m e n t f r o m o r d e r is a m b i g u o u s a n d still s e e m s t o h o l d b e c a u s e '•DH^Q p r o c e e d s Y a h w e h w h e t h e r i d e n t i c a l t o m a n "]K*?Q o r n o t , a n d B) t h e c o n t r a s t i n a c t i o n is i n f a c t t h e i r o n i c point of the m e s s a g e (see below).
Malachi
and
71
Exodus
s e e m s then that the n n a n TJK^B is a reference to the mm ^K^fc but, given the setting o f t h e d e l a y e d N E a n d the q u e s t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s a b s e n c e / p r e s e n c e , c o u c h e d in s u c h a w a y so as n o t only to e c h o , ironically, the E x o d u s m o m e n t (see b e l o w ) b u t also to stress the covenantal setting and thereby to heighten the gravity o f Israel's disobedient c o n d i t i o n .
101
T h e central c o n c e r n lies in the declaration that the L o r d w h o m they seek, the m e s s e n g e r o f the covenant, will c o m e s u d d e n l y to his T e m p l e . But, in view o f the c o v e n a n t unfaithfulness o f the nation and particularly the priestly community—exemplified b y the matters
of blemished
offerings, 1:6-14, false instruction w h i c h ' h a s c a u s e d m a n y to s t u m b l e ' , 2:7ff, and a p p a r e n t l y divorce, 2 : 1 0 - 1 6 a p p e a r i n g (v. 2)? people
(3:3ff)
1 0 3
1 0 2
— w h o can e n d u r e the d a y o f his
I n d e e d , Y a h w e h will c o m e as a refiner to p u r g e his in o r d e r to r e s t o r e right w o r s h i p (cf. I s a
65f).
1 0 4
Consequently, lest his c o m i n g as rrizin ^K^fc cause the land to b e cursed, Y a h w e h will send Elijah to prepare his w a y (3:24MT). O n this r e a d i n g , t h e e s s e n c e o f this section m a y b e s u m m a r i s e d as follows. In the larger context o f the delay o f Y a h w e h ' s N E c o m i n g , Israel accuses h i m o f dereliction o f d u t y since h e has not dealt w i t h evildoers. Y a h w e h ' s response is that, after sending a m e s s e n g e r to p r e p a r e his w a y , he will indeed c o m e b u t his c o m i n g m a y not inaugurate the blessing his people expect since they themselves m a y well b e the ones w h o are purged in the j u d g e m e n t . (i) Malachi
and
Exodus
O f particular interest h e r e , given that M a l a c h i s e e m s to h a v e the N E in m i n d , are t h e verbal similarities b e t w e e n M a l a c h i 3:1 and E x o d u s 23:20 w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to B e t h G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , are t o o s t r i k i n g to b e accidental and suggest that the former is a re-working o f the l a t t e r : M a i 3:1
1
0
1
1
0
2
'DK'TQ
T\bv
Ex
23:20
yiEb
"[K^B
n^fl
105
mn
Cf. G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , 1 3 1 . O n c o v e n a n t a s a m a j o r t h e m e in M a l a c h i , e s p e c . McKenzie and Wallace, 'Covenant'. O n t h i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t p a s s a g e . S m i t h , Micah; V e r h o e f , Malachi, a n d the liter ature cited therein. 1
0
3
1
0
4
1
0
5
C f . A m o s 5 : 1 8 - 2 0 , a n d « 3 in M a i 3 : 1 9 (bis), 2 3 , 2 4 M T , V e r h o e f , Malachi, 2 8 9 . D u m b r e l l , 'Malachi', 4 9 ; M c K e n z i e a n d Wallace, 'Covenant', 554f. Malachi, 1 3 0 ; a p p a r e n t l y f o l l o w i n g P e t e r s e n , Late, 4 3 f . C f . K i t t e l , TDNT, 1.83n58; S c h l a t t e r , Johannes, 17; Pesch, 1.78.
72
Introductory
Citation
There are also several contextual parallels. T h e sins listed in M a l a c h i 3:5 are in b r e a c h e i t h e r o f the d e c a l o g u e or the E x o d u s 2 3 c o v e n a n t (see above).
1 0 6
T h e c o n d i t i o n s o f failed c r o p s ( 3 : l l f )
and
the
famous
'intermarriage' crux (2:10ff) reflect the promises and c o m m a n d s o f Exodus 23:24ff.
1 0 7
Similarly, the integrity o f Israel's relationship w i t h Y a h w e h
w h i ch t h e c o v e n a n t o f E x o d u s 20ff w a s intended to preserve is the very thing that Israel's worship n o w lacks (which further supports the earlier 4
suggestion that M a l a c h i ' s construct form, rP")3n ^K ???, m a y b e intended to draw attention to this covenantal and relational dimension). In b o t h cases there is the idea o f preparation prior to Y a h w e h ' s coming. It s e e m s particularly apropos
then, that Malachi, in explaining the delay
of the N E , should appeal to a text not only taken from the N E ' s prototype, the
first
Exodus, but
whose
associations include
both
Yahweh's
redemptive action and the sending o f a "^K^fc in view o f Israel's faithless response.
It m a y b e objected, h o w e v e r , that the 'preparation' in E x o d u s
23:20 precedes Y a h w e h ' s action on Israel's behalf whereas in Malachi 3:1 it p r e c e d e s Y a h w e h ' s action against Israel.
O n the c o n t r a r y , this ironic
contrast is the very point. In both cases the sending of the messenger prior to Y a h w e h ' s p e r s o n a l faithlessness.
intervention
is t h e
consequence of
Israel's
In E x o d u s 23:20ff the threat o f d e s t r u c t i o n i n h e r e n t in
Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g is d i r e c t e d against the C a n a a n i t e s w h o w e r e to b e d i s p o s s e s s e d o f their land b e c a u s e o f their w i c k e d n e s s ( G n 15:16).
In
Malachi the tables are turned in that in Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g it is the wicked in Israel w h o are n o w in danger of being removed (Mai 2 : 3 ) .
1 0 8
In Exodus
23 the s e n d i n g o f the "^K^fc p r e c e d e d Y a h w e h ' s dispossession o f Israel's enemies.
In M a l a c h i 3 the s e n d i n g o f the "^K^fc m i g h t w e l l
Y a h w e h ' s dispossession of I s r a e l .
1
0
6
1
0
7
1
0
8
1
0
9
precede
109
D t 5 : 1 - 2 1 ; L e v 1 9 : 1 3 ; E x 2 2 : 1 8 , 2 2 - 4 ; S m i t h , Micah, 3 3 0 . W h e t h e r 2:10ff refers to i n t e r m a r r i a g e with p a g a n w o m e n o r figuratively to i d o l a t r o u s p r a c t i c e s , b o t h a r e in v i o l a t i o n o f E x 2 3 . M c K e n z i e - W a l l a c e , ' C o v e n a n t ' , 5 5 4 ; a n d G l a z i e r - M c D o n a l d , Malachi, 130ff. S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 1 4 4 , s e e s in M a l a c h i ' s f r e q u e n t u s e o f ' L o r d o f H o s t s ' a n i n t i m a t i o n t h a t a n e w c o n q u e s t is t o begin. C f . G i n s b e r g , Unknown, 2 4 4 , w h o n o t e s a s t a t e m e n t in t h e Tanhuma (citation: e n d of Mishpatim, e d . B u b e r , 2 . 8 8 ) t h a t in t h e e n d o f d a y s Elijah w i l l d e s t r o y t h e G e n t i l e s j u s t a s t h e a n g e l in t h e first E x o d u s h a d d o n e ( E x 2 3 : 2 3 ) c i t i n g M a l a c h i 3 : 2 4 ( M T ) .
Malachi
(ii) Malachi
and
and
73
Isaiah
Isaiah
In addition to the E x o d u s parallels, m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e also noted the striking similarity b e t w e e n Isaiah 4 0 : 3 ' s ^"TJ US and M a l a c h i 3 : l ' s T
n3
n T r 9 — t h e expression is repeated in Isaiah 57:14 and 62:10 in what also
a p p e a r s to b e a p o s t - e x i l i c s e t t i n g .
1 1 0
G i v e n that the t e r m i n o l o g y is
characteristic o f the N E m o t i f in the b o o k o f Isaiah (see b e l o w ) , this suggests that Malachi is referring in particular to the Isaianic expression o f the hope of Y a h w e h ' s N E c o m i n g .
111
T h e post-exilic contexts of Isaiah 57:14 and 62:10 exhibit several parallels with
Malachi.
1 1 2
Isaiah 56-66 begins with
concerning Yahweh's imminent
a comparable
c o m i n g (56:1), a n d
warning
t h e r e is also
an
element of threat levelled against false leaders (56:9ff; cf. ch. 6 5 ) . There is a similar longing for the fulfilment o f the N E promises (64:1, 6f, 15) and the delay is also explained in terms o f covenant unfaithfulness (59:lf; chs. 5 8 59; espec. 58:13f; 5 9 : 9 f f ) .
113
Y a h w e h ' s destination is likewise Jerusalem, his
palace-Temple (e.g. 59:20; 62:11), and there is an equal concern for right worship (56:1-7; 58:1-14; 6 6 : 3 ) , era (e.g. 61:6, 8 ) .
1 1 5
1 1 4
while 59:21 also suggests a n e w covenant
Finally, as M a s o n notes, M a l a c h i ' s opening charge o f
'wearying' (J?r) Y a h w e h (2:17) is reminiscent of Isaiah 4 3 : 2 4 .
1 1 6
Admittedly, there is n o unequivocal e v i d e n c e indicating that M a l a c h i has Isaiah's N E in m i n d , but there is m u c h to suggest that Isaiah's N E h a d b e c o m e a pervasive h o p e and if so then Malachi w o u l d not n e e d to b e overly explicit. A single key w o r d or phrase would suffice as a s y m b o l or icon to e v o k e that h o p e and in that c a s e w h a t b e t t e r t h a n ^"JITIDS, 1
1
0
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
4
1
1
5
1
1
6
V u i l l e u m i e r , ' M a l a c h i e ' , 2 4 3 ; E l l i g e r , Propheten, 206; Glazier-McDonald, Malachi, 136ff; Sellin, Zwdlfprophetenbuch, 6 0 7 ; cf. P e s c h , 1 . 7 8 n l 6 ; S t e n d a h l , School, 5 1 ; a n d A b r a h a m s , ' R a b b i n i c ' , 1 7 9 . V e r h o e f , Malachi, 287, notes the verbal similarity b u t a r g u e s for different c o n t e x t s . 1
S t e n d a h l , School, 5 1 , d e n i e s a n y i n f l u e n c e o n M a i 3:1 b y t h e s e t e x t s b u t w i t h o u t explanation. O n the c o n t r a r y , as a r g u e d below, the return of Y a h w e h a n d the return of the e x i l e s a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k e d , cf. 6 2 : 1 0 f , 4 0 : 1 0 f . O n t h e d e l a y o f t h e N E , s e e C h u r g i n ' s c o m m e n t o n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y festival in t h e Bible t o c e l e b r a t e t h e R e t u r n in S m o l a r a n d A u e r b a c h , Studies, x x v ; W r i g h t , People, 2 1 5 - 3 3 8 ; t h e l a n g u a g e in berakoth 2 , 8 , 1 0 , a n d 1 4 o f t h e Tefillah, a n d t h e u s e o f I s a 4 0 in s e c o n d T e m p l e J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e ( p p . 82ff b e l o w ) . H a n s o n ' s i n n o v a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s p e r i o d . Dawn, (cf. A c h t e m e i e r , Community) h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n s u b j e c t t o s o m e c r i t i c i s m , s e e e.g. W i l l i a m s o n , ' C o n c e p t ' . I h a v e a r g u e d elsewhere that within the context of the b o o k as a w h o l e Isa 4 0 - 5 5 h a s a s i m i l a r r o l e , cf. W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' . O n this s e e b e l o w a n d e s p e c i a l l y D u m b r e l l , ' P u r p o s e ' , a n d ' W o r s h i p ' , 6f. Cf. F i s c h e r , Yahwe. Preaching, 2 4 9 .
74
Introductory
Citation
especially in a context where the point at issue is the promise o f Y a h w e h ' s coming (cf. Isa 40:3b). Finally, as with his echoing of E x o d u s 2 3 , there is an ironic reversal.
W h i l e his a u d i e n c e m a y h a v e c o n c e i v e d o f the I N E in
terms o f d e l i v e r a n c e and exaltation, Malachi, as d o the later chapters of Isaiah, reflects an awareness o f the threat inherent in Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g . (iii) Exodus
or
1 1 7
Isaiah?
G i v e n t h e a b o v e , w h i c h o f these settings d o e s M a l a c h i h a v e in m i n d : E x o d u s 2 3 or Isaiah 40ff?
T h e discussion a b o v e suggests that the larger
issues o f b o t h are in v i e w and that M a l a c h i h a s used the o n e to interpret the other.
This is not surprising since Isaiah's N E obviously presupposes
the s c h e m a o f the first E x o d u s (see b e l o w ) . O n the one h a n d , h e m a y well use Isaiah's 'preparing-the-way' motif b e c a u s e o f the positive redemptive connotations o f the I N E . O n the other, b y combining this with the E x o d u s 1
motifs o f c o v e n a n t / w a r n i n g and m e s s e n g e r / p r e p a r a t i o n (i.e. rr""Dn ^K ???) h e stresses that Israel's sin m e a n s that Y a h w e h ' s N E c o m i n g m a y not b e the entirely unmitigated blessing otherwise expected, a c o n c e r n similar to that found in the later chapters o f Isaiah. (iv) Malachi
3:1 and the History
of
Tradition
G i v e n t h e d i s c u s s i o n a b o v e it is n o t surprising that E x o d u s 23:20 and Malachi 3:1 w e r e related in later J e w i s h traditions.
J . M a n n indicates that
w h e n E x o d u s 23:20 w a s read (Seder 61a) the haftarah
included M a l a c h i 3:1-
8 and 2 3 f .
1 1 8
A s noted above, in Ex. Rab. 32:9 the two texts are seen as
reflections o n Y a h w e h ' s founding m o m e n t p r o t e c t i o n w i t h the E x o d u s event providing the paradigm for the future h o p e expressed in M a l a c h i .
119
W h i l e m o s t o f this evidence is late, it m a y well indicate earlier traditions; a possibility strengthened b y the forms o f both texts in the M T and the L X X which suggest that they were closely related at a very early stage. M a l a c h i 4:5's identification o f the m e s s e n g e r as Elijah redivivus
(LXX:
T O V G c a p i T T i v 'the Tishbite'), gave rise to lively speculation in s o m e eschatological traditions (e.g. Sir 4 8 ; 1 Enoch 90:31; Sop. 19:9; Tg. Ps.-J. D t 30:4;
1
1
7
1
1
8
1
1
9
McKenzie and Wallace, 'Covenant', 554. Bible, 4 7 9 . M i c h a e l i s , TDNT, 5 . 7 0 n 9 6 ; R o b i n s o n , 'Elijah'; r e f e r e n c e is a l s o m a d e t o S t r - B , 1 . 5 9 7 , b u t t h e e v i d e n c e h e r e is a m b i g u o u s . Dt. Rab. 1 1 : 9 is a l s o c o m m o n l y c i t e d b u t s e e m s less r e l e v a n t in t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i n g t h e m e is t h e t e r m ' b e h o l d ' .
75
Isaiah 40:3 Pesiq. l).
R. 35.4; Sipre Dt. 4 1 ; Pirqe R. El. 4 3 [25a]; cf. Justin, Dial. 8, 4; cf. 4 9 ,
1 2 0
T h e origins o f the further association o f this Elijah redivivus
the coming of 'the M e s s i a h ' (however c o n c e i v e d ) , considerable d e b a t e .
1 2 2
1 2 1
with
is a matter o f
B u t in view o f the belief apparently held b y s o m e
that the M e s s i a h ' s c o m i n g w a s in s o m e w a y associated with t h e d a y o f Yahweh,
1 2 3
the idea that Elijah w o u l d precede Messiah is understandable,
although e x t r a - N e w T e s t a m e n t evidence for such a belief in pre-Christian J u d a i s m is t h i n . 1
2
0
Cf. the
Judaism,
1 2 4
It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e , h o w e v e r , that t h e r e is n o
d i s c u s s i o n s in J e r e m i a s ,
2.359f; Ginzberg,
TDNT,
Unknown,
'Messenger', 2 5 4 ; B o c h e r , 'Johannes', 75f; Steichele, 1
2
1
TDNT,
2.716; Moore,
Sohn, 6 7 f ; S t r - B ,
1.597; 3.9; 4 / 2 . 7 8 4 - 9 .
Messianic,
T h e l i t e r a t u r e o n m e s s i a n i s m is i m m e n s e , S c h u r e r 2 . 4 8 8 - 5 5 4 ; K l a u s n e r ,
246-531; Urbach,
infra
cited
2.931ff; Friedrich,
2 1 2 , 243-55; Black, 'Witnesses', 227ff; M a l c h o w ,
Sages,
649-92; Neusner,
in r e g a r d t o v a r i o u s s p e c i f i c s .
Messiah;
Charlesworth,
Messiah;
a n d the w o r k s
O n messianism c o m p r i s i n g relatively stable a n d
g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d beliefs, H o r b u r y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 38ff; o n t h e i r d i v e r s i t y s e e C h a r l e s w o r t h , 'Concept', 'Messianology'.
Charlesworth, 'Messianology', 3 5 , asserts that the 'gospels a n d
P a u l m u s t n o t b e r e a d a s if t h e y a r e r e l i a b l e s o u r c e s f o r p r e - 7 0 J e w i s h b e l i e f s in t h e Messiah'.
G i v e n t h a t C . is w i l l i n g t o m a r s h a l e v i d e n c e f r o m s u c h a w i d e r a n g e o f J e w i s h
l i t e r a t u r e , it is difficult t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y h e s h o u l d
a priori
e x c l u d e f r o m his 'reliable
s o u r c e s ' a b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n a t l e a s t in p a r t b y J e w s for J e w s , i n s p i r e d b y a J e w i s h figure, a n d replete w i t h b o t h J e w i s h i m a g e r y a n d allusions to Jewish Scriptures. 1
2
2
Especially
Ginzberg,
Fitzmyer, 'More'; Milikowsky, 1
2
3
Unknown, ''lyhW.
Fitzmyer, 'More', disputes Allison's
243ff; Faierstein, ' W h y ' ; Allison,
assertion, 'Elijah', t h a t ' m a n y f i r s t - c e n t u r y
J e w s ' believed 'a Messiah w o u l d c o m e o n the d a y of the Lord'. me
A t the outset this s e e m s t o
to b e a reflection of the kind of scholarly a t o m i s m w h i c h W r i g h t ' s ,
effectively
'Elijah';
c h a l l e n g e s (cf. a l s o C h a p t e r 1, p . 7 , f n . 3 9 ) .
People, s o
N e v e r t h e l e s s , P s s . Sol.
17:21-42
describes a m e s s i a n i c figure, the e v e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g w h o s e a d v e n t (e.g. the d e s t r u c t i o n of u n r i g h t e o u s r u l e r s a n d e x p o s i n g c o r r u p t officials, t h e p u r g i n g o f J e r u s a l e m , G o d ' s g a t h e r i n g o f a h o l y p e o p l e ) c o h e r e w i t h M a l a c h i ' s ' d a y o f Y a h w e h ' (e.g. 3:2ff, 1 9 - 2 4 M T ) . l Q S a a l s o details the p r e p a r a t i o n of the c o n g r e g a t i o n of the last d a y s (l:lf) for the c o m i n g of the t w o M e s s i a h s ( 2 : l l f f ) , w h o s e a p p e a r a n c e i n a u g u r a t e s t h e c l i m a c t i c b a t t l e a g a i n s t e v i l (cf. a l s o J o s e p h u s ' a c c o u n t s o f n u m e r o u s m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t s l e a d i n g u p t o t h e first r e v o l t ) . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h i s b a t t l e in 1 Q M a n d 4 Q M a n d 1 Q M 1:1 l ' s r e f e r e n c e t o this t i m e a s t h e rmn DVb i.e. o n ' t h e d a y o f M i s f o r t u n e ' ( o r ' t h e D a y o f H i m w h o is' i.e. ' t h e D a y o f Y a h w e h ' , Dupont-Sommer,
Essene,
171; o r 'the d a y of calamity'. V e r m e s ,
DSSE,
105), strongly suggest
t h e p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n , a t l e a s t in s o m e t r a d i t i o n s , b e t w e e n t h e c o m i n g o f a m e s s i a n i c f i g u r e
pace F i t z m y e r , 2 9 6 ; cf. 1 Q S 9:11 ( D u p o n t - S o m m e r , Essene, 9 4 n 3 ) ; Levi 1 8 : 1 - 9 ; T. Judah 2 4 : 1 - 6 ; E v e r s a n , ' D a y s ' ; B r o w n , ' M e s s i a n i s m ' ; ' M e s s i a h s ' ; V e r m e s , DSSE, 52ff; M a r c u s , ' " W r i t t e n " ' , 4 7 n 2 ; W r i g h t ,
a n d 'the d a y of Y a h w e h ' ; 4 Q 1 7 4 1 : 1 0 - 1 3 , 1 8 f ; T. Beasley-Murray,
People, 1
2
4
307-20.
Faierstein, 'Why', 8 6 , after e x a m i n i n g the evidence c o m m o n l y presented a r g u e s
t h a t t h e r e is a l m o s t n o c a s e f o r this c o n c e p t b e i n g ' w i d e l y k n o w n o r a c c e p t e d i n t h e first c e n t u r y C . E . ' (cf. F i t z m y e r , b u t flimsy, e x c e p t i o n .
Luke,
671ff) a l t h o u g h he d o e s allow
b. 'Erub.
4 3 a - b as a possible,
Allison, 'Elijah', w h o c h a l l e n g e d Faierstein h a s b e e n criticised b y
Fitzmyer, 'More', because: A ) M a r k 9:9-12 m a k e s n o mention of a Messiah a n d the c o m i n g of Elijah 'first' c o u l d e a s i l y r e l a t e t o t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e d e a d (cf. 2 5 7 ) , a n d B)
b. 'Erub.
m. Sota
9:18,
Allison,
43a-b cannot with certainty be attributed to first-century Palestinian
J u d a i s m (fn. 1 2 3 ) . F a i e r s t e i n ' s r e j e c t i o n o f s o m e o f t h e e v i d e n c e m a y b e p r e c i p i t a t e : A ) t h e
76
Introductory Citation
specific
m e n t i o n o f a n y m e s s i a n i c figure i n M a l a c h i .
1 2 5
T h e focus is
instead o n t h e threat inherent in Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g , as p e r Sirach 4 8 : 1 0 , w h e r e t h e task o f Elijah is 'to calm the wrath o f G o d before it b r e a k s out in fury' b y turning the heart o f the father to the s o n a n d restoring the tribes of Jacob.
1 2 6
c) Isaiah 40:3 T h e b o o k o f I s a i a h is c o m m o n l y r e c o g n i s e d as falling into three major literary u n i t s .
C h a p t e r s 1-39 deal p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e e v e n t s p r i o r to
J u d a h ' s exile, chapters 40-55 cover events toward the e n d o f that exile, and chapters 5 6 - 6 6 apparently concern s o m e time after the r e t u r n .
127
A second
s e c t i o n is i n t r o d u c e d b y 4 0 : 1 w h i l e 4 0 : 1 2 - 3 1 c o n s t i t u t e s a c h a n g e to a p o l e m i c a l tone.
T h i s , along with internal considerations s u c h as t h e link
ing p h r a s e s D^n^K (vv. 1, 9 ) and irn^K (vv. 3, 8 ) , the key-word ' J e r u s a l e m ' in verses I f a n d 9ff, the three nan c l a u s e s in v e r s e s 9ff w h i c h b a l a n c e the three c a u s a l clauses in verses I f , a n d t h e imperative patterns in verses I f and 9 f f ,
1 2 8
suggests that verses 1-11 should b e treated as a unit with verses
p a p y r u s f r a g m e n t 4 Q a r P (?) (Starcky, 'etapes', 497f), w h e r e t h e r e a d i n g T shall s e n d y o u Elijah b e f o [ r e ] ...' is p r e c e d e d b y a r e f e r e n c e t o ' t h e e i g h t h a s a n E l e c t O n e ' , itself p e r h a p s a r e f e r e n c e t o D a v i d ( 1 S a m 16:10ff), m a y i n d i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h i s b e l i e f i n Q u m r a n ( F i t z m y e r ' s c a u t i o n s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , ' A r a m a i c ' , 3 5 5 ) ; B) G i n z b e r g ' s r e f e r e n c e . Unknown, 2 5 0 f f , t o a n e a r l y P a l e s t i n i a n , P h a r i s a i c berakhoth a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e haftarah c l e a r l y links t h e t w o f i g u r e s ( i n rvo niD^Dni "jlDI? I r a n in^KD . . . unaro), e v e n if n o t s p e c i f y i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p ( F a i e r s t e i n , 8 5 ) ; C ) M i l i k o w s k y , ''tyhw', h a s r e c e n t l y a r g u e d that the p r e s e n c e of a t w o - a p p e a r a n c e tradition—at the time of the Messiah a n d later at t h e t i m e o f w a r w i t h G o g — i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y Seder 'Olam ( c f . M i l i k o w s k y , 'Sdr-'wlm') s u g g e s t s t h a t it is J e w i s h , n o t C h r i s t i a n , i n o r i g i n . T h e c u m u l a t i v e effect o f this e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t b. 'Erub. 4 3 a - b , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y J u s t i n ' s Dial, 8 , 4 (cf. 4 9 , 1 ) , s h o u l d not b e dismissed s o easily. E . g . R o b i n s o n , 'Elijah', 263ff; M o u l e , Phenomenon, 7 1 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 9 2 n 3 1 . 1 2 6 W e b b , Baptizer, 2 5 2 , s e e s i n Liv. Proph. 2 1 : 3 ('his w o r d is j u d g e m e n t , a n d h e w i l l j u d g e I s r a e l ' w i t h m o s t m a n u s c r i p t s a d d i n g t h a t this j u d g e m e n t is ' w i t h s w o r d a n d fire') a r e f e r e n c e t o E l i j a h ' s redivivus m i n i s t r y . I t is p e r h a p s b e t t e r s e e n a s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e t w o e v e n t s s u b s e q u e n t l y r e l a t e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o p h e t s o f B a a l ( v . 1 0 , killed b y t h e s w o r d ) a n d A h a z i a h ' s s o l d i e r s ( v . 1 2 , c o n s u m e d b y fire). S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 8 8 , s u m m a r i s e s t h e a r g u m e n t s f o r i n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r 5 5 w i t h 5 6 - 6 6 a l t h o u g h h e a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t it w a s first w r i t t e n a s a c o n c l u s i o n t o 4 0 - 5 4 . A t m o s t h e establishes that 5 5 serves as a bridge to 56-66. There are, h o w e v e r , literary-thematic structures that are best understood o n the basis of the division 5 5 / 5 6 : the structural role of the disputations within 4 0 - 5 5 , W a t t s , 'Consolation', a n d t h e chiastic p a t t e r n in 56-66, C h a r p e n t i e r , Jeunesse, 7 9 - 8 0 ; G o t t w a l d , Hebrew, 3 0 8 ; P o l a n , Ways, 1 4 - 5 . H e s s l e r , Gott, 9 8 , 102, 253ff, sees 40:1-11 a n d 55:1-13 reflecting the s t r u c t u r e of 4 0 - 5 5 , their similarity indicating their function as prologue a n d epilogue. D u m b r e l l , ' P u r p o s e ' , 123f. 1
2
5
1
2
7
1
2
8
77
Isaiah 40:3 I f and 9ff functioning as i n c l u s i o s .
129
W h e t h e r or not s o m e or all o f these
v e r s e s constitute a call narrative d o e s not c o n c e r n us h e r e ,
1 3 0
for it is the
m e s s a g e not the m e s s e n g e r w h i c h is most important a s is b o r n e out b y the veiled and a m b i g u o u s l a n g u a g e surrounding his i d e n t i t y . T h e o p e n i n g declaration in v e r s e s I f , l&rn w p ,
131
sets the t o n e o f t h e
a n n o u n c e m e n t and is m o s t m a r k e d in the s e c o n d half o f the b o o k w h i c h focuses on J e r u s a l e m / Z i o n (49:13; 51:3, 12; 5 2 : 9 ) .
1 3 2
T h i s c o m f o r t is
articulated in t h e parallel s t a t e m e n t s that J e r u s a l e m ' s t i m e o f s e r v i c e is e n d e d and h e r iniquity p a r d o n e d (v. 2 ) . U s i n g i m a g e r y that is c o m m o n l y understood deities,
1 3 3
to reflect t h a t o f t h e c e r e m o n i a l p a r a d e s
of Babylonian
a call g o e s o u t for t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f the w a y for Y a h w e h ' s
triumphant return to his p e o p l e (vv. 3-5).
T h e c o n c l u d i n g p h r a s e o f this
section, " Q l mm ' a "O, introduces the t h e m e o f the third section (vv. 6-8): the eternal s u p r e m a c y o f Y a h w e h ' s w o r d o v e r the 'grass-like' intentions o f m e n a n d b y implication their i d o l s .
1 3 4
B a b y l o n ' s p o w e r w a s celebrated in
the festivals m a r k i n g the c o m i n g o f their deities into the city, b u t n o w a far greater O n e w a s c o m i n g to his p e o p l e and his c o m i n g w o u l d w i t h e r the pretensions o f B a b y l o n a n d its m a n - m a d e g o d s .
S i m i l a r l y , j u s t as m a n y
nations had w i t n e s s e d B a b y l o n ' s p o w e r , n o w 'liDZ'bs glory.
w o u l d see Y a h w e h ' s
O n this b a s i s t h e fourth a n d final s e c t i o n (vv. 9 - 1 1 ) c o m m a n d s
J e r u s a l e m to a n n o u n c e to the cities o f J u d a h the n e w s o f Y a h w e h ' s return. O n the o n e h a n d , h e is depicted as the m i g h t y warrior (v. 10; L X X : u € T a iaxu'poc;) r e t u r n i n g from pillaging his foes a n d b e a r i n g his p e o p l e as his booty (in^PQl... i l D t t ? )
135
w h i l e o n the o t h e r h e is p o r t r a y e d as a g e n t l e
shepherd b r i n g i n g his 'flock' to J e r u s a l e m (v. 11). 1
Exodustexte, 2 3 - 6 6 , a l t h o u g h h i s Gott; M e l u g i n , Formation, W e s t e r m a n n ; S c h o o r s , Saviour; S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 183f; S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 6 6 f . E . g . W e s t e r m a n n , 31ff; B e g r i c h , Studien, 6 1 ; M e l u g i n , Formation, 8 3 f .
2
9
T h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e c e n t w o r k is K i e s o w ,
f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f 6 - 8 a n d 9 - 1 1 is n o t c o n v i n c i n g ; a l s o e.g. H e s s l e r , 82ff; 1
3
0
131 W e s t e r m a n n , 3 2 , in v i e w o f t h e v e i l e d t e r m s a n d a m b i g u i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r ; M e l u g i n ,
Formation, 84. 1
3
2
O n this contrast, particularly Mettinger,
Formation,
85; Kiesow,
Exodustexte,
Farewell,
26; Hessler,
Gott,
82ff; M e l u g i n ,
163; recently Wilcox a n d Paton-Williams, 'Servant',
82ff. 1
3
3
1
3
4
S t u m m e r , ' E i n i g e ' , w a s o n e o f t h e first t o n o t e t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n . E.g. W e s t e r m a n n sees here a reflection of Israel's lament; while for K i e s o w ,
Exodustexte, 3 7 , it is ' s o n d e r n p o s i t i v e n I n h a l t d e s R u f b e f e h l s ' . E l l i g e r , Deuterojesaja, 3 7 , p r e f e r s ' w a g e s ' a s in t h e J a c o b 1
3
5
story (Gn 30:28-33; 31:8).
H o w e v e r , Y a h w e h is s c a r c e l y a h i r e l i n g . T h e m i l i t a r y i m a g e r y is t o b e p r e f e r r e d , cf. E z e k 2 9 : 1 8 f f w i t h t h e p a r a l l e l u s e o f t h e s e t e r m s a n d ^Sti c a m p a i g n , cf. B e g r i c h ,
Studien, 5 9 .
a n d TD i n t h e c o n t e x t o f m i l i t a r y
78
Introductory
Citation
It h a s b e e n argued that these 'four sub-sections deal with major themes w h i c h are d e v e l o p e d further in the b o o k ' (vv. I f , 3-5, 6-8, 9 - 1 1 ) .
1 3 6
Thus,
the declaration o f comfort sets the tone for the w h o l e , the call to prepare the w a y alludes to the transformation of the desert (e.g. 41:17ff; 42:16f; 43:20 etc.), all flesh seeing Y a h w e h ' s glory is reflected in, for e x a m p l e , 52:10, the s u p r e m a c y o f Y a h w e h ' s w o r d is echoed throughout (42:21; 44:26-28; 45:23; 46:10f; 4 8 : 1 4 ; 5 3 : 1 0 ; 5 5 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) , and finally the introitus o f Y a h w e h into Jerusalem is the central fact upon which all else h a n g s .
1 3 7
F r o m a n o t h e r perspective, verses 1-8 and 9-11 m a y constitute micro 1 3 8
cosms of chapters 40-48 and 49-55 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
T h e i m a g e o f the
h i g h w a y through the desert (vv. 3-5) recurs throughout chapters 40-48 (e.g. 41:17-20; 4 3 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) , as do the motifs o f the revelation o f Y a h w e h ' s glory (v. 5; cf. 42:8ff; 43:7; 48:11; but see the epilogue 55:13b) and the reliability of Y a h w e h ' s w o r d (but see also 5 5 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) .
139
T h e feminine singular address in
w . 9ff anticipates the concern for J e r u s a l e m / Z i o n in the last half (49:14-26; 5 1 : 9 - 5 2 : 1 2 ; ch. 5 4 ; 50:1-3), the m e s s e n g e r a n n o u n c i n g Y a h w e h ' s return as king r e a p p e a r s in 52:7-10, and the victory o f Y a h w e h ' s ' a r m ' in 5 1 : 5 , 9; 52:10; 53:1. A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, K . K i e s o w n o t e s that J e r u s a l e m a p p e a r s in the inclusio p a s s a g e s o f v e r s e s 1-2 and 9 - 1 1 . themes
of the prologue
are developed
1 4 0
H e p r o p o s e s that the three throughout
chapters
40-55:
consolation for J e r u s a l e m (40:1-2, 9-11; 4 9 : 1 - 5 2 : 1 2 ) , N E from B a b y l o n (40:35; 4 0 : 1 2 - 4 8 : 2 2 ) , and the p o w e r o f the proclamation o f the divine w o r d to effect t h e s e transformations (40:6-8; 5 2 : 1 3 - 5 5 : 1 3 ) .
A l t h o u g h differing in
their details these various a p p r o a c h e s d e m o n s t r a t e the role o f 40:1-11 as p r o l o g u e in introducing the major t h e m e s developed throughout
chapters
40-55.
1
3
6
1
3
7
1
3
9
1
4
0
S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 1 8 3 f ; a l s o H e s s l e r , Gott, passim-, B o n n a r d , Second, 8 5 ; K i e s o w , Exodustexte, 165.
M e l u g i n , Formation,
85;
S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 1 8 3 . 1 3 8 M e l u g i n , Formation, 8 5 f . K i e s o w , Exodustexte, 165, followed by Dumbrell, 'Purpose', 1 2 4 , sees vv. 6-8's reference to Y a h w e h ' s powerful w o r d as foreshadowing 52:135 5 : 1 3 . H o w e v e r , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i s p u t a t i o n s in c h s . 4 0 - 8 c o n c e r n i n g Y a h w e h ' s ability a n d t h e reliability o f h i s w o r d , M e l u g i n ' s p r o p o s a l is p r e f e r a b l e ; cf. n o w S e i t z , 'Divine'. M e l u g i n , ibid., a l s o n o t e s t h a t t h e t e n s e s t r u c t u r e o f v v . 1-2 ' c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e t e n s e sequence of the salvation-assurance oracles' which, while pivotal to chapters 41-48, are r e l a t i v e l y u n i m p o r t a n t in c h a p t e r s 49ff. Exodustexte, 2 3 - 6 6 , cf. h i s d i a g r a m , 1 6 5 .
Consolation:
(i) The Consolation:
Announcement
Announcement
of NE
79
Deliverance
of the NE
Deliverance
Although there has b e e n s o m e debate over the exact nature a n d form o f the c o m p o s i t i o n a l recognised
u n i t y o f c h a p t e r s 4 0 - 5 5 , recent c o m m e n t a t o r s
their thematic
unity.
1 4 1
The most universally
have
recognised
characteristic o f these chapters is the great quantity o f salvation w o r d s . T h e contrast to the preceding chapters is such that, ' W h e n o n e turns from the thirty-ninth to the fortieth chapter it is as t h o u g h h e steps out o f the darkness o f j u d g e m e n t into the light of s a l v a t i o n . '
142
E x o d u s typology, o f s o m e significance in chapters 1 - 3 9 , this salvation t h e m e . Exodus tradition,
145
1 4 4
143
is central to
A l t h o u g h other canonical writings appeal to the
here it is elevated to its m o s t p r o m i n e n t status as a
hermeneutic, and according to s o m e commentators, shapes the heart o f 4 0 1
4
1
T h e f o r m critics C r e s s m a n , Kohler, Mowinckel, a n d Begrich v i e w e d these c h a p t e r s a s i n d e p e n d e n t o r a c l e s n o w artificially linked. T o r r e y a n d M u i l e n b u r g , in j u d g i n g t h e f o r m s o f s p e e c h u s e d b y t h e p r o p h e t t o b e d i f f e r e n t in k i n d f r o m his p r e d e c e s s o r s , s a w i n s t e a d a unified w h o l e with a discernible literary progression. This debate h a s been m e d i a t e d b y M e l u g i n , Formation, a n d W e s t e r m a n n , ' S p r a c h e ' , Isaiah, w h o , a l t h o u g h t h e y t e n d t o emphasise the contribution of one a p p r o a c h (Melugin smaller units, W e s t e r m a n n , longer), d o n o t d o s o t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f t h e o t h e r . S c h o o r s , Saviour, 296ff, a n d Elliger, Deuterojesaja, d e n y a n o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e , b u t r e c o g n i s e a c o h e r e n c e t o t h e p r o p h e t ' s t h o u g h t . B o n n a r d , Isaie, L a c k , Symbolique, a n d S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, a r g u e for a c a r e f u l s t r u c t u r e . 1
4
2
1
4
3
1
4
4
1
4
5
Y o u n g , Isaiah,
17.
F i s h b a n e , 'Motif', 126ff. E x o d u s t r a d i t i o n s c a n b e s e e n in t h e ^"H t h r o u g h t h e d e s e r t m o t i f ( e s p e c . c h . 3 5 , K o c h , TWAT, 2 . 3 0 1 f ) , t h e r e t u r n f r o m e x i l e ( l l : l l f , 1 6 ; 19:23ff; 2 7 : 1 2 f ; s e e r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s in W i l d b e r g e r ; K a i s e r ) , t h e t h e o p h a n y o v e r r e s t o r e d J e r u s a l e m (4:5f; cf. 25:4f, K a i s e r , 2 . 5 7 , a l s o E x 4 0 : 3 4 ; N u m 9:15ff), a n d t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e m o u n t a i n o f t h e L o r d a n d h i s g l o r y b e f o r e h i s e l d e r s ( 2 4 : 2 3 cf. E x 2 4 : 9 - 1 1 ) . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f E x 1 5 o n I s a 1 2 h a s l o n g b e e n n o t e d , cf. A c k r o y d , ' P r e s e n t a t i o n ' , 35ff, w h o d e s c r i b e s c h . 1 2 a s t h e c l i m a x a n d s u m m a r y of chs. 1-11, highlighting three themes: the E x o d u s , Zion, a n d the exaltation of Y a h w e h ( 1 2 : 3 m a y r e f e r t o t h e w a t e r f r o m t h e r o c k a l t h o u g h it c o u l d b e a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e w a t e r r i t u a l o f T a b e r n a c l e s , cf. M o w i n c k e l , Psalmenstudien, 2 . 1 0 0 ; a n d Psalms, 1.123n58; 1 3 1 ; 1 8 7 ) . P e r h a p s a l s o 2 7 : 1 (if t h e s e r p e n t r e f e r s t o E g y p t , cf. 3 0 : 7 ) , 2 7 : 8 ( t h e e a s t w i n d . E x 1 4 : 2 1 ) , a n d 3 7 : 3 6 ( t h e a n g e l o f t h e L o r d , E x 1 2 : 2 3 ) ; s e e S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 1 9 . C l e m e n t s , ' U n i t y ' , 1 2 1 - 5 ; C h i l d s , Introduction, 3 2 8 ; Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 2 9 8 , w h o n o t e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c h . 1 2 a n d c h . 4 0 ( s e e fn. 1 4 3 ) . S e e e s p e c i a l l y A n d e r s o n , ' T y p o l o g y ' , ' C o v e n a n t ' , a n d S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 5 9 - 9 8 , w h o lists t h e f o l l o w i n g ' e x o d u s ' passages: 40:3-11; 41:17-20; 42:14-7; 43:1-7, 16-21; 44:1-5, 27; 48:20f; 49:8-12; 50:2; 51:9-10; 5 2 : l l f a n d 55:12f; also Stuhlmeuller's table s u m m a r i s i n g c o m m e n t a t o r s ' opinions (note the lacuna on 48:20f), 2 7 2 . F u r t h e r Zillessen, 'Exodus'; Fischer, 'Problem'; R o s e , 'Exodus'; Zimmerli, 'Verkiindigung'; Beaudet, 'typologie'; H a r v e y , 'typologie'; L u b s c z y k , Auszug; Blenkinsopp, 'Scope'; F i s h b a n e , ' M o t i f , 1 3 2 - 8 ; W e s t e r m a n n , 2 2 ; M u i l e n b u r g , 399ff, 6 0 2 ; D a h l , Volk, 3 8 - 4 2 ; cf. v a n d e r M e r w e , ' E c h o e s ' , 1 7 4 , 2 4 4 ( c i t e d in S c h o o r s , Saviour, 1 7 3 ) ; a n d H a r n e r , ' C r e a t i o n ' , 3 0 3 . T h e s a m e e x o d u s i m a g e r y c a n a l s o b e f o u n d in s e v e r a l o f t h e e x p a n d e d r e a d i n g s in t h e Tg. Isa e.g. 43:2ff; 63:lff; cf. C h i l t o n , Targum, n o t e s passim. See C h a p t e r 2 , p . 4 3 , fn. 4 7 , for a r e s p o n s e t o t h o s e c r i t i c a l o f a p e r v a s i v e N E s c h e m a . H o s 2 : 1 6 - 1 7 ( M T ) ; 1 1 : 1 ; 1 2 : 1 0 - 1 4 ( M T ) ; 1 3 : 4 - 5 ; A m 2:9f; 3:lf; 9:7; M i c 6:4; J e r 2:6f; 7 : 2 2 , 2 5 ; 1 1 : 4 , 7; 1 6 : 1 4 f ( = 2 3 : 7 f ) ; 3 1 : 3 2 ; 32:20ff; 3 4 : 1 3 f ; E z e k 2 0 : 5 - 1 0 ; A n d e r s o n , ' T y p o l o g y ' , 1 8 1 .
80
Introductory Citation
55146 e v e n replacing the first E x o d u s as the saving e v e n t .
1 4 7
T h e allusions
cover t h e w h o l e E x o d u s experience, a n d their appearance in the prologue, the e n d o f t h e first section (48:20ff), a n d t h e e p i l o g u e (55:12f) stress its significance.
O f course, given the discussion of the preceding Chapter
('History a s H e r m e n e u t i c ' ) , n o n e o f this is unexpected. If Israel's founding m o m e n t w a s p r e d i c a t e d o n Y a h w e h ' s r e d e m p t i v e a c t i o n in the E x o d u s from E g y p t i a n b o n d a g e , t h e n s u r e l y a s e c o n d d e l i v e r a n c e from exilic b o n d a g e , this t i m e o f B a b y l o n , c o u l d s c a r c e l y b e c o n c e i v e d o f in other terms e x c e p t those o f the first E x o d u s ? T h e catalytic e v e n t is t h e s u m m o n s to p r e p a r e a ^11, (or n^DD) for Y a h w e h (40:3), a n d its p r o m i n e n c e in t h e p r o l o g u e (vv. 3 , 5 , 9 , 1 0 , 11) indicates that the e m p h a s i s o f the N E lies o n the return o f Y a h w e h ' s actual presence. W i t h o u t the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h there c a n b e n o salvation. 40:9, in r e s p o n s e t o 3 5 : 4 ( t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t announces: b e h o l d y o u r G o d (e.g. 52:6 e t c ) .
1 4 8
Thus
N E c h a p t e r i n 1-39),
It is, therefore, the advent o f
Y a h w e h a s a m i g h t y warrior that inaugurates the deliverance o f h i s people from their b o n d a g e a m o n g t h e nations (40:10ff; 51:9ff; 52:10ff).
As he had
once l e d t h e m t h r o u g h t h e s e a (51:9ff), s o Y a h w e h will a c c o m p a n y t h e m t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r s a n d t h e fire ( 4 3 : 1 - 3 ) , a g a i n l e a d i n g t h e g l o r i o u s procession (40:10-11; 42:16; 49:10), b e i n g both front a n d rear g u a r d in the cloud a n d in t h e fire (52:12, cf. E x 13:21f; 14:19f).
Y a h w e h will s h e p h e r d
them (40:11; cf. E x 15:13; P s s 77:20; 78:52f) providing food a n d w a t e r (49:9f; cf. 48:21) in a miraculous transformation o f the wilderness (43:19; 49:9ff; cf.
1
4
6
1
4
7
E s p e c . Sahlin,
Typologie,
74-8; Holm-Nielsen, 'Exodus', 27; Begrich,
Studien,
104.
v o n W a l d o w , 'Message', 276.
148 W e s t e r m a n n ;
Smart,
History, 2 2 ; Isaiah, 8 0 f ; a s
F o k k e l m a n , 'Stylistic', King, v o n Rad,
75f; Rendtorff,
Theology,
'Komposition',
301f; Watts,
Deuterojesaja,
4 5 , b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e ' Z i e l d e s n e u e n E x o d u s ist n i c h t d a s L a n d a l l g e m e i n ,
2.243.
Preufi,
s o n d e r n i s t d e r Z i o n , u n d e s ist n i c h t p r i m a r d a s V o l k , s o n d e r n J a h w e s e l b e r , d e r j e t z d o r t h i n , s o dafi v o n d e r R u c k k e h r d e s V o l k e s d a n n n u r a l s d e r F o l g e u n d B e g l e i t e r s c h e i n u n g d e r R u c k k e h r J a h w e s ' , cf. Kilian, 'Strasse', 5 4 . F o r M o r g e n s t e r n , ' T e r m i n o l o g y ' , 2 6 9 - 8 0 , t h e e x p r e s s i o n s nan/^an a n d t h e ^ / ^ D i K p r e d i c a t i o n s r e c a l l Y a h w e h ' s s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n a t t h e first e x o d u s . E x 3:13ff, w h i c h for D u r h a m ,
Exodus,
36-41, indicate the redemptive presence
of Y a h w e h a m o n g h i s p e o p l e , cf. S t u h l m u e l l e r , ' " F i r s t " ' , 1 8 9 - 2 0 5 ; H a r n e r ,
Grace.
O n the
o t h e r h a n d , Z i m m e r l i , 'Ich', 32ff, n o t e s in c o n t r a s t t o H o s e a t h a t t h e r e is n o a m p l i f i c a t i o n w h i c h s p e c i f i c a l l y l i n k s this s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n t o t h e E x o d u s .
I n s t e a d , it is c o n n e c t e d w i t h
Yahweh's activity as Creator—although Z i m m e r l i recognises that w h e n directed t o w a r d I s r a e l t h e p h r a s e is f r e q u e n t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e m o t i f o f ' Y a h w e h a s S a v i o u r ' w h i c h s u g g e s t s a n E x o d u s b a c k g r o u n d , itself a ' c r e a t i o n ' m o m e n t .
Consolation:
Ex 17:2-7; N u m 2 0 : 8 ) ,
1 4 9
Announcement
of NE
81
Deliverance
and there will again b e a revelation o f his glory
15
(40:5; cf. 5 2 : 1 0 ) . ° A s with the a n n o u n c e m e n t o f comfort, so too the goal o f the N E is centred on the presence o f Y a h w e h , that is, his enthronement in a restored Jerusalem.
1 5 1
S i n c e J e r u s a l e m is first and foremost Zion, the city o f the
great king, concern for the city is central and dominates both the prologue and
the e p i l o g u e .
messenger redemption established
1 5 2
T h e w o r d o f comfort in 4 0 : l f f c u l m i n a t e s in a
announcing and
to J e r u s a l e m
rebuilding
in r i g h t e o u s n e s s ,
the
good
n e w s (40:9f) o f h e r
(44:26; 45:13; 5 4 : l l f ) : s h e will k n o w
1 5 3
divine
s h e will b e re protection
vindication, a n d all her accusers will b e o v e r t h r o w n (54:14ff).
and
Yahweh
will pour his spirit u p o n J a c o b ' s offspring (44:3-5) and they will glory in the Lord (45:24f), being both taught (54:13) and o w n e d (44:5) b y him. O n this reading, the prophet's message o f deliverance presupposes both Israel's founding m o m e n t o f r e d e m p t i o n and an u n d e r l y i n g three p a r t E x o d u s s c h e m a : A ) Y a h w e h ' s deliverance
o f his exiled p e o p l e from the
p o w e r o f B a b y l o n and her idols, B ) a journey
along the ' w a y ' in w h i c h
Y a h w e h leads his p e o p l e from their exile to J e r u s a l e m , and C ) arrival
in
J e r u s a l e m w h e r e Y a h w e h is enthroned in a gloriously restored Zion.
In
s u m , the p r o p h e t presents the vision o f ' Y a h w e h , ( w h o ) after s m a s h i n g the powers o f chaos and m a k i n g a w a y in the wilderness, gently leads his flock h o m e to Z i o n . '
1
4
9
1
5
0
1
5
1
1
5
2
1
5
3
1
5
4
1 5 4
This N E is ...
A n d e r s o n , T y p o l o g y ' , is p r o b a b l y i n c o r r e c t in c i t i n g 4 1 : 1 7 - 2 0 in t h a t t h i s r e f e r s t o the n e w creational restoration of the desolate land. S t u h l m u e l l e r , ' C r e a t i o n ' , 4 5 9 ; Creative, 81ff, 94ff; p e r h a p s h e r e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f S i n a i t r a d i t i o n s ( E x 1 6 : 7 ; cf. I s a 4 9 : 2 6 b ; E x 9 : 1 6 ; 14:16ff; A n d e r s o n , ' T y p o l o g y ' , 1 8 3 ) . E l l i g e r , Deuterojesaja, 2011, r e l a t e s this c o n c e r n t o a n d its r e l e v a n c e t o t h e n a t i o n s . E i c h r o d t , Theology, 2 . 1 3 , s e e s h e r e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f I s a 6:3. K i l i a n , ' S t r a s s e ' , 5 6 , m a y p o s i t a too-radical disjunction w h e n o n the basis of E z e k 10:18-22; 11:22-5; 4 3 : l - l l f ; a n d Isa 60:4-5 h e e m p h a s i s e s the differences b e t w e e n the return of Y a h w e h a n d the return of the people, a r g u i n g that 40:3 deals only with the return of Y a h w e h to Jerusalem, a n d h e n c e that the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s g l o r y s h o u l d n o t t o b e a m a l g a m a t e d w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f exiles. S c h o o r s , Saviour, 2 4 3 , 5 2 : 7 ; 4 1 : 2 1 ; 4 3 : 1 5 ; 4 4 : 6 ; cf. E x 1 5 : 1 8 ; S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 1 8 3 ; Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 306f; a n d Dumbrell, 'Purpose'; also E z e k 20:33 w h e r e Y a h w e h will r e i g n a s K i n g in t h e N E . R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 307ff. J u s t a s t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f I s r a e l r e a c h e s its c l i m a x a t S i n a i ( E x 3 : 1 2 , cf. D u r h a m , Exodus, x x i f f ) , s o h e r e , w h e n S i n a i h a s b e e n s u b s u m e d in m o u n t Z i o n , t h e N E r e a c h e s its c u l m i n a t i o n in t h e a r r i v a l o f Y a h w e h in J e r u s a l e m . O n Z i o n a s Y a h w e h ' s t h r o n e c i t y , s e e O l l e n b u r g e r , Zion. Cf. C l e m e n t s , ' B e y o n d ' , 1 0 8 . Roberts, 'Isaiah', 1 4 0 .
82
Introductory
Citation
g u a r a n t e e d b y Y H W H ' s c r e a t i v e p o w e r a n d d e c i s i v e w o r d w h i c h c a n o v e r c o m e all obstacles
to
the
p e r f o r m a n c e of his
will,
making
wonders
in
the
desert,
o v e r t h r o w i n g r u l e r s , r a i s i n g u p C y r u s a s h i s i n s t r u m e n t , f r u s t r a t i n g all t h e d e v i c e s o f m a n k i n d a n d c o m i n g t o t h e a i d o f his h e l p l e s s p e o p l e .
1 5 5
H o w e v e r , as is indicated b y the tensions present in M a l a c h i and the later chapters o f Isaiah, the hopes o f the N E clearly did not fully eventuate. I have argued elsewhere that Isaiah 40-55 is in fact an apologetic for the failure o f the return to realise it full glory; a failure resulting from Israel's refusal to accept Y a h w e h ' s m e t h o d s a n d instruments ( n a m e l y C y r u s , a p a g a n a n d an i d o l a t e r ) .
1 5 6
C o n s e q u e n t l y , the I N E in its fullness w a s
delayed until, according to o n e reading o f the second half o f the b o o k of Isaiah, the enigmatic
'servant'
would
arise as Y a h w e h ' s agent of
deliverance. In the meantime, however, the hopes o f the I N E continued to shape expectations o f the future. (ii) Isaiah
40:3 and the History
of
Tradition
Given the p o w e r o f Isaiah's presentation, it is not difficult to see h o w 40:1I I (and in particular 40:3) c a m e to b e u n d e r s t o o d as e n c a p s u l a t i n g
the
critical e v e n t u p o n which the w h o l e o f the N E depends: the call m a d e b y an unidentified
' m e s s e n g e r ' to p r e p a r e the w a y in the desert for the
c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h w h o s e advent as warrior and shepherd p r e s a g e s the redemption o f his people.
N o t surprisingly, as with M a l a c h i 3, this text
was also used in eschatological contexts. The most celebrated examples are those at Q u m r a n ( 1 Q S 8:12b-16a; 9:17b-20a) w h e r e Isaiah 40:3 functioned as a programmatic
statement
o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s
fulfilling the n e c e s s a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s S i m i l a r l y , in 4 Q T a n h , i m m e d i a t e l y
self-understanding
for the ' w a y ' o f G o d ' s r e t u r n . following a prayer
in 1 5 7
(or p r o p h e c y )
m o d e l l e d o n P s a l m 79 w h e r e G o d acts to reverse the c a l a m i t y o f his people, there o c c u r s a series of consolations from the b o o k o f Isaiah in
1
5
5
1
5
7
Lindars, Tidings', 479. 156 s e e W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' . C r o s s , Ancient, 7 8 ; T a l m o n , '"Desert"'; Bater, ' C h u r c h ' , 98ff; S w a r t l e y , 'Study', 148ff; B r o o k e , ' I s a i a h ' ; cf. M c C a s l a n d , ' " W a y " ' ; F i t z m y e r , ' C h r i s t i a n i t y ' ; S t e i c h e l e , Sohn, 56f. O n t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f N T a n d Q u m r a n u s a g e , G r i n d e l , ' O r i g i n ' . F a b r y , ' W u r z e l ' , r e l a t e s Q u m r a n ' s u s e o f 312? t o I s a 4 0 : 3 , cf. 5 6 : 1 ; Wolff, " I h e m a ' ; S a n e r , ' U m k e h r f o r d e r u n g ' . S t a r k o v a , ' I d e a s ' , h i g h l i g h t s I s a 4 0 - 6 6 ' s r o l e in Q u m r a n ; S e i t z , ' P r a e p a r a t i o ' , n o t e s t h e m e s c o m m o n t o M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e a n d 1 Q S : A ) p r e p a r a t i o n in t h e w i l d e r n e s s ; B) r e p e n t a n c e : 5 : 1 , 13f; C ) c o n f e s s i o n o f sin: l : 2 4 f ; D ) b a p t i s m / w a s h i n g : 3:4f; E ) b a p t i s m / c l e a n s i n g w i t h t h e H o l y Spirit: 3 : 6 - 9 ; F ) c o n f l i c t / s t r u g g l e : 3 : 2 4 ; a n d G ) t h e a p p o i n t e d t i m e : 4:18f.
Isaiah
40:3 and History
of
83
Tradition
w h i c h 40:1-3 is given first place (40:1-3(5); 41:8-9; 49:7, 13-17; 43:1-2, 4 - 6 ; 51:22-23; 52:1-3; 54:4-10; 5 2 : l - 2 ) . the conclusion o f Baruch's
1 5 8
Imagery from Isaiah 40:4ff also appears at
C o n s o l a t i o n P o e m (5:5-7) w h e r e J e r u s a l e m is
s u m m o n e d to stand on high (v. 5, cf. Isa 40:9; 49:18) to watch G o d bringing back the exiles (v. 6, cf. Isa 40:11; 60:4) as every high hill is cast d o w n and valleys levelled (v. 7; cf. Isa 40:4; 49:22) so that 'Israel m a y go safely in the glory of G o d ' (v. 7b, cf. Isa 4 0 : 5 ) .
1 5 9
In Sirach 48:24f Isaiah's prophecies are
described as providing comfort to the mourners of Zion (cf. Isa 40:If; 49:8ff; 61:l-3)
1 6 0
while in T. Moses
10:1-5, the i m a g e r y o f Isaiah 40:4 is used to
portray the advent o f K i n g d o m o f G o d (cf. 1 Enoch
1:6). O f particular
interest is the w a y in w h ic h manifold allusions to Isaiah 3 5 and 40-55 form the basis of Pss. Sol. l l ' s midrashic anticipation of the eschatological return of the exiles and the restoration o f J e r u s a l e m .
S o p e r v a s i v e are these
allusions that J . S c h u p p h a u s describes Pss. Sol. 11 as a 'pseudodtjes R e d e ' w h i c h stands 'in N a c h a h m u n g der auffordernd-ermunternden Dtjes und unter A u f n a h m e der v o n Dtjes benutzen B i l d e r ' .
1 6 1
Redeweise The psalm
opens with a signal trumpet ringing out good news and announcing G o d ' s m e r c y to J e r u s a l e m as she is called to stand on a high place to observe the return of the exiles (vv. l - 2 a ; cf. Isa 4 0 : 1 , 2, 9; 43:25; 44:23; 52:7) from the four corners o f the earth (vv. 2b-3 ; cf. Isa 42:5; 43:5f; 49:18ff; 5 4 : l f ) .
The
mountains are flattened and fragrant trees are caused to grow as the exiles proceed under the G o d ' s glory (vv. 4-6; cf. Isa 35:10; 40:2-4; 41:15; 42:15; 45:2; 49:7, lOf; 66:19f) and J e r u s a l e m is s u m m o n e d to prepare herself (vv. 7f; cf. Isa 52: Iff).
Within the context o f the Psalms as a w h o l e , the agent o f this
deliverance (cf. Isa 49:6; 52:1 and 55:5 in Pss. Sol. 17:28; in vv. 27, 28 and 3 0 ; and in v. 30) is to b e a Davidic scion w h o is described in terms o f Psalm 2 (cf. Ps 2:9 in Pss. Sol. 17:23) and Isaiah 11 (Pss. Sol 17:36, 37). In later rabbinic literature, not only was Isaiah seen as the great prophet of salvation (Pisqa 2 9 / 3 0 A . 5 ; the descriptions in Pesiqata
32-37 o f which 3 2 ,
33, 3 6 and 37 are reflections on Isa 54:11; 51:12; 60:1-2 and 61:10 respectively) but Isaiah 40:1-5 w a s a p p a r e n t l y held to b e a classic s t a t e m e n t ' o n the
1
5
8
1
5
9
1
6
0
A l l e g r o , DJD, 5.60ff. T h e o r d e r g i v e n b y A l l e g r o , w h i c h in v i e w o f t h e d o c u m e n t ' s f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e is p e r h a p s s u b j e c t i v e , s h o w s a ' r a n d o m ' s e l e c t i o n a r o u n d t h e t h e m e o f c o n s o l a t i o n , b u t s e e S t a n l e y , ' I m p o r t a n c e ' ; cf. S n o d g r a s s , ' S t r e a m s ' , 30f. B u r k e , Poetry, 2 4 7 - 5 5 ; P e s c h , ' A b h a n g i g k e i t ' , 2 6 1 f . S k e h a n - D i L e i l a , Wisdom, 5 3 9 . 161 Psalmen, 5 6 , cf. R y l e a n d J a m e s , Psalms; a n d V i t e a u , Psaumes.
84
Introductory
Citation
comfort o f G o d and as descriptive of G o d ' s activity at the e n d o f the age', as is epitomised b y the extended treatment in Pesiq. R. 2 9 / 3 0 A , 2 9 / 3 0 B , 30 and 33 (cf. Tanh on D t 1:1.1 and later Gen. Rab. 100.9; Lev. Rab. 10.2, 21.7; Lam. Rab. 1.2.23, 1.22.57; Midr. Ps. 4.8; 22.27; 23.7; cf. Lev. Rab. 1.14; Dt. Rab. 4.11). Isaiah 40:3 w a s also the haftarah
reading on the first Sabbath after the 9th
o f A v , a fast c o m m e m o r a t i n g the d e s t r u c t i o n
o f the T e m p l e ,
demonstrating
a statement
comfort.
1 6 2
these
verses'
importance
as
further
of
God's
That Tg. Isaiah 40:3 speaks o f the ' w a y ' being prepared for the
return o f the exiles indicates the close link which w a s understood to exist between G o d ' s c o m i n g and the return o f his people (cf. Isa 40:10f)/ while "pDrfrfcn Kmo^B in v. 9 stresses the kingly aspect o f this a c t i v i t y .
163
In the
NT, the other Synoptics use Isaiah 40:3 to relate J o h n to Jesus, but again the central concern seems to b e the coming reign of G o d (cf. M t 3:3, 7-12; Lk 3:616
17). * In s u m m a r y , Isaiah 40:1-11 appears to h a v e been regarded b y various traditions within J u d a i s m as a locus classicus
for Isaianic s a l v a t i o n .
165
Of
particular interest for M a r k ' s use is the fact that, even m o r e than Malachi 3, the e m p h a s i s s e e m s not to have been on the figure o f a forerunner but instead o n the c o m i n g o f the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d e l i v e r a n c e h e namely, Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g h i m s e l f .
1
6
2
1
6
3
1
6
4
1
6
5
heralds;
166
S n o d g r a s s , ' S t r e a m s ' , 3 1 f ; cf. S t r - B , 1 . 9 6 ; 2 . 1 5 4 . C h i l t o n , ' C o m m e n t i n g ' , 1 3 5 , (citing T o w n e r , Rabbinic, 1 6 6 ) n o t e s in r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t e n s o n g s ' m i d r a s h o n E x 15:1 in Mek. S h i r a t a I that 'the p a s s a g e s a r e selected, a n d s h a p e d into a chronological e n u m e r a t i o n , f r a m e d by p a s s a g e s f r o m I s a i a h [ 3 0 : 2 9 , 4 2 : 1 0 ] , in w h i c h t h e v i c t o r y o f t h e P a s s o v e r , a s r e f l e c t e d in v a r i o u s o t h e r s o n g s o f v i c t o r y , "instil(s) faith in f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n a n d t h e w o r l d t o c o m e . ' " T h e l a t t e r is n o t a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c a v o i d a n c e b u t a n a t t e m p t ' t o e m p h a s i s e a n a s p e c t o f G o d ' s a c t i v i t y ' , C h i l t o n , Targum, xvi. M t 3 : 3 , p a r . L k 3:4ff; W i n k , John, 3 7 f , 5 1 f . J n 1:23 m o r e n a r r o w l y c o n c e r n s t h e B a p t i s t ' s i d e n t i t y b u t e v e n h e r e t h e p e r i c o p e c o n c l u d e s b y l o o k i n g f o r w a r d , v v . 26ff. S n o d g r a s s , ibid.: D o d d , According, 8 4 . 166 Q j o n g e , ' H Q ' , 3 0 7 , n o t e s t h a t in S t r - B ' s listing o f t e x t s in w h i c h e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n is a n n o u n c e d , it is t h e s a l v a t i o n a n d n o t t h e m e s s e n g e r t h a t is e m p h a s i s e d . Q u m r a n writings c a n speak of G o d (1QS 8:12b-16a) a n d of a prophet, as well as t w o M e s s i a h s ( 1 Q S 9 : 1 7 b - 2 0 a ) ; s e e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s a n d d i s c u s s i o n in S c h u r e r , 2 . 4 8 8 f f , 5 5 0 f f ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , 'Messiah', 190; a n d Fitzmyer, 'Aramaic', 349f. 6
Origin
of the
85
Citation
VI. The Origin and Function of the Citation a) The Origin
of the
Citation
As already noted, it appears that the Exodus and Malachi texts were not infrequently associated in s o m e Jewish circles and M a r k ' s merging of them likewise
reflects
a
technique
interpretative t r a d i t i o n s .
167
relatively
common
in
some
Jewish
Consequently, although the precise form o f
the first e l e m e n t of M a r k ' s m i x e d citation is u n k n o w n outside the N T ,
1 6 8
it w o u l d b e u n w i s e to rule out the possibility of a Jewish antecedent. H o w e v e r , the addition o f Isaiah 40:3, or p e r h a p s m o r e accurately, the insertion
of the
ascription
and
unprecedented.
Malachi/Exodus
the I s a i a h 1 6 9
combination
between
the
text as an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e ' g l o s s ' ,
Isaiah appears
In view of M a r k ' s characteristic 'synthesis' m e t h o d ,
1 7 0
and the existence of 'testimonia' at Q u m r a n and collections of excerpts b y G r e e k and Latin a u t h o r s w h i c h m a y suggest the possibility o f similar c o l l e c t i o n s a m o n g first
century
Christians,
1 7 1
it is hard to tell if this
particular amalgamation is his o w n or derives from an earlier s o u r c e . 1
6
7
1
6
8
1
6
9
1
7
0
1
7
1
172
K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 180ff.
Cf. t h e n e a r - i d e n t i c a l ' Q ' p a r a l l e l in M t 1 1 : 1 0 a n d L k 7:27; S n o d g r a s s , ' S t r e a m s ' . S e e , h o w e v e r , Dt. Rab. 4 . 1 1 o n D t 1 2 : 2 0 w h i c h offers t w o a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s o n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e e n l a r g i n g o f Israel's b o r d e r s , o n e o f w h i c h c e n t r e s a r o u n d Isa 4 0 : 4 a n d t h e o t h e r a r o u n d M a i 3:4, 2 3 , a n d 1 ( M T ) . Kee, 'Function', 176f; B o w m a n , 9. E.g. M k 13:24f combines Isa 34:4; Joel 2:10, Isa 13:10 ( = E z e k 32:7f), a n d D n 7 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; M k 11:17: I s a 5 6 : 7 , J e r 7 : 1 1 ; M k 1 4 : 6 2 : D n 7 : 1 3 , P s 1 1 0 : 1 ; M k 1:11: I s a 4 2 : 1 , P s 2:7. E . g . 4 Q F l o r ( 2 S a m 7 : 1 0 - 1 4 ; P s 1:1; 2 : 1 0 ; 4 Q T e s t ( D t 5:28f; 1 8 : 1 8 f ; N u m 2 4 : 1 5 - 7 ; D t 3 3 : 8 - 1 1 ; J o s h 6 : 2 6 ; L a n e , ' N e w ' , r e j e c t s this c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ) ; 4 Q T a n h ( I s a 4 0 : 1 - 5 ; 4 1 : 8 - 9 ; 4 9 : 7 , 1 3 - 1 7 ) ; 4 Q R P ; 4 Q C a t e n a ; R o m 9 : 3 2 f ( I s a 2 8 : 1 6 ; 8 : 1 4 ) ; 1 P e t 2 : 6 - 8 (Isa 2 8 : 1 6 ; P s 1 1 8 : 2 2 ; I s a 8:14; cf. Barn. 6 : 2 - 4 ; C y p . , Test. 2 . 1 6 ) ; a n d I r e n . , Adv.Haer., 4.33.11 (Isa 35:6, 5; 26:19; 53:4). S e e f u r t h e r . H u n t e r , Paul, 5 8 - 6 4 ; D o d d , According, 1 2 6 ; Ellis, Use, 4 9 f ; F i t z m y e r , ' U s e ' ; H a r t m a n , Prophecy, 1 0 2 - 4 1 ; F i s h b a n e , ' U s e ' , 351ff; a n d S t a n l e y , Language, 74ii, w h o c i t e s c o m p i l a t i o n s o f e x c e r p t s a m o n g G r e e k a n d L a t i n a u t h o r s . L a t e r c o l l e c t i o n s in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y m a y b e i n d i c a t e d b y P a p . R y l a n d Gk. 4 6 0 a n d P a p . O s l o e n s i s 11 ( R o b e r t s , 'Biblical'; cf. t h e L a t i n c o l l e c t i o n d i s c u s s e d in D o b s c h i i t z , ' C o l l e c t i o n ' ) . T h e m e t h o d ' s o r i g i n s a r e o b s c u r e , e v i d e n c e for this a p p r o a c h b e i n g f o u n d a m o n g t h e r a b b i n i c midrashim b a s e d e i t h e r o n k e y w o r d s (e.g. Mek. E x 1 4 : 3 0 ; A b r a h a m s , 'Rabbinic', 1 7 9 ; D a u b e , ' R a b b i n i c ' ) o r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m e t h o d o f T i n ( ' s t r i n g i n g p e a r l s ' ; M i c h e l , Paulus, 12f, 7 2 , 8 3 ; H o m m e s , Testimoniaboek, 3 2 4 - 5 4 ; S t e n d a h l , School, 2 1 6 ; cf. S t e g n e r , ' R o m a n s ' ) , in t h e haftaroth (Stendahl, School, 9 6 , 2 1 7 ) a n d in Q u m r a n ( A l l e g r o , ' F u r t h e r ' , ' F r a g m e n t s ' ; F i t z m y e r ' T e s t i m o n i a ' , ' U s e ' , ' F u r t h e r ' ; B r o o k e , Exegesis; F i s h b a n e , ibid.; S t a n l e y , ibid.). Harris' testimony hy p o t h e s i s (Testimonies, f o l l o w i n g H a t c h , Essays, 2 0 3 , 2 0 9 - 1 1 ) w a s a n a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e a p p e a r a n c e in different a u t h o r s o f similar: A ) c o m p o s i t e q u o t a t i o n s , B) a s c r i p t i o n s t o w r o n g a u t h o r s , a n d C ) r e a d i n g s w h i c h differ f r o m k n o w n e d i t i o n s . S u b s e q u e n t s c h o l a r s h i p , a m o n g t h o s e f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e t h e o r y , t e n d e d n o t t o s p e a k o f a s i n g l e ' B o o k ' in o r d e r t o a c c o u n t for a
a
86
Introductory
Citation
Even s o , on w h a t basis might this conjunction h a v e b e e n m a d e ?
There
is e v i d e n c e to s u g g e s t that M a l a c h i h a d already related the c o n c e p t o f Y a h w e h ' s ' w a y ' in Isaiah's N E to the motifs o f E x o d u s 23:20ff so as to canvas the prospect that Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g might entail judgement.
Might
it not b e that the author of the complex in M a r k l:2f, in seeking to explain to his readers h o w J e s u s could at o n c e inaugurate the m u c h looked-for Isaianic salvation and yet b e rejected b y Israel's leaders and thus announce a future j u d g e m e n t o n the T e m p l e ( M k 11:12-25; 13:lff), o w e s the stimulus for his textual conflation to a considered reflection on the later prophet? b) The Function
of the
Citation
In view o f the a b o v e , what can b e said o f the function o f this composite quotation?
T h e r e is m u c h to confirm earlier suggestions.
T h e idea o f a
preparatory figure is certainly integral to the texts and this validates in the first instance their being used to introduce J o h n the Baptist, m o s t probably understood b y M a r k as Malachi's 'Elijah', w h o s e activity rightly belongs to the beginning o f the gospel. T h e widespread expectation o f eschatological comfort associated with the Isaiah citation also supports t h o s e w h o h a v e seen here a M a r k a n evocation o f an Isaianic framework in w h i c h J e s u s ' activities are to b e u n d e r s t o o d .
173
In terms of the remainder o f the Gospel,
the 666$" t e r m i n o l o g y and M a l a c h i ' s interest in the T e m p l e could well b e programmatic, although this will need to b e examined in detail later. Nevertheless a n u m b e r o f re-considerations appear to b e in order: A ) w h i l e o n a purely syntactical and lexicographical basis E x o d u s 23:20 m i g h t b e considered as the major influence o n M a r k 1:2b, our
t h o s e f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e t h e o r y , t e n d e d n o t t o s p e a k o f a s i n g l e ' B o o k ' in o r d e r t o a c c o u n t for t h e v a r i a t i o n s in o r d e r a n d t e x t ( W i l l i a m s , Adversus, 7ff; S i m o n , Versus, 185ff; a n d H u n t , Primitive, 1 4 ; cf. U n g e r n - S t e r n b e r g , Schriftbeweis, 138f, w h o states 'dass bei einer bet r a c h t l i c h e n S t a b i l i t a t d e s I n h a l t e s d i e F o r m flussig, v a r i a b e l w a r e ' ) . S t e n d a h l , School, 210f, n o t e d H a r r i s ' failure to c o n s i d e r the N T influence o n post-Apostolic O T quotations. D o d d , Apostolic, a n d o t h e r s s u b s e q u e n t l y p u t H a r r i s ' t h e o r y t o r e s t — i t m a y b e t t e r d e s c r i b e t h e p o s t - a p o s t o l i c a u t h o r s ' u s e o f t h e O T in t h e N T : ' T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f " t e s t i m o n y - b o o k s " w a s the result, n o t the p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , of the w o r k of e a r l y C h r i s t i a n biblical scholars', ibid., 1 2 6 ; cf. S h i g e o , ' F u n c t i o n ' ; S u n d b e r g , T e s t i m o n i e s ' ; K o c h , Schrift, 2 4 7 - 5 5 . 1
7
2
1
7
3
M a r x s e n , 3 7 ; S c h r e i b e r , Theologie, 1 9 3 ; W i n k , John, 2 n 2 ; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 1 5 5 . Guelich, 'Beginning', 8 n 3 5 , suggests, h o w e v e r , that the a b s e n c e of a n y Elijah speculation b e h i n d v v . 4 - 8 s u p p o r t s a p r e - M a r k a n c o m b i n a t i o n for t h e s e t e x t s , w h i c h M a r k t h e n t a k e s u p a l t h o u g h h i s m a i n i n t e r e s t is in I s a i a h . Pace, F i t z m y e r , ' U s e ' , 3 1 8 , f o r w h o m ' t h e a b r u p t b e g i n n i n g o f t h e G o s p e l o f M a r k m a k e s it a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o d i s c e r n t h e m o t i v e in t h e u s e o f t h e I s a i a n t e x t ' . S e e n o w a l s o M a r c u s , 45ff; cf. S c h n e c k , 4 2 .
Function
of the
87
Citation
analysis o f the histories o f interpretation suggests instead Malachi. N o t only did the Malachi passage have eschatological implications of a kind absent
from
Exodus
23—witness John
as
'Elijah'—but
Malachi
apparently intends an ironic allusion to Exodus 23:20 as the basis o f his warning to Israel. In any case, in both texts there is the dual motif not only of Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g presence, but also of Israel's faithlessness. B ) given this faithlessness, it is not surprising that a
fundamental
c o n c e r n o f M a l a c h i ' s is the threat a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h ' s self-manifestation; h e n c e the p r e p a r a t o r y
figure.
Conse
quently, m o r e e m p h a s i s should perhaps b e placed o n J o h n ' s mission as implying a threat o f j u d g e m e n t , especially against Israel's (religious?) leaders and the T e m p l e .
1 7 4
C ) the brief observations o f c o m m e n t a t o r s w h o see M a r k ' s use o f Isaiah 40:3 as announcing the inauguration o f Isaianic comfort are to b e affirmed,
175
especially given the significance of 40:Iff as a locus
in m a t e r i a l s c o n c e r n e d w i t h Israel's e s c h a t o l o g i c a l h o p e .
classicus M a r k is
almost certainly announcing the beginning of the long-awaited I N E .
1 7 6
D ) in the history o f interpretation, and in the original contexts, the M a l a c h i a n d Isaiah texts together focus o n the e v e n t the m e s s e n g e r h e r a l d s — i n c o n t r a s t to the n o t u n c o m m o n o p i n i o n that M a r k l : 2 f applies primarily or even solely to John. E ) the application o f these texts to J e s u s suggests that h e is to b e identified in s o m e w a y , not so m u c h with 'the Messiah', but with n o n e other than the li"l«n and rVQn
o f Malachi and, in terms o f Isaiah
40:3, the presence o f Y a h w e h h i m s e l f .
177
F r o m this perspective, while the appearance of J o h n and J e s u s properly b e l o n g to t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the g o s p e l , w h a t Isaiah h a s w r i t t e n
1
7
4
1
7
5
1
7
6
1
7
7
also
Cf. D o d d , According, 70f; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 1 4 4 f ; a n d e s p e c . C h a p t e r 9 b e l o w . I use 'Isaianic c o m f o r t ' b e c a u s e f r o m M a r k ' s viewpoint the b o o k w o u l d b e a unity, a n d in t h e final f o r m o f t h e b o o k N E i m a g e r y is n o t c o n f i n e d t o a n y o n e o f t h e t h r e e s e c t i o n s c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d b y m o d e r n critical s c h o l a r s h i p . B o c k , Proclamation, 9 7 , h a s a l s o s e e n this: 'It is w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t ' s i n h e r e n t d e c l a r a t i o n o f n e w a n d t h e total v i n d i c a t i o n o f G o d ' s p r o m i s e in s a l v a t i o n t h a t L u k e ' s a n d i n d e e d t h e S y n o p t i c s ' u s e o f I s a i a h 4 0 m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d ' ; cf. S c h w e i z e r ; L a n e ; K i n g s b u r y ; M a u s e r ; B o w m a n , 8f. Pace L i n d a r s , Apologetic; H u r t a d o ; a n d A n d e r s o n , w h o s e e it s e r v i n g o n l y a s i d e n t i f y i n g J o h n ; a n d a l s o S u h l , 155ff, a n d V o r s t e r , ' F u n c t i o n ' , w h o d e n y e s c h a t o l o g i c a l fulfilment c o n n o t a t i o n s . L o i s y , Birth, 6 4 - 7 ; F a r m e r , IDB, 2 . 9 5 6 ; C h a m b l i n , ' J o h n ' ; K n o x , ' " P r o p h e t " ' , 2 3 - 4 ; B r e t s c h e r , ' " S a n d a l s ' " ; H u g h e s , 'John'; S t e n d a h l , School, 4 8 ; a n d n o w e s p e c . M a r c u s , 3 7 - 4 1 .
88
Introductory
concerns,
fundamentally,
the
Citation
substance
s u b s e q u e n t to its i m m e d i a t e b e g i n n i n g .
o f that
unfolding
gospel
Consequently, Mark's use of
Isaiah 40:3 c o n c e r n s Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g and the I N E thereby
inaugurated.
H o w e v e r , the deliverance had been long-delayed and, as per Malachi, was to b e preceded b y the forerunner Elijah lest the nation b e unprepared and Y a h w e h ' s s u d d e n c o m i n g to his T e m p l e result in his c u r s i n g the land. H e n c e M a r k ' s interest in J o h n ; but that J o h n is not his p r i m e concern is clear from the m i n i m a l and brief attention accorded h i m . c) The Isaiah
1 7 8
Ascription
W h a t then are w e to m a k e o f M a r k ' s ascription of this c o m p o s i t e citation to I s a i a h ?
T h e m o s t c o m m o n r e s p o n s e s a r e e i t h e r that M a r k
u n c r i t i c a l l y t a k e n up a t e s t i m o n i u m
(whether formulated
within
has the
nascent church or e.g. b y J o h n ' s disciples) wrongly attributed to I s a i a h , or h a s m a d e a s i m p l e m i s t a k e .
1 8 0
179
T h i s a p p a r e n t d i s c r e p a n c y h a s led
several scholars to e c h o J e r o m e ' s assessment: ' O apostole Petre, M a r c u s filius t u u s , filius n o n c a r n e s e d s p i r i t u , i n s t r u c t u s ignorat'.
1 8 1
spiritalibus
Three considerations militate against these
hoc
hypotheses:
A ) there is no c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e for Christian testimonia in this period, what w e h a v e b e i n g either inappropriate or too l a t e ,
1 8 2
B ) M a r k himself is
not unfamiliar w i t h the p h e n o m e n o n of c o m b i n e d t e x t s ,
1 8 3
and C ) as H. C.
Kee has s h o w n , M a r k s e e m s aware o f the significance o f such scriptural
1
7
8
1
7
9
Cf. P e s c h , 1 . 7 1 , 7 8 . T h i s w o u l d b e in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I s a 4 0 - 5 5 w h e r e , a s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , t h e c o m i n g p r e s e n c e o f Y a h w e h is t h e p i v o t a l i s s u e u p o n w h i c h t h e d e l i v e r a n c e t u r n s . J o h n ' s i m p o r t a n c e d e p e n d s n o t s o m u c h o n w h a t h e s a y s b u t w h o is. W i n k , John, 4 . L o h m e y e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , 15, of the journey of the c r o w d s to John as the Isaianic N E cannot, t h e r e f o r e , b e a c c e p t e d . J o h n p r e p a r e s for, b u t c l e a r l y d o e s n o t h i m s e l f r e p r e s e n t , t h e N E c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h ; J o h n m a k e s n o j o u r n e y t o J e r u s a l e m , n o r d o e s h e d i s p l a y a n y e v i d e n c e of f u n c t i o n i n g a s t h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r in d e l i v e r i n g t h e p e o p l e . S w e t e , 2; J o h n s o n , 3 3 ; S t e n d a h l , School, 5 1 ; F i t z m y e r , ' U s e ' . A n d e r s o n s u g g e s t s t h a t the 'error' m a y h a v e originated a m o n g the Baptist's disciples from w h o m M a r k took the complex. 1 8 0 W e i s s , Markus; L a g r a n g e ; N i n e h a m ; H o o k e r , Message, 4 ; B e a v i s , Audience, 40. Other e x a m p l e s of citing combinations of texts u n d e r the n a m e of only o n e of the a u t h o r s c a n b e f o u n d in e.g. I r e n a e u s , Adv. Haer., 3 . 2 0 . 4 , w h e r e M i c a h 7 : 1 9 a n d A m o s 1:2 a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o A m o s a l o n e a n d in J u s t i n , / Apol., c. 3 2 , w h o a t t r i b u t e s t o I s a i a h t e x t s f r o m N u m b e r s a n d I s a i a h , cf. H a r r i s , Testimonies, 1.1 Of. I r e n a e u s ' a t t r i b u t i o n o f a p r e s u m a b l y s p u r i o u s t e x t first t o I s a i a h in 3 . 2 2 . 4 (it is n o t t o b e f o u n d in a n y o f t h e a n c i e n t v e r s i o n s o r T g s ) b u t t h e n t o J e r e m i a h in 4 . 2 2 . 1 f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e s t h e m a t t e r . 1
8
1
1
8
2
1
8
3
C . C , 78.452. Fn. 171. Fn. 170.
Isaiah
89
Ascription
citations, frequently p l a c i n g t h e m at crucial points in his n a r r a t i v e ;
184
it
appears unlikely that he has acted unthinkingly here. Possibly M a r k is following c o m m o n J e w i s h practice in n a m i n g o n l y one author with composite q u o t a t i o n s . s e e n the E x o d u s / M a l a c h i
A.
186
M a r k a n t e c h n i q u e , n a m e l y his ' s a n d w i c h '
here applied to his opening and only editorial c i t a t i o n :
K a O a ) ? y c y p o r n T o a kv B.
'I6ou aou,
A.'
But p e r h a p s those w h o h a v e
text as an e a r l y i n s e r t i o n h a v e u n w i t t i n g l y
d i s c e r n e d a characteristically construction,
185
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os" Ka.TaoK€\)da€\
<J>a)vf) poa)VTos"
kv
Tfj
TTOI€IT€
uou
Tipo
(Isaiah)
TipoaajTTOU
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TOO Tipo<|>Tyrxi,
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KupCou,
TpCpous* auToO,
F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , the Isaiah ascription together w i t h the 40:3
text
provides the
187
framework
into which
the
Isaiah
Exodus/Malachi
conflation is inserted. T w o important considerations emerge: A ) taken on its o w n , M a r k ' s 'blanket' ascription is suggestive of the larger f r a m e w o r k o f his t h o u g h t have realised).
189
1 8 8
(as a n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s
This is m o r e so if a type of ' s a n d w i c h ' structure is
intended. 1 8 4
K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' ; cf. M a n e k , ' C o m p o s i t e ' ; a n d S c h n e c k ,
Isaiah.
1 8 5
G u n d r y , Use, 1 2 5 , a n d Mark, 4 2 . D o n a h u e , Trial, 5 8 - 6 3 ; E d w a r d s , ' S a n d w i c h e s ' . M a n e k , ' C o m p o s i t e ' , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t e x t s reflects t h e O T r e q u i r e m e n t for t w o o r t h r e e w i t n e s s e s , D t 1 9 : 1 5 . 1 8 6
1 8 7
Cf. M a u s e r ' s c o m m e n t , 8 1 n l : 'If . . . a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n , it w a s d o n e m o s t ingeniously'. 188 M 'Tradition', suggests that an O T ascription m a y be intended to indicate a l a r g e r t h e m a t i c c o n t e x t w h i l e t h e s p e c i f i c c i t a t i o n s e r v e s a s a foil t o a n i m p o r t a n t s u b t h e m e . In e x a m i n i n g M a t t h e w 2 7 : 3 - 1 0 , w h i c h e s s e n t i a l l y q u o t e s Z e c h 1 1 : 1 3 b u t w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s w h i c h find n o c o u n t e r p a r t in Z e c h a r i a h (e.g. eig T O V aypbv T O U K € p a news'). M o o a r g u e d t h a t t h e J e r e m i a h a s c r i p t i o n is i n t e n d e d t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o J e r 1 9 n o t o n l y o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e v e r b a l links tfpl U1 (v. 4 , L X X : a i j i o t T a c j v d9cjo)v) a n d l ^ V ( v v . 1 , 1 1 , L X X : T T c n X a a j i e v o v ) b u t a l s o b e c a u s e o f t h e s t r i k i n g t h e m a t i c p a r a l l e l s : a l o c a l i t y c o n n e c t e d w i t h p o t t e r s (v. 1 ) w i l l b e r e n a m e d w i t h a p h r a s e c o n n o t i n g v i o l e n c e (v. 6 ) a n d u s e d a s a b u r i a l p l a c e (v. 1 1 ) , a s a s i g n o f G o d ' s j u d g e m e n t u p o n J e r u s a l e m (v. 1 ) . Cf. E d e r s h e i m , Life, 2 . 5 9 6 ; G u n d r y , Use, 124f; S e n i o r , Passion, 3 6 0 . 0
1 8 9
0
/
F o r G r u n d m a n n , 2 6 , a s I s a i a h is t h e p r o p h e t par excellence o f t h e m e s s i a n i c t i m e ; cf. S c h m a u c h , Orte, 2 4 - 4 7 . F o r L a n e , 4 5 , s i n c e it ' i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r o p e r c o n t e x t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e g o s p e l is t h e p r o m i s e o f f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n f o u n d in t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f I s a i a h ' ( h e a l s o s u r m i s e s t h a t t h e a s c r i p t i o n is n o t i n t e n d e d t o i n t r o d u c e t h e q u o t a t i o n a t all b u t i n s t e a d to l o c a t e t h e c o n t e x t in w h i c h J o h n t h e B a p t i s t u n d e r s t o o d h i m s e l f t o b e f u n c t i o n i n g , 4 7 n 3 0 ) . F o r G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 1 2 , a n d Mark, 1 . 1 0 , t h e I s a i a n i c c i t a t i o n ' g i v e s t h e r e a d e r t h e evangelist's p e r s p e c t i v e for interpreting the e v e n t s as indicative of the eschatological m o m e n t p r o m i s e d b y I s a i a h ' . G n i l k a , 1 . 4 5 , a s s e r t s 'dafi j e t z t n i c h t m e h r a u f d e m J e s a j a z i t a t , s o n d e r n a u f V e r s 2 d e r T o n liegt', b u t fails t o a c c o u n t for t h e I s a i a h a s c r i p t i o n .
90
Introductory
Citation
B) in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h M a r k a n . u s a g e , t h e ' B ' c o m p o n e n t indicate a special stress on the threat e l e m e n t .
190
may
W e shall see later that
not o n l y is this reading consistent with M a r k ' s continued development of the threat / r e j e c t i o n motif, b u t as w i t h his ' s a n d w i c h ' citation h e continues to link it with his overall Isaianic framework.
VII. Conclusion In k e e p i n g w i t h the role o f the o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e in literary antiquity, M a r k ' s s o l e explicit editorial citation o f the O T s h o u l d b e e x p e c t e d to c o n v e y t h e m a i n c o n c e r n s o f his p r o l o g u e a n d , therefore, h i s G o s p e l . M a r k ' s u s e o f the Isaiah ascription and the ' i c o n i c ' function o f the Isaiah 40:3 text w i t h i n v a r i o u s J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s
i n d i c a t e s that the o v e r a l l
c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k for his G o s p e l is the Isaianic N E , the p r o p h e t i c transformation o f Israel's m e m o r y o f her founding m o m e n t into a m o d e l for her future h o p e . This suggests that for M a r k the long-awaited c o m i n g of Y a h w e h as K i n g and W a r r i o r has b e g u n , and with it, the inauguration of Israel's eschatological comfort: her deliverance from the h a n d s o f the nations, the j o u r n e y o f her exiles to their h o m e and their eventual arrival at Jerusalem, the place of Y a h w e h ' s presence. At the s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , M a r k ' s addition o f M a l a c h i 3:1 a d d s an ominous counterpoint.
T h o r o u g h l y integrated w i t h i n the E x o d u s / N E
s c h e m a — o n the o n e h a n d it looks b a c k to the first E x o d u s in its ironic use of E x o d u s 23:20 a n d o n the other it c o n c e r n s the d e l a y o f the I N E — i t implies n o t only that Israel is not ready for Y a h w e h ' s coming, but also that a right response to J o h n as Malachi's Elijah is imperative if the nation is to avoid the spectre of Yahweh's purging judgement which hangs over J e r u s a l e m ' s raison
d'etre,
the T e m p l e .
If and h o w M a r k develops these t w o themes will b e the subject o f the rest o f this study. W e n o w turn to an examination o f the remainder o f his prologue w h e r e , if our proposal is correct, w e should expect to find further evidence o f these t w o concerns.
1
9
0
E d w a r d s , ' S a n d w i c h e s ' , 1 9 6 , n o t e s w i t h r e g a r d t o n a r r a t i v e t h a t 'the middle story nearly always provides the key to the theological purpose of the sandwich' (author's italics).
Chapter 4: The Markan Prologue When
read
motifs
in the light
in Mark's
evayydXiov prophesied,
form a coherent
is the drawing
and the splitting
the long-awaited descent
of the NE Isaianic
prologue
of the Spirit
whole.
near of the reign of the heavens
NE intervention
declare
of God which
Jesus
and
of the Isaiah
the inauguration
on Israel's
behalf.
to be Isaiah's
who is at once new 'Servant' deliverer,
the OT images The content
signals
of Yahweh
and the voice
messianic-'Servant',
prophecies,
Israel
and
of The
DavidicIsrael's
and Son of God.
I. Introduction In v i e w of o u r assessment o f M a r k ' s opening sentence, it is significant that a n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e argued for a p e r v a s i v e Deutero-Isaianic influence o n M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e .
1
H o w e v e r , although the p r e s e n c e of O T
allusions is w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d , there is often little a g r e e m e n t as to their s o u r c e and s i g n i f i c a n c e .
2
But, again, in v i e w o f the increasing recognition
of M a r k ' s literary skill, it s e e m s h i g h l y i m p r o b a b l e that h e h a s intended such uncertainty.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , after d e t e r m i n i n g
the e x t e n t o f t h e
prologue, w e will s e e k to ascertain if the case for a I N E framework c a n b e sustained.
Finally, w e will argue that if s u c h a framework is allowed, not
o n l y does it resolve m a n y o f the questions as to the origins o f M a r k ' s O T allusions in his p r o l o g u e b u t it also a c c o r d s his u s e o f O T p h r a s e s a n d images a r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e o f coherence.
II. Extent of the Prologue R. H. L i g h t f o o t ' s critique o f H o r t and W e s c o t t ' s earlier division (vv. 1-8) resulted in a n e w c o n s e n s u s w h i c h concluded the p r o l o g u e with verse 1 3 .
3
1
Especially L u h r m a n n , 'Biographic', 27-30; Guelich, 'Beginning', 8 - 1 0 , w h e r e ' F o r M a r k , e a c h e v e n t t h a t f o r m s this " b e g i n n i n g o f t h e g o s p e l " c o r r e s p o n d s t o I s a i a h ' s p r o m i s e for t h e e s c h a t o n ' ; C h i l t o n , God, 7 8 - 9 5 . 2
C f . s u r v e y s in L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 1 2 7 - 9 3 . Message, 1 5 - 2 0 , n o t i n g a l s o t h a t v v . 1 3 a n d 1 4 f a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d w h i l e v v . 1 4 f c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s a s u m m a r y o f t h e e a r l y c h u r c h ' s g o s p e l . C f . K u t h i r a k k a t t e l , Beginning, 9 - 2 0 . 3
92
Markan
Prologue
T h e a r g u m e n t s advanced in support of this division are: A ) the change o f 4
locality from the Wilderness to Galilee in verses 14ff, B ) the confinement of the key-words 4'priuoc; (vv. 3, 4 , 1 2 , 1 3 ) and n v e u u a (vv. 8 , 1 0 , 1 2 ) to verses 5
1 - 1 3 , C ) t h e difference b e t w e e n J o h n ' s future-orientated
p r e a c h i n g and
6
J e s u s ' m o r e i m m e d i a t e p r o c l a m a t i o n , and D ) , from the perspective o f a narrative reading, the information given in verses 1-13 is private while in verses 14ff it is p u b l i c .
7
L e a n d e r K e c k c h a l l e n g e d this c o n s e n s u s arguing that the p r o l o g u e should include verses 1 4 - 1 5 .
8
H e regarded the presence of 9
verses 1 a n d 14f as an inclusio,
and saw J o h n ' s
euayycXiov
Trapa6o9fi v a i
as
in of
p r i m a r i l y t h e o l o g i c a l interest and h e n c e functioning as the c l i m a x to v e r s e s 1-15.
T h r e e further o b s e r v a t i o n s s u p p o r t K e e k ' s v i e w : A ) the
presence o f the unifying Stichworte,
for example, u c T a v o i a - u c T a v o e c j (1:4,
15) and Krjpu'aao) (1:4, 7, 14), B ) the parallel three-fold presentation o f J o h n (vv. 2-8) a n d J e s u s (vv. 9-15) w h ic h suggests that they b e l o n g together in that both units begin with an 'identifying word from G o d ' (vv. 2f, 11), both m e n t i o n their r e s p e c t i v e subject's p e r s o n and w o r k (vv. 4 - 6 , 12-3), and both culminate with a reference to preaching (vv. 7f, 14f), and finally, C ) , the account o f J e s u s (vv. 9-15) correlates with the Isaianic t h e m e of verses 2f in that h e is presented as the promised one and this is confirmed b y the Isaianic allusion in the voice (v. 1 1 ; cf. Isa 42:1), the descent o f the Spirit (cf. Isa 42:1; 61:1) and the 'splitting' of the heavens (v. 10; cf. Isa 63:19 M T ) .
4
1 0
Mauser, 79.
5
R o b i n s o n , 28f, a n d J o h n s o n , Mark, 3 5 , n o t e t h a t TivcOua is t h e o n l y t h e m e t h a t b i n d s v v . 4 - 8 , 9 - 1 1 a n d 1 2 - 1 3 t o g e t h e r , cf. L a n e , 4 8 . 'Spirit' a p p e a r s o n l y t h r e e m o r e t i m e s in M a r k a n d only 3:29 relates directly to Jesus' w o r k . O n k e y - w o r d s as M a r k a n linking devices, Sundwall, Zusammensetzung. 6
R o b i n s o n , 24f. S c h w e i z e r ' s a r g u m e n t s for v v . 1 - 1 3 a r e b a s e d o n his q u e s t i o n a b l e t h e o r y of a t h r e e f o l d s t r u c t u r e for the G o s p e l b a s e d o n the t h e m e of discipleship, see K e c k , 'Introduction', 355f. 7
' P r o l o g u e ' , 5f. ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 5 9 - 6 2 . E a r l i e r W e l l h a u s e n , Marci; W e n d l i n g , Entstehung, 3; Zahn, Einleitung, 2 2 0 f f ; a n d l a t e r S e i t z , ' P r a e p a r a t i o n ' ; a n d K u b y , ' K o n z e p t i o n ' , h a d t a k e n this p o s i t i o n b u t K e c k w a s a m o n g t h e first t o d e f e n d it in detail. N o t e a l s o t h e r e l a t e d KTjpuaau) (cf. KTipuaacov K O I cviayycAi^ouevos' f | p a a i X c i a v T O O 8 € o 0 , L k 8:1; 4 : 4 3 p a r . M k 1:38) in v v . 1:4, 7 , 1 4 ; F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2.718f. P e s c h , 1.72f, ' A n f a n g ' ; G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 7 - 9 ; cf. M i c h a e l s ' a n a l y s i s . Servant, 4 4 : A: The gospel of Jesus (v. 1); B: John the Baptist in the desert, in fulfilment of Scripture (vv. 2-4); C: John baptising in the Jordan (vv. 5-8); C: Jesus is baptised in the Jordan (vv. 9-11); B': Jesus in the desert (vv. 12-13); A': the gospel of God (vv. 14-15) 8
9
T
1
0
V
Extent
of the
93
Prologue
N o r m a n Perrin takes a mediating p o s i t i o n . the w o r k o f K. S c h m i d t ,
1 2
11
Apparently building o n
h e u n d e r s t a n d s verses 14f as a transitional
p a s s a g e s e r v i n g b o t h to c o n c l u d e the p r o l o g u e a n d to i n t r o d u c e Galilean ministry.
1 3
A l t h o u g h P e r r i n ' s overall thesis c o n c e r n i n g
Markan summaries has been challenged, received additional 15
classical rhetors.
14
the
his assessment of verses 14f has
s u p p o r t o n the b a s i s o f the literary t e c h n i q u e o f Following D. M u l l e r
1 6
d i s c u s s e s the t e c h n i q u e o f concatenatio
a n d H. P a r u n a k , (Muller) whereby
1 7
A. Stock a
transition from o n e p a r t o f a narrative to a n o t h e r is e f f e c t e d . picking up on the w o r k o f B a s van I e r s e l , p a r t i c u l a r d e r i v a t i o n o f this a p p r o a c h A/b/a/B.
the
19
smooth 18
Then,
he suggests that M a r k l : 1 4 f is a
k n o w n as an ' i n v e r t e d
hinge':
It c o n s i s t s o f a transitional unit ( b / a ; v v . 14f), s o m e w h a t
independent from the larger b l o c k s on either side ( A / B ; i.e. l : l - 1 3 / l : 1 6 f f ) , in w h i c h representative t h e m e s from the larger units are inverted b / a ) to facilitate the flow o f the narrative.
(thus
H e n c e , ' G a l i l e e ' in verse 14
looks forward to J e s u s ' ministry, while verse 15, as fulfilment, looks b a c k to the promise o f J o h n ' s role in the wilderness verses 2ff. T h e strength o f Perrin's and S t o c k ' s a p p r o a c h lies in its appreciation o f ancient literary
1 1
T o w a r d s ' ; P e r r i n a n d D u l i n g , Introduction, 239f. Rahmen, 3 2 0 . 'Apparently' because Perrin has not published any independent analysis of the s u m m a r i e s a n d his delineations follow S c h m i d t closely. See also E g g e r ' s p r o p o s e d m o d i f i c a t i o n s , Frohbotschaft, 44-69. Dodd, 'Framework', generally followed S c h m i d t in h i s a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l o u t l i n e o f J e s u s ' G a l i l e a n m i n i s t r y ; f o r a c r i t i c i s m o f D o d d s e e T r o c m e , 28ff. 1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
K e e , 6 3 f ; K i n g s b u r y , 5 0 ; C h i l t o n , God, 5 3 f ; a n d E g g e r , Frohbotschaft. See also H o l t z m a n n ' s a p p a r e n t l y i n c o n s i s t e n t s t a t e m e n t s , Synoptiker, 1 1 , 1 1 5 , t h a t v. 1 5 e n d s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d y e t v v . 1 4 f is Uberschrift t o t h e G a l i l e a n m i n i s t r y , a n d G r a n t , Gospels, 8 7 f , 180f, w h e r e 1 : 2 - 1 5 is t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d y e t 1:14 - 9 : 5 0 is ' J e s u s in Galilee'. R o b i n s o n , 2 2 , s t a t e s t h a t 'v. 1 4 p r o v i d e s a f o r m a l t e r m i n a t i o n t o J o h n ' s m i n i s t r y a n d a f o r m a l i n t r o d u c t i o n to Jesus' ministry'. Hedrick, 'Summary'. Stock, 'Hinge', mentions neither Perrin nor Hedrick. Hedrick's judgement, ' S u m m a r y ' , 2 9 4 , t h a t v v . 1 4 f a r e n o t t r a n s i t i o n a l is b a s e d o n a t o o - r e s t r i c t e d v i e w o f t h e c o n t e x t ( h e i g n o r e s v v . 1 - 1 1 ) a n d a n i n c o n s i s t e n t a n a l y s i s o f 1 : 1 6 - 3 : 6 w h i c h it is s a i d 'contains only o n e other reference to the p r e a c h i n g of Jesus', yet h e later states that l:21f, 2 7 , 3 8 f , 4 5 , etc. describe Jesus' p r e a c h i n g o r teaching. 1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
Propheten. ' O r a l ' a n d ' T r a n s i t i o n a l ' , 540ff. ' H i n g e ' . L u c i a n , Hist., 5 5 , s t a t e s t h a t w h e n t h e h i s t o r i a n ' h a s f i n i s h e d t h e first t o p i c h e will i n t r o d u c e t h e s e c o n d , f a s t e n e d t o it a n d l i n k e d w i t h it like a c h a i n , t o a v o i d b r e a k s a n d a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f d i s j o i n t e d n a r r a t i v e s ' ; ' a l w a y s t h e first a n d s e c o n d t o p i c s m u s t not merely be neighbours but h a v e c o m m o n matter a n d overlap'. 'betekenis' a n d 'Locality'.
94
Markan
Prologue
m e t h o d and its integration o f the strengths o f both Lightfoot's and K e e k ' s positions.
20
Recently, h o w e v e r , R. H. G u n d r y has v i g o r o u s l y revived the c a s e for the p r o l o g u e e n d i n g at verse 8 citing the following warrants: A ) the O T quotations, since they speak only of preparation, are concerned solely with J o h n , that is, verses 4 - 8 , and so to go b e y o n d v e r s e 8 w o u l d 'violate the definition o f the b e g i n n i n g b y the K a G o f c - c l a u s e ' ; B ) it w o u l d 'violate the use of apxri ... for the first subject matter o f the book'; and C ) 'every phrase of v 9 a ' indicates the beginning o f a n e w p e r i c o p e .
21
W h i l e it is true that the O T portions cited b y M a r k o n l y specifically m e n t i o n ' p r e p a r a t i o n ' , w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n that the i m m e d i a t e O T contexts a n d the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f these texts across a r a n g e o f J e w i s h traditions h a v e far m o r e in view. T h e y function almost as icons, evoking t h e l a r g e r s c h e m a o f I s r a e l ' s h o p e s for future s a l v a t i o n , n a m e l y , the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h to save his people. M o r e telling, perhaps, is G u n d r y ' s a s s u m p t i o n — a n d h e is certainly not a l o n e here—that M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e w o u l d h a v e b e e n u n a w a r e o f such implications. B u t h o w s e c u r e is s u c h a position? M a r k ' s frequent, if not ubiquitous, use o f O T texts and motifs— particularly Isaianic ones and often, as K e e noted, at crucial points in the 2 2
n a r r a t i v e — i s prima
facie
e v i d e n c e o f an intentionality w h i c h strongly
suggests that at least s o m e o f his readership w e r e reasonably familiar with parts o f the O T . This is hardly surprising given that the O T constituted the S c r i p t u r e s o f the e a r l y c h u r c h .
2 3
I n d e e d , it is highly likely that s o m e
awareness o f the significance o f these Scriptures w o u l d h a v e b e e n part of the
catechism, if not
the
apologetic, of the
earliest
believers.
2 4
F u r t h e r m o r e , the l o n g e r M a r k ' s ' c o m m u n i t y ' h a d b e e n in e x i s t e n c e , the greater t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f u n l e a r n e d G e n t i l e s h a v i n g instruction in s u c h matters. A n d all o f this without taking into account the possibility that at least s o m e o f M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e m i g h t h a v e b e e n J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s w h o p r e s u m a b l y w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e at h o m e with O T allusions.
2 0
A m o n g t h e m o r e r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s F e n e b u r g , Markusprolog, a r g u e s for v v . 1 - 1 1 , w h i l e H o r t - W e s c o t t h a v e n e w c h a m p i o n s in S c o t t , ' C h i a s t i c ' , a n d n o w G u n d r y ( s e e b e l o w ) . G u n d r y , 31ff. ' F u n c t i o n ' ; cf. S c h n e c k , passim. ^ S e e n o w , Ellis, Early. A s l o n g n o t e d b y e.g. L i n d a r s , Apologetic. Of c o u r s e the exact nature of the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f O T t e x t s f o r t h e e a r l y c h u r c h is a m a t t e r o f o n - g o i n g d e b a t e . 2 1
2 2
2
2
4
Extent
of the
95
Prologue
C o n c e r n i n g G u n d r y ' s s e c o n d point, it is not clear w h y the inclusion o f v e r s e s 9-13 w o u l d ' v i o l a t e t h e definition o f the b e g i n n i n g ' s i n c e J e s u s ' ministry p r o p e r d o e s n o t b e g i n until verse 14, nor is it clear w h y a ' n e w p e r i c o p e ' n e c e s s a r i l y indicates the e n d o f the p r o l o g u e — m u s t
prologues
h a v e only o n e pericope? O n the contrary, the preparation o f J e s u s , w h o s e ministry is in fulfilment o f the ' g o o d n e w s ' o f Y a h w e h ' s delivering action as implied, for e x a m p l e , b y I s a i a h 4 0 : 3 , s e e m s q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e 'beginning . . . (as indicated) ... b y the KaSofc-clause'.
This is particularly so
w h e n s e e n o v e r a g a i n s t v e r s e s 14-15ff w h i c h r e c o r d t h e p r o p e r o f that ministry.
inauguration
I n d e e d , o n e could argue that the parallel use o f
e y c v c T o in v e r s e 9 (cf. v. 4 ) , instead o f indicating a p r i m a r y b r e a k b e t w e e n verses 8 and 9, suggests the complimentary nature o f verses 4-8 and 9-13 in that they serve to introduce the t w o protagonists and their related careers, n a m e l y , the p r e p a r a t o r y figure J o h n and the preparation o f J e s u s w h o s e coming John announces.
G u n d r y s e e m s a l m o s t to a d m i t as m u c h w h e n
h e says, first, that M a r k takes 'care to note that Jesus did not start preaching good n e w s till "after" ( u € T a ) the e n d of J o h n ' s ministry' and, s e c o n d , that the b e g i n n i n g ' c o n s i s t s in J o h n ' s p r e p a r i n g for and p r e a c h i n g about the stronger o n e before t h e stronger o n e b e g i n s his o w n p r e a c h i n g ' .
25
These
s t a t e m e n t s s e e m to i m p l y that the k e y issue is t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f J e s u s ' preaching.
T h u s , on the o n e hand, the b e g i n n i n g e n d s w i t h J o h n ' s
i m p r i s o n m e n t w h i l e , o n the other, J e s u s ' p r e a c h i n g m a r k s the start o f t h e b o d y o f M a r k ' s account. Consequently, the e n d o f the b e g i n n i n g continues to at least v e r s e 13, in w h i c h c a s e it s e e m s that the approach o f Perrin a n d Stock is still to b e preferred. A l l o w i n g then that t h e p r o l o g u e h i n g e s u p o n v e r s e s 14-15, a n d that verses 1-3 are its o p e n i n g sentence, w e will n o w e x a m i n e the c a s e for t h e presence o f Isaianic N E imagery.
2
5
G u n d r y , 31f.
96
Markan
Prologue
III. Isaianic Materials in Mark's Prologue a) The Gospel
and the Kingdom
of God
(i) Mark 1:1, 15: 'Apxfj TOV eitayyeXiov
... Kr)pvooa)v
Although clearly an important word for M a r k , engendered considerable discussion.
27
26
TO
his use o f
evayyeXiov cuayye'Xiov
has
In the H e b r e w Scriptures and the
L X X , the theological use o f the verbal form
("I&3, e u a y y e X i ' C o ) )
occurs
almost t w i c e as often in Isaianic N E contexts as in the rest o f the O T .
2 8
Because the N T ' s u s e o f the verb appears to b e d e p e n d e n t o n that o f the 2 9
OT,
a n u m b e r o f scholars hold that the Isaianic N E h o r i z o n is also
determinative for the m e a n i n g o f the substantive as it is utilized in the NT.30
A p r o b l e m arises, h o w e v e r , in that
miWD/cuayyeXiov
in the H e b r e w
and G r e e k Scriptures and in contemporary Jewish writings does not seem to share the r e l i g i o u s / e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s o f the verbal f o r m s .
31
T h e occurrence of
euayye'Xiov
corresponding
in the Pirene inscription
has, therefore, led s o m e scholars to suggest that the N T reflects a Pauline i n n o v a t i o n d e r i v i n g from imperial cult l a n g u a g e .
32
Others, observing
parallels b e t w e e n the Gospels and Hellenistic aretalogies, h a v e proposed that these latter texts constitute the primary b a c k g r o u n d for N T u s a g e .
33
Peter S t u h l m a c h e r , h o w e v e r , has recently challenged b o t h o f these latter positions, a r g u i n g that the Hellenistic u s e o f
cuayye'A-
in reference to
divine m e n , p o p u l a r philosophers, and the imperial cult, apart from the third century A D provenance o f the first two groups, reflects the rhetorical
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
9
3
0
1 : 1 , 1 4 , 15; 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9 a n d (16:15), M a r x s e n , 117-50; Perrin, 'Literary', 4-7; M a r t i n , 22ff; K e c k , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 5 7 f . Frankemolle, 'Evangelium'; Baarlink, Anfangliches. 4 0 : 9 (bis); 4 1 : 2 7 ( M T ) ; 5 2 : 7 (bis); 6 0 : 6 ; 6 1 : 1 ; cf. H o o k e r , Jesus, 6 6 f ; F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 0 7 - 1 0 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 1 0 9 - 2 2 ; S e c c o m b e , Possessions, 63ff. S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 1 2 2 ; S t r e c k e r , Evangelium, 504. E . g . S c h w e i z e r ; C r a n f i e l d ; G u e l i c h , ' " B e g i n n i n g " ' ; H o o k e r , Jesus,
66; Bruce, 'When',
325ff. 3
1
T h e s u b s t a n t i v e o c c u r s n e i t h e r in Q u m r a n n o r in P h i l o a n d o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y in J o s e p h u s ; F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 2 1 - 6 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 112-3, 124. 2
* S t r e c k e r , EWbNT, 2 . 1 8 0 ; H a r n a c k , Reden, 1.301-6; S c h n i e w i n d , Euangelion, 1 . 7 8 , 2 . 1 4 6 f ; S c h n e e m e l c h e r , NTApoc, F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 2 4 - 5 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 11-19. 3
3
D e i s s m a n n , Light, 366; 1.78ff; B l i g h , ' N o t e ' ; cf.
E . g . B i e l e r , OEIOZ; H a d a s - S m i t h , Heroes; P e t z k e , Tradition; T a l b e r t , ' B i o g r a p h i e s ' ; C a n c i k , ' G a t t u n g ' ; cf. T i e d e , ' R e l i g i o u s ' .
Smith,
'News';
The Gospel
and the Kingdom
of God
97
a n d stylistic c o n c e r n s o f s e c u l a r u s a g e rather than h a v i n g specifically religious i n t e r e s t s .
34
A s neither c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h nor Graeco-Rorrian s o u r c e s p r o v i d e decisive evidence, Stuhlmacher argues that the N T usage of c u a y y c ' A i o v is a distinctive C h r i s t i a n innovation formulated specifically to relate J e s u s Christ to O T promises. T h e evidence for a pre-Pauline gospel centred o n J e s u s ' death, resurrection, and exaltation (1 Thess 1:9-10; R o m 1:2-4; 1 C o r 15:3-5) is s u p p o r t e d b y indications within the Palestinian c h u r c h prior to the Gentile mission o f a gospel dealing principally with the O T promises of the c o m i n g o f the k i n g d o m o f G o d (citing Rev 14:6; 10:7; M t 11:2-6 par. Lk 7:18-23; Lk 4:16-30; M k l : 1 4 f ) .
35
T h e plausibility o f a Palestinian provenance is strengthened in that the c l o s e s t p a r a l l e l s to t h e N T d i c t i o n are found
in the Tg.
Nebarim's
innovative rendering o f the H e b r e w njJlfctt) with miDD (e.g. O b 1; Jer 49:14; Isa 5 3 : 1 ) .
36
Tg. Ezekiel
T h e use o f this Aramaic term in, for instance, Tg. Jeremiah 4:15, 21:12, and Tg. Isaiah
53:1 has c l e a r p r o p h e t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s ,
w h i c h are e p i t o m i s e d in the latter w h e r e m t O D refers to ' d i e H e i l erschliefiende O f f e n b a r u n g s - k u n d e ' . Targumic evidence is l a t e ,
38
37
Consequently, although the extant
its fairly broad attestation o f the prophetic use
of miOD and its s h a r e d cultural p r o v e n a n c e with the Palestinian c h u r c h suggests that the theological content o f euayyc'Aioi/ m o s t plausibly finds its origins in the translational terminology for the prophet's m e s s a g e (rwvatt? and miDD) and particularly for that message associated with Isaianic hope. (It is p e r h a p s n o t e w o r t h y then that B r u c e Chilton h a s also a r g u e d that certain dominical sayings concerning the Kingdom of G o d
3
4
3
5
appear
Evangelium, 1 9 1 - 2 0 6 ; cf. F r a n k e m o l l e , ' G a t t u n g ' , 1 6 7 2 f ; T i e d e , ' R e l i g i o u s ' . T h e e x c e p t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n s o f c u a y y e ' X i o v in t h e P i r e n e i n s c r i p t i o n a r e m i t i g a t e d s i n c e it u s e s t h e t y p i c a l l y H e l l e n i s t i c p l u r a l , € u a y y € A i [ u ) v ] , s u g g e s t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h i s i n s c r i p t i o n a n d t h e N T , S t u h l m a c h e r , ibid., 201. Noch, ' A p o c r y p h a l ' , 6 5 , d o u b t s if t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e w o u l d h a v e b e e n f a m i l i a r w i t h this u s e ; b u t see J u d g e , ' D e c r e e s ' . Ibid., 2 0 9 - 4 4 ; cf. Gillet, ' E v a n g e l i u m ' , 1 7 5 ; H a h n , Mission, 4 0 - 4 1 ; H e n g e l , ' B e t w e e n ' , 27ff; pace S t r e c k e r , ' E v a n g e l i u m ' , 5 1 3 - 2 4 . Ibid., 1 3 1 - 3 3 . Ibid., 1 3 2 ; B u r r o w s , ' O r i g i n ' , 2 2 , 3 2 ; F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 3 . 7 0 6 f . T h e A r a m a i c u s a g e is b o r n e o u t b y t h e S y r i a c , B o w m a n , ' T e r m ' , 6 1 ff; C h i l t o n , God, 9 4 n 7 6 . T h e d a t i n g o f t h e v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e Tg. Isa is n o t o r i o u s l y difficult, cf. C h i l t o n ' s r e d a c t i o n - c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h . Glory, w h i l e o n t h e d a t e o f c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t w r i t t e n T a r g u m s , Y o r k , 'Dating'. 3
6
3
7
3
8
98
Markan
Prologue
particularly to reflect the l a n g u a g e o f earlier Palestinian traditions w h i c h w e r e later incorporated, again, into the Tg.
39
Isa ).
O f further interest in this regard is again Pss. Solomon
11.
of a collage of N E imagery d r a w n from Isaiah 40-66, it begins: 'l€pouaaXf|u 8a)vf|v cuayycXiCoiievou.
This juxtaposition
of
Consisting Kr|pu£aT€ Kflpu£-
kv and
euayycX- term-inology (the latter admittedly in verbal form) in the context of Isaianic h o p e is very similar to that in M a r k l : 1 5 ' s f^XBev 6 'Irjaoiic; ... Kripuaaajv
TO
cOayye'Xiov
eschatological
messenger
TOU
(cf. 13:10; 1 4 : 9 ) .
9€OU
intervention, again expressed
in
later
rabbinic
The idea of
an
("iflDft) w h o a n n o u n c e s the t i m e o f Y a h w e h ' s in Isaianic t e r m s , is also found b o t h in
Q u m r a n (e.g. 1 Q H 18:14, w h i c h clearly echoes Isa 6 1 , and
4 0
materials.
4 3
From
4 1
4 2
and
HQMelch )
this perspective,
Jesus'
a n n o u n c e m e n t of the n e a r n e s s of the reign o f G o d ( M k 1:15) s e e m s to h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u e d in the light of the ntoDB-tradition o f Isaiah 52:7 and 6 1 : l f (Mt 11:2-6 par.; Lk 4 : 1 6 - 3 0 ;
44
cf. L k 9 : 6 ) ,
45
and, as J e s u s ' w o r d s and
deeds b e c a m e the content of the verb €uayy€Xi£o), the substantive appears to have b e c o m e similarly understood (Mark 1 : 1 ) . 3
9
46
M k 1:15; L k 4 : 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 1 ; M t 8 : 1 1 ; L k 1 6 : 1 6 ; M k 9 : 1 ; C h i l t o n , God, passim-, Rabbi,
137-
47. 4
0
4
1
4
2
4
3
M a r t i n , 2 3 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 146. ' [ t h a t h e m i g h t b e ] , a c c o r d i n g t o T h y t r u t h , a m e s s e n g e r [in t h e s e a s o n ] o f T h y goodness; that to the h u m b l e he might bring glad tidings of great m e r c y , [proclaiming s a l v a t i o n ] f r o m o u t o f t h e f o u n t a i n [ o f h o l i n e s s t o t h e c o n t r i t e ] o f Spirit a n d e v e r l a s t i n g j o y t o t h o s e w h o m o u r n ' ; t r a n s . V e r m e s , DSSE, 2 0 6 . F u r t h e r , S t u h l m a c h e r , ibid., 1 4 2 - 4 6 . W h i l e t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e ITTO is u n c e r t a i n ( D e J o n g e , ' H Q ' ; F i t z m y e r , ' F u r t h e r ' , 2 7 2 8 ) , a n d g r a n t e d t h e fluidity o f t h e c o n c e p t ( d e J o n g e , ' A n o i n t e d ' ) , t h e t e x t d o e s a p p e a r t o indicate that the p r o c l a m a t i o n of g o o d tidings w a s a m o n g the sphere of functions c o n n o t e d b y t h e d e s i g n a t i o n ' M e s s i a h ' , A u n e , 'Jesus'. O n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e N T , D e J o n g e , ' H Q ' , 309ff. In r e f e r e n c e t o I s a 5 2 : 7 : Pereq ha-Shalom 1 3 ( 5 9 b ) , a t t r i b u t e d t o R . J o s e t h e G a l i l e a n ( 1 1 0 ) , in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e M e s s i a h ' s c o m i n g ; Tanh " O l D S N u . 2:2; Midr. Ps. 1 4 7 : 1 ; f u r t h e r : Str-B, 3.9c, w h e r e Isa 5 2 : 7 a n d 60:3 a r e p r o m i n e n t . T h e 'messenger' m a y o r m a y n o t b e the M e s s i a h , b u t in a n y c a s e t h e p o i n t is t h e c o m i n g r e i g n o f G o d , S t r - B , 3 . 9 b , 1 0 c . In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h I s a 4 0 : 9 ; 4 1 : 2 7 ; 5 2 : 7 ; 6 1 : 1 a n d N a h 2 : 1 , r e s p e c t i v e l y : Tanh m i ? ™ 1 6 a n d 1 3 5 ( S c h l a t t e r , Matthaus, 1 2 2 ) ; Pesiq., 2 8 e ; Pesiq. R. 3 6 ( 1 6 2 a ) a n d Pesiq. R. 3 5 ( 1 6 1 a ) , Tanh -OTDD o n N u 2:2; cf. F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 1 4 - 7 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 135-53. 1
4
4
4
5
4
6
S e c o m m b e , Possessions, 4 4 - 6 9 ; C h i l t o n , God, 1 2 3 - 7 7 , s e e this t e x t a s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e Tg. Isa 6 1 : l f a n d 4 2 : 1 6 . S t u h l m a c h e r , ibid., 1 4 2 - 1 5 1 ; ' T h e m a ' , 2 1 ; C h i l t o n , God, 9 5 ; S c h l a t t e r , Glaube, 5 9 0 ; B e t z , ' E v a n g e l i u m ' , 70ff, for w h o m T U C J T C U C T C is t o b e c o n c e i v e d i n t e r m s o f I s a 5 3 : 1 ; Schnackenburg, 'Evangelium', 320f; K o c h , 'Messias', 127. S t u h l m a c h e r , ' T h e m a ' , 21ff. The relationship between T O cOayye'Xiov 'Iriaou XpiaToO a n d T 6 c u a y y c X i o v T O 0 9 C O U , a p p e a r s b e s t u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d a s 'die S e l b s t e r w e i s u n g G o t t e s ' (i.e. G o d ' s p o w e r f u l , s a v i n g , s e l f - r e v e l a t i o n ) w i t h t h e p e r s o n o f J e s u s , h i s m e s s a g e a n d
The
Gospel
and the Kingdom
99
of God
In conclusion, although Stuhlmacher's position m a y 'textlich gesichert nicht realisiert w e r d e n ' ,
47
that o f Strecker et al seems to imply too radical a
disjuncture b e t w e e n the act of proclamation indicated b y its content,
euayyc'Xiov,
dependent upon O T concepts
4 8
proclamation 50
of the
a connotation
Isaianic
NE
4 9
appears
cuayye'Xiov
o f which the exemplarischen
to b e found in the prophecies o f the book of Isaiah a renewed
and
a disjuncture which is only heightened in view o f
the overall influence o f O T h o p e s on the N T . Thus,
Konigsherrschaft,
cuayyeXiCco
Belegen
are
As such it connotes
coming
of
Yahweh's
that is only reinforced given its close
proximity to M a r k ' s epexegetical O T citation. M a r k ' s explicit identification of the 'Apxrj
TOU
cuayyeXiou 'Inaou XpiaToO
the gospel to its O T Jewish r o o t s ' . (ii) Mark 1:15:
... rjyyiKei/
with Isaiah's N E , 'connects
51
rj paoiXeia
TOU Oeou
M a r k ' s introduction (vv. 1-3) is linked b y the key-word c u a y y c X i o v to the transitional h i n g e o f verses 14f w h i c h is w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d p r o g r a m m a t i c b e g i n n i n g to J e s u s '
ministry proper.
5 2
as
The
Mark's parallel
.construction o f the t w o adverbial participles (KT)puaao)v ... K a l Xe'yuv) a b o v e all h i s m i n i s t r y ; cf. W e i s s , Predigt, 1 6 ; K u h n - S c h m i d t , TDNT, 1.571-4, 579-90; C h i l t o n , God, 2 7 9 , 2 8 3 f ; G u e l i c h , ' G e n r e ' , 2 1 0 f ; L e m c i o , ' I n t e n t i o n ' , 1 8 9 f ; b u t s e e C h i l t o n ' s c a v e a t s in ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 2 4 . S u c h a s e l f - d e m o n s t r a t i o n is a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n o f t h e N E a n n o u n c e m e n t o f I s a i a h , cf. W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 3 7 - 4 0 . 4 7
4
8
4
9
F r a n k e m o l l e , ' G a t t u n g ' , 1 6 8 8 , a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e T a r g u m s in v i e w in, 'Jesus'.
S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 122ff; B a a r l i n k , Anfangliches, 48-55. E . g . S t u h l m a c h e r , ibid., 1 5 2 , 1 0 9 - 2 2 ; ' V e r s o h n u n g ' , 4 4 ; cf. S c h n e e m e l c h e r , Apocrypha, 1 . 7 2 , w h o a r g u e s for a H e l l e n i s t i c o r i g i n b u t r e c o g n i s e s t h e p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e of Dt. I s a o n t h e N T u s a g e . S e e n o w a l s o , M a r c u s , 18ff. A g a i n , pace G u n d r y , 4 1 , M a r k ' s subsequent a c c o u n t of Jesus' actions suggest that connotations of victory a n d ensuing p e a c e a r e t o b e s e e n h e r e , s e e C h a p t e r 6 , a l s o F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 0 7 - 2 7 ; a n d a g a i n n o w M a r c u s , 26f. F u l l e r , Mission, 34ff; B o w m a n , ' T e r m ' , 55ff; H o o k e r , Jesus, 6 6 f ; L a n e ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, ' T h e m a ' ; Betz, 'Jesu'; etc. G u n d r y ' s d e m u r r a l , 4 1 , o n the possibility of v i c t o r y c o n n o t a t i o n s fails t o t a k e i n t o t h e a c c o u n t t h e b a t t l e i m a g e r y i n h e r e n t in t h e w h o l e N E t r a d i t i o n a n d M a r k ' s e m p h a s i s o n J e s u s a s t h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r in e.g. 3 : 2 3 - 2 7 , s e e f u r t h e r C h a p t e r 6. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t w h i l e ' A p x f | m a y r e l a t e o n l y t o t h e p r o l o g u e ' s c o n t e n t s , t h e p r e s e n c e o f c u a y y c ' X i o v in t h e title a n d in w . 1 4 - 1 5 s u g g e s t s t h a t c u a y y c ' X i o v c o n c e r n s t h e e n t i r e w o r k , H e n g e l , ' L i t e r a r y ' , 5 3 n 8 1 . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e g o s p e l a b o u t J e s u s is for M a r k l a r g e l y s y n o n y m o u s w i t h J e s u s ' g o s p e l of t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d . G u e l i c h , ' G e n r e ' . B e t z , ' E v a n g e l i u m ' , 72ff, f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t M k 1 4 : 9 ( T O c u a y y c ' X i o v eig 6'Xov T O V K o a j i o v ) r e f l e c t s I s a i a h 5 2 : 1 0 , a n d , a s t h e g o s p e l p a r t i c u l a r l y f o c u s e s o n J e s u s ' d e a t h ( n o t e t h e p r e - P a u l i n e c o n f e s s i o n in 1 C o r 1 5 : 1 - 5 ) , t h a t M a r k u s e s e u a y y c X i o v in 1:1 'weil e s a u c h in ( T g ) J e s 5 3 , 1 a m A n f a n g d e s B e r i c h t e s u b e r d a s L e i d e n d e s G o t t e s k n e c h t s t e n t ' , cf. H 3 m i 0 3 * ? . B e t z ' c o n n e c t i o n , ibid., 5 9 , o f e u a y y c X i o v w i t h t h e m o t i f of t h e ' s u f f e r i n g s e r v a n t ' d e p e n d s o f c o u r s e o n t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h i s m o t i f c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d in M a r k , s e e C h a p t e r 8. L i g h t f o o t , Gospel, 2 0 ; A m b r o z i c , 1 7 ; R o b i n s o n , 2 1 ; M a r x s e n , 6 6 ; P e s c h , 1 . 1 0 0 - 7 . 5 0
5 1
5 2
100
Markan
s u g g e s t s that the second clause: (SaaiXeia
TOO
OCOU,
Prologue
ncTTXrfpuTai
is epexegetical of the first:
6
Kaipo? Kat rfyyiKcv
cuayye'Xiov
TO
G i v e n the p e r c e p t i o n of the Isaianic significance
€yyi£a)
5 4
GCOU.
5
3
o f c u a y y e ' X i o v , it is
p e r h a p s n o t surprising that several c o m m e n t a t o r s regard the use of c y y i O as also deriving from Isaiah 4 0 - 6 6 .
TOU
r\
Synoptics'
And in fact, although
o c c u r s frequently in the L X X , it is i n d e e d in Isaiah that it is
primarily
linked
with
the
promise
of
the
nearness
of
God's
r i g h t e o u s n e s s — u n d e r s t o o d as the j u s t e x e r c i s e o f his k i n g l y r e i g n in bringing salvation to his people (46:13; 51:5; 5 6 : 1 ) .
55
5 3
B l a c k , ' K i n g d o m ' , 2 9 0 , s e e s t h e p a r a l l e l o f TT€TTXT|'pwTai (cf. L a m 4 : 1 8 [ 1 9 ] ) a s s u p p o r t i n g t h e r e n d i t i o n o f 'TJyyiK€v = qerabhath (malkuth 'elaha)', i.e. t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d has come, cf. A m b r o z i c , 21f; L o h m e y e r , 3 0 . O n t h e d e b a t e s u r r o u n d i n g this v e r b : o n t h e o n e h a n d , D o d d , Parables, 'Kingdom'; Hutton, 'Kingdom'; and, on the other, Campbell, ' K i n g d o m ' a n d C l a r k , ' R e a l i z e d ' (sic); w h i l e m e d i a t e d b y F u l l e r , Mission; Robinson, 24; K u m m e l , Promise; B l a c k , ' K i n g d o m ' ; a n d B e r k e y , 'ErTIZEIN'. 5 4
E . g . P r e i s k e r , TDNT, 2 . 3 3 1 f ; F u l l e r , Mission, 2 4 ; a n d C h i l t o n , God, 5 8 f , for w h o m this ' w i d e l y a t t e s t e d in t h e N T a s a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e r m i n u s t e c h n i c u s ' . A m b r o z i c ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d in M a r k , in s p i t e o f r e c o g n i s i n g t h e fulfilment a s p e c t o f M k l:2f, l a r g e l y i g n o r e s t h e O T b a c k g r o u n d . O f t h e o t h e r p r o p h e t s , € y y i £ a ) o c c u r s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y in E z e k i e l b u t c o n c e r n s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m , cf. 7:7; 9:1; 1 2 : 2 3 ; 2 2 : 4 , 5 . In I s a i a h , Y a h w e h ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e N E is a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f h i s r i g h t e o u s c o m m i t m e n t t o O Q ^ Q ( 4 1 : l f , 1 0 ; 4 2 : 1 - 7 ; 4 5 : 1 3 ; 5 1 : 4 - 7 ) . pis/nglX is p r i m a r i l y l i n k e d w i t h s a l v a t i o n (1>E?\ 4 5 : 8 , 2 1 ; 4 6 : 1 3 ) a n d Y a h w e h ' s r e d e m p t i o n o f I s r a e l ; R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 313ff, R e i t e r e r , Gerechtigkeit. J u s t a s 1 2 : l f f links t h e t h e m e s o f c o m f o r t a n d t h e N E w i t h niHttP, s o t o o in 4 0 - 5 5 . Y a h w e h is d e c l a r e d t o b e t h e o n l y s a v i o u r o f b o t h I s r a e l a n d t h e n a t i o n s ( 4 5 : 1 5 , 1 7 , 21ff; 4 3 : 3 , 1 1 , 1 2 ; 4 9 : 2 5 , 2 6 ) ; n e i t h e r t h e i d o l s ( 4 2 : 1 7 ; 4 5 : 1 6 ; 4 6 : 1 - 4 ) n o r t h e v a r i o u s w i s e o n e s c a n d e l i v e r ( 4 7 : 1 3 , 1 5 ) . S a l v a t i o n a p p e a r s in p a r a l l e l w i t h pl^ s i n c e it is Y a h w e h w h o c r e a t e s b o t h ( 4 5 : 8 ) a n d b o t h will last f o r e v e r ( 5 1 : 6 , 8 ) . B o t h t e r m s dominate 4 0 - 5 5 as statements of God's imminent act (45:21, 2 5 ; 46:13; 54:14, 17). The relationship b e t w e e n these terms a n d D S 0 Q as characteristics of Y a h w e h ' s righteous a c t i v i t y is e x e m p l i f i e d in 5 1 : 4 f w h e r e h i s c o m i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n o n I s r a e l ' s b e h a l f is a m a t t e r of OBtip, pi*, a n d rWTCT; cf. B e u k e n , 'MlSPAT. T h i s a p p r o a c h is f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d in t h e i n n o v a t i v e u s e o f t h e ^Ki l a n g u a g e , S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 9 9 - 1 2 3 ; S c h o o r s , Saviour, 1 6 9 , 1 7 2 , 2 9 7 . Y a h w e h ' s b o n d w i t h I s r a e l in h e r s l a v e r y ( 4 3 : 1 - 7 ) r e f l e c t s t h e k i n s m a n ' s o b l i g a t i o n t o r e s c u e h i s b r o t h e r f r o m s l a v e r y . I s r a e l is r e d e e m e d b y h e r k i n s m a n Y a h w e h w h o will g i v e E g y p t , C u s h , a n d S h e b a a s h e r r a n s o m ( 4 3 : 1 - 7 ; cf. 5 2 : 3 ) . T h i s c o n c e p t a l s o l o o k s b a c k t o t h e d e l i v e r a n c e f r o m E g y p t ( 5 1 : 1 0 ; cf. 4 8 : 2 0 f f ; 5 2 : 3 , lOff; S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 5 9 - 9 8 ) a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y I s r a e l ' s N E r e d e m p t i o n is l i n k e d w i t h W a r r i o r l a n g u a g e ( L o r d o f H o s t s in 44:6; 47:4; cf. t h e f r e q u e n t a s s o c i a t i o n o f ^Ka w i t h t h e t i t l e , ^K^fa;* ©ilp: 4 1 : 1 4 ; 4 3 : 1 4 ; 4 7 : 4 ; 4 8 : 1 7 ; 4 9 : 7 ; 54:5ff) a n d is a l s o a m a t t e r o f j u d g e m e n t for B a b y l o n a s it w a s for E g y p t ( 4 7 : 1 7 ) . T h e R e d e e m e r - M a r r i a g e m o t i f is e x p a n d e d in t h e t h e m e o f t h e c h i l d l e s s a n d r e j e c t e d b r i d e , w h o is m a d e m i r a c u l o u s l y fruitful b y t h e r e s t o r e d m a r i t a l l o v e o f Y a h w e h ( 5 4 : 1 - 1 0 ; 4 4 : 4 ; 49:19ff; 5 4 : 1 - 3 ; cf. 4 9 : 2 5 ) , cf. S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 1 0 3 f , 115ff; a n d K r u p p , Verhaltnis, w h o d i s c u s s e s r o l e o f t h e m a r r i a g e b o n d in c o v e n a n t a l p e r s p e c t i v e a n d s e e s it a s t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e for 4 0 - 5 5 , a n d t h e h i g h l i g h t o f Y a h w e h ' s r e t u r n , such that ch. 5 4 forms the goal to which the w h o l e m o v e s . 5 5
The
Gospel
and the Kingdom
101
of God
This is supported b y C h i l t o n ' s proposal that Tg. Isaiah background t o M a r k 1:15.
is t h e specific
W h e n K^b/ttXtipogj is used in the M T a n d L X X
56
to speak directly o f G o d ' s act, it refers 'to the completion o f a stated period or t i m e o r p r o c e s s ' .
5 7
B u t C h i l t o n argues that b o t h verbs s e e m to lack
independent eschatological reference, a n d , therefore, that neither the M T nor the LXX provide a n explanation o f 'how a phrase with tt€ttXtjp(A)tc(i a n d
6
Kaipoc;
unmodified c a n h a v e b e e n used at M k 1,15 with t h e apparent
understanding
that it w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r s t o o d ' .
58
He
then observes, h o w e v e r , that b o t h terms reflect an eschatological p u r v i e w within Aramaic a n d Syriac contexts, concluding that 'TIs is the single m o s t important extant witness to the conceptions w h ic h a r e at the b a s e o f this a n n o u n c e m e n t ' , with correspondences to 'three out o f the four k e y terms in the saying (rrXripoco, Kaipoc;, p a a i X c i a ) , a n d language which is suggestive of ... the fourth ( f f y y i K c v ) ' .
59
These terms speak then o f t h e time in w h ic h G o d acts (Tg. Isa 60:1, 22). The days o f mourning a r e completed (Tg. Isa 60:20; cf. 57:18) as the reign o f 4
God breaks in (Tg. Isa 31:4; 52:7; in 40:9 it is the yon ™! K n o ^ a w h i c h is revealed). A l l that remains is to announce the near c o m i n g in strength o f G o d ' s p r e s e n c e (Tg. Isa 40:10; 56:1).
O n this basis, a n d in v i e w o f its
connection with fjyyiK€v, J e s u s ' ^ € T a v o € t T € is also to b e understood in the light o f O T prophetic usage, a n d again particularly o f that in Tg. F u r t h e r , in v i e w o f t h e I s a i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d
of c u a y y e ' X i o v
60
Isaiah.
(as p e r
S t u h l m a c h e r ) , Chilton finds that ' t h e appearance o f a belief p h r a s e with bswrh at Tg.Is. 53,1 is a staggeringly close parallel to M a r k 1,15'.
5 6
5
7
5
8
61
God, 8 6 - 9 5 .
M o u l e , ' F u l f i l m e n t ' , 3 0 9 ; cf. C h i l t o n , God, 78ff; Delling, TDNT, 4 . 2 8 7 f . F o r t h i s a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g , C h i l t o n , God, 81ff. P e s c h , 1 . 1 0 2 , n o t e s t h a t t h e y a r e especially characteristic of apocalyptic terminology for the establishment of t h e reign of G o d , 4 Ezra 4:36f; 2 Bar. 4 0 : 3 . P e s c h a l s o lists T o b 1 4 : 5 b u t s e e C h i l t o n , op cit. 5 9
C h i l t o n , God, 88f. C h i l t o n , God, 90ff; AB, l l . x v i ; c f . T r i l l i n g , ' B o t s c h a f t ' , 5 3 ; K e l b e r , 1 4 ; pace W e l l h a u s e n , 8 ; L o h m e y e r , 3 0 ; A m b r o z i c , 5 . T h e i d e a o f r e p e n t a n c e is c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e view that Isa 4 0 - 5 5 reveals a n e g a t i v e response, a failure t o believe in Y a h w e h ' s announcement; W a t t s , 'Consolation'. C h i l t o n , God, 9 5 ; Tg. Isa r e a d s : w m i o n ? yim ]D, cf. Tg. Isa 4 0 : 9 , 5 2 : 7 . 6
0
6 1
1
102
Markan
Prologue
This evidence suggests that M a r k 1:14-15, while clearly n o t a citation, is p r o b a b l y b e s t u n d e r s t o o d in t h e light o f t h e traditions reflected in Tg. Isaiah.
It a p p e a r s m o s t likely, therefore, that these v e r s e s constitute a
proclamation o f the inauguration o f the N E deliverance a n d t h e breaking in, 'in strength', o f Y a h w e h ' s reign. In this respect o n e might also note the suggestion that the
Kfjpu£-
coming
one'.
'stronger
verb also harks b a c k to J o h n ' s preaching o f the
6 2
I f s o , then p r e s e n t i n g J e s u s in t e r m s o f t h e
victorious Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r (see C h a p t e r 6) w o u l d b e consistent with an overall Isaianic N E motif. T h u s far, the results o f the present study tend to confirm t h e proposal t h a t I s a i a h ' s N E is t h e c o n s i s t e n t a n d d o m i n a n t
motif within
the
structurally significant opening (vv. 1-3) a n d transitional sections (vv. 1415) o f the prologue. understood
The c u a y y c ' X i o v
within the framework
'Inaou XpiaTou
delivering self-revelation o f Y a h w e h p a a i X c i a T o u Gcou).
is, it s e e m s , t o b e
of the Isaianic expectation of the (euayye'Xiov
TOU
9 C O U , f f y y i K € v rj
A t this point an intriguing a m b i g u i t y arises in that
Y a h w e h ' s salvific self-revelation is not only p r o c l a i m e d b y J e s u s (1:14-15) but is also apparently identified with h i m (1:1-3). J e s u s not only proclaims but also effects the deliverance. In other words, o r at least s o it s e e m s from M a r k ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , the Isaianic herald is h i m s e l f r e v e a l e d to b e t h e agent o f Isaianic salvation (cf. L k 4:16ff; w e will s e e this sort o f ambiguous dual identification again in Mark.) T h e next question then is w h e t h e r o r not there is a n y evidence that the accounts o f J e s u s ' preparation (1:9-13) are also cast in terms o f t h e Isaianic N E motif.
b) The
Baptism
(i) Mark 1:10:... eidev KCCl to
ax^Co\iivo\)g TTveuiia
robs
. . . KCLTapatvov
oupavoiis €1$ CLXJTOV
T h e o p e n i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s is a familiar a p o c a l y p t i c i m a g e .
6 3
Mark's
a c c o u n t is d i s t i n c t i v e , h o w e v e r , s i n c e t h e r e is n o m e n t i o n o f further 6
2
6
3
A m b r o z i c , 1 9 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 4 2 ( s e e 22ff o n p o s s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s ) ; a n d G u n d r y , o n Mark's e m p h a s i s o n the stronger one. Schneck, 3 8 , discerns a n allusion here to Isa 40:10. N o t e a l s o t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l / m e s s i a n i c c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e flxeov s a y i n g s a n d J o h n ' s p r e a c h i n g c o n c e r n i n g t h e 6 cpxonevos', e.g. A r e n s , HAGON, 2 8 6 - 3 2 4 , 3 4 8 ; M u f i n e r , ' G o t t e s h e r r s c h a f t ' , 8 2 ; S c h n e i d e r , TDNT, 2 . 6 6 8 f ; W e b b , John, 2 6 1 - 3 0 6 . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e M a r x s e n ' s e x e g e s i s , 1 3 4 , o f l : 1 4 f v i s 'I a m c o m i n g s o o n ' m i s s e s t h e fulfilment m o t i f . E . g . E z e k 1:1; A c t s 7 : 5 6 ; R e v 1 9 : 1 1 ; 2 Bar. 2 2 : 1 ; T. Levi 2 : 6 ; 5 : 1 ; 1 8 : 6 ; T. Jud. 2 4 : 2 ( t h e l a t t e r t w o m a y r e f l e c t C h r i s t i a n i n f l u e n c e ; D e J o n g e , Testaments; 'Influence'; Chevallier,
The
103
Baptism
64
v i s i o n a r y r e v e l a t i o n — w h i c h suggests s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n an a p o c alyptic origin—but instead the Spirit d e s c e n d s , Jesus to b e J o h n ' s 'stronger o n e ' .
6 6
65
thereby
demonstrating
This descent of the Spirit, in connection
with the strong language o f 'rending', has a m o n g other things (e.g. 6 3 : 1 1 , 14 LXX: KaT€prj TTveu^a u a p a K u p i o u ) led several c o m m e n t a t o r s to s e e Isaiah 63:19 M T as the background to this passage (cf. N e h 9 : 2 0 ) .
67
N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e o f the m o s t recent and t h o r o u g h w o r k s o n t h e b a p t i s m o f J e s u s , that o f F . L e n t z e n - D e i s ,
68
contests this v i e w for t h e
following r e a s o n s : A ) a l t h o u g h M a r k uses a x ^ O
i n s t e a d o f the
more
c o m m o n dvoiyw and thereby reflects the s u d d e n irruption o f Y a h w e h ' s presence, the remainder o f his account does not cohere with a ' t h e o p h a n i e ' Gattung,
B ) in contrast to Isaiah 64:lf, M a r k does not describe G o d ' s descent
'zur V e r n i c h t u n g der F e i n d e u n d damit z u m Heil des V o l k e s ' but instead records the descent o f the Spirit, and C ) the j u d g e m e n t o f the w i c k e d 'ist aber nicht e i n m o g l i c h e r S i n n fur M k 1:10'.
Thus, while Lentzen-Deis
a l l o w s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f an allusion to I s a i a h 6 4 : 1 , it c a n n o t serve as background to M a r k 1:10 since the context o f 64:lff 'in ganz a n d e r e m Sinn weiterentwickelt' ,
6 9
Lentzen-Deis' assessment, however, may be challenged on several counts.
G r a n t e d that dvoiyo) is m o r e c o m m o n in this construction (e.g.
Gen 7:11; Ps 77:23 LXX; Isa 24:18; Ezek 1:1; Acts 7:56; 10:11 etc.), the L X X ' s use of dvoiyo) to render J n p in Isaiah 63:19 M T is anomalous.
Mark's a x ^ O ,
therefore, appears not only m o r e accurate, but m a y suggest a particular interest in the M T ' s account with its m o r e explicit statement o f Y a h w e h ' s coming.
7 0
F u t h e r m o r e , not only is the B a p t i s m the only place in the N T
L'Esprit, 1 2 5 - 3 0 ; H u l t g a r d , ' I d e a l ' ) ; cf. A c t s 1 0 : 1 1 ; R e v 1 1 : 1 9 . S e e a l s o v a n U n n i k , ' H i m m e l ' ; L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 99ff; T a y l o r ; C r a n f i e l d . 6 4
Such disturbances m a y also be a n indicator of eschatological judgement J o b 14:12 L X X ; P s 1 0 2 : 2 6 ; H a g 2 : 6 , 2 1 ; Sib. Or. 3 : 8 2 ; 8 : 2 3 3 , 4 3 1 ; M t 2 4 : 2 9 ; 2 P e t 3 : 1 0 ; R e v 6 : 1 4 , b u t a s G u n d r y n o t e s , 5 0 , n e i t h e r *by c o n t e n t n o r b y c o n t e x t c a n w e s a y t h a t J e s u s ' v i s i o n is a p o c a l y p t i c ' . 6 5
Guelich, 1.33. Gundry, 49. S e e in p a r t i c u l a r , B u s e , ' M a r k a n ' , w h o n o t e s a n u m b e r o f l i n g u i s t i c p a r a l l e l s , G u n d r y , Use, 2 8 f ; Feuillet, ' b a p t e m e ' , a n d n o w M a r c u s , 48ff; G u n d r y , 4 8 , 5 1 ; S c h n e c k , 4 4 - 4 7 . Taufe, 9 9 - 1 2 7 . 6 6
6 7
6 8
6 9
Taufe,
lOlff.
C f . G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 2 . T h e L X X d o e s n o t r e f l e c t t h e M T ' s rnT T , a l t h o u g h t h e S i n a i c o n t e x t i m p l i e s Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e . M a r k ' s axi£o> m a y a l s o reflect a n i r o n i c a l l u s i o n t o M k 1 5 : 3 8 , s u c h t h a t t h e r e n d i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s r e s u l t s in t h e r e n d i n g o f t h e v e i l , a l t h o u g h in the l a t t e r c a s e a x i £ o > w o u l d b e t h e e x p e c t e d v e r b , M a u r e r , TDNT, 7.959ff. 7 0
104
Markan
Prologue
where the descent of the Spirit is described b y KaTocpaivto but only in Isaiah 63 L X X is this verb associated with both the E x o d u s — a t h e m e central to Mark's opening citation—and the descent o f the S p i r i t .
71
Finally, it is also
noteworthy that both M a r k and Isaiah link the ' d e s c e n t ' / ' p l a c e m e n t ' KaTapaivco) o f the n n with 'coming up' out o f water i m a g e r y . Second, the reliance on Gattung
(D^/
72
as a determinative criterion ('Dies ist
der wichtigeste G e g e n g r u n d ' ) appears to b e a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l w e a k n e s s . S u c h c a t e g o r i e s m a y b e helpful
descriptive
tools b u t
Lentzen-Deis'
prescriptive application s e e m s doubtful since it is not clear that M a r k ' s failure to conform strictly to Gattung
necessarily entails a disregard for the
essential t h e m e s and motifs of the Isaianic context. Lentzen-Deis appears to sense this w h e n h e goes on to add that the concerns of the two passages are incompatible. It is at this point, however, that Lentzen-Deis' argument s e e m s m o s t open to question, since an examination o f the Isaianic context reveals a n u m b e r o f motifs—in addition to the parallels n o t e d a b o v e — that are c o m p l e m e n t a r y to Mark. It
is g e n e r a l l y
disappointment
recognised
that
Isaiah
56-66
w i t h the reality o f the R e t u r n .
7 3
reflects
post-exilic
W h i l e there is the
reaffirmation of the h o p e o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g and the remaining e x i l e s ' i n g a t h e r i n g (56:8; 57:14ff; 60:4ff; 62:10ff; 66:20; cf. 58:8), t h e r e are also i n d i c t m e n t s o f (58:1-14; 56:9 - 57:13), a n d l a m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g ( 5 9 : l - 1 5 a ; 63:7 - 64:12), the w i c k e d in the nation w h o are seen as impediments to the promised
eschatological salvation
(59:lff)
7 4
and h e n c e attract s e v e r e
c e n s u r e ( 6 5 : l l f f ; 66:3ff, 14ff, 2 4 ) . T h e w h o l e intensifies until finally the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h as Warrior (59:15bff; 63:lff) sees the apostate T e m p l e
7 1
S e e S c h n e c k , 4 5 , c i t i n g L o h m e y e r , Evangelium, 2 1 . S c h n e c k g o e s o n t o n o t e t h a t in 1 C o r 10:1-4 P a u l c o m p a r e s Christian b a p t i s m to Israel's passing t h r o u g h the sea. 7
2
These parallels raise the intriguing possibility that John's linkage of a w a t e r b a p t i s m rite w i t h his p r o c l a m a t i o n o f a f u t u r e b e s t o w a l o f t h e Spirit m a y o w e s o m e t h i n g t o Isaiah 63's u n i q u e a c c o u n t of Israel's E x o d u s experience. P e r h a p s J o h n w a s symbolically offering p r o l e p t i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a N e w E x o d u s — t h e r e - e n a c t m e n t o f p a s s i n g u p t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r b e i n g a r e p u d i a t i o n o f I s r a e l ' s p a s t ' r e b e l l i o n ' (cf. I s a 6 3 : 1 1 - 1 3 , 1 0 ) — i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e ' c o m i n g o n e ' w h o s e ' b a p t i s m in t h e Spirit', i.e. a t l e a s t t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s life-giving p r e s e n c e , w o u l d c o n s u m m a t e the r e n e w a l p r o c e s s (Isa 6 3 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) . J o r d a n - c r o s s i n g / c o n q u e s t m o d e l s tend to focus on land possession a n d miss the Spirit e m p h a s i s ( a s p e r W e b b , John, 360ff). J o h n is h e r e m u c h c l o s e r t o M o s e s w h o s e c o n c e r n is p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e o f Y a h w e h ( E x 3 3 : 1 5 f ) ; a s is M a r k ' s o p e n i n g c i t a t i o n . 7 3
R e n d t o r f f , Alte, 2 0 9 ; F o h r e r , Introduction, 3 8 6 ; G o t t w a l d , Hebrew, 5 0 7 . Kraus, 'Endtheophanie', 3 2 2 , w h e r e the p r o m i s e d theophanic deliverance h a s been p o s t p o n e d b e c a u s e of t h e p e o p l e ' s sin. 7 4
The
105
Baptism
dignitaries cast out and replaced b y the faithful servants o f Y a h w e h w h o m they had e x c o m m u n i c a t e d (65:13ff; 66:4-6, 14bff, 2 4 ) . J e r u s a l e m is then gloriously recreated amid n e w heavens and a new earth (chs. 60-3; 65:17-25; 66:7ff, 22f), her exiles return, a n d the survivors o f the Gentiles proclaim the glory o f Y a h w e h to the nations (66:19ff).
75
T h e text u n d e r consideration b e l o n g s to the last great lament w h i c h , t o g e t h e r w i t h Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e , c o n c l u d e s the w h o l e b o o k (63:7 76
64:12ET; cf. Ps 77).
I. Fischer's suggestion that, within the context o f the
b o o k as a whole, this distress represents the fulfilment (or a further one) o f the threat in the Berufungsvision even m o r e p o i g n a n t .
77
o f Isaiah 6, if correct, m a k e s the passage
T h e lament's main elements consist o f an account
of Y a h w e h ' s past acts o f redemption (63:7-14), an appeal for help w h i c h includes references to the p e t i t i o n e r s ' desperate straits (63:15 - 64:4), a confession o f sin (64:5f), and a final appeal which c o m b i n e s earlier themes (64:8-12).
7 8
M a r k ' s p o s s i b l e allusion b e l o n g s to the central and m o s t
impassioned element, n a m e l y , 6 4 : l - 5 a .
79
C o u c h e d in terms o f the E x o d u s
e p i p h a n y t r a d i t i o n s o f the a n c i e n t D i v i n e - W a r r i o r H y m n s (64:1-3; cf. 59:15bff; 6 3 : l f f ) , and, therefore, consistent with the p r e c e d i n g E x o d u s account (63:9ff cf. Ex 19:16ff; J u 5:5), they form an appeal to Y a h w e h O r a a , 63:16 (bis)) w h o is called upon to hear from heaven (LXX: oiipavdc;, 63:15; 64:1) and to repeat the saving event of the nation's founding m o m e n t .
80
F r o m this perspective, if M a r k is thinking in t e r m s o f the N E , then, pace
L e n t z e n - D e i s , h i s a p p e a l to i m a g e r y from this text is e m i n e n t l y
suitable. Not only is the passage itself part of the last great lament in Isaiah over the delay of the N E , but M a r k ' s description o f the b a p t i s m closely echoes that wh i c h the petitioners' long for: the descent o f Y a h w e h through the rent h e a v e n s . T h i s b r i n g s us to L e n t z e n - D e i s ' s e c o n d objection: in M a r k it is the Spirit, not Y a h w e h , w h o d e s c e n d s . H e r e , I w o u l d suggest, h e fails to 7
5
7
6
7
7
7
9
8
0
O n t h e s e t h e m e s , A c h t e m e i e r , Community; H a n s o n , Dawn; P a u r i t s c h , Gemeinde; a n d t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e s t r u c t u r e o f c h ' s 5 6 - 6 6 , C h a r p e n t i e r , Jeunesse, 79f; G o t t w a l d , Hebrew, 508. H a n s o n , Dawn; W e s t e r m a n n ; P a u r i t s c h , Gemeinde; W a t t s , Isaiah, s e e s a s e r m o n p r a y e r , cf. v o n R a d , ' L e v i t i c a l ' . Wo, 2 8 9 f f . 7 8 W h y b r a y ; W e s t e r m a n n ; H a n s o n , 79ff. T h e first u n i t is a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y a g r e e d , the others are debated. Westermann, 395; Whybray. H a n s o n , 8 7 ; W e s t e r m a n n ; cf. C r o s s , Canaanite.
106
Markan
Prologue
,
appreciate fully Isaiah 6 3 s r e m a r k a b l e p n e u m a t o l o g y .
I n addition to a
unique e m p h a s i s o n the Itiljj n n (63:10, 1 1 , cf. 14) there is an unparalled association o f tthpn n n with t h e E x o d u s w h e r e the n n is p r e s e n t e d as almost equivalent to Y a h w e h h i m s e l f . rend
the heavens
understood
81
and come down'
Further, the appeal to Y a h w e h 'to in 6 3 : 1 9 ( M T ) m u s t
surely be
in t h e light o f t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g c o n t e x t o f t h e
Exodus rememberance, which rememberance not only forms the very basis o f that appeal b u t is, as already noted, replete with n n language.
In
other words, if the m e m o r y o f Y a h w e h ' s great redemptive act, from Isaiah 6 3 ' s point o f view, is characterised b y his 'placing' o f his n n - p r e s e n c e in the m i d s t o f h i s p e o p l e then it is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g
if the long-awaited
repetition o f the saving event should also b e so characterised. Of s o m e interest here, in light o f o u r earlier treatment o f t h e M a l a c h i and Exodus texts, is the appearance o f the enigmatic reference to VJQ ^K^ft (Isa 6 3 : 9 ) .
82
Again there s e e m s to b e s o m e degree o f identity b e t w e e n the
angel (or presence) a n d the n n in that the former saves t h e people (v. 9 ) , and the latter dwells with them (v. 11) a n d leads them through the desert to the p r o m i s e d land (v. 1 4 ) . Spirit is p r e s e n t e d
8 3
This is c o n s o n a n t b o t h w i t h t h e w a y the
in Isaiah 6 3
8 4
a n d w i t h t h e fact that t h e "^K^E c a n
function a s a reference to Y a h w e h ' s self-manifestation.
It is, p e r h a p s ,
w o r t h n o t i n g in p a s s i n g that the implicit threat o f the M a l a c h i / E x o d u s texts are n o t far away. Here, too, there is the motif o f Y a h w e h ' s presence ( = ' a n g e l ' = ' H o l y Spirit'?) b e c o m i n g a threat d u e to Israel's disobedience, in that Israel's grieving iunp n n c a u s e d Y a h w e h to b e c o m e their e n e m y (63:10; cf. M a r k 3:29). W e t u r n finally to L e n t z e n - D e i s ' third objection: t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f adversaries ( ^ 1 ^ ) a n d the trembling o f the nations (tria, 64:1) are absent in 8
1
8
2
O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e is a d e v e l o p m e n t t o w a r d t h e n o t i o n t h a t a l l o f G o d ' s a c t s c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s S p i r i t a n d , o n t h e o t h e r , t h e r e is e v i d e n c e o f a t r e n d t o w a r d a d i s t i n c t hypostasis, Whybray; Westermann. T h i s e m p h a s i s o n t h e Spirit is in fact n o t e d b y L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 1 0 2 ; cf. G u n d r y , Use, 3 0 . W h y b r a y f o l l o w s t h e L X X a n d r e a d s Ifthft a s a b s o l u t e , a d d i n g t h e a d v e r s a t i v e d X X ' a n d r e a d i n g V3Q a s axjrog—'no messenger n o r angel but his presence saved them'—partly b e c a u s e h e c o n s i d e r s t h e c o n c e p t a s it s t a n d s i n t h e M T ' u n i q u e a n d i m p r o b a b l e ' , cf. W e s t e r m a n n . I n s u p p o r t o f t h e M T (cf. D S S , 8 D ) t h e r e is m u c h i n t h e p a s s a g e t h a t a p p e a r s u n i q u e a n d it m a y b e t h a t "P3S ^K*??? is a n i n n o v a t i v e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m m ^K^D, w i t h t h e g e n i t i v e e m p h a s i s i n g t h e d e s i r e d a s p e c t , i.e. p r e s e n c e , m u c h t h e s a m e a s m i a n ^K*??? in M a i 3 : 1 . C f . D e l i t z s c h ; A c h t e m e i e r , Community; W a t t s , Isaiah. W a t t s , Isaiah, 3 3 2 . ' Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e t h e y u n i q u e l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s "his h o l y spirit'", H a n s o n , 9 0 . I s a
8
3
8
4
The
Mark.
107
Baptism
H o w e v e r , contrary to L e n t z e n - D e i s , the j u d g e m e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s
e n e m i e s is perfectly c o m p a t i b l e with M a r k ' s account. on w h o is s e e n as t h e e n e m y .
T h e question turns
O n the o n e h a n d , t h e I s a i a h c o n t e x t
envisages the destruction o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s apostate leaders and T e m p l e dignitaries at Y a h w e h ' s advent (65:1-15; 66:3-6, 14bff, 2 4 ) .
8 5
This has strong
affinities with the threat associated with Malachi 3:1 and M a r k ' s portrayal of Israel's leaders (e.g. 11:12-25; 12:1-12; 13:lff). O n the other hand, several scholars have noted Mark's heavy emphasis on J e s u s ' eschatological conflict w i t h S a t a n .
8 6
A l t h o u g h this will b e d e v e l o p e d m o r e fully in
Chapter 6, suffice it to say that for M a r k the e n e m y is n o longer the nations but the d e m o n s (thus in M a r k ' s first miracle the u n c l e a n spirit not o n l y designates J e s u s as ' t h e h o l y o n e o f G o d ' b u t also p e r c e i v e s his mission, 1:24, cf. his plundering o f Satan, 3:27, and the demise o f 'Legion', 5:lff). C o n s e q u e n t l y , it a p p e a r s that M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f the d e s c e n t
through
rent h e a v e n s o f the Spirit u p o n J e s u s is entirely in k e e p i n g w i t h the last great lament o f the B o o k o f Isaiah. For M a r k , Jesus is Y a h w e h ' s answer to that cry: h e h a s i n d e e d c o m e , ' i n strength', to a n n o u n c e and to effect Israel's long-awaited N E . S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s h a v e also d r a w n attention to t h e u n u s u a l M a r k a n construction, eig 63:11.
8 7
GLVTOV
(cf. c t t '
auTov
in par.), seeing here an e c h o o f Isaiah
T h e O T text is difficult in that the M T ' s 1 a n p ? a p p e a r s o n the
surface to h a v e o n e figure in v i e w , b u t the singular p r o n o u n ' s referent is not easy to discern, cf. the L X X ' s €v a u T o t c ; .
88
In any case, given that M a r k
c o u l d o n l y r e a s o n a b l y h a v e u s e d the s i n g u l a r ( c i ? a u T o ' v ) ,
it s e e m s
u n w a r r a n t e d to p r e s s this into a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s as I s r a e l ' s n e w shepherd, that is, a n e w M o s e s .
8 9
It is m o r e likely, given it is Israel w h o
comes up out o f the water (cf. dvapaivco in 63:10b (LXX) and M k 1:10), that Jesus
h i m s e l f is a p p a r e n t l y
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of, I s r a e l .
8 5
90
presented
as b e i n g
equivalent
to,
or
T h i s identification finds further s u p p o r t not
5 6 : 9 - 1 2 ; 5 7 : 3 - 1 3 a ; c h . 5 9 ; W e s t e r m a n n , 301ff; H a n s o n , 134ff; A c h t e m e i e r ,
Community,
128f. 8 6
E . g . R o b i n s o n , 28ff; K e c k , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 6 2 ; N i n e h a m , 6 3 ; L a n e , 6 2 ; P e s c h , 1 . 9 8 ; G n i l k a , 1 . 5 9 ; cf. K e e , 1 1 9 . 8 7
B u s e , ' A c c o u n t ' ; F e u i l l e t , ' b a p t e m e ' ; G u n d r y , Use; n o w S c h n e c k , 4 6 . Is it t h e s h e p h e r d , i.e. M o s e s , o r s h o u l d ' s h e p h e r d ' b e r e a d a s p l u r a l , o r is t h e singular used collectively of the people? See W h y b r a y ; W e s t e r m a n n . Pace S c h n e c k , 4 6 . S e e fn. 8 7 . 8 8
8 9
9 0
108
Markan
Prologue
o n l y in M a r k ' s recalling the m o r e general staples o f Israel's
founding
m o m e n t s u c h as desert, water, and 'forty days', but also his e m p h a s i s on the b a p t i s m ' s correspondences with the distinctive features o f the Isaianic account o f that inaugural event (Isa 6 3 : l l f f ; cf. 1 C o r 1 0 : l f f ) .
91
Such an identification raises a question: h o w can M a r k portray J e s u s as the o n e w h o both a n n o u n c e s and inaugurates Israel's deliverance (as per the cuayye'Xiov material above) and w h o at the s a m e time re-enacts Israel's E x o d u s either as the 'true Israel' or her representative?
Before dealing
w i t h this it is n e c e s s a r y to e x a m i n e w h a t is p e r h a p s the m o s t difficult section o f M a r k ' s prologue: the w o r d s spoken b y the voice from heaven. (ii)
Mark 1:11:...
Kai
(pcji/fi
kykvero
€K T&V
Zv €i 6 uioV pov 6 aya.'n^Tos, The
ovpavtiv,
kv aoi €X)6oKr)oa
O T h a s g e n e r a l l y b e e n s e e n as the b a s i s for i n t e r p r e t i n g
1:11.
H o w e v e r , the v o i c e ' s brief statement reveals n o unequivocal O T allusion and the diversity o f p r o p o s e d origins, variously located in P s a l m 2 : 7 , Isaiah 42: l , thereof,
9 6
9 3
G e n e s i s 2 2 : 2 , 12, 1 6 ,
9 4
Exodus 4:22f,
m a k e s precise identification difficult.
95
or
9 2
combinations
C o n s e q u e n t l y , several
s c h o l a r s h a v e t a k e n the v i e w that the a l l u s i o n s in the v o i c e are so
9 1
B u s e , ' A c c o u n t ' ; L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 1 0 2 ; B r e t s c h e r , ' E x o d u s ' ; H o o k e r .
9 2
V i e l h a u e r , Aufsdtze, 2 0 5 f ; L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 1 4 0 n 2 ; cf. J u s t i n , Dial, 8 8 , 1 0 3 ; C l e m . A l e x . , Paed., 1 . 6 . 2 5 ; Ap. Con. 2 . 3 2 ; GEb. frg 4 ; M e t h . , Symp, 8 . 9 ; Did., 9 ; L a c t , Inst., 4 . 1 5 . 9
3
F o l l o w i n g B o u s s e t ' s o r i g i n a l f o o t n o t e , Kyrios, 5 7 n 2 ; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5.701ff; Theology, 1.53ff; C u l l m a n n , Baptism, 17f; Christology, 6 6 ; M a u r e r , 'Knecht', 31f; Fuller, Mission, 5 5 ; Foundations, 1 6 9 ; Gils, Jesus, 56ff. P e s c h , 1 . 9 2 , p r i m a r i l y I s a 4 2 : 1 , b u t h e r e j e c t s J e r e m i a s ' p r o p o s a l f o r a viog/vcHg exchange. 9 4
T u r n e r , ' ! IOZ'; G a b o u r y , ' D e u x ' ; B e s t , Temptation, 1 6 9 - 7 2 ; V e r m e s , Scripture, 222f; D a n i e l o u , ' t y p o l o g i e ' ; D a l y , ' S o t e r i o l o g i c a l ' , 68ff; W o o d , ' I s a a c ' ; s o m e n o t i n g t h e i d e a o f A q e d a h - t y p o l o g y , cf. T. Levi 1 8 ; T. Judah 2 4 ; I r e n a e u s , Adv. Haer., 4 . 5 . 4 ; A t h a n a s i u s , Oratio, IV; Contra Arianos, 2 4 . O t h e r s w h o a l l o w t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f G e n 2 2 a s filial a r e less c o n v i n c e d a b o u t t h i s a s p e c t (fn. 9 6 ) . W h i l e A q e d a h - t y p o l o g y c a n n o t i m m e d i a t e l y b e d i s c o u n t e d , e.g. Trapa6i6o)jii in 1:14 sets 'the p r e a c h i n g a n d s u m m o n s of J e s u s i n t o t h e d i v i n e l y w i l l e d d e a t h w a r d w o r k o f J o h n ' , K e c k , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 6 0 , t h e fact t h a t M a r k a p p a r e n t l y d o e s n o t d e v e l o p t h e t h e m e m u s t tell a g a i n s t it, cf. G a b o u r y , ' D e u x ' ; P e s c h ; D a v i e s , Matthew, G u e l i c h . T h a t t h e N T k n o w s little if a n y t h i n g o f t h e A q e d a h in c o m p a r i s o n t o l a t e r C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t it is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a p o s t - N T d e v e l o p m e n t , cf. Davies-Chilton, ' A q e d a h ' and literature cited therein. F o r m o r e recent responses taking t h e o p p o s i t e p o s i t i o n : H a y w a r d , ' P r e s e n t ' ; O ' N e i l l , 'Jesus'; S e g a l , ' H e ' . * Bretscher, ' E x o d u s ' ; Feuillet, 'bapteme', 'personnalite'. 9
9 6
G e n e r a l l y P s 2 a n d I s a 4 2 , a l t h o u g h s o m e a l l o w G n 2 2 a s w e l l : M a r s h a l l , 'Son'; L u h r m a n n , ' B i o g r a p h i c ' , 27ff; H a h n , Titles, 3 3 9 , 3 4 5 n 4 2 ; M o u l e ; T a y l o r ; S c h w e i z e r ; D o d d , According, 3 1 f , 8 9 ; M a n s o n , Jesus, 1 1 0 ; H u n t e r , Introducing, 15; Mauser, 96; Lindars, Apologetic, 1 3 9 f ; D a v i e s , Setting, 3 7 ; L a n e ; G n i l k a ; H u r t a r d o ; M a t e r a , ' P r o l o g u e ' ; D e r r e t t ; K e e , 122ff; K i n g s b u r y , 6 5 ; L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 1 9 2 ; S c h n e c k , 5 5 - 6 8 .
The
109
Baptism
fragmentary as to rule out any direct appeal to specific O T texts and thus regard M a r k 1:11 as a m o r e o r less general s t a t e m e n t o f J e s u s ' filial relationship to the F a t h e r .
97
This seems something of a counsel o f despair.
In any case, the preceding analysis o f M a r k ' s use of O T imagery m a k e s it unlikely that the pinnacle o f his p r o l o g u e ,
98
fragmentary t h o u g h its O T
allusions might b e , is offering only a 'general statement'.
Fortunately, the
task is simplified s o m e w h a t since our concern is only with possible points of c o n t a c t w i t h the I s a i a n i c N E .
T h e following table lists the
most
c o m m o n proposals for O T sources: Mark
1:11
Psalm LXX
oh
€i
6 uios*
UOU
\A6s
uou
Isaiah MT
€i
ou
€yd) OTJU€pOV ycycvvTjKa
2:7
42:1
LXX
(6
nnK
MT
Trots
1
O" ^)
uou)
Qy>n
ac
-pin^
Gen 22:2, 22, 17 LXX (6 6
uid?
uou)
dyau^Tog
TOV
uidv
MT aou
TOV a y a n x i T o v
"["ODTIK "]TrPTIK
'IoKOjp 6 7101?
uou
"HDi? ]n
avTiXijiJjouai auTOU 'IapaTjA ev
aoi
€u6oi
6
€KX€KTOS-
Tipoa€6€4aTo 1
*l ^ X !
u
o
9
7
9
8
*~\T12
UOU
nn^"l
OUITOV
u
€ 6 a ) K a T O Tiv€uu.a €TT'
13 "pnK
uou
Tin
WO
auTov
H o o k e r , Jesus, 68ff; S u h l , 97ff; C a r r i n g t o n , 3 7 ; R u c k s t u h l , ' G o t t e s s o h n ' , 2 0 8 f . T h e T e m p t a t i o n a p p e a r s t o t a k e a s e c o n d a r y r o l e in t e r m s o f b o t h i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d a n d a l e s s e n i n g o f d r a m a t i c t e n s i o n . In t h e b a p t i s m t h e m o v e m e n t o f J e s u s o u t o f t h e w a t e r , t h e t e a r i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s , t h e d e s c e n t o f t h e Spirit, a n d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e v o i c e c o m p r i s e a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t y u n m a t c h e d in t h e p r o l o g u e ; cf. S t o n e h o u s e , 16f; Kingsbury, 60.
110
Markan
(a)
Prologue
Zd et 6 viog /iov 6 aycm^Tos,
iv aoi €v6oKT]aa
...
Jeremias and others have argued that uidc; u o u " is a secondary, Hellenistic interpretation of an earlier udig
uou (cf. Isa 42:1 LXX) because the latter was
felt to b e offensive b y Gentile C h r i s t i a n i t y . are difficult to m a i n t a i n .
101
along these l i n e s
Their arguments, however,
Granted the possibility o f such a s h i f t ,
is n o e v i d e n c e o f a m o r e p r i m i t i v e uaig setting—although
100
C h r i s t o l o g y in a
there are s o m e signs o f a later, p a t c h y 103
102
there
baptismal
development
— a n d n o n e of an earlier pre-Markan change.
Further,
that J e s u s is designated n o t e ; in a Hellenistic w o r k (Acts 3:13, 2 6 ; 4:27, 30) t e n d s to u n d e r m i n e
Jeremias' fundamental
assumption.
1 0 4
Finally,
textual support for a u i d c ; / r r a t c ; e x c h a n g e is totally lacking, w h i l e the presence o f c l uioc; c i T O U 0 € o u in the T e m p t a t i o n narratives o f M a t t h e w and Luke suggests that uidc; uou is original to the v o i c e .
9 9
1 0 5
In I n t e r - t e s t a m e n t a l m a t e r i a l , t h e e p i t h e t ' s o n ( o f G o d ) ' is e.g. a p p l i e d to:
A. t h e r i g h t e o u s : Sir 4 : 1 0 ; W i s 2 : 1 8 ; B . O T figures: T. Levi 4:2 ( L e v i ) ; 1 Enoch 1 0 5 : 2 ( E n o c h ? , cf. B l a c k , Enoch, 9 9 , 3 1 8 f ) ; Ez. Trag. 1 0 0 ( M o s e s ) ; Pray. Jos., F r a g . A . , 7 ( J a c o b ) ; J o s . Ant. 2 . 2 3 2 ( M o s e s ) ; Jos. Asen. 1 8 : 1 1 ; 2 1 : 4 ; 23:10 Qoseph); C. h o l y m e n : b. Ber. 1 7 b ( H a n i n a b e n D o s a ) ; b. Ta'an 2 5 a ( E l e a z e r b e n P e d a t h ) ; 3 1:8 ( I s h m a e l b e n E l i s h a ) ;
Enoch
D. m e s s i a n i c f i g u r e / s : 1 ) 4 Q 2 4 6 , a l t h o u g h t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l is u n c l e a r , F i t z m y e r , ' C o n t r i b u t i o n ' , 3 9 1 f f ; Wandering, 9 0 - 9 3 ; R u c k s t u h l , ' G o t t e s s o h n ' , 2 0 3 ; B y r n e , 'Sons', 61f; H e n g e l , Son, 4 5 . K i m , Son, 2 2 n 3 3 , c i t i n g S t u h l m a c h e r a n d B e t z , a n d C o l l i n s , ' P r e C h r i s t i a n ' , (cf. M a r t i n e z , ' N u e v o s ' ) , a r e m o r e c e r t a i n . 2 ) 4 Q F l o r l : 1 0 f w h e r e t h e t e r m ' s o n ' is u s e d b u t n o t t h e full title in a m i d r a s h i c s u m m a r y involving P s 2 a n d 2 S a m 7:10ff. 3 ) 4 Ezra 7 : 2 8 ; 1 3 : 3 7 ; ( p o s s i b l y ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , " M e s s i a h " , 2 0 2 ) ; K n i b b , Esdras, 1 6 9 ; B o x , Ezra, lvif, s u g g e s t c h a p t e r 1 3 is a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o m m e n t a r y o n P s 2 ; G e r o , 'Son', o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e G e o r g i a n ' t h e elect, m y a n o i n t e d o n e ' (11.18, 2 0 f ; p u b l i s h e d in B l a k e , ' G e o r g i a n ' , 3 5 4 ) s e e s a g e n u i n e l y a m b i g u o u s o r i g i n a l mraQ in 7:28f a n d n o t m e r e l y a tendentious Christian rendering. O n this d a t a t h e w o r d s viog uou a r e n o t sufficient in t h e m s e l v e s t o e s t a b l i s h m e s s i a n i c o r filial s t a t u s , o t h e r c o n t e x t u a l i n d i c a t o r s b e i n g n e c e s s a r y . F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n : B y r n e , 'Sons', 9 - 7 8 ; L o h s e , TDNT, 8 . 3 4 0 f f ; H e n g e l , Son, 4 2 - 4 8 ; D u n n , Christology, 14ff; D e l l i n g , ' B e z e i c h n u n g ' ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , Jesus, 1 4 9 - 5 1 . 100 TDNT, 5 . 7 0 3 ; cf. M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , 3 8 ; H o o k e r , Jesus, 1 0 9 . 1 0 1
1
E s p e c . M a r s h a l l , 'Son'. T h e r e a d i n g s CKXeXcyucvos in L k 9:35 a n d C K X C K T O S in J n 1:34 ( t e x t u a l l y u n c e r t a i n , cf. p , p ) a r e v a r i a n t s o f aya-nx\j6g and are not directly relevant to the q u e s t i o n of n a t c r e p l a c e m e n t . A t m o s t t h e y s h o w t h a t t h e ' s e r v a n t ' m o t i f w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e v o i c e , n o t t h a t t h e ' s o n ' m o t i f w a s d e n i e d ; ibid., 3 2 8 . D a l m a n , Words, 2 7 6 f , w h e r e W i s 2:13ff a n d 1 2 : 1 9 f r e a d s i r a t e a s c h i l d y e t u s e s l a n g u a g e f r o m Isa 40ff. Mart. Poly. 1 4 . 1 ; 2 0 . 2 ; 1 Clem. 5 9 : 2 - 4 . Cf. L k 1:54, 6 9 ; A c t s 4 : 2 5 ; M a r s h a l l , 'Son', 3 3 1 f ; H o o k e r , Jesus, 1 0 8 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 3 . C r a n f i e l d , ' S t u d y ' , 59ff; S c h n e c k , 61f, s e e s e c h o s o f ' o u r f a t h e r ' in I s a 6 3 : 1 5 f ; 64:7ff. 6 6
1 0 2
1 0 3
1 0 4
1 0 5
7 5
1
The
111
Baptism
Instead, m a n y scholars see M a r k ' s first line as alluding to P s a l m 2:7, and that the p s a l m is often cited m o r e fully in early references to the b a p t i s m lends support to this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
106
T h e change o f w o r d order, seen b y
s o m e as m i l i t a t i n g a g a i n s t the a l l u s i o n ,
1 0 7
is readily e x p l a i n e d b y t h e
customary form of e m p h a t i c first person address naturally consistent with the s e t t i n g .
108
T h e ' o m i s s i o n ' o f a reference to Y a h w e h ' s having ' b e g o t t e n '
J e s u s is only problematic if it is first established that it m u s t b e included in o r d e r for an allusion to b e s u c c e s s f u l .
109
F u r t h e r m o r e , in the absence o f
chapter and v e r s e divisions, part-citations w e r e apparently used as short h a n d references to l a r g e r c o n t e x t s , and t h e s a m e c o u l d r e a s o n a b l y b e expected of a l l u s i o n s .
110
It m a y well be that M a r k ' s interest in the matter
of J e s u s ' relationship to D a v i d ' s son, frequently at important points in his narrative
structure
(10:47f;
11:10;
12:35ff;
cf. 2 : 2 5 ) ,
i n
reflects
his
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f this e l e m e n t o f 'the v o i c e ' , e s p e c i a l l y in v i e w o f t h e p s a l m ' s links with the coronation o f a Davidic k i n g . In
Qumran,
Psalm
2 was
understood
to
1 1 2
refer
to
the
time
of
eschatological conflict b e t w e e n the c h o s e n and the s o n s o f Beliar and a similar sentiment
of dominion
and victory over Israel's enemies
e x p r e s s e d in apocalyptic and rabbinic w r i t i n g s .
113
is
A s Joel M a r c u s notes,
' J e w i s h sources from the biblical period o n ... o v e r w h e l m i n g l y
interpret
P s a l m 2 as a r e f e r e n c e to an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l v i c t o r y b y G o d , a v i c t o r y sometimes won through
the i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y
of the M e s s i a h ' .
1 1 4
The
elements o f warfare and victory are key to the p s a l m ' s original setting, in that as a coronation p s a l m it ' m a r k s the accession o f a person to a position
1
0
6
1
0
7
1
0
8
1
0
9
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
L k 3 : 2 2 D ; s e e fn. 9 2 .
C r a n f i e l d , ' S t u d y ' ; F u l l e r , Mission, 86ff; P e s c h ; G n i l k a ; V e r m e s , Scripture, 222; H o o k e r , Jesus, 6 9 ; R u c k s t u h l , ' G o t t e s s o h n ' , 2 0 2 f ; C h i l t o n , Galilean, 128; Lentzen-Deis, Taufe, 1 8 5 f . Cf. a u c i ... in 3 : 1 1 ; 8 : 2 9 ; 1 4 : 6 1 ; 1 5 : 2 ; p a r . ; a l s o G u n d r y , Use, 3 0 n 2 ; M a r s h a l l , ' S o n ' , 332f; L o h m e y e r , 2 3 . E.g. Bretscher, 'Exodus', 302. C r a n f i e l d , ' S t u d y ' , 5 9 ; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5 . 7 0 1 ; cf. D o d d , According, 126f. O n 2:25, H u r t a r d o ; see also C h a p t e r 8. O n p a r a l l e l s w i t h 2 S a m 7 : 8 - 1 6 , R o g e r s o n - M a c K a y , Psalms, 1 9 ; E a t o n , Kingship, 1 1 1 . It o u g h t t o b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t a l t h o u g h Pss. Sol. 1 7 m a k e s c o n s i d e r a b l e u s e o f P s a l m 2 a n d a p p l i e s a r a n g e o f titles t o t h e M e s s i a h it r e f r a i n s f r o m d e s i g n a t i n g h i m a s ' s o n of G o d ' , M a r c u s , 7 8 . L o v e s t a m , Son, 1 6 - 2 3 . 4
Way, Proclamation,
6 1 ; cf. 59ff, a n d in p a r t i c u l a r his d i s c u s s i o n in 7 7 - 7 9 ; s e e a l s o B o c k , lOOff.
112
Markan Prologue
of p o w e r and authority' over the nations (vv. 7ff) at Y a h w e h ' s instigation (vv. 4 f f ) .
1 1 5
All o f this, o f course, coheres with the h o p e s associated with
the I N E . Finally, not only is this t h e m e congruent with the subjection of Israel's e n e m i e s as implied b y M a r k ' s u s e o f Isaiah 6 3 ' s ' r e n d i n g o f the h e a v e n s ' and developed in his presentation o f J e s u s ' eschatological conflict with Satan (Chapter 6 ) , but again there is an element of threat in the call to do h o m a g e (vv. lOff; cf. M k l:23f). O n the other hand, P. G. Bretscher and M . D . H o o k e r h a v e pointed out that the d e s i g n a t i o n ' m y s o n / s ' is not u n c o m m o n l y u s e d , b y G o d , o f Israel.
1 1 6
Further, the relatively rare singular ('son' rather than ' s o n s ' )
designation is often found in contexts dealing with E x o d u s traditions (Ex 4:22f; H o s 11:1; cf. ' m y firstborn s o n ' in E x 4:22; J e r 31:9; also Dt 1:31; W i s 18:13; and Pss. Sol. 17:27). Given that M a r k surrounds J e s u s ' baptism with p e r v a s i v e E x o d u s i m a g e r y and particularly that i m a g e r y associated with the account in Isaiah 6 3 , it is difficult to avoid the impression that the ' s o n ' designation carries 'Israel' connotations as well. O n c e again w e are confronted with ambiguity: is J e s u s to b e seen in terms of Psalm 2 and
t h u s identified
with the agent of Y a h w e h ' s
eschatological victory—which seems to b e w h a t is in v i e w with regard to the v o i c e alone—or, is h e to b e understood in terms o f the E x o d u s motif and thus b e seen as the representative o f (or ideal) Israel—which appears to b e i m p l i e d b y the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t ?
A n d this in the light o f the
o p e n i n g m i x e d citation w h i c h w o u l d lead o n e to e x p e c t the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h himself.
At this point o n e b e g i n s to w o n d e r if this duality is
intentional; p e r h a p s M a r k has no desire to force a choice b e t w e e n the two options. M i g h t it b e that M a r k ' s account is presenting J e s u s as both Israel's 'royal' s o n o f G o d and Y a h w e h ' s true son, 'Israel'? O n c e again, w e need to hold in a b e y a n c e the question of h o w M a r k could h a v e c o m e to such an understanding.
1 1 5
Craigie,
Messianisme, 1
1
6
Psalms,
65f; K r a u s ,
Psalmen,
145ff; C a r l s o n ,
David,
37-63.
'Exodus' and
Mark r e s p e c t i v e l y ; cf.
also Fitzmyer,
Aramean,
104ff.
97-128;
Coppens,
113
The Baptism (b)
Zv el 6 vidg- uou 6 dyannrds',
iv ooi
Another possible I N E link is the a d j e c t i v a l
117
eudoKnoa
6 dyaTTrjToc;.
118
T h e descent
of the Spirit in M a r k 1:10 and the probable allusion to Isaiah 42:1 in the second part o f the verse (see below) have led some to see Isaiah 42:1 behind this e x p r e s s i o n ,
119
'servant'-contexts
particularly as (41:8-9; 4 4 : 2 ) .
dyaTTa'a) 1 2 0
occurs in t w o closely-related
It is argued that: A) M a t t h e w 12:18
indicates ayaTfriToc; to b e an alternative translation o f Isaiah 4 2 : l ' s "Vns, B ) L u k e 9:35 replaces dyaTrrjToc; with the u n u s u a l c K X c X c y u c v o c , C ) €KA€KTOC;
is an alternative reading in John 1 : 3 4 .
1 2 1
and
122
However, dyaTrriToc; never renders "Vn3 in the L X X , and M a t t h e w 12:18 is probably an assimilation to the baptismal a c c o u n t
1 2 3
either to establish
or to strengthen the link b e t w e e n the voice and Isaiah 4 2 : 1 . L u k e omits both dyaTTrjToc; and iv ooi understood
eKXcXcyjievoc;
J o h n uio'c; is p r o b a b l y
€ i ) 6 o ' K T | a a , a l t h o u g h it is p o s s i b l e that h e as equivalent to the latter p h r a s e ,
the o r i g i n a l .
1 2 5
124
while in
The evidence, therefore,
for
ayaTrriToc; b e i n g a translational option for TTIZI in Isaiah 42:1 is not strong,
and the N T v a r i a t i o n s
126
are p r o b a b l y better u n d e r s t o o d
as interpretive
developments indicating that an allusion to the Isaianic 'servant' w a s seen 1
1
7
K i l p a t r i c k , ' O r d e r ' , 1 1 2 f ; cf. 2 P e t 1:17.
1
1
8
Robinson,
Ephesians, 231ff,
a r g u e s on the basis of M t 12:18 that M a t t h e w m u s t h a v e
r e g a r d e d o d y a T T T i T o ^ a s a ( m e s s i a n i c ) title, c i t i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o f O l d S y r i a c r e a d i n g s , T.
Ben. 1 1 : 2 ; Mart. Isa. 3 : 1 7 , 1 8 , e t c . a n d its u s e a s a title o f C h r i s t ( E p h 1:6; Bar. 3 : 6 ; 4 : 3 , 8 ; Acta Thecla I; e t c . , cf. B a c o n , ' S u p p l e m e n t a r y ' ; D a v i e s , Matthew, 3 4 0 ) . H o w e v e r , o n l y T. Ben. 1 1 : 2 offers t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t w i t n e s s a s t h e r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s in Mart. Isa. a p p e a r t o b e o f C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n , S c h u r e r , 3.336ff; K n i b b , O T P , 2 . 1 4 7 f . O n dyajj^rog a s 'YIOZ'; cf.
an idiomatic equivalent to uovoyevris. Turner,
Souter,
'ArAITHTOZ'.
See n o w
a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n in M a r c u s , 5 1 f. 1
1
9
Jeremias,
TDNT,
Theology, 1.53ff; C u l l m a n n , Baptism, 17f; Christology, Mission, 5 5 ; Foundations, 1 6 9 ; G i l s , Jesus, 5 6 f f ; F e u i l l e t , R o b i n s o n , Ephesians, 2 3 2 , s u g g e s t s t h a t 'the B e l o v e d ' a n d ' t h e
5.701ff;
66;
M a u r e r , 'Knecht', 31f; Fuller, 'bapteme', 4 7 9 ; Gnilka, 1.50.
E l e c t ' w e r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e titles o n t h e b a s i s o f M t 1 2 : 1 8 a n d L k 9 : 3 5 . 1
2
0
Leenhardt,
bapteme, 2 7 n 2 ; G u n d r y , Use, 30f; n o w
121 ^ 4 5 . 7 5 K B L E 8 9 2 . 1241 p c v g Fitzmyer,
s t
sy
s
h
m
«
c o
;
Schneck, 53-55.
Metzger,
Textual;
Marshall,
Luke;
Luke.
122 p5vid N« b
e
ff2'
s y
s.c
e l e c t u s filius a f f
2 c
.
B a r t h , ' U n d e r s t a n d i n g ' , 1 2 6 ; S c h w e i z e r , TDNT, 8 . 3 6 8 ; G u n d r y , Use, 3 0 , 1 1 2 ; M a r s h a l l , 'Son', 3 3 3 . Z a h n , Lucas, 3 8 6 n 9 9 ; M a r s h a l l , 'Son', 3 3 3 ; cf. M a r s h a l l , Luke; F i t z m y e r , Luke. G u n d r y , Use, 3 0 ; B r o w n , John; M e t z g e r , Textual; b u t cf. M o r r i s , John; S c h n a c k e n b u r g , 1
2
3
1
2
4
1
2
5
John. 1
2
6
John's a c c o u n t reflects his p e r s p e c t i v e of the Baptist's u n d e r s t a n d i n g , n o t n e c e s s a r ily a v e r b a t i m r e p o r t . N o t e : n o n e o f t h e s e m a j o r v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r s in M a r k a n d t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f t e x t u a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e S y n o p t i c i s t s h a v e n o t felt free t o a l t e r t h e v o i c e in t h e b a p t i s m a c c o u n t itself in this w a y .
114
Markan
in the s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e v o i c e .
1 2 7
Prologue
O n the o t h e r h a n d , M a t t h e w ' s a n d
L u k e ' s u s e o f these terms suggests at least s o m e degree o f e q u i v a l e n c e in certain contexts, for e x a m p l e , religious, such that being ' l o v e d ' m a y imply being 'elect' (cf. L X X Isa 41:8; 44:2; b o t h in the context o f nais cf. 4 3 : 4 , 1 0 ) . ayav^rog (c)
1 2 8
terminology;
I n a n y event, a strong case h a s b e e n m a d e that M a r k ' s
equates to
liovoyevrfc
(cf. M k 1 2 : 6 ) :
Zv el 6 uioV nov 6 dyanr)Tos',
129
iv aoi
Jesus is G o d ' s unique Son. €t)6oKT]aa
O f all t h e p r o p o s a l s concerning O T sources, t h e m o s t w i d e l y accepted is that w h i c h sees in c v a o t €\)6dKTiaa a n allusion to Isaiah 4 2 : 1 .
1 3 0
The
fundamental a r g u m e n t against this v i e w is that the l a n g u a g e is n o t the s a m e as t h e L X X ( n p o a € 6 € ^ a T o a i W d v r\ 4*UXTI' J I O U ) .
131
Nevertheless,
€ u 6 o K T i a a is t h e natural a n d m o s t c o m m o n r e n d e r i n g o f 2 n}n in t h e LXX
1 3 2
a s is w i t n e s s e d b y t h e c o m b i n e d t e s t i m o n y i n I s a i a h 4 2 : 1 o f
Theodotion and the more idiomatically sensitive S y m m a c h u s
1 3 3
which
versions m a y reasonably b e understood as attempts to u p d a t e the language in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h contemporary u s a g e .
1 3 4
T h e motif o f t h e c o m i n g o f the
Spirit u p o n J e s u s further supports t h e allusion to Isaiah 4 2 : 1 . O n this r e a d i n g then, t h e attestation o f J e s u s in t e r m s o f an Isaianic ' s e r v a n t ' text further supports the general t h e m e o f t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n o f
1
2
7
1
2
8
1
2
9
1
3
0
M a r s h a l l , ' S o n ' , 3 2 8 ; D a v i e s , Matthew; S t e n d a h l , School, 1 1 0 ; G u n d r y , Use, 1 1 2 ; ( b u t s e e B a r t h , ' U n d e r s t a n d i n g ' , 1 2 6 ) ; F i t z m y e r , Luke; B o c k , Proclamation, 1 1 5 ; B r o w n , John; S c h n a c k e n b u r g , John. E i t h e r o n t h e b a s i s o f s y n o n y m y , o r if n o t , o f c o n t i g u i t y , cf. R o b i n s o n , Ephesians. On t h e s e t e r m s , S i l v a , Biblical, 120ff. TTius, pace M a r s h a l l , it is n o t c l e a r t h a t OLyctTTT)Tos' ' a v o i d s a n y s u g g e s t i o n o f e l e c t i o n ' , Luke, 1 5 6 . T u r n e r , ' Y I O Z ' , w h o a l s o a l l o w s ayai\(6\i€vog; S o u t e r , ' A r A I T H T O Z ' ; H o o k e r , Jesus, 7 0 f ; L o v e s t a m , Son, 9 6 ; F u l l e r , Mission, 8 7 f ; L a g r a n g e ; T a y l o r ; G u e l i c h . F o r t h e c o n t r a r y v i e w , e . g . D a v i e s , Matthew, 3 4 0 . N o t e , h o w e v e r , that 'beloved s o n ' describes Jacob, T. Isaac 2:7, a n d J o s e p h , T. Jacob 1 : 1 3 , n e i t h e r o f w h o m w e r e ' o n l y ' s o n s , a n d t h e N T h a s o t h e r w o r d s t o c o n v e y t h e i d e a o f a n o n l y c h i l d ( T u r n e r , ' Y I O Z ' , 1 2 0 ) e.g. R o m 8 : 3 2 h a s \6\os n o t aya-n^rog, w h i l e \iovoyevi\g is u s e d o f c h i l d r e n : L k 7:12; 8:42; 9:38; H e b 11:17; a n d o f C h r i s t : J n 1 : 1 4 , 1 8 ; 3 : 1 6 , 1 8 ; 1 J n 4 : 9 . I n p o s t - L X X l i t e r a t u r e e x a m p l e s o f dya-nr\Tog a s ' b e l o v e d ' a r e f o u n d c o n c e r n i n g B a r u c h (Par. Jer. ( = 4 Bar.) 7 : 2 4 ) , I s r a e l ( i m p l i e d b u t n e v e r d i r e c t l y s t a t e d in t h e O T , m. 'Aboth 3 : 1 5 ; cf. 2 Bar. 2 1 : 2 1 ; 4 Q 5 0 4 c o l . 3 , l i n e 6 ) , E z r a (Gk. Apoc. Ezra 5 : 1 2 ; 7 : 1 3 ) , t h e s a i n t s (T. Isaac 6 : 2 3 ) , a r i g h t e o u s m a n (Pss. Sol. 1 3 : 9 ) a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r O T figures, cf. D a v i e s , Matthew, ad loc. Fnn. 9 3 , 9 6 . H o o k e r , Jesus, 71f. P s 4 4 : 3 ( 4 3 : 2 ) ; 1 4 9 : 4 ; 1 4 6 ( 1 4 7 ) : 1 1 ; J e r 1 4 : 1 0 ( A ) ; cf. S c h l a t t e r , Matthaus, 94; S t e n d a h l , School, 1 0 8 ; G u n d r y , Use, 3 1 ; L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 1 9 1 f . M a r s h a l l , ' S o n ' , 3 3 5 ; M o o , Passion, 1 1 4 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 4 . I w a s u n a b l e t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e s e a u t h o r s ' a d d i t i o n a l c i t a t i o n o f A q u i l a i n e i t h e r Z i e g l e r , 1st. o r 2 n d . e d . ; o r F i e l d . O n t h e s e v e r s i o n s , Jellicoe, Septuagint, 7 6 - 9 4 ; W u r t h w e i n , Text, 5 3 f . 1 3 1
1
3
2
1
3
3
1
3
4
115
The Baptism
the Isaianic N E , especially in view o f Isaiah 40-55's apparent presentation of a 'servant' figure as the agent o f this N E .
1 3 5
Since w e h a v e discussed
this in m o r e detail elsewhere, suffice it to say that Isaiah 4 2 : l f f presents an unidentified ' s e r v a n t ' as the agent w h o inaugurates Y a h w e h ' s sovereign universal rule o v e r the nations and w h o , delivering the exiles from their prison, restores 'sight' to 'blind' J a c o b - I s r a e l .
136
The s a m e understanding o f
this ' s e r v a n t ' as agent is present in a n u m b e r o f w i t n e s s e s to Tg. 42:Iff.
Isaiah
In expansionist references to the return from the jail-like exile and
o p e n i n g o f b l i n d e y e s (v. 7 ) , the ' s e r v a n t ' is identified as the Spirita n o i n t e d a n d v i c t o r i o u s M e s s i a h (cf. Tg. Isa 5 3 )
1 3 7
—a
not-insignificant
association in v i e w o f the messianic connotations o f the P s a l m 2 allusion n o t e d a b o v e in the first p a r t o f the v o i c e . 135 W a t t s , 'Consolation', 4 9 - 5 9 .
1 3 8
Further, although
the
It is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e final s u m m o n s t o p a r t i c i p a t e
in t h e N E ( I s a 5 2 : 1 - 1 2 ) a n d t h e c o n c l u d i n g a n d m o s t e x p a n s i v e s o n g o f r e s t o r a t i o n o f Z i o n / J e r u s a l e m in 4 0 - 5 5 ( 5 4 : 1 7 ) , p e r h a p s s e e n a s p r o m i s e a n d fulfilment, a r e s e p a r a t e d b y t h e s o called fourth 'Servant Song', 52:13 - 53:12.
G i v e n t h a t t h e final f o r m o f this m a t e r i a l is t h e
result of conscious editorial activity, a n d not merely h a p h a z a r d compilation, the question m u s t b e a s k e d a s t o w h y t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e j u x t a p o s e d in t h i s w a y ? were perceived as being
I suggest that they
r e l a t e d , w i t h t h e f o u r t h s o n g d e s c r i b i n g t h e w a y in
Y a h w e h ' s a g e n t , t h e u n k n o w n "QI>, w i l l r e a l i s e t h e N E , cf. 4 9 : 8 - 1 3 ; S a w y e r , Dumbrell, 'Purpose', 1 2 6 ; Clifford,
Persuading-,
which
Patmos,
115;
1 8 1 ; C e r e s k o , ' R h e t o r i c a l ' ; a l s o cf.
von
W a l d o w , 'Message', 284f. This m a y also help explain w h y aspects of Isa 5 3 a r e attributed t o t h e M e s s i a h in
Tg. Isa 5 3 ; L e v e y , Messiah,
63-67; Chilton,
Glory,
86-96.
136 W a t t s , 'Consolation', 5 0 - 5 2 . 1
3
7
Levey,
Messiah,
102; Chilton,
Targum,
105.
The L X X , however, understands the
' s e r v a n t ' in 4 2 : 1 a s I s r a e l . T h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f ' s e r v a n t ' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t h e S o M f i g u r e i n the Similitudes of 1
Enoch
suggests that
Tg. Isa's
messianic interpretation m a y also be
e a r l y , t h e S i m i l i t u d e s b e i n g g e n e r a l l y d a t e d p r e - A D 7 0 , a l t h o u g h t h e l a c u n a e in Q u m r a n i c e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s c a u t i o n cf. G r e e n f i e l d - S t o n e , ' E n o c h i c ' ; M e a r n s , ' D a t i n g ' ; B a m p t f y l d e , ' S i m i l i t u d e s ' ; S c h u r e r , 3 . 2 5 6 - 5 9 ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' J e s u s ' , 39ff; b u t K n i b b , ' D a t e ' , l a t e first century.
(It is n o t c l e a r , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t ' a d a t e l a t e r t h a n t h e t i m e o f J e s u s h a s h a d t o b e
c o n c e d e d for the Similitudes',
pace
Lindars,
Son, 5 , let a l o n e for t h e i d e a s t h e m s e l v e s . ) Tg. Isa, Z i m m e r l i - J e r e m i a s , Servant,
t h e m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' in
On 59ff;
A y t o u n , ' S e r v a n t ' . O n m e s s i a n i s m in t h e T a r g u m s g e n e r a l l y , H u m b e r t , ' M e s s i e ' ; S e i d e l i n ,
Exegese; G r e l o t , ' L ' e x e g e s e ' , ' L ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' ; L e v e y , Messiah; Glory, 86ff, 112ff. O n ' a n o i n t i n g ' o f t h e M e s s i a h , S c h u r e r , 2 . 5 0 3 f , 5 1 7 ; L e n t z e n D e i s , Taufe, 1 4 0 - 7 0 ; D e J o n g e - v a n d e r W o u d e , TDNT, 9 . 5 0 9 - 2 7 ; D e J o n g e , ' " A n o i n t e d " ' ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a h ' ; C h e v a l l i e r , L'Esprit. Cf. Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 3 7 ' s a l l u s i o n t o I s a 1 1 , 'Ebed'; Brierre-Narbonne,
Chilton,
4 Q p I s a * a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d in A l l e g r o , DJD,
5.13f), a n d the readings of First a n d Second
R a b b i n i c Bibles, A n t w e r p P o l y g o t , R e u c h l i n i a n u s , a n d M s . J e w s ' C o l l e g e o f Tg. Isa 4 2 : 1 a n d 11:2 (Stenning,
Isaiah;
Chilton,
Targum,
80f, 28f) w h i c h suggest that anointing with the
H o l y S p i r i t ( o r S p i r i t o f Y a h w e h ) is in v i e w . 1
3
8
O n t h e m e s s i a n i c u s e s o f P s 2: A ) in Pss. Sol. 1 7 , H u n t r e s s , '"Son"', 1 2 0 ; W r i g h t , OTP,
'Messiah', 197f; Schiipphaus,
Psalmen,
2.643f, 667f; Charlesworth,
64ff, 124ff;
B ) i n Q u m r a n : 4 Q F l o r l:10f, Flusser, 'Notes', 1 0 3 ; Betz,
Temple,
30ff; e s p e c . B r o o k e ,
Exegesis;
178ff, 1 8 5 - 2 1 9 ;
What?,
88ff; G a r t n e r ,
l Q S a 2 : 1 1 , T ^ V is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y
116
Markan
Prologue
presence a n d import o f 'servant' imagery in the remainder o f the Gospel is a continuing source o f contention into w h i c h I do not intend to enter at this p o i n t ,
1 3 9
K e e ' s a n a l y s i s o f M a r k 1 4 - 1 5 s h o w s m a t e r i a l from
'Servant S o n g s ' to b e in s o m e e v i d e n c e .
1 4 0
the
Finally, the variations in the
Gospels n o t e d in the above discussion on aya-n^ros,
a term w h i c h it was
n o t e d h a s s o m e i m p o r t a n c e in ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e s , i n d i c a t e an e a r l y interpretative tradition that understood an allusion to Isaiah 42:1 in the voice. (It should also be observed that although the descent o f the Spirit is consonant with a presentation o f Jesus as the Spirit-anointed m e s s e n g e r of Isaiah 61:1; cf. 52:7; L k 4 : 1 8 f ,
141
the i m m e d i a t e context o f E x o d u s imagery
and the content o f the voice together suggest that Isaiah 61:1 is not M a r k ' s primary e m p h a s i s in the baptism account.) T h e a p p e a l to this ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e allows us n o w to a d d r e s s the question o f M a r k ' s previously noted ambiguity—is J e s u s Israel's deliverer or Israel's representative?
O n the o n e h a n d , H o o k e r has argued that the
three k e y - w o r d s in the v o i c e , ' u l o g , dyan^Tog
and € u 6 o ' K r j a a are all
different from the n o r m a l translations o f the verse(s) ... (and) together form a c o n c e p t w h i c h in the O l d T e s t a m e n t is applied o n l y to I s r a e l ' .
1 4 2
o r i g i n a l , e.g. B a r t h e l e m y , D / D , 1.117; C r o s s , ' Q u m r a n ' , 1 2 4 n 8 ; a n d m a k e s g o o d s e n s e w h e n it is r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e a n t e c e d e n t o f Dn« is D2?n T M K , G o r d i s , ' " B e g o t t e n " ' , 1 9 4 . C ) i n r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e , e . g . t h e baraitha in b. Sukkah 5 2 a ; Midr. Ps. 2:7 is i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h E x 4 : 2 2 ; I s a 4 2 : 1 ; 5 2 : 1 3 a n d P s 1 1 0 : 1 , M a n s o n , ' T e a c h i n g ' , 3 2 4 ; cf. D a l m a n , Words, 2 6 9 f f ; L o v e s t a m , Son, 19ff; S t r - B , 3 . 1 9 ; L o h s e , TDNT, 8.361ff. S e e a l s o : Tg. Ket. o n P s . 8 0 : 1 6 , H u n t r e s s , '"Son"', 1 2 1 ; B y r n e , 'Sows', 78f; B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 16-24. S e e f u r t h e r b e l o w , e.g. C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 2 5 8 - 8 7 , a n d C h a p t e r 9 , p p . 3 4 9 - 6 5 . ' F u n c t i o n ' , 167ff. I s a 5 0 : 6 in M k 1 4 : 6 5 ; a n d a l l u s i o n s , I s a 5 3 : 1 2 ( ? ) in 1 4 : 2 1 ; Tg. Isa 5 3 : 5 in 1 4 : 5 8 ; 5 3 : 7 ( ? ) in 1 4 : 6 0 ; 5 3 : 6 ( L X X ) in 1 5 : 1 5 ; 5 0 : 2 f in 1 5 : 3 3 ; 5 3 : 9 in b o t h 1 5 : 4 3 a n d 4 6 . N o t e a l s o t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e g l o s s o f 5 3 : 1 2 in 1 5 : 2 8 . L u h r m a n n , ' B i o g r a p h i e ' , 2 7 f f ; B e t z , ' J e s u ' , 7 0 f f ; S t u h l m a c h e r , ' T h e m a ' , 21ff; S c h l a t t e r , Glaube, 5 9 0 ; Guelich, 'Genre', 206. With the dissection of chs. 4 0 - 6 6 the ' u n d o u b t e d s i m i l a r i t i e s ' b e t w e e n t h e ' s e r v a n t ' a n d t h e ' m e s s e n g e r ' w e r e d i s r e g a r d e d (Tg. Isa, h o w e v e r , i n t e r p r e t s t h e l a t t e r a s t h e p r o p h e t ) , cf. N o r t h , Suffering, 138f; C a n n o n , 'Isaiah'; P r o c k s c h , 'Jesus'; K o c h , 'Gottesgeist'; Michel, 'Eigenart'; Z i m m e r l i , ' " G n a d e n j a h r ' " , ' S p r a c h e ' , 6 9 f f ( 6 1 : I f f is e a r l i e s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e ' S e r v a n t S o n g s ' ) ; S c h r e i n e r , ' B u c h ' , 1 5 7 ; S m a r t , History; D e l i t z s c h , Jesaja; W h y b r a y ; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, noting e.g. v. 1: 4 2 : 1 , 7; 4 8 : 1 6 ; v . 2: 4 9 : 8 , 1 3 ; v. 3: 4 2 : 3 ; 5 0 : 4 ; v. 4: 4 9 : 8 ; v. 5 : 4 9 : 9 . O n t h e b a s i s o f a m o r e h o l i s t i c a p p r o a c h t h i s s e p a r a t i o n s e e m s i n d e f e n s i b l e , cf. M e t t i n g e r , Farewell, 1 0 . 1
3
9
1
4
0
1
4
1
1
4
2
Jesus, 72f. O n I s r a e l a s s o n . E x 4:22; H o s 1 1 : 1 ; D t 1:31; cf. B y r n e , 'Sons', 16f. T h e later a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o n s h i p t o t h e r i g h t e o u s (fn. 9 9 ) m a y r e f l e c t t h e d i v i s i o n w i t h i n I s r a e l a s i m p l i e d b y e.g. I s a i a h 5 6 - 6 6 , e s p e c . 6 5 ; W e s t e r m a n n , 301ff, 402ff; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, 128ff; H a n s o n , 134ff; cf. V e r s e p u t , ' R o l e ' , 5 3 8 . O n c u S d i o i a a : P s 4 3 : 4 ( 4 4 : 3 ) ; 149:4; I s a 6 2 : 4 ; 2 S a m 2 2 : 2 0 e t c . ; cf. R o b i n s o n , Ephesians, 2 3 2 . B r e t s c h e r , ' E x o d u s ' , a l s o a r g u e s for t h i s v i e w b u t o n t h e b a s i s o f a n a l l u s i o n t o E x 4:22f, w i t h dtyciTTT|Td§' a s e q u i v a l e n t t o •npcoTOTOKos' b u t without the latter's nationalistic overtones. H o w e v e r , a y a - n ^ T o s * n e v e r renders in t h e
The
117
Baptism
A l t h o u g h s e v e r a l detailed studies might raise s o m e questions about t h e viability o f a r g u m e n t s b a s e d o n ' n o r m a l ' t r a n s l a t i o n s ,
143
the fact remains,
in support o f H o o k e r , that the prologue is replete with N E imagery.
The
matrix of the b a p t i s m a l setting with the c o m i n g up out o f the water, the d e s c e n t o f the Spirit, and the s u b s e q u e n t forty d a y s in the w i l d e r n e s s , seems to b e a conscious e c h o of Israel's Exodus e x p e r i e n c e .
144
T h u s Jesus is
apparently p r e s e n t e d , if not explicitly then implicitly, as ' t r u e I s r a e l ' — indeed for H o o k e r , o n l y as 'true I s r a e l ' .
1 4 5
T h e difficulty here is not the
identification, w h i c h has m u c h in its favour, but its exclusivity. T h e r e is, after all, substantial evidence in the N T of J e s u s being typologically under stood in terms o f several O T figures or entities and there is no good reason w h y several o f t h e m could not innovatively b e brought together h e r e .
1 4 6
The 722 terminology associated with the Isaianic N E m a y well provide the k e y .
O n e o f the o n - g o i n g d e b a t e s o v e r I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 ' s e n i g m a t i c
' s e r v a n t ' figure h a s b e e n w h e t h e r or not the ' s e r v a n t ' is an
individual,
Israel as a w h o l e , or a remnant within Israel. I have argued elsewhere that the ambiguity o f the 'servant' terminology is probably best understood in terms o f the B o o k o f Isaiah's remnant motif. O n this reading, Jacob-Israel's failure to fulfil her 'servant' role appears to result in the reduction of 'true' Israel to a future and as-yet-unknown but faithful 'servant' Israel w h o will L X X a n d E x 4 : 2 2 f d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e p l a y e d a m a j o r r o l e in t h e N T o r in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e — 2 P e t 1:17 m i g h t b e l a t e , H e b l:6ff (TTPCUTOTOKOS") d o e s n o t i n c l u d e E x . 4 : 2 2 f in its list o f t e x t s , a n d t h e ' a l l u s i o n s ' in R o m 8 : 3 2 a n d 1 J n 4 : 9 a r e q u e s t i o n a b l e . It is d o u b t f u l t h a t o n l y t h e Gospel of the Nazarenes contains the original tradition, and B r e t s c h e r ' s e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e e a r l y l o s s o f t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f t h e v o i c e a n d f o r t h e o r i g i n o f t h e ' w e l l - p l e a s e d ' p h r a s e a r e u n c o n v i n c i n g , cf. M o o , Passion, 112ff; B o c k , Proclamation, 1 0 2 . H i s c a s e is f u r t h e r w e a k e n e d in t h a t t h e c e n t r a l a r g u m e n t t u r n s o n a r e c o n s t r u c t e d ' l i t e r a l ' t r a n s l a t i o n o f E x 4 : 2 2 f for w h i c h h e p r o v i d e s n o v e r s i o n a l e v i d e n c e a n d w h i c h itself d e p e n d s o n a n o r i g i n a l t h i r d p e r s o n a d d r e s s a t t h e b a p t i s m . M a n s o n , ' T e a c h i n g ' , 3 2 4 , c i t e s Midr. Ps. 2:7 w h i c h r e f e r s t o E x 4 : 2 2 . 1 4 3
E . g . S t e n d a h l , School; G u n d r y , Use; M a n s o n , ' T e a c h i n g ' ; s e e ' O T S o u r c e s ' a b o v e . S e e d i s c u s s i o n o f I s a 63:7ff a b o v e , a n d t h e ' f a t h e r / s o n ' t e r m i n o l o g y in E x o d u s / N E c o n t e x t s : E x 4:22f; I s a 43:6f; 6 3 : 3 6 ; Jer 31:9, 2 0 ; H o s 1 1 : 1 ) ; s e e a l s o M a u s e r , 92ff; L o h m e y e r , 2 5 ; F u l l e r , Mission, 8 5 f ; F e u i l l e t , ' p e r s o n n a l i t e ' ; B r e t s c h e r , ' E x o d u s ' , 3 0 5 ; L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 184. F o r h o v e r i n g o f t h e S p i r i t o v e r t r u e I s r a e l s e e e.g. 4 Q 5 2 1 1 ii 6 . H o o k e r , Jesus, 7 2 f , a l t h o u g h n o t i n g t h a t s o n s h i p h a d b e e n n a r r o w e d d o w n t o t h e r i g h t e o u s w i t h i n I s r a e l ; cf. M a i 3 : 1 7 ; E c c l 4 : 1 0 ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 3 0 ; W i s 2 : 1 6 , 1 8 ; a l s o B y r n e , 'Sons', 6 2 f . S e e f u r t h e r G e r h a r d s s o n , Testing, 19ff; H a r e , Theme, 7 n 2 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 50ff; L a R o n d e l l e , Israel, 64ff; D o d d , According, 126ff; F o u l k e s , Acts. A s i d e from the matter of distinguishing b e t w e e n the notion of 'true Israel' a n d that of identification with Israel, M a r s h a l l ' s o b j e c t i o n t o this v i e w ('Son', 3 3 4 ) — t h a t it is n e v e r e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d in t h e N T — c a n p r o b a b l y b e m e t in t h e s a m e w a y h e m i g h t d e f e n d t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y . F r a n c e , Jesus, 43ff. 1 4 4
1 4 5
1 4 6
118
Markan
Prologue
both deliver imprisoned Jacob-Israel from its blindness and deafness, and implement
Y a h w e h ' s CDS WE o v e r t h e n a t i o n s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h
p r o m i s e s m a d e to D a v i d .
1 4 7
P s 2 allusion in the voice and Tg. Isaiah's 42:lff.)
the
(Note in this connection the presence o f the m e s s i a n i c interpretation o f Isa
If this assessment is correct then M a r k ' s apparently dual presen
tation o f J e s u s , o n the o n e h a n d , as the o n e w h o s e b a p t i s m
replicates
Israel's E x o d u s experience and thus s h o w s h i m to b e 'true' Israel (cf. Mt. 1:15), and, o n the other, as faithless (Jacob-) Israel's m e s s i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' deliverer (note that both h a v e Y a h w e h ' s Spirit put within or u p o n them, Isa 63:1 Off, 42:1) s e e m s best explained, again, in terms o f an Isaianic N E background.
c)
Other (i) Mark 1:13
... r\v jiera
TQJV
Orjpicji/
O n e o f the p r o l o g u e ' s more difficult images, the peculiar reference in 1:13 to Jesus b e i n g with the beasts, m a y b e an allusion to the motifs expressed in Isaiah 11:6-9; 34:14; 65:17-25; or p e r h a p s to Isaiah 4 3 : 2 0 .
1 4 8
In the first
case, J e s u s ' ( a s s u m e d ) peaceful co-existence with the wild a n i m a l s
1 4 9
is
seen as signalling the d a w n o f n e w creation conditions associated with the Isaianic N E , w h i l e in the s e c o n d , w i l d a n i m a l s in the desert are also mentioned in the context G o d ' s provision in the N E . H o w e v e r , it should b e noted that the idea of peaceful co-existence is not actually stated in the M a r k , the d e s e r t d o e s not ' b l o o m ' , n o r are the a n i m a l s p o r t r a y e d glorifying Y a h w e h (cf. Isa 43:20).
as
W h i l e a categorical rejection might b e
precipitous, the possible parallels with Isaiah are simply too vague for any convincing case to b e m a d e .
1
4
7
1
4
8
1
4
9
1
5
0
1 5 0
W a t t s , 'Consolation', 54f. S e e d i s c u s s i o n in B e s t , Temptation, xviff. Si; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 9 . G r u n d m a n n , TDNT, 7.797, a n d G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 8ff, a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t 1:13b, c r e f l e c t s t h e n e w - P a r a d i s e h o p e o f J e w i s h e x p e c t a t i o n ( 2 Bar. 7 3 : 6 ) w h e r e J e s u s in o v e r c o m i n g S a t a n ' s t e m p t a t i o n r e v e r s e s A d a m ' s fall, c i t i n g : T. Naph. 8 ; As. Mos. 1 0 ; Adam and Eve, 3 2 - 3 8 ; 2 Bar. 7 3 : 6 ; b. Sanh. 5 9 b . T h i s is ' c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h I s a i a h ' s d e p i c t i o n o f the a g e of salvation' (11:6-8; 65:25), Guelich, 'Genre', 206. S e e G u n d r y , 58ff.
119
Isaianic New Exodus Themes in the Prologue
IV. Isaianic New Exodus Themes in the Prologue W e are n o w in a position to s u m m a r i s e our findings: A ) M a r k ' s use of cuayyc'Xiov (1:1, 14) appears best understood in terms of the Isaianic a n n o u n c e m e n t o f comfort (cf. Isa 40:9; 41:27; 52:7; 60:6; 61:1), n a m e l y , the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g to his p e o p l e . thorough-going INE imagery throughout Mark's prologue lends
The
further
s u p p o r t to a Palestinian rather than Hellenistic p r o v e n a n c e for the term. T h i s is n o t to d e n y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a p o l e m i c a l e d g e in t e r m s o f €ii a y y c ' X i o v ' s H e l l e n i s t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s , b u t
o n l y to a r g u e
that
an
exclusively o r e v e n p r i m a r i l y Hellenistic p r o v e n a n c e s e e m s i m p r o b a b l e . F r o m this perspective, J e s u s in 1:14 stands in the ' m e s s e n g e r ' tradition o f Isaiah 6 1 . Interestingly, h o w e v e r , J e s u s s e e m s not only to p r o c l a i m the immediacy o f the I N E but also to effect it. B ) the r e n d i n g o f the h e a v e n s a n d t h e d e s c e n t o f the Spirit (1:10) appears to e c h o the Isaianic l a m e n t over the delay o f the I N E (Is. 63:7 64:12) and, therefore, s u g g e s t s that Y a h w e h ' s long-awaited 'in strength' intervention has c o m e . In this case, J e s u s s e e m s to b e portrayed either as I s r a e l ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o r s o m e c o n c e p t i o n o f ' t r u e ' Israel in that his experience o f passing through the water and the Spirit descending o n h i m echoes Isaiah 6 3 ' s account o f Israel's Exodus experience. C ) the allusion to Isaiah 42:1 suggests that J e s u s is that 'servant' (Tg.: M e s s i a h ) u p o n w h o m Y a h w e h h a s ' p l a c e d ' his Spirit, w h o will deliver Israel's captives, and restore sight to 'the blind'. This is consistent with the Psalm 2 allusion which implies that he is also the messianic heir of D a v i d w h o will ultimately prevail in eschatological c o m b a t against the e n e m i e s of G o d ' s p e o p l e .
1 5 1
using similar terms.
H o w e v e r , Israel has also e l s e w h e r e b e e n described T h e v o i c e ' s language, in the context o f the general
E x o d u s i m a g e r y p e r v a d i n g the b a p t i s m and in addition to the particular parallels with Isaiah 6 3 (noted above), suggests that J e s u s is also, in s o m e sense, 'true' or representative Israel. A g a i n it is the I N E framework with its d u a l ' s e r v a n t ' m o t i f that s e e m s to p r o v i d e the h e r m e n e u t i c w h e r e b y
1
5
1
A l t h o u g h ' s o n o f G o d ' m a y n o t y e t b e a n e x c l u s i v e t e c h n i c a l title for t h e M e s s i a h , it
is n o t , t h e r e b y , a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e d e s c r i p t i o n , cf. fn. 9 9 a b o v e .
L a t e r in M a r k e v e n t s o c c u r
w h i c h s u g g e s t t h a t m o r e is m e a n t b y t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n t h a n m e e t s t h e e y e , s e e C h a p t e r s 6 and 8.
120
Markan
Prologue
J e s u s can fill the role o f b o t h ' t r u e ' ( ' s e r v a n t ' ) Israel a n d ' b l i n d ' J a c o b Israel's 'servant' (-Messiah) deliverer. D ) J e s u s ' p r e a c h i n g that the time is n o w fulfilled nevertheless entails a concomitant call to repentance (1:15). Here, too, and perhaps also to s o m e e x t e n t i n t e g r a l to t h e W a r r i o r - i m a g e r y n o t e d a b o v e , t h e e l e m e n t o f warning associated with M a l a c h i ' s message m a y also b e discerned.
IV. Conclusion It w a s a r g u e d in the previous C h a p t e r that M a r k ' s introductory editorial c i t a t i o n o f I s a i a h 4 0 functions i c o n i c a l l y , i n v o k i n g the h e r m e n e u t i c a l framework within w h i c h h e w a n t s his h e a r e r s / r e a d e r s to u n d e r s t a n d his Gospel.
T h e y are to think primarily in terms o f Isaiah's N E . Simultane
ously there is a w a r n i n g inherent in the E x o d u s / M a l a c h i text. T h e leaders a n d the p e o p l e m u s t r e s p o n d p o s i t i v e l y to the f o r e r u n n e r , Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g will occasion a curse u p o n the land.
otherwise
T h e question
w a s asked: is there a n y further e v i d e n c e in the p r o l o g u e to confirm that this is actually M a r k ' s p r o g r a m ?
B y w a y o f r e s p o n s e this C h a p t e r has
s u g g e s t e d that the p r o l o g u e is indeed replete w i t h textual icons derived from Israel's ideologically shaped recounting o f her history. Set within the o v e r a r c h i n g s c h e m a o f the I N E , these ' s u b s i d i a r y ' icons form a coherent w h o l e but also s e r v e to e m p h a s i s e particular e l e m e n t s crucial to M a r k ' s account o f the d e n o u e m e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s intervention. M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e b e g i n s w i t h the p r o b l e m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n , 'Apx™ T O U cuayyeXiou
( 1 : 1 ; cf. 1:14).
It w a s a r g u e d that c u a y y c X - l a n g u a g e is
p a r t i c u l a r l y suited to the h o p e o f the I N E , b e i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f its announcement.
Further, according to M a l a c h i (v. 2 b , c ) , the long-delayed
INE w a s to b e a n n o u n c e d b y a forerunner w h o s e task w a s the preparation of Y a h w e h ' s ' w a y ' .
W i t h i n this framework, the i m m e d i a t e l y following
a n d h i g h l y selective sketch o f J o h n i m p l i e s that h e is i n d e e d M a l a c h i ' s preparatory Elijah (vv. 4-8).
In this context, J o h n ' s baptismal proclamation
o f 'the s t r o n g e r o n e ' is h i g h l y s u g g e s t i v e o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g , 'in strength', to deliver his people (1:7; 14f). Having introduced the forerunner and thus preparing the ' w a y ' for his chief protagonist, M a r k ' s tapestry of motifs and images surrounding J e s u s ' preparation continues to w e a v e together various 'iconic' strands associated
121
Conclusion
with Israel's N E hopes. First, drawing on the last great lament o f the b o o k of Isaiah, the rending o f the h e a v e n s and the descent o f the Spirit at the baptism (v. 10) together signal the advent o f Y a h w e h ' s personal and longa w a i t e d i n t e r v e n t i o n to r e s t o r e Israel.
Then, the divine
attestation
suggests that J e s u s is b o t h the Isaianic 'servant' w h o as Y a h w e h ' s agent o f the N E is to d e l i v e r J a c o b - I s r a e l a n d to b r i n g light to the n a t i o n s , a n d simultaneously D a v i d ' s messianic son in w h o s e reign the ' n a t i o n s ' will b e b r o u g h t u n d e r Y a h w e h ' s rule.
At the s a m e time, the ' s e r v a n t ' motif, the
content of the voice, the E x o d u s imagery o f the baptism (cf. Isa 6 3 ) , and the forty-day wilderness sojourn also show Jesus to b e 'true', 'servant' Israel. It w a s noted that this s a m e ambiguity w a s characteristic o f the w a y in w h i c h 'servant' terminology is used in Isaiah 40ff. proclamation
is u n i q u e l y
appropriate
Finally, in verses 14-15, J e s u s ' to t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t
inauguration o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g 'in strength'.
of
the
Furthermore, Jesus
s e e m s , at least s e c o n d a r i l y , to b e p r e s e n t e d in t e r m s o f the ' m e s s e n g e r ' tradition o f I s a i a h 6 1 , s u c h that h e is n o t o n l y t h e a g e n t o f I s r a e l ' s deliverance b u t its herald as well. C o n s e q u e n t l y , it a p p e a r s to b e the c a s e that as far as his p r o l o g u e is concerned M a r k is operating out o f a consistent I N E h e r m e n e u t i c .
Given
the role o f p r o l o g u e s in literary antiquity, w e should expect this then to establish the interpretive framework for the remainder o f his w o r k . In the next chapter, w e will e x a m i n e this hypothesis in terms o f its implications for the structure o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l .
Chapter 5: The Significance of the Prologue for Mark's Literary Structure Mark's
Gospel
exhibits
progression
from
Mark's
over-riding
schematic
a basic three-fold
'Galilee-and-beyond', NE interest
of the NE from provides
structure along
in the prologue
'the nations', the paradigm
along for
his
in which
the 'Way', suggests the 'Way',
there
to that to
is
a
'Jerusalem'. Isaiah's 'Jerusalem'
structure.
I. The Markan Structure W h i l e it m a y b e that M a r k ' s general geographic m o v e m e n t from ' G a l i l e e to J e r u s a l e m ' is n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n an a t t e m p t to p r o v i d e t h e s i m p l e s t possible structure to his Gospel, growing recognition of his literary sophistication suggests otherwise.
1
A s noted in the 'Introduction', b u t
w h i l e not w i s h i n g to overstate M a r k ' s literary skill, few m o d e r n scholars w o u l d c o n c u r w i t h e a r l i e r a s s e s s m e n t s that M a r k is s i m p l y ' a p a s s i o n narrative with an e x t e n d e d introduction' (Kahler) or m e r e l y p u t together 'like pearls o n a string' ( S c h m i d t ) .
2
A l t h o u g h not exhaustive, the results o f a representative survey o f sixty one analyses of Markan structure revealed a considerable degree of uniformity in spite o f t h e r a n g e o f major structural units e n v i s a g e d — ranging from two-fold, w i t h three-fold b e i n g the m o s t c o m m o n , to eight and b e y o n d .
3
4
W h i l e not attempting to offer individual c r i t i q u e s it is clear
that e v e n in t h e face o f differing organising rubrics there is substantial agreement as to the major M a r k a n literary divisions.
1
I n i t i a l l y D i b e l i u s , Tradition, Introduction, 86.
2 1 9 f ; G u t t g e m a n n s , Offene,
7 4 f ; a n d cf. K u m m e l ,
2
See Hooker's perceptive response that the a n a l o g y breaks d o w n since pearls a r e h a r d l y a r r a n g e d h a p h a z a r d l y , Message, 3 . M o r e r e c e n t l y G u n d r y , 1 0 4 5 - 4 9 , s e e m s t o t a k e this m i n i m a l i s t v i e w . 3
In a d d i t i o n t o m y o w n research, including m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e d f r o m Pesch, wartungen, 5 0 - 5 3 ; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 3 9 - 5 3 ; B a a r l i n k , Anfangliches, 68-78; 'Kompositionsanalyse'; K o c h , 'Gliederung'. See n o w further Boring, 'Beginning'. S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in t h e a u t h o r s listed in fn.3 a b o v e . 4
NaherLang,
124
Mark's
Literary
Structure
O f the proposals reviewed, whether presented in terms o f geographicalchronological considerations, Christological/theological
development
centring o n Peter's confession, or literary/dramatic conventions, b y the far the most frequent divisions were those at 1 0 : 5 2 / 1 1 : 1 or 1 0 : 4 5 / 1 0 : 4 6 (50 x ' s ) , and 8 : 2 6 / 2 7 or 8 : 2 1 / 2 2 (45 x ' s , on three o c c a s i o n s 8 : 3 0 / 3 1 ) . amount
of divergence
can be explained
'transitional' or ' h i n g e ' p a s s a g e s . consists
of
three
major
6
in t e r m s
5
T h e small
of these
being
This suggests that M a r k ' s basic outline
sections:
1:14/16-8:21/8:27;
8:21/8:27-
1 0 : 4 5 / 1 1 : 1 ; and 1 0 : 4 5 / 1 1 : 1 - 1 6 : 8 . But h o w are they to b e understood?
II. Assessment a) The'my':
8:22/27-
10:45/11:1
A s discussed in the preceding review o f his work (Chapter 1) w e noted that W . M . S w a r t l e y , in particular, e m p h a s i s e s the structural function o f the term 666c; in M a r k ' s G o s p e l .
7
H e b e g i n s b y noting that several scholars
h a v e confirmed the literary integrity o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' / ' j o u r n e y ' section, 8
n a m e l y 8 : 2 1 / 8 : 2 7 - 1 0 : 4 5 / 1 1 : 1 , citing its three t r i a d s consisting o f passion 9
predictions (8:31; 9:31; 10:32f), the disciples' failure to understand (8:32-33; 9:32; 10:35-41), and subsequent teaching (8:34-38; 9:35-37; 1 0 : 4 2 - 4 5 ) .
10
Other
unifying t h e m e s are: an increasing focus on b o t h J e s u s ' disciples and discipleship
1 1
and via the passion predictions o n his m e s s i a h s h i p , the
Christological declarations
in the b r a c k e t i n g ' h e a l i n g o f t h e
blind'
narratives (8:22-30 and 10:46-52), the recurring use o f the S o M title, and the transfiguration s c e n e .
1 2
Finally, there is M a r k ' s redactional use of
13
666$.
5 Cf. L a n g , ' K o m p o s i t i o n s a n a l y s e ' , 1. 6
See T r o c m e , Perrin, Standaert, V a n Iersel, 'beteknis', 'Locality'; Stock, 'Hinge'; a n d d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 4 , p . 9 3 , a b o v e . 7
' F u n c t i o n ' , a f t e r e . g . B e s t , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; S c h e n k e , Wundererzahlungen, 354ff; M a l b o n , Narrative, 68ff; s e e n o w a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n in M a r c u s , 3 1 - 3 7 . G u t t g e m a n n s , Candid, 320ff; P e r r i n , 'Gattung', a n d t h e c o m m e n t s o f S t o n e h o u s e , 2 7 , 3 4 . S t r e c k e r , 'Passion'. Schweizer, 'Leistung'; Haenchen, 'Komposition'; Perrin, 'Towards'; H o r s t m a n n , Studien, passim. 8
9
1
0
1 1
W e i s s , ' E k k l e s i o l o g i e ' ; Q u e s n e l l ; B e s t , Following; T a n n e h i l l , ' C h r i s t o l o g y ' , Perrin, 'Creative'; Vielhauer, 'Erwagungen'. ' F u n c t i o n ' , 7 7 f ; cf. H o r s t m a n n , Studien, 9; H a h n , Titles, 2 2 4 ; M i n e t t e d e secret, 3 0 6 f , a n d a u t h o r s c i t e d b e l o w . G r a n t e d w e d o n o t h a v e M a r k ' s s o u r c e s , t h e o f k e y - w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s a r e h e l p f u l i n d i c a t o r s . Stein, ' P r o p e r ' ; B e s t , Temptation,
72ff.
1 2
1 3
Tillesse, presence 9.
The
As
'Way':
125
8:22/27-10:45/11:1
S w a r t l e y n o t e s , this term appears s e v e n times in the ' W a y ' section,
frequently in key contexts and in conjunction with imperfect verbs (8:27; 9:33, 34; 10:17, 3 2 , 4 6 , 5 2 ) .
1 4
M a r k a n redactional intent is suggested in that
of these i n s t a n c e s M a t t h e w h a s o n l y t w o parallels (both w i t h aorists: 20:17b, roughly par. to M k 10:32; 20:30 par. to M k 10:46) and L u k e m e r e l y o n e (18:35 p a r . M k 1 0 : 4 6 ) .
1 5
T h i s is in stark c o n t r a s t to t h e s e v e n
occurrences in M a r k outside of this section (l:2f; 2:23; 4:4, 15; 6:8; 8:3; 11:8; 12:14) five o f which are paralleled in both M a t t h e w and L u k e .
1 6
S w a r t l e y t h e n p r o c e e d s to a r g u e that this 6 6 o c ; - t e r m i n o l o g y
is
strategically placed so as to elucidate b o t h M a r k ' s literary structure and important t h e m e s .
T h e phrase c v TTJ 6SC5 is found at the b e g i n n i n g a n d
end o f the ' W a y ' section w h e r e it is linked with the miracles o f sight (8:27; 10:52), while in 9:33, 3 4 it locates the dispute over greatness as occurring 'on the w a y ' (cf. 10:32).
O n the other hand, tig 66dv is the aborted form
used o f the rich m a n w h o c o m e s into the w a y but d o e s not follow kv TTJ 66G3 (10:17, cf. 10:52), while n a p d TT\V odov
is w h e r e the b l i n d m a n sits
(10:46c). T h e kv TTJ 66a> in 8:27 is linked with the teaching on discipleship 17
by the phrase omaco u.ou d K o X o u 0 € i v in 8 : 3 4 , and in 9:33, 34 €v TTJ 66a> again connects a passion prediction with teaching on discipleship. In 10:32 kv TTJ 66(3 introduces another passion statement, while in 8:27; 10:46 ( n a p a
TTJV
66dv); and 10:52 it is connected with key Christological declarations in the crucial bracketing pericopae. The ways.
i m p o r t o f M a r k ' s u s e o f 6dog 1 8
has been understood
in v a r i o u s
W h i l e s o m e scholars see it as a m e r e linking phrase, an e x a m p l e 19
of M a r k ' s Rahmen,
others perceive a m o r e significant role, for instance, 20
in creating a sense o f transition from Galilee to J e r u s a l e m . T h i s sense o f j o u r n e y has b e e n linked with the passion teaching and J e s u s ' increased concentration o n the disciples such that the ' W a y ' is the w a y o f suffering
1 4
O n t h e I m p e r f e c t a s t h e f o r e g r o u n d t e n s e u s e d for e m p h a s i s in p a s t c o n t e x t s w h e r e t h e A o r i s t is u s e d a s b a c k g r o u n d t e n s e . P o r t e r , Verbal, 198ff. 1 5
T h i s is s u r p r i s i n g in v i e w o f L u k e ' s ' t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e ' (9:51ff) a n d his u s e o f odog A c t s , cf. R e p o , 'Weg'; B e s t , Following, 1 7 n 6 . ' F u n c t i o n ' , 75ff. Perrin, 'Literary', 6. I a m i n d e b t e d t o S w a r t l e y for t h e f o l l o w i n g s u r v e y . S c h m i d t , Rahmen, 2 1 6 , 2 3 0 ; B u l t m a n n , History, 2 5 7 , 3 3 2 ; R i g a u x , Testimony, 8f. T a y l o r , 3 7 4 f f ; C r a n f i e l d , 2 6 8 , 3 3 5 , 3 4 6 ; M i c h a e l i s , TDNT, 5.66ff. 1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
in
126
Mark's
Literary
Structure
discipleship reflecting J e s u s ' o w n ' w a y o f the c r o s s ' .
21
This is then further
understood b y others as a hermeneutical tool c o n t e m p o r i s i n g J e s u s ' o w n history
in
the
light
of Mark's
presently
suffering
community.
2 2
J . S c h r e i b e r ' s distinctive v i e w is that M a r k ' s u s e o f 6 d o g is redactional t h r o u g h o u t and s e r v e s to unite the cross and exaltation b y p r e s e n t i n g J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y as a j o u r n e y l e a d i n g to a royal e n t h r o n e m e n t T e m p l e and c r u c i f i x i o n .
23
B y interpreting Christ's life as an anabasis
in the o f the
r e d e e m e r h e seeks to explain w h y J e s u s c o m e s to J e r u s a l e m only o n c e .
2 4
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , W . H . K e l b e r argues that M a r k c o m b i n e s his 6 6 d c ; - m o t i f w i t h a n o t h e r redactional t h e m e , n a m e l y , ' e n t r a n c e into the k i n g d o m o f 25
G o d ' (9:47; 10:15, 2 3 , 2 4 , 25 cf. 9 : 1 , 4 3 , 4 5 ; 1 0 : 1 5 ) ; w h i c h t e r m i n o l o g y h e argues derives from the D e u t e r o n o m i c phrase o f 'entering into the l a n d ' (LXX: D t 1:8; 4 : 1 ; 6:18; 1 6 : 2 0 ) .
26
O n this basis, not only is the odog
theme in
8:27 - 1 0 : 5 2 m o d e l e d o n the E x o d u s 66os'-journey into the p r o m i s e d land, but M a r k ' s use o f kv TTJ 66(3 is intended to draw attention to the section as the e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e N E ' W a y ' s p o k e n o f in l : 2 f w i t h its citation o f ,
E x o d u s 23:20 and repetition o f 66os -terminology
2 7
Swartley also affirms the p r o g r a m m a tic function o f M a r k l : 2 f and the Exodus-journey o f the ' W a y ' section but notes further that the a b u n d a n t use of
e^cpxojiai
entrance-motifs.
and
ciacpxojiai
is suggestive o f Israel's E x o d u s - and
H e observes in particular that the E x o d u s account and
M a r k ' s Transfiguration are b o t h b r a c k e t e d with ' e n t r a n c e - f o r m u l a s ' (Ex 23:23-33; 33:1-3; M k 9 : 1 , 43-47), and finds an E x o d u s e c h o in M a r k 9 : l ' s statement
that o n l y s o m e o f the p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n w o u l d
p r o m i s e d l a n d (a s o m e w h a t intriguing e x a m p l e ) . J. A. Z i e s l e r 2
1
2
2
2
3
2 9
28
s e e the
H e favourably cites
w h o in analysing the T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n / S i n a i m o t i f observes
E . g . L u z , ' G e h e i m n i s m o t i v ' , 2 4 f ; S c h w e i z e r , 2 1 6 , 2 2 1 f , 3 8 5 ; P e r r i n , 'Gattung', ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , Following', passim-, a n d M e y e , Twelve, 73ff.
6; Best,
W e i s s , ' E k k l e s i o l o g i e ' , 4 2 5 ; R e p l o h , Lehrer, 9 6 , 1 0 7 , 1 4 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 6 . Theologie, 190ff, a n d B e s t ' s c r i t i q u e , Discipleship, 17. Gundry's rebuttal (based on odog in 2 : 2 3 ) , 4 4 2 , o f S c h r e i b e r ' s c l a i m t h a t M a r k d o e s n o t d e p i c t J e s u s o n a j o u r n e y b e f o r e 8 : 2 7 s e e m s o v e r d r a w n in t h a t it is t h e d i s c i p l e s w h o a r e specifically m e n t i o n e d 2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
9
Schreiber, 'Christologie', 171. ' P a r o u s i a ' , 108ff; Kingdom, 67ff. After W i n d i s c h , 'Spriiche'. ' P a r o u s i a ' , 1 0 9 ; Kingdom, 67ff, f o l l o w i n g A m b r o z i c , 19f. Cf. B e s t , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 3 2 6 f f ; Following, 15. 'Function', 80; following Kelber, 'Parousia', 140. ' T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ' , 2 6 5 f f ; b u t e a r l i e r , H o b b s , ' G o s p e l ' , 4 5 f f ; cf. M a u s e r , 1 1 1 - 1 8 ; C h i l t o n , ' T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ' , 120ff; L a n e , w h o a l s o s e e s M k 9 : 2 - 8 r e l a t i n g t o M k 14:1 - 1 6 : 8 a s
The
'Way':
127
8:22/27-10:45/11:1
the parallel t h e m e s o f the m o u n t a i n setting ( M k 9:2; E x 24:12-15), the six d a y s ( M k 9:2; E x 2 4 : 1 6 ) ,
30
M o s e s and J e s u s b o t h taking three
along (Mk 9:2; E x 24:1-9), a v o i c e w h i c h c o m e s from the
c l o u d ( M k 9:7; E x 2 4 : 1 6 ) , and (less convincingly) an e n s u i n g about
OKT)VCL{
( M k 9:5; E x 3 4 : 2 9 - 3 5 ) .
individuals
overshadowing discussion
S w a r t l e y a d d s the t h e m e o f t h e
glistening countenances o f both Jesus and M o s e s ( M k 9:7; E x 34:29-35) and notes that in b o t h accounts the voice c o m e s from the cloud o n the seventh day.
3 1
Jesus'
encounter
with
the
epileptic
boy
following
the
Transfiguration reflects M o s e s ' confrontation with idolatrous Israel ( M k 9:19 yeved
amaToc;).
3 2
O t h e r s h a v e suggested parallels b e t w e e n M o s e s '
d i s c o u r s e o n m a r r i a g e (Dt 2 4 ) , its location (Dt l : l f f ) , a n d the
divorce
controversy w h i c h follows the Transfiguration (Mk 10:2-12, cf. 10:1, eig TCL opm
TTIC;
'Iou6aiac;
[KCLI] iidpav
TOU
' I o p 6 a v o u ) , and b e t w e e n Israel's final
arrival at J e r i c h o a n d M a r k ' s distinctive statement that J e s u s ' c a m e into Jericho'.
3 3
S w a r t l e y , p r o p o s i n g that E x o d u s t y p o l o g y and
materials alternate t h r o u g h o u t 8:27 - 1 0 : 5 2
3 4 /
discipleship
concludes that ' M a r k presents
in this s e c t i o n o f his G o s p e l " T h e W a y o f D i s c i p l e s h i p (Suffering
and
I s a 5 2 : 1 3 - 1 5 p r e c e d e s I s a 5 3 : 1 - 1 2 ( t h e r e is, h o w e v e r , little i n t h e t e x t t o j u s t i f y t h i s supposition); H u r t a r d o ; H o o k e r , 'What?'; also Pesch; Gnilka; Schweizer, w h o sees E x o d u s 2 4 a s influential; pace T a y l o r , 386ff; a n d C r a n f i e l d , 2 9 3 , w h o a p p e a r s t o r e g a r d h i s t o r i c i t y a n d s y m b o l i s m as m u t u a l l y exclusive. Kelber's attempt, 72-83, t o set the Sinai story at o d d s w i t h h i s K i n g d o m t h e o l o g y fails t o r e a l i s e t h a t t h e first w o r d o f G o d t o M o s e s w h e n I s r a e l arrives at Sinai c o n c e r n s their being a k i n g d o m of priests a n d a holy nation. E x 19:6. T h e transfiguration h a s also b e e n variously interpreted as: an anticipation of the parousia, ( L o h m e y e r , 1 7 2 f f ; B o o b y e r , Transfiguration; but see Riesenfeld's criticisms. Transfigure, 2 9 3 - 9 8 ) ; a s J e s u s ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e n t h r o n e m e n t a s M e s s i a h ( R i e s e n f e l d , Transfigure; appeal i n g t o t h e F e a s t o f T a b e r n a c l e s a n d its s u p p o s e d a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a p o s t u l a t e d E n t h r o n e m e n t F e s t i v a l ; cf. S m i t h , ' T a b e r n a c l e s ' ; a n d F a r r e r , Study, 2 1 4 , w h o d o e s n o t h o w e v e r m e n t i o n a n enthronement); as prefiguring Jesus' glory at the Resurrection (Thrall, 'Transfiguration'); o r a m i s p l a c e d r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e ( B u l t m a n n , History, 259ff; C a r l s t o n , ' T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ' ; b u t s e e e.g. B o o b y e r , Transfiguration, 11-16; and Dodd, 'Appearances'). 3
0
3
1
3
2
Cf. M c C u r l e y , 'Six', a l t h o u g h h i s t h e s i s t h a t t h e p h r a s e is m e r e l y a l i t e r a r y d e v i c e fails t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e o t h e r S i n a i a l l u s i o n s . 'Function', 8 0 . F a r r e r , Mark, 1 1 0 ; H o b b s , ' G o s p e l ' , 4 5 f . F a r r e r , Mark, 1 1 3 f ; H o b b s , ' G o s p e l ' , 4 7 f . 'Function', 82: Unit: E x o d u s / E n t r a n c e Typology Discipleship materials 1 8:27-30 Common introductory paragraph. 8:27-30 2 8:31-38 3 9:1-29 4 9:30-41 5 9:43 - 1 0 : 3 1 6 10:32-45 7 10:46-52 Common concluding paragraph. 10:46-52 3
3
3
4
128
Mark's
Literary
Structure
Cross) that L e a d s to the (Promised L a n d ) K i n g d o m o f G o d " ' . his recent w o r k on the subject, while affirming the popular
3 5
M a r c u s , in
understanding
of M a r k ' s redactional use of 666c; in this section, also goes o n to argue that it ought to b e u n d e r s t o o d in terms of Deutero-Isaiah's presentation.
Thus
M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section is not ' a b o u t the h u m a n w a y to the p a a i X c i a but rather about G o d ' s w a y , which is his p a a i X c i a , his o w n extension of kingly power'.
3 6
N e v e r t h e l e s s , R. H . G u n d r y has recently l a u n c h e d a root and b r a n c h attack on t h e w h o l e idea o f there b e i n g a c o h e s i v e '666$'
section.
37
respect to t h e t e r m i n o l o g y h e argues that a survey o f M a r k ' s u s e o f
With 666$
across the w h o l e G o s p e l does not support the idea o f a special theological s e n s e in 8 : 2 7 - 1 0 : 5 2 , n o r is there is any link b e t w e e n the ' w a y ' in l : 2 f and 8:27 - 10:52 since the o n e concerns the w a y of repentance and the other the w a y of the cross.
N e i t h e r is it M a r k ' s ' d e v i c e for m o v i n g J e s u s from
G a l i l e e t o w a r d J e r u s a l e m for t h e C r u c i f i x i o n ' s i n c e n o t o n l y is J e s u s initially h e a d i n g n o r t h but J e r u s a l e m is n o t m e n t i o n e d as the goal until 10:1. Instead, 666c; m e a n s 'simply the road on w h i c h an event takes p l a c e ' irrespective of the 'direction or destination' of travel.
38
Furthermore,
against this b e i n g a ' W a y ' o f suffering discipleship in w h i c h the ' b l i n d ' disciples' e y e s are ' o p e n e d ' to the true nature o f following J e s u s , G u n d r y argues that A ) the frequent presence o f c r o w d s undercuts a n y notion o f a 39
'private ecclesiastical teaching' (e.g. 8:34 - 9:1; 9:14-27; 10:1-9, 1 3 - 1 6 ) ; B ) the c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d p r e d i c t i o n - i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n - i n s t r u c t i o n triads (8:31 9 : 1 ; 9:30-37; 10:32-45) constitute o n l y o n e q u a r t e r o f t h e total m a t e r i a l w h i c h militates against them playing a determinative role and in any case portents o f J e s u s ' death are found both before and after the so-called ' W a y ' section (e.g. 3:6, 2 1 ; 6 : 4 , 1 7 - 2 9 and 1 4 : 8 , 1 7 - 2 5 , and 41-42), as are statements of 40
the d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n (4:13, 4 0 ; 6:52; 7:18; 8 : 1 3 - 2 1 ) ; C ) the kv Tfj 66(3 language itself is not in fact associated with the standard three passion predictions: it occurs in 8:27 before 8:31ff, it does not occur in 9:9-13 w h i c h o u g h t also to b e c o n s i d e r e d a p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n (militating s o m e w h a t 3
5
3
6
Ibid. Way, 3 3 . U n l i k e S w a r t l e y , M a r c u s h a s g i v e n d u e w e i g h t t o M a r k ' s i n t r o d u c t o r y citation. 3
7
3
8
3
9
4
0
Especially, 440-42, 5 9 7 , 1047. 442,1047. 440. 440f
The
'Way':
129
8:22/27-10:45/11:1
against G u n d r y ' s point ( B ) ) , in 9:33f it concerns the disciples' dispute not J e s u s ' passion, and in 10:32 it is linked with the crowd o f pilgrims, not the disciples);
41
D ) the 'healing of the b l i n d ' miracles cannot b e seen as u n i q u e
on the grounds of standing alone—if indeed they do (8:22-26 stands beside 7:24 - 8:21)—since the m i r a c l e in 9:14-29 is also s i m i l a r l y isolated, a n d neither do they s y m b o l i s e the disciples' blindness since the o n l y reference to such a blindness occurs in 8:18, which is outside the ' W a y ' s e c t i o n ;
42
and
finally, E ) the continued i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the disciples not only w h i l e on the ' W a y ' (8:32-33; 9 : 6 , 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 8 , 2 7 , 3 2 , 33-34, 38-45; 10:10,13-14, 2 4 - 2 6 , 3 5 38) but also after it—one betrays Jesus, and all but o n e of the others flee for their lives a n d h e r e m a i n s o n l y to deny Jesus—flies in the face o f a n y symbolic healing or ' w a y o f discipleship' motif in which the disciples c o m e to realise the true nature o f J e s u s ' m e s s i a h s h i p .
43
What can b e said in response to this impressive array? First, as is clear from the preceding discussion, the proponents of a ' W a y ' theology
have
,
always recognised that M a r k uses 66ds -terminology outside the so-called ' W a y ' section. Their argument, however, h a s been cast in terms of M a r k ' s redactional interest, s o m e t h i n g to which G u n d r y d o e s not really respond. Nevertheless, leaving aside the c o m p l e x p r o b l e m o f discerning redaction in M a r k and s i m p l y taking the text as it stands (which is, after all, w h a t M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e w o u l d h a v e h e a r d or r e a d ) , t h e e v i d e n c e is n o t as straightforward
as G u n d r y
suggests.
Granted
that
various
6 dog
constructions appear throughout Mark, the phrase kv TTJ 66(3 is in fact onlyused o f J e s u s w h e n h e and his disciples travel together in 8:27; 9:33f; 10:32, 34; and, d e p e n d i n g o n h o w o n e u n d e r s t a n d s B a r t i m a e u s , in 10:52.
Even
11:8 m a y b e i n c l u d e d h e r e s i n c e it c o n c e r n s the c o n c l u s i o n o f J e s u s ' journey proper
as h e a r r i v e s in J e r u s a l e m .
W h i l e t h i s is
hardly
conclusive, it is still noteworthy that although Jesus and his disciples h a v e b e e n j o u r n e y i n g together a great deal since the b e g i n n i n g o f the G o s p e l , Mark nowhere
u s e s this p a r t i c u l a r
phraseology
of those journeys,
apparently reserving it for the materials associated with the ' W a y ' section. Second, Gundry's
proposed
contradiction between
the
'way
of
repentance' and the ' w a y o f the c r o s s ' is problematic, not least b e c a u s e the
4 1
4
2
4
3
442,1047. 597. 597,442.
130
Mark's
Literary
Structure
former is in fact the w a y o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g (one repents to prepare for it). A n d the contrast between the two is indeed quite the point. Far from dichotomising the two 'ways', Mark's wonderful
i r o n y , as his e a r l y
Christology and subsequent triadic passion predictions c o m b i n e to s h o w , is that the ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g in triumphal deliverance o f his people turns out to b e n o t h i n g other than the s c a n d a l o u s ' w a y ' o f J e s u s to the cross (see C h a p t e r 8 ) . Finally, G u n d r y ' s observation that J e r u s a l e m is not mentioned as the goal until well into the ' w a y ' section is correct and ought to b e n o t e d .
B u t this is b e c a u s e the ' w a y ' is not primarily the ' w a y ' to
J e r u s a l e m per se as it is a statement, from the perspective o f this b o o k , of the true n a t u r e o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E w a y o f restoring his p e o p l e (again see C h a p t e r 8 ) . E v e n allowing this, however, G u n d r y ' s rejection o f J e r u s a l e m as goal s e e m s too adamant.
G i v e n that M a r k ' s G o s p e l is p r o b a b l y not a
theological s u p e r n o v a c o m i n g out o f the b l u e to his c o m m u n i t y , it is not too difficult to i m a g i n e that they k n o w o f his destination and w o u l d h a v e seen in J e s u s ' predictions o f his passion and death the deepening s h a d o w cast b y w h a t they k n o w awaits J e s u s in J e r u s a l e m . A n d o f course, o n c e e v e n the first-time reader reaches J e r u s a l e m with Jesus, realisation soon d a w n s as to w h e r e this j o u r n e y has b e e n heading all along. This is even m o r e likely g i v e n the framing effect o f the o n l y t w o ' h e a l i n g o f s i g h t ' miracles, and M a r k ' s particular use o f kv TTJ 66(3 phraseology. W e m a y n o w consider G u n d r y ' s arguments directed specifically against a 'way o f discipleship' theology. A ) Granted that the presence o f the crowds u n d e r c u t s a n y c l a i m that the ' W a y ' is e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the private teaching o f the disciples, the fact remains that the great bulk o f the material is c o n c e r n e d with their private instruction (8:27 - 9:13; 9:30-50; 10:23-45; e v e n the p u b l i c 9:14-17 is directed t o w a r d t h e d i s c i p l e s ; the p r e s e n c e o f n a r r a t i v e s e e m s a non-issue).
T h i s a p p e a r s to constitute a
significant shift from the e m p h a s i s in earlier sections.
B ) Pace
Gundry,
w h a t gives the prediction-incomprehension-instruction triads their signif icance is n o t p r i m a r i l y their b u l k , a l t h o u g h it is not insignificant, b u t rather
their
repetition,
their
obvious
literary
structure,
and
their
placement especially given the close conjunction of the first and third with the framing 'healing o f sight' miracles. Further, w h i l e G u n d r y is right in noting portents o f J e s u s ' death elsewhere, these are hardly c o m p a r a b l e to t h e e x t e n t of, a n d
the c o m p o s i t i o n a l a r t i s t r y e v i d e n t in, t h e
three
The
c o m m o n l y accepted triads.
'Way:
131
8:22/27-10:45/11:1
(The incomprehension issue is taken up in ( E )
below). C ) Granted iv TTJ 66C3 language, as far as it concerns J e s u s and his disciples travelling together, m a y not occur precisely within the first t w o passion predictions per se (8:31-33; 9:30-32—it is in 10:32-34), nevertheless, they are v e r y closely aligned with or integral to the p a s s i o n prediction triads as w h o l e s .
A l t h o u g h G u n d r y states that 8:27 p r e c e d e s a p a s s i o n
prediction, h e later a r g u e s that verses 31ff are 'not ... a n e w p e r i c o p e '
4 4
which tends to undercut his earlier point. T h e other occurrences, 9 : 3 3 / 3 4 , are also integral to the s e c o n d passion prediction, b e i n g found in the s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n w h i c h d e a l s with t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n . Finally, 10:32 is in fact speaking o f the disciples and Jesus and not pilgrims generally s i n c e the i m p l i e d p r o n o u n (r\oav) verses 28-31 but leads naturally into the
auTotc;
is n o t only r e s u m p t i v e o f of verse 23b.
D)
G u n d r y is
right in arguing that the uniqueness of the 'healing o f the b l i n d ' miracles cannot b e sustained on the grounds that they 'stand alone'. H o w e v e r , that they are the only t w o such miracles in the w h o l e w o r k and that they are so closely linked to the first and last o f the passion prediction triads, suggests that they h a v e a significant structural role in M a r k ' s Gospel. This is e v e n m o r e so g i v e n the e m p h a s i s o n J e s u s ' teaching o f his disciples in this section—especially
concerning
his
passion—and
the
metaphorical
association o f sight and w i s d o m and understanding (see Chapter 8 ) . E ) A s to t h e d i s c i p l e s ' c o n t i n u e d i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n , G u n d r y is, in m y v i e w , correct. But this hardly excludes the idea of a ' w a y o f suffering disciple ship': after all the disciples d o follow Jesus. M o r e to the point is that the ' w a y ' of the I N E involves not only a confession that J e s u s is at least the Christ, but also a recognition that h e must suffer and die—which coheres exactly with G u n d r y ' s a r g u m e n t that M a r k ' s p u r p o s e is to w a r n against b e i n g scandalised b y the cross—something w h i c h the disciples h a v e n o t yet grasped.
T h e role o f the inclusio 'healings of sight' is to highlight the
need for this extra 'sight' (i.e. w i s d o m ) that the disciples clearly h a v e not yet attained and apparently do not at least until after the resurrection. Finally then, w h e t h e r or not all of the observations o f those w h o see a ' W a y ' section are accepted, taken together they provide strong indications of a redactional unity in w h i c h the several concerns o f w i s d o m / t e a c h i n g
4
4
445.
132
Mark's
Literary
Structure
and j o u r n e y (quite possibly with E x o d u s / N E imagery) are c o m b i n e d . n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f this a s s e s s m e n t is that J e r u s a l e m a n d h a p p e n s there is the climax to which the 'journey' m o v e s . b) Galilee
and
A
what
4 5
Jerusalem
T h e fairly obvious polarity between Galilee and Jerusalem led E. L o h m e y e r and R. H. Lightfoot to posit their geographical t h e o l o g y . that the technical term
Knpu
46
Lightfoot notes
aato, with its associations o f the in-breaking
K i n g d o m o f G o d , does not appear in the J e r u s a l e m section (apart from 13:10 a n d 14:9 w h e r e it c o n c e r n s the future m i s s i o n a r y activity o f the disciples), and so h e concludes that from M a r k ' s point of view: T h e d e s p i s e d a n d m o r e o r less o u t l a w e d G a l i l e e is s h e w n t o h a v e b e e n c h o s e n b y G o d as the s e a t of the g o s p e l a n d of the revelation of the Son of m a n , while the s a c r e d city of J e r u s a l e m , the h o m e of J e w i s h piety a n d patriotism, h a s b e c o m e the c e n t r e of r e l e n t l e s s h o s t i l i t y a n d sin. s c e n e o n l y of r e j e c t i o n
4
G a l i l e e is t h e s p h e r e o f r e v e l a t i o n , J e r u s a l e m is t h e
7
G a l i l e e is seen as the p l a c e o f the m i g h t y d e e d s , the h o m e o f J e s u s ' disciples, the place o f his acceptance, w h e r e the resurrection
appearances
are to occur, while Jerusalem is the site o f the rebellion against the S o M , it is where J e s u s ' e n e m i e s c o m e from, and the place of the c r o s s .
48
It is doubtful, h o w e v e r , that the ' G a l i l e e - J e r u s a l e m ' distinction is so clear-cut.
49
T. A . Burkill observes that revelation also takes place in the
J u d e a n desert n e a r the J o r d a n , w h i c h is in fact the p l a c e w h e r e fulfilment begins (l:4f; cf. 1:11 and 9 : 7 ) .
50
Granted the absence of
divine
Kripuaao)
after 7:36, it is nevertheless questionable if m u c h should b e m a d e o f this since it is o n l y u s e d of J e s u s ' ministry in 1:14, 3 8 f a n d 4 5 .
The two
occurrences in 3:14 and 6:12 concerning the disciples m a y well have future missionary implications, and while it appears with s o m e miracle stories (1:45; 5:20; 7:36) it is missing from the majority (1:31; 2:12; 3:6; 5:34; 7:30; 8:26; 9:29), w h i c h s u g g e s t s that its a b s e n c e from 10:52 is not o f great
4
5
4
6
P i p e r , ' U n c h a n g i n g ' ; K e l b e r , passim, e s p e c i a l l y n o t e s t h e s e n s e o f m o v e m e n t . T h e s a m e d u a l i t y i n f o r m s M a r x s e n ; C a r r i n g t o n , Primitive; K e l b e r , Oral; B o r i n g , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 4 6 ; a n d t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , F r e y n e , Galilee, 3 3 - 6 8 , w h o , w i t h m o r e j u s t i f i c a t i o n , contrasts the Galilean disciples with the J e r u s a l e m scribes. L i g h t f o o t , Locality, 1 2 4 f ; cf. L o h m e y e r , Galilaa, 5ff. M a u s e r , 9 3 f ; L o h m e y e r , Galilaa; M a r x s e n , 4 1 . S e e e s p e c i a l l y S t e m b e r g e r , 'Galilee'; a l s o F a w , ' O u t l i n e ' . 252ff. N o t e , t o o , t h a t M a r k d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y s a y J e s u s first b e g a n t o p r e a c h in Galilee, o n l y t h a t J e s u s c a m e t o G a l i l e e after J o h n ' s i m p r i s o n m e n t . 4
7
4
8
4
9
5
0
Galilee
significance.
51
and
133
Jerusalem
O n the other hand, 6i6daKO) which occurs in 4:1 also appears
in the region o f J u d e a (10:1) and Jerusalem (12:35; cf. 11:18), and the great crowds which are attracted b y J e s u s ' mighty words and deeds include both Judeans and those from Jerusalem (3:7f). Galilee is also the s c e n e o f considerable opposition. stories of 2:1 - 3:6 r e s e m b l e t h o s e in 1 2 : 1 3 - 4 4 . patriae
52
T h e controversy
J e s u s is rejected in his
(6:l-6a) and an apparent parallel is d r a w n in 3:20-35 b e t w e e n the
i m p e r c e p t i o n o f J e s u s ' family a n d that o f the scribes ( a d m i t t e d l y from Jerusalem) w h o , along with the Pharisees, again confront J e s u s in 7:1-23 (cf. 8 : l l f ) .
O n the o t h e r h a n d , J e s u s ' t r i u m p h a l e n t r y into J e r u s a l e m
occasions a tumultuous w e l c o m e (ll:8ff), his teaching appears both equally impressive and well-received (11:18, cf. 1:27; 2:12), such is J e s u s ' popularity that the hostile leadership are afraid to m o v e against h i m (11:18; 12:12; 14:2), and the ' e m p t y t o m b ' is situated in the e n v i r o n s o f J e r u s a l e m .
5 3
Admittedly, the crowd b e c o m e s antagonistic in 15:13f, but this is because o f the action o f the religious leaders (15:11).
Burkill is, therefore, correct in
recognising that J e r u s a l e m is only associated with hostility to the e x t e n t that it is the seat of the religious authorities.
Finally, it is true that J e s u s
does n o major miracle in J e r u s a l e m itself apart from cursing the fig tree, but in view o f the foregoing discussion this will need to b e explained in terms other than Lightfoot's revelation-rejection generalisation. E v e n in g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s the designation ' G a l i l e e ' is n o t entirely accurate.
G r a n t e d that m o s t o f J e s u s ' activity occurs within this region,
nevertheless there are sojourns that include the Decapolis (7:31), Tyre and S i d o n (7:24, 3 1 ) , and in the L o h m e y e r / L i g h t f o o t structure, J u d e a and beyond Jordan (10:1).
54
T h e s e visits on their o w n w o u l d not p e r h a p s b e
significant w e r e it n o t for the striking s a y i n g to the S y r o p h o e n i c i a n w o m a n at the outset o f these travels in 7:24-30. This must surely raise the question as to w h a t J e s u s is doing in these regions given that h e is n o t concerned with reaching Gentiles qua Gentiles? J e s u s ' statement, together with
5 1
5
2
5
3
5
4
L. E. Elliott-Binns' ample
demonstration
of
the
Pace L i g h t f o o t , Locality, 1 1 7 f ; s e e S t o n e h o u s e , 43ff. B u r k i l l , 253ff; D e w e y , 41ff, 163ff; S e r g e a n t , Lion, 4 5 . Stonehouse, 40-49. S t o n e h o u s e , 2 8 f ; M a l b o n , 'Galilee'; S t e m b e r g e r , 'Galilee', 4 1 5 - 2 1 .
unshakeable
134
Mark's
Literary
Structure
55
J e w i s h n e s s o f the G a l i l e a n s , m a k e s the theory that Galilee is primarily a symbol o f the Gentile world equally u n t e n a b l e .
56
Clearly, the simple designation 'Galilee' is inaccurate. B u t w h a t then is the rubric
under which
t h e three-fold
schema of movement
from
' " G a l i l e e " ' , along the ' W a y ' , to 'Jerusalem', is to b e understood?
III. Mark's Isaianic NE W e have already noted the suggestion b y several scholars that the use of 666$
in M a r k l : 2 f h a s a p r o g r a m m a t i c role with regard to M a r k ' s ' W a y '
section.
T h i s observation is further s u p p o r t e d in that the E x o d u s 23:20-
M a l a c h i 3:1 c o m p l e x (bearing in m i n d M a r k ' s a p p a r e n t presentation o f J o h n as M a l a c h i ' s Elijah) is consistent w i t h the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f J e s u s ' activity w i t h i n the T e m p l e and his p u r g i n g it as his first major act on reaching the city. Further, just as the goal o f Y a h w e h ' s ' W a y ' in Isaiah is J e r u s a l e m — a l t h o u g h c o m b i n e d with w i s d o m c o n n o t a t i o n s (see C h a p t e r 8)—and in M a l a c h i the T e m p l e , so too for J e s u s in M a r k .
W . R. Telford
proposes that J e s u s ' symbolic act of cursing the fig tree, bracketing as it does the cleansing o f the T e m p l e , is the fulfilment o f the threat in Malachi 4:5f and suggests in passing its connection with M a r k ' s introductory M a l a c h i 3:1 q u o t e .
57
Telford is, I think, correct here (see Chapter 9 ) : Elijah has been
sent and rejected ( M k 9:12), the outcome can only be purging judgement. It m a y n o t b e u n i m p o r t a n t , therefore, that M a r k ' s J e s u s b e g i n s his ministry at the v e r y m o m e n t o f J o h n ' s i m p r i s o n m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y as the leaders' response to J o h n is the central issue in the o p e n i n g panel o f the J e r u s a l e m confrontations (11:27-33).
Significantly, this confrontation is
preceded b y c u r s i n g / c l e a n s i n g (11:12-25) and followed b y the thinly veiled threat in the vineyard parable (12:1-12). T h e implication o f M a r k 1:2, that
5
5
5
6
5
7
E l l i o t t - B i n n s , Galilee, 1 3 , 2 5 ; M a y e r , ' A n f a n g ' ; F r e y n e , ' G a l i l e a n ' . Pace B o o b y e r , ' G a l i l e e ' ; E v a n s , ' G a l i l e e ' ; S c h r e i b e r , Theologie, 170-80; Swartley, 'Study'. A p p e a l s t o I s a 8 : 2 3 w o u l d b e m o r e c o n v i n c i n g if M a r k g a v e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t h e h a d it in m i n d . F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i l e 1 4 : 2 8 a n d 1 6 : 7 m a y reflect J e s u s ' r e s p o n s e t o h i s r e j e c t i o n in J e r u s a l e m , I w o u l d s u g g e s t , g i v e n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s ' G a l i l e e ' h a s w i t h i n t h e N E s c h e m a , t h a t it m a y a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e s u r r e c t e d J e s u s a s t h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r is t o c o n t i n u e t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f t h e c a p t i v e s t h r o u g h t h e a g e n c y o f h i s d i s c i p l e s , cf. L i g h t f o o t , Gospel, 1 1 6 ; C a r r i n g t o n , Primitive, 88. Barren, 1 6 3 . D o d d , According, 71, h a d earlier suggested that the p u r g i n g of the T e m p l e m i g h t b e in m i n d in t h e u s e o f M a i 3 : 1 ; cf. L a n e , 4 0 5 ; S t o c k , Call, 3 3 .
Mark's
Isaianic
New
135
Exodus
J e s u s is to b e identified in s o m e w a y with the personal manifestation o f Y a h w e h ' s j u d g i n g p r e s e n c e , a p p e a r s to b e confirmed b y his i m m e d i a t e action on reaching J e r u s a l e m .
5 8
It might b e objected that t h e threat o f
c o m i n g to the T e m p l e is not explicitly stated in M a r k 1 : 2 .
59
But as a
n u m b e r o f scholars h a v e noted, the technique o f quoting the first section of a v e r s e w h i l e t h e latter unstated section is actually in m i n d is n o t u n c o m m o n in rabbinic w r i t i n g s .
60
O n the o t h e r h a n d , g i v e n w h a t a p p e a r s to b e t h e
programmatic
function o f t h e M a l a c h i 3:1 a l l u s i o n , it m a y b e p o s s i b l e that
Mark's
e m p h a s i s o n I s a i a h ' s N E , not o n l y in his introductory O T citation b u t throughout the prologue, might also b e reflected in the broad structure o f his Gospel. A s w e h a v e argued, Isaiah's N E schema involves three stages: A ) Y a h w e h ' s deliverance o f his exiled people from the p o w e r o f the nations and their idols; B ) the j o u r n e y along the ' W a y ' in w h i c h Y a h w e h leads his p e o p l e from their captivity a m o n g the nations; C ) arrival in J e r u s a l e m , the place of his presence, w h e r e Y a h w e h is enthroned in a gloriously restored Zion. At first sight this appears to b e reflected in the simplicity of M a r k ' s basic literary outline w h i c h c o m p r i s e s ' J e s u s ' ministry in Galilee a n d B e y o n d ' (1:16 - 8 : 2 1 / 2 6 ) , the ' W a y ' ( 8 : 2 2 / 2 7 - 1 0 : 4 5 / 5 2 ) , and 'Jerusalem' ( 1 0 : 4 6 / 1 1 : 1 16:8).
61
H o w e v e r , it is important to r e m e m b e r that this is not a matter o f a
straightforward
national-geographical
(i.e. J e w / G e n t i l e ) e q u i v a l e n c e
between M a r k ' s so-called 'Galilee' section and Isaiah's 'nations'. N o r can it b e a purely geographical opposition between receptive Galilee and resistant Jerusalem.
R a t h e r , M a r k ' s p o i n t o f contact lies in the nature
actions vis-a-vis
of Jesus'
Y a h w e h ' s deliverance o f his p e o p l e from the p o w e r s o f
the nations and their i d o l s .
62
T h e only geographical consideration is that
this happens, as in the I N E , outside o f Jerusalem. T h a t J e s u s ' delivering actions are n o t confined merely to Galilee is, therefore, exactly in keeping 5
8
5
9
Pace, K u m m e l , Promise, 1 1 8 n 5 3 . A r e n s ' a r g u m e n t , HAOON, t h a t t h e T I A 0 O V s a y i n g s h a v e m e s s i a n i c i m p l i c a t i o n s m a y w e l l b e justified; cf. H u g h e s , ' J o h n ' . G o u l d , Mark, 5 , n o t e s b u t d o e s n o t d e v e l o p t h e t h r e a t e l e m e n t . C r a n f i e l d , ' S t u d y ' , 5 9 ; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5 . 7 0 1 ; M a r c u s , 2 0 0 ; cf. D o d d , According, 1 2 6 f . Koch, 'Gliederung', h a s already suggested the compatibility of Mark's geographical and thematic interests. I.e. t h e d i a s p o r a , b u t w h i c h n o w i n c l u d e s d e l i v e r a n c e f o r both J e w s a n d G e n t i l e s , pace B o o b y e r , 'Galilee'; E v a n s , 'Galilee'; a n d S w a r t l e y w h o f o c u s o n G e n t i l e s o n l y . 6
0
6
1
6
2
136
Mark's
Literary
Structure
with the idea of an Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r at w o r k a m o n g a J e w i s h (cf. M k 7:24-30) diaspora.
Similarly, M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section is, at least on the
surface, c o m p a t i b l e with the j o u r n e y o f I s a i a h ' s N E ' W a y ' , and in both cases J e r u s a l e m is the g o a l .
63
If M a r k has b e e n consciously following this pattern, w e should expect to find parallels b e t w e e n the activities associated with a given section of the I s a i a n i c N E s c h e m a and its e q u i v a l e n t in the G o s p e l . consideration o f possible correlations that w e n o w turn.
6
3
See n o w also M a r c u s , 33-41.
It is to a
Chapter 6: Jesus as Yahweh-Warrior and Israel's NE Healer and Provider in Mark 1:16-8:21/26 In keeping with the INE motif, Mark presents Jesus' deliverance of those in bondage to the demons as the equivalent of both the Yahweh-Warrior's and the enigmatic 'servant's' deliverance of the Isaian captive. Similarly, Jesus' healing of the blind, deaf/dumb and lame, his forgiveness of sins, and his feeding of the multitudes signals the inauguration of the Isaianic NE.
I. Introduction In the previous Chapter, building on our estimation o f the importance o f the Isaianic N E prophecies for the Markan prologue, w e suggested that the parallels b e t w e e n the N E s c h e m a and the structure o f the G o s p e l are the result o f M a r k ' s conscious attempt to interpret Jesus within an Isaianic N E framework.
T h e purpose o f this Chapter is to test this hypothesis
further
b y assessing to w h a t degree, if any, correlations exist b e t w e e n the first c o m p o n e n t o f the N E s c h e m a , that is, Y a h w e h ' s deliverance o f his exiled people from the p o w e r o f the nations and their idols, and J e s u s ' activities in the first major section o f Mark. Although I do not intend to undertake a detailed comparative study of the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m i r a c l e s in M a r k a n d o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s o f the period,
1
several points should b e noted.
NT
In his analysis o f the so-called
pre-Markan miracle catenae, Paul Achtemeier states that 'any discussion o f "signs and w o n d e r s " related to J e w i s h traditions m u s t b e g i n w i t h the figure o f M o s e s ' , and that ' t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f the E x o d u s a n d o f the messianic t i m e is seen in typological relation with the desert
wandering
2
Although
on o c c a s i o n s e r v i n g as a p r o t o t y p e o f the m e s s i a n i c t i m e ' .
1
S e e for e x a m p l e K e e , Miracle, Medicine; a n d B l a c k b u r n , Theios. ' O r i g i n ' , 2 0 2 ; cf. T i e d e , Charismatic, 178ff. T h e p o s i t i o n t a k e n h e r e is t h a t t h e O T p r o v i d e s the p r i m a r y ' h o r i z o n ' for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the G o s p e l s ' p r e s e n t a t i o n of Jesus' m i r a c l e s , cf. e.g. M e y e , ' H o r i z o n ' , 5f, a n d B l a c k b u r n , Theios, w h o n o t e s h o w w e l l m a n y o f Jesus' miracles correlate to activities otherwise the sole prerogative of Y a h w e h . A c h t e m e i e r b u i l d s o n M e e k s ' a r g u m e n t in Prophet-King that J o s e p h u s , a n d especially 2
138
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
heading in t h e right d i r e c t i o n g i v e n t h e p r i o r i t y o f I s r a e l ' s
founding
moment, attempts to fit M a r k into a first E x o d u s m o d e l w e r e not as w e have seen convincing, and in any case fail to take sufficient account o f the NE traditions in the prophets.
Furthermore, apart from the fact that both
Moses a n d J e s u s w o r k e d w o n d e r s , e v e n a c u r s o r y e x a m i n a t i o n o f the former's miracles, as recorded both in the O T and in the M o s e s literature of H e l l e n i s t i c a n d
P a l e s t i n i a n J u d a i s m , r e v e a l s the d e g r e e
of
their
dissimilarity—except p e r h a p s for the feedings and, superficially, the sea crossings.
3
Likewise, although the miracles o f Elijah and Elisha apparently
influ
4
enced the popular conception o f the ' c h a r i s m a t i c ' r a b b i , similarities with any g i v e n m i r a c l e o f J e s u s are l i m i t e d .
5
N o n e o f this is to d e n y the
possible, p e r h a p s probable, influence o f M o s e s or E l i j a h / E l i s h a traditions on the a c c o u n t s o f s o m e o f J e s u s ' miracles.
T h e point, h o w e v e r , is that
several o f M a r k ' s m o r e important categories o f miracles d o not appear to be susceptible o f explanation on the basis o f either o f these traditions. This
Chapter
will
argue
that
Mark's
presentation
of
Jesus'
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s e x o r c i s m s , his a c c o u n t s o f J e s u s ' h e a l i n g s o f the blind, d e a f - m u t e ,
and
lame, of J e s u s ' pardoning
sins, and
of
miraculous feedings appear to b e cast in an Isaianic N E perspective.
the It is
interesting, therefore, that several s c h o l a r s h a v e r e g a r d e d the m i r a c l e s reported in, for e x a m p l e , 4:35 - 5:43, 6:34-44, 4 5 - 5 2 ; 7:32-37; and & 1 - 1 0 as epiphanic.
6
S u c h powerful 'self-manifestations' are entirely in k e e p i n g
with the p r o p o s a l that M a r k p r e s e n t s J e s u s as the i n a u g u r a t o r
o f the
Philo, u s e d t h e m i r a c u l o u s t o a u t h e n t i c a t e M o s e s a s a Qeiog GLVT\p ( b u t s e e T i e d e ' s c r i t i c i s m s , ibid., 237ff, a n d o n t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m a t i c o f Gcios* avTfp m o s t r e c e n t l y B l a c k b u r n , passim). M e e k s , Prophet-King, in d e a l i n g w i t h m i r a c l e s in J o h n m e n t i o n s n o M o s a i c c o u n t e r p a r t t o J e s u s ' h e a l i n g o f e.g. t h e b l i n d ( 9 : 1 - 1 2 ) o r t h e l a m e ( 5 : 1 - 9 ) . S e e f u r t h e r t h e e x a m p l e s c i t e d in T i e d e , Charismatic, 1 0 1 - 2 3 7 , a n d t h e ' s i g n s ' p r o m i s e d b y v a r i o u s ' p r o p h e t s ' in J o s e p h u s : Ant. 2 0 . 9 7 f ; 2 0 . 1 6 7 f f ; a n d B.J. 7A37H; cf. T h e i s s e n , Social, 6 0 ; T i e d e , Charismatic, 197ff; Smith, ' O c c u l t ' , 2 5 1 ; e s p e c . B e t z , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 2 2 6 - 3 1 , a n d Studies, 2 3 5 f , w h e r e h e p r o p o s e s ( u n s u c c e s s f u l l y in m y v i e w , s e e fn. 1 2 7 b e l o w ) t h a t J e s u s a n d t h e d i s c i p l e s c r o s s i n g t h e l a k e reflects M o s e s ' a n d Israel's j o u r n e y t h r o u g h s e a . 3
4
E . g . H o n i t h e C i r c l e - D r a w e r ( = O n i a s t h e R i g h t e o u s ) a n d H a n i n a b e n D o s a ; b. Ber. 3 4 b (cf. 1 K g s 17:91f; 1 8 : 4 2 ) ; m. Tann. 3 : 8 ; b. Ta
Cf. e.g. H e i s i n g , ' E x e g e s e ' , 8 6 f ; F l a m m e r , ' S y r o p h o e n i z e r i n ' , 4 7 0 f ; K e r t e l g e , 1 1 6 f , 1 5 2 ; B r o w n , ' J e s u s ' ; L i n d a r s , 'Elijah'; A c h t e m e i e r , ' O r i g i n ' . R o t h ' s a t t e m p t , Hebrew, 8 , t o d r a w close p a r a l l e l s en toto b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d E l i s h a m u s t b e d e e m e d u n s u c c e s s f u l . E . g . K e r t e l g e , passim; A c h t e m e i e r , ' O r i g i n ' , 2 0 6 ; cf. D i b e l i u s , Tradition, 9 1 , 2 9 0 . 6
Distribution
of
139
Miracles
Isaianic p r o m i s e s w h e r e b y Y a h w e h h i m s e l f c o m e s to deliver as he ' m a k e s bare his a r m ' (cf. Isa 4 0 : 3 , 1 0 ; 51:9; 52:10; 53:1; 59:16ff; 63:5).
//. The Distribution of Miracles O n e o f the arresting features o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l is the distribution o f J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s .
7
disproportionate
A l t h o u g h the inherent uncertainties in
v e r s e c o u n t i n g m a k e it a r a t h e r b l u n t
instrument,
nevertheless,
the
importance o f J e s u s ' miracles for M a r k can b e seen in that a p p r o x i m a t e l y 177 out of 6 6 6 verses, or 2 7 % o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l deals with miracles (taking the shorter ending). If the passion narrative (ch. l l f f ) is excluded, this rises to 4 0 % ( s o m e 168 o u t o f 4 2 5 v e r s e s ) .
8
O n the b a s i s o f the
structure
suggested earlier, if w e concentrate on the first section alone (to 8:26) J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s c o m p r i s e an e v e n h i g h e r 4 7 % ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 145 out o f 3 1 1 v e r s e s ) , w h i l e in the r e m a i n i n g t w o s e c t i o n s (8:27 - 1 6 : 8 ) m i r a c l e s (an exorcism, a healing, a 'cursing', and the resurrection) represent only 1 1 % (about 4 0 out o f 3 5 5 verses). Furthermore, M a r k ' s s u m m a r i e s , confined as they are to the first section, also reflect a similar interest in J e s u s ' healings and casting out of d e m o n s (1:32-34, 3 9 ; 3:10-12; 6:5, 53-56). E v e n allowing for s o m e v a r i a t i o n d u e to d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s m i r a c l e material, this represents a rather lop-sided distribution. It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that this a p p a r e n t diminution o f J e s u s ' m i r a c l e w o r k i n g is the result o f increasing hostility and o b d u r a c y .
9
But this hardly
accounts for the fact that a large n u m b e r o f miracles occur after the series of controversy stories. Nor, as w e saw in the previous Chapter, can it b e the result o f a Galilee-Jerusalem a n t i t h e s i s . concentration of miracles would
10
O n the other hand, this early
in fact b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
an I N E
hermeneutic. J u s t as in the I N E the deliverance and healing o f Israel w a s the precursor to her return a l o n g the w a y to restored Z i o n - J e r u s a l e m s o
7
T h u s t h e t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n a r e n o t i n c l u d e d . If p e r i c o p a e w e r e t o b e c o u n t e d a s w h o l e s — t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n u n l e s s a c o n c e r n for t h e m i r a c l e p e r v a d e s t h e e n t i r e unit—then the p r o p o r t i o n w o u l d b e e v e n higher a n d the distribution e v e n m o r e skewed. 8
C f . R i c h a r d s o n , 3 6 f ; M a n s o n , Jesus, 3 4 f . M a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s r e c o g n i s e t h e s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e t w o s i g h t m i r a c l e s in 8 : 2 2 - 2 7 a n d 1 0 : 4 5 - 1 1 : 1 , a n d K o l e n k o w , ' B e y o n d ' , 1 6 0 , s u g e e s t s t h a t m i r a c l e s s e r v e a s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n in t h e c o n t r o v e r s y s t o r i e s o f 2:1 - 3 : 6 . 9
1
0
S e r g e a n t , Lion, 4 5 - 6 2 ; cf. T o l b e r t , Sowing, 1 8 6 . C h a p t e r 5 , p p . 132ff.
140
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
too M a r k , prior to his ' W a y ' s e c t i o n , p r e s e n t s J e s u s in t e r m s o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r w h o delivers the captives from d e m o n i c b o n d a g e , as Israel's healer, and as the one w h o forgives her sins.
11
HI. Jesus and the Isaianic Yahweh-Warrior
T h e pervasive M a r k a n t h e m e o f J e s u s ' eschatological conflict with Satan has been widely recognised—even if there is s o m e debate over its precise nature.
1 2
W h a t c o n c e r n s us, h o w e v e r , is w h e t h e r there is any evidence
that M a r k ' s presentation is influenced b y Isaiah's account o f the Y a h w e h Warrior as the agent o f the N E . a) The Yahweh-Warrior
in
1 3
Isaiah
T h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r i m a g e r y in I s a i a h is n o w a d a y s commonplace.
1 4
T h e p r o g r a m m a t i c prologue concludes w i t h a portrayal
of Y a h w e h c o m i n g lb n^ttfb i i n t
. . . p t r a (40:10; LXX: u € T a laxu'oc;) as he
delivers his p e o p l e — t h e y b e c o m e his b o o t y ( i n ^ J J S l . . .
cf. 4 0 : 1 1 )
1 5
—with an outstretched arm in the sight of all the nations (40:10; cf. 51:9; 52:10).
1 1
1 6
This introductory m o t i f continues as Y a h w e h is presented as a
O n Y a h w e h a s w a r r i o r : F r e d r i k s s o n , Jahwe; v o n R a d , Heilige; W r i g h t , 1 2 1 - 5 0 ; S t o l z , Jahwes; C r o s s , Canaanite, 9 1 - 1 1 1 ; W e i p p e r t , 'Heiliger'; Miller, Divine; L i n d , Yahweh; K a n g , Divine; L o n g m a n a n d R e i d , Warrior. 1
2
1
3
1
4
Theology, 'Divine';
W e i s s , Predigt, first d r e w a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s a s p e c t o f J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y ( E T : Proclama tion, 74ff); a l s o e.g. R o b i n s o n ; B a r r e t t , Spirit, 5 5 f f ; K u m m e l , Promise, 105ff. K a l l a s , Significance, 107, a r g u e s that 'eschatology cannot be u n d e r s t o o d apart from demonology'. A l t h o u g h B e s t , Temptation, 1 5 , p l a c e s t h e e m p h a s i s o n a n initial v i c t o r y , h e n e v e r t h e l e s s a p p e a r s t o r e g a r d t h e e x o r c i s m s a s p a r t o f t h e o v e r a l l e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a t t l e , e v e n if o n l y a s m o p p i n g - u p o p e r a t i o n s . K o c h , Bedeutung, 1 7 2 , d e n i e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e e x o r c i s m s f u n c t i o n ' p r i m a r ' in t h i s w a y , b u t fails t o t a k e a p p r o p r i a t e n o t i c e e i t h e r o f t h e I s a i a n i c N E b a c k g r o u n d in g e n e r a l , o r o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l a n d t h e m a t i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y in p a r t i c u l a r ( s e e b e l o w ) . O n Q u m r a n ' s H o l y W a r m o t i f a n d p o s s i b l e p a r a l l e l s w i t h J e s u s , s e e e.g. B e t z , ' H e i l i g e r ' , 'Sinai'; P e r r i n , Kingdom, 1 7 0 f . Cf. B e t z , 'Jesu', 7 2 , c i t e d o n p . 5 4 a b o v e . B o t h B e t z a n d S t e v e n s , ' M a r k ' , link t h e S o M w i t h t h e a n c i e n t D i v i n e - W a r r i o r i m a g e , a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t lies o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f this b o o k . W h i l e it is r e a d i l y a c c e p t e d t h a t m a n y O T m o t i f s a r e e m p l o y e d in M a r k , t h e c o n c e r n h e r e i n is t o e x a m i n e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e I N E . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s t a n d a r d c o m m e n t a r i e s s e e a l s o H a n s o n , Dawn, passim. E l l i g e r , Deuterojesaja, 3 7 , p r e f e r s ' w a g e s ' a s in t h e J a c o b s t o r y ( G n 3 0 : 2 8 - 3 3 ; 3 1 : 8 ) , b u t Y a h w e h is s c a r c e l y a h i r e l i n g . T h e m i l i t a r y i m a g e r y is t o b e p r e f e r r e d , cf. E z e k 2 9 : 1 8 f f w i t h t h e p a r a l l e l u s e o f t h e s e t e r m s a n d bbti a n d in, B e g r i c h , Studien, 5 9 . 1 5
1
6
R i n g g r e n , TWAT, 5 , c o l s . 4 0 9 f : ' D a s Bild e n t s t a m m t w a h r s c h e i n l i c h d e r V o r s t e l l u n g v o n J H W H a l s K r i e g e r ' ; s e e E x 6:6; D t 4 : 2 4 ; 7 : 1 9 ; 9 : 2 9 ; 1 1 : 2 ; a n d f u r t h e r E x 7 : 5 , 1 9 ; 8:lf, 1 3 ; 9:22; 1 0 : 1 2 , 2 1 f ; e t c .
Yahweh
Warrior
in
141
Isaiah
m i g h t y warrior and m a n of war (42:13-15; E x 15:3) delivering the T B 3 (49:24ff; 51:14) w h o h a v e b e e n p l u n d e r e d , despoiled, and h i d d e n a w a y in the darkness o f prisons (42:22f; 49:9; 51:14; 52:2; cf. 35:3ff).
Just as he had
crushed the m i g h t of P h a r a o h at the sea, so he will again deal w i t h J a c o b Israel's oppressors (43:16f; 51:9f; E x 14:25, 2 8 ; 15:10, 2 1 ; cf. 3 4 : 2 f f ) . in chapters 1-39, the title nifcOS m r r
1 8
17
Whereas
with its W a r r i o r o v e r t o n e s p r i m a r i l y
c o n n o t e d j u d g e m e n t — a s Y a h w e h had p r e v i o u s l y fought for Israel, with 'outstretched a r m ' (5:25b; 9:11b, 16b, 2 0 )
1 9
now
he w o u l d fight against h e r
20
(1:7-9, 24f; 2:12; 3:1; 10:23 e t c . ) — i n c h a p t e r s 4 0 - 5 5 , niKDS mm
occurs
primarily in salvation oracles w h i c h p r o c l a i m the N E (45:13; 47:4; 5 1 : 1 5 ; 54:5; cf. 13:lff; 4 0 : 2 6 ) .
21
A l t h o u g h v a r i o u s n a t i o n s are m e n t i o n e d as the objects o f Y a h w e h ' s j u d g e m e n t s ( p r i m a r i l y B a b y l o n , b u t also others, 4 3 : 1 4 ; 4 7 : l f f ; 48:14; and 4 1 : l l f f ; 49:26; 51:7f, 22f), his warrior activities are conceived in terms of the n a t i o n s ' d e i t i e s .
22
fundamentally
H e n c e the anti-idol p o l e m i c s on the o n e
h a n d (40:18-20; 4 1 : 9 - 2 0 ; 4 4 : 9 - 2 0 ; 46:5-7(8)), and the trial s p e e c h e s on
the
other, are p r i m a r i l y directed against the g o d s w h o e p i t o m i s e the w e a l t h and p o w e r of Israel's oppressors (41:1-5, 21-29; 43:8-13; 44:6ff and 4 5 : 1 8 - 2 5 ) . 1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
3
23
Seidl, ' Y a h w e ' ; C r o s s , Canaanite, 91ff. T h e t e r m ' J a c o b - I s r a e l ' is i n t e n d e d t o reflect t h e H e b r e w p a r a l l e l i s m c o m m o n in Isa 4 0 - 4 8 e.g. 4 4 : 1 , ' B u t n o w listen, O J a c o b , m y s e r v a n t , I s r a e l , w h o m I h a v e c h o s e n ' b u t w h i c h d i s a p p e a r s in c h s . 4 9 - 5 5 , s e e W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 49ff. W i l d b e r g e r , 1 . 2 1 7 ; M i l l e r , ' D i v i n e ' , 1 0 2 f , a n d Divine, Mettinger, ' Y H W H . '
151ff; C r o s s , Canaanite,
91-99;
S H e p p a r d , ' R e d a c t i o n ' , 1 2 6 , s e e s this l a n g u a g e a d u m b r a t i n g t h e j u d g e m e n t s a g a i n s t t h e n a t i o n s in I s a 1 3 - 2 3 . S e e f u r t h e r , I s a 8 : 5 - 8 , cf. P s 6 9 : 3 - 2 4 , E v a n s , ' U s e ' , 95f; a n d a l s o I s a 2 8 : 2 1 , cf. J o s h 10:6ff a n d 2 S a m 5:17ff, K a i s e r , 2 . 2 5 5 . Following Schoors,
Saviour.
P h a r a o h w a s s i m i l a r l y r e g a r d e d a s a d e i t y w h o , in i m i t a t i o n o f H o r u s a n d R e , e x e r c i s e d a b s o l u t e a u t h o r i t y o v e r all t h i n g s ; B e a l e , ' E x e g e t i c a l ' , 1 4 9 , c i t i n g P r i t c h a r d , ' T h e o l o g y ' , 5f, a n d R i n g g r e n , Word, 22. C l i f f o r d , ' F u n c t i o n ' ; K i m , ' V e r h a l t n i s ' ; K o o l e , ' b e e l d e n s t o r m ' ( c i t e d in S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 2 9 ) ; R o t h , 'Life'; S p y k e r b o e r ; W e s t e r m a n n ; W i n k , Naming, 27. K i m , K o o l e , a n d W e s t e r m a n n a d d 42:17; 45:16f, 20b and 46:lf, and Koole alone, 48:5. Stuhlmueller, ' T r a n s i t i o n s ' , 6 , s o m e w h a t i d i o s y n c r a t i c a l l y s e e s 4 0 : 1 8 f f ; 4 1 : 6 f ; 4 1 : 2 1 - 2 9 ; 4 2 : 8 f , 16f; 4 3 : 1 0 ; 4 4 : 6 ; 4 5 : 2 1 ; c h . 4 6 ; a n d 4 8 : 1 - 1 1 a s w a r n i n g s a g a i n s t i d o l a t r y . B o n n a r d , Isaie, 23ff, h a s a p r o m i n e n t r o l e f o r t h e p o l e m i c s in h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f 4 0 - 4 8 ; cf. S p y k e r b o e r , 185ff. C l i f f o r d n o t e s s o m e o f t h e t h e m e s : 4 4 : 6 - 2 2 , a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e n a t i o n s qua i d o l - m a k e r s a n d I s r a e l is c e n t r a l t o t h i s t e x t , w h e r e Y a h w e h w h o f a s h i o n e d I s r a e l is c o n t r a s t e d t o t h e n a t i o n s w h o f a s h i o n t h e i r silent a n d d u m b i d o l s ; 4 6 : 1 - 1 3 , Y a h w e h is p o w e r f u l , h e c o n s o l e s a n d b e a r s h i s p e o p l e , effortlessly d e l i v e r i n g t h e m . T h e n a t i o n s ' i d o l s o n t h e o t h e r h a n d a r e w e a k a n d n e e d c o n s o l i n g , a n d e v e n t h o u g h m u c h effort a n d w e a l t h is e x p e n d e d u p o n t h e m , they a r e c a r r i e d b y beasts of b u r d e n into captivity. T h e polemics a r e
142
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
T h e p o i n t b e i n g that Y a h w e h ' s r e d e m p t i v e
NE
Healer
exercise of his
unilateral
control o f history will result in the total d e t h r o n e m e n t o f the idols and therefore Israel's d e l i v e r a n c e .
24
A t the s a m e time, the role of Y a h w e h as W a r r i o r does not preclude the c o m p l e m e n t a r y activity o f his h u m a n agent: the c o n q u e r o r C y r u s will b e Y a h w e h ' s instrument (45:1-7; cf. 42:28; 45:13; 46:11; 4 8 : 1 4 ) .
25
I h a v e argued
in m o r e detail e l s e w h e r e , h o w e v e r , that for various reasons Israel rejects Y a h w e h ' s agent C y r u s and that this negative response apparently occasions the a p p o i n t m e n t o f an ' u n k n o w n ' and future ' s e r v a n t ' w h o will release the exiles (42:7; 49:9) and succeed in effecting Israel's N E ( 4 9 : 8 - 1 3 ) .
26
In the Isaianic accounts o f the post-exilic h o p e (Isa 5 6 - 6 6 ) , the Warrior imagery is also aligned with Exodus language (63:8-14,19ff; cf. 57:14f; 58:8f; 60:4ff; 6 2 : 1 0 f ;
27
cf. 66:15f). Y a h w e h is described as a warrior w h o will bring
avenging r e c o m p e n s e o n his e n e m i e s and deliverance to Z i o n (59:15b-20; 63:l-6),
2 8
and o n c e again his coming is u e T a iaxu'oc; (LXX 63:5). T h e impor
tance o f this i m a g e is indicated b y the fact that these e x t e n d e d W a r r i o r a c c o u n t s b r a c k e t the description o f J e r u s a l e m / Z i o n ' s restoration (60:1 62:12), w h i c h itself constitutes the heart o f chapters 5 6 - 6 6 .
2 9
T h e point is
firmly m a d e in b o t h passages that, in the absence of a n y o n e else to help, Y a h w e h ' s arm a l o n e w o u l d bring salvation (63:5; 59:16). S u c h language is
s i t u a t e d a s f o l l o w s : 4 0 : 1 8 - 2 0 a n d 4 6 : 5 - 7 ( 8 ) , in d i s p u t a t i o n s ; 4 4 : 9 f is c o n t i g u o u s w i t h a trial s p e e c h i n v o l v i n g I s r a e l (Preufi, Verspottung, 2 0 8 - 1 5 , s e e s this a s a p p l y i n g b o t h t o J e w s a n d Gentiles); 4 1 : 7 instead concerns the nations. Less generally accepted passages: 4 2 : 1 7 and 4 5 : 1 6 , in p r o c l a m a t i o n s o f s a l v a t i o n ; 4 8 : 5 , in a d i s p u t a t i o n ; 4 5 : 2 0 in a trial s c e n e i n v o l v i n g the n a t i o n s a n d 4 6 : I f specifically against Babylon. 2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
9
' D a s E n d h e i l v o n J a h w e b r i n g t n o t w e n d i g a u c h d i e E n t m a c h t u n g d e r G o t z e n m i t sich,' Preufi, Einfuhrung, 6 2 . Cf. C l i f f o r d , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 459ff, w h o s e e s in 4 0 : 1 2 - 2 6 a s u c c e s s i o n o f d e t h r o n e m e n t s c u l m i n a t i n g in t h e p o w e r w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e g o d s t o t h e i r k n e e s b e i n g g i v e n to Israel. O n the i m p o r t a n c e of C y r u s , W a t t s , 'Consolation', 41-49; also: Barnes, 'Cyrus'; S i m c o x , ' C y r u s ' ; J e n n i , ' K y r o s ' ; J o n e s , ' A b r a h a m ' ; K o c h , 'Stellung'. A s a n t i - t y p e o f M o s e s a s d e l i v e r e r , O g d e n , ' M o s e s ' . S c h o o r s , Saviour, W e s t e r m a n n ; W h y b r a y ; C l i f f o r d , Persuading', a n d S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, all g r a n t a c e n t r a l r o l e t o C y r u s w i t h S m a r t , History, b e i n g t h e lone dissenting voice. 'Consolation'. A c a t e n a o f q u o t a t i o n s f r o m 4 0 : 1 - 1 1 ; 5 2 : 1 - 1 2 ; M u i l e n b u r g , 'Isaiah'; W e s t e r m a n n . H a n s o n , Dawn, 124ff, 203ff; H o l m g r e n , ' A v e n g e r ' ; P o l a n , ' S a l v a t i o n ' ; G r o s s , 'Sion'. E . g . D u m b r e l l , ' P u r p o s e ' , 1 1 2 ; R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 3 0 5 ; G o t t w a l d , Hebrew, 5 0 8 ; and C l e m e n t s , 'Unity', 128. This section d r a w s m o r e heavily from 4 0 - 5 5 than a n y other part of 5 6 - 6 6 .
Yahweh
Warrior
in
143
Isaiah
suggestive o f the p e r s o n a l intervention o f Y a h w e h h i m s e l f w h i c h is o f course consistent with the highly personal language of 4 0 : 1 - 1 1 . In Tg. Isaiah
30
there is a particular emphasis on the 'strength' of G o d in
the expansionistic expression rraTQa i m
*ppn (e.g. 40:10; 51:5 (bis); 53:1).
At the s a m e time, the activity o f the enigmatic 'servant' figure is cast in messianic t e r m s w h i c h stress his activity as liberator and ' w a r r i o r despoils the e n e m i e s o f his p e o p l e and restores J e w i s h A g a i n , a l t h o u g h o f uncertain date, Tg. Isaiah earlier traditions.
who
sovereignty'.
31
m a y well b e suggestive o f
In other J e w i s h literature m o r e clearly from the N T
period, W a r r i o r i m a g e r y is used o f Y a h w e h as he c o m e s to deliver his people (e.g. 1 Q M 12:10-14; 19:2-8; cf. Isa 49:23 and 52:2; W i s 5:16-23; Sir 35:22 - 36:17; As. Mos. 1 0 ) Or. 3:669-795).
3 2
and sometimes o f his w o r d (Wis 18:15; cf. Sib.
Similarly, military a n d / o r Warrior l a n g u a g e is used in
s o m e traditions of a messianic figure, w h o e n g a g e s the u n g o d l y
powers
33
and restores his people (e.g. Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 3 - 3 9 ; 2 Bar. 39-42, 72-74; 1 Enoch 37-71;
3 4
4 Ezra 12:31-34; 13; Philo, Prae. 16 (91-97); cf. l Q S b 5:27; l Q S a 2 : 1 1 ^ 5 ; a
4QpIsa ). 3
0
3
1
3
2
3 6
W h y b r a y , 2 5 4 ; cf. W e s t e r m a n n , 3 8 2 . L e v e y , Messiah, 1 0 2 ; C h i l t o n , Targum, 105; thus 'to bring b a c k their exiles, those w h o a r e like p r i s o n e r s , f r o m a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s ; a n d t o d e l i v e r t h e m f r o m t h e b o n d a g e o f e m p i r e s ' , 4 2 : 7 ; ' t h e n t h e g l o r y o f all t h e k i n g d o m s w i l l b e for c o n t e m p t a n d b r o u g h t t o a n e n d ; t h e y w i l l b e w e a k a n d s i c k l y ' , 5 3 : 3 a ; 'he w i l l d e l i v e r o v e r t h e m i g h t y o n e s o f t h e n a t i o n s a s l a m b s t o t h e s l a u g h t e r ' , 5 3 : 7 b ; a l s o Tg. Isa 1 0 : 2 7 ' a n d t h e n a t i o n s s h a l l b e s h a t t e r e d b e f o r e t h e M e s s i a h ' , a n d 1 1 : 1 0 ; cf. Yerus. a n d Neof. Tgs. o n G n 4 9 : 1 1 . T h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e T e m p l e in 5 3 : 5 , w h i l e h e l p i n g t o d a t e t h a t p a r t i c u l a r a d d i t i o n , s h o u l d n o t b e a l l o w e d t o f u n c t i o n a s a terminus a quo for t h e r e s t o f t h e p a s s a g e , cf. C h i l t o n , Glory, 9 3 - 9 6 . MAI, 3
3
3
4
3
5
3
6
T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t in Q u m r a n , R i n g g r e n , Faith, 1 5 2 - 6 6 ; O s t e n - S a c k e n , Gott, 2 1 4 - 3 8 . O n t h e O T s o u r c e s o f this i m a g e r y t h r o u g h o u t 1 Q M , C a r m i g n a c , 'citations'.
C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a h ' , 1 9 7 f ; a n d D e J o n g e , TDNT, 9 . 5 1 4 , w h o m a y b e justified in detecting a n e m p h a s i s o n the 'spiritual' dimension, s e e m to g o too far w h e n they then g o o n to e x c l u d e a national, political, military c o m p o n e n t . First, the e x p r e s s i o n ' s w o r d of his m o u t h ' is a m e t a p h o r w h i c h d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g a u t h o r i t y o f t h e r u l e r ( W a t t s , ' M e a n i n g ' ) a n d d o e s n o t a t all e x c l u d e m i l i t a r y m e a n s . S e c o n d , t h e l a n g u a g e o f ' n o t r e l y ( i n g ) o n h o r s e a n d r i d e r a n d b o w ' s e e m s less a r e p u d i a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y m e a n s per se a s a reflection of the O T critique of the Israel's past self-reliance on h e r o w n military c a p a b i l i t y , w h i c h , a f t e r all s e e m s t o b e t h e p o i n t o f t h e final v e r s e (cf. P s 2 0 ) . O n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e r e b e i n g a c o m m o n r e f e r e n t for t h e f o u r titles ( A n o i n t e d O n e , Righteous One, Son of M a n , a n d C h o s e n O n e ) see V a n d e r K a m , 'Righteous'. Charlesworth's e a r l i e r c o m p a r t m e n t a l i s e d a c c o u n t o f t h e ' A n o i n t e d O n e ' in t h e s e p a s s a g e s , ' M e s s i a h ' , 2 0 6 f , n e e d s n o w t o b e r e a d in t h e l i g h t o f h i s r e c e n t e n d o r s e m e n t o f V a n d e r K a m ' s w o r k , 'Messianology', 13. W h i c h p r e s u p p o s e a h o l y w a r , s o V e r m e s , DSSE, 1 0 0 . O n t h e v a r i o u s a n d w i d e s p r e a d t r a d i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e M e s s i a h ' s r o l e in t h e e n d time conflict a n d d e s t r u c t i o n of hostile p o w e r s , S c h u r e r , 2 . 5 0 1 - 2 9 a n d the literature cited
144
Jesus
b) Isaianic
as Yahweh-Warrior
Yahzueh-Warrior
Imagery
and
in
Israel's
NE
Healer
Mark
In C h a p t e r 4 w e h a v e already n o t e d a n u m b e r o f e l e m e n t s in M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e w h i c h intimate the idea o f divine conflict, w h e t h e r implied in terms o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g 'in s t r e n g t h ' (1:7, 14f) o r s u g g e s t e d b y the imagery of the rent heavens intervention
(1:10) w i t h its c o n n o t a t i o n s
o n e x i l e d I s r a e l ' s behalf.
of
divine
B u t d o e s this m o t i f c o m e to
p r o m i n e n c e in the first section o f M a r k , as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d if an I N E h e r m e n e u t i c is o p e r a t i n g ?
T h e r e are a n u m b e r o f i n d i c a t i o n s
which
suggest that it does. (i)
The Beelzebul Warrior
Controversy—Jesus,
Demons
and
the
Yahweh-
O n e possible c a s e is the Beelzebul controversy in M a r k 3:22-30.
Here, in
response to a charge laid b y s o m e leaders from Jerusalem, J e s u s describes his e x o r c i s m s using the famous 'strong m a n ' imagery: ou6€ic;
eig
TTJV
[n\ TrpcjTov
TOV
oiKiav
TOO
i a x u p o u €la€A0a>v T a
l a x u p o v 6rj<7T|, Kai
T O T C TT|V
GKCUTI
< i A X ' ou
a u T o O 6iapTTaaai,
oiKiav a u T o O
dvvcnai edv
diapiidoei.
t h e r e i n ; L e i v e s t a d , Christ, 3 - 8 ; K l a u s n e r , Messianic, 483-501; C h a r l e s w o r t h , 'Messiah', ' M e s s i a n o l o g y ' ; L e v e y , Messiah, passim; K u h n , Enderwartung, 1 7 6 - 8 8 ; Betz, 'Heiliger'; Stevens, 'Jesus'. O n the application of Isa 63:1-6 i m a g e r y to the Messiah, Grelot, 'L'exegese'. W h i l e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s a r e to b e a p p l a u d e d for their highlighting the diversity of m e s s i a n i c e x p e c t a t i o n , t h e r e a r e o c c a s i o n s w h e n t h e i r o n l y e v i d e n c e is t h e s i l e n c e o f a g i v e n author. H o w e v e r , silence on an aspect of messianic expectation s e e m s a d u b i o u s g r o u n d to a r g u e t h a t s u c h a n i d e a is n o t p a r t o f a g i v e n a u t h o r ' s e x p e c t a t i o n , it b e i n g u n r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t a n a u t h o r t o s a y e v e r y t h i n g h e b e l i e v e s a b o u t t h e M e s s i a h in a g i v e n p a s s a g e . F u r t h e r m o r e , s o m e c o n t r a s t s fail t o c a r r y c o n v i c t i o n , e.g. C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a h ' , m a k e s s o m e p l a y o f t h e f a c t t h a t o n o c c a s i o n s t h e M e s s i a h is s e e n a s a c t i n g w h i l e a t o t h e r t i m e s G o d h i m s e l f a c t s ( e v e n in o n e a u t h o r , e.g. 2 Baruch). But, given that throughout the O T a victory c a n be w o n b y Y a h w e h ' s agent a n d yet Y a h w e h be p r o c l a i m e d as the deliverer of his p e o p l e , s u c h a d i s t i n c t i o n m a y b e t o o r i g i d . In a d d i t i o n , m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s o f t e n l i m i t t h e m s e l v e s t o t h o s e p a s s a g e s in w h i c h a figure is e x p l i c i t l y d e s c r i b e d b y ' M e s s i a h / a n o i n t e d ' l a n g u a g e , b u t a s D u n n , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 3 6 6 , a n d C h a r l e s w o r t h , 'Messianology', 10, n o t e this a l m o s t certainly distorts the issue. The a s s u m p t i o n t h a t d i f f e r e n t titles n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e d i f f e r e n t e s c h a t o l o g i c a l f i g u r e s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s a l s o s e e m s s t r a n g e , n o t o n l y in t h e l i g h t o f t h e e a s e w i t h w h i c h e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s a p p l i e d v a r i o u s titles t o J e s u s , b u t a l s o g i v e n s i m i l a r t e n d e n c i e s in 1 Enoch, V a n d e r K a m , ' R i g h t e o u s ' ( s e e fn. 3 4 a b o v e ) . Finally, given that most of o u r sources a r e literary a n d that literary w o r k s tend not to b e t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e , t h e r e is a r e a l d a n g e r t h a t o u r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f messianic e x p e c t a t i o n m i g h t be p r e d o m i n a n t l y that of the literary a n d w e a l t h y classes a n d , t h e r e f o r e , tell u s little o f t h e p e r h a p s l e s s n u a n c e d p o p u l a r e x p e c t a t i o n / s o f t h e v a s t bulk of the people w h o comprised Jesus' audience.
Beelzebul
The pericope
appears
145
Controversy
to reflect M a r k ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
'sandwich'
technique in w h i c h the B e e l z e b u l controversy (3:22-30) is inserted within the question about f a m i l y
3 7
(3:20-21; 3 : 3 1 - 3 5 ) .
38
J . L a m b r e c h t proposes a
threefold thematic chiasm: a.
Jesus at h o m e a n d the initiative of the relatives (3:20-21) b.
T h e scribes' accusation (3:22) c.
Jesus' apology (3:23b-29)
b\
scribes' accusation repeated (3:30)
a'.
Arrival of relatives a n d declaration of true kinship ( 3 : 3 1 - 3 5 )
3 9
W h i l e helpful, this analysis d o e s not do justice to the role g i v e n to the c r o w d s over against the negative response o f J e s u s ' relatives in verses 2 2 , 21 and 3 1 , 32f—an important consideration because o n e o f the issues of the passage c o n c e r n s the nature o f J e s u s ' true f a m i l y .
40
Consequently, based
on what appears to b e M a r k ' s interest in the response to Jesus o f the three groups—crowds,
family, s c r i b e s — t h e following ' b r o a d - b r u s h '
analysis
s e e m s preferable: a.
T h e c r o w d s g a t h e r t o J e s u s (3:20) b.
Jesus' relatives' estimation: h e his beside himself (3:21) c.
T h e scribes' accusation a n d Jesus' response (3:22-30)
b'.
The
Jesus' relatives arrive 'outside' to take charge (3:31)
a'.
T h e c r o w d s 'inside' a n d J e s u s ' t r u e f a m i l y ( 3 : 3 2 - 3 5 )
linking
of
the
scribes'
blasphemous
4 1
accusation,
the
misunderstanding of J e s u s ' relatives, and his description o f his true family in terms of doing the will of G o d , highlights the importance o f recognising aright w h o J e s u s is—already the ground is being prepared for the warning in the following p e r i c o p e to ' h e a r carefully' (4:9, 2 3 - 2 5 ) .
T h e significant
point is the c o n n e c t i n g o f the issue of recognition with the c h a r g e o f the scribes c o n c e r n i n g the s o u r c e o f J e s u s ' authority.
This charge, which
constitutes the heart o f the pericope, turns on J e s u s ' manifest over the d e m o n s .
3
7
3
8
3
9
4
0
4
1
4
2
authority
4 2
oi n a p ' auToO is difficult. A l t h o u g h it m a y s i m p l y i n d i c a t e 'friends', t h e ' s a n d w i c h ' s t r u c t u r e s u g g e s t s ' f a m i l y ' ( B e s t , ' M a r k ' ; H o o k e r , 1 1 4 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 1 7 2 ) , a fact w h i c h c o u n t s against W a n s b r o u g h , 'Mark', 234f; a n d W e n h a m , 'Meaning', 296f, w h o a r g u e , respectively, t h a t t h e c r o w d o r t h e T w e l v e a r e in v i e w . Cf. H o o k e r , 1 1 4 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 1 6 9 . O n t h e u n i t y o f this p a s s a g e . Best, ' M a r k ' .
' R e l a t i v e s ' , 2 5 2 . S e e n o w e s p e c i a l l y . S h e p h e r d , Sandwich, 111-38. Cf. H o o k e r , 1 1 4 . R o b b i n s , Patterns, 11 (in h i s o r i g i n a l m s ) , s e e s t h e t h r e e c h a r g e s : J e s u s is b e s i d e h i m s e l f ( v . 2 1 ) , h e h a s B e e l z e b u l (v. 2 2 ) a n d h e c a s t s o u t d e m o n s b y t h e r u l e r of d e m o n s (v. 2 2 ) . Cf. G u n d r y , 1 7 0 , a n d t h e s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e in 11:1 - 12:12; C h a p t e r 9 , p . 3 0 4 , b e l o w . J e s u s ' a u t h o r i t y is o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e in h i s first e x o r c i s m , K e r t e l g e , 5 6 f .
146
Jesus
The
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
central s c e n e is set with the accusation that J e s u s is p o s s e s s e d of
'BccXCcpou'X'. T h e m e a n i n g of this title is u n c l e a r ,
43
perhaps ' L o r d o f the
Flies' (cf. Ba'aX \imav Qeov, LXX 2 K g s 1:3, 6; J o s . Ant. 9.19), although if ' r a t means 'dwelling' it m a y explain J e s u s ' use o f the O I K I O C - i m a g e r y — t h e h o u s e of the (strong) L o r d o f the H o u s e is being plundered b y a Stronger O n e .
4 4
W h a t e v e r the case, the important point is that M a r k ' s J e s u s is here accused of being in league with the prince o f d e m o n s (v. 22b; cf. 1 Q S 3:20-21; T. Sol. 4
2:9; 3:5; 6 : 1 ) . 5
J e s u s ' three-fold response demonstrates the fallaciousness o f the charge (vv. 23-26). If it w e r e true, not only w o u l d Satan b e destroying himself, but h e w o u l d already h a v e m e t his end.
O b v i o u s l y this is not the case.
The
second part o f J e s u s ' parable answer m a y then b e intended to explain h o w Satan c a n b e p l u n d e r e d if h e is not destroyed, n a m e l y , that h e is b o u n d . The precise implications o f verse 2 7 are difficult to disentangle: if Satan is already b o u n d , w h e n did this binding occur, and h o w then are individuals still w i t h i n his p o w e r ?
4 6
A r e w e to understand that n o w that Satan has
b e e n b o u n d his d e m o n i c u n d e r l i n g s are e a s y p r e y ?
O r , as L e i v e s t a d
suggests, are w e better not to search for a single decisive event b u t instead to regard each exorcism as an instance of binding and p l u n d e r i n g ? (a) The 'Strong
Man'
47
Saying
T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a further and p e r h a p s m o r e important consideration: h o w d o e s the 'strong m a n ' saying relate to the fundamental issue, namely, the accusation that J e s u s is in league with B e e l z e b u l ? W . L a n e suggests that the term l a x u p o s alludes to 6 1
laxupoTepos
in t h e p r o l o g u e w h e r e
Jesus b e c o m e s the bearer o f the H o l y Spirit, and thereby refutes the charge that h e is p o s s e s s e d b y d e m o n s .
4 8
W h i l e an allusion to the p r o l o g u e is
likely ( s e e b e l o w ) , it n e v e r t h e l e s s s e e m s a s o m e w h a t i n d i r e c t w a y o f m a k i n g the p o i n t if that is all it is intended to do.
4 3
F o r a d i s c u s s i o n a n d o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s s e e L a n g t o n , Essentials, 1.605f; M a c L a u r i n , ' B e e l z e b o u l ' ; G a s t o n , ' B e e l z e b u l ' . 4 4
4 5
H o o k e r , Message,
Moreover, Lane's
166f; Foerster,
TDNT,
3 7 ; cf. G a s t o n , ' B e e l z e b u l ' , 247ff; L i m b e c k , ' B e e l z e b u l ' , 3 9 n l .
C f . B e c k e r , Heil, 2 0 9 f . T h e r e is s o m e d e b a t e a s t o w h e t h e r o r n o t M a r k u n d e r s t o o d t h i s b i n d i n g t o h a v e o c c u r r e d i n J e s u s ' w i l d e r n e s s t e m p t a t i o n , cf. e s p e c i a l l y R o b i n s o n , 2 1 - 5 3 ; a n d B e s t , Temptation, 18ff; a l s o G u n d r y , 5 6 , 1 7 4 . Christ, 4 6 f . L a n e , 143, w h e r e the 'strong m a n ' saying a n s w e r s the accusation of d e m o n possession. 4 6
4 7
4 8
The 'Strong
Man'
147
Saying
proposal requires the doubtful assumption that J e s u s ' accusers (not j u s t M a r k ' s audience) w e r e aware, first, that h e w a s so described b y J o h n and, second, that the description alluded to the e m p o w e r i n g o f the H o l y Spirit. O n the o t h e r h a n d , the ' s t r o n g m a n ' i m a g e r y m a y s i m p l y reflect a 'proverbial saying' about relative 'strengths' like that in Pss. Sol. 5:3, ou y a p Xrjii4j€Tai a K O X a i r a p a av6poc; 6 u v a T o u — a p a s s a g e w h i c h m a y well h a v e
shared a c o m m o n source with, or arisen from, Isaiah 4 9 : 2 4 f .
49
G i v e n that
S a t a n ' s h o u s e is n o t d i v i d e d a g a i n s t itself and that J e s u s is c l e a r l y 'plundering' it, Jesus can hardly b e e m p o w e r e d b y Satan (3:22b) since h e is manifestly the 'stronger o n e ' . B u t is there m o r e going on? First, in v i e w of the s c r i b e s ' attribution o f J e s u s ' authority to Satan, his initial denial (vv. 23-26) is quite natural.
But, given the strong adversative d X X ' (v. 2 7 ) ,
o n e might b e e x c u s e d for e x p e c t i n g here a positive indication as to t h e correct interpretation o f J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s .
This w o u l d then lead m o r e
naturally into the following b l a s p h e m y w a r n i n g (vv. 28-30) w h i c h already presumes a great deal about the true nature o f J e s u s ' exorcisms (see b e l o w ) . Second, the language itself is not only unusual but is m o r e expansive than its Pss. Sol. c o u n t e r p a r t .
In p a r t i c u l a r , w h y t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
exorcisms and plundering, and w h y is it emphasised
(6iapTra£a),
v. 2 7 bis)?
Perhaps the key here lies in the fact that the imagery used in the 'strong m a n ' saying is associated in s o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h traditions w i t h G o d ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d e l i v e r a n c e o f his p e o p l e .
B o t h T . Levi
18:12 a n d
T. Zeb. 9:8 ( b , d, and g) characterise this intervention as a t i m e w h e n respectively 'Beliar shall b e b o u n d b y h i m ' (a priestly M e s s i a h ? ) and ' t h e L o r d h i m s e l f ... will liberate all the prisoners o f B e l i a r ' (cf. T. Sim. 6:6; T. Dan 5 : 1 0 - 1 3 ) .
50
O f particular interest is H Q M e l c h . H e r e the ' a n o i n t e d '
of Isaiah 52:7 ( 2 : 1 5 - 1 8 )
51
announces the eschatological 'Jubilee'
w
deliverance o f the captives (D O©n, 2:4-6; cf. Isa 61:1; Lev 25:10; L k 4:16-21) w h o are to b e r e s c u e d from the h a n d o f Belial a n d his spirits b y t h e mysterious warrior figure,
4
9
5
0
5
1
5
2
52
M e l c h i z e d e k , as h e executes the j u d g e m e n t s
R y l e , Psalms, 5 4 ; K l o s t e r m a n n , 3 7 ; B u l t m a n n , History, 9 8 . Cf. I s a 2 4 : 2 2 f ; Jub. 1 0 : 8 ; 1 Enoch 1 0 : l l f ; 54:4f; As. Mos. 1 0 : 1 ; Pesiq. R. 3 6 ( 1 6 1 a ) . D e J o n g e ' s t h e o r y . Studies, t h a t t h e T e s t a m e n t s a r e l a r g e l y o f C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n h a s n o t b e e n w i d e l y a c c e p t e d ; cf. S c h u r e r , 3 / 2 . 7 6 7 f f ; K e e , OTP, 1.7771 O n t h e t e x t , F i t z m y e r , ' F u r t h e r ' ; D e J o n g e , ' H Q ' ; H o r t o n , Melchizedek, 73ff. T h e "MDn is p r o b a b l y d i s t i n c t f r o m M e l c h i z e d e k , H o r t o n , 7 8 ; D e J o n g e , ibid., 306ff. D e J o n g e , ibid., 3 0 6 .
148
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
1
of G o d (cf. la^n^K ? Dp 3 DV»). and
53
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
Satan will b e destroyed and the day of peace
s a l v a t i o n i n a u g u r a t e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h G o d ' s e x e r c i s e
kingship (2:16, 9; cf. Isa 52:7; 6 1 : 2 - 3 ) . Several
of
his
54
e l e m e n t s a p p e a r r e g u l a r l y in t h e s e texts: A ) the exiles or
captives are portrayed as being under Satan's power, B ) their deliverance is effected b y a w a r r i o r figure, C ) the w h o l e is described in t e r m s o f G o d ' s reign and, D ) is often expressed in w a y s reminiscent of the Isaianic day of salvation.
U n d e r s t o o d against this b a c k g r o u n d , and e s p e c i a l l y if M a r k
u n d e r s t a n d s J e s u s ' a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the K i n g d o m o f G o d t e r m s , it is s i g n i f i c a n t
in I s a i a n i c
t h a t m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s s e e h e r e in
characterisation o f his e x o r c i s m s the influence of Isaiah 4 9 : 2 4 f perhaps the spoils-of-victory imagery of Isaiah 5 3 : 1 2 .
55
Jesus'
and also
5 6
T a k i n g Isaiah 4 9 first, although the a b s e n c e of clear verbal parallels rules out any s u g g e s t i o n of a citation (but see laxu'w in 4 9 : 2 5 , 2 6 ) ,
5 7
the
conceptual parallels are so strong as to m a k e it difficult to believe that no allusion is i n t e n d e d .
In Isaiah these verses c o m p r i s e the third and
5
3
Milik, ' T e x t e ' , 9 9 , 1 0 6 ; cf. D e J o n g e , ' H Q ' ; F i t z m y e r , ' F u r t h e r ' , 3 0 .
5
4
L i n e s 1 6 , 19f; Milik, T e x t e ' , 9 9 f , 108f.
5
5
5
6
5
7
final
E . g . C r a n f i e l d ; L a n e ; N i n e h a m ; B a r r e t t , Spirit, 70ff; G n i l k a ; H o o k e r , Servant, 73; D o d d , According, 9 2 ; P e s c h ; B e s t , Temptation, 12f; H u r t a r d o ; S c h n e c k , 89ff. L u k e l l : 2 0 f f m a k e s t h e a l l u s i o n m o r e explicit. E . g . G r u n d m a n n , TDNT, 3 . 4 0 0 f ; F u l l e r , Interpreting, Legasse, , H o m m e " . Gnilka also refers to Isa 65:1-7.
72; C r a n f i e l d ;
Nineham;
Cf. G r i m m , 8 8 - 9 2 . T h e a l l u s i o n is c l e a r e r in L k 1 1 : 2 1 - 2 3 . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h t h e s u b s t a n t i v e f o r m o f yiyag is u s e d t o r e n d e r "1133 s o m e s i x t e e n t i m e s in t h e L X X , its s y n o n y m , l a x u p o s , is t w i c e a s c o m m o n l y u s e d ( t h i r t y - t w o t i m e s , s o H R ) . B y t h e t i m e o f t h e N T , h o w e v e r , n o t o n l y is y i y a s a b s e n t f r o m t h e N T a n d m a n y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w r i t i n g s ( B A G D ) , b u t a l s o in t h e o n e p l a c e w h e r e a n O T t e x t c o n t a i n i n g y i y a s a p p e a r s in t h e N T — the a l l u s i o n t o E z e k 3 9 : 2 0 L X X (cutrXTiaSTiacaBc km rf\g TpaTTcCnS' Uou I T T T T O V Kai avapdTT>v, y i y a v T a K O \ TrdVra avdpa TToXcuiarnv) in R e v 1 9 : 1 8 ( i v a $dyr\T€ odpKas paaiXcojv K O I odpKag XiXidpxwv Kai odpKcts i a x u p w v K O I odpKag I T T T T C O V Kal T C J V Ka0Tiu€va)v C T T ' O U T U V ) cf. C a i r d , Revelation, 2 4 7 — y i y a s is a p p a r e n t l y r e n d e r e d b y l a x u p o g (yiyag d o e s , h o w e v e r , o c c u r in the P a t r i s t i c w r i t i n g s w i t h t h e s e n s e o f g i a n t o r h e r e t i c , cf. L a m p e ) . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t in t h e N T s e m a n t i c c h a n g e r e s u l t e d in t h e s u b s t a n t i v e f o r m o f l a x u p o g d i s p l a c i n g t h a t o f yiyas", in w h i c h c a s e M a r k ' s t e r m i n o l o g y m a y w e l l c o n s t i t u t e a p a r a l l e l . F u r t h e r , I s a 4 0 : 1 1 and 63:5 describe Y a h w e h c o m i n g as a mighty warrior ( L X X : u c r d l a x ^ o g ) . The verb d e s c r i b i n g J e s u s ' p l u n d e r i n g a c t i v i t y is a l s o u s e d in I s a i a h L X X o f t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e exiles: in 4 2 : 2 2 a b l i n d a n d d e a f J a c o b - I s r a e l ( v v . 1 8 - 2 0 ) is d e s c r i b e d a s di^p-nao^lvog, while v. 2 4 s p e a k s o f h e r a s b e i n g g i v e n els' SiapTTayrjv. It is p e r h a p s p o s s i b l e t h a t J e s u s ' u s e o f t h e t e r m i m p l i e s a n i r o n i c r e v e r s a l o f s o r t s : t h e p l u n d e r is t o b e p l u n d e r e d , b u t this is u n c e r t a i n . B e t z , 'Sinai', 1 0 2 , a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t O K € \ J T ) m i g h t b e t h e r e s u l t o f a w o r d p l a y b e t w e e n 0303 (€iaf|X9€v) and (rd C J K C U T I a u T o O ) a n d G r i m m , 9 1 , t h i n k s t h a t o i K i a m a y h a v e a g e o political sense related to a rabbinic interpretation (not cited) w h e r e the 'house of the s t r o n g ' is i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e ' H o u s e o f E s a u ' ; cf. C h i l t o n , Targum, 9 8 , n o t e o n 4 9 : 2 4 . S e e n o w also Schneck, 9 0 .
The 'Strong
Man'
149
Saying
part o f an e x t e n d e d s a l v a t i o n o r a c l e ( 4 9 : 1 4 - 2 6 ) .
58
T h e w h o l e section is
important in that i m m e d i a t e l y following the installation o f w h a t appears to b e a n e w ' s e r v a n t ' I s r a e l , chapters 4 9 - 5 5 .
6 0
59
it introduces the m o r e positive t h e m e s o f
T h i s s e c o n d half, in contrast to the p o l e m i c a l tone and
i m m e d i a c y o f the first (chapters 4 0 - 4 8 ) , consists almost entirely o f futureo r i e n t e d p r o m i s e s o f t h e N E s a l v a t i o n as i n a u g u r a t e d unknown 'servant'.
61
b y the
new,
E c h o i n g the rhetorical question o f verse 1 5 , verse 2 4
asks ' C a n the p r e y b e taken from a strong man, or the captive of a terrifying adversary
6 2
b e r e s c u e d ? ' . O f c o u r s e the a n s w e r to b o t h questions is ' n o ' .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , Y a h w e h affirms that ' e v e n the c a p t i v e o f the s t r o n g m a n will b e taken, a n d the p r e y of the terrifying adversary will b e r e s c u e d ' .
63
In
spite o f the a p p a r e n t h o p e l e s s n e s s of Israel's position as a captive in exile to strong B a b y l o n , her N E deliverance will b e accomplished b y the stronger warrior, Y a h w e h . G i v e n the foregoing, an appeal to Isaiah 49:25f i m a g e r y to e x p l a i n the significance o f J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s w o u l d b e particularly c o n g r u e n t with o u r contention
that
hermeneutic.
6 4
Mark
understands Jesus'
ministry
within
J e s u s is h e r e presented as the stronger o n e
5
8
5
9
6
0
M e l u g i n , Formation,
6
1
Watts, 'Consolation', 56f.
6
2
W e s t e r m a n n , ' H e i l s w o r t ' , 3 6 6 - 6 8 ; Sprache, S c h o o r s , Saviour, 1 0 6 ; M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 4 8 f .
6 5
an
INE
o f the I N E
1 2 1 , 1 3 2 - 3 3 ; B e g r i c h , Studien,
1 4 ; cf.
M e l u g i n , Formation, 70f; Williamson, 'Concept'; Watts, 'Consolation', 5 4 . V a n d e r M e r w e , Pentateuch-tradisies, ( c i t e d in S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 5 2 ) further argues that ( u n n a m e d ) J a c o b - I s r a e l a s a n h i s t o r i c a l i d e n t i t y is n o w d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e c h o s e n people of Y a h w e h , citing 48:1 w h e r e h e sees the p r o p h e t denying the people the right to c l a i m this title f o r t h e m s e l v e s , cf. D a y , 'DA A T ' , 1 0 1 . 1
1 5 1 f.
T h e M T r e a d s p*H}£ ' a l e g i t i m a t e c a p t i v i t y ' , v. 2 4 b . H o w e v e r , t h e L X X r e a d i n g aSiKug 'unjustly' a n d C's "pttftfT "Dan ' o n e w h i c h t h e r i g h t e o u s h a v e c a p t u r e d ' s u g g e s t s s o m e textual confusion. In v i e w of the parallelism r e a d with l Q I s a , Vulgate, and Peshitta; s o also B H S a n d m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s . 3
6
3
6
4
M u c h d e p e n d s o n t h e m e a n i n g o f D3 ( v . 2 5 b ) . If u n d e r s t o o d a s a s t r o n g a s s e r t i o n , t h e n t h e c a p t i v e is J a c o b - I s r a e l in e x i l e ( e . g . B e g r i c h , Studien, 2 1 ; W e s t e r m a n n , ' H e i l s w o r t ' , 3 6 7 ) b u t if a s a c o n c e s s i v e c l a u s e Y a h w e h is t h e s t r o n g m a n f r o m w h o m it is i m p o s s i b l e t o t a k e h i s p r e y , i.e. J a c o b - I s r a e l , e.g. S c h o o r s , "Ott?'. H o w e v e r , t h e d e c i d i n g f a c t o r is t h a t v. 2 4 c o r r e s p o n d s in l i t e r a r y f u n c t i o n t o v. 2 1 a n d is, t h e r e f o r e , t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a c o m p l a i n t . T h u s ^ t i a n d n l p ^ E a p p e a r t o d e s c r i b e t h e exile; s e e t h e e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n i n S c h o o r s , Saviour, 114-17. A n a p p e a l t o Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e t o o v e r c o m e B a b y l o n in I s a i a h 4 9 w o u l d a l s o b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e u s e in t h e p r e c e d i n g v e r s e s o f t h e m i l i t a r y / p o l i t i c a l t e r m s | 3 a a i X € i a a n d oiKia, cf. O a k m a n , ' H o u s e s ' , 1 1 4 . S c h n e c k , 94ff, t r i e s , n o t v e r y c o n v i n c i n g l y , t o e s t a b l i s h f u r t h e r links b e t w e e n I s a i a h 4 9 g e n e r a l l y a n d o t h e r p a r t s o f M a r k 3 , e.g. J e s u s ' m o t h e r = e s t r a n g e d m o t h e r Z i o n , m i s s i o n in 4 9 : 6 = t h e c r o w d s , 4 9 : 5 = t h e T w e l v e a s I s r a e l l e d b a c k , and 4 9 : 6 = salvation for the m a n with the paralysed h a n d . This s e e m s t o g o b e y o n d the
150
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
w h o , after b i n d i n g Satan, the strong one, is spoiling his realm and loosing the c a p t i v e s .
66
Interestingly, the W a r Scroll at Q u m r a n twice uses imagery
d r a w n from this very p a s s a g e in its paean to the m i g h t y Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r w h o c o m e s to deliver his people ( 1 Q M 12:10-14 and 19:2-8; cf. Isa 49:23-24; cf. 5 2 : l f ; 5 4 : l l f ) .
Again, given the e m p h a t i c personal l a n g u a g e o f Isaiah
4 9 : 2 5 — ' I m y s e l f will contend with those w h o contend w i t h
67
you' —there
is also the intimation that J e s u s is in s o m e w a y closely connected with the personal manifestation o f Y a h w e h . S e c o n d , to allow that this saying alludes to Y a h w e h ' s deliverance of his people w o u l d place it squarely within the expected flow o f the argument: a. t h e s c r i b e s ' a c c u s a t i o n : J e s u s c a s t s o u t d e m o n s b y t h e p r i n c e o f d e m o n s (v. 2 2 ) . b. Jesus' t w o - s t a g e rebuttal: i. t h e i m p l a u s i b i l i t y o f t h e a c c u s a t i o n : S a t a n w o u l d n o t d e s t r o y , a n d h a s manifestly not destroyed, himself (vv. 23-26). ii. t h e a l t e r n a t i v e : o n t h e c o n t r a r y , S a t a n is b o u n d a n d t h i s b i n d i n g
is
Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e d deliverance; thus the 'stronger m a n ' saying (v. 27). c. t h e r e f o r e ( a s t h i s is Y a h w e h ' s w o r k ) : d o n o t a t t r i b u t e t h e w o r k o f t h e H o l y Spirit to Satan (vv. 2 8 - 3 0 ) .
T h i r d , that Y a h w e h ' s warrior activity in Isaiah is so that Z i o n and 'all flesh' m a y k n o w that T a m Y a h w e h y o u r S a v i o u r ' (vv. 2 3 - 2 6 ) ,
6 8
is espe
cially pertinent to the central issue here, n a m e l y c o m i n g to ' k n o w ' that J e s u s ' actidns constitute Y a h w e h ' s salvation (l:14f). F i n a l l y , as n u m e r o u s c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e o b s e r v e d , ' S a t a n ' , ' S p i r i t ' , and
'strong
man'
terminology occur together only here and
in
p r o l o g u e w h i c h c o n j u n c t i o n s u g g e s t s that the t w o are i n t e n d e d linked.
69
the
to b e
Seeing 3:27 as an allusion to Y a h w e h ' s warrior activity o n behalf
of Israel sheds light on w h y this m a y b e so. O n c e again, if, as h a s been argued in Chapter 4, the descent o f the Spirit on Jesus, 6
laxupoTcpos-,
is to
be understood as Y a h w e h ' s response to the prayer for deliverance in Isaiah
m o r e e v i d e n t intent of M a r k ' s allusion to Isa 49:24f, n a m e l y , to explain the significance of Jesus' e x o r c i s m s . 6 5 M e y n e t , ' A n a l u s e ' , a r g u e s t h a t t h e s t r o n g e r o n e is t h e H o l y S p i r i t , b u t t h i s h a r d l y fits M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n w h e r e J o h n is c l e a r l y p o i n t i n g t o J e s u s ( l : 7 f ) . 6
6
6
7
6
8
6
9
N o t e the d o u b l e m e n t i o n of Siap-na^co). O n t h e k i n g d o m o f S a t a n , K r u s e , 'Reich'. K l o s t e r m a n n , a r g u e s t h a t Q K C U T ) m u s t refer t o t h e e x o r c i s e d d e m o n s . H o w e v e r , o n t h e b a s i s of t e x t s c i t e d a b o v e , t h e ' b o o t y ' is m o r e likely t o c o n s i s t o f p e o p l e . 1 Q M 1 2 : 1 0 f s p e a k s o f Y a h w e h ( ^ n 'BW, d o e r o f m i g h t y d e e d s ) l e a d i n g c a p t i v e s (n32?) a n d p l u n d e r i n g ( ^ B ) although h e r e the objects a r e his enemies. T h e e m p h a t i c p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n , "Oft*, s u g g e s t i n g T myself...'. M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 5 2 ; S c h o o r s , Saviour, 113ff. E s p e c . M a u s e r , 3 0 ; O t t o , Kingdom, lOOf; R o b i n s o n , 30ff; Best, Temptation,
lOff.
The 'Strong
Man'
151
Saying
63:7 - 64:12, then an appeal to the Warrior imagery o f Isaiah 4 9 to interpret J e s u s ' conflict with the demonic m a k e s very good sense. T h e linking o f Isaiah 4 9 and Isaiah 6 3 f also provides a coherent setting for the w a r n i n g a g a i n s t b l a s p h e m i n g the H o l y Spirit in the f o l l o w i n g verses. Barrett has observed that the closest parallel to this idea in the O T 7 0
is Isaiah 6 3 : 1 0 — a p a s s a g e w h i c h w e h a v e noted is not o n l y central to M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e but also striking in its e m p h a s i s o n the 1tthp n n . writer humbly recalls h o w Israel, despite Y a h w e h ' s gracious
The
Exodus
deliverance o n their behalf, h a d r e s p o n d e d b y grieving his H o l y Spirit. N e v e r t h e l e s s the s u p p l i c a n t then g o e s o n to ask that G o d in his m e r c y m i g h t act a g a i n on their b e h a l f .
71
Barrett tentatively p r o p o s e s that the
long-anticipated intervention o f Y a h w e h h a s h a p p e n e d in J e s u s (as o u r reading w o u l d confirm), b u t that 'this n e w w o r k o f G o d w a s greeted in precisely the s a m e w a y as the old'. Since 'this is G o d ' s final, eschatological, deed o f salvation, those w h o utterly reject it can, in the nature o f the case, find n o s a l v a t i o n ' .
72
T h i s sits w e l l with an I N E framework.
T h e long-
awaited reign o f Y a h w e h in the I N E has begun, but, as in the first E x o d u s , t h e r e is the p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t Y a h w e h ' s H o l y Spirit; a rebellion w h i c h will o c c a s i o n the ultimate c e n s u r e .
73
T o reject J e s u s is to
reject the K i n g d o m (cf. l:14f). A t this point, M a r k ' s introductory
reminder
of Malachi's threatened j u d g e m e n t is not far away. In considering the s e c o n d Isaianic allusion s u g g e s t e d , L X X 5 3 : 1 2 also exhibits s o m e t h i n g o f a parallel in its portrayal o f the 'servant' figure w h o
7
0
7
1
7
2
7
3
Spirit, 1 0 4 - 5 ; L o v e s t a m , Spiritus, 3 0 - 3 4 , a l s o c i t e s A c t s 7:39ff. T h e L X X ' s u s e o f pXaa<J>nu- d o e s n o t s u g g e s t a r e g u l a r H e b r e w e q u i v a l e n t , B e y e r , TDNT, 1.621, while n a p o ^ u v - ( L X X I s a 6 3 : 1 0 ) , w h i c h o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y in t h e O T n o r m a l l y w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o G o d , a p p e a r s o n l y t w i c e i n t h e N T a n d n e v e r o f m e n ' s a c t s t o w a r d G o d : A c t s 1 7 : 1 6 ; 1 C o r 1 3 : 5 , cf. S e e s e m a n n , TDNT, 5 . 8 5 7 . O n t h e p o s s i b l e c o n c e p t u a l link b e t w e e n t h e t w o , i n t h e s e n s e o f ' s p e a k i n g a w o r d a g a i n s t ' , cf. e.g. N u m 1 4 : 2 ; P s s 78:19f; 1 0 6 : 2 5 ; Sipre Num. 1 1 2 o n 1 4 : 3 0 ; C D 5:12; T o d t , Son, 3 1 6 . C f . t h e s i m i l a r c o n c e r n s o f t h e p o s t - e x i l i c P s 1 0 6 ; A l l e n , Psalms, 5 4 f ; K r a u s , 2 . 9 0 6 . O n I s r a e l ' s E x o d u s r e b e l l i o n s : T u n y o g i , ' R e b e l l i o n s ' ; C o a t s , Rebellions', 'Rebellion'.
Psalmen, Carroll,
Spirit, 1 0 5 . A l t h o u g h c o n j e c t u r e , it is t e m p t i n g t o o b s e r v e t h a t t h e r e b e l l i o u s n e s s o f I s r a e l in t h e first E x o d u s r e a c h e d its c l i m a x in t h e w o r s h i p o f a g o l d e n c a l f , i.e. i n t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s d e l i v e r i n g a c t i v i t i e s t o a n i d o l (cf. A c t s 7 : 3 9 - 4 1 a n d e.g. P s 1 0 6 : 1 9 ) , w h i c h i m a g e s t h e L X X a n d t h e N T l a t e r a s s o c i a t e w i t h d e m o n s . B u t cf. e . g . O s w a l t , 'Concept', w h o sees in the bull a n a t t e m p t to represent Y a h w e h . T h e i d e a o f n e v e r b e i n g f o r g i v e n o r o f h a v i n g c o m m i t t e d a n e t e r n a l sin, s e e m s t o b e p a r a l l e l e d b y e.g. 1 S a m 3 : 1 4 a n d I s a 2 2 : 1 4 a n d a p p e a r s t o c a r r y w i t h it t h e t h r e a t o f b e i n g c u t off.
152
Jesus
divides the
GKUXO
TCJV
as Yahweh-Warrior
laxupwv.
74
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
This would certainly b e in keeping with
a reading that sees the literary function o f Isaiah 5 3 as indicating the w a y the N E is to b e e f f e c t e d , warrior-Messiah.
76
75
and which, according to Tg. Isaiah,
involves a
If Tg. Isaiah represents an earlier tradition, an appeal
to the activities o f the m e s s i a n i c - ' s e r v a n t ' deliverer (cf. Tg. Isa 42:Iff) w o u l d b e in k e e p i n g with the t h e m e s e s t a b l i s h e d b y the v o i c e in the prologue.
A d m i t t e d l y , as I s a i a h 5 3 i m p l i e s that this p l u n d e r i n g is
subsequent to the suffering of the 'servant', the absence o f any mention by M a r k o f J e s u s ' suffering suggests c a u t i o n .
77
But an appeal to Isaiah 53:12
could signify that the deliverances adumbrate a greater victory to c o m e — especially as M a r k writes after the r e s u r r e c t i o n .
78
An allusion to Isaiah
53:12, although it cannot b e established with certainty, w o u l d b e congenial to the c o n c e r n s o f this particular passage and to w h a t w e h a v e argued of M a r k so f a r .
79
Furthermore, if this is the case, then the s a m e ambiguity
concerning J e s u s ' identity is observed here as in the prologue. O n the one h a n d , J e s u s is apparently described in terms used o f Y a h w e h himself (Isa 4 9 ; cf. l : 2 f ) w h i l e o n the other, the i m a g e r y is related to that o f the messianic 'servant' (Isa 53; cf. 1:11). (b) The Literary
Function
of the
Controversy
It m a y b e objected that this o n e e x a m p l e hardly suffices to establish that M a r k p r e s e n t s J e s u s as the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r . g r o u n d s that tell a g a i n s t s u c h an a s s e s s m e n t .
B u t t h e r e are s e v e r a l First, t h e B e e l z e b u l
controversy is the only occasion in M a r k w h e r e Jesus provides a rationale for his casting out o f the d e m o n s and should, therefore, b e accorded some 80
attention —perhaps
even m o r e so in v i e w o f M a r k ' s interest in J e s u s '
silencing o f the d e m o n s w h o apparently threatened to reveal information
7
4
7
5
7
6
E s p e c i a l l y for L u k e , L e g a s s e , , H o m m e " . S e e C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 5 .
O n p o s s i b l e e a r l y m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f Isa 5 3 in T. Ben. 3 : 8 , t h e S i m i l i t u d e s o f 1 Enoch, t h e P e s h i t t a ( o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f a J e w i s h T a r g u m i c o r C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n , W u r t h w e i n , Text, 8 0 f ) , t h e Tg. Isa, a n d t h e r a b b i s , s e e Z i m m e r l i - J e r e m i a s , Servant, 58ff; A y t o u n , 'Servant'. 7
7
7
8
H o o k e r , Servant, 7 4 n l . I n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e for this m a y b e p r o v i d e d b y t h e d e b a t e o v e r t h e t i m e , n a t u r e , a n d e x t e n t o f J e s u s ' o v e r c o m i n g o f S a t a n w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h e fluidity o f t h e m o t i f , s e e e s p e c i a l l y t h e o p p o s i n g v i e w s o f R o b i n s o n , a n d Best, Temptation. ™ Pace H o o k e r , Servant, 74nl. <° C f . H o s k y n s - D a v e y , 1 7 0 f ; F u l l e r , Interpreting, Miracle, 160-62. 8
39ff; L e i v e s t a d , Christ,
44; Kee,
Literary
153
Function
a l o n g similar lines (1:34; 3 : l l f ; cf. l : 2 4 f ) .
G i v e n , too, that the m i d d l e
e l e m e n t in M a r k ' s s a n d w i c h construction provides the theological key to the w h o l e ,
81
and the strong possibility that M a r k is operating with an I N E
h e r m e n e u t i c , the a p p e a r a n c e o f the I N E Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r m o t i f in this section is s u g g e s t i v e o f its i m p o r t a n c e as an interpretive framework for J e s u s ' ministry. S e c o n d , in a d d i t i o n
to t h e p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
the
p r o l o g u e , o t h e r e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s that the B e e l z e b u l p e r i c o p e p l a y s a crucial role w i t h i n the literary structure o f the o p e n i n g c h a p t e r s of the Gospel.
A l t h o u g h the series o f five controversies in 2:1 - 3:6 is generally
separated
from
3:20-35 by most commentators, the Beelzebul story
p r o v i d e s a n a t u r a l c l i m a x not o n l y to t h e m , but also to the p r e c e d i n g miracle a c c o u n t s o f l : 1 6 - 4 5 .
8 2
T h e pericope serves to bring together b o t h
the motif o f J e s u s ' authority manifest in his miraculous activities and the diverse responses of the disciples, the crowds, J e s u s ' family, and the hostile leadership.
8 3
M a r k not only d r a w s attention to this conflict b y m e a n s o f
his distinctive ' s a n d w i c h ' technique, this b e i n g the first such a r r a n g e m e n t in a narrative s e t t i n g ,
84
b u t his departure from the usual A - B - A ' structure
to an A-B-C-B'-A' outline further e m p h a s i s e s its importance.
In addition,
not o n l y d o e s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f the s c r i b e s from J e r u s a l e m raise the tension to n e w level—this is n o longer a local matter—but the clash is proleptic o f w h a t M a r k ' s readers p r e s u m a b l y already k n o w will h a p p e n w h e n J e s u s reaches the capital: the scribes also attend J e s u s ' trial and the d i s c u s s i o n l i k e w i s e c o n c e r n s b l a s p h e m y , o n l y this t i m e t h e y h a v e the satisfaction o f h a v i n g the u p p e r h a n d (cf. 14:63f).
Finally, as a climactic
s u m m a r y dealing with J e s u s ' rejection by the leadership and the failure o f his family to u n d e r s t a n d ,
8 5
it p r o v i d e s a transitional rationale for the
o t h e r w i s e difficult a p p e a r a n c e o f the famous P a r a b l e s C h a p t e r a n d its problematic use o f Isaiah 6. It is in this final controversy o f the section that Mark, for the first time, overtly mentions parables, stating that J e s u s spoke
8
1
8
2
8
3
E d w a r d s , ' S a n d w i c h e s ' , 1 9 6 , c i t e d in C h a p t e r 3 , p . 9 0 , fn. 1 9 0 . Cf. S m i t h , ' O p p o n e n t s ' , 1 7 9 f ; a n d H o o k e r , 1 1 4 , w h e r e 3:20ff m o v e s ' b a c k i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f c o n f l i c t . . . b u t [ r e p r e s e n t s ] a n o t h e r s t e p f o r w a r d in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s theme'; see also G u n d r y , 109. C f . H u r t a r d o , 5 0 ; G u e l i c h , 1.171f; a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f c h a r a c t e r s in R h o a d s - M i c h i e , Story, 1 0 1 - 3 6 , a l t h o u g h t h e y fail t o m e n t i o n J e s u s ' f a m i l y . Best, 'Mark', 314f; E d w a r d s , 'Sandwiches'. S e e S t o c k , Boten, 6 8 f ; M a n s f i e l d , Spirit, 6 2 . 8
4
8
5
154
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
to the leaders kv TTapapoXats-.
86
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
A s will b e argued in C h a p t e r 7, M a r k ' s
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s ' u s e o f Isaiah 6 in e x p l a i n i n g the p u r p o s e o f the p a r a b l e s is e x a c t l y in k e e p i n g w i t h the o r i g i n a l I s a i a n i c c o n t e x t o f a J e r u s a l e m i t e leadership that has finally decided to reject the w i s d o m of Y a h w e h in favour o f its o w n idolatrous categories. Third, there is evidence to suggest that for M a r k J e s u s ' authority over the u n c l e a n spirits is the signal h a l l m a r k o f his activity a n d o n e w h i c h M a r k is c o n c e r n e d for his readers to n o t e .
8 7
Ever since William Wrede
scholars h a v e b e e n aware o f the theological interests o f M a r k (something w h i c h h a d b e e n granted m u c h m o r e readily to the G o s p e l o f J o h n ) .
It is
interesting to n o t e , therefore, given that for m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s J o h n ' s presentation o f J e s u s ' first m i r a c l e at C a n a h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e theological significance, that M a r k ' s first miracle is the casting out o f an unclean spirit (1:21-28). M i g h t it not b e that M a r k ' s recording o f this event as the first of J e s u s ' m i g h t y acts is equally important, and is intended to alert the reader to a k e y feature o f J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y ?
88
A n d e v e n m o r e s o given M a r k ' s
sustained interest in J e s u s ' exorcisms? The d e m o n ' s opening question occurs frequently in the O T within the context o f c o m b a t or j u d g e m e n t ,
89
and H. C. K e e has further argued that
J e s u s ' use of €TTiTijiao), w h e n understood against the b a c k g r o u n d s o f both the O T (e.g. 1JH in Pss 104:7; 18:16; 106:9 cf. Isa 17:13; 50:3) and later Jewish sectarian literature (e.g. 1 Q M 14:9f), is indicative o f G o d ' s eschatological and n e w creational conflict with the hostile p o w e r s in w h i c h the latter are subjugated b y m e a n s o f a powerful word—Jesus later uses b o t h £ m T i | i a o > and ijioo) w h e n h e rebukes the storm in 4 : 3 5 f f .
90
F r o m this perspective,
the cry ' H a v e y o u c o m e to d e s t r o y u s ? ' (v. 2 4 ) b e c o m e s all t h e m o r e m o m e n t o u s a n d s u g g e s t s n o t only that the d e m o n u n d e r s t o o d w e l l the eschatological import of Jesus' activity—Satan's dominion was being o v e r c o m e (cf. T . Levi
18:12 and the other texts cited a b o v e ) — b u t that it
8 6
P e r h a p s e v e n 1 ? e g a n t o s p e a k ' , t a k i n g 4'Aeycv a s a n i n c e p t i v e i m p e r f e c t . C f . K e l b e r , 25f; n o w G u n d r y , 1 8 1 . 8
7
K e r t e l g e , 5 6 - 6 0 , links t h e O T c o n c e p t of Y a h w e h ' s a u t h o r i t y w i t h Jesus' ' e s c h a t o l o g i s c h e n K a m p f . Cf. B u r k i l l , ' N o t i o n ' , 4 4 ; B u l t m a n n , History, 2 2 6 ; G u n d r y , 7 4 . 8 8
A d m i t t e d l y M a r k d o e s n o t ' s i g n p o s t ' it a s d o e s J o h n ( 2 : 1 1 ) b u t t h e n M a r k is r e c o g n i s e d as ' m y s t e r i o u s ' (Burkitt) a n d 'parabolic' ( D o n a h u e , 'Jesus'; H a m i l t o n , 'Gospel'). See also Gundry, 74. E . g . J u 1 1 : 1 2 ; 2 S a m 1 6 : 1 0 ; 1 K g s 1 7 : 1 8 ; 2 C h r o n 3 5 : 2 1 ; e t c . Cf. L a n e , 7 3 ; B a u e r n f e i n d , Worte, 3 - 1 0 ; 14f, 2 8 - 3 1 , 6 8 f ; a n d B a c h l i , ' W a s ? ' . Terminology'. 8 9
9 0
Literary
speaks 'on b e h a l f o f all unclean s p i r i t s ' .
155
Function
91
T h u s for K e e , the significance o f
the story is not so m u c h to glorify Jesus but to identify the exorcism 'as an eschatological event w h i c h served to prepare G o d ' s creation for his c o m i n g rule',
9 2
and as s u c h it is 'paradigmatic for the gospel as a w h o l e ' .
9 3
(It is
also interesting to n o t e , in v i e w o f the question o f the s o u r c e o f J e s u s ' authority in M k 3, that it is his authority thus d e m o n s t r a t e d in this first miracle w h i c h impresses the c r o w d , 1:27). P. Pimental's assessment o f M a r k ' s particular interest in 'unclean spirit' terminology
further
supports
this
view.
9 4
When Mark
describes
exorcisms h e consistently establishes the spirit as ' u n c l e a n ' (1:23; 5:2; 7:25; 9:25) and o n l y then, h a v i n g defined the issue as o n e o f conflict b e t w e e n purity and defilement, uses ' d e m o n ' as a synonym.
Significantly, it is also
in the first e x o r c i s m that this interest is particularly evident.
N o t only is
there a concentration o f 'unclean spirit' terminology w h i c h is unparalleled in the rest o f the G o s p e l , but only here is J e s u s described as the ' H o l y O n e of G o d ' . Similarly, in the Beelzebul controversy M a r k is h a p p y to speak o f d e m o n s until the w a r n i n g a b o u t b l a s p h e m y against the H o l y Spirit, at w h i c h point h e switches to 'unclean spirit'.
If this is a M a r k a n concern—
and J e s u s ' 'purifying' contact with the leper, the 'unclean' w o m a n , and the debate on purity (7:1-23) suggests that it m a y be—then Pimental could well b e correct in s u g g e s t i n g that this motif is to b e u n d e r s t o o d in terms o f Q u m r a n i c a n d Pharisaic interest in purity s u c h that J e s u s ' e x p u l s i o n o f ' u n c l e a n s p i r i t s ' i n d i c a t e s that G o d ' s m e r c y is e x t e n d i n g b e y o n d
the
c o m m u n i t y o f faithful Israel to include t h o s e p r e v i o u s l y e x c l u d e d .
In
keeping with the eschatological conflict idea, the presentation o f the H o l y O n e o f G o d w h o drives out the 'unclean spirits' with a c o m m a n d is also consistent with those traditions w h e r e the Messiah is seen as purifying the
9 1
Gundry, 75. Ibid., 2 4 3 . K a l l a s , Significance, 6 4 , suggests that Jesus' miraculous w o r k on the Sabbath indicated primarily the r e s u m p t i o n of Y a h w e h ' s creative activities. O n n e w c r e a t i o n i m a g e r y in Isaiah, e.g. H a b e l , ' Y a h w e h ' ; S t u h l m u e l l e r , ' T h e o l o g y ' , Creation; R e n d t o r f f , ' S t e l l u n g ' , a n d i n Q u m r a n , e.g. 1 Q S 4 : 2 5 ; I s a 4 3 : 1 9 ; 4 8 : 1 6 in 1 Q H 1 3 : l l f ; f u r t h e r , Sjoberg, ' N e u s c h o p f u n g ' , a n d ' W i e d e r g e b u r t ' . 9
2
9
3
9
4
Miracle, 1 6 1 ; Kertelge, 59f. '"Unclean"'. C o m p a r e d to M a r k ' s eleven occurrences, M a t t h e w h a s t w o (10:1; 12:43) a n d L u k e five ( 4 : 3 6 ; 6:18; 8 : 2 9 ; 9 : 4 2 ; 1 1 : 2 4 ) . A l t h o u g h n o t p u r s u e d in this s t u d y , t h e m o t i f o f p u r i t y a l s o h a s c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e I N E , cf. I s a 3 5 : 8 a n d M a i 3 : 1 - 5 , 1 Q S 4:20ff.
156
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and Israel's
NE
Healer
land by the w o r d o f his mouth (e.g. Pss. Sol 17:24, 3 6 ; 18:5; l Q S b 5:24; cf. Isa 11:4).95 Finally, J e s u s ' casting out o f d e m o n s and unclean spirits is m e n t i o n e d far m o r e than a n y other single type of m i r a c l e or healing in individual accounts (cf. 1:21-28; 5:1-20; 7:24-30; 9 : 1 4 - 2 9 ) .
96
T h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g s o f the
T w e l v e (3:15; 6:7-13) and the s u m m a r y statements (1:34, 3 9 ; 3:10f) similarly reflect an e m p h a s i s on the e x o r c i s m s .
9 7
T h i s e m p h a s i s is e v e n m o r e
significant w h e n considering the concerns of the M a r k a n prologue, o n e of the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f w h i c h is the i n a u g u r a t i o n o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l conflict between Y a h w e h and Jacob-Israel's oppressors (Chapters 3 and 4 above). (c)
Summary
It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the Beelzebul controversy serves to focus the issues raised b y the preceding material ( 1 : 1 6 - 3 : 1 9 ) as to the n a t u r e and identity o f J e s u s ' authoritative ministry and in particular his exorcisms (cf. 1:32).
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f explicit p a r a b l e t e r m i n o l o g y in the face o f
considered rejection sets the scene for the following section on the parables and their purpose. takes
on
Given this pivotal setting, the allusion to Isaiah 49:24f
considerable
significance.
Jesus' authoritative
c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y h i s p o w e r o v e r the d e m o n s a n d in M a r k ' s
ministry, literary
a r r a n g e m e n t confined (with o n e important e x c e p t i o n ) to the 'Galilee and B e y o n d ' section, is not s i m p l y a m a t t e r of s o m e general defeat o f evil powers, b u t is to b e understood m o r e precisely within the horizons o f the INE deliverance effected b y the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r .
9
5
9
6
9
7
9
8
98
T h e i s s e n , Miracle, 2 5 5 f . O n t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p u r i t y in Q u m r a n ' s m e s s i a n i s m , N e u s n e r , ' G e s c h i c h t e ' , 121ff; J a n o w s k i , ' E n d e r e r w a r t u n g ' . O n this i m a g e a s a m e t a p h o r for authority. Watts, 'Meaning'. Cf. healings of blindness t w i c e (8:22-26; 10:46-52) a n d o n c e each: a fever (l:29f, which m a y be demonic, v a n der Loos, 554), leprosy (1:40-45), paralysis (2:1-12), shrivelled h a n d (3:1-6), h a e m o r r h a g e (5:25-34), and d e a f n e s s / d u m b n e s s (7:32-37). Gundry, 7 4 , w h o l u m p s all t h e h e a l i n g s t o g e t h e r , n e v e r t h e l e s s n o t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e x o r c i s m s f o r M a r k . K a l l a s , Significance, 78f, argues that within the current c o s m o l o g y fevers a n d 'plagues' (Mk 1:30; 5 : 2 9 , 3 4 ) w e r e u l t i m a t e l y t h e r e s u l t o f d e m o n i c o p p r e s s i o n . G u e l i c h , 1 . 1 7 3 . F o r K a l l a s , ibid., 8 6 , e x o r c i s m s a r e a t t h e c e n t r e o f J e s u s ' m e s s a g e . The m o d e r n Western distinction between ontology a n d function should not be a n a c h r o n i s t i c a l l y a p p l i e d t o t h e N T . S o e.g. in J n 7:31 t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f s i g n s testifies t o identity of the Christ. Similarly, h o w d o e s o n e explain M k 4:41 w h e r e , a l t h o u g h the disciples h a v e seen m a n y powerful miracles, the c a l m i n g of the s t o r m strikes t h e m with t e r r o r , u n l e s s this p a r t i c u l a r d e e d h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s for J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y t h a t g o far b e y o n d his being a miracle worker or a prophet?
Gerasene
(ii)
Isaiah's
Nations
and Mark's
157
Demoniac
Demons
If M a r k presents J e s u s as the Isaianic Yahweh-Warrior, what, if any, is the connection b e t w e e n Isaiah's picture o f Israel's b o n d a g e to the nations (and m o r e importantly to the idols w h o e p i t o m i s e those n a t i o n s ' p o w e r a n d wealth) and, for w a n t o f a better term, 'demon-possession' in M a r k ?
One
link, I suggest, lies in the g r o w i n g association in the i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l period
of d e m o n s
with
idols where
the former
are
progressively
understood as the reality behind the l a t t e r . " W h i l e the H e b r e w Scriptures m a k e s o m e allusion to this c o n n e c t i o n (cf. Dt 32:17; Ps 106:37), the relationship is m a d e explicit in the LXX.
Psalm
95:5, in a n n o u n c i n g (cuayyeAiCo)) the c o m i n g salvation o f G o d , reads 'all the gods o f the nations are 8ai\i6via'
,l
,T
(D 7 ?K).
In Isaiah 65:3 and 11 the
L X X specifically a d d s the m e n t i o n o f d e m o n s : 'they ... b u r n incense o n bricks
TOIC;
6ainov{oic;'
and 'prepare a table
TO>
6aijiovio)'
(cf. Tg. Isa). This
tendency is continued in the Pseudepigrapha (e.g. 1 Enoch 19:1; 80:7; 99:7; Jub. 1:11; 2:17; 11:4; 12:20; 22:17) and in Paul (1 Cor 10:20; cf. Rev 9 : 2 0 ) . (a) But
Gerasene
Demoniac—Demons,
Tombs,
and
100
Pigs
does M a r k s h o w any e v i d e n c e of this u n d e r s t a n d i n g ?
F. Annen's
detailed analysis o f the G e r a s e n e pericope (5:1-20) with its strange account of a tomb-dwelling d e m o n i a c and the destruction o f the s w i n e , suggests that h e d o e s .
1 0 1
A particular feature o f this account is M a r k ' s bracketing o f
the actual deliverance with two uncharacteristic departures from his usual formal style in w h i c h h e stresses the t o m b - d w e l l i n g (vv. 2 - 3 ) and t h e presence o f s w i n e (vv. l l f f ) .
1 0 2
Unusual enough motifs in their o w n right,
this striking conjunction o f the t w o has long led c o m m e n t a t o r s to posit Isaiah 65:1-7 as the b a c k g r o u n d to M a r k ' s story, e s p e c i a l l y given t h e presence o f d e m o n s in the LXX version, (on LXX Ps 67, see b e l o w ) .
9 9
1 0 0
T h e i s s e n , Miracles,
F o e r s t e r , TDNT, Naming, 24f. 1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3
255f. 4 . 8 - 1 8 ; A n n e n , Heil,
1 8 1 f ; B o c h e r , Damonenfurcht,
6 9 , 139ff; W i n k ,
Heil; cf. s u r v e y o f l i t e r a t u r e in C r a g a n , ' G e r a s e n e ' . S e e n o w a l s o S c h n e c k , 137ff.
G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 7 7 , 2 8 2 ; cf. K e r t e l g e , 1 0 4 . G i v e n t h a t t h e s p i r i t is d e s c r i b e d first a s oKaBapjog t h e u n c l e a n n a t u r e o f b o t h s w i n e a n d t o m b s s h o u l d b e n o t e d . O n t h e l a t t e r cf. b. Nidda 17a; j . Terum. 4 0 b , 2 3 ; B o c h e r , Damonenfurcht, 6 5 , 7 3 , 117ff. E . g . H o l t z m a n n , Synoptiker, 160ff; C a v e , ' O b e d i e n c e ' ; S a h l i n , ' P e r i c o p e ' ; P e s c h , 1.286; e s p e c i a l l y C r a g h a n , ' G e r a s e n e ' , 5 2 9 f . T h e c h a n g e f r o m u v n j i c i w v (v. 2 ) t o \ivi)\iao\v (v. 3 ) m a y b e d u e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f L X X Isa 65:4; G r u n d m a n n , 1 4 2 ; C a v e ; C r a g h a n ; P e s c h , Besessene, 30f. 1 0 3
158
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
Isaiah 65:1-7 (cf. 66:3, 17) constitutes a scathing indictment o f apostate Israelites, p r o b a b l y in an e a r l y post-exilic Sitz-im-Leben,
where tomb-
dwelling (cf. L X X P s 67:7) and the eating o f s w i n e ' s flesh are apparently s o m e o f the m o r e repugnant tupoi o f an idolatry behind which, according to the L X X , stand the d e m o n s .
1 0 4
A s A n n e n n o t e s , in a n c i e n t t i m e s s w i n e w e r e l i n k e d w i t h worship,
1 0 5
b e i n g offered to Zeus, Dionysus, Athena, and N e m e s i s
1 0 6
idol and
also to the subterranean gods particularly in connection with fertility rites. T h e rite later b e c a m e associated with the myth o f Eubuleus, w h o s e herd of swine h a d b e e n swallowed up b y the earth, and involved the throwing of piglets i n t o a w o m b - l i k e h o l e in the T e m p l e o f D e m e t e r in E l e u s i s .
1 0 7
Similarly, there is evidence for the widespread sacrifice o f pigs to R o m a n gods, especially to M a r s but also with regard to fertility rites in connection w i t h the g o d s b e l o w the e a r t h .
1 0 8
Evidently, in the R o m a n w o r l d , pigs
w e r e favourite sacrificial animals, n o R o m a n t o m b w a s legally protected without a pig b e i n g sacrificed, and d e m o n s w e r e u n d e r s t o o d to h a v e a particular liking for t h e m .
1 0 9
Turning to the Near East it is suggested that the sacrificial use o f pigs b y the C a n a a n i t e s partly lay b e h i n d the prohibitions in Leviticus 11:7-8 and Deuteronomy 1 4 : 8 ,
1 1 0
particularly as a n u m b e r o f archaeological finds in
Syria and Palestine further suggest their cultic significance, for instance, a votive statue o f a pig in Jericho (4th Millennium), pig-bones under a stone slab in a s a n c t u a r y in G e z e r (3-2nd. M i l l e n n i u m ) , a libation c o n t a i n e r portraying a m a n carrying a pig (2nd. M i l l e n n i u m ) , an alabaster pig in a sanctuary at Ai (2nd. Millennium), and a cultic pillar with pig b o n e s in a temple at B e t h - S h e a n (mid 2 n d M i l l e n i u m ) .
1
0
4
1
0
6
1
0
7
1
0
8
1
0
9
111
W h y b r a y , 2 6 6 f f ; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, 122ff; W e s t e r m a n n , 399ff; W a t t s , Isaiah, 2 . 3 4 3 , 3 5 6 ; d e V a u x , 'Sacrifices', 2 6 4 ; cf. H a n s o n , Dawn, 1 4 7 . 105 s e e h i s e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n in Heil, 1 3 3 - 8 1 , u p o n w h i c h I a m d e p e n d e n t h e r e ; cf. d e V a u x , 'Sacrifices'; S t e n d e b a c h , 'Schweineopfer'; Derrett, 'Gerasene', 68f. A r b e s m a n n , Fasten, 4 3 ; D e u b n e r , Attische, 4 0 - 4 5 ; c i t e d in A n n e n , 1 6 3 . A n n e n , 1 6 4 , c i t i n g F o u c a r t , d'Eleusis, 6 5 , 1 0 4 f ; D e u b n e r , Attische, 40-51; Nilsson, Greichische, 3 1 3 - 2 2 . H e n o t e s t h a t t h i s rite w a s a l s o p r a c t i c e d a t P o t n i a i , K n i d o s , D e l o s , a n d P a r o s , w h i l e a t T h e s m o r p h i a it e n t a i l e d t h e c a s t i n g o f s w i n e i n t o t h e l o c a l c h a s m . A n n e n , Heil, 1 6 5 , c i t i n g K r a u s e , PW Suppl, 5 . 2 3 6 - 8 2 ; O r t h . , PW Suppl,
2/2.801-15.
D e r r e t t , ' G e r a s e n e ' , 6 8 f ; cf. a l s o t h e B a b y l o n i a n i n c a n t a t i o n w h e r e a p i g is o f f e r e d a s a r e s i d e n c e in t h e p l a c e o f t h e d e m o n i a c , T h o m p s o n , Devils, 2 . 3 , 1 0 - 1 5 . d e V a u x , 'Sacrifices', 2 6 4 . 1
1
0
1
1
1
S e e f u r t h e r d e V a u x , 'Sacrifices', 2 5 1 - 5 4 ; A n n e n , Heil, 1 6 6 .
Military
159
Imagery
It is most probably this linking o f idols, demons, and pigs in the ancient w o r l d that forms the b a c k d r o p o f the M a r k a n account and w h i c h , along with the tomb-dwelling, suggests that he uses Isaiah 6 5 as the horizon for his story t h e r e b y l i n k i n g the powerful forces o f ' L e g i o n ' w i t h typical images of anti-idol p o l e m i c such that J e s u s ' victory o v e r the d e m o n i c host corresponds to the end of the idols' p o w e r . (b) Military
112
Imagery
Furthermore, the stress which Mark places on the strength of the demoniac,
1 1 3
a n d particularly the p e r i c o p e ' s military t e r m i n o l o g y , n o t
only highlights the conflict motif but, in view o f its b e i n g linked with the storm-stilling, also p r o v i d e s important hermeneutical points o f reference as to the significance o f the double-event o f storm-stilling and exorcismdrowning. In the first instance, the s t a t e m e n t in verse 4: o u S c l ^ i a x u e v a u T o v 6 a u a a a i a p p e a r s to e c h o the l a x v p o c ; t e r m i n o l o g y o f the s t r o n g
man
passage in M a r k 3, and also p e r h a p s that o f J o h n ' s description o f Jesus as the l a x u p o T c p o c ; ( l : 7 ) .
1 1 4
In the second, J . D . M . Derrett, noting the strange
behaviour o f the pigs, h a s o b s e r v e d the presence of military overtones in M a r k ' s terminology. If w e allow the clear military associations o f AcyioJv (v. 9 )
1 1 5
to establish the s e m a n t i c parameters o f the account, d T T o a T € i X r j
(v. 10) then connotes a military c o m m a n d (i.e. to dispatch), 'aye'Ari ('herd', vv. 1 1 , 1 3 ) , clearly i n a p p r o p r i a t e for pigs, indicates a b a n d o f military recruits, and w p j i r j a c v (v. 13) describes troops rushing into b a t t l e .
116
G i v e n the military c o n n o t a t i o n s , and the m e m o r y o f the first E x o d u s w h e r e Israel w i t n e s s e d the d r o w n i n g o f a large h o s t i l e force, Derrett suggests that the drowning o f the demonised 'legion' of 'idolatrous' pigs is intended to recall the defeat of the Pharaoh-god during Israel's deliverance from b o n d a g e (cf. E x 14:26 - 1 5 : 2 1 ) .
1 1 2
1 1 7
F u r t h e r m o r e , the d r o w n i n g o f
A n n e n , Heil, 1 8 5 - 8 6 . A l t h o u g h a l l o w i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t M a r k ' s l a n g u a g e m a y reflect I s a 6 5 , G u n d r y , 2 5 8 , lists s e v e n d i f f e r e n c e s in d e t a i l b e t w e e n t h e a c c o u n t s ( n o t all a r e equally convincing) but thereby tends to miss the overall symbolism of the event. ^ G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 7 7 , n o t e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f five hapax legomena h e r e ( K < X T O I K T | < J I £ , aXvois, T T € 6 T I , dwcnav, da\idC€\v) b u t this c o u l d b e d u e t o the u n u s u a l subject m a t t e r . Nineham, 120. Cf. B a i r d , ' G a d a r e n e ' ; P r e i k e r , TDNT, 4.68f. D e r r e t t , ' C o n t r i b u t i o n ' , 5f, w h o c i t e s c o n t e m p o r a r y u s a g e i n m i l i t a r y c o n t e x t s . Ibid., 6f; cf. T r e n c h , Miracles, 1 8 4 ; H o b b s , ' G o s p e l ' , 3 7 - 3 9 ; B e t z , Studies, 2 3 8 f ; C a v e , ' O b e d i e n c e ' , 9 6 , w h o n o t e s t h a t L u k e ' s d p u a a o v is f o u n d in A q . , S y m . , a n d T h . o f E x 1 5 : 5 . 1 1 4
1 1 5
1 1 6
1 1 7
160
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
P h a r a o h ' s hosts in Israel's founding m o m e n t is appealed to o n several o c c a s i o n s in I s a i a h 40-55 w h e r e it n o t o n l y p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e o f the Yahweh-Warrior's ability to execute the N E — h e caused them to 'lay d o w n ' in the sea 'never to rise again' (43:16f)—but also establishes the basis o f the supplication for a similar intervention (51:9f, 13ff; cf. E x 14:25, 2 8 ; 15:10, 21).
1 1 8
C o n s e q u e n t l y , the strange conjunction of the O T i m a g e s o f anti-idol polemic, an o p p r e s s i v e d e m o n i c military host, and the d r o w n i n g in the sea is entirely consonant with a portrayal o f J e s u s as Israel's I N E deliverer. I w o u l d s u g g e s t that for M a r k the p e r i c o p e o f the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c s h o w s J e s u s to b e the I N E Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r w h o defeats the h o s t i l e powers, n o w in their N T demonic manifestation as ' L e g i o n ' , b y d r o w n i n g them in the sea, just as in the first Exodus. (c) The Calming
of the
Storm
T h e rationale b e h i n d the linking o f the d r o w n i n g o f the d e m o n i c legion w i t h the storm-stilling s e e m s likewise to derive from an I N E m o t i f .
1 1 9
Y a h w e h ' s v i c t o r y o v e r h i s e n e m i e s , e x p r e s s e d in c r e a t i o n a l ' c h a o s defeating' language, is characteristic o f the ancient Divine-Warrior H y m n s of early Israel, o f w h i c h E x o d u s 15 is perhaps the finest early e x a m p l e .
1 2 0
This influential m o t i f c o m e s to particular e x p r e s s i o n in the P s a l m s and Isaiah. In the P s a l m s , the creational content o f Y a h w e h ' s 'rebuking' ( " U N / €111x1^1101.? see a b o v e ) o f the w a t e r y c h a o s is frequently related to his division o f the R e d Sea in the Exodus (Pss 76:6f; 18:8-16; 104:7; cf. 89:9-15; 107:24-30).
1 2 1
In Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 , in his disputations w i t h Israel, Y a h w e h
argues that h e is able to deliver b y appealing to his p o w e r over the waters (44:27; 5 0 : 2 )
1
1
8
1
1
9
1 2 2
a n d particularly the R e d S e a .
T h u s Y a h w e h ' s defeat o f
Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r l a n g u a g e is f o u n d in 4 0 : 2 6 ; 4 2 : 1 3 - 1 5 ; 4 3 : 1 7 ; 4 4 : 2 7 ; 4 5 : 2 ; 49:24ff; 5 0 : 2 a n d 5 1 : 9 f ; cf. M i l l e r , ' C o u n c i l ' , 105ff, a n d S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 8 6 , f o r t h e links b e t w e e n t h e w a r r i o r l a n g u a g e a n d Chaoskampf ( s e e a l s o b e l o w ) . T h e link b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o a c c o u n t s h a s l o n g b e e n r e c o g n i s e d : B u l t m a n n , History, 2 1 0 ; S u n d w a l l , Zusammensetzung, 3 0 ; S c h m i d t , Rahmen, 1 4 2 . G o p p e l t , Typos, 8 4 , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a c c o u n t is m o d e l l e d o n J o n a h 1:1-16 b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e t o o g r e a t , s o v a n d e r Loos, 464. 1
2
0
1
2
1
1
2
2
S e e t h e e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n s in C r o s s , Canaanite, 9 1 - 1 4 4 ; H a n s o n , Dawn, 2 9 9 - 3 1 6 . A n d e r s o n , IDB, 4 . 8 0 6 - 1 0 ; R e y m o n d , L'eau, 1 7 9 - 9 8 ; C r o s s , Canaanite, 112-44; Day, Conflict; R i c h a r d s o n , 9 0 - 9 3 ; n o w G u n d r y , 2 4 0 , a n d r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s in l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in fn. 1 1 . H o b b s , ' G o s p e l ' , 4 2 , s e e s a p a r a l l e l w i t h P s 77:19f. W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 4 0 . C f . M i l l e r , ' C o u n c i l ' , 1 0 5 f f ; S t u h l m u e l l e r Creative, 86; O l l e n b u r g e r , Zion, 7 3 f ; K e e , ' T e r m i n o l o g y ' , 2 3 6 ; A n d e r s o n , Creation, 119ff.
Calming
the
161
Storm
the watery-chaos-monster R a h a b at the E x o d u s
1 2 3
is recalled in Isaiah 5 1 : 9 -
11 while in 63:12ff the s a m e combination forms the basis o f an invocation for Y a h w e h again to m a k e bare his holy arm (cf. Pss 114; 1 0 6 : 9 ) . Mark's juxtaposition €TTiTi^aa)
and
<(>iiida)
d e m o n i c (1:25, 4 : 3 9 ) seems
intended
of the
storm-stilling—where
124
Jesus' use of
a p p e a r s to e c h o his p r o g r a m m a t i c conflict with the 1 2 5
— w i t h the deliverance of the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c
therefore
to
evoke
the
Divine-Warrior
motif
and
particularly in an Exodus-like setting. In the first instance, Jesus appears as the Creator-Warrior o f the first E x o d u s as he rebukes the chaos w a t e r s ,
1 2 6
and, in the second, this s a m e Creator-Warrior demonstrates his ability to deliver Israel from the o p p r e s s i v e legion o f i d o l - d e m o n s b y d r o w n i n g t h e m in the s e a .
1 2 7
A similar Warrior m o t i f can perhaps also b e discerned in M a r k 6:45-52, particularly in the light o f those O T texts w h e r e Y a h w e h t r a m p l e s
the
w a t e r s , and t h u s s e r v e s to reinforce the W a r r i o r c o n n o t a t i o n s o f J e s u s ' actions.
1 2 8
O f further interest in this s e c o n d storm story is J . P. H e i l ' s
observation o f a n u m b e r o f parallels between J e s u s ' 'eyco e\\iv a n d Isaiah 43:1-11 w i t h its frequent affirmations
which
' I a m / I will b e '
are especially prominent
|if| 4>op€ia9€'
identifications/
in I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 ,
1 2 9
its
123 W e s t e r m a n n , 2 4 1 , ' G o d ' s a c t i o n a s c r e a t o r — p i c t u r e d a s a v i c t o r y o v e r t h e p o w e r s o f c h a o s — i s c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f I s r a e l a t t h e R e d S e a in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e o n e ( v . 9 b ) t o t h e o t h e r ( v . 1 0 ) is b a r e l y n o t i c e a b l e ' ; cf. J e r e m i a s . . Theophanie, 96. 1
2
4
Chaos, 1
2
5
1
2
6
1
2
7
1
2
8
1
2
9
C r o s s , Canaanite, 73.
1 3 6 f ; cf. S t o l z , Jahwes,
1 6 4 f ; C r o s s , Canaanite,
138f; Ollenburger,
Cf. K e r t e l g e , 9 6 f , a n d B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 4 4 f , 193ff. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d s e e G u n d r y ' s cautions, 2 4 0 , against the idea that ancients 'attributed storms to malevolent d e m o n s ' . Cf. v a n d e r L o o s , 6 4 6 - 4 8 ; K e r t e l g e , 9 5 ; S t e v e n s , ' J e s u s ' , 3 2 8 ; G u e l i c h ; G r u n d m a n n ; M o u l e ; H o o k e r , Message, 4 3 f ; H u r t a d o ; n o w a l s o B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 142ff; a n d M a r c u s , 1 4 4 ; pace, T a y l o r . O n n e w c r e a t i o n i m a g e r y in I s a i a h , fn. 9 2 a b o v e . Cf. S t e v e n s , ' J e s u s ' , 3 2 8 . T h u s T h e i s s e n ' s s u g g e s t i o n . Miracle, 2 5 5 , o f a n Elijah t y p o l o g y o n t h e b a s i s o f T I CJIOI K C U a o i (cf. 1 K g s 1 7 : 1 6 a n d M k 6:14f) s e e m s l e s s likely. T h e s u g g e s t i o n o f B e t z , Studies, 2 3 5 f , t h a t M a r k c o n s t r u e s t h e s e a c r o s s i n g o f t h e d i s c i p l e s u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f J e s u s in t e r m s o f Israel's c r o s s i n g u n d e r M o s e s ' l e a d e r s h i p , w h i l e c o r r e c t l y n o t i n g t h e s t o r m stilling's g e n e r a l i c o n o g r a p h i c s i g n i f i c a n c e , b r e a k s d o w n in t h a t t h e y a r e not escaping f r o m enemies, n o r c a n the other side of the lake be seen as the place of d e l i v e r a n c e w h e r e Y a h w e h is t o b e w o r s h i p p e d . E.g. v a n d e r Loos, 6 6 5 ; Gnilka, 1.269; Achtemeier, 'Person'; Schenke, Wundererzahlungen, 2 4 6 ; H e i l , Walking; a n d n o w e s p e c i a l l y t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 145ff, w h e r e h e a r g u e s for a n O T r a t h e r t h a n H e l l e n i s t i c b a c k g r o u n d . 4 1 : 4 ; 4 3 : 2 5 ; 4 4 : 6 ; 4 5 : 1 8 ; 4 6 : 4 ; 4 8 : 1 2 ; 5 1 : 1 2 ; 5 2 : 6 . M o r g e n s t e r n , ' T e r m i n o l o g y ' , links t h e d e c l a r a t i o n Kin w i t h t h e d i v i n e n a m e a n d E x 3:13ff, cf. D u r h a m , Exodus, 36-41, which in b o t h c o n t e x t s ( I s a a n d E x ) n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e s r e d e m p t i o n , cf. S t u h l m u e l l e r , "'First'".
162
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and Israel's
NE
Healer
c o m m a n d s (bis) n o t to fear, and its p r o m i s e o f Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e ' w h e n you pass through
the w a t e r s ' .
1 3 0
These additional
correspondences,
testifying as they d o to Y a h w e h ' s self-declaration, his delivering presence, and protection from the threat of the chaos waters offer further support for the p r e s e n c e of an I N E hermeneutic: J e s u s ' delivering actions and control over the sea point to the breaking-in, in strength, o f Y a h w e h ' s kingly reign as he inaugurates the long-awaited N E . F i n a l l y , it is n o t e w o r t h y
that
the Creator-Warrior motif
is a l s o
p r o m i n e n t in I s a i a h 63:12ff—not o n l y h a s M a r k e a r l i e r p o r t r a y e d
the
cruical m o m e n t o f the descent o f the Spirit at J e s u s ' b a p t i s m in i m a g e r y derived from this v e r y p a s s a g e (i.e. 6 4 : 1 , C h a p t e r 4 , pp. 102ff) but it also apparently
u n d e r l i e s the w a r n i n g a g a i n s t b l a s p h e m y in t h e s i m i l a r l y
important B e e l z e b u l controversy.
T h e r e is an interesting c o n n e c t i o n here
in that w h i l e M a r k 1:10 indicates the b e g i n n i n g of the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r ' s intervention
on
Israel's behalf, the climactic Beelzebul controversy
apparently interprets J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s in precisely these t e r m s w i t h 3:29 w a r n i n g against repeating the mistakes o f the past b y rejecting the Spirit's activity in this N e w Exodus. It m a y , t h e r e f o r e , b e significant that M a r k 4 : 3 5 - 5:20 a l s o e x h i b i t s several t h e m a t i c parallels with this s a m e text (63:7 - 65:7).
N o t o n l y does
Isaiah 63:19b - 64:2 reflect the ancient D i v i n e - W a r r i o r E x o d u s t r a d i t i o n ,
131
but the r e s p o n s e o f the disciples suggests that the o n e ' w h o did a w e s o m e things that w e did not e x p e c t ' (Isa 64:2; Aq.: TOL imfyopa ct>op€pa a ou T T p o a € 6 o K a ) ^ € v ; cf. M k
. . . ; S y m . , Th.:
4 : 4 1 , €(|>opTf9T|aav dpov \kiyav)
has
b e g u n to e x e c u t e a N E . A l s o , as w e h a v e seen, the i m a g e r y o f the t o m b s a n d pigs a p p e a r s to c o m e from Isaiah 6 5 : 1 - 7 — Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e to the p r e c e d i n g l a m e n t — w h e r e h e claims that w h i l e h e h a s a l l o w e d h i m s e l f to b e found, ' a s t u b b o r n and rebellious p e o p l e ' w h o 'sit a m o n g g r a v e s ' and 'eat s w i n e ' s flesh' did not seek h i m (65:lf; cf. M k 5 : 7 , 1 7 ) . It is p o s s i b l e then that M a r k has b e e n significantly influenced b y this final Isaianic lament over the delay o f the N E and Y a h w e h ' s response.
He
appeals to it in the p r o l o g u e to describe the significance o f J e s u s ' c o m i n g . H e m a y w e l l a p p e a l to it in the B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y in his a c c o u n t of J e s u s ' w a r n i n g a g a i n s t b l a s p h e m y o f the Spirit. 1
3
0
1 3 1
Walking,
A n d M a r k 4:35 - 5:20's
59f, although here with respect to M t 14:22-33.
H a n s o n , Dawn,
8 7 - 8 9 ; C r o s s , Canaanite,
170.
Ultimate
163
Oppressors
'parabolic' representation o f deeds o f the 'stronger o n e ' 'midrashic' reflection on this very p a s s a g e . (d) The Ultimate
1 3 2
m a y also b e a
133
Oppressors
Recently several scholars h a v e c o m m e n t e d o n the political s y m b o l i s m o f this e x o r c i s m s e e i n g J e s u s ' e x p u l s i o n repudiation
of Roman
occupation.
1 3 4
o f ' L e g i o n ' as c o n s t i t u t i n g
a
T h e fact that R o m e w a s later
identified with swine, and that the Boar (although not a domesticated pig) w a s the e m b l e m o f the tenth legion, Fretensis, stationed in Palestine, lends tentative s u p p o r t to this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
135
T h e difficulty is that for these
commentators demonisation is seen as both symptomatic and symbolic o f political oppression and, therefore, tends to b e subordinated to political realities.
O n the other h a n d , c o n t e m p o r a r y sources indicate that certain
traditions w i t h i n J u d a i s m clearly u n d e r s t o o d
that spiritual forces w e r e
aligned with and ultimately controlled Israel's enemies (e.g. 1 Enoch 54:4-5; 1QS 4; 1 Q M , passim;
H Q M e l c h 2:4-6; Jubilees 4 8 ; T. Levi 18:12; T. Zeb. 9:8;
T. Sim. 6:6; T. Dan 5:10-13; cf. Mek. to E x 15:1; Ex. Rab. 1 : 5 ) .
136
Several N e w
Testament writers also s e e m to share the v i e w that the e n e m i e s o f G o d ' s p e o p l e are at b o t t o m spiritual e v e n t h o u g h they m a k e u s e o f h u m a n agencies (Rev passim;
E p h 6:12; cf. 1 C o r 15:50; J n 1 8 : 3 6 ) .
1 3 7
It seems m o r e
likely that M a r k u n d e r s t a n d s ultimate Israel's oppressors, n o t to b e the R o m a n s w h o m J e s u s t e n d s not to attack, b u t the d e m o n s
1 3 8
—the
stark
contrast b e t w e e n the relatively flimsy chains o f h u m a n 'jailers' and the a w e s o m e m i g h t o f the d e m o n s perhaps serving to underline this point.
1
3
2
1
3
3
1
3
4
O n m i r a c l e s a s p a r a b l e s : F u l l e r , Mission, 7 3 , w h o s e e s 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 4 3 , in r e l a t i o n t o 4 : 1 3 4 , a s ' m a n i f e s t a t i o n s ... o f t h e s e c r e t o f t h e K i n g d o m ' ; K e r t e l g e , 1 2 5 f ; R i c h a r d s o n , 4 8 - 4 9 ; A c h t e m e i e r , ' C a t e n a e ' , 2 7 5 ; H a w k i n , ' S y m b o l i s m ' ; D o n a h u e , ' P a r a b l e ' ; S t o c k , Call, 77,1171 9 ; H a m i l t o n , ' P a r a b l e ' ; B o u c h e r , 7 9 - 8 3 ; K o c h , Bedeutung, 1 9 3 ; M a r s h a l l , Faith, 60ff; B e a v i s , Audience, 157ff. O n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p a r a b l e a s a m e t a p h o r i c a l e v e n t , s e e e.g. D o d d , Parables, 1 6 ; F u n k , Language, 1 3 3 - 3 5 ; K e c k , Future, 243ff. Cf. S a h l i n , ' P e r i c o p e ' .
M u h l m a n n , Chiliasmus, 2 5 2 ; T h e i s s e n , Miracle, 2 5 5 - 5 9 ; W i n k , Unmasking, 45-48; M y e r s , 1 9 0 - 9 4 , 1 4 1 - 4 3 . Cf. H o l l e n b a c h , ' J e s u s ' , 253ff. B o w m a n ' s d e n i a l , 1 4 4 , o f t h e R o m a n m i l i t a r y c o n n o t a t i o n s is m i s p l a c e d . 1
3
5
1
3
6
1
3
7
1
3
8
A n n e n , Heil, 170f. B e t z , ' H e i l i g e r ' ; S t e v e n s , ' J e s u s ' , 3 2 8 ; T i e d e , Charismatic,
188ff; W i n k , Naming,
26-
35. O n t h e s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s t o e x o r c i s m s , H a r n a c k , 'Conflict', 1 3 1 f . L e i v e s t a d , Christ, 4 0 ; B e t z , Studies, 2 3 8 f ; P e r r i n , Kingdom, 1 7 1 . Cf. B a u e r n f e i n d , Worte, 5 4 f , w h e r e t h e d e m o n f u n c t i o n s a s t h e e n e m y o f t h e M e s s i a h . G i v e n t h e l i n k b e t w e e n i d o l a t r y a n d d e m o n s , it is t h e h o s t i l e J e w i s h l e a d e r s , if a n y o n e , w h o s e r e j e c t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s eschatological deliverer c a n be described as demonic (see further C h a p t e r 7).
164
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
In view o f the foregoing, I want to suggest that whereas in Isaiah it was the d o w n f a l l o f the n a t i o n s ' idols w h i c h w o u l d signal the c o m i n g o f deliverance, in M a r k it is the demise of the demons.
In Isaianic terms, the
' o c c u p y i n g l e g i o n s ' keeping Israel in ' e x i l e ' from her G o d are d e m o n i c . A n d furthermore,
it is J e s u s w h o , as Y a h w e h the C r e a t o r - W a r r i o r
had
done before him, delivers the prisoner while the oppressors are destroyed in the sea. It is, therefore, m o r e than a little ironic that J e s u s ' first miracle is the casting out o f an unclean spirit in a s y n a g o g u e (sacred space), the h o m e territory o f those w h o w e r e most concerned with ritual purity, and on the Sabbath (sacred t i m e ) . (e) Jew or
1 3 9
Gentile?
It is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d that the d e m o n i a c is a G e n t i l e b e c a u s e o f the geography,
140
the presence of the pigs, the word of a d d r e s s ,
141
the dwelling
a m o n g the tombs, and fostered perhaps b y a perception o f M a r k ' s interest in the G e n t i l e m i s s i o n .
1 4 2
H o w e v e r , several lines o f indirect e v i d e n c e
raise s o m e questions about this assumption. U4R<JTOU
It is not clear that 6 Qeog T O O
is especially indicative o f a Gentile since it w a s also, apparently, a
current J e w i s h e x p r e s s i o n .
1 4 3
Similarly, although tomb-dwelling is not
w h a t o n e e x p e c t s o f a pious J e w , it does not establish the d e m o n i a c ' s nationality since it is presumably not incompatible with the d e m o n s w h o control h i m
1 4 4
and m a y simply testify to his desperate condition as does
the Prodigal's tending of pigs (Lk 15:15). Furthermore, Isaiah 65:1-7, which m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s see as the b a c k g r o u n d to this imagery, is describing
/
,
1 3 9 M y e r s , 1 4 1 ; C h i l t o n , R e p e n t a n c e , 1 5 f . T h i s i r o n y is e v e n m o r e f o r c e f u l if, a s C h i l t o n b e l i e v e s (pace S a n d e r s , Jesus, passim), it w a s ' J e s u s ' h a b i t o f t e a c h i n g a n idiosyncratic u n d e r s t a n d i n g of purity a n d sacrifice' that o c c a s i o n e d his death, 'Repentance', 17. 1
4
0
1
4
1
1
4
2
1
4
3
1
4
4
O n t h e u n c e r t a i n t y s u r r o u n d i n g b o t h t e x t a n d l o c a t i o n , A n n e n , Heil, 2 0 1 - 9 ; B a a r d a , 'Gadarenes'; Guelich. A r g u e d t o b e t y p i c a l o f n o n - J e w s , e.g. G n 1 4 : 1 8 ; N u 2 4 : 1 6 ; I s a 1 4 : 1 4 ; b y S c h m i d , Evangelium, 109; Swete, 94; Craghan, 'Gerasene', 532. E . g . L i g h t f o o t , History, 89f; N i n e h a m , 151; Sahlin, 'Pericope', 160; C r a g h a n , ' G e r a s e n e ' , 5 3 2 ; K e r t e l g e , 107f; P e s c h , 1.282; G n i l k a , 1.207; K e l b e r , 5 1 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 8 3 ; b u t s e e L o u w , 'bezetene'; Derrett, 'Contributions'; Schneck (apparently), 148; a n d G u n d r y , 2 5 7 , w h o rejects G e n t i l e s y m b o l i s m , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s p r e f e r s t o s e e a G e n t i l e . S e e a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n in v a n d e r L o o s , 386ff. K l o s t e r m a n n , Markusevangelium; e s p e c . D a l m a n , Words, 1 9 8 f , c i t i n g P s s 4 7 : 4 ; 5 7 : 3 ; 7 8 : 3 5 ; 9 : 3 ; S i r 4 6 : 5 ; 4 8 : 2 0 e t c . , cf. L k 1:32, 3 5 , 7 5 ; A c t s 7 : 4 8 , a l t h o u g h v a r y r a r e a m o n g t h e rabbis. b. Pes. 3 b ; b. Ber. 3 a , 6 2 b ; b. Shabb. 6 7 a ; b. Git. 7 0 a ; b. Sanh. 6 5 b .
Jew or
165
Gentile?
not Gentiles but J e w s . Granted the presence of such a great n u m b e r of pigs implies a G e n t i l e region, there is, nevertheless, no necessary b e t w e e n their p r e s e n c e and the nationality o f the m a n . warrant, therefore,
is t h e G e n t i l e r e g i o n .
o c c a s i o n d o e s M a r k relate an e n c o u n t e r
1 4 6
1 4 5
However,
connection
The primary only on
one
between Jesus and a clearly
designated Gentile in a Gentile setting: the Syrophoenician w o m a n w h o s e d a u g h t e r is also d e m o n i s e d .
1 4 7
But the pivotal feature is J e s u s ' initial
reluctance to help (7:24-27; cf. M t 1 5 : 2 4 )
148
— a disinclination w h i c h appears
to arise from the priority o f the J e w s and is reflected in o t h e r traditions as well as the b e h a v i o u r o f early Christian m i s s i o n a r i e s . raises a fundamental p r o b l e m .
Gospel 149
w h o m he h a d then sent out, p r e s u m a b l y , a m o n g other G e n t i l e s , here, in the first i n s t a n c e that u n q u e s t i o n a b l y
1
4
5
1
4
6
1
4
7
1
4
8
1
4
9
1
5
0
This
If J e s u s had already delivered a Gentile 1 5 0
why
involves a G e n t i l e , d o e s
,
T h e c o n g r u e n c e b e t w e e n Isa 6 5 s m o t i f s a n d this p e r i c o p e m a y i m p l y t h a t a p o s t a t e J e w s a r e in v i e w , s e e L o u w ' s s u g g e s t i o n , ' b e z e t e n e ' , t h a t t h e d e m o n i a c ' s c o n d i t i o n w a s t h e r e s u l t o f h i s k e e p i n g p i g s ; F a r r e r , Matthew, 2 3 n l . B o t h Isa 6 5 a n d the p a r a b l e of the P r o d i g a l S o n p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e t h a t J e w s , w h e t h e r a p o s t a t e o r in d i r e s t r a i t s , c o u l d i n v o l v e themselves with pigs. In v i e w o f t h e little t h a t is k n o w n a b o u t p r e - A D 7 0 r e l i g i o u s o b s e r v a n c e e s p e c i a l l y in t h e s e r e g i o n s , G o o d m a n ' s d i s c u s s i o n . State, 1 0 2 - 7 , o f t h e l a x i t y o f p o s t - A D 1 3 2 G a l i l e a n J e w s is e n l i g h t e n i n g a l t h o u g h h i s d a t a is l a t e , p e r t a i n s t o G a l i l e e , a n d m a y reflect d i s l o c a t i o n s s u b s e q u e n t t o t h e t w o r e v o l t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m w a s o n t h e a s c e n d a n c y a n d , if a n y t h i n g , a p p l y i n g p r e s s u r e for g r e a t e r c o n f o r m i t y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p i c t u r e o f G a l i l e a n s in t h e N T s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s l a x i t y w a s n o t n e w . G o o d m a n s t a t e s t h a t in t h i s p e r i o d r a b b i n i c a u t h o r i t y w a s n o t a l l - p e r v a s i v e w i t h l a r g e n u m b e r s d i s r e g a r d i n g the purity laws a n d , to a lesser extent. Sabbath a n d tithing r e q u i r e m e n t s . O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t is h i s r e f e r e n c e t o t. B. Mes. 5 : 7 w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t a substantial trade of 'small cattle' w e n t o n even though keeping t h e m w a s a serious e n o u g h sin, in R. I s h m a e l ' s o p i n i o n , a s t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e o f B e t h A b a (t. B.K. 8 : 1 4 ) . It s e e m s n o t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t s o m e m o r e - d e l i n q u e n t J e w s in a H e l l e n i s t i c e n v i r o n m e n t c o u l d h a v e g o n e f u r t h e r a n d b e e n e n g a g e d in k e e p i n g s w i n e f o r s a l e in t h e m a r k e t s o f t h e D e c a p o l i s . J e s u s ' i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p i g s is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s a n a c t o f j u d g e m e n t o n a p o s t a t e / d i s o b e d i e n t J e w s , for w h i c h a c t i o n w e h a v e s o m e s o r t o f p a r a l l e l in t h e c u r s i n g o f t h e fig t r e e s y m b o l i s m . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e a c t w o u l d b e e x t r a o r d i n a r y if t h e p i g s w e r e o w n e d b y G e n t i l e s . O n t h e m a i n c o n j e c t u r e s , R i d d e r b o s , Coming, 1 1 3 - 1 5 ; v a n d e r L o o s , 3 8 6 - 9 3 . A l t , Where, 2 6 , s u g g e s t s that this a r e a w o u l d h a v e b e e n inhabited by J e w i s h p e a s a n t s b u t d o e s n o t d e a l w i t h t h e difficult q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e p i g s . T h i s e n c o u n t e r is m o r e o b v i o u s l y p r o l e p t i c o f t h e Gentile m i s s i o n . T h e i s s e n , Miracle, 2 5 4 , n o t e s t h a t in t h e n o n - J e w i s h p e t i t i o n e r a c c o u n t s i n v o l v i n g G e n t i l e s ( v i s - a - v i s S a m a r i t a n s ) t h e c o n t r a s t / r e s i s t a n c e m o t i f is ' p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o m i n e n t ' . M t 10:5f; 1 5 : 2 4 ; A c t s 1:8; cf. J e r y e l l , 'Lost'; P a u l ' s a t t i t u d e in R o m . 1:16, a n d m i s s i o n s in A c t s . G e n t i l e s o n J e w i s h t e r r i t o r y w e r e n o t e x c l u d e d b u t invite s p e c i a l c o m m e n t (e.g. M t . 8:10ff, p a r . ; J n 12:20ff), J e r e m i a s , Theology, 133f. So L o h m e y e r , 97; Taylor, 2 8 4 ; Pesch, 1.294; Guelich 1.289; but see W r e d e , 1 4 0 ; G n i l k a , 1 . 2 0 6 ; T h e i s s e n , Miracle, 146f.
166
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
M a r k stress J e s u s ' hesitation to heal, and then attribute it specifically to the w o m a n ' s non-Jewish status ( 7 : 2 6 f ) ?
151
O n t h e other h a n d , w e k n o w that d u r i n g the M a c c a b e a n e x p a n s i o n Alexander J a n n e u s seized Gerasa ca. 82 B.C. Qos. Ant. 13.391-4; B.J. 1.103-5) and that n u m b e r s o f J e w s remained in the region, at least to the time of the First J e w i s h Revolt (B.J. 2 . 4 7 7 - 8 0 ) .
152
Not only would this reconcile the
a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d difficulty and the surprising lack of any c o m m e n t that the m a n w a s a Gentile, but it coheres with J e s u s ' focus on his o w n people. If J e s u s is being presented as the one w h o inaugurates the N E , then this account w i t h its c o m b i n e d E x o d u s / C r e a t i o n motifs (or, in terms o f social theory, 'iconic' elements) w o u l d be entirely consistent with a j o u r n e y into non-Jewish territory (or even once-Davidic lands) to effect the deliverance of a ' b o u n d ' Diaspora Israelite, even one w h o dwelt among t o m b s and did not seek h i m . H o w e v e r , because no direct textual evidence is available for either p o s i t i o n a n d s i n c e the c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the G e n t i l e w o m a n is ultimately an a r g u m e n t from silence, d o g m a t i s m should b e a v o i d e d . (iii) Mark's
Literary
153
Scheme
T h e observation that the destruction o f the d e m o n s in M a r k 5 reflects the fulfilment o f the d e m o n ' s question in 1 : 2 4
1 5 4
highlights the relationship
b e t w e e n the three accounts w e have analysed.
It should b e n o t e d that
t h e s e a r e the o n l y detailed references to J e s u s ' e n c o u n t e r s w i t h
the
d e m o n i c in the first section (9:14ff appears to serve a different purpose, C h a p t e r 8 ) . J e s u s ' first authoritative confrontation presages the c o m i n g destruction o f the d e m o n i c forces while the s e c o n d explains b o t h J e s u s ' actions a n d the s o u r c e o f his authority in terms o f the Isaianic Y a h w e h Warrior.
T h e link b e t w e e n the s e c o n d a n d third stories lies in the
p r o g r a m m a t i c p u r p o s e o f the former: w h i l e J e s u s ' u s e o f a p a r a b l e in response to his rejection b y the Jewish leaders (3:23) provides the point of
1
5
1
1
5
2
1
5
3
1
5
4
G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 8 7 ; J e s u s ' s e c r e c y ( 7 : 2 4 ) m a y s i m p l y r e f l e c t a d e s i r e for p r i v a c y , cf. ibid.,
385. Cf. B i e t e n h a r d , ' D e k a p o l i s ' ; S c h u r e r , 2 . 1 5 0 ; 3 / 1 . 1 3 - 1 7 ; A v i - Y o n a h , Jews, 1 6 - 1 9 . T h e b l a n k e t a s s e s s m e n t o f t h i s a r e a a s a p a g a n l a n d (e.g. S a h l i n , ' P e r i k o p e ' , 1 6 3 ) is, t h e r e f o r e , an oversimplification. C o n s e q u e n t l y , assertions s u c h as Kelber's, 1 5 , that the point of this ' m a s s i v e m i r a c l e ' p e r i c o p e d o e s n o t lie in t h e b r e a k i n g o f d e m o n i c p o w e r *but in h i s b r e a k i n g o f t h e G e n t i l e b a r r i e r ' , cf. K e r t e l g e , 1 0 9 , s e e m o v e r s t a t e d . H o o k e r , Message, 3 9 ; cf. B u r k i l l , 8 8 f ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 7 9 ; K e l b e r , 5 1 , w h o s e e s 5 : 1 - 2 0 a s t h e G e n t i l e c o u n t e r p a r t o f 1:21-28.
EvayydXiov and the
167
Warrior
transition to t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n the p u r p o s e o f p a r a b l e s in 4:1-34, t h e ensuing 'strong m a n ' saying (3:27) comes to a fuller b u t equally 'parabolic' expression in 4:35 - 5:20. A n o t h e r feature o f the conflict-with-demons m o t i f is that all o f t h e exorcisms are confined to the 'Galilee and B e y o n d ' section (again 9:14-29 is the exception). This striking peculiarity contributed to E . L o h m e y e r ' s and R. H. L i g h t f o o t ' s ' g e o g r a p h i c a l
theology'.
1 5 5
But since their theory is
untenable, h o w is this distribution to b e explained? T h e Isaianic N E motif may help.
J u s t as Y a h w e h ' s w a r r i o r
activities are associated
with
deliverances out a m o n g the n a t i o n s as a p r e c u r s o r to the restorational r e t u r n to J e r u s a l e m , s o a ls o J e s u s ' w a r r i o r activities a g a i n s t I s r a e l ' s oppressors occur prior to the journey along the ' W a y ' to J e r u s a l e m . (ij)
EvayyeXxov
and the
156
Yahweh-Warrior
W i t h this overall s c h e m e o f J e s u s as the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r in m i n d , and in v i e w o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f e u a y y c ' X i o v in 1:1, it m a y not b e insignificant that several o f the religious uses o f cuayyeXi'Co) in the L X X involve this motif.
1 5 7
First, in P s a l m 67:12 (LXX)
euayyeXiCo) pertains to the m e s s a g e
which, in recalling the mighty acts o f G o d at the E x o d u s (vv. 8f), describes the scattering o f Y a h w e h ' s enemies (v. 2) as he mightily takes as prisoners those 'that act p r o v o k i n g l y , e v e n t h e m that dwell in t o m b s ' (v. 7; cf. Isa 65:3)
1 5 8
and then goes on to speak o f the spoiling o f the e n e m y (v. 13). T h e
o b v i o u s parallels s u g g e s t that this version m a y also h a v e e x e r t e d s o m e influence o n M a r k 5 .
1 5 9
P s a l m 95:2 ( L X X ) c o n c e r n s the declaration o f
Y a h w e h ' s m i g h t y d e e d s in b r i n g i n g about the return, and is o n e o f the texts that describes the n a t i o n s ' gods as d e m o n s (8a\\i6via, the third
u s e , in N a h u m
v. 5 ) . Finally,
1:15 ( L X X ) , c o n c e r n s t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f
1 5 5
S e e C h a p t e r 5 , p p . 132ff, a n d t h e c r i t i q u e t h e r e i n . T r o c m e , Formation, 5 3 n l , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t h i r t e e n t o fifteen m i r a c l e s w h i c h o c c u r in M a r k 1-9 m a y b e e x p l a i n e d o n t h e b a s i s of a ' l a k e s i d e c o l l e c t i o n ' . 156 p Burkill's suggestion, 2 5 5 , that the d e m o n s p r o v i d e s u p e r n a t u r a l testimony a n d are ' h a r d l y r e q u i r e d a f t e r P e t e r ' s c o n f e s s i o n ' a n d ' t h e d i v i n e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f it a t t h e transfiguration'. a
c
e
1 5 7
P s s 3 9 ( 4 0 ) : 9 ; 6 7 ( 6 8 ) : 1 1 , a n d 9 5 ( 9 6 ) : 2 ; N a h 1:15. T h e L X X is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e M T , i n t r o d u c i n g s o m e a m b i g u i t y i n t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p h r a s e € £ a y o ) v T T € T T € 6 T I ^ € V O U S : d o e s it m o d i f y v. 7 a a n d , t h e r e f o r e , d e s c r i b e the l i b e r a t i o n o f t h o s e w h o d w e l l a l o n e , o r , b e c a u s e o f t h e L X X ' s O ^ O I C D ? ( V . 7 C ) , d o e s it d e s c r i b e t h e t a k i n g p r i s o n e r o f i d o l a t o r s , cf. I s a 6 5 : 3 ? T h e c o n t e x t o f this l a t t e r t e x t m a k e s it h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t Y a h w e h w o u l d b e r e d e e m i n g s u c h wilful a p o s t a t e s . 1 5 8
/
5 9
the
>
* E . g . N i n e h a m ; C r a g h a n , ' G e r a s e n e ' ; P e s c h , ' M a r k a n ' , 3 6 1 ; A n n e n , Heil, 4 5 , n o t i n g hapax K O I T O I K T J C J I V cf. L X X P s 67:7.
168
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and Israel's
NE
Healer
salvation p r e d i c a t e d on Y a h w e h ' s (the o n e w h o rules o v e r m a n y waters, v. 12) threefold a n n o u n c e m e n t concerning the destruction o f the idols and g o d s o f N i n e v e h , t h e c o n s e q u e n t b u r i a l o f its K i n g (v. 1 4 ) , a n d
the
shattering o f J u d a h ' s b o n d s (v. 13). H e r e again there is the conjunction of the motifs o f Y a h w e h as Creator-Warrior victorious over b o t h c h a o s and the n a t i o n s ' g o d s .
1 6 0
T h e S e p t u a g i n t ' s u s e o f the verb in these contexts
a p p e a r s n o t only to involve deliverance b u t associates the actions o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r in o v e r c o m i n g t h e n a t i o n s ' d e m o n i c g o d s .
T h i s is
entirely compatible with its use in Isaiah 40:9 (2); 52:7 and 61:1 w h e r e as w e h a v e seen euayyeAiCo) connotes the idea o f the deliverance o f the captives b y the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r .
161
Finally, if, as is c o m m o n l y held, M a r k presents J e s u s in eschatological conflict w i t h Satan and his d e m o n s , and if c u a y y c X i o v , understood as the content o f € u a y y € X i £ a ) , relates to the promised deliverance o f G o d ' s people, w h e n c e the antecedent?
Surely the m o s t o b v i o u s precursor is the general
motif e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h o u t the O T o f Y a h w e h ' s battles w i t h the nations and their idols, particularly those in association with the great h o p e o f the INE. c)
1 6 2
Summary
T h e foregoing analysis suggests that M a r k understands J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s in terms of t h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r ' s actions in inaugurating I s a i a h ' s N E .
But,
w h e r e a s in Isaiah the c a p t i v e s w e r e p r i s o n e r s o f the i d o l s w h o
were
deemed
r e s p o n s i b l e for B a b y l o n ' s v i c t o r y , in M a r k it is t h e
unclean
160 D e r r e t t , ' L e g e n d ' , s u g g e s t s N a h 1 : 4 , 1 1 - 1 5 a s b a c k g r o u n d for M a r k 5 . 1
6
1
1
6
2
C f . 4 0 : 1 0 ; 5 2 : l f f , 9f; 6 1 : 1 . O n t h e l a t t e r , n o t e t h e l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e i n v o l v i n g t h e w a r r i o r in 5 9 : 1 5 b - 2 0 a n d 6 3 : 1 - 6 . L o n g m a n 'Divine', a d d r e s s e s this c o n n e c t i o n b u t m a k e s only p a s s i n g reference to J e s u s ' c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e d e m o n s . S e v e r a l w r i t e r s , e.g. B i s h o p , ' W h y ' ; m o r e r e c e n t l y F i s h e r , ' S o n ' ; L o v e s t a m , 'Fils'; B e r g e r , ' M e s s i a s t r a d i t i o n e n ' ; D u l i n g , ' S o l o m o n ' ; B r a d y , ' R o l e ' ; C h i l t o n , ' R e f l e c t i o n s ' ; n o t e t h a t t h e title ' S o n o f D a v i d ' m a y h a v e a t a p o p u l a r l e v e l r e f e r r e d t o S o l o m o n w h o w a s r e n o w n e d a s a f o r m i d a b l e e x o r c i s t ( J o s . Ant. 8 . 4 4 - 4 5 ; cf. V e r m e s , Jesus, 6 2 - 6 5 ) a n d s u g g e s t t h a t J e s u s m a y h a v e b e e n identified a s a S o l o m o n i c S o n of D a v i d . D u l i n g , 2 5 2 , a s k s t h a t if M a r k k n e w t h i s m a t e r i a l , w h y d o e s it n o t a p p e a r in t h e first half, a n d w h y n o t in a n e x o r c i s m ( B a r t i m a e u s , after all, is b l i n d ; cf. D e J o n g e , 'Son', 1 0 0 0 ? H e s u g g e s t s that M a r k modifies a S o l o m o n i c 'Son of D a v i d ' e x p e c t a t i o n as h e d o e s t h e ' r o y a l ' a s p e c t , s o t h e B a r t i m a e u s m i r a c l e h a r d l y fits w i t h d o w n - p l a y i n g t h e i d e a . If this t r a d i t i o n w a s c u r r e n t , a n d m o r e s o if it h a d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s ( w h i c h d o e s n o t a p p e a r s o ) , t h e n it m a y p r o v i d e f u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o p o p u l a r p e r c e p t i o n s o f J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s (cf. P h i l o , Lib. Bib. Ant. 6 0 . 3 ) , a l t h o u g h o u r p r o p o s e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y w o u l d s u g g e s t it p l a y s a m i n o r r o l e , a t least f r o m M a r k ' s p e r s p e c t i v e .
Jesus
and
the Isaianic
169
Healings
s p i r i t s / d e m o n s w h o are to b e u n d e r s t o o d as the o p p r e s s o r s w h o G o d ' s people captive.
hold
Just as the prophecies of the N E had s p o k e n of the
d e t h r o n e m e n t and humiliation o f B a b y l o n ' s idols, w h o w e r e seen as the s o u r c e of her p o w e r , so in the fulfilment
of Isaiah's p r o p h e c i e s J e s u s
defeats the d e m o n s w h o ultimately stand b e h i n d the idols and
liberates
their prisoners. J e s u s ' exorcisms, it appears, are the M a r k a n equivalent o f the release o f the Isaian c a p t i v e .
1 6 3
T h e N E motif m a y also explain
the
frequently n o t e d p h e n o m e n o n of M a r k ' s n e a r total confinement of J e s u s ' defeat of the d e m o n s to this first section o f his G o s p e l in that J e s u s ' ' W a r r i o r ' activities likewise o c c u r prior to the j o u r n e y along the w a y to Jerusalem.
1 6 4
IV. Jesus and the Isaianic Healings Here, too, the c o n c e r n is not to d e t e r m i n e if J e s u s ' activities are to b e understood in s o m e general w a y as an expression of the breaking-in of the reign of G o d .
1 6 5
W h a t is of interest is whether there is any evidence that
M a r k ' s presentation of J e s u s ' healing ministry has links with Isaiah's N E .
1
6
3
1
6
4
1
6
5
This b a c k g r o u n d , not disregarding Jesus' stated reason, 'because they knew him', m a y a l s o s h e d s o m e light o n J e s u s ' c o m m a n d i n g s i l e n c e o f t h e d e m o n s ( 1 : 2 5 , 3 4 ; 3 : 1 2 ) . I s a 5 2 : 1 5 d e s c r i b e s h o w , a s a r e s u l t o f their u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Y a h w e h ' s a c t i o n s , Israel's o p p r e s s o r s w i l l b e silent, a f i g u r e o f s p e e c h i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r i m m i n e n t s u b j u g a t i o n , cf. J o b 5 : 1 6 ; P s 1 0 7 : 4 2 , W a t t s , ' M e a n i n g ' . Tg. Isa t h e n d e v e l o p s t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g b y i n t e r p r e t i n g 5 3 : 7 s u c h t h a t it is t h e m i g h t y o n e s w h o a r e s i l e n c e d a n d h e n c e ' n o n e shall b e b e f o r e h i m w h o o p e n s his m o u t h o r s p e a k s a w o r d ' . P e r h a p s t h e c o m m a n d s t o s i l e n c e reflect these ideas. First, as with the kings, the d e m o n s ' / s p i r i t s ' a w a r e n e s s of i m m i n e n t s u b j u g a t i o n is r e l a t e d t o t h e i r r e c o g n i t i o n o f w h o J e s u s r e a l l y is, a s is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e i r a c c u r a t e t e s t i m o n y t o J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y — a n d this, a s in I s a i a h , in c o n t r a s t t o I s r a e l ' s failure t o see a n d u n d e r s t a n d . W a t t s , ' M e a n i n g ' ; ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' . S e c o n d , the c o m m a n d s t o silence c o u l d reflect t h e f a c t o f t h e i r s u b j u g a t i o n a s Tg. Isa e m p h a s i s e s , cf. E b e l i n g , Messiasgeheimnis, 1 1 4 - 2 1 8 . T h i s s e e m s t o b e b o r n e o u t b y t h e fact t h a t in J e s u s ' first m i r a c l e t h e c o m m a n d t o s i l e n c e is l i n k e d w i t h t h a t t o c o m e o u t ( 1 : 2 5 b ) . T h e u n c l e a n s p i r i t ' s o b e d i e n c e t o b o t h is w h a t a m a z e s the on-lookers (1:26). S c h e n k e ' s a t t e m p t , Wundererzahlungen, 3 9 6 , t o s e e all o f J e s u s m i r a c l e s a s ' a u f d e m W e g e ' c i t i n g e.g. M k 1 : 2 1 , 2 9 , 3 5 e t c . s e e m s t o i g n o r e M a r k ' s r e d a c t i o n a l u s e o f ' w a y ' t e r m i n o l o g y , cf. S w a r t l e y , ' S t r u c t u r a l ' . E . g . L o i s y , Evangels, 160; Hoskyns-Davey, 167; Richardson, 43; and van der Loos, 2 3 6 , w h o s e e s J e s u s a c t i n g in a m e s s i a n i c c a p a c i t y . K a l l a s , Significance, stresses the c o s m i c d e m o n i c d i m e n s i o n s , w h i l e F u l l e r , Mission, s e e s in t h e m i r a c l e s t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s i g n s o f t h e K i n g d o m , cf. D e l l i n g , ' V e r s t a n d n i s ' , 1 5 4 ; S c h n i e w i n d , 8 5 ; L o h m e y e r , 4 8 . K e r t e l g e , 170ff, understands the miracles as revealing Jesus' mission rather than directly Jesus' identity, a l t h o u g h it is n o t c l e a r if s u c h a firm d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a c t a n d i d e n t i t y c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d in p r a c t i c e .
170
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
It should b e noted that w h i l e it w o u l d b e reductionistic to regard all o f J e s u s ' miracles only as 'signs' or to deny that several motivations could b e at w o r k in the o n e m i r a c l e , the former w a y .
1 6 7
166
clearly aspects o f s o m e miracles function in
T h e following m a t e r i a l is c o n c e r n e d w i t h
those
categories o f healing miracles which, in the light o f their treatment in the O T , could b e interpreted as indicative of the N E . a) The Healing
of Israel
in Isaiah's
1 6 8
NE
A l t h o u g h the O T h a s n u m e r o u s references concerning Y a h w e h ' s desire to heal
w h e t h e r individually (e.g. Pss 6:3; 41:5) or corporately o f Israel
(e.g. J e r 3 3 : 6 ; Pss 147:3; 60:4), statements concerning specific healings, for example, o f the blind, deaf, d u m b , lame, leprous, and o f a shrivelled limb occur infrequently. narratives.
1 7 0
169
T h e latter two cases are found o n l y in historical
T h e others, aside from a brief reference in the general
t h a n k s g i v i n g h y m n w h e r e Y a h w e h is d e s c r i b e d as the o n e w h o o p e n s blind e y e s (Psalm 146:8), are entirely confined to the prophetic utterances in I s a i a h .
171
F r o m a literary perspective, the interest in the restoration o f
sight a n d h e a r i n g a p p e a r s to o r i g i n a t e in t h e pivotal I s a i a h 6 w h i c h together with chapters 28-29 uses metaphorical blind and deaf terminology in the context o f j u d g e m e n t .
172
Similarly, the root K S 1 occurs first in 6:10
with reference to the healing that Israel, through blinding and hardening, is to b e denied.
H o w e v e r , it is in the descriptions o f Israel's restorational
healing that this language is most frequently found.
1
6
6
1
6
7
1
6
8
1
6
9
1
7
0
S e e t h e h e l p f u l d i s c u s s i o n in v a n d e r L o o s , 2 4 0 - 5 4 . E . g . R i c h a r d s o n , 5 7 ; M e n o u d , 'signification', 1 8 5 ; K e r t e l g e , 170ff. F o r M e y e , ' H o r i z o n ' , t h e m i r a c l e s in 4 : 3 5 - 8 : 2 6 e c h o t h o s e in P s 1 0 7 . T h e p a r a l l e l s a r e c l e a r e n o u g h , b u t t h e i r g e n e r a l n a t u r e a n d t h e l a c k o f a g r e e m e n t in o r d e r , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a s d u e t o c o m m o n O T m o t i f s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e o f t h e E x o d u s a n d E x i l e , cf. K i s s a n e , Psalms; K i r k p a t r i c k , Psalms; S n a i t h , Five, 17ff; C r i i s e m a n n , Studien, 7 3 . T h e 6 TiupcTos: m e n t i o n e d in 1:31 is l i s t e d in L X X D t 2 8 : 2 2 a s o n e o f t h e c u r s e s for c o v e n a n t u n f a i t h f u l n e s s , b u t Y a h w e h ' s h e a l i n g o f it is n o t m e n t i o n e d , a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s i m p l i e d in 1 K g s 8 : 3 7 f a n d p a r . (1 K p 1
7
1
1
7
2
Respectively: Moses (Ex 4 ) , Miriam ( N u m 12) a n d N a a m a n (2 K g s 5 ) , a n d Jereboam 13:4).
J e r e m i a h 3 1 : 8 , p a r t o f a n o r a c l e c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e t u r n o f t h e e x i l e s , briefly m e n t i o n s the blind a n d l a m e as e x a m p l e s of the extent of Y a h w e h ' s c o m p a s s i o n s u c h that e v e n they a r e i n c l u d e d . T h e r e is n o m e n t i o n o f h e a l i n g . E z e k 3:26; 2 4 : 2 7 ; a n d 3 3 : 2 2 a r e c o n c e r n e d solely w i t h t h e p r o p h e t ' s o w n e x p e r i e n c e . G o p p e l t , Typos, 7 0 , n o t e s t h a t t h e h e a l i n g s o f t h e b l i n d , d e a f , a n d l a m e ( a l o n g w i t h t h e e x o r c i s m s ) h a v e ' n o p a r a l l e l in t h e O T ' a m o n g t h e ' m e n o f G o d ' b u t t h e y a r e ' e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r in t h e n e w a g e ' . C l e m e n t s ; S k i n n e r , Isaiah;
K a i s e r ; O s w a l t , Isaiah;
Beale, 'Retributive'.
Healing
of Israel
in Isaiah's
171
NE
In 29:18f the restoration o f sight, and hearing is o n e o f the characteristics of Israel's r e d e m p t i o n , w h i l e 32:1 speaks o f the righteous king in w h o s e reign the j u d g e m e n t s o f blinding and deafening will n o longer occur and the tongue o f the s t a m m e r e r will speak clearly (vv. 3f; cf. chapters 6 a n d 28f). It is in chapter 3 5 , h o w e v e r , that this restorational healing o f Israel is set most firmly in the context o f a N E .
1 7 3
H e r e 35:5 portrays this age as a
time w h e n the eyes o f the blind will (literally?) b e o p e n e d and the ears o f the deaf u n s t o p p e d .
174
This last example, which uses m e t a p h o r s from the
' w i s d o m ' genre (v. 8 ) , m a y suggest the interplay between the literal and the m e t a p h o r i c a l that c h a r a c t e r i s e s s o m e o f this l a n g u a g e in I s a i a h . terms of
1 7 5
In
Isaiah 30:26, in keeping with the reversal o f the j u d g e m e n t
in 6:10, describes the day of redemption as a time w h e n Y a h w e h will heal (KS"V)
the bruise (insfc) o f his people and bind up the fracture h e inflicted
(cf. 1 : 6 ) .
176
In the N E o f chapters 40-66, o n e o f the tasks o f the enigmatic
'servant' figure is to o p e n blind eyes and release the prisoners from their dungeon ( 4 2 : 7 ) ,
1 7 7
w h i l e in 42:16 Y a h w e h announces his intention to 'lead
the blind along a w a y they do not k n o w ' (see Chapter 8 ) . T h e general idea of h e a l i n g
(KQ"i)
is also explicitly p i c k e d up on t w o o c c a s i o n s in these
chapters: in 53:4f the suffering o f the 'servant' figure is linked with Israel's healing, a n d in 57:18f (bis) it is applied to Y a h w e h ' s restoration o f t h e nation. I n n o n - B i b l i c a l literature, a l t h o u g h t h e r e are g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e s to h e a l i n g or t h e b a n i s h i n g o f illness in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h e s c h a t o l o g i c a l salvation (e.g. Jub. 23:29f; T. Zeb. 9:8; 2 Bar. 73:2; 4 Ezra 13:50), there is little evidence to suggest that a messianic figure w a s specifically connected with the healing o f the blind, deaf, and lame during the N T period (but see n o w 4Q521).
1
7
3
1 7 8
W e m a y conclude that in the O T specific references to Y a h w e h ' s
E . g . T o r r e y , Second;
B r o w n l e e , Meaning, 1
7
4
1
7
5
1
7
6
1
7
7
1
7
8
S c o t t , ' R e l a t i o n ' ; O l m s t e a d , ' I s a i a h ' ; S m a r t , History,
247-55; Clements, 2 7 5 ; Wildberger, 3.1358; Steck,
292-94;
Bereitet.
C l e m e n t s , ' B e y o n d ' , 1 2 5 , cf. W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 3 6 2 . It is s o m e t i m e s difficult t o tell, h o w e v e r , w h e t h e r t h i s is m e t a p h o r i c a l w i s d o m l a n g u a g e or literal o r p e r h a p s e v e n b o t h , G e r l e m a n , ' B e r m e r k u n g e n ' ; v o n S o d e n - W a c h t e r , TWAT, 5 . 1 9 0 - 9 3 . O n t h e w i s d o m c o n n o t a t i o n s in I s a i a h , s e e C h a p t e r 8 . Cf. W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 2 0 5 . W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 5 1 f. P a u l , ' C u n e i f o r m ' , 1 8 2 , s u g g e s t s , o n t h e b a s i s o f r o y a l c u n e i f o r m i n s c r i p t i o n s , t h a t 4 2 : 7 a is ' a m e t a p h o r f o r t h e r e l e a s i n g o f t h e i m p r i s o n e d o r " d w e l l e r s in d a r k n e s s ' " . Str-B, 1.593ff ( A m o r a i c p e r i o d o r later); Vielhauer, ' E r w a g u n g e n ' , 1 5 9 ; M a r t y n , History, 84ff; K l a u s n e r , Messianic, 5 0 2 - 1 7 ; V o l z , judische, 1 7 3 - 8 6 ; G r u n d m a n n , et al, TDNT,
172
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
healing o f the blind, deaf, and lame, u n d e r s t o o d variously in literal and metaphorical terms, are primarily characteristics of Isaiah's N E , especially as described in Isaiah 35 (and Isaiah 61). b) Jesus and the Healing
of
179
Israel
Unfortunately M a r k offers n o equivalent to the Beelzebul controversy to help us u n d e r s t a n d the significance o f J e s u s ' healing miracles.
However,
both M a t t h e w and L u k e present an account o f J e s u s ' response to J o h n the Baptist's question, which response is near universally recognised as being c o u c h e d in terms o f Isaianic p r o p h e c i e s .
180
C o m m e n t a t o r s are likewise
largely agreed that the M a r k a n healings of the paralytic ( 2 : 1 - 1 2 ) ,
181
of the
deaf-mute (7:31-37, M a r k ' s iioyiXaXov, v. 3 2 , appears to c o m e directly from 9 . 5 0 5 - 2 7 ; S c h u r e r , 2 . 4 9 7 - 5 5 4 ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a h ' . Tg. Isa t a k e s b l i n d n e s s a s r e f e r r i n g t o b l i n d n e s s t o T o r a h (e.g. 3 5 : 5 ; 4 2 : 7 ; cf. 32:3f). H o w e v e r , 4 Q 5 2 1 s e e m s t o d e s c r i b e r e l e a s i n g c a p t i v e s , h e a l i n g t h e s i c k , r e s t o r i n g s i g h t , e t c . ( I s a 6 1 : l f f ) a s m e s s i a n i c e v e n t s (cf. M k 10:46ff), a l t h o u g h w h e t h e r u n d e r s t o o d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y o r w h e t h e r p e r f o r m e d b y Y a h w e h o r his M e s s i a h is difficult t o tell, s e e C o l l i n s , ' W o r k s ' ; E i s e n m a n a n d W i s e , Uncovered, 20ff. I m p o r t a n t l y , t h e l a t t e r d e m a r c a t i o n m a y w e l l b e i n a p p r o p r i a t e s i n c e in I s a i a h t h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a f i r m d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n Y a h w e h a n d h i s a g e n t , Isa 3 5 : 5 ; 4 2 : 7 , 1 6 . J o h n 7:31 (cf. 2 : 3 2 ; 6 : 1 4 ) m a y r e f l e c t a n e x p e c t e d r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e m i r a c l e s o f M o s e s , M e e k s , Prophet, 1 6 2 - 6 4 , o r o f o t h e r s , M a r t y n , History, 8 7 f . S o l o m o n , a n o t e d t h a u m a t u r g e in folklore, d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l f i g u r e , a l t h o u g h h e may b e in B a r t i m a e u s ' m i n d ( M k 10:46ff; s e e fn. 1 6 2 a b o v e ) . 1
7
9
F o r a c r i t i q u e o f W e e d e n ' s v i e w o f t h e n e g a t i v e f u n c t i o n o f m i r a c l e s in M a r k , Traditions, s e e K o l e n k o w , ' B e y o n d ' , a n d the e x c e l l e n t s u r v e y in D o w d , Prayer, 6 - 2 4 . 1 8 0 M 1 1 : 5 ( p a r L k 7 : 2 2 ; n o t e e s p e c i a l l y t h e link w i t h c u a y y c X i ' O , S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 2 1 8 f ) is w i d e l y u n d e r s t o o d a s r e f l e c t i n g I s a 2 6 : 1 9 ; 29:18f; 3 5 : 5 f ; 4 2 : 1 7 , 1 8 ; a n d 6 1 : 1 ; e.g. e s p e c . G r i m m , 1 2 4 - 3 0 ; b u t a l s o R i c h a r d s o n , 4 3 ; K l o s t e r m a n n , Matthausevangelium, 9 5 ; H e l d , ' I n t e r p r e t e r ' , 2 5 3 f f ; B r o w n , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 1 9 0 ; S c h l a t t e r , Matthaus; F i t z m y e r , Luke; M a r s h a l l , Luke; cf. I r e n a e u s , Adv., 4 . 5 5 : 2 ; J u s t i n , First Apology, 4 8 ; T e r t u l l i a n , Adv. Marc, 4.8. A c h t e m e i e r , 'Origin', 199n2, suggests that Justin's statement m a y indicate that 'such s u m m a r i e s (i.e. t h o s e f o u n d in t h e F a t h e r s ) m a y b e ... d e p e n d e n t o n t h e i d e a o f C h r i s t fulfilling t h e p r o p h e c y o f Is 35:6'. O n l y t h e c l e a n s i n g o f t h e l e p e r s is a b s e n t a n d w h i l e s o m e (e.g. M a r s h a l l ) s e e p e r h a p s a n E l i s h a t y p o l o g y ( 2 K g s 5 ) it m a y b e , a s in t h e c a s e o f M a r k ' s r e s t o r a t i o n o f s i g h t ( s e e C h a p t e r 8 ) , t h a t t h e r e is a s y m b o l i c r e f e r e n c e t o I s r a e l ' s ' l e p r o u s ' c o n d i t i o n (cf. I s a l:5ff; 5 3 : l f f ; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5 . 6 9 0 ; B o w m a n , 6 5 f ) . A l t h o u g h s p e c u l a t i o n , it is a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e h e a l i n g o f t h e flow o f b l o o d in M k 5:25ff ( m e n o r r h a g i a , D e r r e t t , ' T e c h n i q u e ' , 4 7 6 f f ) is s y m b o l i c o f I s r a e l ' s c l e a n s i n g , g i v e n t h a t in Isa 6 4 : 5 (cf. I s a 3 0 : 2 2 ) this i m a g e r y is e m p l o y e d t o s t r e s s t h e d i r e n a t u r e o f I s r a e l ' s d e f i l e m e n t b e f o r e Y a h w e h (cf. L e v 1 2 ( e s p e c . v. 7 ) w i t h M k 5 : 2 9 , G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 9 7 ; P e s c h , 1 . 3 0 1 ; b u t cf. v a n d e r L o o s , 5 0 9 f ) ; L e v 1 5 : 2 5 - 3 3 ; H a g 2 : 1 1 - 1 4 ; W h y b r a y ; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, 120. T h a t Jesus rebukes the fever o f P e t e r ' s m o t h e r - i n - l a w s u g g e s t s t h a t it m a y h a v e b e e n t h e w o r k o f a d e m o n , cf. v a n d e r L o o s , 5 5 2 , w h o m e n t i o n s t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y P a l e s t i n i a n belief in t h e d e m o n I m m M a l d a m w h o c a u s e d fever. t
1 8 1
P e s c h , 1 . 1 5 8 , o b s e r v e s t h a t M a r k ' s napaXuTiKos" ( n o t in L X X ) differs f r o m t h e L X X ' s X ^ A o ? (Isa 3 5 : 6 ) . H o w e v e r , TTapaXuTiKos- is n o t listed in L S J M u n t i l N T a n d l a t e r a n d , t h e r e f o r e , o n l y a p p e a r s t o h a v e c o m e i n t o c o m m o n u s e in t h e N T p e r i o d , cf. B A G D , a s a s y n o n y m for x^Aos, cf. L N , 1.273.
Jesus
L X X Isa 3 5 : 6 ,
1 8 2
and the Healing
of
173
Israel
but cf. 29:18f), and o f the blind (8:22-26; cf. 10:46-52 w h i c h
lies outside o f the first section and along with 8:22ff serves a dual function, see C h a p t e r 8) primarily reflect Isaiah 35:5f (cf. 29:18; 3 2 : 3 f ) .
1 8 3
It hardly
needs to b e a d d e d that this is exactly what might b e expected if M a r k , in keeping with the orientation of his introductory sentence and prologue, is presenting J e s u s as the o n e w h o inaugurates the Isaianic N E .
1 8 4
O t h e r considerations offer further support for an I N E hermeneutic.
A
parallel has b e e n suggested in M a r k 2:1-12 b e t w e e n J e s u s ' offer to forgive the p a r a l y t i c ' s sins a n d the s c r i b e s ' indignant r e s p o n s e , and Y a h w e h ' s declaration—also in the midst o f a confrontation—to Israel in Isaiah 43:25 (cf. 4 0 : 1 - 3 ; 4 4 : 2 2 ) .
1 8 5
O n e o f the major t h e m e s in the I s a i a h p a s s a g e
concerns a theology of past and future in which Jacob-Israel's r e m e m b e r i n g and Y a h w e h ' s r e m e m b e r i n g are treated in p a r a l l e l .
186
Jacob-Israel m a k e s
accusation that Y a h w e h has b e e n unfaithful which h e refutes b y pointing to their corrupt w o r s h i p (vv. 23f). Echoing the language o f the prologue's programmatic
announcement
o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g (40:2), o n e o f the
central concerns o f this polemical confrontation (43:22-28) lies in the call to forget the past and to look instead to the future (43:18) just as Y a h w e h h i m s e l f is d o i n g in forgiving J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s transgressions and acting to effect their deliverance (43:25; cf. 4 4 : 2 2 ) .
1 8 7
F r o m this perspective, if M a r k
is presenting J e s u s as the o n e w h o inaugurates the I N E then the offer o f forgiveness is strikingly consistent with Y a h w e h ' s p a r d o n i n g o f sin as a 'sign' of the I N E (cf. E x 3 4 : 6 f )
1
8
2
1
8
3
1
8
4
1
8
5
1 8 8
Furthermore, as B . Blackburn notes, this
H o s k y n s , ' J e s u s ' , 72ff. H a w k i n ' s s u g g e s t i o n , ' S y m b o l i s m ' , 1 0 5 , t h a t I s a 6 : 6 - 9 is in view a p p e a r s unlikely, b u t at least recognises the origins of m u c h of the ' b l i n d / d e a f l a n g u a g e in I s a i a h ; s e e W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' . E s p e c . K e e , Community, 1 2 5 f , w h o s e e s s t r o n g I s a i a n i c links, H o s k y n s - D a v e y , 167ff; L o h m e y e r , 1 5 1 ; R i c h a r d s o n , 8 1 - 8 9 ; F u l l e r , Interpreting, 60f; H a w k i n , 'Symbolism', 102f; E v a n s , Beginning, 2 9 ; N i n e h a m ; G o u l d e r , Calender, 2 4 6 ; B a r r e t t , Spirit, 70ff; A c h t e m e i e r , ' C a t e n a e ' , 2 8 9 ; H o o k e r , Message, 42ff; L a n e ; G n i l k a ; P e s c h ; B r o a d h e a d , Teaching, 1 3 3 . S a n d e r s , Jesus, 161ff, a r g u e s a g a i n s t I s a 3 5 : 5 f a s b a c k g r o u n d o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t healings of the blind, d u m b , a n d l a m e w e r e c o m m o n , a n d that Jesus also p e r f o r m e d other m i r a c l e s w h i c h a r e n o t m e n t i o n e d in I s a 3 5 . T h i s s e e m s t o m e t o fail t o g i v e full w e i g h t t o the fulfilment a s p e c t o f J o h n t h e B a p t i s t ' s q u e s t i o n o f J e s u s , b u t m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y i g n o r e s , a t least in M a r k ' s c a s e , t h e r o l e o f t h e p r o l o g u e in l i t e r a r y a n t i q u i t y . E . g . G r i m m , 1 3 5 - 3 7 ; cf. G n i l k a , 1 . 1 0 0 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 8 7 ; m a r g i n N A S c h n e c k , 70ff. 186 M e l u g i n , Formation, 116f. 1
8
7
1
8
8
2 6
.
See n o w also
Ibid; W e s t e r m a n n , 1 3 3 ; S c h o o r s , Saviour, 190ff. G r i m m , 1 3 5 - 3 7 ; cf. L a n e ; P e s c h ; E r n s t ; G n i l k a ; G u e l i c h ; K l a u c k , ' S u n d e n v e r g e b u n g ' , 236f. O n Israel's critical r e s p o n s e t o t h e m e s s a g e of I s a 4 0 - 5 5 , s e e W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' .
174
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and Israel's
NE
Healer
text ' c o n s t i t u t e s a v e r y significant a s s i m i l a t i o n o f J e s u s to G o d ' ;
1 8 9
an
' a s s i m i l a t i o n ' that w o u l d h a r d l y b e o u t o f p l a c e g i v e n that M a r k has already intimated earlier on that J e s u s is s o m e h o w to b e identified with the personal presence of Y a h w e h (l:2f). A unique feature o f this healing, however, is that it is the only occasion in M a r k w h e n J e s u s offers f o r g i v e n e s s o f sins.
F u r t h e r m o r e as C h r i s
Marshall n o t e s , the link b e t w e e n forgiveness a n d h e a l i n g is not m e r e l y incidental but
demonstrates
the ' i n s e p a r a b l e
c o n n e c t i o n that
b e t w e e n h e a l i n g a n d forgiveness w i t h i n the activity o f J e s u s ' .
exists 1 9 0
The
question is, h o w e v e r , w h y is it m e n t i o n e d h e r e and n o w h e r e else, and what, if any, is the significance o f the individual being a paralytic? It is n o t e w o r t h y that this constitutes the first occurrence o f the
TTICJTIC;
-
TTiaTcua) w o r d g r o u p s i n c e J e s u s ' p r o g r a m m a t i c a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the coming o f the k i n g d o m ' | i € T a v o € i T € Kal m a T c u a e ' (l:14f). In addition, 2 : 1 12 is the first in M a r k ' s series o f controversy stories w h i c h will eventually conclude with the climactic B e e l z e b u l confrontation.
Interestingly, these
two accounts are the only o n e s involving c h a r g e s o f b l a s p h e m y prior to J e s u s ' trial ( w h e r e the final c h a r g e o f b l a s p h e m y a p p e a r s ) , b o t h c o n c e r n matters o f J e s u s ' authority, and both involve scribes (although the second group c o m e s from J e r u s a l e m ) .
In 2:1-12, the y p a j i j i a T € t c ; reject J e s u s '
statements as b l a s p h e m o u s , w h i l e in the Beelzebul incident the sandal is on the other foot: it is the s c r i b e s ' assessment o f his e x o r c i s m s that J e s u s r e g a r d s as b l a s p h e m o u s .
T h i s p e r i c o p e m a y , t h e r e f o r e , b e s e e n as
s o m e w h a t pivotal. But w h y the link b e t w e e n sins and the paralytic? provide a clue.
Isaiah 33:23f m a y
T h e restoration o f I s r a e l ' s fortunes u n d e r Y a h w e h as
rightful k i n g is d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s o f the forgiveness o f sins w h i c h is specifically linked with the a b s e n c e o f s i c k n e s s (cf. P s 103:3).
This new
w h o l e n e s s is s u c h that e v e n the l a m e w o u l d participate in the spoils of Y a h w e h ' s victory (Isa 33:23).
If this b a c k g r o u n d is in m i n d , then J e s u s '
granting o f forgiveness (see Isa 33:24; 43:25 cf. 4 0 : 2 ; 44:22f) in association with the healing o f the lame m a n (33:23; cf. 35:6) m a y b e intended to testify to the breaking-in o f Y a h w e h ' s reign expressed in I N E terms (33:22; 52:7; cf. M a r k 1:15, Tg. Isa 40:9). 1 8 9
1
9
0
Theios,
139.
M a r s h a l l , Faith,
89.
F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h there is e v i d e n c e o f a
Jesus
and the Healing
of
175
Israel
general expectation o f an eschatological removal o f sin and purification o f the l a n d a n d t h e p e o p l e ,
1 9 1
there are n o clear g r o u n d s to s u g g e s t that
forgiveness o f sin is p r o n o u n c e d b y any other than Y a h w e h . forgives sins further
1 9 2
That J e s u s
reinforces t h e i d e a — a r t i c u l a t e d b y the
watching
scribes, implied b y M a r k 1:2-3, and reinforced b y the storm-stillings—that he is, in s o m e w a y , to b e associated with the p e r s o n a l manifestation o f Y a h w e h (cf. E x 2 3 : 2 1 ) .
1 9 3
In the case o f the d e a f m u t e (7:31-37), in spite o f several J e w i s h features in the narrative—Jesus a d d r e s s e s h i m in A r a m a i c (v. 3 4 ) , r e s p o n s e recalls L X X G e n e s i s 1 : 3 1 ,
1 9 5
1 9 4
the c r o w d ' s
and M a r k ' s jioyiXctXov (v. 3 2 , s e e
a b o v e ) — t h e r e c i p i e n t is g e n e r a l l y s e e n , at least in t e r m s o f M a r k ' s retelling, as a Gentile and this again purely o n the basis o f the geographical setting.
196
T h e story o c c u r s after J e s u s ' last confrontation with those from
J e r u s a l e m before h e reaches the capital (7:1-23). H e then m o v e s into w h a t are c u s t o m a r i l y u n d e r s t o o d as G e n t i l e regions, finally arriving at the S e a of Galilee. H e r e h e effects a healing of a kind promised in the I N E (i.e. Isa 35:5f), but o n this occasion receives a positive response (7:37; cf. 6:56 and 7:lff; a n d Isa 63:7?).
O n c e again, as with the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c , it is
difficult to tell w h e t h e r M a r k is w o r k i n g with a clear-cut G e n t i l e versus J e w motif s u c h that J e s u s ' healing o f a Gentile indicates that the future o f Christian m i s s i o n lies in the G e n t i l e world o f the D i a s p o r a , or in v i e w o f the clearly J e w i s h features, is depicting a Diaspora J e w . T h e p r o b l e m with the former v i e w is J e s u s ' professed reluctance to extend his mission to the Gentiles; there is n o t h i n g in the text that indicates that M a r k ' s J e s u s has c h a n g e d his m i n d .
1 9 7
O n the other hand, the account m a y b e analogous to
that o f the G e r a s e n e demoniac, in that Jesus effects the signs of the I N E out a m o n g the 'exiles' of Israel. C o m p a r e d to the clear Isaianic associations o f the healings o f the lame, the de'af m u t e , and the blind, interpreting J e s u s ' raising o f the dead girl is 1
9
1
1
9
2
E . g . H Q M e l c h 2:6ff; 1 Enoch Ezra 6:27f; 2 Bar. 7 3 : 4 ; Jub. 4 : 2 6 .
1 0 : 2 0 - 2 2 ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 ; T. Levi 1 8 : 9 ; Tg. Isa 5 3 : 4 , 6 ; cf. 4
L a n e , 9 5 ; G n i l k a , 1 . 1 0 0 ; H o f i u s , ' V e r g e g u n g s z u s p r u c h ' ; M a i s c h , Heilung, 89f; G u n d r y , 1 1 3 , 1 1 7 - 2 3 ; pace V e r m e s , Jesus, 67ii. K o c h ' s a t t e m p t , ' M e s s i a s ' , t o s e e e v i d e n c e o f m e s s i a n i c f o r g i v e n e s s in Tg. Isa 5 3 is n o t c o n v i n c i n g , K l a u c k , ' S u n d e n v e r g e b u n g ' , 238f. 1
9
3
1
9
4
1
9
5
1
9
7
B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 137ff. Martin, 211. Richardson, 5 4 n , w h o sees a n allusion to Christ's w o r k as a n e w creation. 1 9 6 M a r t i n , Evangelist, 2 1 1 . S e e a l s o J e r e m i a s , Promise, 3 3 .
176
Jesus
rather m o r e c o m p l e x .
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
T h e resuscitation of the S h u n a m m i t e ' s son and the
revival o f the m a n w h o s e b o d y t o u c h e d Elisha's b o n e s are the sole O T narrative a c c o u n t s ,
1 9 8
w h i l e only Daniel 12:1-2 is generally accepted
m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h i p as an u n a m b i g u o u s r e f e r e n c e eschatological event. Elijah.
1 9 9
to a n y
future
by or
A n u m b e r of scholars h a v e noted the parallels with
O t h e r s h a v e seen a possible allusion to Isaiah 29:18 in J e s u s '
r e s p o n s e to the
Baptist's
messengers
2 0 0
w h i c h s u g g e s t s that the
one
resuscitation in M a r k could b e understood, along with the other miracles listed there, as integral to the Isaianic prophecies of d e l i v e r a n c e .
201
It may
b e the c a s e that there is an integration of several traditions c o n c e r n i n g Israel's e s c h a t o l o g i c a l 65:19f),
2 0 2
h o p e (cf. the p r o m i s e c o n c e r n i n g infants in Isa
b u t the e v i d e n c e is far from c o n c l u s i v e and the o r i g i n and
nature o f any d e e p e r significance m u s t remain u n c e r t a i n .
1
9
8
1
9
9
2
0
0
2
0
1
2
0
2
203
1 K g s 17:17ff; 2 K g s 4:18ff; 13:20f.
E . g . G o p p e l t , Typos, 7 0 f ; L i n d a r s , 'Elijah'. F n . 1 8 0 . J e r e m i a s , Theology, 1 0 4 , c i t e s a t a n n a i t i c list w h e r e b e i n g l a m e , b l i n d , a l e p e r , o r c h i l d l e s s is c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g a s g o o d a s d e a d . O n t h e d i v e r s e J e w i s h v i e w s o f a g e n e r a l r e s u r r e c t i o n , S c h i i r e r , 2.539ff. A l o n g t h e lines s u g g e s t e d b y H e i s i n g , ' E x e g e s e ' . 2 0 3 why d o e s M a r k , o r w h o e v e r r e d a c t e d t h e " m i r a c l e c a t e n a e " ( s e e F o w l e r , Loaves, 2 4 - 3 1 , for a c r i t i q u e o f A c h t e m e i e r ) , f o l l o w u p t h e s t o r m - s t i l l i n g a n d d e l i v e r a n c e o f t h e d e m o n i a c w i t h the intercalated a c c o u n t s of the raising of the d e a d girl a n d the healing of t h e f l o w o f b l o o d ( o n t h e u n i t y o f 4:1 - 5 : 4 3 , T o l b e r t , Sowing, 1 4 8 f ) ? It h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p r o p o s e d that M k 4:35 - 5:20 could be a reflection on Isa 63:7 - 65:7 w h e r e Jesus, a l r e a d y identified w i t h Y a h w e h ' s intervention b y the p r o l o g u e ' s allusion to the s a m e p a s s a g e ( 6 3 : 1 9 ; M k 1:10), is p r e s e n t e d a s t h e D i v i n e - W a r r i o r . In a d d i t i o n , in fn. 1 8 0 I s u g g e s t e d t h a t the healing of the flow of blood m i g h t be symbolic o r 'parabolic' of Israel's cleansing— M a r k a p p e a r s t o u s e m i r a c l e s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y I s a i a n i c o n e s ) in t h i s w a y , s e e fn. 1 3 2 . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , this u n u s u a l i m a g e r y is f o u n d in I s a i a h 6 3 : 7 - 6 4 : 1 1 M T w h e r e it g r a p h i c a l l y describes the hopelessness of Israel's a t t e m p t s at righteousness (64:5). M o r e striking, h o w e v e r , is Y a h w e h ' s r e p l y ( I s a 6 5 : 1 - 2 5 ) w h i c h s p e a k s o f t h e l o n g e d - f o r , n e w - c r e a t i o n a l r e s t o r a t i o n a s a t i m e w h e n w e e p i n g will c e a s e , ' t h e i n f a n t w i l l n o t d i e ' , a n d all w i l l l i v e o u t their a l l o t t e d d a y s ( 6 5 : 1 9 f ; cf. Jub. 2 3 : 2 7 - 3 0 ) . In M a r k , J e s u s q u e r i e s t h e n e e d for w e e p i n g (5:38f) a n d r e v e r s e s t h e u n t i m e l y d e a t h o f a y o u n g girl b y r e s t o r i n g h e r t o life (5:41f), a n d in e a c h o f t h e f o u r m i r a c l e s t h e r e s p o n s e is o n e o f fear o r a w e ( 4 : 4 1 ; 5 : 1 5 , 3 3 , 4 2 ; cf. I s a 6 4 : 2 M T ) . C o u l d it b e t h a t t h i s w h o l e s e c t i o n , 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 4 3 , is r e d a c t e d a r o u n d t h e final l a m e n t o f t h e p e o p l e in t h e b o o k o f I s a i a h , a s t h e y a w a i t t h e N E , a n d Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e ? If s o , t h e n in 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 2 0 J e s u s is p r e s e n t e d a s t h e D i v i n e - W a r r i o r w h o c o m m a n d s t h e s e a a n d d e l i v e r s the o p p r e s s e d , e v e n t h o s e w h o d w e l l a m o n g t h e t o m b s a n d w h o d o n o t s e e k h i m , w h i l e in 5 : 2 1 4 3 h e s y m b o l i c a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t h e is t h e o n e w h o h e a l s I s r a e l o f h e r u n c l e a n n e s s a n d , b y r e s t o r i n g t h e c h i l d t o life, s i g n a l s t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e p r o m i s e s o f Y a h w e h ' s n e w c r e a t i o n a l r e s t o r a t i o n o f I s r a e l . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e s e m i r a c l e s b e a r all t h e h a l l m a r k s o f i n d i c a t i n g t h a t , in r e s p o n s e t o t h e l a m e n t a n d p r o m i s e w h i c h c o n c l u d e s t h e b o o k o f I s a i a h , Y a h w e h h a s i n d e e d 'split t h e h e a v e n s ' ( M k 1:10; I s a 6 3 : 1 9 ) , s e n t his H o l y Spirit a m o n g his p e o p l e ( M k 1:10; 3 : 2 2 - 3 0 ; cf. Isa 6 3 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) , a n d c o m e d o w n in J e s u s , a s t h e m i g h t y W a r r i o r (Mk 3:27), to i n a u g u r a t e the N E .
Provision
c)
for
Israel
in Isaiah's
177
NE
Summary
J e s u s ' healings o f the blind, d e a f / d u m b , and lame (the resuscitation m a y reflect Isa 6 5 : 2 0 ) d i s p l a y s u b s t a n t i a l a n d u n i q u e p a r a l l e l s w i t h t h o s e prophesied in the b o o k o f Isaiah as being characteristic o f the I N E . T h i s coheres with the overall framework suggested b y his opening sentence and prologue.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , M a r k ' s presentation of J e s u s ' h e a l i n g ministry
can be understood time',
2 0 4
as e v i d e n c e , not o f s o m e g e n e r a l i s e d ' m e s s i a n i c
b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y as ' i c o n i c ' i n d i c a t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
inauguration o f the Isaianic N E .
the
2 0 5
V. Jesus and the Isaianic NE Provision for Israel Finally, there is the matter of the miracles of provision in 6:34-44 and 8:110. Although scholars regularly note parallels with the E x o d u s event (see b e l o w ) , it is hardly surprising, given the paradigmatic nature o f Israel's founding m o m e n t , that e c h o e s o f the past should also b e integral to h e r prophetic h o p e o f d e l i v e r a n c e and indeed the I N E c o n t a i n s n u m e r o u s p r o m i s e s c o n c e r n i n g Y a h w e h ' s future p r o v i s i o n for his p e o p l e as h e c o m e s 'like a s h e p h e r d ' gently leading and providing for his flock. a) The Provision
for Israel
in Isaiah's
NE
D r a w i n g p e r h a p s on the traditions o f provision in the first E x o d u s , the p r o p h e t c o n c l u d e s h i s o p e n i n g d e c l a r a t i o n o f s a l v a t i o n (40:1-11) b y likening Y a h w e h to a shepherd w h o tends his sheep, gathers his lambs in his arms, and gently leads the nursing e w e s h o m e to Zion (40:11; cf. 63:11; Ex
15:13; Pss 77:21; 78:52f).
character,
206
Given the prologue's
programmatic
it is not surprising that similar imagery reappears throughout
subsequent chapters.
T h e n e w l y released and returning prisoners, w h o s e
b r e a d Y a h w e h p r o m i s e d w o u l d not b e lacking (51:14), are described as pasturing on the heights (49:9) as their compassionate G o d ( D m , 49:10, 13;
2
0
4
2
0
5
2
0
6
E . g . R i c h a r d s o n , 4 3 , w h o s e e s h e r e m e s s i a n i c m i r a c l e s b u t 'of I s a i a n i c p r e d i c t i o n ' . E . g . F u l l e r , Mission, 3 6 . A l o n g t h e lines o f e.g. K a l l a s , Significance; (although he e m p h a s i s e s t h e D a n i e l l i c i n f l u e n c e ) , a n d K e r t e l g e , 2 0 1 , if M a r k is o p e r a t i n g w i t h a I N E h e r m e n e u t i c a n d a s this is a m a t t e r o f t h e r e i g n o f Y a h w e h , (cf. C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 1 , fn. 1 5 1 ) , it is difficult t o s e e h o w t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r m i r a c l e s c o u l d n o t b e s i g n s o f t h e i n b r e a k i n g K i n g d o m , pace K o c h , Bedeutung, 173ff; B e s t , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 5 3 9 . I n t h e l a t t e r ' s c a s e it is n o t c l e a r h o w a p a s t o r a l p u r p o s e e x c l u d e s e.g. a c o n c e r n for C h r i s t o l o g y o r e s c h a t o l o g y . See C h a p t e r 3 , p. 7 8 .
178
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
cf. 40:17; 54:7, 10) provides food for the h u n g r y and water for the thirsty (49:10f; 48:20f; cf. 35:7; E x 17:2-7; a n d N u m
20:8), and
transforms the wilderness (35:6f; 43:19f; 41:17-20 ( ? ) ; b) INE Feedings
in
2 0 7
miraculously
49:9ff).
208
Mark
M a n y h a v e observed M o s e s traditions in the feeding of the 5000 ( M k 6:3444), primarily b e c a u s e o f the miraculous provision (cf. N e h 9:15; Pss 78:1732; 105:40), the location in the desert (cpnuoc;
TO'TTOC;,
VV.
3 1 , 3 2 , 35 cf. L X X Ex
16:1, 3, 10 etc.), t h e references to the s h e e p w i t h o u t a s h e p h e r d 27:16ff)/
209
(Nu
the division into h u n d r e d s and fifties (Ex 18:21), and p e r h a p s in
the question about provision (cf. N u l l : 2 1 f ; Ps 7 8 : 1 9 f )
2 1 0
Derrett, followed
b y S c h n e c k , sees an allusion to the ' w i s d o m ' invitation o f Isaiah 5 5 : l f f .
2 1 1
But the parallels are superficial, being based on c o m m o n terminology—for instance, Isaiah contains a s u m m o n s to ' b u y b r e a d without m o n e y ' , the disciples in M a r k h a v e n o m o n e y to b u y bread—without any substantive c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the r e s p e c t i v e c o n c e r n s o f e a c h p a s s a g e .
2 1 2
Lane
suggests Isaiah 25:6-9, reading it in terms of a messianic feast. But to equate the rather spartan loaves and fish with 'aged w i n e ... the choicest o f meats a n d the s u p e r i o r w i n e s ' s e e m s s o m e w h a t g e n e r o u s .
2 1 3
O t h e r s s e e the
influence o f the Elisha feeding story (2 Kgs 4:42ff; cf. 1 Kgs 17:8-16; 2 K g s 4:17 ) 2 1 4 w h e r e there is a similar c o m m a n d to provide food (1 K g s 4:42b; M k 6:37a) as well as a super-abundant provision (1 K g s 4:43b, 4 4 b ; M k 6:42-3). Although a combination o f both could b e in view, particularly if the Elisha
2
0
7
2
0
8
2
0
9
2
1
0
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
3
2
1
4
T h e i m a g e r y in 4 1 : 1 8 (cf 4 3 : 2 0 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t 4 1 : 1 7 - 2 0 c o u l d p e r t a i n t o t h e N E . A n d e r s o n , T y p o l o g y ' ; cf. S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 2 7 2 . E.g. M a u s e r , 5 0 n l , 9 2 , 104f, 1 3 5 ; H o o k e r , 'Mark', 2 2 6 . O n the i m a g e r y of Y a h w e h a n d M e s s i a h a s s h e p h e r d , J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 6 . 4 8 8 - 8 9 . E.g. R i c h a r d s o n , 94-99; Ziener, 'Brotwunder'; H o b b s , 'Gospel', 40-42; M c C a s l a n d , 'Signs'; F r i e d r i c h , ' E r z a h l u n g e n ' , 18ff; G o p p e l t , Typos, 7 1 f ; v a n d e r L o o s , 6 3 1 - 3 7 ; K e r t e l g e , 133f; B o w m a n ; N i n e h a m ; Cranfield; A c h t e m e i e r , 'Origin', 202f; H u r t a d o ; Guelich. See, h o w e v e r , v a n I e r s e l ' s o b j e c t i o n s , ' S p e i s u n g ' , 1 8 8 , w h o s u g g e s t s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f P s 2 3 ; cf. H e i s i n e , ' E x e g e s e ' ; P e s c h . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h y P s 2 3 c o u l d n o t a l s o b e i n c l u d e d . R e s p e c t i v e l y , Making, 1 . 1 2 2 , a n d Isaiah, 1 5 3 . B e g r i c h , Studien, 59-61; Melugin, Formation, 2 5 ; a n d C l i f f o r d , Persuading, 190ff; s e e h e r e a n i m i t a t i o n o f W i s d o m G e n r e ; cf. t h e s u m m o n s t o life: P r o v 3 : 1 3 - 1 8 ; 4 : 2 2 ; 8 : 3 5 ; 9:6ff; Sir 4 : 1 2 ; t o e a t a n d d r i n k : P r o v . 9 : 2 , 5 ; Sir 1:17; 15:3; 2 4 : 1 9 , 2 1 . Schneck, 1 5 5 , himself admits that the major parallel between the two—'eating b r e a d ' — o c c u r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e O T a n d t h e n t u r n s t o 2 K g s 4:42ff. Mark, 2 3 2 . E.g. B o w m a n ; Cranfield; Nineham; LaVerdiere, 'Feed'; Pesch; Ernst; Guelich; Schneck, 155.
179
Conclusion
stories themselves were influenced
by the Exodus n a r r a t i v e ,
2 1 5
the
n u m b e r of E x o d u s parallels suggests that it is predominant. H o w e v e r , the importance o f Isaianic imagery for M a r k thus far, and the fact that there is little correlation between the miracles o f E x o d u s 13-17 and those in the first section o f M a r k ,
2 1 6
suggests the possibility o f reading the
feeding a c c o u n t s in the light o f Y a h w e h ' s provision for his p e o p l e in the I N E . A s noted above, the s h e e p / s h e p h e r d imagery is highly developed in the Isaianic N E (cf. also 'scattered s h e e p ' in E z e k 34:5, 26-29) as is the motif of Y a h w e h ' s c o m p a s s i o n (cf. M k 6:34; 8:2) and his provision for his people. Some have proposed
that the ' g r e e n g r a s s ' is i n d i c a t i v e o f the
new
c r e a t i o n a l r e s t o r a t i o n o f the w i l d e r n e s s (Isa 3 5 : l f , 6f; 4 3 : 2 0 ; cf. 4 1 : 1 9 ) although this is far from c e r t a i n .
2 1 7
Further, the Q u m r a n
community,
w h i c h defined itself in t e r m s o f Isaiah 4 0 : 3 , used similar g r o u p i n g s o f fifties and h u n d r e d s w h e n describing the gathering o f true Israel in t h e desert in the last days (e.g. C D 13:1; 1QS 2:21-22; 1 Q M 4:1-5; cf. 4 Q 5 2 1 1 ii 13b).
T a k e n together, these factors suggest that the feeding o f the 5 0 0 0
should be seen in terms o f Y a h w e h ' s N E provision for his p e o p l e .
2 1 8
Since
M a r k ' s presentation o f the second feeding s e e m s deliberately to parallel the first, it is highly likely that it should b e similarly u n d e r s t o o d .
219
VI. Conclusion A t the outset o f this C h a p t e r w e p o s e d the question as to w h e t h e r there w a s a n y e v i d e n c e in this first s e c t i o n that M a r k , in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e apparent thrust o f his o p e n i n g sentence, prologue, a n d literary structure,
2
1
5
2
1
6
2
1
7
2
1
8
2
1
9
H e i s i n g , ' E x e g e s e ' ; Botschaft, 3 8 ; A c h t e m e i e r , ' O r i g i n ' , 2 0 4 ; cf. e.g. M a s u d a , 'Bread'; Cranfield; B o w m a n ; N i n e h a m . M a u s e r , 1 3 6 , n o t i n g E z e k 34:26ff; A c h t e m e i e r , ' O r i g i n ' , 2 0 3 n 3 2 ; M a r c u s , 2 4 , c i t e s I s a 51:3. F r i e d r i c h , ' E r z a h l u n g e n ' , 18ff; M a u s e r , 1 3 6 f ; b u t cf. e.g. P e s c h , 1 . 3 5 0 n l l , w h o s e e s instead Ps 23:2. T h i s is n o t t o e x c l u d e a n y p o s s i b i l i t y o f a E u c h a r i s t i c e l e m e n t , a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f w h i c h lies o u t s i d e t h e i m m e d i a t e i n t e r e s t s o f this s e c t i o n . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s , i n c l u d i n g S c h w e i t z e r ' s ' a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a n q u e t ' . Mystery, 1 8 6 7 4 ; s e e B o u c h e r , 70ff; Q u e s n e l l , 5 - 2 8 . O n w h y the feedings precede Mark's ' W a y ' section—one m i g h t h a v e expected t h e m w i t h i n i t — a n d w h y o n e e x o r c i s m a n d o n e h e a l i n g o f t h e b l i n d o c c u r o u t s i d e o f M a r k ' s first s e c t i o n , s e e t h e e x c u r s u s , p p . 292ff, b e l o w .
180
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and
Israel's
NE
Healer
w a s operating with s o m e expression o f a consistent I N E hermeneutic.
In
the light o f the foregoing w e can n o w m a k e the following observations. M a r k ' s first s e c t i o n s e e m s to s e r v e s e v e r a l p u r p o s e s .
F i r s t , the
presentation o f J e s u s ' deliverance o f his p e o p l e from the o p p r e s s i o n of d e m o n s a n d his healing o f the blind, deaf, and lame is consistent with the p r o l o g u e ' s a p p a r e n t designation o f J e s u s as the one w h o inaugurates the Isaianic N E .
M a r k ' s recounting o f these I N E ' i c o n s ' testifies to the in-
b r e a k i n g reign o f G o d .
A t the s a m e time, the j u x t a p o s e d ' i c o n o g r a p h i c '
accounts o f J e s u s ' storm-stilling and the d r o w n i n g o f the d e m o n i c legion e c h o t h e I s a i a n i c l i n k a g e o f the d e s t r u c t i o n o f P h a r a o h and Y a h w e h ' s victory in the Chaoskampf.
creator
G i v e n that in Isaiah this linkage is
intimately c o n n e c t e d w i t h the h o p e o f a N E , M a r k ' s a c c o u n t s e r v e s to u n d e r l i n e the I N E motif.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y , the
storm-stilling, and water-walking all s e e m to suggest that M a r k ' s J e s u s is very closely identified with the personal presence of Y a h w e h . S e c o n d , related to the Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r imagery is the question of the identity o f the forces w h o h o l d Y a h w e h ' s p e o p l e c a p t i v e .
The
account o f the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c in particular, but also the B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y , a n d M a r k ' s c o n s i d e r a b l e interest in d e m o n s and
unclean
spirits in general, strongly suggest that for h i m the ultimate oppressors are not the R o m a n s per se, b u t rather the d e m o n s .
2 2 0
Third, just as a large
n u m b e r o f J e s u s ' healing miracles cohere with the expectations of the I N E , his forgiveness o f sins—particularly given its connection with the healing of the l a m e — e c h o e s Y a h w e h ' s self-declaration as the o n e ' w h o blots out your transgressions' which accompanies the a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the I N E (Isa 43:25). Fourth, at the climax o f Isaiah 40-55's prologue, Y a h w e h is not only presented as a warrior c o m e to deliver his people, but as a shepherd w h o would provide for his people-flock. M a r k ' s presentation o f J e s u s ' feeding miracles also coheres with this motif. C o n s e q u e n t l y , it appears that M a r k ' s presentation o f J e s u s is aimed at e m p h a s i s i n g s e v e r a l points o f contact b e t w e e n J e s u s ' ministry a n d the 2 2 0 W r e d e , Messianic, 4 5 , dismissed outright a n y idea of a tension b e t w e e n a political and spiritual c o n c e p t of messiahship. N e v e r t h e l e s s , allowing for the a n a c h r o n i s m i n h e r e n t i n c o n t r a s t i n g t h e s e t e r m s s o s t a r k l y , M a r k ' s G o s p e l s u g g e s t s t h a t s o m e shift in e m p h a s i s a l o n g t h e s e lines m a y n o t b e s o i m p r o b a b l e in t h a t M a r k ' s J e s u s m a y w e l l b e w i s h i n g t o m a k e t h e p o i n t t h a t I s r a e l ' s p r o b l e m is n o t s o m u c h t h e e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s i m p o s e d b y the R o m a n s as m u c h as the idolatrous state of their 'hearts'; see C h a p t e r 7 on Isa 6 in M k 4 .
181
Conclusion
events of the I N E : A ) J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s and storm-stillings recall the I N E presentation, and linkage, o f Y a h w e h as Creator and Y a h w e h as delivering W a r r i o r , B ) m a n y o f J e s u s ' h e a l i n g s r e s e m b l e those associated with the INE, C ) J e s u s ' forgiveness o f sins echoes Y a h w e h ' s self-designatory offer in the I N E , and D ) J e s u s ' feeding o f the crowds, w h o are like sheep without a shepherd, a n s w e r s to the flip-side o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , n a m e l y that o f Y a h w e h as tender s h e p h e r d o f his p e o p l e .
2 2 1
G i v e n an o v e r a r c h i n g I N E
perspective, it should b e noted, however, that the miracles o f J e s u s are not only e v i d e n c e pointing to Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g as a m i g h t y W a r r i o r w a g i n g w a r against his p e o p l e ' s oppressors but are also genuine expressions o f his compassion as shepherd o f his people (1:41; 6:34; 8:2; cf. Isa 40:1, lOf; 49:10, 1 3 , 1 5 ; 51:3; 5 4 : 7 f ) .
222
T h e difficulty in identifying those i n v o l v e d in several k e y m i r a c l e s , n a m e l y the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c , the deaf-mute, a n d the c r o w d in t h e s e c o n d feeding, is a c o n s t a n t frustration
to all a t t e m p t s to cast t h e s e
miracles in t e r m s o f a s i m p l e n a t i o n a l i s t i c / g e o g r a p h i c a l frame (i.e. J e w / Gentile or G a l i l e a n / J u d e a n ) . If, on the o n e hand, the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c and the others are in fact Gentiles, then this suggests that for M a r k this N E transcends traditional categories.
J e s u s c o m e s to d e l i v e r all p e o p l e
w h e t h e r J e w o r Gentile, w h e t h e r inhabitant o f Judea, Galilee o r elsewhere. M e m b e r s h i p in the n e w p e o p l e o f G o d is o p e n to those from all nations, but n o w u n d e r s t o o d in t e r m s o f the intensely p e r s o n a l a n d
individual
n a t u r e of J e s u s ' liberating activities—in other w o r d s it is as individuals, n o t as c o l l e c t i v e s , n a t i o n a l , e t h n i c , or o t h e r w i s e , t h a t d e l i v e r a n c e is experienced.
223
O n the other h a n d , if these events, although located in p r e d o m i n a n t l y Gentile regions, are nevertheless primarily
concerned with
'exiled'
Israelites (and M a r k ' s account o f J e s u s ' extremely reticent response to the one
clearly
identified
Gentile—the
Syrophoenician
woman—lends
considerable w e i g h t to this latter alternative), then J e s u s c a n b e seen acting in h a r m o n y with a stricter I N E agenda. S o w h y then M a r k ' s ambiguity? It
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
T h i s is t h e s t r e n g t h o f R i c h a r d s o n ' s p o s i t i o n o v e r a g a i n s t K a l l a s , in t h a t t h e l a t t e r d o e s n o t sufficiently a l l o w f o r t h e s y m b o l i c d i m e n s i o n o f t h e m i r a c l e s . Cf. M e y e , ' H o r i z o n ' , 8 , w h o n o t e s t h e d i m e n s i o n o f c o m p a s s i o n in J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s . Cf. P e r r i n , Kingdom, 1 7 1 , 1 9 9 . T h i s m a y reflect the t e n s i o n a l r e a d y e v i d e n t in Isaiah 5 6 - 6 6 b e t w e e n a national a n d individual perspective, W e s t e r m a n n , 302f, 403ff; H a n s o n , Dawn, 134ff; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, 128ff.
182
Jesus
as Yahweh-Warrior
and Israel's
NE
Healer
may b e that his G o s p e l represents a combination o f both agendas: M a r k ' s Jesus
restricts
indeterminate
his
activity
identifications,
to I s r a e l , b u t foreshadows
Mark, by
means
of
that Jesus' ministry
his will
ultimately result in 'light to the Gentiles'. G r a n t e d the f o r e g o i n g , the n e x t q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r o r n o t M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section also betrays signs o f an I N E hermeneutic.
H o w e v e r , before
a d d r e s s i n g that i s s u e , it is i m p o r t a n t to face a n o t h e r t h e m e w h i c h is foreshadowed
in M a r k ' s o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e , b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g e v i d e n t
throughout the series of controversy stories, and finally culminates in the B e e l z e b u l confrontation: n a m e l y the p o s s i b i l i t y that Israel, as M a l a c h i suggested, might not b e ready for Y a h w e h ' s I N E coming.
Chapter 7: Isaiah's Promise ... and Malachi's Threat: Part 1 Judicial Blinding In contrast to his opening portrayal of Jesus' powerful words and deeds, Mark soon shifts his focus to the growing tensions between Jesus and the Jewish leadership. In keeping with the warning implicit in Malachi and employing the Isaianic motif of Yahweh's hardening of the nation's selfreliant 'wise' ones, Mark shows how the present leadership's rejection of God's INE reign in Jesus results, by means of the parables, in a similar judicial blinding.
I. Introduction In the preceding Chapter it w a s argued that M a r k construes J e s u s ' miracles, n o t m e r e l y in t e r m s o f s o m e g e n e r a l i n - b r e a k i n g o f G o d ' s rule, b u t particularly w i t h i n the h o r i z o n o f the I N E expectations.
The exorcisms,
storm-stillings, h e a l i n g s o f the l a m e , the b l i n d , and the d e a f and
dumb,
forgiving o f s i n s , a n d m a s s feedings are all iconic t e s t i m o n i e s to the inauguration
t h r o u g h J e s u s o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g as w a r r i o r
and
shepherd o n b e h a l f o f his people. But this, unfortunately, is not the w h o l e story. Jesus is ultimately rejected and crucified b y the very heirs o f the I N E promises.
H o w is this astonishing o u t c o m e to b e understood, especially
given that the nation's leadership, w h o above all ought to h a v e discerned Y a h w e h ' s p u r p o s e s , are c e n t r a l to this rejection?
Once again Mark's
explanation is couched in terms o f O T motifs. First, as d i s c u s s e d earlier, M a r k ' s appeal to M a l a c h i in his o p e n i n g sentence ( M a i 3:1 in M k 1:2) s o u n d s a note o f w a r n i n g . a n o m a l o u s , t h e failure o f a significant p r o p o r t i o n
Far from b e i n g
of Israel
through
unpreparedness to participate in Y a h w e h ' s saving I N E activity h a d always b e e n a possibility.
T h e n , on t h e o n l y t w o o c c a s i o n s in his first major
section w h e r e J e s u s is challenged b y religious authorities from J e r u s a l e m , M a r k ' s a c c o u n t c o n t a i n s a p p e a l s to t w o related j u d i c i a l b l i n d i n g
and
hardening texts from Isaiah: Isaiah 6:9f in M a r k 4:12, and Isaiah 29:13 in M a r k 7:6f. Entirely c o n g r u e n t w i t h M a l a c h i ' s warnings, these appeals to
184
Isaiah's
the O T further
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
develop the theme of the unpreparedness
of Israel's
leadership b y reminding M a r k ' s audience o f the existence o f a profoundly disturbing p r e c e d e n t .
N o t o n l y is this n o t t h e first t i m e that I s r a e l ' s
l e a d e r s h i p h a v e relied u p o n their o w n w i s d o m a n d t h e r e b y
refused
Y a h w e h ' s offer o f deliverance, b u t it w a s this very attitude that led to the nation's exile in the first place. It w o u l d hardly b e surprising if it should do so again.
l
II. Isaiah 6:9f in Mark 4:12 a) The Markan
Setting:
Tension
Between
Jesus
and Israel's
Leadership
At the very beginning of his Gospel M a r k implicitly warned his readers, or reminded them as t h e case m a y be, that the good n e w s o f the inauguration of Y a h w e h ' s reign in the I N E might n o t b e a n occasion o f unalloyed j o y . On the contrary, the M a l a c h i / E x o d u s component of his introductory citation, although quite properly b e l o n g i n g within the s p h e r e o f t h e I N E hope, sounds a n o t e o f foreboding.
2
For Malachi, the I N E h a d already been
delayed b e c a u s e o f t h e u n p r e p a r e d n e s s o f Israel a n d , in particular, h e r religious l e a d e r s .
T h e p r o p h e t w a r n e d that in order t o b e r e a d y for
Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g they m u s t r e s p o n d a p p r o p r i a t e l y to h i s m e s s e n g e r , identified at the conclusion o f the b o o k as 'Elijah'. In M a r k ' s e y e s , as is generally agreed, this forerunner a p p e a r s to b e n o n e o t h e r than J o h n t h e Baptist (1:6; 9 : 1 3 ) .
3
H o w e v e r , in spite o f the
initially p r o m i s i n g signs—'all o f J u d e a a n d J e r u s a l e m ' c a m e o u t to hear h i m ( 1 : 5 ) — J o h n is i m p r i s o n e d .
That Mark apparently
regards
this
1
T h e l i t e r a t u r e h e r e is i m m e n s e , s e e t h e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s in Q u e s n e l l , 72ff; M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 - 6 , 7 3 - 1 2 1 ; E v a n s , See, 9 1 - 1 0 6 ; B e a v i s , Audience, 69-86, 131-155; a n d Lambrecht, Astonished, 107ff. T u c k e t t , ' C o n c e r n s ' , offers o n e o f t h e m o r e n u a n c e d a n a l y s e s . 2
3
S e e C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 67ff, a b o v e .
S e e n o w T r u m b o w e r , 'John'; W e b b , John, 5 1 - 5 5 , a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n ; C a m e r y H o g g a t h , Irony, 9 5 f ; a l s o C h a p t e r 3 , p . 5 9 , fn. 3 8 , a b o v e . T h e a m b i g u i t y o f l:4ff h a s l e d s e v e r a l r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s t o r e j e c t this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t , g i v e n t h e a t t e s t a t i o n i n 9 : 1 3 , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f J o h n f o r all f o u r G o s p e l s , a n d t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e b a s i c c o n t e n t o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l is l a r g e l y c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e a m o n g h i s a u d i e n c e , it s e e m s h i g h l y likely t h a t J o h n , e v e n in l:4ff, w o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d t o b e M a l a c h i ' s Elijah. O n 9 : 1 3 , f o r e x a m p l e , s e e M a r c u s , 9 4 - 1 0 0 , w h o s e t r e a t m e n t is t o b e p r e f e r r e d t o t h a t o f G u n d r y , 4 6 4 . T h e latter, a l t h o u g h c o r r e c t l y n o t i n g t h e e m p h a s i s o n a-noKaQiojdvei ( v . 1 2 a ) , a p p e a r s n o t t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e i s s u e is n o t w h e t h e r Elijah h a s y e t r e s t o r e d all t h i n g s , b u t r a t h e r t o q u e s t i o n t h e s c r i b e s ' s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t r e s t o r a t i o n o f all t h i n g s b y Elijah w a s g u a r a n t e e d , a s J e s u s ' n e x t s t a t e m e n t s u g g e s t s (cf. M a i 3 : 1 , a n d ] S in 3:24b).
Markan
185
Setting
m o m e n t as t h e c a t a l y s t for J e s u s ' c o m m e n c e m e n t o f his o w n
ministry
hardly augurs well (1:14a; cf. especially 3:7f with 1:5). T h e o m i n o u s n e x u s b e t w e e n J o h n and J e s u s is further strengthened b y A ) the detailed a c c o u n t of J o h n ' s s u b s e q u e n t d e a t h at the h a n d s o f H e r o d in 6:14-29, B) the link b e t w e e n J e s u s ' death and the rejection o f Elijah ' w h o h a s c o m e ' (9:9-13), and C ) J e s u s ' appeal to J o h n in justifying h i s T e m p l e action (11:27-33; s e e Chapter 9 ) . If the national leadership had failed to respond
appropriately
to J o h n , h o w m u c h the less for the m o r e public and provocative J e s u s ? T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f this u n p r e p a r e d n e s s b e c o m e s a major focus o f M a r k .
of Israel's leadership
soon
H a v i n g established J e s u s ' identity and
significance b y m e a n s a series o f 'breathless' (cf. €u9u'c;) and a l m o s t terse accounts of his authoritative w o r d s and powerful deeds—a 6 i 6 a x f j Kaivfj K a T ' € £ o u a i a v — M a r k q u i c k l y t u r n s to the i n c r e a s i n g l y h o s t i l e r e s p o n s e w h i c h J e s u s attracts.
4
In a prolonged series of controversy stories w e m e e t
the criticism, a n t a g o n i s m , and finally outright rejection w h i c h eventually leads to J e s u s ' d e a t h ( 2 : 1 - 3 : 6 ) .
5
A s n o t e d earlier, t h e s e c o n t r o v e r s i e s
c u l m i n a t e in w h a t a m o u n t s to a crucial t u r n i n g point in the gospel: the Beelzebul d e b a t e w h e r e i n Israel's chief religious authorities—for the first time scribes from J e r u s a l e m — a n n o u n c e their considered r e s p o n s e to this Galilean exorcist: he h i m s e l f is possessed b y the chief d e m o n , Beelzebul. H o w e v e r , to c e n s u r e J e s u s and to attribute his e x o r c i s m s to the only realistic alternative, Beelzebul, is to b l a s p h e m e the H o l y Spirit and thereby to repeat the rebellion o f the first E x o d u s (cf. Isa 63:10).
In this context,
M a r k ' s ' b r a c k e t i n g ' the controversy with teaching about J e s u s ' true family (3:21, 31-35) h i g h l i g h t s the significance o f the v a r i o u s r e s p o n s e s to h i s ministry.
A c l e a r d i v i s i o n is n o w a p p e a r i n g w i t h i n Israel (cf. J o h n ' s
4
M a r k ' s f r e q u e n t a n d s o m e w h a t i d i o s y n c r a t i c u s e o f KOLI CUSUS* l e n d s a n u r g e n c y t o h i s a c c o u n t t h a t is s t r a n g e l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e s t y l e o f I s a 4 0 - 5 5 . S e e in p a r t i c u l a r S n a i t h ' s d e t a i l e d c o m m e n t s , ' S t u d y ' , 1 4 9 - 5 3 , o n t h e v i g o u r a n d u r g e n c y o f t h e p r o p h e t w h o s e s t y l e is ' o n e o f h u r r y i n g , o f r u s h i n g t u m u l t u o u s l y o n ' , w h e r e it is a c a s e o f ' i m m e d i a t e l y if n o t sooner'. S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 140f, similarly notes that the 'new thing' Y a h w e h p r o m i s e s w i l l h a p p e n 'suddenly a n d surprisingly' ( h i s i t a l i c s ) , cf. S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 152. 5
O n the unity of these passages a n d the increasingly adversarial stance of Jesus' o p p o n e n t s , s e e e s p e c i a l l y D e w e y ; K i i l u n e n , Vollmacht; Tannehill, 'Narrative', 6 8 ; Kingsbury, Conflict, 67ff. G u n d r y , 1 0 8 f , s e e s t h e s e m o r e a s s t o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s ' a u t h o r i t y , b u t e v e n s o h e n o t e s t h e p r o g r e s s i o n f r o m silent a c c u s a t i o n (2:6f) t h r o u g h t o q u e s t i o n i n g ( 2 : 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 4 ) , to a t t e m p t e d e n t r a p m e n t (3:2), a n d finally to p l o t t i n g Jesus' d e m i s e (3:6). This, in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h M a l i n a ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e h o n o u r / s h a m e a x i s in s o c i a l c o n f l i c t . Insights, 2 5 - 4 9 , s u g g e s t s t h a t ' c o n t r o v e r s y ' is n o t a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e t e r m .
186
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
warning, M t 3:12; L k 3:17; and the appointment o f the T w e l v e , M k 3:13-19). N o l o n g e r it is a m a t t e r o f b l o o d l i n e b u t rather a d h e r e n c e to J e s u s ' teaching, himself the ' S / s o n o f G o d ' (1:11), that determines whether or not one is a m e m b e r o f his true family, that is, also a 'son o f G o d ' .
6
Already
the threat implicit in Malachi is c o m i n g to p a s s (cf. M a i 3:2-5, 18). T h e crucial p o i n t here, h o w e v e r , is that this decisive confrontation—couched explicitly in terms o f the first overt mention o f J e s u s ' teaching in parables (3:23)—leads immediately into M a r k ' s extended account o f the purpose of parables.
7
This suggests that the former occasions the l a t t e r and that the
parables themselves not only function in s o m e w a y as a response to those w h o h a v e rejected J e s u s b u t that t h e y d o s o in t e r m s o f the j u d i c i a l blinding and hardening expressed in the notorious crux, Isaiah 6:9-10. b) Textual Mark
Matters* 4:12
Isaiah LXX
iva
p X c T i o v T c c ; pXcncaaiv
Kai Kai
u f | i6a)cn.v, <XKO\JOVT€C;
Kai
ut)
aKOlJOKJlV
auvaaknv,
UT1TTOTC
6:9f
MT
Targum
' A K O f j OKOUa€T€ Kai
oil U T ) auvfJTc
Kai
pA€TTOVT€C; pA€lp€T€
Kai
Oil U T | l 6 T ) T €
...
UT1TTOTC
i6a>aiv Kai
TOXs 6(J>8aXuoic;
vrvi
p ... rorr
KQ^T ... prprjn p r r
caaiv
TOIC;
aKouauaiv Kai
Tfi Kap6ia
€TTiaTp€ilicoaiv
Kai
€maTp€i(ia)aiv
Kai
Kai
laaouai
a<J)€6f| a v i T o i c ;
auvaknv
aiiTouc;
M a r k ' s citation is clearly paraphrastic.
]mm V? KBTI T h e seeing and hearing clauses o f
Isaiah 6:9bc M T , L X X , and Tg. Isaiah are reversed, perhaps d u e to M a r k ' s interest in 'sight' as reflected in his t w o restoration-of-sight miracles which bracket his 'Way' section.
9
T h e s e c o n d person forms o f 6:9bc M T and
L X X — t h e latter uses emphatic denials as o p p o s e d to the M T ' s imperatives 6
S e e n o w S h e p h e r d , Sandwich, 1 3 6 . O n ' s o n ( o f G o d ) ' , s e e C h a p t e r 4 , p p . HOff a b o v e . G u n d r y , 1 8 6 , notices this relationship b u t p r i m a r i l y o n the basis of the c o m m o n 'parable' terminology. S e e G n i l k a , Verstockung, 13ff; G u n d r y , Use, 3 3 f ; S t e n d a h l , School, 129ff; E v a n s , See, 1 7 - 8 0 ; a n d n o w S c h n e c k , 102ff. S e e C h a p t e r 8. 7
8
9
The
w h i l e Tg. Isaiah
iva
187
Clause
treats then as relative c l a u s e s d e s c r i b i n g t h e p r e s e n t
condition o f the people—are altered to third person in k e e p i n g with the narrative
setting
dependence.
1 0
and
so
may
not
necessarily
M a r k ' s dc(>€6f}, as with Tg. Isaiah's
reflect
Targumic
pDW, e x p l i c a t e s t h e
significance o f ' h e a l i n g ' (cf. Isa 33:24) b u t m o r e importantly e c h o e s the threat of 3 : 2 9 .
n
M o s t o f Isaiah 6:10 has also b e e n omitted, p r o b a b l y to
capture the co-ordination o f the iva and
IITJTTOTC
clauses.
12
Although it is
often claimed that the M a r k a n diction is closest to that of Tg. Isaiah,
Mark's
divergences suggest that an assumption o f T a r g u m i c d e p e n d e n c e should be treated with c a u t i o n . c) The iva
13
Clause
M a n y commentators h a v e found the telic force o f 4:12 unacceptably harsh a n d / o r difficult to reconcile with the apparent e m p h a s i s o f the preceding parable (vv. 3-8) and w i t h the injunctions concerning careful hearing (cf. vv. 3, 9, 23, 2 4 ) .
1 4
N u m e r o u s attempts have been m a d e along grammatical
and linguistic lines to resolve these apparent difficulties, suggesting that M a r k ' s i v a is either: shorthand for 'iva TrXr|pa)0rj, Aramaic relative
1 0
I ,
1
6
causal with
Pace M a n s o n , Teaching, 'Outside', 296. 1 1
UTJTTOTC
15
a mistranslation o f the
as ' p e r h a p s ' ,
76ff; C h i l t o n , Galilean,
17
consecutive with
91; Schneck, 104. N o w also Goulder,
C o u r t s , '"Outside"'; s e e fn. 6 5 b e l o w . B l a c k , Aramaic, 214.
1 2
1 3
S e e W e n h a m ' s c r i t i c i s m s , ' S y n o p t i c ' , 2 5 n 5 9 , o f J e r e m i a s , Parables, G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 296f. 1
15, a n d n o w also
4
S e e t h e s u r v e y s i n A m b r o z i c , 6 7 f ; R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 11-20; Klauck, Allegorie, 2 4 5 - 5 5 ; E v a n s , See, 92H; B e a v i s , Audience, 69ff; a n d S c h n e c k , 1 0 5 - 1 3 . 1 5
L a g r a n g e , 9 9 ; S i e g m a n , ' T e a c h i n g ' ; S c h e l k e , ' Z w e c k ' ; J e r e m i a s , Parables, 1 7 . It is n o t c l e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t fulfilment a v o i d s t h e i s s u e s i n c e it t o o h a s a telic f o r c e , E v a n s , See, 9 4 , citing M e t z g e r , 'Formulas'. 6
* M a n s o n , Teaching, 7 6 f ; w i t h UT{TTOT€ e i t h e r a s c o n d i t i o n a l o r ' p e r h a p s ' , cf. A r . KD^t. A m i s t r a n s l a t i o n , w h i l e p o s s i b l e , is h i g h l y u n l i k e l y ' s i n c e w h o e v e r r e n d e r e d t h e A r a m a i c s a y i n g ... c e r t a i n l y h a d m o r e difficult c o n s t r u c t i o n s t o c o n t e n d w i t h , a n d c o u l d n e v e r h a v e s u c c e e d e d if t h i s p a r t i c l e ... p r o v e d t o o difficult for h i m c o r r e c t l y t o u n d e r s t a n d ' , C h i l t o n , Rabbi, 9 3 ; cf. B l a c k , Aramaic, 2 1 2 f f ; B u r k i l l , 114ff. B u r k i l l , 1 1 2 f f ; W i n d i s c h , ' V e r s t o c k u n g s i d e e ' ; cf. L a m p e , ' D e u t u n g ' ; M o u l e , ' M o r e ' ; Holzmeister, 'Verstockungszweck'. 1 7
188
Isaiah's
|IT|TTOT€
as ' u n l e s s ' ,
18
Promise
...
Malachi's
imperatival,
19
Threat:
Judicial
or telic but i r o n i c .
Blinding
20
T h e absence o f the
fattening o f the heart clause (Isa 6:10), seen b y s o m e as 'the very basis' o f the h a r d e n i n g theory, is also taken as mitigating the p u r p o s i v e f o r c e . Alternatively, a substantial n u m b e r o f m o r e recent c o m m e n t a t o r s upheld
the ' p u r p o s i v e '
plethora o f alternatives?
intention.
22
21
have
H o w is o n e to decide a m o n g this
G i v e n the overall a p p r o a c h s u g g e s t e d in the
p r e c e d i n g C h a p t e r s o f this b o o k it m a y well b e that M a r k e x p e c t s his readers to h a v e something of the Isaianic context in view. d) Isaiah
6 in
(i) Rebellion
Context as the Precursor
to Isaiah
6
It is generally agreed that Isaiah 1 constitutes the introduction both to the w h o l e w o r k and specifically to chapters 1 - 1 2 . is f o r e s h a d o w e d
as Y a h w e h institutes
faithless p e o p l e (Isa l : 2 f f ) .
24
23
F r o m the outset judgement
legal p r o c e e d i n g s
against
T h e case b e g i n s with a two-fold
his
thematic
statement c o n c e r n i n g the nation's faithlessness and culpable, e v e n wilful, ignorance.
2 5
O n the one h a n d , there is Y a h w e h ' s complaint, as father,
against his rebellious 'sons' 0*3 WWS ... c n 3 , 1:2b) and, on the other, there is a w i s d o m parable citing Israel's failure to understand C|3i3nn 1:3).
26
... 1?T
T
,
T h e i m p r e s s i v e c a t a l o g u e o f c h a r g e s w h i c h follows essentially
details these twin failings. 1
8
P e i s k e r , ' K o n s e k u t i v ' ; Suhl, 1 4 9 ; A n d e r s o n , 1 3 1 ; C h i l t o n , Rabbi, 9 1 - 9 8 , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n 4:11 a n d 4 : 3 3 f (cf. J e r e m i a s , Parables, 1 7 f ) ; a n d r a b b i n i c e x e g e s i s , s o S t r - B , 1.662f. C a d o u x , 'Imperatival', 173. 1
9
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
M o o r e , ' M i c a i a h ' ; cf. H u r t a r d o , 5 9 f ; D a v i s , ' L i t e r a r y ' , 3 4 6 - 5 0 . 196ff, s u g g e s t s t h e v e r s e s h o u l d b e a q u e s t i o n .
Romaniuk, 'Exegese',
K e l b e r , 3 5 ; M o u l e , ' M o r e ' , 1 0 0 ; f o l l o w i n g M a n s o n , Teaching, 7 8 . E s p e c i a l l y : M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 1 9 - 2 1 ; ' E p i s t e m o l o g y ' ; B e a v i s , Audience, 78ff; E v a n s , See, 9 5 - 1 0 6 ; R a i s a n e n , 8 3 ; G u n d r y , 2 0 2 ; cf. e.g. B o u c h e r , 4 4 f ; G n i l k a , Verstockung, 45-50; B l a c k , Aramaic, 213ff; A m b r o z i c , ' C o n c e p t ' ; K e e , 5 8 ; P e s c h , 1 . 2 3 7 ; S c h n e c k , 1 2 8 . E . g . W i l d b e r g e r , 1.9ff; C l e m e n t s , 2 8 f ; S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 21ff; W a t t s , 1 . 1 0 . O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r o r n o t 2 : 1 - 4 / 5 o u g h t t o b e i n c l u d e d a l o n g w i t h c h a p t e r 1 in t h e p r o l o g u e , s e e S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 3 0 f f ; A c k r o y d , ' N o t e ' ; T o m a s i n o , ' I s a i a h ' ; a n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m a t e r i a l in C l e m e n t s a n d W i l d b e r g e r . E . g . N i e l s e n , ' G e r i c h t s ' , 2 7 - 2 9 ; W i l d b e r g e r , 1.9ff, 7 4 ; W r i g h t , ' L a w s u i t ' ; S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 1 2 0 - 2 3 ; W a t t s , ' F o r m a t i o n ' ; N i d i t c h , ' C o m p o s i t i o n ' . C l e m e n t s , a c c e p t i n g t h e l e g a l d i m e n s i o n , d e n i e s t h a t it is c o v e n a n t a l in o r i e n t a t i o n . V r i e z e n , ' E s s e n t i a l s ' ; H a m b o r g , ' R e a s o n s ' , 1 5 7 . O s w a l t , Isaiah, 6 6 , s e e s u n f a i t h f u l n e s s t o Y a h w e h a s t h e n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f p r i d e . S e e K a i s e r , 2 . 9 5 , ' w i t h o u t faith Israel d o e s n o t exist'; a n d H a m b o r g , ' R e a s o n s ' , 1 5 7 , for w h o m t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t r e a s o n for j u d g e m e n t of b o t h Israel a n d the nations, a l t h o u g h r e a s o n s for the latter a r e n o t a l w a y s g i v e n , is p r i d e , c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y e s s e n t i a l l y r e l i g i o u s t e r m s : r e v o l t , r e b e l l i o n , o r c o n t e m p t
Rebellion
The
opening
woe
as the Precursor
formula
of
189
to Isaiah 6
verse
4
reiterates
the
nation's
a b a n d o n m e n t o f Y a h w e h w h i l e the c o l l e c t i o n o f o r a c l e s in v e r s e s 5 - 2 0 e m p h a s i s e t h e p e o p l e ' s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e r u l e r s ' (v. 1 0 ) , failure u n d e r s t a n d (vv. 5-9).
to
T h e i r intensified religious o b s e r v a n c e (vv. 1 0 - 1 5 ) ,
a p p a r e n t l y to b e interpreted as m i s g u i d e d a t t e m p t s at r e m e d y i n g their present distress, is futile since w h a t Y a h w e h requires is justice (vv. 1 6 f ) .
2 7
H e then invites t h e m to ' r e a s o n t o g e t h e r ' w i t h h i m (vv. 1 8 - 2 0 ) , offering s a l v a t i o n — ' y o u will eat the best o f the l a n d ' (v. 1 9 b ) — i f t h e y repent, b u t a n n i h i l a t i o n — ' y o u w i l l b e e a t e n b y the s w o r d ' (v. 2 0 , cf. v. 9 ) — i f t h e y refuse and continue to disobey. T h e offer, h o w e v e r , s e e m s to fall on deaf ears. In verses 2 1 - 2 3 Y a h w e h l a m e n t s the f a i t h l e s s n e s s o f J e r u s a l e m a n d the r e b e l l i o n o f its r u l e r s , c o n c l u d i n g in v e r s e s 2 4 - 3 1 w i t h an a v o w a l to p u r g e the city.
Although
Y a h w e h p r o c l a i m s that h e will 'separate b e t w e e n the r i g h t e o u s a n d t h e w i c k e d ' , r e d e e m i n g t h e o n e a n d j u d g i n g the o t h e r ,
28
b y far the greater
e m p h a s i s lies o n the utter destruction of sinners and rebels w i t h the final threat b e i n g cast in i m a g e s associated w i t h the d e c a d e n t c u l t ' s terebinth worship (vv. 29-31). S u c h worship, Y a h w e h declares, will turn into sparks that, flaring u p , w i l l c o n s u m e b o t h t h e i d o l a t o r s a n d together.
their
works
29
F o l l o w i n g o n from this i n t r o d u c t i o n , c h a p t e r s 2 - 5 reflect s i m i l a r concerns.
Although expressing some prospect of hope (2:1-4/5; 4 : 2 - 6 )
3 0
they o v e r w h e l m i n g l y constitute a sustained d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i m p e n d i n g doom.
T w o t h e m e s are n o t e w o r t h y .
First, c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the intro
duction's c o n c l u s i o n (1:29-31) there is considerable e m p h a s i s o n idolatry and witchcraft (2:6-8, 18-20; 3:3b; cf. 6:12-13). R. E. Clements c o m m e n t s that the ' m o s t striking feature' of s u c h passages 'is their e m p h a s i s ... u p o n the faithlessness and idolatry' and ' u p o n the worship o f i m a g e s a n d the resort
for Y a h w e h ; cf. R o b e r t s , ' D i v i n e ' ; L o v e , 'Call'; a n d V r i e z e n , ' E s s e n t i a l s ' , 1 3 4 f , w h o c i t e s a s e x p r e s s i o n s o f this: c o n t e m p t (3:8f; 2:4f, 2 4 ; cf. 8 : 6 ; 2 8 : 1 2 ; 2 9 : 1 5 f ; 3 0 : 9 - 1 3 , 1 5 ) a n d d e r i s i o n (5:18f) for Y a h w e h , r e b e l l i o n ( 1 : 5 , 2 3 ; cf. 3 0 : 1 ; 3 1 : 6 ) , n e g l e c t o f Y a h w e h ( 1 7 : 1 0 ; 2 2 : 1 1 ) , p r i d e o r b o a s t i n g (2:7ff; 3:16ff; cf. 19:8ff; 10:5ff; 2 2 : 1 5 ; 2 8 : l f f , 14ff), n o t h a v i n g f a i t h ( 7 : 9 ; 2 2 : 1 1 ; 3 1 : 1 ) , a n d b e i n g d i s o b e d i e n t ( l : 1 9 f ; cf. 2 8 : 1 2 ; 3 0 : 9 , 1 5 ) . 2
6
2
7
S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 102ff; W i l d b e r g e r , 1.12ff. Cf. G i t a y , Audience, 31f. S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 1 2 2 . W i l d b e r g e r , 1.72f. O n the delimitation of these particular units, see especially the relevant discussions in W i l d b e r g e r , a n d S w e e n e y , Isaiah. 2
8
2
9
3
0
190
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
to illicit f o r m s o f c u l t u s ' w h i c h is u n d e r s t o o d Jerusalem's destruction.
31
Blinding
to h a v e o c c a s i o n e d
H e n c e , although it is certainly true that o n e of
the major lines o f Y a h w e h ' s indictment o f J u d a h is her injustice, idolatry o r at the v e r y least an i d o l a t r o u s attitude ( w h i c h a r g u a b l y l e a d s to injustice) appears to b e the major c o n c e r n .
32
S e c o n d , the p r i m a r y responsibility for the present state o f affairs rests squarely w i t h the leaders o f J e r u s a l e m (1:10, 23-26; 3:12ff; 5 : 1 8 - 2 4 ) .
33
The
vineyard s o n g (5:1-7) presages the desolation o f the nation, and introduces a series o f w o e s a i m e d primarily at J e r u s a l e m ' s leadership.
T h e scathing
i n d i c t m e n t , in v e r s e 2 4 b , o f the l e a d e r s ' r e p u d i a t i o n
of Yahweh's
i n s t r u c t i o n s u g g e s t s that 'a c o m p l e t e b r e a k w i t h Y a h w e h ' h a s o c c u r r e d (cf. 1 0 : l - 4 ) .
3 4
now
It is hardly surprising, then, that the final w o e
(vv. 25-30) is cast in terms o f a w a r oracle w h i c h describes 'impressively and
graphically
punishment'. unavoidable.
35
an
invading
enemy
who
functions
as
God's
T h e verdict has already b e e n given. Purging j u d g e m e n t is T h e o n l y question n o w c o n c e r n s its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and
this it s e e m s is the point o f the following 'call narrative' o f chapter 6. (ii) Isaiah
6: Ironic
Judgement
on Idolatrous
Wisdom
Given the great difficulty had b y m a n y concerning particularly Isaiah 6:10b, several points should b e observed. Within the present literary structure o f the b o o k , the m a n d a t e in Isaiah 6:9ff presupposes a rebellious, idolatrous, and culpably uncomprehending preceding
material
nation.
is to s h o w
that
The point of the extensive
all o f Y a h w e h ' s a t t e m p t s
at
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y b e e n refused a n d that J u d a h ' s s e v e r e j u d g e m e n t is, therefore, j u s t i f i e d . 3
1
3
2
3
3
36
T h u s , w h e n Y a h w e h appears in his
'Prophecies', 425-428ff, w h i c h p a s s a g e s a r e p e r c e i v e d b y C l e m e n t s to b e later glosses. T h e T a r g u m r e p e a t e d l y clarifies the i d o l a t r o u s c h a r a c t e r of certain actions d e s c r i b e d in t h e H e b r e w t e x t , e.g. Tg. Isa 1:29; 2 : 6 ; 8 : 1 9 ( 2 ) ; 1 7 : 1 1 ; 2 8 : 1 0 , 2 1 ; cf. 5 7 : 5 , 8 ; 6 5 : 3 , 1 1 ; cf. S m o l a r - A u e r b a c h , Studies, 150ff. W h a t e v e r t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n — s e e e.g. J e n s e n ' s c r i t i c i s m s . Use, 4 7 f , 5 3 f , 1 2 3 , o f W h e d b e e , Isaiah—in t e r m s o f a first c e n t u r y p e r s p e c t i v e , i d o l a t r y w a s a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y s e e n a s t h e p r i m a r y i s s u e , s e e fn. 3 1 a b o v e . In a n y c a s e , t h e u s e o f s u c h i m a g e r y c o u l d well be part of a particularly s h a r p p o l e m i c against the wise w h o s e d i s m i s s a l o f Y a h w e h ' s w o r d t h r o u g h t h e p r o p h e t f o r t h e i r o w n l e a r n e d o p i n i o n s is regarded, by the prophet, as tantamount to idolatry. 2 : 6 - 6:1 is e s p e c i a l l y d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t a r r o g a n t l e a d e r s , S c h r e i n e r , ' B u c h ' , 1 4 9 ; cf. J e n s e n , Use, 6 5 - 1 0 4 ; C l e m e n t s ; S w e e n y , Isaiah, 3 8 f . Wildberger, 1.213 (here ET). G i t a y , Audience, 116. R a i s a n e n , Hardening, 5 9 , 6 2 ; N i e l s e n , ' D r a m a t i c ' , 1 4 ; E v a n s , See, 4 2 . 3
4
3
5
3
6
Isaiah
6: Ironic
Judgement
on Idolatrous
191
Wisdom
T e m p l e to c o m m i s s i o n Isaiah it is first a n d foremost as Z i o n ' s great k i n g (6:l-5)
3 7
b u t n o w in his capacity as holy j u d g e to i m p l e m e n t the sentence
already passed on his apostate p e o p l e .
38
Isaiah's preaching, then, is merely
to effect the verdict o f the divine K i n g b y confirming his hearers in their persistent and wilful i g n o r a n c e and, thereby, ushering t h e m t o w a r d s the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f their rebellion. S e c o n d , in t h e
light of the pre-eminence of idolatry,
it is
not
insignificant that the sentence is couched in terms o f blindness, deafness, and lack o f understanding.
Psalms 115:4-8 and 135:15-18 reflect a tradition
that associates the onset o f these conditions with the practice o f idolatry: 'those w h o trust in idols will b e c o m e like them, t h e y h a v e e a r s b u t t h e y cannot hear, e y e s b u t cannot s e e ' .
3 9
In the two psalms, only ' s e e i n g '
(ntn,
L X X 113:13b; 134:16b, opdo)) and 'hearing' (PIMJ, L X X 113:14a, aKouw; 134:17a, c v c j T i ^ d j i a i ) are in v i e w , but the metaphor is clearly understood later on in Isaiah 44:17f w h e r e blindness and hardness of heart are equated with lack of u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( L X X , v. 1 8 , (VOCO)).
yiyvcjaKco, (t>pov€0))
and
comprehension
4 0
Y a h w e h ' s people, and a b o v e all their leadership, h a v e c h o s e n to reject him for idols. In response, h e suits the punishment to the crime: they are to b e as blind, as deaf, and as incapable of understanding as are their idols. H a v i n g rejected Y a h w e h their m a k e r , h e will n o w confirm t h e m in their decision b y recreating them, as it were, in the image o f the gods they h a v e chosen.
3
7
3
8
3
9
4
0
C o n s e q u e n t l y , Isaiah is c o m m a n d e d to d e c l a r e to the p e o p l e ,
O n t h e k i n g s h i p o f Y a h w e h i n I s a i a h , E i s s f e l d t , ' J a h w e ' ; M a a g , Malkut , 1 2 9 f f ; G r a y , 'Kingship'; Liebreich, 'Position'; Mettinger, ' Y H W H ' ; Roberts, 'Divine'; a n d D u m b r e l l , ' W o r s h i p ' ; cf. t h e b r o a d e r t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f in O l l e n b u r g e r , Zion. K n i e r i m , ' V o c a t i o n ' , 5 5 f f ; G r a y , 1 . 1 0 9 ; cf. R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 3 1 2 . I n h i s s e c t i o n o n t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t o f I s a 6:9f, S c h n e c k , 1 1 4 - 2 3 , d e v o t e s m o s t o f h i s s t u d y t o t h e m e a n i n g o f 6 : 1 3 in w h i c h h e d e t e c t s a n i n d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e D a v i d i c k i n g s h i p ( = ' s e e d ' ; cf. s e e d in M k 4 ) b u t p a y s a l m o s t n o a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e t t i n g w h i c h I s a 1-5 p r o v i d e s for c h . 6 . Later, however, he notes the prominence of the preceding confrontations. Dr. G. Beale, G o r d o n - C o n w e l l T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y lectures ' O T in the N T ' , Fall 1985; see n o w Beale, 'Taunt'. Opinions on the dating of Ps 1 1 5 a r e divided: Mowinckel, Psalmenstudien, a n d W e i s e r , Psalms, s u g g e s t late pre-exilic o r early post-exilic, while Preufi, Verspottung; a n d K r a u s , Psalmen, o n a c c o u n t o f t h e s e v e r y v e r s e s s e e it l a t e r t h a n t h e a n t i - i d o l p o l e m i c s o f I s a 4 0 - 5 5 . P s 1 3 5 is g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s l a t e ( e x c e p t W e i s e r w h o s e e s it a s p r e - e x i l i c ) o n t h e b a s i s o f l i n g u i s t i c f e a t u r e s a n d w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e e x t e n s i v e b o r r o w i n g from other literature. C f . B o t t e r w e c k , TWAT, 3 . 4 8 7 , 4 9 1 f . W a t t s , l.liif, n o t e s t h a t g r o u p i n g s o f a t l e a s t t h r e e o f t h e w o r d s 'know, understand, hear, see, a n d turn' o c c u r in 5 : 2 0 f ( ? ) , 6:9f, a r e m o s t f r e q u e n t in c h a p t e r s 2 8 - 3 0 , a n d a p p e a r in c h a p t e r s 3 7 - 3 9 .
192
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
'Listen b u t do not perceive, look but do not understand'. His preaching is to ' m a k e the heart o f this people fat, their ears heavy, and their eyes dim, lest they s e e with their eyes, hear with their ears, and turn and b e h e a l e d ' (6:9f).
T h a t this blinding and deafening is an ironic j u d g e m e n t u p o n the
nation's idolatrous condition appears confirmed when her salvation, c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y restoration o f sight, hearing, and u n d e r s t a n d i n g (e.g. 29:18f; 32:1; 35:5), involves a concurrent rejection of idols (2:20; 17:7f; 27:9; 4
30:22; 31:7). * Third, n o t only does the language o f seeing and hearing in association w i t h heart, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and c o m p r e h e n s i o n t e r m i n o l o g y h a v e links with anti-idol p o l e m i c s but such expressions are also the tupoi
of A N E
w i s d o m traditions (note the appearance o f a w i s d o m parable at the outset of the lawsuit, 1:3). T h e relationship between hearing, understanding, and the heart c a n b e found, as M . L i c h t e i m n o t e d , as far b a c k as the O l d K i n g d o m o f ancient Egypt, w h e r e for e x a m p l e o n e finds ' H e w h o hears is beloved o f god, h e w h o m god hates does not hear. T h e heart m a k e s o f its o w n e r a hearer or n o n - h e a r e r ' .
42
T h e w i s d o m connotations o f this language are particularly appropriate given the central role of J e r u s a l e m ' s l e a d e r s h i p .
43
Set in the context of
J e r u s a l e m ' s crisis in the face o f foreign invasion, the p i c t u r e is o f the J u d a h ' s ' w i s e ' ones w h o refuse to accept Y a h w e h ' s instruction or teaching (rnin 1:10; 5:24b; cf. 3 0 : 9 ) ,
44
w h o scoff at the prophet's w a r n i n g s (5:19; cf.
28:9-14, 2 2 ) , and instead increasingly rely on the nations and their idols as
4
1
4
2
4
3
4
4
Beale, T a u n t ' .
Ancient, 7 4 ; a l s o B r u n n e r , Altagyptische, o n t h e h e a r t , HOf, o n h e a r i n g , 131ff. If a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h e a r t is t h e gift o f t h e g o d o n e w o r s h i p s t h e n it m a y f o l l o w t h a t i d o l a t o r s r e c e i v e a h e a r t c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h t h a t of t h e i r g o d . O n t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n E g y p t i a n a n d I s r a e l i t e w i s d o m , W h y b r a y , Wisdom. E v a n s , See, 2 4 - 5 2 , h a s a n e x t e n d e d s u r v e y o n o b d u r a c y t e x t s in I s a i a h a n d t h e O T , b u t fails t o n o t e t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e i t h e r w i s d o m o r idolatry. O n w i s d o m in I s a i a h 1 - 3 9 : F i c h t n e r , ' J e s a j a ' , 7 5 - 8 0 ; L i n d b l o m , ' W i s d o m ' , 1 9 2 - 2 0 4 ; M a r t i n - A c h a r d , ' S a g e s s e ' , 1 3 7 - 4 4 ; B l a n c h e t t e , ' W i s d o m ' ; M c K a n e , Prophets; W i l d b e r g e r , 1.188f; e s p e c . W h e d b e e , Isaiah; a n d J e n s e n , Use. T h e t e r m s h o u l d n o t p e r h a p s b e r e s t r i c t e d s o l e l y t o a r e g u l a t i v e c o d e . J e n s e n , Use, 1 3 5 , s e e s m m a s r e f e r r i n g g e n e r a l l y t o t h e w i s d o m o f Y a h w e h (cf. p a r a l l e l w i t h m m ' - D l (2:3) a n d mm (2:5)) a n d not a particular b o d y of law, a l t h o u g h s u c h a m o n o c h r o m a t i c a p p r o a c h m a y n o t b e j u s t i f i e d if s o m e f o r m o f c o v e n a n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o Y a h w e h is p r e s u m e d b y t h e p r o p h e t ; s e e n o w K i t c h e n , 'Fall'. T h e c r u c i a l d i s t i n c t i v e is t h e d i v i n e authority that attaches to m i n , whether formulated as law, taught by priest, or a n n o u n c e d b y p r o p h e t ; cf. G u t b r o d , TDNT, 4 . 1 0 4 4 f f ; S c h a r b e r t , LTK, 4 . 8 1 6 ; a l s o 1:10; 5 : 2 4 b ; 3 0 : 9 ; a l s o 9 : 7 - 1 2 ; 22:12ff (cf. v v . 1 5 - 2 5 ) ; 2 8 : l f f (cf. 29:15ff).
Judgement
Effected:
The Encounter
with
193
Ahaz
they formulate foreign policy (7:9-13; cf. 2:22; 28:15; 30:1-5 (6f); 3 1 : l - 3 ) .
4 5
Nevertheless, Y a h w e h ' s purposes will be accomplished (10:12-19; 19:3-11; n*i?: 5:19; cf. 19:17; 2 5 : 1 ; and W.
14:24, 26f; 19:12; 23:9) and the leaders'
rejection o f his w i s d o m brings their ruin u p o n t h e m (7:12-20; 10:5ff; cf. 14:24ff; 30:lff; 31:lff). T h e y are condemned to b e incompetent, that is, blind and deaf (6:9ff, cf. 28:9-14; 29:9-21), and hence to p u r s u e policies that will result in the devastation o f the land and exile (1:3; 5:13a; chs. 7-8; cf. 29:15ff; 30:1-5,12-17; 31:1-3). T h e conjunction o f judicial blindness and deafness, anti-idol polemics, and w i s d o m l a n g u a g e is, therefore, closely b o u n d up with the p e o p l e ' s idolatrous wisdom.
s t a n c e o v e r a g a i n s t the p r o p h e t ' s r e v e l a t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s M o r e specifically, the issue turns on their leaders' reliance on a
c o u n s e l for the future
preservation
o f J e r u s a l e m w h i c h is, at
dependent on the idolatrous outlook of the s u r r o u n d i n g n a t i o n s .
46
heart, Such
a course can only lead to disaster. (in) The Judgement It is h a r d l y
Effected:
The Encounter
with
Ahaz
c o - i n c i d e n t a l that Y a h w e h ' s c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f Isaiah
to
i m p l e m e n t the divine verdict is i m m e d i a t e l y followed b y an e n c o u n t e r with the nation's ultimate leader, A h a z (7:lff).
A h a z ' s 'pious' rejection o f
Y a h w e h ' s w o r d is not only paradigmatic, but also provides the archetypal illustration
of how
the
prophet's
message
confirms
unbelieving and idolatrous authorities in their b l i n d n e s s .
the
nation's
47
T h e form of Y a h w e h ' s word to A h a z is also significant. It is expressed primarily t h r o u g h the parabolic n a m e s o f the p r o p h e t ' s
4
'sign-children'
5
F o r K a i s e r , ' V e r k i i n d i g u n g ' , c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h f o r e i g n p o w e r s a n d t h e i r d e i t i e s is a r e f u g e o f f a l s e h o o d s , cf. 2 8 : 1 4 - 1 8 . 4 6 W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 1 4 4 f , s e e s t h e d e b a t e o v e r w h e t h e r Y a h w e h ' s c o u n s e l is in f a c t w i s e , w h e r e a s f o r J e n s e n , Use, 5 3 f , cf. 122ff, it is w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e p r o p h e t h a d a s p e c i a l insight into Y a h w e h ' s p l a n w h i c h the w i s e t h e m s e l v e s did not h a v e . T h u s for Jensen, 5 7 , the 'signs' of chs. 7-8 a r e intended to c o u n t e r the rational a r g u m e n t s of the wise, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y it is b e c a u s e t h e c o u n s e l l o r s r e c o g n i s e d t h a t if Y a h w e h ' s n^i? c o u l d b e k n o w n they w o u l d h a v e to yield, that their fault of v o l u n t a r y blindness to the light a l r e a d y o f f e r e d is s o c u l p a b l e . F r o m t h e l i t e r a r y p e r s p e c t i v e t a k e n h e r e , a r g u m e n t s a s t o t h e s e c o n d a r y n a t u r e o f c o n t r a r y t e x t s (e.g. 3 1 : 2 , J e n s e n , Use, 5 2 n 3 1 ) a r e n o t a p p l i c a b l e . In a n y c a s e it m a y w e l l b e t h a t b o t h m a t t e r s w e r e a t issue, a s J e n s e n s e e m s a l m o s t t o a d m i t , 5 5 . Cf. also M a r t i n - A c h a r d , 'Sagesse'. 4
7
L i e b r e i c h , ' P o s i t i o n ' , in p a r t i c u l a r s e e s Isa 6 : 9 f i m p l e m e n t e d in A h a z ' b l i n d selfr e l i a n c e a n d h i s c o n s e q u e n t j u d g e m e n t ; cf. S c h r e i n e r , ' B u c h ' , 1 4 8 ; J e n s e n , Use, 5 7 ; N i e l s e n , ' D r a m a t i c ' , 7, 9ff; S t e c k , ' B e r m e r k u n g e n ' , 198ff; ' B e i t r a g e ' , 1 6 1 ; W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 6 4 6 f .
194
Isaiah's
(8:18)
48
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
w h i c h function as proleptic testimonies to the nature and certainty
of Y a h w e h ' s future intervention (7:11, 14; 7:3, and 8:3).
H o w e v e r , the
crucial e l e m e n t is that Y a h w e h ' s w o r d b e h e a r d with faith. hearer's
response
blessing or c u r s e .
49
that
alone determines
whether
It is the
Immanuel
means
T h e preceding chapters indicate, h o w e v e r , that Ahaz,
a l o n g w i t h his officials and the b u l k o f the nation, h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y rejected the w o r d o f Y a h w e h .
Their continued—but in the light o f their
previous responses hardly unexpected—rejection o f the offer o f salvation ensures that the proffered salvation o f ' G o d - w i t h - u s ' b e c o m e s a w o r d o f devastating j u d g e m e n t (iv)
50
(7:170).
Summary
Isaiah 6:9f introduces one o f the m o r e significant motifs o f chapters 1-39: ' t h e e n i g m a o f o b d u r a c y to Y a h w e h ' s offer ( w h i c h ) r u n s t h r o u g h w h o l e o f Isaiah's a c t i v i t y ' .
51
the
Presupposing a recalcitrant nation, Y a h w e h ' s
judicial blinding o f the leadership as projected in 6:9ff is to b e understood in terms o f an ironic j u d g e m e n t u p o n the self-reliant w i s d o m o f those w h o h a v e rejected his word.
T h e blatant refusal o f the nation's wise ones
to attend to Y a h w e h ' s instruction precedes and occasions Isaiah's mandate. This m a n d a t e , effected by m e a n s of parabolic 'child-signs', then serves to confirm t h e m , archetypically so in A h a z , in their rejection o f Y a h w e h ' s word.
T r a p p e d in their o w n w i s d o m , the leaders will remain ' b l i n d ' and
' d e a f , w h i c h condition will ultimately lead to their d e s t r u c t i o n . e) Mark's
Beelzebul
(i) Isaiah
Controversy
and the Beelzebul
and the Parables
52
Chapter
Controversy
It is readily apparent that M a r k ' s account of Israel's religious authorities a n d their r e s p o n s e to J e s u s e x h i b i t s c l o s e parallels to the situation in Isaiah.
A s w e h a v e a r g u e d in the p r e v i o u s C h a p t e r , t h e B e e l z e b u l
altercation in M a r k 3 constitutes the literary c l i m a x o f t h e p r e c e d i n g
4
8
N i e l s e n , ' D r a m a t i c ' , 12ff; J e n s e n , Use, 1 0 9 f ; cf. p a r a l l e l u s e o f n1» a n d D^ttto in E z e k
14:8. 4
9
H a s e l , Remnant, 2 8 5 - 8 7 ; E v a n s , ' C o n t e x t ' , 1 4 2 . S t e c k , ' B e r m e r k u n g e n ' , 199f; C l e m e n t s , 8 9 . v o n R a d , Theology, 2.154f. T h u s b o t h the 'because' a n d the 'purpose' senses a r e valid since they a r e t w o sides of t h e o n e c o i n . S e e n f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , Tg. Isa's r e l a t i v e c l a u s e m e r e l y r e c o g n i s e s t h a t this condition a l r e a d y prevails a m o n g the people. Rabbinic interpretations of Isa 6:9f a r e m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m i t i g a t i n g t h e t e x t ' s s e v e r i t y , E v a n s , See, 1 3 7 - 4 5 . 5
0
5
1
5
2
Isaiah
and
the
Beelzebul
195
Controversy
confrontations b y bringing to a h e a d the question o f J e s u s ' identity and the d i v e r s e r e s p o n s e s o f v a r i o u s g r o u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y , the hostility o f t h e scribes
from
Jerusalem.
5 3
T h e latter's r e p u d i a t i o n o f J e s u s , it w a s
suggested, recalls Isaiah 6 3 ' s recounting of the rebellion o f Israel in the first E x o d u s with the implication that Y a h w e h n o w b e c o m e s their e n e m y ( M k 3:29, cf. Isa 63:10). It w a s also proposed that M a r k ' s 'Parables C h a p t e r ' is intended to e x p l a i n t h e significance o f J e s u s ' parabolic r e s p o n s e .
54
This
section will argue that the appeal to Isaiah 6 in M a r k 4 , given the Isaianic c o n t e x t n o t e d a b o v e , n o t o n l y p r o v i d e s the interpretative link b e t w e e n these two M a r k a n passages but, in light of Malachi's warning, articulates a prior O T hermeneutic for the response o f Israel's leaders to J e s u s . T o begin, certain features in M a r k 3:20-35 are noteworthy.
5 5
A s already
observed o n several occasions, the controversy c o m e s as the capstone, not only to a series o f J e s u s ' 'mighty w o r d s and deeds', b u t also to a consistent pattern o f questioning and rejection b y various leadership groups. although in 3:6 the Pharisees and the Herodians plot J e s u s ' d e a t h ,
Second, 56
this is
the first time o p e n rejection surfaces (3:22). Third, it is also the first time that the officials a r e d e s c r i b e d as c o m i n g 'from J e r u s a l e m ' , implicating the national centre.
thereby
Finally, this climactic c o n t r o v e r s y gives
rise to M a r k ' s first explicit statement that Jesus spoke kv TTapapoXat?.
5
3
5
4
5
5
5
6
5
7
57
See K e e g a n , 'Leaders', for a s u r v e y of v i e w s o n Mark's presentation of t h e g e o g r a p h ical r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s c r i b e s a n d t h e P h a r i s e e s . I s a 6 3 , a f t e r r e c a l l i n g I s r a e l ' s g r i e v i n g o f G o d ' s H o l y Spirit a t t h e E x o d u s , g o e s o n in v . 1 7 t o l a m e n t G o d ' s p r e s e n t h a r d e n i n g o f t h e i r h e a r t (cf. I s a 6 : 1 0 ) . G i v e n t h a t G o d ' s h a r d e n i n g j u d g e m e n t c o m e s o n h i s p e o p l e w h e n t h e y b e c o m e h i s e n e m i e s (cf. I s a 1:24 a n d 6 : 1 0 ; P s 9 5 : 8 f f ) , it m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h e s a m e m o t i f p e r t a i n s h e r e . I n t h e B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y , t h e l e a d e r s w h o h a v e s e e n Y a h w e h ' s w o r k , n e v e r t h e l e s s , reject it a n d s o g r i e v e his H o l y Spirit (3:29a). Y a h w e h then b e c o m e s their e n e m y (3:29b) w h i c h leads to t h e motifs of blinding, h a r d e n i n g of the heart, etc. (4:12). A l t h o u g h it c a n n o t b e e n t e r e d i n t o h e r e , it s e e m s t o m e t h a t t h e w h o l e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e fulfilment o f a p a r t i c u l a r O T t e x t is ' u n d e r s t o o d ' b y t h e N T a u t h o r s often f o u n d e r s o n a c o n f u s i o n o v e r w h a t 'fulfilment' m e a n s . If a n y t h i n g , t h e u s e o f e.g. H o s 11:1 in M t 2 : 1 5 o r t h e w a y i n J e s u s is s e e n a s 'fulfilling' t h e L a w ( M t 5 : 1 7 ; cf. R o m 1 0 : 4 ) o u g h t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e N T a u t h o r s a r e o p e r a t i n g w i t h a c o n c e p t i o n o f fulfilment w h i c h a s s u m e s the p a r a d i g m a t i c o r typological significance of the O T — a s Y a h w e h h a d d o n e h e w o u l d d o a g a i n ; a s p e r e.g. F o u l k e s , Acts; D o d d , According, 127ff—rather than the m o r e c o m m o n l y a s s u m e d literal p r e d i c t i o n . T h i s m a y b e t h e i m p e t u s for t h e i m p l i e d e l e c t i o n o f a n e w l e a d e r s h i p i n 3 : 1 3 - 1 9 ; e.g. C r a n f i e l d , 1 2 7 ; R e n g s t o r f , TDNT, 2.326; Schweizer; Lane; Guelich. Pesch, 1.204n4, d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o L X X I s a 4 3 : 1 a n d 4 4 : 2 e t c . w h e r e c o n c e r n i n g I s r a e l it r e a d s : 6 Qebg 6 TToniaas* a c , cf. L k 2 2 : 3 0 ; J e r v e l l , ' T w e l v e ' . O n n e w c r e a t i o n in I s a i a h , s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 5 5 , fn. 9 2 . A l s o n o w G u n d r y , 1 8 1 . J e s u s m a y u s e p a r a b l e s e a r l i e r , e.g. 2:21 f, b u t 3:20ff m a r k s a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e i r f u n c t i o n , s e e b e l o w . O n t h e b r e a d t h o f t h e p a r a b l e genre a n d t h e
196
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
T h e parallels w i t h the Isaiah context are significant.
First, given the
n a t u r e o f the w i s d o m debates in Isaiah, it is n o t e w o r t h y that the m o s t p r o m i n e n t o p p o n e n t s o f J e s u s are the scribes, w h o are m e n t i o n e d alone (1:22; 2:6; 3:22; 9 : 1 1 , 14; 12:28, 3 8 ) , with the Pharisees (2:16; 7:15), the chief priests (10:33; 11:18; 14:1; 15:31), and the elders and chief priests (8:31; 11:27; 14:43, 5 3 ; 1 5 : 1 ) .
58
T h e y w e r e professionally c o n c e r n e d with the L a w and
had at least three duties: A ) to interpret and elaborate the L a w appropriate to the t i m e s ; B ) to instruct s t u d e n t s , a n d C ) to p a r t i c i p a t e in j u d i c i a l activities.
5 9
T h u s , they h a d a significant role as the n a t i o n ' s advisers,
analogous to the ' w i s e ' in Isaiah's day. S e c o n d , just as I s a i a h ' s p o l e m i c s w e r e directed primarily against the c o u n s e l l o r s and the leaders o f J e r u s a l e m , so too M a r k n o t e s that these scribes are 'from J e r u s a l e m ' .
T h i r d , in Isaiah the confrontation b e t w e e n
Y a h w e h and the leaders is set within the context of his divine kingship.
In
M a r k the overall context is the proclamation o f Y a h w e h ' s reign in terms of the a d v e n t o f the K i n g d o m o f G o d as Y a h w e h c o m e s 'in strength', the parables c o n c e r n the k i n g d o m , and the B e e l z e b u l debate itself is cast in terms w h i c h imply kingdoms ( M k l:14f; 4 : 1 1 , 2 6 , 3 0 ; cf. 3 : 2 4 ) .
60
Fourth, in
the b o o k o f Isaiah the leaders' hostility toward, and rejection of, Y a h w e h ' s instruction w a s the presupposition S i m i l a r l y in M a r k , the o p p o s i t i o n
o f the j u d i c i a l b l i n d i n g o f Isaiah 6. to J e s u s a n d
the c r i t i c i s m o f his
teachings and deeds, which h a d been building for s o m e t i m e but are n o w out in the open, provide the immediate context o f J e s u s ' use o f the judicial blinding m o t i f o f Isaiah 6 .
6 1
Fifth, and finally, in both cases this considered
rejection o f Y a h w e h ' s word, whether spoken b y the prophet or revealed by Jesus, is explicitly met with parabolic forms of c o m m u n i c a t i o n (Isaiah 7:lff; M a r k 3:23).
c o n s e q u e n t d i f f i c u l t y o f d e f i n i t i o n s e e B o w k e r , ' M y s t e r y ' ; B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' , 64ff; M i n e t t e - T i l l e s s e , Secret, 2 0 1 - 1 6 ; B o u c h e r , 17ff; D r u r y , ' S o w e r ' , 375ff, a n d Parables, 7 - 3 8 , a n d passim. 5
8
5
9
Osten-Sacken, 'Streitgesprach', 376-81; Kingsbury, 'Religious', 4 6 ; Smith, ' O p p o n e n t s ' , 1 6 7 . O n s c r i b e s a n d e s o t e r i c w i s d o m , J e r e m i a s , Jerusalem, 237-43. N o t e also the p r e s e n c e o f ' t w o p a i r s o f p a r a l l e l w i s d o m s a y i n g s ' in 4 : 2 1 - 2 2 , 2 4 - 2 5 , B o u c h e r , 5 3 . G n i l k a , 1 . 7 9 ; S a l d a r i n i , ' P h a r i s e e s ' , 1 0 , c i t e d in M a l b o n , ' L e a d e r s ' , 2 6 5 . G u n d r y , 3 5 7 , o b s e r v e s t h a t ' t h e w i s d o m o f J e r u s a l e m i t e s w a s w e l l k n o w n ' , cf. Lam. Rab. 1.1 § 4 . Cf. S c h n e c k , 1 2 3 . S o a l s o G n i l k a , Verstochung, 205; Mann, 264; and n o w Schneck, 127. 6
0
6
1
Israel's
(ii) Israels
Leaders
Leaders
and Blinding
and Blinding
197
Judgement
Judgement
Given these parallels, it is worth noting that there are also several striking similarities b e t w e e n M a r k 3:20-35 and 4 : l - 3 4 :
62
A ) both passages contrast those w h o are 'outside' with those w h o are 'around' Jesus (3:21, 31ff; 4 : 1 0 f ) ,
63
B ) b o t h p a s s a g e s c o n c e r n k i n g d o m s , in that 3:24 i m p l i e s S a t a n ' s kingdom while 4:11 speaks o f the kingdom of G o d , C ) both the Scribes from Jerusalem in 3:23a and the outsiders in 4:11 are addressed in parables, D ) b o t h passages h a v e w a r n i n g s concerning non-forgiveness (3:29; 4:12c),
64
Given the literary proximity o f the two passages, these similarities strongly suggest that M a r k ' s account of the teaching on the p u r p o s e o f the parables flows directly out of J e s u s ' parabolic response to the open repudiation o f his exorcisms b y the Jerusalem Scribes. In the light o f t h e p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n the I s a i a n i c contexts,
6 6
6 5
and
Markan
the appeal to Isaiah 6:9f suggests that the judicial b l i n d i n g
effected b y J e s u s ' parables (whether understood narrowly as his w o r d s or inclusive o f his actions, cf. T O : uavja 6
v. l i b
6 7
) c o n c e r n s those w h o h a v e
2
O n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f 4 : 1 - 3 4 s e e e.g. S t a n d a e r t , 2 0 1 - 1 8 ; D e w e y , 1 4 7 - 5 2 ; L a m b r e c h t , Astonished, 86ff; M a r c u s , Mystery, 221 ( w h o follows Dupont, T r a n s m i s s i o n ' ) ; Beavis, Audience, 133ff; F a y , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' . 6
3
6
4
6
5
6
6
6
7
Cf. n o w G u n d r y , 1 9 6 .
A m b r o z i c , 5 3 f ; C o u t t s , ' " O u t s i d e " ' ( w h o a s n o t e d a b o v e s e e s 4 : 1 2 ' s d<j>€8fj r e f l e c t i n g 3 : 2 9 ) ; C e r f a u x , ' c o n n a i s s a n c e ' ; F a r r e r , Study, 2 4 0 ; F u s c o , Parola, 2 4 7 . T w o o t h e r Isaianic influences o n M k 4:1-34 h a v e been suggested. E v a n s , 'Isaianic', s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i d e a o f t h e r e m n a n t in 6 : 1 3 a n d t h e m e t a p h o r o f w o r d a s s e e d in 5 5 : 1 0 - 1 1 ' p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r a skillfully (sic) d e v e l o p e d m i d r a s h ' w h i c h ' a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of M a r k ' s t h e o l o g y o f t h e c r o s s ' e x p r e s s e s t h e Isaianic t h e o l o g y : ' o u t o f j u d g e m e n t c o m e s sal v a t i o n ' , 466f. A p a r t f r o m q u e s t i o n s a s t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Isa 6 : 1 3 , o n e is h a r d - p r e s s e d t o find t h e c o n c e p t o f r e m n a n t in 4 : l f f w h i l e t h e t h e o l o g y o f s a l v a t i o n o u t o f j u d g e m e n t is h a r d l y u n i q u e t o I s a i a h . W i l l i a m s , Gospel, 4 6 , a l s o p i c k s u p o n t h e i d e a o f J e s u s ' d e a t h p o i n t i n g t o I s a 5 3 : 1 0 ('he s h a l l s e e h i s s e e d ' ) s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e s e e d t h a t is s o w n is t h e S o n of M a n . G i v e n t h a t t h e o n l y s u b s t a n t i v e link is t h e w o r d ' s e e d ' a n d e v e n t h e n it is u s e d in different s e n s e s — a g r i c u l t u r a l v e r s u s g e n e a l o g i c a l — W i l l i a m s ' s u g g e s t i o n is t e n u o u s . G u n d r y , 1 9 8 , states that 'Mark d o e s n o t inform his audience that the O T l a n g u a g e of G o d is b e i n g u s e d ( c o n t r a s t 1 : 2 - 3 ; 7 : 6 - 7 ; 1 4 : 2 7 ) ; s o t h e e m p h a s i s r e s t s s o l e l y o n t h e o b s c u r a t i v e p u r p o s e a s s u c h ' . A p a r t f r o m it b e i n g u n c l e a r w h e t h e r G u n d r y ' s c o n c l u s i o n n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w s , t h e fact r e m a i n s t h a t u n t o l d n u m b e r s o f r e a d e r s h a v e s e e n h e r e a v e r y c l o s e r e n d e r i n g o f t h e O T p a s s a g e , a n d it is t h e r e f o r e s t r a n g e t o s u g g e s t t h a t n o n e of M a r k ' s readers would h a v e m a d e the s a m e connection. B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' , 6 1 f f ; B o u c h e r , 8 5 f ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 5 6 , 109-11; and the l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 6 3 , fn. 1 3 2 . G u n d r y , 2 0 0 , a r g u e s t h a t ra T\dvia r e f e r s o n l y
198
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
steadfastly rejected Y a h w e h ' s delivering activity manifest in J e s u s .
68
If so,
then the j u d g e m e n t in 4 : l l f is directed against those religious authorities, particularly the ones 'from J e r u s a l e m ' but also p r e s u m a b l y the others w h o h a v e p l o t t e d his d e a t h in M k 3:6 (v. 5: ' h a r d n e s s o f heart'), w h o categor ically o p p o s e d themselves to J e s u s in 3 : 2 0 - 3 5 most implacable enemies.
7 0
69
and w h o h a v e b e c o m e his
Just as in the past Y a h w e h had refused to
c o u n t e n a n c e forgiveness (Isa 2:9b; 6:10; cf. e.g. l:24f, 2 8 , 3 1 ; etc.), so also h a v i n g c o m e u n d e r the ultimate sanction for attributing the activity o f the H o l y Spirit to Beelzebul (Mk 3 : 2 9 )
71
these leaders are n o w the ' o u t s i d e r s '
for w h o m the parables function as j u d g e m e n t ( M k 4:12c; cf. 1 2 : 9 ) .
73
72
Here
too, I m m a n u e l — t h i s time expressed in terms of Y a h w e h ' s I N E presence— b e c o m e s a w o r d of j u d g e m e n t w h e n not met with repentance and faith. O n this line of thinking, the i va clause is clearly purposive. As J u d a h ' s rebellious rulers had
been confirmed
in t h e
consequences of
their
u n w a v e r i n g refusal to accept Y a h w e h ' s plan, so too in Mark. T h e nation's present leaders, w h o in the 'blindness' of their 'idolatrous w i s d o m '
7 4
have
t o M k 4's k i n g d o m p a r a b l e s a n d n o t h i n g else. H o w e v e r , a s is e v i d e n t in o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s a n d in p a r t i c u l a r h i s e x o r c i s m s w h i c h a r e , a f t e r all, t h e c a t a l y s t for M a r k ' s ' p a r a b l e s c h a p t e r ' , t h e s e a c t i o n s c l e a r l y h a v e a p a r a b o l i c d i m e n s i o n . ° S e e a l s o C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 152ff. Cf. C o u t t s , ' " O u t s i d e " ' ; B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 6 8 ; a l s o H u b a u t , ' p a r a b o l e s ' ; M y e r s , Binding, 1 7 3 . T h i s a l s o e x p l a i n s M a t t h e w 1 3 : 1 3 ' s o n . Pace M a n s o n , ' M a r k ' , 1 3 3 f , J e s u s ' u s e o f p a r a b l e s in t h i s s e n s e m o r e i m i t a t e s t h a n transcends the prophet's earlier 'failure'—where m u c h d e p e n d s on w h a t one r e g a r d s as failure. E v a n s , w h o h a s d o n e t h e m o s t w o r k o n t h e I s a i a n i c c o n t e x t , fails t o c o n s i d e r t h e p r e c e d i n g B e e l z e b u l p e r i c o p e in his d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l c o n t e x t of M k 4 , See, 1 0 1 - 3 . 8
6
9
7
0
O t h e r s h a v e a l r e a d y p l o t t e d a g a i n s t J e s u s in 3 : 6 b u t t h e k e y i s s u e h e r e is t h a t J e s u s ' r e j e c t i o n is n o w officially in t h e o p e n a n d , m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y g i v e n t h e c i t y ' s t h e o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , it c a r r i e s t h e i m p r i m a t u r o f J e r u s a l e m . Light, 7 1
K i n g s b u r y , ' R e l i g i o u s ' ; M a l b o n , ' L e a d e r s ' , 2 7 0 f ; A m b r o z i c , 5 6 - 6 2 ; b u t cf. B u r k i l l , 216ff, o n the Pharisees.
Pace G u e l i c h , 1 . 1 8 0 , w h o s e e s J e s u s ' s t o p p i n g s h o r t of s u c h j u d g e m e n t . O t h e r s u g g e s t i o n s h a v e been: n o n - d i s c i p l e s ( B e h m , TDNT, 2 . 5 7 6 ; M e y e , ' T h o s e ' ) ; n o n C h r i s t i a n s ( N i n e h a m , 2 3 7 f ) ; n o n - i n i t i a t e s ( S m i t h , Secret, 2 3 6 ) ; old Israel (Gnilka, Verstockung, 8 5 ) ; s e e f u r t h e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n in B e a v i s , Audience, 70-75. E v a n s , ' N o t e ' , in p a r t i c u l a r o b s e r v e s t h a t b o t h I s a i a h a n d J e s u s s p e a k a w o r d o f o b d u r a c y in t h e c o n t e x t o f Israel's j u d g e m e n t ; cf. G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 8 ; F a r r e r , Study, 240ff; C o u t t s , '"Outside"'; C e r f a u x , 'connaissance'; T r o c m e , 'Parables', 462f; Boobyer, 'Redaction', 68f; F u s c o , Parola, 2 2 8 ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 8 9 - 9 5 ; K l a u c k , Allegorie, 248; Trocme\ 'Parables', 460. B o u c h e r , 8 2 , is c o r r e c t t o s e e t h e ' o u t s i d e r s ' in 4:1 I f a s r e p r e s e n t i n g J u d a i s m o n l y i n t h e limited sense implied b y 12:lff w h i c h depicts the r e m o v a l of Israel's p r e s e n t leadership. Pace C h i l t o n , Galilean, 97f, 4:1 I f is n o t m e r e l y a ' t e m p e r a m e n t a l i r a s c i b i l i t y . . . d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t o u t s i d e r s a n d i n s i d e r s a l i k e ' w h i c h s e e k s 'to s h a m e t h e m i n t o a m o r e p o s i t i v e appreciation of his message'. O n t h i s m e t a p h o r i c a l u s e o f ' i d o l a t r y ' , s e e C h a p t e r 8 . Pace J o h n s o n , ' T h e m e ' , 2 3 0 , M a r k ' s a p p l i c a t i o n o f b l i n d n e s s is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h O T a n d N T p r a c t i c e . I n v i e w o f t h e link 7
2
7
3
7
4
The
Crowds,
Outsiders,
and
199
Insiders
spurned G o d ' s w i s d o m for their o w n reasonings (cf. 6 i a X o y i £ € a 9 a i in 2:6ff, 11:31) and rejected the inbreaking I N E reign o f Y a h w e h in Jesus (l:14f), are confirmed in their 'blindness' and thereby given over to their r u i n .
75
That
this is so seems supported, for example, not only by the use o f the censure of Isaiah 29:13 in M a r k 7 b u t also b y M a r k 12:12 (cf. Isa 5:lff!).
The
' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' o f the c h i e f p r i e s t s , s c r i b e s , and e l d e r s ( 1 1 : 2 7 ) ,
who
perceive that the vineyard parable is 'told against them', actually sets their self-destruction in train since w h a t matters is not m e r e perception b u t a perception that leads to the r e p e n t a n c e a n d faith called for b y J e s u s ' p r o g r a m m a t i c a n n o u n c e m e n t in M a r k 1:15:
H C T C X V O C I T C
Kai
T U < J T € U € T € .
7
6
They n o w face a n e w and p e r h a p s final eschatological exile (see Chapter 9 on the use o f Isa 5:lff imagery in M k 12:lff; cf. M k 13). (Hi) The Crowds,
Outsiders,
H o w e v e r , this ' p u r p o s i v e '
and
Insiders
s e n s e raises difficulties largely d u e to the
uncertain status o f the c r o w d in 4:1 and of the ' t h e m ' in 4:33f. T h e 'insideroutsider' terminology (3:31ff) and the distinction implied in 4:10f and 4:33f together suggest that the groups in 4:1 and 4:33f are o u t s i d e r s .
77
But h o w is
this to b e reconciled with M a r k ' s m o r e positive treatment of the c r o w d s elsewhere in the gospel (e.g. 3:32ff; 6:34; 7:14), let alone the injunctions to hear (4:3, 9, cf. vv. 2 3 f ) ?
78
This long-recognised p r o b l e m derives primarily
b e t w e e n idols a n d d e m o n s ( C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 5 7 ) , t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f b l i n d n e s s t o I s r a e l ' s h o s t i l e leadership m a y support Robinson's suggestion, 35-42, that these leaders are the h u m a n c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h e d e m o n i c (cf. R e v 2 : 9 a n d L X X N u m 1 6 : 3 ; C a i r d ; S w e e t , 2 8 f ; B e a s l e y M u r r a y ) ; s e e f u r t h e r A m b r o z i c , 5 6 f ; D a n k e r , ' D e m o n i c ' , 56ff, 6 5 f ; pace B e s t , Temptation, 21. 7
5
7
6
7
7
7
8
S o a l s o e s p e c i a l l y M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 1 1 - 1 7 ; cf. B e a v i s , Audience, 102f. Kirkland, ' E a r l i e s t ' , 1 5 , w h o s e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e p a r a b l e s ' c o n f o u n d w h a t t h e d u l l a r d m a y think h e a l r e a d y k n o w s ' is c o r r e c t e x c e p t t h a t it is t h e w i s e w h o a r e c o n f o u n d e d b y t h e i r knowledge. W h e t h e r those on the outside are irrevocably so probably depends on whether t h e y c o n t i n u e in t h e i r self-reliant w i s d o m , cf. M o u l e , ' M o r e ' , 9 9 . K e l b e r ' s s t a t e m e n t , 2 5 f , t h a t ' f r o m n o w o n s p e a k i n g "in p a r a b l e s " b e c o m e s J e s u s ' h a b i t u a l m o d e o f s p e e c h r e s e r v e d for t h e o p p o s i t i o n ' , is c l o s e t o t h e m a r k , if o v e r s t a t e d . O n p a r a b l e s a n d c o n c e a l m e n t in apocalyptic settings: H a r v e y , 'Mystery'; Siegman, 'Teaching'; Patten, 'Form'; MinetteTillesse, Secret, 194ff; a n d M a r c u s , ' E p i s t e m o l o g y ' , a l t h o u g h it s h o u l d b e e v i d e n t t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t i o n is e n t i r e l y a t h o m e in t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f I s r a e l ' s c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s . C f . e.g. B o u c h e r , 8 1 , w h o is f o l l o w e d b y K i n g s b u r y , 1 7 ; pace, R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 2 7 - 3 3 ; L a m b r e c h t , Astonished, 139-43; and G u n d r y , 198, w h o holds the 'riddling parables' to be 'meaningless to outsiders'; see further C h a p t e r 9. E . g . R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 7; cf. A m b r o z i c , 5 5 . A m b r o z i c , 5 5 - 7 0 ; J e r e m i a s , Parables, 1 8 ; R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 27-47, and 'Messianic', 92ff; M o u l e , ' M o r e ' ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 1 . O n t h e c r o w d in M a r k : C i t r o n , ' M u l t i t u d e s ' ; M o s l e y , ' A u d i e n c e s ' ; T a g a w a , Miracles, 5 7 - 6 3 ; T r o c m e , 'public'; M i n e a r , ' A u d i e n c e ' ; B e s t , 'Role', 3 9 0 - 9 3 ; M a l b o n , 'Disciples'. F o r s u m m a r i e s o f o t h e r a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in M k 4 , R a i s a n e n , 76ff, G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 289ff.
200
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
from an a s s u m p t i o n that there are only two categories in M a r k , 'insiders' and ' o u t s i d e r s ' .
79
But is this stark dichotomy valid?
To begin, it s e e m s unlikely that the crowd in 3:32, 3 4 is to b e identified w i t h 6 oxXog
T T X e t a T o c ; in 4 : 1 .
8 0
Not only do the 'very many
and
contrasting roles ... s h o w that the c r o w d possesses n o unitary role in the gospel', simpliciter,
8 1
b u t the fact that M a r k can s p e a k variously o f either a c r o w d or an oxXog-
TTOXU£,
or an oxXoc;
TTXCICTTOC;
indicates that for him
' c r o w d ' is m e r e l y a w a y of referring to an indefinite group.
Further, the
distinctive characteristic of the first ' c r o w d ' is that they are n c p l a u T o v (3:32, 3 4 ) , the s a m e identifying characteristic of those 'with the t w e l v e ' in 4:10 w h o , according to 4:11, are distinguished from the multitude in 4 : 1 .
8 2
Second, granted that 4:10 sets the T w e l v e and those around Jesus apart from the oxXo?
4:11 applies the negative function o f the parables
TTXCIO-TOS-,
only to oi €£o) (cf. 3 : 2 0 f f ) .
83
Although this m a y b e read to i m p l y that those
o u t s i d e a n d the g r e a t c r o w d are o n e a n d t h e s a m e , designations suggest c a u t i o n .
85
8 4
the
different
And again, w h a t then w o u l d b e the point
of the w a r n i n g s a n d injunctions if the ' g r e a t c r o w d ' o f 4:1 is already 'outside'? Third, 4:33f introduces yet another designation, a v a g u e 'them', w h o are contrasted to the disciples w h o receive explanations. In t e r m s o f the c o n c e r n s o f this a n a l y s i s t h e r e are, therefore, five different designations o f groups in these contiguous accounts: A ) a n $x\os
w h o sits u c p l a u T o v (Jesus) a n d w h o r e c e i v e s his
c o m m e n d a t i o n (3:32, 3 4 ) , B)
oxXos*
TTX€IO-TO£
(cf. o x X o s in 4:2) w h o , unlike the first crowd, are
not d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g n c p l avrbv
a n d w h o a r e e n j o i n e d to h e a r
carefully (4:1, 3 , 9 ) ,
7 9
E . g . Q u e s n e l l , 8 5 f ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 106f; 'Epistemology'; Lane, 157; Boucher, 4 3 ; R a i s a n e n , 78f; a n d G u e l i c h , 1.203ff, w h o s e e m s u n c e r t a i n a s t o w h e r e t h e c r o w d s b e l o n g . A s d o e s Minear, "Audience', 82f, a l t h o u g h h e recognises the possibility that they a r e d i s t i n c t . It is difficult t o tell if t h e c r o w d in 3 : 2 0 is t o b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h o s e in 3:32ff, o r w h e t h e r t h e l a t t e r is a s u b s e t o f t h e f o r m e r . Best, 'Role', 3 9 2 . 8 0
8 1
8 2
8 3
8 4
Lambrecht, 'Redaction', 279. M i n e a r , ' A u d i e n c e ' , 8 3 ; cf. G u n d r y , 196ff.
A s ' t h e r e a d e r m u s t a s s u m e ' , a c c o r d i n g t o R a i s a n e n , 7 8 ; cf. B o u c h e r , 4 3 . C f . G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 8 ; a n d n o w a l s o T o l b e r t , Sowing, 160, w h o recognises that the d i s c i p l e s / c r o w d p o l a r i t y is n o t t o b e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e o u t s i d e r / i n s i d e r c a t e g o r y . 8
5
Crowds,
Outsiders,
and
201
Insiders
C ) o l TT€pl a u T o v a u v Tote; 6 a ) 6 € K a , w h o are ' i n s i d e r s ' and a p p a r e n t l y
regarded a s disciples ( 4 : 1 0 , 3 4 ) ,
86
D) oi €^o) for w h o m the parables function as j u d g e m e n t (4:11), E ) the e n i g m a t i c ' t h e m ' ( a u T o t c ; , 4:34) w h o (i) are n o t TT€pl a u T o v , (ii) m a y b e identical to g r o u p
(B),
(iii) o n l y r e c e i v e p a r a b l e s
KotOwc;
f | 6 u v a v T o a K o \ k i v (4:33), (iv) are contrasted with J e s u s ' disciples, and (v) do not, therefore, receive further private explanation (v. 3 4 ) . H o w are these groups related? Since the p r e c e d i n g account concerning the Beelzebul controversy a n d the n a t u r e o f J e s u s ' true family p r o v i d e s the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t for t h e e n s u i n g material o n parables it m a y offer s o m e h e l p .
8 7
The controversy
itself, as w e h a v e seen, strongly suggests that the scribes from J e r u s a l e m are o n the 'outside', b u t w h a t o f the m e m b e r s of J e s u s ' very o w n bloodline w h o are twice described as being 'outside' (c£a) O T T I K O V T C C ; in 3:31, and €£oa in v. 32)? A l t h o u g h M a r k aligns J e s u s ' family with the scribes in that b o t h groups
misunderstand
him,
8 8
n e v e r t h e l e s s s o m e d i s t i n c t i o n s e e m s in
order since they neither explicitly repudiate J e s u s ' activity b y attributing it to B e e l z e b u l , n o r a r e they, c o n s e q u e n t l y , a d d r e s s e d in J e s u s ' r e b u k e . W h a t then is M a r k d r i v i n g at?
8 9
G i v e n that J e s u s ' family is o b v i o u s l y
' o u t s i d e ' in the spatial sense, the metaphorical use o f c ^ u in 4 : 1 1 n e v e r theless s u g g e s t s that M a r k is a l r e a d y l o o k i n g forward to t h e p a r a b l e s material.
90
A n d indeed, the spatial 'outside-inside' distinction (vv. 31-32)
is quickly transposed into the matter o f m e m b e r s h i p o f J e s u s ' true family
8 6
M a r c u s , Mystery, 8 9 . Kara \iovag e m p h a s i s e s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h i s f o l l o w e r s a n d o t h e r s . T h e l a t t e r g r o u p c o m p r i s e s n o t j u s t o u t s i d e r s (pace G u n d r y , 1 9 6 ) b u t a l s o t h e undecided c r o w d s (see below). 8 7
B o t h W e n d l i n g , Entstehung, 31ff, a n d G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 8 , r e g a r d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of € ^ C J i n 3 : 3 1 f a n d 4 : 1 1 a s t h e k e y l e x i c a l link in t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e o l t r a p ' a u T o u K . T . X . i n 3:21 a l s o s e r v e s t o link t h e B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h J e s u s ' s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t h i s t r u e f a m i l y in 3:31ff; Best, ' M a r k ' ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 1 6 8 - 7 2 , 2 0 8 ; s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 4 5 a b o v e . 8
8
E.g. C r o s s a n , 'Relatives', 1 1 3 ; L a n e , 147; Guelich, 1.186; Hooker, 1 1 4 . G o u l d e r , 'Outside', 2 9 8 , w h o aligns J e s u s ' family w i t h the scribes a n d then, in a w a y r e m i n i s c e n t o f W e e d e n , T y s o n , a n d C r o s s a n , i n g e n i o u s l y c a s t s all t h i s in t e r m s o f M a r k ' s r e - w r i t i n g t h e p a s t in t h e c o n t e x t o f a p r e s e n t c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n M a r k ' s p r o - P a u l c o m m u n i t y a n d a P h a r i s a i c J e r u s a l e m c h u r c h r u l e d b y J e s u s ' f a m i l y . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , M a r k ' s a n t i - J e r u s a l e m p o l e m i c (if it c a n i n d e e d b e s o c a l l e d ) e q u a l l y r e f l e c t s a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g O T p r o p h e t i c c r i t i q u e o f t h e failure of Israel's l e a d e r s h i p . 8 9
A l s o G u n d r y , 1 8 0 , 1 9 9 , cf. L a m b r e c h t , ' R e l a t i v e s ' , 2 4 5 f ; pace E d w a r d s , ' S a n d w i c h e s ' , 209f. H o w e v e r , a s H o o k e r , 1 1 5 , o b s e r v e s ' m a d n e s s w a s often r e g a r d e d a s d u e t o p o s s e s s i o n b y a demon'. E . g . M a r c u s , Mystery, 8 9 ; n o w a l s o G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 1 . 9 0
202
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
(vv. 33-34); a designation w h i c h is reserved for those w h o d o the will of the father, w h i c h in the context translates into being hearing his t e a c h i n g .
TTCOI
a u T o v (Jesus) and
91
A l t h o u g h M a r k does not elucidate further, it m a y well b e his purpose, h a v i n g a l r e a d y s h o w n that outright rejection o f J e s u s e x c l u d e s o n e from G o d ' s k i n g d o m , to i n d i c a t e that e v e n t h e c l o s e s t k i n s h i p ties a r e n o t sufficient g r o u n d s to a s s u m e i n c l u s i o n either.
A n d if insufficient for
J e s u s ' o w n kith and kin, h o w m u c h less for the average Israelite? In this sense J e s u s radically alters b o t h national and familial obligations: h e alone m u s t b e the locus o f their l o y a l t i e s .
92
If this reading is correct, then M a r k in 3:20-35 is concerned to establish t w o key p a r a m e t e r s .
93
First, to reject J e s u s (as h a v e the representatives o f
the national leadership) is to invite the severest j u d g e m e n t , and, s e c o n d , e v e n that m o s t sacrosanct o f all ancient inter-personal obligations, that o f b l o o d l i n e , is insufficient to gain access to the K i n g d o m .
It appears that
with his account o f the J e r u s a l e m scribes' pivotal rejection o f J e s u s and his explanation o f the parables, M a r k e x p o s e s an e m e r g i n g division, a sifting o f Israel into 'insiders' and ' o u t s i d e r s '
94
and within this context affirms the
absolute priority o f the need to respond in repentance and faith to J e s u s , irrespective o f religious-cultural and familial loyalties. In the light o f the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a p p o i n t m e n t o f the T w e l v e , the i m p l i c a t i o n for M a r k s e e m s to b e that only as o n e identifies with the ' S / s o n o f G o d ' can o n e b e c o m e a true ' s o n of G o d ' , a true I s r a e l i t e .
95
Otherwise, o n e b e c o m e s
9 1
Cf. G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 8 ; G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 5 . O n f a m i l y o b l i g a t i o n s a n d l o y a l t i e s s e e M a l i n a , World, 94ff; P i l c h a n d M a l i n a , Social, 70ff. A c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s , t h e L a w r a n k s h o n o u r i n g p a r e n t s ' s e c o n d o n l y t o h o n o u r t o G o d ' , Ap. 2 . 2 7 ; cf. Ant. 4 . 2 6 0 - 5 ; P h i l o , De Spec. Leg. 2 . 2 2 5 , 2 2 6 ; L e v 2 0 : 9 ; a n d D t 2 1 : 1 8 - 2 1 . 9
2
9
3
9
4
9
5
S e e t h e s t r u c t u r a l o u t l i n e in C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 4 5 a b o v e . A division entirely consistent with the concerns of Malachi (as already noted) a n d I s a 5 6 - 6 6 , in p a r t i c u l a r 6 5 : 8 - 1 6 a n d 6 6 : 5 ; s e e e.g. H a n s o n , Dawn; W e s t e r m a n n , Isaiah, 302ff; W i l l i a m s o n , ' C o n c e p t ' ; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, \7ii. S e e C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 2 , o n t h e title ' m y s o n ' a s a d e s i g n a t i o n f o r I s r a e l . F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e T w e l v e in 3:13ff m a y p r e f i g u r e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a r e n e w e d I s r a e l u n d e r a n e w l e a d e r s h i p , w i t h l o y a l t y t o J e s u s a s its c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ( 1 2 : 9 , s e e a l s o fn. 5 6 a b o v e ) . G i v e n t h e I s a i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' i m a g e r y e a r l i e r i n M a r k , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e h o w t h e faithful a c t i o n o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' in I s a 5 3 s e e m s t o b e t h e c a t a l y s t f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f o t h e r ' s e r v a n t s ' i n Isa 5 4 ; s e e W a t t s ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 5 5 . T h u s G n i l k a , 1 . 1 5 3 , 'Diese j i i d i s c h e e m p f u n d e n e M a x i m e (vgl. R o m 2,17f) e r f a h r t i m W o r t J e s u e i n e n n e u e n Orientierungspunkt'.
Crowds,
Outsiders,
and
203
Insiders
an 'outsider' which, given its usage elsewhere, could well imply no longer being an I s r a e l i t e .
96
It is intriguing that the s a m e c o n c l u s i o n s e e m s to b e r e a c h e d at the c l i m a x of a series o f increasingly a c r i m o n i o u s p o l e m i c s b e t w e e n Y a h w e h and Jacob-Israel in Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 .
9 7
A n d this too in the context o f Y a h w e h ' s
a n n o u n c e m e n t o f salvation (40: Iff).
H a v i n g already h a d to r e m i n d
the
exiles of his s u p r e m a c y o v e r the idols, and that it w a s their faithlessness, not his, that c a u s e d their present distress, Y a h w e h ' s anger finally boils over at their questioning his w i s d o m in using C y r u s as his agent.
Jacob-
Israel might s w e a r ' b y the n a m e o f the L o r d ' and 'confess the G o d of Israel' but it is 'not in truth or right' (Isa 48:1).
T h e y are Israel in n a m e only.
I m m e d i a t e l y after this Isaiah 4 9 a n n o u n c e s the election o f a n e w servant. It s e e m s that a similar pattern is being repeated here. C a s t in s u c h terms, it is plain that groups ( A ) and ( C ) are ' i n s i d e r s ' to w h o m the m y s t e r y o f the k i n g d o m of G o d
9 8
has b e e n g i v e n .
99
Group ( D ) ,
the outsiders, consists for the present of those religious authorities in 3:203 5 for w h o m t h e p a r a b l e s n o w function as j u d g e m e n t o n their wisdom.
own
T h i s , o f course, leaves groups ( B ) and ( E ) which, in the presence
of the injunctions to h e a r and the statement about J e s u s ' teaching ' t h e m ' in so far as they are able to hear, do not happily fit either c a t e g o r y . One solution
is to a s s u m e
that
M a r k is e i t h e r n o t
100
particularly
c o m p e t e n t o r s i m p l y n o t c o n c e r n e d to s m o o t h o v e r e v e r y d i s c r e p a n c y ,
9
6
T h u s , a l t h o u g h G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 1 , in n o t i n g t h e u s e o f t h e l a n g u a g e t o r e f e r t o n o n - J e w s ( S t r - B , 2 . 7 ) rejects t h e n o t i o n t h a t ' o u t s i d e r s ' c a n m e a n t h o s e o u t s i d e I s r a e l , it m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h i s is p r e c i s e l y w h a t M a r k h a s i n m i n d , i n t h a t t o r e f u s e t o i d e n t i f y w i t h ' t h e ' S o n is t o e x c l u d e o n e s e l f f r o m faithful I s r a e l (cf. Sir, P r o / . , 1 C o r 5:12f; C o l 4 : 5 ; 1 T h e s s 4 : 1 2 ; S w e t e , 7 6 ; L a g r a n g e , 'but', 2 6 ; a n d S i e g m a n , ' T e a c h i n g ' , 1 7 3 , w h e r e ' o u t s i d e r s ' b e c a m e 'a s t a n d a r d r a b b i n i c t e r m f o r G e n t i l e s o r for J e w s less i n s t r u c t e d t h a n t h e P h a r i s e e s ' , c i t e d i n Boucher, 43n4). 9
7
9
8
9
9
1
0
S e e t h e a r g u m e n t a t i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 3 5 - 4 9 . O f p r i m a r i l y S e m i t i c b a c k g r o u n d o f ' m y s t e r y ' . B r o w n , Semitic; B o r n k a m m , TDNT, 4 . 8 2 0 f ; B o w k e r , ' M y s t e r y ' ; M a r c u s , Mystery; B e a s l e y - M u r r a y , Kingdom; Bockmuehl, Mystery; b u t cf. H a r v e y , ' M y s t e r y ' ; a n d B e a v i s , Audience, 143ff. O n its s i g n i f i c a n c e in M a r k , e s p e c i a l l y B o u c h e r , 80ff; T u c k e t t , ' C o n c e r n s ' , 16f; D a h l , Memory, 1 4 1 - 6 6 . L a n e , 1 5 6 ; M i n e a r , ' A u d i e n c e ' , 8 2 ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 89f. O n t h e c o n f i n i n g o f e x p l a nations to the inner g r o u p throughout the gospel, Baird, 'Pragmatic'. 0
S o a l s o G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 0 , w h o n o t e s ' a p p a r e n t l y t h e c r o w d is able t o h e a r t h e w o r d i n p a r t — a d i s t i n c t i o n is m a d e b e t w e e n " t h e m " a n d "his o w n d i s c i p l e s " , w h o r e c e i v e a full e x p l a n a t i o n p r i v a t e l y ' . D r u r y , Parables, 6 0 , r e s o l v e s t h e t e n s i o n b y t a k i n g ' a s t h e y w e r e a b l e ' t o m e a n ' w i t h o u t c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , cf. 4:1 I f ; b u t this s e e m s t o fly in t h e f a c e o f t h e injunctions to h e a r carefully.
204
Isaiah's
Promise
e v e n rather blatant o n e s . is p o s s i b l e .
1 0 1
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
O n the other hand, a m o r e n u a n c e d approach
In the b u i l d u p to this section, v a r i o u s c r o w d s h a v e b e e n
present at the beginning, during, and after the e n d o f the five controversy stories (2:4, 13, 3:9). Furthermore, not only does the climactic B e e l z e b u l / family controversy take place in the context o f a gathering c r o w d (3:20) but the parables material likewise begins with a similar reference (4:1). All this suggests that in addition to those w h o are c o m m i t t e d to J e s u s and those w h o reject h i m , M a r k is also c o n c e r n e d with the v a r i o u s c r o w d s
who
follow J e s u s and particularly s o given the increasing polarisation w h i c h J e s u s occasions. Consequently, w h i l e it is true that for M a r k there are, in the end, only two fundamental
c a t e g o r i e s , n a m e l y , insiders a n d o u t s i d e r s (cf. 3:33f),
nevertheless, the existence o f groups ( B ) and ( E ) indicate that it is not yet t h e c a s e , a s is often
assumed,
that
immediately, either inside or o u t s i d e .
102
everyone must
necessarily be,
O n the contrary, the point s e e m s
to b e that, in the face o f the increasing criticism and n o w o p e n rejection of J e s u s , the m o m e n t o f decision has crystallised.
W h i l e s o m e h a v e taken
sides, there are the large n u m b e r s o f u n c o m m i t t e d folk w h o are as yet neither ' o u t s i d e r s ' (as are the hostile religious authorities) n o r ' i n s i d e r s ' (those TT€pl a u T o v ) b u t w h o are n o w confronted w i t h the n e e d to decide w h e r e they will stand. S u c h o n e s — c o - e x t e n s i v e w i t h the oxXos* nXeiojos
a n d t h e ' t h e m ' if
M a r k e x c l u d e s both the religious authorities and J e s u s ' followers from the two g r o u p s ,
1 0 3
or, if M a r k is d e e m e d to include 'outsiders' and 'insiders'
within these groups then comprising only part o f the oxXos 1
0
1
1
0
2
1
0
3
1
TTXCIGTOS"
and
C f . M e a g h e r , Clumsy; C h i l t o n , Galilean, 94ff; R a i s a n e n , 3 3 , T f h o w e v e r o n e s t o p s e x p e c t i n g a n y t h i n g like full c o n s i s t e n c y , a p o r t r a i t m i g h t e m e r g e o f M a r k a s . . . a r e l a t i v e l y skilful w r i t e r ' . A l o n g s i m i l a r lines m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s a r e e x e r c i s e d b y t h e v a r i o u s shifts i n s c e n e a n d a u d i e n c e , e.g. h o w c a n J e s u s w h o is a l o n e a n d s e a t e d i n a b o a t ( 4 : 1 - 2 ) b e a p p r o a c h e d ( v . 1 0 ) , s o e.g. G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 3 f ; G n i l k a , 1 . 1 6 4 ? W h i l e it m i g h t b e t h a t M a r k w a s u n a w a r e o f s u c h d i l e m m a s it is a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t h e e x p e c t s a m o d i c u m o f r e a d e r l y expertise, akin p e r h a p s to the m o d e r n film-goer w h o copes rather well with such things as ' u n a n n o u n c e d ' s c e n e c h a n g e s a n d flashbacks. T h e fact that c o m m e n t a t o r s notice s u c h 'discrepancies' suggests that M a r k h a s indeed signalled his scene a n d a u d i e n c e changes. F u r t h e r m o r e , the c o m p o s i t e n a t u r e of the account simply serves to indicate that Mark's real i n t e r e s t lies i n t h e d y n a m i c w a y in w h i c h t h e v a r i o u s j u x t a p o s e d s c e n e s i n t e r a c t r a t h e r t h a n a p l o d d i n g b l o w - b y - b l o w a c c o u n t (cf. Ball, Seven, 5 5 - 1 0 3 ) . A s e.g. Q u e s n e l l , 8 5 f ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 0 6 f ; L a n e , 1 5 7 ; B o u c h e r , 4 3 ; R a i s a n e n , 78f; cf. G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 8 , w h o r e c o g n i s e s t h a t t h e c r o w d s a r e n o t ' o u t s i d e r s ' b u t t h e n n o t b e i n g s u r e w h a t t o d o w i t h t h e m t a k e s r e f u g e in a c o n v o l u t e d r e d a c t i o n a l h i s t o r y ; 1.258f. W i t h m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s w h o s e e t h e c r o w d s a s d i s t i n c t f r o m 'insiders'.
The
the ' t h e m '
1 0 4
205
Disciples
— a r e , therefore, s p o k e n to KCLQ&s r j 6 u v a v T o dtKouciv
exhorted 'to h e a r ' c a r e f u l l y .
105
and
This is, after all, precisely the point o f the
parable of the soils: the w o r d is being p r o c l a i m e d and hearers m u s t b e careful how they respond ( 4 : 9 ) .
106
If they hear and repent and believe then
to the little they have, m o r e will b e a d d e d . will b e accessible to them.
1 0 7
T h e mystery of the kingdom
If they reject J e s u s ' teaching and refuse to b e
TT€pl a u T o v , then, having chosen not to do G o d ' s will (cf. 3:35), the parables will effect judicial b l i n d i n g so that as with the religious authorities e v e n the little they have will b e taken a w a y (4:24f; cf. 12:9; 1 3 : 2 ) . (iv) The
108
Disciples
Although m o r e fully discussed in Chapter 8, s o m e c o m m e n t o n the matter of the d i s c i p l e s ' lack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g (4:13; 7:17f; 8:14-21; 10:10-12) is appropriate
s i n c e it is also frequently
contradictions in Mark.
c i t e d as e v i d e n c e o f
inherent
S u c h a view correctly observes that the ' w i s d o m '
terminology in M a r k 4 (blindness, deafness, lack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , etc.) constitutes the d a t u m for its use in the rest o f the g o s p e l .
109
T h e fact that
such language is indicative o f an irrevocable bifurcation in Israel only adds to its significance. H o w e v e r , although the disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n m a y at first blush appear to characterise t h e m as 'outsiders', in fact neither ' b l i n d n e s s ' n o r 'lack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' , w h e t h e r in terms o f M a r k or o f a b r o a d e r I N E perspective, 1
0
4
1
0
5
1
0
6
1
0
7
1
0
8
1 1 0
can b e c o n s t r u e d as sure signs o f b e i n g e i t h e r u n d e r
As Gundry, 190,234. T h u s e.g. 7 : 1 4 is n o t t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n R a i s a n e n , 9 0 , i m a g i n e s . V v . 3 3 f d o n o t i n v o l v e h a r d e n i n g a n d offer little s u p p o r t for M a r c u s ' t w o - s t a g e h a r d e n i n g t h e o r y . Mystery, 107f. B o u c h e r , 43ff, 82ff; K i n g s b u r y , 1 7 ; a n d T o l b e r t , Sowing, 1 5 0 f , w h o n o t e s 'the v i t a l r o l e o f h e a r i n g f o r t h e w h o l e p r o c e s s is s t r e s s e d b y t h e c o n s t a n t r e p e t i t i o n ' , c i t i n g t h i r t e e n o c c u r r e n c e s of otKouciv i n c l u d i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g (4:3) a n d e n d (4:33); cf. G u n d r y , 2 0 4 . O n v a r i o u s b a c k g r o u n d s t o this w i s d o m p r o v e r b , G e r h a r d s s o n , ' P a r a b l e ' , 180f, c i t i n g 2 Esd. 9 : 2 9 - 3 3 ; B o u c h e r , 4 3 ; Q u e s n e l l , 8 1 - 8 5 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 1 9 7 ; a n d M a r c u s , Mystery, 154f, w h o n o t e s Q u m r a n a n d r a b b i n i c p a r a l l e l s ( t h e l a t t e r f r o m L i n d e s k o g , ' L o g i a - S t u d i e n ' , 148ff). Cf. G u n d r y , 2 0 3 , w h e r e the p a r a b l e s p r e s u p p o s e , i n s t e a d of c a u s e , division; a l t h o u g h it is n o t c l e a r t h a t J e s u s t h e r e b y s u c c e s s f u l l y p r e d e t e r m i n e s h i s d e a t h . M a r c u s ' apocalyptic 'secret' model, 'Epistemology', misses the point because he reads M a r k through t h e l e n s o f Q u m r a n m a t e r i a l s . F u r t h e r m o r e , g r a n t e d t h e p r e d e s t i n a r i a n n a t u r e o f e.g. 1 Q H l:19f; o t h e r t e x t s e.g. 1 Q S 4 : 1 1 ; 8 : l l f ; 9:17ff; C D 8:32ff; c a n a l s o d e s c r i b e G o d ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h o s e w h o h a v e a l r e a d y r e j e c t e d h i s w o r d , cf. 1 Q H 2 : 9 - 1 9 ; 1 Q S 5 : l l f . W h a t e v e r the u n d e r l y i n g theological implications of 'he w h o h a s e a r s to hear', M a r k s e e m s n o t to m a k e p r e d e s t i n a r i a n h a y f r o m t h e m . R a t h e r , M a r k ' s c o n c e r n is t h e r e s p o n s e o f faith t o Y a h w e h ' s r e v e l a t i o n a l I N E c o m i n g in J e s u s , a s M a r c u s a l m o s t s e e m s t o a d m i t , 5 6 2 n 2 0 . 1
0
9
1
1
0
E s p e c i a l l y B e a v i s , Audience, S e e f u r t h e r . C h a p t e r 8.
87-130.
206
Isaiah's
Promise
...
j u d g e m e n t or an ' o u t s i d e r ' .
Malachi's
111
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
Instead, the central issue is not w h e t h e r
one sees for in o n e sense all the h u m a n observers involved are blind and labouring u n d e r misconceptions of s o m e sort. Instead, it is whether or not o n e is willing to let g o of conventional w i s d o m , to follow and 'be a r o u n d ' Jesus, and so participate in the revelation o f the mystery o f the K i n g d o m . J e s u s ' question in 4 : 1 3 , although probably expressing frustration, is from this perspective m o r e ironic than extirpative: if y o u disciples cannot grasp this parable about the need to understand properly (vv. 3-9), h o w will you e v e r u n d e r s t a n d a n y o f the p a r a b l e s ?
1 1 2
Nevertheless, s i n c e they h a v e
b e e n g i v e n the m y s t e r y o f the k i n g d o m ,
1 1 3
J e s u s offers
instruction.
114
That he will continue to lead these 'blind' disciples ( M k 8:17) along a path they do n o t k n o w is the very point o f M a r k ' s increasing tendency to focus on the disciples' incomprehension prepares for his ' W a y ' s e c t i o n . f) 'The Parable
which, beginning
with
Mark 4,
115
Theory'
Finally, s o m e observations o n the implications o f the a b o v e for the socalled Parabeltheorie
are almost de rigeur.
In its c o m m o n form the theory
posits A ) a sharp division between J e s u s ' disciples and others, and B ) that the p a r a b l e s are p r e d e s tin a r ia n in intent, essentially i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e ,
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
4
1
1
5
M y e r s , Binding, 1 7 2 , n o t e s a s i m i l a r t e n s i o n in D a n i e l a n d E z e k i e l , w h e r e e.g. t h e wise u n d e r s t a n d but the wicked d o not, a n d yet the seer confesses his o w n failure to understand ( D n 12:8, 10b, L X X ) . P e r h a p s the further instruction of the disciples indicates t h a t t h e t i m e o f t h e ' s e a l i n g u p ' o f t h e w o r d s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e n d o f d a y s is a t a n e n d (cf. R e v 2 2 : 1 0 ) . O n D a n i e l in M a r k , S u n d b e r g , T e s t i m o n i e s ' , 2 7 4 ; a n d K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' . Pace B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' , w h o a r g u e s t h a t 'this p a r a b l e ' is v v . l l f . F i r s t , h e fails t o a p p r e c i a t e t h i s b r o a d e r s e n s e o f ' h e a r i n g a r i g h t ' , cf. W e n h a m , ' S y n o p t i c ' , 1 8 n 2 4 ; Q u e s n e l l , 7 9 - 8 1 ; a n d s e c o n d , h i s s o l u t i o n fails h i s o w n t e s t for it is n o t c l e a r h o w m e r e l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g that o n e h a s been given the m y s t e r y will ' m a k e the disciples m e n with u n d e r s t a n d i n g "to k n o w all t h e p a r a b l e s ' " , 6 7 , cf. T u c k e t t , ' C o n c e r n s ' , 1 7 . M a r c u s , Mystery, 9 8 , s e e s t h e p a r a b l e s a s t h e c h a n n e l o f t h e d i v i n e gift, b u t in v. 11 t h e d i s c i p l e s ' e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s t a t u s is n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e c r o w d s t o w h o m t h e m y s t e r y h a s not been given. A similar criticism m a y be levelled against B r o w n , 'Secret'. The c o n d i t i o n o f h a v i n g b e e n g i v e n t h e m y s t e r y is t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m u n d e r s t a n d i n g it, cf. Tuckett, 'Concerns', 16. Following v a n Iersel, 'System', 91f, w h o indicates m y s t e r i e s a r e n o r m a l l y ' r e v e a l e d ' n o t ' g i v e n ' ( c i t i n g e.g. dTTOKaXuTTTG) L X X : Sir 3 : 1 8 ; 2 7 : 1 6 , 1 7 , 2 1 ; T h e o d . : D a n 2 : 1 9 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 , 4 7 , 4 9 ; a n d dvaKaAuTTTO) in L X X : D n 2 : 2 8 , 2 9 ; T h e o d . : D n 2 : 2 9 ; a n d o t h e r v e r b s ) , G u n d r y , 197, d r a w s a helpful distinction b e t w e e n 'mystery' a n d the ' k i n g d o m ' w h e r e the 'kingdom' h a v i n g been given—as o p p o s e d to having been 'revealed'—does not contradict t h e n e e d for t h e ' m y s t e r i o u s ' c o n t e n t o f t h e p a r a b l e s t o b e e x p l a i n e d . Cf. P e t e r s e n , ' C o m p o s i t i o n ' , 205ff, w h o s e e s t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n , n o t W r e d e ' s m e s s i a n i c s e c r e t , 8 7 - 1 1 7 , a s t h e m a i n t h e m e o f 4:1 - 8 : 2 6 .
The
and d e s i g n e d to h a r d e n .
1 1 6
Parable
207
Theory
W h i l e it is true that the crisis precipitated b y
J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y initiates a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d u l t i m a t e l y final s e p a r a t i o n between 'insiders' and 'outsiders', Mark's so-called 'contradictions', I submit, are instead the result o f the ambiguity w h i c h necessarily arises out of the fact that the sifting o f Israel is still in process. S o m e h a v e m a d e u p their m i n d s for or a g a i n s t J e s u s , b u t the v a s t majority h a v e not.
These
latter constitute a third category (viz. the ' c r o w d s ' ) w h o are taught
Ka9a>c;
T | 6 u v a v T o <XKO\)€\V
and
are
regularly
exhorted
to
listen
carefully;
p r e s u m a b l y , that they m i g h t e n t e r into the m y s t e r y o f the k i n g d o m and avoid c o m i n g under the judgement n o w initiated upon the hostile 'outsiders'.
Again Mark's opening evocation of Isaiah's promise of
salvation (40:Iff) and M a l a c h i ' s warning to the unprepared is not far a w a y . S e c o n d , the parables m a y b e held to b e incomprehensible—but only in the terms that M a r k h i m s e l f sets up for us. A s m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e noted, it is clear that the parables are neither utterly indecipherable c o d e nor gibberish, e v e n to outsiders (e.g. 1 2 : l f f ) .
117
It is possible that M a r k m a y
h a v e b e e n s o dull as to h a v e m i s s e d this apparent 'contradiction'.
B u t it
s e e m s m o r e likely that his c o n c e r n is with a genuine c o m p r e h e n s i o n that l e a d s to r e p e n t a n c e a n d faith in J e s u s as t h e i n a u g u r a t o r o f the I N E Kingdom of God.
T h i s is entirely in k e e p i n g with J e s u s ' p r o g r a m m a t i c
a n n o u n c e m e n t (cf. 1:1, 1 4 f ) .
1 1 8
O n c e again, as n o t e d in the c a s e o f the
disciples, the issue is not a matter o f w h e t h e r or not o n e fully u n d e r s t a n d s but instead w h e t h e r o n e repents, has faith, and follows Jesus. It is this that u l t i m a t e l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s the disciples, and e v e n the u n d e c i d e d c r o w d s , from the J e r u s a l e m scribes. T h e latter alone h a v e firmly shut the door o n Jesus and his m e s s a g e .
1 1 9
H. Raisanen, in particular, has challenged this kind o f approach largely b e c a u s e it denies, h e c l a i m s , the patently o b v i o u s predestinarian character of 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 . 1
1
6
1
1
7
1
1
8
1
1
9
1 2 0
T h e difficulty here is that, if the Isaianic sense and the larger
S e e d i s c u s s i o n s in e.g. M a r c u s , Mystery, 73f; B e a v i s , Audience, 78ff; R a i s a n e n , 76ff. E . g . R a i s a n e n , 87ff; B o u c h e r , 83ff. G u n d r y , 2 0 0 , w h o r e c o g n i s e s t h i s f a c t , skirts t h e difficulty b y r e d u c i n g t h e r e f e r e n t o f ' p a r a b l e s ' in 4:1 I f t o i n c l u d e o n l y t h o s e in M k 4 w h i c h d e a l w i t h t h e k i n g d o m . T h e d i f f i c u l t y h e r e is t h a t M a r k d o e s n o t s e e m t o m a k e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n h i m s e l f , cf. v v . 3 3 f . C f . G n i l k a , 1 . 1 7 2 ; M a r s h a l l , Faith, 72ff; B o u c h e r , 82ff; M a r c u s , Mystery, 103-6. Cf. Guelich, 1.208, 2 1 1 . 120 "Messianic", 8 8 , w h o a l s o w a r m l y c o m m e n d s M e a g h e r , Clumsy, 1 2 0 - 2 2 , for t a k i n g 'seriously the s t e r n l y p r e d e s t i n a r i a n c h a r a c t e r of 4 . 1 1 f (in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h 4.34)', 2 9 . R a i s a n e n ' s a s s e r t i o n s e e m s t o r e s t o n t h e c o r r e c t l y n o t e d ' p u r p o s i v e ' s e n s e o f t h e l'va a n d
208
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
M a r k a n context are any guide, the reason for the parables (4:1 If) cannot, simpliciter,
b e d e e m e d predestinarian in the usual s e n s e .
1 2 1
A s w e have
seen earlier, Isaiah 6:9-10 c o m e s as Y a h w e h ' s judicial response
to a people
and a leadership w h o have already repeatedly refused his overtures. same considered
refusal
The
is m a n i f e s t in M a r k ' s a c c o u n t — a l t h o u g h
it
should b e noted that in M a r k only the leadership h a v e m a d e this break and h e n c e the greater possible ' o p e n n e s s ' o f the parables to the p e o p l e at large (4:33f).
T h i s is precisely the point o f the series o f controversies,
culminating as they d o in J e s u s ' rejection b y the leadership, n a m e l y scribes from J e r u s a l e m .
F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , T. W . M a n s o n ' s c o m m e n t
that
M a r k 4 : 1 2 f is a 'definition o f the sort o f character w h i c h prevents a m a n from b e c o m i n g o n e o f those to w h o m the secret ... is g i v e n '
1 2 2
only in terms o f the considered recalcitrance described a b o v e .
is true, but
1 2 3
M a r k ' s account o f J e s u s ' u s e o f Isaiah 6:9-10 is, then, not so m u c h a matter o f predestination as a judicial response to those w h o h a v e already refused his m e s s a g e , that is the 'outsiders', w h i c h both confirms t h e m in their logic and consigns them to the consequences of their c h o i c e s .
124
This
is still the case w h e n considering J e s u s ' implicit use o f parables prior to Mark's
explicit reference
in the B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y
1 2 5
s i n c e the
leadership h a d e v e n then rejected M a l a c h i ' s preparatory Elijah, J o h n the Baptist (cf. M k 1:14; 6:17ff; 11:27-33). JIT{TTOT€ c l a u s e s , 8 2 f . predestinarian. 1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
3
1
2
4
1
2
5
T h u s , allowing first that the w o r d
H o w e v e r , it is n o t c l e a r h o w h a v i n g a p u r p o s e m a k e s s o m e t h i n g
O f t h e r e c e n t m a j o r m o n o g r a p h s it is s u r p r i s i n g t h a t o n l y E v a n s , See, 1 7 - 5 2 , e x a m i n e s t h e I s a i a n i c c o n t e x t in d e p t h . B o t h R a i s a n e n a n d t h o s e w i t h w h o h e d i s a g r e e s ( e . g . B o u c h e r , K i n g s b u r y , a n d e v e n B e a v i s w h o is m o r e a w a r e t h a n m o s t o f t h e I s a i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d ) fail t o g i v e m o r e t h a n a c u r s o r y e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e I s a i a n i c s e t t i n g . W h i l e m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s n o t e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h 4:1 I f c o h e r e s o r c o n t r a s t s w i t h w h a t f o l l o w s , e.g. M a r c u s , Mystery, 228ff, v e r y little a t t e n t i o n is g i v e n t o t h e p r e c e d i n g M a r k a n c o n t e x t . M a n s o n , Teaching, 8 0 , c i t e d in M o u l e , ' M o r e ' , 9 9 (cf. 1 0 1 ) ; s e e a l s o G e r h a r d s s o n , 'Parable', 180f; Cranfield, 'Mark', 6 1 ; Kirkland, 'Understanding', 13; Guelich, 1.213. A l t h o u g h t h e t e x t d o e s n o t o v e r t l y s t a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e h e a r e r s ' r e a c t i o n , in M a r k a s in I s a i a h , t h e c o n t e x t p r e s u p p o s e s it, pace R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 8. O n the other h a n d , the true significance of the parables s e e m s not a l w a y s to be immediately a p p a r e n t — t h e y a p p e a r to require further explanation by Jesus—which s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e c o u l d w e l l b e a c e r t a i n ' h i d d e n n e s s ' t o t h e p a r a b l e s . If s o , t h e n t h e r e m a y b e s o m e g r o u n d s f o r s e e i n g a d i v i n e v e i l i n g a t w o r k . C f . M a r s h a l l , Faith, 7 3 , w h o r e c o g n i s e s t h a t h i d d e n n e s s 'is t h e v e r y s t r a t e g y o f r e v e l a t i o n ' b u t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o s e e h i d d e n n e s s a s a n i m p e d i m e n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d s o p l a c e s all h i s e m p h a s i s o n h u m a n responsibility. T o a r g u e f r o m the soils b e i n g only w h a t t h e y a r e t o s o m e s o r t of d e t e r m i n i s m , M a r c u s , Mystery, 2 2 5 , a g a i n i g n o r e s J e s u s ' e x h o r t a t i o n t o h e a r c a r e f u l l y . If t a k i n g , e.g. t h e line o f B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' , w h o a r g u e s t h a t t h e e a r l i e r p a r a b l e s a r e a l s o in v i e w h e r e .
209
Conclusion
'hardening' is not u s e d ,
1 2 6
it is only in this specific sense that the parables
can b e c o n s i d e r e d as ' h a r d e n i n g ' : they h a r d e n those w h o h a v e already hardened their hearts, just as in Isaiah's d a y . g)
1 2 7
Conclusion
M a r k ' s 'Parables C h a p t e r ' is his p r o g r a m m a t i c response to the climactic Beelzebul c o n t r o v e r s y .
1 2 8
This is evident not only in the w a y o n e leads
directly into the other, thereby providing its immediate context, but also in their significant similarities.
In keeping with M a l a c h i ' s w a r n i n g , and as
revealed b y the B e e l z e b u l / f a m i l y controversy, a w i d e n i n g split is n o w occurring within Israel. W h e r e a s J e s u s ' a n n o u n c e m e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g 'in strength' signals the r e s t o r a t i o n o f sight to the b l i n d ,
1 2 9
the n a t i o n a l
leaders'
categorical rejection o f his ministry means that the parables confirm them in their ' b l i n d n e s s ' .
S u c h p e o p l e h a v e in fact rejected the K i n g d o m (cf.
l:14f) and w h a t little t h e y h a v e will b e taken a w a y .
As
'outsiders',
Y a h w e h ' s manifest presence ( T m m a n u e l ' ) m e a n s only j u d g e m e n t 1
2
6
1
2
7
1
2
8
1
2
9
(12:lff).
A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m i n o l o g y d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y o c c u r h e r e , t h e c o n c e p t is i n t e g r a l t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n a s is a p p a r e n t in I s a i a h a n d M a r k , a s B e a v i s , Audience, 89ff, n o t e s . C f . Boucher, 84, w h o although recognising the ambiguity of the concept, nevertheless correctly o b s e r v e s t h a t in t h i s s e n s e ' t h e p a r a b l e s a r e t h e m e a n s b o t h b y w h i c h G o d j u d g e s t h e hearers, and b y w h i c h the h e a r e r s bring j u d g e m e n t on themselves'. Space p r e c l u d e s a detailed p r o p o s a l on the c o h e r e n c e of 4:1-34 but the following s u g g e s t i o n is offered: in v i e w o f t h e fact t h a t a d i v i s i o n is u n d e r w a y w i t h i n I s r a e l ( 3 : 1 3 - 1 9 ) the c r o w d s w h o h a v e been following Jesus are confronted with a choice, inside or outside ( 3 : 2 0 - 3 5 ) , a n d t h i s t u r n s o n h o w t h e y ' h e a r ' ( 4 : 1 - 9 ) . W h y d o e s J e s u s ' s p e a k in p a r a b l e s (v. 1 0 ) ? B e c a u s e , o n t h e b a s i s o f I s a 6 , it is p a r t of Y a h w e h ' s p l a n t o c o n f o u n d t h e w i s d o m o f t h e w i s e w h o reject h i s p u r p o s e s ( v v . l l f , cf. 3:20ff). J e s u s t h e n i r o n i c a l l y c o m m e n t s o n t h e disciples' inability to h e a r p r o p e r l y (v. 1 3 ) a n d g o e s o n (vv. 21ff) to e x p l a i n that his s p e a k i n g in p a r a b l e s is n o t i n t e n d e d t o c o n c e a l t h e t r u t h b u t t o m a n i f e s t it (in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h G o d ' s p r i o r o b j e c t i v e , cf. Q u e s n e l l , 8 1 - 8 3 ) , a l t h o u g h a g a i n s t r e s s i n g t h a t t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e is h o w o n e h e a r s . V v . 1 4 - 2 0 e x p l a i n t h e p a r a b l e , n o t i n g h o w t h e n a t u r e o f t h e soil is r e v e a l e d in r e s p o n s e t o t h e s o w i n g o f t h e s e e d . U s i n g t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e light o f t h e l a m p , vv. 2 1 - 2 5 picture the revelatory impact of the parables, and again w a r n s about hearing a r i g h t : t h e little w i s d o m t h a t t h e s c r i b e s h a v e will b e t a k e n a w a y b u t t o t h o s e w h o h a v e e a r s t o h e a r , 'it' ( t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e m y s t e r y o f t h e k i n g d o m ) w i l l b e g i v e n ( v v . 23ff)T h e r e a s o n for c a r e f u l h e a r i n g is t h e n p r e s e n t e d : t h e k i n g d o m is n o t c o m i n g a s t h e w i s e e x p e c t it ( v v . 2 6 - 3 2 ) a n d t h e w h o l e c o n c l u d e s w i t h a s t a t e m e n t r e - a f f i r m i n g J e s u s ' d e s i r e t o reveal the truth, b u t o n his t e r m s (vv. 33f). Cf. e.g. W e i s s , Evangelium, 57f, w h o sees the 'parable t h e o r y ' as the basis of the m e s s i a n i c s e c r e t r a t h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r w a y a b o u t ; B o o b y e r , ' S e c r e c y ' , f o r w h o m 4:1 I f r e p r e s e n t s t h e ' t r u l y d e f i n i t i v e a c c o u n t o f t h e e v a n g e l i s t ' s p o i n t o f v i e w ' ( b o t h c i t e d in M a r c u s , Mystery, l l l n l 3 3 ) ; a n d n o w p a r t i c u l a r l y B e a v i s , Audience, 87-130,157ff. S e e p p . 1 7 0 f f a b o v e . A n d e r s o n , Understanding, 4 4 7 , sees Isa 4 0 : l f a s reversing the j u d g e m e n t o f I s a 6:9ff; M e l u g i n , Formation, 8 3 f , c o m p a r e s 1:4 w i t h 4 0 : 1 ; R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 298ff; A c k r o y d , ' P r e s e n t a t i o n ' , 45f; E v a n s , ' U n i t y ' , 1 3 7 .
210
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
O n the other h a n d , those w h o hear and respond in h u m b l e faith—even if they barely understand—find that they have b e e n given the mystery o f the kingdom and receive further instruction (4:24f; cf. 1 Q H 4:32f; 1 Q S 5 : l l f ) .
1 3 0
But for the undecided w h o are, as it were, in the middle, the parables are in a very real sense open-ended. They m a y lead to life, or death, and hence the urgent exhortation to 'hear carefully'. Everything d e p e n d s on it. T h e parable o f the s o w e r , with its exhortations to careful h e a r i n g , s o u n d s a warning against 'hearing' like the n o w 'outside' leaders w h o s e increasingly critical s t a n c e t o w a r d J e s u s h a s c u l m i n a t e d in their attributing to Satan that w h i c h derives from the H o l y Spirit. O n this basis, the primary point o f Isaiah 6 in M a r k 4 does not appear to b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h accounting for the b l i n d n e s s o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e en toto—although
the use of this h a r d e n i n g motif in J o h n 12:37ff a n d Acts
28:26ff s u g g e s t s that it m a y well foreshadow i t .
1 3 1
In M a r k ' s story, the
c r o w d s per se are n o t yet p r e s u m e d subject to the n e g a t i v e effect o f parables.
T h e building conflict cycle and its climactic culmination w h i c h
precede M a r k 4 are focussed on Israel's leadership, and especially those from J e r u s a l e m .
It s e e m s , therefore, that t h e p r i m a r y interest o f the
Beelzebul-Parables c o m p l e x in its immediate context is to explain h o w the l e a d e r s h i p ' s r e j e c t i o n o f J e s u s o n l y l e a d s to t h e i r j u d i c i a l b l i n d i n g . Nevertheless, there is surely another concern, n a m e l y , to w a r n others of the need for an appropriate response.
Ill Isaiah 29:13 in Mark 7:6f a) The Markan
Setting:
Tension
Over
Purity
It is n o t e w o r t h y that on the only other occasion prior to J e s u s ' arrival in Jerusalem when
h e is c h a l l e n g e d b y a u t h o r i t i e s from
Jerusalem
response is again c o u c h e d in terms o f an Isaianic j u d g e m e n t t e x t .
1 3 2
his The
confrontation in M a r k 7 arises out o f the disciples' failure to purify their 130 M a r c u s , Mystery, r e s p e c t i v e l y , 105f, a n d 9 0 f . 131 p L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 159f, w h o s e p a r a t e s M k 4 : l l f from the issue of parables, s e e i n g h e r e a n e x p l a n a t i o n for J e w i s h unbelief. In this s e n s e M a c k , Myth, 1 5 5 , is c o r r e c t . M k 4 is a b o u t t h e fate o f I s r a e l , a n d I m i g h t a d d , j u s t a s w a s I s a 6 b e f o r e it. Cf. G r u n d m a n n , 1 4 6 ; S c h m i d , 1 9 8 ; M a l b o n , ' L e a d e r s ' , 264f. T h e r e a r e further c o n f r o n t a t i o n s in 8 : 1 1 - 1 3 ; 9 : 1 4 ; a n d 1 0 : 2 - 1 2 b u t t h e s e d o n o t i n v o l v e l e a d e r s e x p l i c i t l y f r o m Jerusalem. a
1
3
2
c
e
Markan
hands
(Koivais'
Setting:
Tension
Over
211
Purity
x ^ p a i v ) after visiting the marketplace (vv. 1-5; cf. v. 4 ) .
1 3 3
C o m i n g to his d i s c i p l e s ' defence, J e s u s r e b u k e s the critics, d e n o u n c i n g t h e m in terms o f a citation from Isaiah 29:13 L X X (vv. 6f). T h e n , citing their practice o f Corban, he exposes the hypocrisy of their d e m a n d i n g strict adherence to the traditions of m e n while permitting the circumvention o f the c o m m a n d s o f G o d (vv. 8-13). This leads to a 'parable' addressed to the c r o w d s (cf. v. 16) w h e r e the n a t u r e o f true p u r i t y a n d d e f i l e m e n t
is
explained (vv. 14-23): it is a matter of the heart, not the hands. Before g o i n g on, h o w e v e r , several points should b e noted. 7:1-23 is generally regarded as breaking with the p r e c e d i n g
Although
narrative,
134
M a r k ' s s u m m a r y account o f J e s u s ' ministry in 6:53-56 a p p e a r s to set the scene for chapter 7, not only because the controversy immediately follows, but also b e c a u s e of its reference to the sick w h o are being brought kv raxg ayopdxg.
T h i s is the first time d y o p a
o c c u r s in the g o s p e l .
a p p e a r s o n c e m o r e before J e s u s arrives in J e r u s a l e m
1 3 6
1 3 5
It o n l y
and that is a few
verses later in an editorial insertion w h e r e M a r k explains t h e Pharisaic practice o f not eating without washing if they have c o m e a n ' ayopac; (v. 4 ; cf. w . 2, 5 ) .
1 3 7
While possibly a co-incidence, the fact that both occurrences
are in editorial c o m m e n t s strongly suggests otherwise. M a r k s e e m s to intend that 7:Iff b e read in the light o f the g e n e r a l ministry s u m m a r y o f 6:53ff.
If so, then M a r k presents a situation similar
to that w h i c h o b t a i n e d in M a r k 3 : 2 0 - 4 : 3 4 .
There, Jesus' deliverance of
d e m o n i s e d Israelites h a d b e e n met, not with thanksgiving, b u t censure. H e r e , J e s u s ' healing the sick is met, not w i t h joyful praise (cf. 7:37), b u t with renewed criticism, this time for transgressing w h a t is presented as a tradition o f the elders. parallels.
138
Furthermore, b o t h instances exhibit a n u m b e r o f
First, there is the s a m e overall literary structure. M a r k begins
1 3 3 T h p r o b l e m s w i t h M a r k ' s d e s c r i p t i o n a r e w e l l k n o w n . N e u s n e r , Pharisees, 2 3 0 f f , d e n i e s t h a t t h e P h a r i s e e s p o s s e s s e d s u c h t r a d i t i o n s , b u t s e e t h e e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n for t h e c o n t r a r y in G u n d r y , 358ff. In o u r c o n t e x t w e a r e c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n . e
1
3
4
1
3
6
1
3
7
1
3
8
S e e e.g. L a n e , 2 4 4 ; G u n d r y ; H o o k e r ; G n i l k a . 1 3 5 M y e r s , Binding, 2 1 8 , n o t e s M a r k ' s m e n t i o n o f t h e m a r k e t p l a c e b u t s e e s it o n l y i n terms of e c o n o m i c oppression, suggesting that the disciples' c o n t a m i n a t i o n results f r o m previous contact with the Gentiles. 1 2 : 3 8 is t h e o n l y o t h e r i n s t a n c e . T h e t e x t is a m b i g u o u s b e c a u s e o f a n ellipsis. P e s c h , T a y l o r , a n d G u e l i c h s u p p l y a plural impersonal p r o n o u n s o that 'things' from the m a r k e t place a r e w a s h e d , citing the l a c k o f e v i d e n c e f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w a s h i n g t h e m s e l v e s in this m a n n e r . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , Cranfield, Gnilka, a n d L a n e stay with the natural sense of the middle. Cf. A m b r o z i c , 7 0 f , 1 0 1 ; H e i l , Walking, 1 3 5 f ; B e a v i s , Audience, 92ff; cf. G u n d r y , 1 8 7 .
212
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
with a controversy which is followed b y a parabolic response both in word and in d e e d .
1 3 9
C o n t r o v e r s y (3:20-35)
C o n t r o v e r s y ( 7 : 1 - 1 3 ; cf. 6 : 5 3 - 5 6 )
- w h o is a t w o r k , Beelzebul
or Yahweh?
- scribes f r o m J e r u s a l e m a n d J e s u s '
- w h o is clean or
unclean?
- Pharisees, a n d scribes from
family m i s u n d e r s t a n d
Jerusalem as hypocrites, - Isa 29:13, hearts far from G o d
Parables as Response:
Parables as Response:
in W o r d ( 3 : 2 3 - 2 7 ; 4 : 1 - 3 4 )
in W o r d ( 7 : 1 4 - 2 3 ; cf. v. 1 7 )
- I s a 6 : 9 - 1 0 : see b u t n o t p e r c e i v e , h e a r b u t n o t u n d e r s t a n d , (v. 1 2 ) - D i s c i p l e s d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d (OT6<XT€, v. 1 3 , yvuSacaec, v. 1 3 b )
- Disciples w i t h o u t u n d e r standing (dau'vcToi € O T € ; OU V O € l T € , V . 1 8 )
in D e e d ( 4 : 3 5 - 5:43): Jesus as the INE
in D e e d ( 7 : 2 4 - 3 7 ) : purity
Yahweh-Warrior
Gentile
- s t o r m (disciples' d o n o t
and the
regions
- Syrophoenician w o m a n
u n d e r s t a n d (v. 4 1 ) ) / d e m o n i a c ; - unclean woman/Jairus'
- deaf and d u m b m a n
daughter
Parallels also exist in the details of the accounts. After the confrontation, Jesus addresses T O V o x ^ o v ( V . 14a; cf. 4:1) and in language reminiscent of the parables material he exhorts them to hear and to understand a parable (v. 14b; cf. 4:3, 9 ) . After a change of scene (v. 17; cf. 4:10), the disciples again ask for an explanation (v. 17; cf. 4 : 1 0 ) 4:13).
1 4 0
and yet again are rebuked (v. 18; cf.
M a r k 3:20 - 4:34 w a s in the c o n t e x t o f J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , h e r e the
confrontation is set in the context o f J e s u s ' healings, both activities being key indicators
of the I N E .
1 4 1
J u s t as J e s u s r e s p o n d e d
to the
first
controversy by continuing his parabolic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r activities (4:35ff) so here h e responds to this confrontation in a similar fashion and again in apparently
Gentile r e g i o n s .
1 4 2
T h e s e similarities strongly suggest that
M a r k i n t e n d s 6:53 - 7:13ff to b e read in terms o f the issues raised in 3:20 4:34. W h a t is o f further interest is that Isaiah 6 and Isaiah 2 9 , as w e shall
1
3
9
In p a r t i c u l a r . L a n e , 2 4 4 . T o l b e r t , Sowing, 148f, 164f, highlights the relationship b e t w e e n 4 : 1 - 3 4 a n d 4 : 3 5 - 5:43; n o w a l s o M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' , 2 1 8 f , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y 2 2 4 f , w h e r e 4 : 1 - 3 4 p r e c e d e s a s e r i e s o f p a r a b o l i c 6uvaiA€ic\ N o t e a l s o t h e s c r i b a l a d d i t i o n o f v. 1 6 , € i TIG € X € i ma O K O U C I V otKoucTU), cf. 4 : 9 , 2 3 . In c o m p a r i n g t h e s u m m a r y s t a t e m e n t s in 3 : 7 - 1 2 a n d 6 : 5 3 - 5 6 t h e f o r m e r h a s a g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s o n J e s u s ' p o w e r o v e r u n c l e a n spirits w h i l e t h e l a t t e r o n h i s h e a l i n g . L a n e , 2 5 9 ; S c h m i d , 1 9 8 ; P e s c h , 1.384; G r u n d m a n n , 1 4 6 ; A m b r o z i c , 2 2 4 . 1
4
0
1 4 1
1
4
2
Isaiah 29 in
213
Context
see, are also c l o s e l y related in that the latter a p p e a r s to d e s c r i b e the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the former. b) Textual
Matters Mark
7:6f
Isaiah
29:13
LXX*AQ
OUTO?
6
Xabg
€yyi£€i
uoi
6
OUTOS*
Xabg
MT
tM3 DVT\
T
uc
r
nu$,
f) 6k
VEQ
n u a k r i v |i€
Kap6(a
aiiTaiv
f) 6k
noppoj 6tTT€X€i otTT* € u o 0 '
Tioppa) a n c x c i
uaTTjv
uaTT)v
6€ acpovTal
6i6aaK0VT€S' €VTaXuaTa
uc
SidaoKaXiag
r
a
T
6 e oifiovTai
"^Eft
b
pm
DriNT T i m mft^fc D"WN
u€
TIN
avOpaynwv K O I 6 i 6 a a K a X i a s
a y a T T $ i n D W it » «
Isa 2 9 : 1 3 L X X :
"O^l
a n ' €uou-
6i6aaKOVT€s- € V T a X u o n r a
av9pu)TTa)V.
Mk7:6:
"OHM
Kap6ia auTwv
>
m^ft
c
ev (om Luc) Tip crrduaTi auTou, KOU cv in L X X ^ t D L u c
T h e manifold variants in the last part o f the Isaiah 29:13 suggest that the Hebrew
t e x t is c o r r u p t ,
1 4 3
b u t for o u r p u r p o s e s
the
significant
variations are few. M a r k ' s text m a y represent a very slight abbreviation o f the already shortened L X X * - , although if the omission o f kv T ( 3 a T o u a n A0
K.T.X.
parallels the t e n d e n c y s e e n in M a r k 4:12 to o m i t repetitive ideas, B
then his s o u r c e m a y b e L X X . significantly altered.
In any c a s e , the M T ' s m e a n i n g is not
T h e s a m e applies to the c h a n g e to T i u a to a c c o m
m o d a t e the omission o f the possessive plural.
T h e major issues concern
M a r k ' s dependence on the L X X w h ic h apparently read T i m over against the M T ' s Tffli, and a Piel masc. pi. (D'HB'ra, so also the Tg.) instead o f the M T ' s Pual fern. sg. (rnfc^fc) thereby suggesting a causal clause. C o m m e n t on this will b e left until after the following discussion. c) Isaiah
29 in
Context
Isaiah 29 b e l o n g s to that series o f utterances in c h a p t e r s 2 8 - 3 1 w h i c h , building on the earlier p o l e m i c s against idolatrous w i s d o m in the earlier chapters, constitute the book's most sustained attack on the
1 4 3
nation's
S e e W a t t s , 1 . 3 8 4 ; S t e n d a h l , School, 56ff; a n d G u n d r y , Use, 1 4 ; a n d Mark, 3 5 0 .
214
Isaiah's
leaders.
144
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
T h e historical setting is J u d a h ' s abortive participation in a rebel
coalition against Assyria, and, although chapter 2 8 a n n o u n c e s the c o m i n g of j u d g e m e n t u p o n the proud c r o w n o f the drunken and corrupt leaders of E p h r a i m (vv. 1-4), b y verse 14 it is clear that the prophet is w a r n i n g the rulers o f J e r u s a l e m w h o h a v e rejected his m e s s a g e .
1 4 5
T h e issues are
precisely t h e s a m e as those a d d r e s s e d earlier in the b o o k .
1 4 6
Set in the
context o f J e r u s a l e m ' s crisis, the ' w i s e ' (included in the 'obstinate children' in 3 0 : 1 , 9; cf. 1:2) reject Y a h w e h ' s instruction o r teaching (30:9-11), and increasingly resort to the nations and their idols as they plan their foreign policy (28:15; 30:1-5 (6f); 31:1-3). Nevertheless, Y a h w e h will accomplish his purpose (28:2f, 18-22): c o n d e m n e d to b e blind and deaf (28:9-14; 29:9-21) the nation's ' w i s e o n e s ' will p u r s u e policies that will result in the devastation of the land and ultimately exile (30:1-5,12-17; 31:1-3). In the light o f this b a c k g r o u n d , Isaiah 2 9 o p e n s w i t h a w o e o r a c l e against the capital w h i c h declares that Y a h w e h himself will lay siege to the city (vv. 1-8; cf. M k 1 3 ) .
1 4 7
V e r s e s 9 - 1 4 , a chiastic formulation in w h i c h
e a c h stanza is a variation on the t h e m e o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y ,
148
into a derisive i n d i c t m e n t o f J e r u s a l e m ' s blind a n d d e a f leaders.
launch Once
again, although verse 13 reads n tn D^n, it is clear that the leaders are again :
the primary targets (vv. 1 0 , 1 4 ) .
1 4 9
T h e p a s s a g e from which M a r k ' s J e s u s cites begins with a difficult verse. T h e point, h o w e v e r , s e e m s clear e n o u g h in that it taunts those w h o ought to h a v e k n o w n Y a h w e h ' s will b u t b e c a u s e o f their wilful rejection o f his w o r d are likened to staggering drunkards (v. 9; cf. 28:7): ... blind y o u r s e l v e s a n d b e blind, b e d r u n k b u t n o t with wine, stagger b u t n o t b e c a u s e o f s t r o n g d r i n k , f o r t h e L o r d h a s p o u r e d u p o n y o u a spirit o f d e e p s l e e p . H e h a s s h u t y o u r eyes, p r o p h e t s , a n d y o u r h e a d s , seers, h e h a s c o v e r e d (Isa 29:10).
1
4
4
1
4
5
1
4
6
1
4
7
1
4
8
1
4
9
S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 5 6 - 5 8 ; V r i e z e n , ' E s s e n t i a l s ' , 1 3 4 n 9 . E x u m , ' L i t e r a r y ' , 1 2 4 ; W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 0 4 4 ; cf. C l e m e n t s , 2 2 9 .
S e e p p . 1 8 8 f f a b o v e ; cf. J e n s e n , Use, 115ff. V v . 5 - 8 a r e difficult b e c a u s e o f t h e a p p a r e n t s u d d e n r e v e r s a l o f Y a h w e h ' s a t t i t u d e . C l e m e n t s r e g a r d s t h e m a s a later redaction while W i l d b e r g e r h a s Isaiah c h a n g i n g his s t a n c e . F o r E x u m , ' B r o k e n ' , 3 4 5 , t h e p o i n t is t h a t e v e n t h o u g h A s s y r i a is Y a h w e h ' s t o o l s h e w i l l e v e n t u a l l y b e p u n i s h e d for h e r a r r o g a n c e . E x u m , 'Broken', 3 4 7 . M c K a n e , Prophet, 7 0 f ; J e n s e n , Use, 5 1 , 5 5 f , 6 7 f ; C l e m e n t s , 2 3 6 ; E v a n s , See, 4 3 .
Isaiah 29 in
215
Context
T h i s i n s e n s i b l e c o n d i t i o n is Y a h w e h ' s d o i n g (v. 1 0 ) a n d expression
Wttft
Wtiyntin
in verse 9
1 5 0
the
unique
strongly s u g g e s t s that it is in fulfil
m e n t o f the p r o p h e t ' s earlier c o m m i s s i o n w h e r e h e w a s instructed tttin VTX) (6:10, cf. 3 2 : 3 ) .
1 5 1
If this is s o , then w e h a v e h e r e a p i c t u r e of the
nation's head a n d eyes—its prophets and seers—who are n o w s o incapable of c o m p r e h e n d i n g Y a h w e h ' s p l a n (i.e. v i s i o n
1 5 2
) that it is as i m p e n e t r a b l e
as a sealed b o o k to a n illiterate (v. 1 2 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , leaders a n d p e o p l e together apparently persist in earnest prayers and performance o f religious duties, even t h o u g h they p u r s u e strategies directly at o d d s with Y a h w e h ' s will
1 5 3
— a situation n o t dissimilar to that w h i c h w e h a v e already described
in Isaiah 1:10-15.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , Y a h w e h indignantly rejects their h o n o u r
of h i m as m e r e lip service and e m p t y adherence to cultic r e g u l a t i o n s :
154
B e c a u s e this p e o p l e d r a w n e a r w i t h t h e i r w o r d s a n d h o n o u r m e w i t h t h e i r s p e e c h b u t r e m o v e their hearts from m e , I will again o n c e again deal w o n d r o u s l y w i t h this p e o p l e ... a n d t h e w i s d o m o f t h e i r w i s e m e n s h a l l p e r i s h , a n d t h e d i s c e r n m e n t o f t h e i r d i s c e r n i n g m e n s h a l l b e c o n c e a l e d ( I s a 29:13f)-
U s i n g l a n g u a g e o t h e r w i s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h his past s a v i n g acts, Y a h w e h ironically a n n o u n c e s that h e will ' w o n d r o u s l y ' (cf. J o s 3 : 1 ; P s 78:12; 98:1 etc.) subvert the w i s d o m o f the w i s e such that their p l a n s will lead instead to utter devastation, a t h e m e that quite pervades these chapters (vv. 14, 2 9 ; cf. 28:lff, 13-22; 2 9 : 1 - 4 , 1 9 ; 3 0 : 1 - 5 , 1 2 - 1 5 ) .
155
Isaiah 29:13f thus presents a picture of a national leadership and a p e o p l e , a l r e a d y u n d e r the effects o f the j u d i c i a l b l i n d i n g p r o n o u n c e d in Isaiah
6, w h o
are
further
c o n s e q u e n t l y , destruction.
given
over
to t h e i r
own
wisdom
and,
Y e t at the s a m e t i m e as t h e y s e c r e t l y p u r s u e
t h e i r o w n r e b e l l i o u s p l a n s , t h e y c o n t i n u e to p r o f e s s t h e i r l o y a l t y to
1
5
0
S c h m i d t , ' G e d a n k e n ' , f o l l o w e d b y W a t t s , r e a d s wntin a n d WW f o r WV: ' d e l i g h t y o u r s e l v e s a n d g a z e i n t e n t l y ' . W e f o l l o w W i l d b e r g e r in t h a t t h e o m i s s i o n i n t h e L X X a n d t h e differing r e n d e r i n g s o f t h e v e r s i o n s a r e n o t sufficient r e a s o n s t o e m e n d t h e t e x t ; cf. BDB, 1044. 151 W a t t s , 1 . 3 8 5 ; cf. C l e m e n t s , D e l i t z s c h . T h e u n i f y i n g p r i n c i p l e is ' t h e f o c u s o f e a c h p o e m o n vision', E x u m , ' B r o k e n ' , 3 5 1 . A l t h o u g h t h e L X X o m i t s t h e M T ' s ' b l i n d i n g ' p h r a s e i n 2 9 : 9 a , its K a w i u c i v i n v . 1 0 p i c k s u p I s a 6:10. 1
5
2
O r ' r e v e l a t i o n ' , s e e E x u m , ibid., 3 4 8 f ; K a i s e r , 2 . 2 6 9 . E x u m t a k e s it t o r e f e r t o t h e contents of the p o e m while Wildberger, 3.1115f, sees the entire m e s s a g e of G o d to the people. 1
5
3
1
5
4
1
5
5
C l e m e n t s , 2 3 8 f ; D i e t r i c h , Politik, 173ff; W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 1 2 0 . O n D^tt* rnsn a s c u l t i c r e g u l a t i o n s , W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 1 2 1 f . J e n s e n , Use, 6 7 , h o w e v e r s u g g e s t s t h a t it is a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e w i s d o m t r a d i t i o n . C f . C l e m e n t s , 2 3 9 ; E x u m , ' B r o k e n ' , 3 4 8 ; M c K a n e , Prophets, 7 0 f .
216
Isaiah's
Promise
Y a h w e h w h o disdainfully
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
rejects s u c h h y p o c r i t i c a l w o r s h i p as m e r e l y
adhering to rules taught by men. d) Isaiah 29 in Mark 7 It has b e e n contended that the point o f the argument in M a r k 7:1-13 d e p e n d s o n the L X X because it supports an attack on the teachings o f m e n w h e r e a s t h e M T a n d Tg. Isaiah worship of God 'commanded c o m m e n t s can b e m a d e .
are rather c o n c e r n e d w i t h a deficient b y m e n and l e a r n e d b y r o t e ' .
1 5 6
Two
First, there is in fact little substantive difference
b e t w e e n the s e n s e s o f either the L X X or the M T .
S i n c e in b o t h cases
Y a h w e h is c l e a r l y d i s p l e a s e d with a w o r s h i p that fails to reflect his priorities a n d c o n c e r n s
157
— a n d in any case the major c h a n g e in the L X X ,
'in vain', is not explicitly taken up b y M a r k .
1 5 8
S e c o n d , to focus o n the 'traditions o f m e n ' s e e m s to m i s s the larger point which is evident in both the M T and the L X X . The concern in Isaiah is not m e r e l y a m a t t e r of rote recitation versus sincere religious practice, although this m a y b e part o f the problem.
The matter of worship as mere
a d h e r e n c e to religious rules ' t a u g h t b y m e n ' arises o n l y in the larger c o n t e x t o f the Yahweh's
more
purposes.
1 5 9
fundamental
issue, namely,
rebellion
against
T h i s is precisely the situation in M a r k , a n d I
suggest, t h e r e a s o n for the similarities n o t e d earlier b e t w e e n the t w o c o n t r o v e r s i e s in 3 : 2 0 - 4 : 3 4 and 7 : l - 2 3 .
1 6 0
T h e religious authorities from
J e r u s a l e m h a v e already rejected Y a h w e h ' s I N E reign b e g u n in J e s u s b y attributing his e x o r c i s m s to Beelzebul. T h e y h a v e set their faces against
1
5
6
1
5
7
1
5
8
1
5
9
1
6
0
B o o t h , Purity, 9 1 f ; cf. S c h w e i z e r , 1 4 5 ; N i n e h a m , 1 9 4 f ; L i n d a r s , Apologetic, S t e n d a h l , School, 5 8 ; G o u l d , 1 2 8 .
165;
T h e L X X ' s 'in v a i n ' m a k e s e x p l i c i t w h a t is a l r e a d y i m p l i c i t in t h e M T a n d t h e L X X ' s e p e x e g e t i c a l p a r t i c i p l e , 6\8O:OKOVT€S, r e f l e c t s t h e M T ' s a d j e c t i v a l p h r a s e ; cf. L a n e , 2 4 8 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 6 7 . A g a i n s t C r o s s a n ' s h y p o t h e s i s t h a t M a r k u s e d Egerton Papyrus 2, s e e Gundry, 362; a n d Schneck, 173-82. F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 5 0 . Cf. S u h l , 8 1 , 'Die H a l t u n g d e r G e g n e r lafit s i c h s e h r g u t m i t d e n W o r t e n J e s a j a s u m s c h r e i b e n . Sie s i n d d a m i t a l s s o l c h e q u a l i f i z i e r t , d i e s c h o n i m m e r d i e F e i n d e G o t t e s w a r e n ' . B o o t h , Purity, 92, t a k e s a s o m e w h a t i d i o s y n c r a t i c p o s i t i o n ( h e c i t e s n o o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s ) in a r g u i n g t h a t Isa 2 9 c o n s t i t u t e s a n a t t a c k a g a i n s t t h e o b s t r u c t i o n i s t t e a c h i n g of the wise w h i c h p r e v e n t s people f r o m true learning. This misses the point both of the l a r g e r I s a i a n i c c o n t e x t a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f ' h y p o c r i t e ' ; s e e fn. 1 6 6 b e l o w . G u n d r y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n , 3 4 9 , t h a t 3 : 2 2 ' h a s p r e p a r e d t h e g r o u n d for a n a c c u s a t o r y q u e s t i o n ' is, t h e r e f o r e , h e a d i n g in t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .
Isaiah 29 in Mark
217
7
Y a h w e h ' s p l a n , g r i e v e d his H o l y Spirit, a n d so h e h a s b e c o m e t h e i r enemy.
1 6 1
C o n s e q u e n t l y , J e s u s ' parabolic teaching, and in all likelihood
his miracles as well, m e r e l y s e r v e to confirm t h e m in their b l i n d n e s s ( M k 4).
N o t u n e x p e c t e d l y then, w h e n in M a r k ' s account the leaders are c o n
fronted with J e s u s ' healings (6:53-56, cf. d y o p d in v. 5 6 , and 7:4), they again r e s p o n d w i t h c r i t i c i s m , this t i m e o f the d i s c i p l e s ' failure to c o n f o r m to their traditions (7:1-5). J e s u s ' response is exactly in keeping with the Isaiah 29's
denunciation:
although
the religious authorities appear
Y a h w e h their ' w o r s h i p ' is n o t h i n g b u t €VTdX\iaja
to s e r v e
dv9pa)TT0)v s i n c e t h e
truth o f the matter is that they are at bottom opposed to G o d ' s p u r p o s e s . The this.
1 6 3
162
a c c u s a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e practice o f C o r b a n s e r v e s to illustrate C o m m a n d i n g others to k e e p
in the n a m e o f piety afydvreg
T T J V
*napa6oaiv
rr\v evroXfiv T O U 8 € O 0
T C J V
dvSpamwv w h i l e
may be manifestly
' h y p o c r i t i c a l ' to a t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y r e a d e r , b u t m o r e to t h e p o i n t it d e m o n s t r a t e s a c o n s i s t e n t l y u n g o d l y proclivity to ' s e t a s i d e ' w h a t G o d w a n t s for t h e s a k e o f their o w n t r a d i t i o n s . l a r g e r i s s u e at s t a k e t h r o u g h o u t should 'repent and b e l i e v e ' (l:14f).
Mark.
164
A g a i n , this is e x a c t l y the
W h a t G o d w a n t s is that t h e y
But, as M a r k has d e m o n s t r a t e d earlier
t h r o u g h o u t h i s e x t e n d e d series o f c o n t r o v e r s i e s ( 2 : 1 - 3 : 6 ) , t h e r e l i g i o u s authorities h a v e constantly preferred their o w n traditions (2:7f, 16, 18, 2 4 ; 3:4f)
1 6 5
a n d t h u s t h e y h a v e c o n t i n u e d to reject Y a h w e h ' s
W i t h s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e justification, KCL\&s ToiauTa
TroXXa T r o i c t T c .
purposes.
1 6 6
J e s u s m a y add that irapduoia
H o w c a n the authorities b e expected to respond
1 6 1
T h e r e s p o n s e o f J e s u s ' f a m i l y in 3:20ff m a y b e e c h o e d in J e s u s ' r e j e c t i o n a t N a z a r e t h , 6:lff, w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h e f o l l o w i n g c h i a s t i c s t r u c t u r e : [3:7-12 Summary statement echoing John's success (prior to his rejection) in 1:5 which concludes first section of Jesus' mighty words and deeds and series of five subsequent confrontations.! 3:13-19 Twelve chosen (word and deed) 3:20-36 Rejection of Jesus by the scribes and his family 4:1-34 Parables as response: in word (Isa 6) 4:35 - 5:43 Parables as response: in deed 6:1-6 Rejection at Nazareth in his patria 6:7-13 Twelve sent (word and deed) Cf. F i s h e r a n d v o n W a h l d e , ' M i r a c l e s ' , w i t h ' p r e a c h i n g ' a n d ' e x o r c i s m ' i n s t e a d o f ' w o r d ' a n d ' d e e d ' ( b u t 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 4 3 ? ) a n d different v e r s e s e l e c t i o n (e.g. s e n d i n g t h e T w e l v e : 6 : 7 - 3 3 ) . 1 6 2
G u n d r y ' s c o m m e n t , 3 5 1 , t h a t M a r k l i m i t s I s a i a h ' s 'this p e o p l e ' t o t h e r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s , fails t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t t h e l e a d e r s a r e in fact t h e f o c u s in I s a i a h ( a s a b o v e ) . O n C o r b a n , s e e e.g. D e r r e t t , Studies, 1 . 1 1 2 - 1 7 ; W i l c o x , ANRW, 2 . 2 5 : 2 ; G u n d r y , 3 6 3 . Cf. G n i l k a , 1 . 2 8 2 , a n d W i l k e n s , TDNT, 8 . 5 6 4 . T h u s w h e r e a s L a n e , 2 4 8 , s p e a k s o f t h e P h a r i s e e s l i v i n g ' a lie b e c a u s e t h e y h a d n o t s u r r e n d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s t o G o d ' , f o r M a r k this m e a n s b e l i e v i n g a n d f o l l o w i n g J e s u s . 166 W i l k e n s , TDNT, 8 . 5 6 4 , w h e r e ' h y p o c r i t e ' ' a l w a y s d e n o t e s t h e w i c k e d m a n w h o h a s alienated himself f r o m G o d b y his acts'. G u n d r y ' s a t t e m p t , 3 6 1 , t o infer 'hypocrisy', u n d e r s t o o d in t h e m o r e m o d e r n s e n s e o f d i s s e m b l i n g , is t h e r e f o r e u n n e c e s s a r y . 1 6 3
1 6 4
1 6 5
218
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
appropriately to the n e w thing G o d is doing in J e s u s when, in the n a m e o f 'piety', they h a v e all along been avoiding what G o d ' s law requires? This implicit threat also suggests that there is m o r e to the singling out of the p r a c t i c e o f C o r b a n than m e e t s the e y e .
H o n o u r i n g p a r e n t s is,
a c c o r d i n g to E p h e s i a n s 6:2, the first c o m m a n d m e n t w i t h you m a y live long in the land (cf. L X X E x 20:12 and Dt 5 : 1 6 ) .
promise—that 167
It is possible
that M a r k ' s J e s u s is raising t h e spectre o f c o v e n a n t s a n c t i o n , n a m e l y , destruction a n d exile from the land (cf. Ex 21:15, 17; L e v 20:9; D t 21:18-21; 27:16). Again, this is not only in keeping with the thrust o f Isaiah 2 9 , but also with M a r k 12:lff and M a r k 1 3 . e)
1 6 8
Conclusion
Just as Isaiah 6:9ff announced the sentence o f judicial hardening and 29:914 describes its implementation, so too the effects o f M a r k 4:1 I f are b e i n g w o r k e d o u t in 7:6f.
T h e a u t h o r i t i e s in I s a i a h 28f, in s p i t e o f t h e i r
c o n t i n u i n g religious profession, had in fact rejected Y a h w e h ' s plan and w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y u n d e r judicial h a r d e n i n g and c o n s i g n e d to p u r s u e a course o f action that w o u l d ultimately destroy t h e m and their city.
The
s a m e situation holds in M a r k with regard to the religious authorities from Jerusalem. H a v i n g already rejected J e s u s ' exorcisms, they are n o w subject to Y a h w e h ' s judicial blinding. W h e n faced with J e s u s ' 'parabolic' healings, the true nature o f their loyalty to Y a h w e h is revealed, and their blindness is further confirmed.
T h e threat o f j u d g e m e n t l o o m s . T h i s , o f course, is
the point o f both the parable o f the tenants in M a r k 12:lff and the predicted destruction o f the T e m p l e in M a r k 13. Indeed, if Y a h w e h h a d m e t such hard
heartedness
with destruction
surprising if h e should do so a g a i n .
in t h e p a s t , it w o u l d
hardly
be
169
IV. Conclusion M a r k ' s o p e n i n g c o m p o s i t e citation not only e v o k e d the expectation o f the I N E but also the w a r n i n g inherent in M a l a c h i that Israel, and particularly
1
6
7
1
6
8
1
6
9
O n filial r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t h e O T , P h i l l i p s , Ancient, 80ff, a n d v a r i o u s r a b b i n i c a l t r a d i t i o n s , e.g. b. Qidd. 3 1 b ; Mek. R. Ish. B a q o d e s h 8:14ff; B l i d s t e i n , Honor. S e e e.g. G a s t o n , Stone, 4 7 8 f ; M a r s h a l l , Faith, 1 4 5 f . G i v e n t h i s I s a i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d , it m a y w e l l b e t h a t M a r k 1 3 o w e s m o r e t o t h e stimulus of the classical p r o p h e t s than to a n y particularly apocalyptic m o d e of thinking.
219
Conclusion
the religious authorities, must
be prepared
for Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g .
Unfortunately, they w e r e not. J o h n , Y a h w e h ' s forerunner, is rejected and imprisoned
( 1 1 : 2 7 - 3 3 ; cf. 1:14; 6:14-29; 9:11-13) a n d J e s u s h i m s e l f
is
denounced. Following his initial presentation o f J e s u s as the inaugurator Y a h w e h ' s I N E reign, M a r k quickly turns to an extended series o f debates culminating in the pivotal B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y w h e r e J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , for the first time, are publicly repudiated b y the Jerusalem authorities. J e s u s ' response, also for the first t i m e , is explicitly described as b e i n g 'in p a r a b l e s ' and concerns the 'strong m a n ' . This gives rise to two developments. First, the incipient m e n t i o n o f parables and its particular occasion leads directly into the e x p l a n a t i o n o f their p u r p o s e .
In terms o f the Isaiah 6 citation, the
p a r a b l e s effect j u d i c i a l b l i n d n e s s o n the r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s w h o , in rejecting Y a h w e h ' s I N E d e l i v e r a n c e , h a v e g r i e v e d the H o l y Spirit a n d have placed themselves on the 'outside'.
H a v i n g refused Y a h w e h ' s
purposes and rejected the call to repent and believe, h e n o w b e c o m e s their e n e m y . F r o m this point o n a fundamental and increasingly o p e n division within Israel is u n d e r w a y , with the ' c r o w d s ' being put on notice that they too m u s t c h o o s e . S e c o n d , t h e 'first' p a r a b l e c o n c e r n s the ' s t r o n g m a n ' .
Immediately
following the e x p l a n a t o r y parables in w o r d (4:1-34), M a r k returns to this motif in the paired miracles o f the storm stilling and the d r o w n i n g o f the demonic
l e g i o n ( 4 : 3 5 - 5:20) w h i c h at t h e least e c h o I s r a e l ' s E x o d u s
founding m o m e n t . J e s u s is further s h o w n to b e the o n e w h o inaugurates Israel's N E . If o n e also includes the intercalated healing o f the w o m a n and the raising o f the y o u n g girl (5:21-43), t h e n p e r h a p s the four m i r a c l e s together constitute a pastiche reflecting Isaiah 6 3 : 7 - 6 5 : 2 5 .
1 7 0
M a r k 7, h o w e v e r , c o n t i n u e s the M a l a c h i 'trajectory' b y i n v o k i n g the futile situation o f Isaiah 2 9 w h e r e the n a t i o n ' s leadership, already u n d e r the influence o f judicial blinding, continues to resist Y a h w e h ' s p u r p o s e s w h i l e at the s a m e t i m e earnestly adhering to strict religious practice. b o t h Isaiah 6 a n d 2 9 j u d g e m e n t is the u n a v o i d a b l e o u t c o m e .
In
W i t h this
b a c k g r o u n d it is, therefore, n o t s u r p r i s i n g that o n r e a c h i n g J e r u s a l e m m u c h o f J e s u s ' activity involves the a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the s a m e .
1
7
0
S e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 7 6 , fn. 2 0 3 , a b o v e .
220
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Judicial
Blinding
O n the o t h e r h a n d , returning to I s a i a h ' s h o p e o f a N E , there are the 'insiders' w h o h a v e chosen to follow Jesus. Often described in terms m o r e appropriate
to ' o u t s i d e r s ' , t h e s e ' b l i n d ' a n d dull-witted
d i s c i p l e s are,
nevertheless, those to w h o m the mystery o f the k i n g d o m h a s b e e n given. W h a t is o n e to m a k e o f this i n c o n g r u i t y ?
G i v e n the p r o p o s a l offered
here—that M a r k is to s o m e extent o p e r a t i n g w i t h an I N E m o d e l — i t is intriguing that his next major section is not only b o u n d e d b y his only t w o ' h e a l i n g - o f - t h e - b l i n d ' m i r a c l e s , b u t also t e n d s to c o n c e n t r a t e o n J e s u s ' leading these 'blind' followers 'along a w a y they do not k n o w ' (Isa 42:16).
Chapter 8: The Way of the New Exodus: Mark 8:21/26-10:45/11:1 Mark's section. along the of their 'Way'
interest in the disciples' incomprehension prepares for his 'Way' In Isaiah, Yahweh's healing of 'blind' Israel and his leading them 'way' was indicative of Israel's need to accept his wisdom as part deliverance. So also Mark's 'restoration of sight' miracles on the illustrate the 'blind' disciples' need to understand that the INE would be accomplished through a suffering Messiah.
I. The Disciples' Incomprehension a)
Introduction
O n e o f the m o s t w e l l - r e c o g n i s e d and p e r p l e x i n g motifs that
unfolds
throughout the last half o f the first section o f M a r k ' s gospel is the disciples' incomprehension
(4:13, 4 1 ; 6:52; 7:18f; a n d S ^ f f ) .
1
It is o n e thing for
M a r k ' s J e s u s to apply Isaiah's ancient metaphors of judicial blindness and deafness to the hostile religious authorities. describes his disciples.
It is quite another w h e n he s o
H o w is it that 'insiders', to w h o m the mystery o f
the kingdom o f G o d has been given, can b e so devoid of understanding, so blind, and so deaf? W h a t is it that they do not understand?
A n d h o w is it
that they are not also subject to j u d g e m e n t ?
1
S e e e.g. W r e d e , 2 3 1 f f ; T y s o n , ' B l i n d n e s s ' ; W e e d e n ; F o c a n t , ' L ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' ; H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' ; Q u e s n e l l ; R e p l o h , Lehrer; T a n n e h i l l , ' N a r r a t i v e ' , 69ff; S t o c k , Call, 1 0 3 - 1 7 ; W r i g h t , Search; M a l o n e y , ' V o c a t i o n ' ; M a l b o n , ' F a l l i b l e ' ; ' D i s c i p l e s ' ( b u t s e e n o w 'Echoes'); K l a u c k , 'Rolle'; M a t e r a , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' ; R a i s a n e n , 1 9 5 - 2 2 2 . But, taking t h e g o s p e l a s it n o w s t a n d s ( a s o p p o s e d t o t h e r e d a c t i o n c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h o f e.g. B e s t , ' R o l e ' , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; s e e B l a c k ' s c r i t i q u e , Disciples, o f this m e t h o d p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e g a r d t o t h e d i s c i p l e s in M a r k ) , w h o d o e s M a r k m e a n b y 'disciples': t h e ' t w e l v e ' o r t h e ' t w e l v e ' p l u s o t h e r f o l l o w e r s ? B l a c k , Disciples, 273n5, suggests they ought not be distinguished since. A ) the T w e l v e a r e s o m e t i m e s m e r g e d w i t h a l a r g e r g r o u p ; B) often t h e y a r e n o t 'rigorously' differentiated f r o m the 'disciples'; a n d C ) b e h a v i o u r a s s o c i a t e d with the T w e l v e o r t h e d i s c i p l e s is f r e q u e n t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o o t h e r s . B u t p e r h a p s it is w i s e s t t o a v o i d categorical e x c l u s i o n since: A ) at times M a r k does distinguish b e t w e e n the T w e l v e a n d t h e l a r g e r g r o u p ( 4 : 1 0 ; 1 0 : 3 2 ) ; B) it m a y s o m e t i m e s ( b u t n o t a l w a y s ) s u i t M a r k t o t a l k a b o u t b o t h g r o u p s u n d e r o n e h e a d o r h e e x p e c t s t h e c o n t e x t t o s h o w t h a t t h e s m a l l e r g r o u p is in v i e w ; a n d C ) it is n o t b e h a v i o u r per se b u t i n s t e a d f o l l o w i n g J e s u s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s a d i s c i p l e f r o m o t h e r s (e.g. 5 : 2 0 ; 7:17; 9 : 3 8 ) .
222
The New
Exodus
Way
This paradoxical presentation has led to polarisation.
2
S o m e stress the
d i s c i p l e s ' m e r i t s , e m p h a s i s i n g their role as g u a r a n t o r s o f the t r a d i t i o n .
3
F o r others, the failings o f the disciples are far m o r e i m p o r t a n t and they b e c o m e p r o x i e s for M a r k ' s o p p o n e n t s a n d as s u c h are little better than heretical r e p r o b a t e s .
4
A third group, seeking to mediate b e t w e e n these two
extremes, gives d u e weight to both realities such that the disciples in b o t h their s u c c e s s e s a n d their failures s e r v e to e n c o u r a g e M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e .
5
W h a t is c l e a r is that, although the disciples are surely ' i n s i d e r s ' , as the narrative progresses they are increasingly described in terms applicable to the ' o u t s i d e r s ' , c l i m a x i n g in the sharp r e p r i m a n d in 8:17ff.
H o w is this
tension to b e resolved? Given, too, our hypothesis o f an I N E framework, to w h a t e x t e n t d o e s M a r k ' s ' W a y ' s e c t i o n c o h e r e w i t h t h e I s a i a n i c descriptions o f Y a h w e h leading Israel along the ' w a y ' to J e r u s a l e m ?
And
h o w , if at all, are these two matters related? T h i s C h a p t e r p r o p o s e s that M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s ' disciples exhibits significant parallels with Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 ' s description o f exiled Israel awaiting deliverance.
6
' B l i n d ' and ' d e a f , the nation continued to misun
derstand Y a h w e h ' s p u r p o s e s a n d constantly q u e r i e d the w i s d o m o f his actions.
E v e n so, Y a h w e h declares that h e 'will lead the b l i n d b y a w a y
they do not k n o w , along paths they do not k n o w I will guide them. I will turn the darkness into light before t h e m ' (Isa 42:16a). Similarly, at the end of M a r k ' s first section J e s u s ' u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g disciples are also described as ' b l i n d ' a n d ' d e a f .
Nevertheless, J e s u s leads t h e m along the ' W a y ' to
J e r u s a l e m w h i c h , significantly, begins and ends with M a r k ' s o n l y healingof-sight miracles. O n this ' W a y ' the disciples are likewise confronted with Yahweh's unconventional
wisdom:
the revelation that
the
ultimate
e x p r e s s i o n o f his I N E c o m i n g a n d I s r a e l ' s d e l i v e r a n c e is n o t h i n g o t h e r than the scandalous w a y of J e s u s to the cross. Just as the mysterious career of Isaiah 5 3 ' s 'suffering s e r v a n t ' w a s integral to the I N E , s o M a r k ' s N E
2
S e e t h e h e l p f u l s u m m a r y o f t h e M a r k a n d a t a in B l a c k , Disciples, 41-46, a n d his subsequent discussion. I n p a r t i c u l a r , M e y e , Jesus, b u t s e e a l s o e.g. K e r t e l g e , ' F u n k t i o n ' ; B u d e s h e i m , ' J e s u s ' ; S c h m a h l , Zwolf; S t o c k , Boten. 3
4
N o t a b l y , T y s o n , ' B l i n d n e s s ' ; W e e d e n , ' H e r e s y ' ; Conflict; but also earlier Kuby, ' K o n z e p t i o n ' ; a n d t h e n K e l b e r , Story, ' A p o s t o l i c ' ; S e l v i d g e , ' F e a r e d ' , Woman, 3 9 f . - R e p l o h , Lehrer; Focant, 'L'incompreltension'; H a w k i n , 'Incomprehension'; Best, ' T w e l v e ' , Following; M a l b o n , 'Fallible', 'Disciples', a n d h e r c r i t i q u e o f K e l b e r in ' T e x t ' . S e e n o w a l s o M a r c u s , 31ff. 6
Themes
and
223
Emphases
' W a y ' reveals the e n i g m a of the messianic S / s o n o f G o d w h o is also the suffering S o n o f M a n (8:31-33; 9:30-32; 10:32-34; cf. 8:29 and 10:45). This suggests that M a r k ' s p r i m a r y concern is not so m u c h to describe the path o f suffering discipleship—although it is surely important—nor to recount the disciples' attaining full cognition, for clearly they do not.
On
the contrary, M a r k ' s point appears to b e that participation in the I N E ' w a y ' inevitably i n v o l v e s the recognition and affirmation of t w o critical data. First, that the M a r k a n J e s u s is not only Israel's M e s s i a h , the royal son o f G o d , but in a unique and extraordinary sense the divine S o n o f G o d .
7
And
s e c o n d , as the three-fold p a s s i o n predictions indicate, that in Y a h w e h ' s wisdom
Israel's N E
redemption
is p r e d i c a t e d
on
the
death—and
resurrection—of 'true Israel', n a m e l y the S o n o f M a n . b) Themes
and
Emphases
T h e outline o f 3:7 - 8:21 overleaf is not yet another attempt at the structure 8
of this notoriously difficult s e c t i o n , but instead seeks to highlight those t h e m e s that m i g h t h a v e s o m e b e a r i n g o n the ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' motif. T h e larger division into two sections, M a r k 3:7 - 6:52 and 6:53 - 8:21, h a s b e e n m a d e s i m p l y to e m p h a s i s e similarities in t h e w a y M a r k h a n d l e s certain incidents and the m a n n e r in which h e connects t h e m .
9
In terms o f the materials leading up to the ' W a y ' section, a n u m b e r o f observations can b e m a d e . First, as previously noted, the two 'Controversy and
R e s p o n s e - t h r o u g h - P a r a b l e s ' s t o r i e s ( 3 : 2 0 - 5 : 4 3 ; 7:1-37) e x h i b i t a
n u m b e r o f parallels.
T h e y b e g i n with a controversy i n v o l v i n g religious
authorities from J e r u s a l e m to w h i c h Jesus responds with parables o f w o r d 7
Cf. Israel a s ' s o n ' a n d J e s u s a s 'Son', s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 8 6 , a n d C h a p t e r 4 , p p . HOff.
8
F o r a s u r v e y of earlier alternatives, Quesnell, 28-36. A l s o m o r e recently, Petersen, 'Composition', w h o gives a primary structural role to the boat scenes, 195f; as does n o w M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' ; a n d F o w l e r , Loaves, 1 1 3 , w h o o b s e r v e s a s e r i e s o f i n t e r l o c k i n g d o u b l e t s centred on the t w o feeding accounts, 113. 9
G i v e n t h e c h i a s m s u g g e s t e d a b o v e ( C h a p t e r 7, p . 2 1 7 , fn. 1 6 1 ) , p e r h a p s a l s o :
6:14-29 Herod, Jesus, and John's death: Herod does not understand Jesus' signs 6:30-44 Feeding of the 5000 6:45-56 Miracles: storm stilling and healing the sick 7:1 - 2 3 Authorities from Jerusalem: Isa 2 9 and the traditions of the elders 7:24-37 Miracles: the demonised daughter and the deaf-mute 8:1-10 Feeding of the 4000 8:11-13 The Pharisees seek a sign [8:14-21 Conclusion: warning or the leaven of the Pharisees and Herod] T h e w a r n i n g concerning the leaven of the Pharisees a n d H e r o d (8:14-21) functions as the c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e s e c t i o n b y b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r H e r o d (6:14ff), t h e P h a r i s e e s (8:1 Iff)/ t h e f e e d i n g s (6:30ff; 8:Iff), a n d t h e d i s c i p l e s ' l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; all o f w h i c h p r e p a r e f o r Mark's ' W a y ' section.
224
The
and then o f d e e d .
New
Exodus
Way
B u t the disciples t h e m s e l v e s ' u n d e r s t a n d ' neither the
s p o k e n parable nor the true significance of the d e e d s . Outline
of 3:7 - 8:21:
Parallel
Literary
10
Structures
M a r k 3:7 - 6:52
Mark 6:53-8:21
S u m m a r y (3:7-12)
S u m m a r y (6:53-56)
Choosing the Twelve (3:13-19)
C o n t r o v e r s y ( 7 : 1 - 1 3 ; cf. 6 : 5 3 - 5 6 ) Controversy (3:20-35) - w h o is a t w o r k , Beelzebul or Yahweh? - w h o is clean or unclean? - scribes f r o m J e r u s a l e m a n d J e s u s ' - Pharisees, a n d scribes f r o m family misunderstand Jerusalem as hypocrites. - I s a 2 9 : 1 3 , h e a r t s far f r o m G o d Parables as Response:
Parables as Response:
in W o r d ( 3 : 2 3 - 2 7 ; 4 : 1 - 3 4 )
in W o r d ( 7 : 1 4 - 2 3 ; cf. v. 1 7 )
- Isa 6:9-10: see but not perceive, h e a r b u t n o t u n d e r s t a n d , (v. 1 2 ) - Disciples without
- D i s c i p l e s d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d (o'(6aT€,
v . 1 3 , yvuoeoQe, v. 1 3 b )
understanding
( d a U V C T O l € O T € ; OU V O € l T € , V . 1 8 )
in D e e d ( 7 : 2 4 - 3 7 ) : purity
in D e e d ( 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 4 3 ) : Jesus as the INE Yahweh-Warrior
Gentile
and
the
regions
- s t o r m (disciples' d o n o t
- Syrophoenician
u n d e r s t a n d (v. 4 1 ) ) / d e m o n i a c ; - unclean w o m a n / J a i r u s ' daughter
woman
- deaf and d u m b m a n
Rejection at N a z a r e t h (6:l-6a) Sending the Twelve (6:6b-13) Herod
a n d John Baptist (6:14-29) - m i s u n d e r s t a n d s t h e m i r a c l e s (v. 1 4 )
F e e d i n g o f 5 0 0 0 , a n d loaves ( 6 : 3 0 - 4 4 )
F e e d i n g o f 4 0 0 0 a n d loaves ( 8 : 1 - 1 0 ) Pharisees
seek a sign, refused (8:11-13)
B o a t in t h e s t o r m / w a t e r w a l k i n g ( 6 : 4 5 - 5 2 ) B r e a d in t h e B o a t ( 8 : 1 4 - 2 1 ) - d i s c i p l e s a s t o u n d e d (v. 5 1 )
- b e w a r e t h e l e a v e n o f Herod t h e Pharisees
- disciples d o not understand (auvfiKav) a b o u t t h e loaves
(v. 5 2 a )
- h e a r t s a r e h a r d (v. 5 2 b )
and
(v. 1 5 )
- d i s c i p l e s d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d (ovmu> voeiTe
ou6€
loaves
a n d broken
a u v i € T € ) about the pieces
(v. 17)
- ' a r e y o u r h e a r t s h a r d ? ' , cf. J e r 5 : 2 1 , E z k 1 2 : 2 ; I s a 6:9; b l i n d e y e s , d e a f e a r s , etc. (vv. 18f). - 'do you not yet understand ( < J U V l € T € ) ? ' (v.
1
0
21)
O n c o n f r o n t a t i o n - p a r a b l e - m i r a c l e a s a M a r k a n p a t t e r n s e e a l s o , K e l l e r , ' J e s u s ' , 36f, a l t h o u g h his s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s is o p e n t o q u e s t i o n .
Themes
and
225
Emphases
S e c o n d , in 6:30 - 8:21 there are t w o b o a t scenes w h i c h also feature the disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n : fear at J e s u s ' w a l k i n g o n the w a t e r in 6:45-52 a n d m i s c o n s t r u a l o f t h e l e a v e n w a r n i n g in 8:14-21.
In b o t h c a s e s this
i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n is linked to the preceding feeding accounts (6:30-44; 8 : 1 10) b y m e a n s o f statements about loaves (6:52; 8 : 1 7 - 2 1 ) .
n
Third, the feeding
stories t h e m s e l v e s (6:30-44; 8:1-10) are b r a c k e t e d w i t h a c c o u n t s that also concern 'understanding'
(see t h e o u t l i n e b e l o w ) .
Both Herod and
the
Pharisees are interested in signs, and particularly o n e s that will establish J e s u s ' identity (6:14-29; 8:11-13). Herod m i s t a k e s J e s u s for a r e s u r r e c t e d J o h n B a p t i s t
(6:14-29)
F e e d i n g o f 5 0 0 0 , a n d loaves ... intervening
material
(6:30-44) ...
(6:45-7:37)
F e e d i n g o f 4 0 0 0 a n d loaves Pharisees
(8:1-10)
seek a sign from Jesus a n d a r e refused
(8:11-13)
L e a v e n a n d loaves: s u m m a r y w a r n i n g about Pharisees a n d H e r o d
(8:14-21)
F u r t h e r , b o t h o f t h e s e a c c o u n t s are a l l u d e d to in the l e a v e n ('OpctTC,
PXCTTCTC
dtTTo TT\s
C^WS
TG3V
4>apiaaiG)v Kai
TTJC;
warning f
Cu^nc; HpG$6ou)
w h i c h then forms t h e b a s i s o f the c o n c l u d i n g p e r i c o p e 8:14-21 ( t a k i n g vv. 22ff as t r a n s i t i o n a l to the ' W a y ' s e c t i o n ) .
F o u r t h , this c o n c l u d i n g
pericope (8:14-21) s e e m s to function as s o m e t h i n g o f a s u m m a r y since it b r i n g s t o g e t h e r a n u m b e r o f the c o n c e r n s , t h e m e s , and motifs from the preceding
material:
1 2
the reference to H e r o d and the P h a r i s e e s (6:14ff;
8:1 Iff; cf. 3:5f), the disciples' failure to understand ( c o m b i n i n g terms u s e d in 6:52 and 7:18), m e n t i o n o f the ' l o a v e s ' , the disciples' hard-heartedness (6:52), and the s u p e r a b u n d a n c e o f the feedings It is also the last time M a r k records Jesus questioning the disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n .
13
That this
series of q u e s t i o n s is the m o s t extensive to date (8:17-21) o n l y h e i g h t e n s the sense o f crisis. B u t w h a t is it that the disciples d o not understand, and w h y is their i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n particularly connected with the l o a v e s ?
1
1
E . g . F u l l e r , Mission,
Hawkin,
1 4
74; Keck, 'Christology', 356n96; Glasswell, 'Miracles', 158f;
' S y m b o l i s m ' ; Q u e s n e l l , passim;
F o w l e r , Loaves,
109-14; Meye, 'Horizon', 4;
S c h w e i z e r , 1 2 6 ; P e s c h , 1 . 3 8 5 ; G u e l i c h , 1.316f; M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' . 1
2
C f . H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 4 9 5 ; Q u e s n e l l , 1 2 5 , 1 7 6 ; H e i l , Walking,
131-44;
Guelich, 1.419. 1
3
T h e c l o s e s t h e c o m e s a f t e r this is 9 : 1 9 b u t t h i s is s p e c i f i c a l l y a b o u t unbelief, n o t l a c k
of perception, a l t h o u g h the t w o a r e probably related. 1
4
T h e l i t e r a t u r e h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e , f o r s u r v e y s : Q u e s n e l l , 1 - 2 8 ; B o u c h e r , 6 9 - 8 0 ;
G i b s o n , 'Rebuke'.
226
The New
Exodus
Way
c) Mark 8:14-21 and Mark 4:1-34: the Feedings
as
Parables
T h e s u m m a r y character of 8:14-21 suggests that it must, in s o m e w a y , b e pivotal to the i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n p r o b l e m .
15
T h e reference to the disciples
forgetting to bring bread (v. 14) might recall the preceding feedings, but in terms of the narrative setting is m o r e likely intended to provide, b y m e a n s of w o r d a s s o c i a t i o n , the o c c a s i o n for J e s u s ' w a r n i n g a b o u t the l e a v e n (v. 1 5 ) — m u c h as the w o r d 'salt' functions as a key-word link b e t w e e n the 'salt-sayings' of 9 : 4 9 f .
16
In the context of the Pharisees' d e m a n d for a sign
(v. 11) a n d H e r o d ' s confusing J e s u s w i t h J o h n (6:14-16), t h e ' l e a v e n ' m e t a p h o r s e e m s m o s t naturally to refer to that w h i c h blinds b o t h H e r o d and the Pharisees to the true significance of J e s u s ' p a r a b l e - d e e d s .
17
T h e fact
that the disciples quite misunderstand the 'leaven' warning, thinking it to b e a v e i l e d r e b u k e at their forgetting to b r i n g sufficient b r e a d (v. 1 6 ) , d e m o n s t r a t e s its t i m e l i n e s s and o c c a s i o n s J e s u s ' r e p r i m a n d (vv. 17-18). The lack o f bread is simply not the issue. Jesus could easily h a v e provided more, as his questions indicate (vv. 19a, 20a) and as the disciples' answers reveal they well k n o w (vv. 19b, 2 0 b ) .
1 8
W h a t is o f concern is the disciples' failure to understand the point of the 'leaven' m e t a p h o r .
1 9
T h i s failure to p e r c e i v e is characteristic o f a
t h o r o u g h g o i n g condition w h i c h has b e e n evident since the first m e n t i o n of their i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n (4:13) w h e r e they failed to u n d e r s t a n d parable o f the soils and seed. understand?'
(8:21).
the
H e n c e the final question, ' D o y o u still not
Just as J e s u s h a d earlier l a m e n t e d the d i s c i p l e s '
1
5
2 4 6 f f ; B e c k , ' R e c l a i m i n g , 4 9 f ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 4 2 6 f ; cf. K l a u c k ,
1
6
It is n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e e x c e p t i o n c l a u s e , v. 1 4 b , is a s e n i g m a t i c a s is often s u p p o s e d , cf.
1
7
1
8
E . g . P e r r i n , Introduction, 'Rolle', 13.
7
6:8. Q u e s n e l l , 2 3 2 - 5 7 ; P e s c h , 1 . 4 1 3 ; cf. B o u c h e r , 7 7 f ; a n d o n t h e s y m b o l i s m o f l e a v e n , W i n d i s c h , TDNT, 2 . 9 0 2 - 6 ; S t r - B , 1.278f. G i b s o n , ' R e b u k e ' , 3 1 . O n t h e a r g u m e n t ( a s e.g. G u n d r y ) t h a t t h e d i s c i p l e s d o n o t r e c o g n i s e J e s u s ' ability t o p r o v i d e , s e e fn. 2 4 b e l o w . 9
* G u n d r y , 408f, a r g u i n g that M a r k emphasises not the disciples' dullness but rather the s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of the feedings (vv. 19-20), sees the e m p h a s i s o n 'Jesus' m i r a c u l o u s p o w e r ' a n d h i s ability t o m e e t 'the p r e s e n t n e e d ' . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s h e r e . O n this r e a d i n g it is difficult t o s e e w h y M a r k s h o u l d i n c l u d e v v . 1 5 - 1 6 a t all s i n c e t h e p o i n t w o u l d b e w e l l m a d e w i t h o u t t h e m . G u n d r y a l s o s e e m s t o m i s r e a d t h e e x c h a n g e in t h a t J e s u s ' q u e s t i o n s a r e a i m e d a t d i s a b u s i n g t h e d i s c i p l e s o f t h e i d e a t h a t h e is c o n c e r n e d a b o u t b r e a d ( v . 1 6 ) . T h e ' l e a v e n ' w a r n i n g itself c a n h a r d l y b e a b o u t f a i l u r e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e f a c t o f a miracle since even H e r o d and the Pharisees recognise that Jesus performs such. W h a t m a t t e r s is t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e m i r a c l e s a s is b o r n e o u t b y t h e u s e o f b l i n d , d e a f , l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , e t c . t e r m i n o l o g y a s d i s c u s s e d in t h e p r e v i o u s C h a p t e r .
Feedings
as
227
Parables
inability to grasp t h e parable about the importance o f genuine understand ing (4:13), s o here h e is a m a z e d at their inability to understand his w a r n i n g about the dangers o f misunderstanding. about understanding
T w o c o m p l e m e n t a r y warnings—
and misunderstanding—thus
s e e m to b r a c k e t t h e
material w h i c h c o n t i n u e s directly from t h e B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y u p to the beginning o f the ' W a y ' section. T h e connection b e t w e e n 8:14-21 and 4 : l f f b e c o m e s m o r e obvious w h e n it is recognised that the language of J e s u s ' rebuke (8:17f) follows closely that used in the parables material: a u v i r i u i ( 4 : 9 , 1 2 ; cf. 7:18), pXcTrcj (4:12; cf. 4:24), dKoiJuj generally (4:3, 12, 15, 16, 18, 2 0 , 24; cf. 4:33), a n d in particular in t h e question
(STO:
C X O V T C C ;
O U K CIKOU'CTC;
(4:9, 2 3 ) .
2 0
M . A . Beavis h a s noted that
4:1-20; 7:14-23; a n d 8:1-20 all reflect a similar structure.
T h e y each b e g i n
with a parable o r parable-event in a public setting (4:1-9; 7:14-15; 8:1-10), and
then
are followed
b y a private
expression of the disciples'
i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n (4:10; 7:17; 8:16), a r e b u k e b y J e s u s in t h e l a n g u a g e o f Isaiah 6:9f (4:11-13; 7:18; 8:17f, 2 1 ) , a n d conclude with an explanation o f t h e p a r a b l e (4:14-20; 7:19-23; 8 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) .
21
Finally, the l a n g u a g e o f hardening,
w h i c h is integral to Isaiah 6:9f, is explicitly mentioned in 6:52 a n d in 8:17. A l t h o u g h m o s t r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s h o l d t h e l a n g u a g e in 8:18 to b e primarily a combination o f J e r e m i a h 5:21 a n d Ezekiel 1 2 : 2 Isaiah 6:9f, B e a v i s h a s a r g u e d that 8:18 is 'a deliberate
2 2
with echoes o f allusion'
to t h e
unquoted part o f Isaiah 6:9f in M a r k 4 since neither t h e cognitive language ( a u i a r j u i , v o € a ) ) n o r t h e h a r d - h e a r t e d n e s s ( c T r a x u v B r i , Isa 6:10; TTCTTtopcouevTi,
M k 8:18) is found in J e r e m i a h 5 o r Ezekiel 1 2 .
2 3
W h i l e n o t d e n y i n g that
the latter t w o texts a r e in v i e w , given t h e importance o f M a r k 4 it s e e m s
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
3
T h e p r o g r a m m a t i c n a t u r e o f M a r k 4 h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y i n C h a p t e r 7, s e e especially p p . 208ff. Audience, 158. 8:19-20 comprises rhetorical questions w h i c h function negatively b y s h o w i n g t h a t t h e l e a v e n p a r a b l e c a n n o t r e f e r t o t h e l a c k o f b r e a d , ibid., 1 1 1 . L e m c i o , 'Structure', also p r o p o s e s a c o m m o n structure between 4:1-20; 7:14-23; a n d 8:14-21. W h a t e v e r the merits o r otherwise of the p r o p o s e d units—ambiguity, incomprehension, surprise a n d / o r r e j o i n d e r , a n d e x p l a n a t i o n — i t s u r e l y d i s c e r n s t h a t t h e r e is a t l e a s t s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the three. It a p p e a r s c l o s e r t o J e r 5 : 2 1 a n d less s o t o E z e k 1 2 : 2 , b u t a s a q u e s t i o n it is c l o s e r i n c o n t e x t t o I s a 4 2 : 1 8 - 2 0 ; cf. v . 1 6 . W i t h less l i k e l i h o o d D e r r e t t , Making, s e e s E x 1 4 : 1 7 a a n d J o s h 1 1 : 2 0 w h i l e M y e r s , Binding, a r g u e s f o r D t 2 9 : 2 - 4 . S e e n o w a l s o t h e e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n in S c h n e c k , 2 0 4 - 2 0 . Audience, 1 1 4 , s e e a l s o 9 0 f ; cf. S u h l , 1 5 2 ; P r y k e , 5 5 . O n t h i s t e c h n i q u e i n t h e r a b b i s , s e e a g a i n C r a n f i e l d , ' S t u d y ' , 5 9 ; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5 . 7 0 1 ; M a r c u s , 2 0 0 ; cf. D o d d , According, 126f.
228
The New
Exodus
Way
that they are to b e u n d e r s t o o d within the Isaiah 6 f r a m e w o r k
already
established. This linking o f the disciples' incomprehension of the feedings with the parables material suggests that M a r k intends the former to ' b e understood in s o m e w a y similar to the p a r a b l e s ' .
24
B u t w h a t is it that the parable-
feedings a r e intended to reveal and that the disciples in 8:14-21 d o not understand?
If the feedings themselves are parables, then p e r h a p s the best
place to begin is M a r k ' s 'Parables Chapter'. d) The Parable-Feedings
and Jesus'
Identity
In v i e w o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f M a r k ' s ' P a r a b l e s C h a p t e r ' for b o t h the intervening material o n the d i s c i p l e s ' ' l e a v e n - l i k e ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n (cf. e.g. 6:52; 7:18) and the concluding pericope (8:14-21), it is probably o f s o m e significance that 4:1-34 (and 4:35 - 5:43) is itself closely related to the larger question o f J e s u s ' identity and the significance of his a c t i o n s .
25
A l t h o u g h an issue earlier (e.g. 1:11, 2 4 , 27; 3:11), the m a t t e r o f J e s u s ' identity b e c o m e s decisive in the climactic B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y (3:20ff) which, w e h a v e already argued, is the catalyst for the following exposition o n the significance o f the parables.
F r o m this perspective the m y s t e r y o f
the k i n g d o m (4:11) concerns not only the mystery whi ch is the k i n g d o m , b u t also t h e m y s t e r i o u s w a y in w h i c h the k i n g d o m is e x p r e s s e d
and
revealed in J e s u s ' m i g h t y deeds, in his powerful w o r d s , and ultimately, linked to h i s i d e n t i t y .
26
A n d all this within the p a r a m e t e r s o f Israel's
hopes and expectations concerning the inauguration o f G o d ' s I N E reign.
2
4
2
5
2
6
B o u c h e r , 6 9 ; cf. B l o m b e r g , ' M i r a c l e s ' ; B e a v i s , Audience, 1 0 3 - 1 4 ; H e i l , Walking, 1 3 6 4 0 . G i v e n t h e d i s c i p l e s ' r e s p o n s e t o t h e s p o k e n p a r a b l e s ( 4 : 1 3 ; 7 : 1 8 ) it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e y fail t o u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t t h e ' l o a v e s ' . G u n d r y , 1 3 3 f , i n t e r p r e t s 6 : 5 2 t o m e a n t h a t t h e disciples d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d the feeding of the 5 0 0 0 to b e a m i r a c l e (e.g. M a r k m a k e s n o m e n t i o n of a m a z e m e n t o n behalf of the c r o w d o r of the disciples—an a r g u m e n t from silence) a s s e r t i n g t h a t if t h e d i s c i p l e s h a d r e a l i s e d t h a t it w a s t h e y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n s u r p r i s e d a t t h e w a l k i n g o n t h e w a t e r . It is n o t c l e a r t h a t G u n d r y ' s l a t t e r p o i n t s t a n d s , s i n c e although miraculous feedings involving h u m a n beings (namely, prophets) h a v e O T p r e c e d e n t s ( e . g . M o s e s , E l i s h a ; s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 7 8 f ) , w a l k i n g o n t h e s t o r m y s e a , itself a n ' a d v a n c e ' o n t h e s t o r m - s t i l l i n g in 4 : 3 5 - 4 1 , d o e s n o t . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e u s e o f n c j p o a ) a n d o u v u i n i e l s e w h e r e in M a r k s u g g e s t s t h a t it is n o t t h e f a c t o f t h e f e e d i n g m i r a c l e b u t its s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t is n o t u n d e r s t o o d . S e e a l s o H e i l , Walking, 125ff. I n t e g r a l t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y a r e h i s u n a c c e p t a b l e modi operandi w h i c h a r e t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s in t h e five c o n t r o v e r s y s t o r i e s , 2:1 - 3 : 6 . Cf. e.g. M a r c u s , Mystery, 51ff, 5 6 ; B e a v i s , Audience, 1 4 6 . F o r this r e a s o n , G u n d r y ' s d i s t i n c t i o n , 2 0 1 , b e t w e e n t h e k i n g d o m a n d t h e p e r s o n o f J e s u s s e e m s insufficiently n u a n c e d .
Parable
-Feedings
and Jesus'
229
Identity
F o r the disciples, M a r k ' s increasingly important question c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s ' identity finds its initial expression o n the other side o f the 'parables of w o r d ' material (4:1-34), w h e r e , in the first o f the b o a t s c e n e s , they a s k ' W h o then is t h i s ? ' ( 4 : 4 1 ) .
27
Interestingly, the paired motifs o f a parable-
6uvajiic; and the d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n are also found in b o t h the intervening and final boat scenes (6:45-52; 8:14-21). O n this b a s i s it w o u l d
s e e m that t h e first b o a t s c e n e (4:35-41) is
p r o g r a m m a t i c for the o t h e r t w o , w h i c h s u g g e s t s that the
fundamental
question for all three concerns J e s u s ' identity and s i g n i f i c a n c e .
28
If so, then
M a r k ' s recording in the final boat pericope (8:14-21)—which also concludes his first s e c t i o n — o f J e s u s ' v i g o r o u s w a r n i n g about the ' l e a v e n ' of H e r o d and the 'sign-seeking' Pharisees simply underlines the point.
H e r o d hears
of J e s u s ' 6 u v a | i € i c ; b u t confuses h i m with a resurrected J o h n , w h i l e t h e Pharisees, w h o are already s o m e w h a t hostile to Jesus, continue to find his signs a m b i g u o u s (6:14; 8:11-13; cf. 3 : 5 - 6 ) .
29
Accordingly, Jesus cautions his
disciples against the ' l e a v e n ' o f both since it leads to a misconstrual o f his actions and a concomitant failure to recognise w h o h e really is. T h a t the q u e s t i o n o f J e s u s ' identity a n d significance is t h e
primary
e m p h a s i s o f the material up to this juncture is further supported b y w h a t M a r k does next.
I m m e d i a t e l y after J e s u s ' w a r n i n g c o m e s M a r k ' s first o f
only two accounts of the healing o f the blind. It is generally agreed that h e is intending 8:14-21 to b e interpreted in the light of the transitional story o f the 'laborious' healing o f the blind m a n (8:22-26) and o f J e s u s ' increasingly p o i n t e d q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g his identity w h i c h then lead directly to P e t e r ' s confession (8:27-30; e s p e c . v. 2 8 ; cf. 6 : 1 4 - 1 6 ) . 2
7
2
8
30
Not o n l y so, b u t
Cf. M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' , 219ff, 224f, for w h o m the p a r a b l e s m a t e r i a l c o n c e r n s t h e q u e s t i o n : 'to w h a t s h a l l w e l i k e n t h e k i n g d o m o f G o d ? ' , w h e r e a s 4 : 3 5 - 8:21 c o n c e r n s J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y . B u t t h i s is a l r e a d y a t i s s u e , o r s o it s e e m s t o m e , c e r t a i n l y in 3 : 2 0 f f a n d e v e n earlier. Cf. H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 4 9 6 , w h o s e e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n p o s e d b y t h e first s e c t i o n a s ' W h o is t h i s ? ' ; a l s o K u b y , ' K o n z e p t i o n ' ; M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' , 2 2 4 ; a n d K i n g s b u r y , 80ff. 9
^ H a w k i n , 'Incomprehension', 4 9 5 ; Petersen, 'Composition', 210f; Guelich, 1.423. A l t h o u g h t h e e v i d e n c e is l a t e ( e . g . Mek. o n E x . 1 6 : 2 5 ( c . 1 1 0 ) ; 2 Bar. 2 9 : 8 ; Qoh. Rab. o n 1:9; cf. V o l z , Eschatologie, 3 8 8 f ; B e h m , TDNT, 1 . 4 7 7 ; H e i s i n g , Botschaft, 46; van Cangh, multiplication, 1 1 9 , 5 0 - 5 3 ) , s o m e t h i n g like a n e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e M a n n a m i r a c l e m i g h t b e w h a t t h e P h a r i s e e s h a v e in m i n d , e s p e c i a l l y a s M a r k h a s t h e i r r e q u e s t immediately following the s e c o n d feeding. L i g h t f o o t , History, 90f; Richardson, 8 6 ; Best, 'Discipleship', 325ff; H a w k i n , 'symbolism', 104f, 'Incomprehension', 499f; Focant, 'L'incomprehension', 170; Heil, Walking, 1 3 8 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 4 2 0 , 4 2 6 . L a n e , 2 6 9 , o b s e r v i n g s t r u c t u r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e 3
0
230
The New
Exodus
Way
Peter's 'trees-as-men-walking' declaration suggests that this incomprehen sion is r e m e d i e d , b u t only partially, b y his p r o n o u n c e m e n t that J e s u s is 1
6 XpiaTos .
31
F r o m this perspective, the disciples' question in M a r k 4 : 4 1 , ' W h o then is this?', signals this section's recurring interest in their incomprehension. It resurfaces in the second boat story, ' F o r they did not understand about the loaves, b e c a u s e their heart w a s h a r d e n e d ' (6:52), is picked u p b y J e s u s , ' D o y o u still not u n d e r s t a n d ? ' (8:21), alluded to in his question ' w h a t d o y o u s e e ? ' (8:23), then sharpened at C a e s a r e a Philippi w h e n J e s u s asks the disciples ' W h o do people say that I a m ? ' (8:27) and again m o r e pointedly in his ' B u t w h o do y o u say that I a m ? ' (8:29a), and is finally answered in part by Peter's response, 'Zii €i 6 XpiaToV (8:29b). C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the t h r e e b o a t stories b e a r s further investigation.
In the first instance, the parable-sign o f the storm-
stilling is m e t with terror and lack o f understanding (4:41). In the second, the water-walking e v o k e s a similar r e s p o n s e b u t the disciples' incompre h e n s i o n is r e l a t e d n o t , as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , to the p r e c e d i n g
and
s o m e w h a t parallel storm-stilling but instead to the interposed first feeding (6:50, 5 2 ) . T h e n , in a clearly ordered progression, the third b o a t s c e n e concentrates solely o n the feedings (8:14-21). S e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s arise: w h y is the all-important q u e s t i o n o f J e s u s ' identity ultimately connected, through the boat scenes, with the feedings? A n d w h y d o e s M a r k first focus on J e s u s ' authority over the sea b u t then t w o feedings (6:31-44; 8:1-9), crossings (6:45-56; 8:10), conflict scenes (7:1-23; 8:11-13), b r e a d sayings (7:24-30; 8:14-21), healings (7:31-36; 8:22-26), a n d confessions (7:37; 8:27-30), s u g g e s t s that the healing miracles symbolically refer to the o p e n i n g of the disciples' e a r s a n d e y e s . M a t e r a , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 167ff, s e e s 6 : 4 5 - 8 : 2 6 a s c e n t r e d a r o u n d a j o u r n e y t o B e t h s a i d a w h i c h , i n t e r r u p t e d b y t h e s t o r m o f t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n in 6 : 4 5 - 8 : 2 1 , is finally c o m p l e t e d i n 8:22ff w h e r e t h e b l i n d m a n is h e a l e d . H e a l s o n o t e s , 1 7 1 , s t r u c t u r a l parallels b e t w e e n : A ) Bethsaida a n d villages of C a e s a r e a Philippi, B) 'Do y o u see anything', a n d ' W h o d o m e n say that I a m ? ' , C ) the m a n sees clearly a n d Peter correctly i d e n t i f i e s J e s u s , a n d D ) t h e m a n is f o r b i d d e n t o e n t e r t h e v i l l a g e a n d t h e d i s c i p l e s a r e c o m m a n d e d t o tell n o o n e . 3
1
M a t e r a , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 1 6 9 . T h e p r o p o s a l that Jesus rejects Peter's confession, o f t e n a r g u e d o n t h e b a s i s o f r e d a c t i o n a l t h e o r i e s (e.g. P e t e r s e n , Literary, 61ff; W e e d e n , 64ff; Kelber, 82f; Perrin, 'Christology'; Charlesworth, 'Messianology', 12, citing Fuller, Foundation, 1 0 9 ) s e e m s t o b e m a d e o n o t h e r g r o u n d s , a n d in o u r c a s e w h e r e w e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h M a r k a s it n o w s t a n d s , is h a r d l y t o b e a c c e p t e d . H o o k e r , Message, 5 2 f ; K i n g s b u r y , 91ff; G u n d r y , 4 4 5 . W h a t p r e c i s e l y P e t e r h a d in v i e w ( f o r M a r k ) is difficult t o tell, a l t h o u g h w h a t e v e r e l s e it s e e m e d n o t t o i n c l u d e t h e i d e a s o f 'suffering', 'failure', o r 'rejection'. T h a t P e t e r m a k e s t h e c o n f e s s i o n h a r d l y r u l e s o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t G o d h a s r e v e a l e d it t o h i m , cf. C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a n o l o g y ' , 1 2 n 2 5 .
Parable
-Feedings
and Jesus'
231
Identity
a p p a r e n t l y a b a n d o n this to c o n c e n t r a t e o n the m i r a c u l o u s p r o v i s i o n o f food?
I s u g g e s t that t h e y represent M a r k ' s account o f the failure o f the
disciples to d i s c e r n the significance o f J e s u s ' parable-iactions: first in the s t o r m - s t i l l i n g / s e a - w a l k i n g , and then in the feedings. M o s t p r o b a b l y t h e r e a s o n w h y the d i s c i p l e s fail to a p p r e h e n d
the
significance o f t h e storm-stilling and s e a - w a l k i n g is b e c a u s e t h e y i m p l y c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e a b o u t J e s u s ' identity than a n y o n e m i g h t h a v e reason ably e x p e c t e d .
3 2
A s r e g a r d s t h e s t o r m stilling, the disciples w h o w e r e
earlier apparently terrified b y the storm itself are n o w e v e n m o r e terrified b y the profound implications o f J e s u s ' authoritative r e b u k e (€(()0pTf9T|aav 4>dpov u c y a v , 4 : 4 1 ) . p r o p h e t at a l l . sea-walking.
3 3
T h i s is n o o r d i n a r y p r o p h e t ; if i n d e e d m e r e l y a
T h e s a m e p o i n t is m a d e e v e n m o r e forcibly in the later
In addition to the D i v i n e W a r r i o r materials cited earlier in
conjunction w i t h 4 : 3 5 - 4 1 ,
3 4
the expression n a p c X S c t v auTou'c; (6:48b cf. E x
3
33:19-23; 34:6; 1 K g s 1 9 : 1 1 ) 5 and J e s u s ' kyti 43:10-11)
36
€ l u i (6:50 cf. E x 3:14; Isa 4 1 : 4 ;
suggest that the disciples are witnessing an epiphany o f the ' O n e
w h o W a l k s o v e r the W a t e r ' (e.g. J o b 9:8, espec. L X X ; P s 77:20 M T , T g . ) .
3 7
If
a n y t h i n g , this g o e s b e y o n d their earlier t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e : w h e r e a s Jesus h a d previously c o m m a n d e d the sea n o w h e w a l k s u p o n it! T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f b o t h d e e d s are far-reaching, a l t h o u g h quite in keeping with M a r k ' s o p e n i n g c o m p o s i t e citation ( l : 2 f ) the
rent
heavens
(1:10).
3 9
3 8
and his account o f
Jesus, the one w h o both announces
the
c u a y y c X i o v o f the I N E and as M e s s i a h inaugurates it, is also, it s e e m s , to b e closely identified with the actual presence o f Y a h w e h himself.
For Mark,
Jesus appears n o t only to b e b o t h Messiah and the true son o f G o d (i.e. true Israel) b u t also the S o n o f G o d (cf. 1 : 1 ,
40
2 4 ; 3 : 1 1 ; 5:7; 15:39; M t 1 4 : 3 3 ) .
41
Y a h w e h h a s , in a u n i q u e w a y , ' c o m e d o w n ' a m o n g his p e o p l e to s a v e 3
2
3
3
O n p o s s i b l e a n t e c e d e n t s , B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 1 5 2 - 8 2 . O n t h e p o s s i b l e I s a 6 3 - 6 4 h o r i z o n f o r this a c c o u n t a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g m i r a c l e c o l l e c tion, s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 7 6 , fn. 2 0 3 . 3
4
3
5
S e e C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 160ff, a b o v e . L o h m e y e r ; K r e m e r , 'Jesu', 2 2 6 - 2 8 . H e i l , Walking, 69f; Guelich, 1.351. H e i l , Walking, 1 7 - 3 0 , 3 7 - 5 6 ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y n o w B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 1 4 5 - 5 2 ; M a r c u s , 144f. S t e g n e r , ' W a l k i n g ' , h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t this e v e n t is a l s o m o d e l l e d o n I s r a e l ' s d e l i v e r a n c e d u r i n g t h e E x o d u s , in p a r t i c u l a r t h e a c c o u n t in E x 1 4 . 3
6
3
7
3
8
See C h a p t e r 3 , p. 8 7 , point (D).
3
9
See Chapter 4, pp. 102-7, above. O n the textual problem. H e a d , 'Study'. B o u c h e r , 7 1 f ; H e i l , Walking, 5 6 ; P e s c h , 1 . 3 6 1 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 5 0 ; cf. K i n g s b u r y , 140ff.
4
0
4
1
232
The New
Exodus
Way
them (Mk 1:10, cf. Isa 59:15b-20; 63:1-5, 19). But all this is too m u c h for the disciples to grasp a n d results in fear and a m a z e m e n t rather than the recognition that constitutes f a i t h .
42
W i t h the feedings, h o w e v e r , things are less p r o b l e m a t i c . certainly true that they have prophetic c o u n t e r p a r t s
43
W h i l e it is
it is also the case that
t h e y c o n s t i t u t e t h e o n e c a t e g o r y o f m i r a c l e w h i c h h a s as its c l e a r e s t antecedent the p r o v i s i o n o f m a n n a in Israel's founding m o m e n t E x o d u s experience, a provision that in s o m e J e w i s h traditions w a s expected to b e repeated in the age to c o m e .
4 4
T h u s , in regard to our first question—why is the all-important matter of J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y u l t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h the f e e d i n g s ? — M a d e l e i n e B o u c h e r is, I think, correct.
It appears, for M a r k , that o f all the ' s i g n s '
w h i c h J e s u s performs the miraculous provision in the wilderness should h a v e b e e n the clearest indication that the N E w a s b e g i n n i n g , with J e s u s being at least Israel's s h e p h e r d - M e s s i a h .
45
Although the specific healings
of the blind, the deaf, etc., are in their individual particularity signs o f the I N E and r e c o g n i s a b l y so o n c e o n e allows an I N E framework, in terms o f general categories they, along with the e x o r c i s m s and resuscitations, are not sui generis.
T h e prophets and others (cf. L k 11:19) h a v e performed
similar m i r a c l e s .
4 6
H e n c e it is not surprising that M a r k c a n record that
m a n y regarded Jesus as a prophet (6:15; 8:28). M a r k ' s linking o f the feedings with Peter's confession, Zu
€i
6
XpiaTog,
c o h e r e s w i t h the c i r c l e o f i d e a s found in s o m e t r a d i t i o n s w h e r e the Messiah (Anointed O n e ) w a s associated explicitly with the repetition o f the provision o f m a n n a (2 Bar. 29:3, 8; cf. J o h n 6:5-15) a n d / o r m o r e generally
4
2
4
3
4
4
4
5
4
6
S e e M a r s h a l l , Faith,
216ff.
P a r t i c u l a r l y E l i s h a s e e e.g. v a n d e r L o o s , 6 2 4 f f ; B l a c k b u r n , Theios, m a t e r i a l s c i t e d in C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 7 8 f , a b o v e .
195f, a n d the
S e e B o u c h e r , 7 4 , w h o c i t e s 2 Bar. 2 9 : 8 ; Sib. Or. frag. 3 : 4 6 - 4 9 ; Midr. Qoh. Rab. o n E c c l 1:9; Midr. Tan. tfsullah 2 1 ; Mek o n E x 1 6 : 2 5 e t c . , a n d B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 1 9 5 f . B o u c h e r , 7 4 . Cf. S t o c k , Discipleship, 123f; Matera, 'Incomprehension', 164; Pesch 1 . 3 5 0 ; v a n C a n g h , ' m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ' , 3 4 4 ; T o o l e y , ' S h e p h e r d ' . Pace F o w l e r , Loaves, 1 3 0 , w h o sees the 'controversy b e t w e e n Jesus a n d the disciples' as the 'central focus' of the feedings. K o c h , Bedeutungen, 1 1 2 , w h o c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e s t h e link b e t w e e n t h e n a t u r e m i r a c l e s a n d t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n , is n e v e r t h e l e s s m i s t a k e n w h e n h e s t a t e s ' M a r k u s w i l l ... d i e M o g l i c h k e i t a u s s c h l i e f i e n , d i e , N a t u r ' w u n d e r a l s u n z w e i d e u t i g e E p i p h a n i e n J e s u ... z u verstehen.' T h e severity of Jesus' rebuke over the feedings suggests otherwise. V a n d e r L o o s , 2 3 7 - 3 9 ; T h e i s s e n , Miracle, 2 6 5 - 7 6 ; B l a c k b u r n , Theios, passim-, a n d t h e b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 137ff, a b o v e . Cf. D u n n ' s c r i t i q u e , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 9 4 , o f W r e d e w h e r e h e a r g u e s that the miracles a r e n o t u n a m b i g u o u s l y messianic.
Parable
-Feedings
and Jesus'
233
Identity
with Moses a n d / o r a N e w Exodus (e.g. Frg. Tg. Ex 12:42; Ex. Rab. 18:12; Qoh. Rab. 1:28; Tg. Ket. C a n t 4:5; 7:4 and L a m 2 : 2 2 ) .
47
(An intriguing conjunc
tion of ' a n o i n t e d ' terminology and N e w E x o d u s imagery is found in Isaiah 45:1.
H e r e C y r u s , as Y a h w e h ' s a g e n t o f Israel's N E d e l i v e r a n c e
from
Babylon, is described as 'his anointed'—the only place w h e r e iVttto occurs in 48
chapters 4 0 - 5 5 . )
A l o n g similar lines, the groups described in M a r k 6 are
not unlike those envisaged b y the Q u m r a n C o v e n a n t e r s as they waited for and
a n t i c i p a t e d e a t i n g w i t h the
Messiah
of Israel
(1QS
2:ll-22).
4 9
Consequently, as most c o m m e n t a t o r s agree, Mark's Jesus is revealed b y the feedings as Israel's messianic S h e p h e r d (cf. Ezek 34:23; Pss. Sol. 17:40; J n 6:15).
5 0
If so, then it appears that for M a r k the feedings w e r e the clearest
signs that J e s u s is at least the M e s s i a h and as s u c h he is i n a u g u r a t i n g Israel's long-awaited N E .
5 1
Returning to the second question—why does M a r k first focus on J e s u s ' authority o v e r the sea but then apparently a b a n d o n this to concentrate on the m i r a c u l o u s p r o v i s i o n of food?—the interpretation just offered
might
help us understand M a r k ' s p u r p o s e in relating the boat scenes as he does. Echoing the thematic statement on J e s u s ' identity as ' S / s o n ' in 1 : 1 1 ,
4
7
4
8
4
9
5
0
52
the
S e e a l s o t h e n u m e r o u s m a t e r i a l s c i t e d in J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 4.859-63. Again, due c a u t i o n s h o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d in light o f t h e difficulty o f d a t i n g . O n t h e T a r g u m s s e e L e v e y , Messiah, ad loc. Cf. s o m e r e a d i n g s o f Tg. Isa 4 2 : 1 a n d L X X w h e r e t h e ' s e r v a n t ' (in t h i s t e x t , w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y i n g t h e s a m e f o r t h e o t h e r ' s o n g s ' ) is i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e M e s s i a h ( c i t e d a b o v e in C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 7 ) ; a l s o J e r 23:5ff; 30:9f; 3 3 : 1 4 - 2 6 ; E z e k 3 4 : 2 0 - 3 1 ; 3 7 : 1 5 - 2 8 w h i c h d i s c u s s a D a v i d i c s c i o n a s t h e s h e p h e r d o f Y a h w e h ' s p e o p l e in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i r N E r e s t o r a t i o n . It is n o t e w o r t h y , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h i s D a v i d i c f i g u r e p r e s i d e s o v e r t h e r e s t o r e d n a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n effects its d e l i v e r a n c e . S e e a l s o H a n s o n , ' M e s s i a h s ' , 71 f. S e e T a l m o n , ' C o n c e p t s ' , 1 0 8 - 1 3 , a n d t h e m a t e r i a l s c i t e d a b o v e in C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 7 9 . A s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r in C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 177ff. Pace G u n d r y , 3 2 8 , t h a t t h e c r o w d is l i k e n e d t o ' s h e e p w i t h o u t a s h e p h e r d ' a l m o s t r e q u i r e s t h a t J e s u s in h i s c o m p a s s i o n b e s e e n as their s h e p h e r d , a n d this regardless of w h e t h e r or n o t the disciples eat of the loaves J e s u s p r o v i d e s n o w , o r l a t e r in 7:2. S i m i l a r l y , it w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e r r o r t o a r g u e t h a t t h e a b s e n c e o f i d e n t i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y (e.g. TOTTO?) e x c l u d e s c o n c e p t u a l c o n g r u e n c e w i t h t h e w i l d e r n e s s o f the E x o d u s . W h i l e this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d o e s n o t necessarily utterly e x c l u d e the possibility that M a r k ' s c o m m u n i t y a l s o u n d e r s t o o d t h e r e m a i n i n g l o a v e s , o r t h e o n e l o a f in t h e b o a t , a s a l l u d i n g t o t h e J e w i s h / G e n t i l e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e c h u r c h ( s e e e.g. B o o b y e r , ' M i r a c l e s ' ; H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 4 9 5 ; K e l b e r , 5 8 ; B e c k , ' R e c l a i m i n g ' ; G i b s o n , ' R e b u k e ' ; cf. S u n d w a l l , Zusammunsetzung; b u t s e e H o o k e r ' s c a u t i o n s . Message, 46ff) it d o e s u r g e t h a t s u c h is n o t t h e p r i m a r y p o i n t . P e t e r d o e s n o t c o n f e s s , "Thou a r t t h e O n e b r e a d w h o f e e d s b o t h J e w a n d Gentile', a n d t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t b y failing t o i n c l u d e s o m e t h i n g t o this effect h e m i s u n d e r s t o o d the real point of the loaves. H u m p h r e y , ' W i s d o m ' , suggests that the feedings reveal Jesus as the personification of W i s d o m . Kingsbury, 60-71. 5
2
234
The New
Exodus
Way
s u m m a r y in 3:11 (cf. 5:7) records the exorcised d e m o n s ' confession of J e s u s as the 6
viog
terminology
TOVJ 5 3
9€OU.
B u t g i v e n the d i v e r s e u s a g e o f this sort o f
what does it m e a n w h e n applied to J e s u s ?
T h e c r u c i a l ' B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y ' is not o n l y the o n e p l a c e w h e r e M a r k ' s J e s u s gives a n y indication o f his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f his e x o r c i s m s , but in k e e p i n g with M a r k ' s opening citation and 1:10 also s e e m s to indicate that they a r e to b e c o n s t r u e d in t e r m s o f the Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r . While 4:1-34 then
picks up
and
develops
the
implications of
the
' c o n t r o v e r s y ' e l e m e n t (i.e. J e s u s ' r e s p o n s e to his rejection), the following (and first) b o a t s c e n e involving the disciples (4:35ff) returns again to the 'Warrior' motif.
Invoking themes associated with
the first
Exodus
t h r o u g h t h e storm-stilling a n d the d r o w n i n g o f legion, M a r k ' s a c c o u n t further d e v e l o p s t h e link b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r with Jesus exercising authority
traditionally associated only with Y a h w e h
himself: h e directs the sea a n d effects the w a t e r y d e m i s e o f the d e m o n i c enemy, Legion. H o w e v e r , c o m i n g to terms with the implications o f such extraordinary actions appears b e y o n d the disciples. Their fear suggests that they h a v e at least s o m e i n t i m a t i o n o f w h a t all this m e a n s b u t are s i m p l y u n a b l e to accept the c o n c l u s i o n to w h i c h the e v i d e n c e points.
If this is too m u c h ,
then the f e e d i n g s — w h e n interpreted as p a r a b l e - s i g n s w h i c h , g i v e n the language
used
in 6 : 5 2 a n d
8:14ff,
is a p p a r e n t l y
how
Mark's Jesus
u n d e r s t a n d s them—provide a m o r e accessible starting point since they do not entail the staggering implications o f the sea miracles. A t least, then, J e s u s is the m e s s i a n i c S h e p h e r d - k i n g w h o inaugurates the N E (although for those w i t h e y e s to see, his actions m i g h t e v e n m o r e c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e those o f the ' Y a h w e h - S h e p h e r d ' o f Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 ) .
54
F r o m this perspective, part o f M a r k ' s rationale in interleaving the three b o a t s c e n e s w i t h the feeding a c c o u n t s appears to b e the detailing o f the d e v e l o p m e n t , or rather lack thereof, o f the disciples' appreciation o f J e s u s ' identity. 5
3
5
4
M a r k ' s p o i n t at the c o n c l u s i o n o f the s e c o n d b o a t s c e n e (6:52)
S e e a g a i n C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 0 , fn. 9 9 , a b o v e . S e e C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 7 7 f , a b o v e . B o u c h e r , 7 4 , a l s o n o t e s t h e p r e s e n c e t h r o u g h o u t this section of Isaianic motifs s u c h as wilderness (40:3; 43:19-20), divine p o w e r o v e r the w a t e r s ( 4 3 : 2 , 1 6 ) , t h e s h e p h e r d f e e d i n g h i s flock ( 4 0 : 1 1 ) , d e a f n e s s a n d b l i n d n e s s ( 4 2 : 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 0 ; 4 3 : 8 ) , 'I a m h e ' ( 4 1 : 4 ; 4 3 : 1 0 , 1 3 , 2 5 ) , a n d ' f e a r n o t ' ( 3 5 : 4 ; 4 1 : 1 0 ) . T h e e x c e p t i o n t o Y a h w e h a s s h e p h e r d in I s a 4 0 - 5 5 is f o u n d in 4 4 : 2 8 w h e r e t h e M T , a l o n g w i t h s e v e r a l M S S , S y r , a n d V g , , h a s C y r u s a s ' m y s h e p h e r d ' a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s l Q I s a r e a d s ' m y friend'. a
Parable
-Feedings
and Jesus'
235
Identity
s e e m s to b e that it is hardly to b e wondered that the disciples w e r e unable to grasp the m e a n i n g o f J e s u s ' w a l k i n g o n the w a t e r since n o t only h a d they failed to u n d e r s t a n d the significance o f the storm-stilling, but they had trouble e n o u g h with the considerably less problematic implications o f the f e e d i n g s .
55
A s J . P. Heil remarks, this is probably w h y the M a r k a n Jesus
reverts to focussing o n the loaves until Peter finally perceives J e s u s to b e the Messiah ( 8 : 1 4 - 3 0 ) .
56
This b e i n g so, two further questions arise. W h y M a r k ' s interest in the disciples' inability to c o m p r e h e n d that J e s u s is at least the Messiah, if not the S o n of G o d , w h o inaugurates the I N E ? A n d w h y is Peter's confession u s e d to introduce the ' W a y ' section?
W i l l i a m W r e d e suggested that the
disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n formed part o f the ' M e s s i a n i c S e c r e t ' ,
57
but as
J . T y s o n and T. J . W e e d e n recognised it is not so m u c h that t h e disciples k n e w o f J e s u s ' m e s s i a h s h i p and w e r e forbidden to reveal it; they funda mentally misunderstood its nature.
For T y s o n and W e e d e n
5 8
the disciples
are better u n d e r s t o o d as representatives o f a viewpoint that M a r k n e e d e d to refute.
A l t h o u g h the disciples h a v e recently fared better b e i n g seen as
fallible m o d e l s exhibiting b o t h positive and negative c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
5
5
5
6
5
7
59
the
Boucher, 7 3 ; L a n e , 2 3 8 ; Guelich, 1.352. Walking, 142.
Messiasgeheimnis. T h e l i t e r a t u r e h e r e is i m m e n s e a n d t h e i s s u e e x c e e d i n g l y c o m p l e x ( s e e e.g. t h e s u r v e y s o f t h e d e b a t e in B l e v i n s , Research, a n d T u c k e t t , Secret), not l e a s t b e c a u s e o f difficulties in d e f i n i n g w h a t is t o b e c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f t h e s e c r e t a n d w h a t is n o t , a n d w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r e is e v e n a n o v e r a r c h i n g M a r k a n ' s e c r e c y ' m o t i f , s e e e.g. L u z , ' G e h e i m n i s m o t i v ' a n d R a i s a n e n , 'Messianic'. W i t h o u t going into detail, o u r assessment of M a r k 4 s u g g e s t s t h a t it is n o t s o m u c h p a r t o f a M a r k a n ' s e c r e c y ' p r o j e c t a s a n a c t o f j u d g e m e n t a k i n t o t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d e a r l i e r in I s r a e l ' s h i s t o r y . Similarly, Mark's f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s m i g h t o w e m o r e t o O T categories, particularly Isaianic ones (see below), than an overarching M a r k a n 'secrecy' s c h e m a t i c . In r e s p e c t o f t h i s l a t t e r p o i n t , i.e. t h e g e n e r a l a t m o s p h e r e o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n , R o b i n s o n ' s s u g g e s t i o n , ' G n o s t i c i s m ' , 1 4 2 , t h a t M a r k is s e e k i n g t o ' p u s h b a c k t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l t u r n i n g p o i n t ' m i g h t b e h e l p f u l — e v e n if h i s a n t i - G n o s t i c p o l e m i c t h e o r y is less s o . It c o u l d b e t h a t M a r k is s e e k i n g t o s h o w t h a t , a l t h o u g h e v e n J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s d i d n o t fully a p p r e c i a t e w h o h e w a s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g C h r i s t i a n c l a i m s a b o u t J e s u s w a s i n f a c t i m p l i c i t i n J e s u s ' w o r d s a n d a c t i o n s . It t o o k t h e r a d i c a l p a r a d i g m shift i n h e r e n t in t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n t o e n a b l e h i s f o l l o w e r s t o m a k e t h e ' l e a p ' f r o m s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e ' i m p o s s i b l e ' i m p l i c a t i o n s o f e.g. J e s u s ' f o r g i v e n e s s o f s i n s a n d s e a - m i r a c l e s , t o finally affirming t h e m n o t m e r e l y a s the possible b u t the factual. 5
8
5
9
' B l i n d n e s s ' , ' H e r e s y ' ; cf. K e l b e r , Kingdom; Oral. A l b e i t in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s : Q u e s n e l l ; P e a c o c k , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; R e p l o h , Lehrer; B e s t , ' P e t e r ' ; ' T w e l v e ' , Following; F o c a n t , ' L ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' ; Tannehill, 'Disciples'; F r e y n e , ' D i s c i p l e s ' ; K l a u c k , ' R o l l e ' ; M a l b o n , ' D i s c i p l e s ' , ' F a l l i b l e ' . S c h m a h l , Zwblf, a n d S t o c k , Boten, s t r e s s t h e i r u n i q u e h i s t o r i c a l r o l e . M e y e , Jesus, t a k e s t h e m o s t p o s i t i v e p o s i t i o n .
236
The New
Exodus
Way
distinction b e t w e e n the d i s c i p l e s ' a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f the fact o f J e s u s ' messiahship and their understanding its nature remains v a l i d . e) Jesus'
Identity,
Peter's
Confession,
and the
60
'Way'
At the level o f the narrator, then, M a r k ' s first section e m p l o y s a n u m b e r of I s r a e l ' s a n c i e n t i c o n s to p r e s e n t J e s u s n o t m e r e l y as M e s s i a h i n a u g u r a t e s the I N E , b u t also as the true S / s o n o f G o d .
6 1
who
W i t h i n the
narrative, h o w e v e r , things are not so obvious. In contrast to the d e m o n s , the human
participants, including
the disciples, have
considerable
difficulty in apprehending the full significance o f J e s u s ' w o r d s and deeds. T h u s , although Peter's declaration represents something o f a climax, J e s u s w a s clearly m u c h m o r e ; provided one had eyes to see. Nevertheless, o n e m u s t b e thankful for small mercies, and if ' M e s s i a h ' represented the extent of the disciples' perception then so be it. Consequently, it is M a r k ' s account of Peter's 'trees as m e n walking' confession of J e s u s as M e s s i a h that serves to i n t r o d u c e the ' W a y ' s e c t i o n w h e r e the u n e x p e c t e d d e s t i n y o f this Messiah is revealed: h e must give his life a ransom for m a n y (10:45). A s o t h e r s h a v e n o t e d , it is a l m o s t a truism that t h e s e t w o m a j o r sections are related b y m e a n s o f a t h e m a t i c p r o g r e s s i o n w h e r e b y ' t h e unveiling o f the secret of J e s u s ' identity'—or at least partial unveiling— 'leads the w a y for the unveiling of the mystery o f his d e s t i n y ' .
62
The one
caveat w o u l d b e that, at least for this section o f Mark, the limiting factor is n o t so m u c h J e s u s ' hesitancy to reveal his identity (although this m i g h t well b e a contributing factor, cf. 3:12; 9:9) as it is the disciples' inability to grasp the full implications of J e s u s ' words and deeds. W h a t is striking in this regard is that M a r k ' s presentation o f J e s u s as the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r w h o inaugurates the I N E is orientated not, as m i g h t t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e x p e c t e d , t o w a r d the p o l i t i c a l s u b j u g a t i o n o f I s r a e l ' s perceived h u m a n e n e m i e s (in this case the R o m a n s ) , but instead the true source o f evil, that is, the d e m o n i c h o r d e s and their prince B e e l z e b u l . It m i g h t w e l l b e that it is this p e r s p e c t i v e , g i v e n the
6
0
6
1
6
2
intertestamental
F o c a n t , ' L ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 1 8 5 ; cf. H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 4 9 3 .
K i n g s b u r y , Christology, is c o r r e c t in e m p h a s i s i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f ' S o n o f G o d ' terminology, although the stress appears not so m u c h on 'royal' connotations but instead on t h e d i v i n e ; cf. n o w a l s o B l a c k b u r n , Theios. H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 5 0 0 ; cf. e.g. K u b y , ' K o n z e p t i o n ' , 5 8 ; L u z , ' G e h e i m n i s m o t i v e ' , 2 3 ; Best, 'Discipleship', 3 2 5 ; Quesnell, 161f. O n Strecker's c r i t i c i s m of this d i s t i n c t i o n , fn. 1 1 4 .
Jesus'
Identity,
Peter's
Confession,
and the
237
'Way'
conjunction o f idolatry and the d e m o n i c , that both confuses the disciples and
ensures
that
those who
set themselves over against
Jesus—in
particular the J e r u s a l e m scribes—are regarded as the descendants of Israel's idolatrous r u l e r s o f o l d and s o incur a s i m i l a r j u d g e m e n t (as a r g u e d Chapter 7 and further in Chapter 9 ) . W h a t , then, is the r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d M a r k ' s stress o n t h e d i s c i p l e s ' incomprehension
as
a
precursor
observations may be made. participation
to
the
'Way'
section?
6 3
Several
First, I s u g g e s t , h e w a n t s to s h o w
in the p a r a b l e - u v a | i € i c ;
does
not
necessarily
that entail
c o m p r e h e n s i o n (even though failure to understand is culpable, 8 : 1 4 - 2 1 ) .
64
C o n s e q u e n t l y , M a r k p o i n t e d l y relates the disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n in the context o f the m o s t perspicacious of the miracles: the feedings.
Even
J e s u s ' c l o s e s t f o l l o w e r s c a n p a r t i c i p a t e in the m i r a c u l o u s s i g n s w h i c h attend, or b e t t e r p e r h a p s a n n o u n c e , the inaugurated
INE.
B u t w h e n it
c o m e s to p e r c e i v i n g J e s u s ' identity, they are like t h o s e w i t h
hardened
hearts in that they too d o not u n d e r s t a n d the true significance o f the events in w h i c h they are caught up.
This not only d r a w s attention to the
pervasive ' b l i n d n e s s ' o f the h u m a n p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
65
b u t also distinguishes
participation in the signs from true participation in the actual event itself. This is perhaps w h y M a r k does not locate the feedings in his ' W a y ' section as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d o n the b a s i s o f an I N E h e r m e n e u t i c . feedings a d v e r t i s e the i n a u g u r a t i o n
of the I N E , g e n u i n e
W h i l e the participation
d e p e n d s on m u c h m o r e , not least the a c c e p t a n c e o f the suffering scandalous ' w a y ' o f the cross (cf. 8:34 - 9 : 1 ) .
6
3
6
4
6
5
6
6
and
66
Cf. F u l l e r , Mission, 7 4 ; G l a s s w e l l , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 1 5 8 f ; H a w k i n , ' S y m b o l i s m ' ; Q u e s n e l l , passim; F o w l e r , Loaves, 1 0 9 - 1 4 ; P e t e r s e n , ' C o m p o s i t i o n ' ; P e s c h , 1 . 3 8 5 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 1 6 f ; M a t e r a , 'Incomprehension'; Best, 'Twelve', 3 1 . P e t e r s e n , ' C o m p o s i t i o n ' , 2 1 5 ; cf. H o o k e r , Message, 5 4 , w h o o b s e r v e s this d y n a m i c in the t e a c h i n g parables. W h i l e it is t r u e t h a t v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s c o m e t o J e s u s i n h e a l i n g f a i t h , I w o u l d a r g u e t h a t in n o n e o f t h e c a s e s d o e s t h i s n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s t i t u t e a n a f f i r m a t i o n o f a n d personal c o m m i t m e n t to Jesus' messiahship. A l t h o u g h w e feel n o u r g e n c y t o f o r c e e v e r y t h i n g o n t o a P r o c r u s t e a n I N E b e d — t h e feeding accounts c a n happily b e u n d e r s t o o d independently of a N E s c h e m a w i t h o u t negating t h e o v e r a l l t h e s i s — M a r k ' s e d i t o r i a l skill a n d e v i d e n t i n t e r e s t in l i n k i n g t h e f e e d i n g s w i t h t h e i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n m o t i f s u g g e s t t h a t h e h a s s o m e t h i n g in m i n d . F r o m a l i t e r a r y s t a n d p o i n t , h a v i n g a s s u m e d a n I N E h e r m e n e u t i c t h e r e a d e r m i g h t e x p e c t t o find t h e f e e d i n g s in the ' W a y ' section. B y misplacing t h e m , a n d thereby contradicting the reader's expectation, M a r k d r a w s attention both to the feedings and, p e r h a p s m o r e importantly, to the i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n m o t i f , t h u s u n d e r l i n i n g t h e fact t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e s i g n s is n o t t o b e
238
The
New
Exodus
Way
S e c o n d , e v e n if o n e partially perceives J e s u s ' identity, this too is not enough and
hence Mark's integration
account o f the two-stage h e a l i n g .
67
of Peter's confession with
the
For Mark, such confession a m o u n t s to
a precondition o f e m b a r k i n g on the I N E ' w a y ' in that it is only w h e n Peter c o n f e s s e s at l e a s t t h a t J e s u s is t h e M e s s i a h — w i t h ,
most
likely,
the
c o n c o m i t a n t e x p e c t a t i o n s o f s o m e sort o f national s a l v a t i o n — t h a t
the
68
disciples c a n then begin to b e taught the m o r e difficult but essential lesson that the ultimate m e a n s o f the I N E salvation is for J e s u s to give his life a r a n s o m for m a n y ( 1 0 : 4 5 ) .
69
This, it s e e m s to m e , is precisely the point of
M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section with its e m p h a s i s o n the private instruction o f the disciples concerning the true nature o f J e s u s ' messiahship. accepted that G o d ' s w i s d o m
7 0
O n l y w h e n it is
means that the realisation o f Israel's N E and
the nations' salvation (cf. Isa 56:7 in M k 11:17) is predicated on the scandal of Xpurroc; e a T a u p c a u c v o c ; (1 C o r 1:23) can one begin to participate truly in the I N E .
7 1
O f c o u r s e , in k e e p i n g w i t h the earlier M a r k a n t h e m e s , this
must b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y an affirmation o f J e s u s ' divine Sonship. F i n a l l y , in t e r m s
of M a r k ' s overall agenda,
it a p p e a r s that h e is
concerned to s h o w that n o o n e really u n d e r s t o o d the full significance o f J e s u s ' w o r d s and deeds, not e v e n those o n the 'inside'.
If J e s u s ' disciples
m a d e such a m e a l o f it, then it is hardly to b e w o n d e r e d that the b u l k o f e q u a t e d w i t h e n t r y i n t o t h e I N E ' W a y ' . (This is n o t , h o w e v e r , t o s u g g e s t t h a t M a r k s e e k s t o d e n i g r a t e J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s ; s e e t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d a b o v e in C h a p t e r 5 , p . 1 7 2 , fn. 1 6 6 . ) B e s t , Following, 1 3 5 ; K i n g s b u r y , 9 5 ; cf. D e r r e t t ' s s u g g e s t i o n , ' T r e e s ' , 3 6 , t h a t t h e s e c o n d h e a l i n g is r e l a t e d t o p e r c e p t i o n . 6
8
Pace P e s c h , ' M e s s i a s b e k e n n t n i s ' , 2 5 , a n d C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a n o l o g y ' , 1 2 n 2 5 , t h e m e s s i a n i c / S o n o f D a v i d e l e m e n t s in this s e c t i o n c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g M a r k 1 0 : 3 2 - 4 5 (see b e l o w ) s u g g e s t that for M a r k Peter's c o n c e p t i o n h a d a t least s o m e n a t i o n a l i s t i c o v e r t o n e s . S e e e.g. Pss. Sol. 17:21ff; c o n c e r n i n g Q u m r a n , L o a d e r , ' N e w ' ; a n d in general Mendels, 'Pseudo', a n d the literature cited therein. 6 9
T h u s t h e p o i n t is t w o f o l d . F i r s t , t h e d i s c i p l e s a r e n o w t a u g h t t h a t t h e M e s s i a h m u s t d i e simpliciter a n d t h e n a f t e r t h r e e d a y s b e r a i s e d . A l t h o u g h W r e d e a r g u e d t h a t t h i s is i n c o n s i s t e n t s i n c e J e s u s ' p a s s i o n is a l r e a d y e v i d e n t in 2 : 1 9 , M a r k ' s o v e r a l l p i c t u r e o f t h e d i s c i p l e s p r o v i d e s little g r o u n d s for s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e y fully u n d e r s t o o d its i m p l i c a t i o n s . S e c o n d , t h e r e is t h e m a t t e r o f t h e p u r p o s e o f J e s u s ' d e a t h . O n e a s p e c t lost in t h e d i s c u s s i o n is h o w a l i e n t h i s m u s t h a v e s o u n d e d t o t h o s e w h o d i d n o t h a v e c e n t u r i e s o f C h r i s t i a n belief behind them. 7 0
A l t h o u g h M a r k d o e s n o t specifically m e n t i o n ' w i s d o m ' , s u c h M a r k a n t e r m i n o l o g y a s e.g. pXcTTO), opaa), aKoua), O W I T I U I , a n d yivaSaKG) is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f I s r a e l ' s w i s d o m t r a d i t i o n . C f . H e n g e l , Atonement, 43f: 'Although countless J e w s w e r e crucified u n d e r the S e l e u c i d s , t h e H a s m o n e a n s a n d a b o v e all t h e R o m a n s , a n d a l t h o u g h t h e r e w e r e s o m a n y c r u c i f i e d p i o u s m e n a n d t e a c h e r s , a s f a r a s I c a n s e e w e find o n l y o n e r e f e r e n c e t o a c r u c i f i e d m a r t y r in r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s ... D e u t e r o n o m y 2 1 . 2 3 e v i d e n t l y m a d e it difficult t o t u r n a crucified m a n into a religious figure o r a hero'. 7 1
Blindness,
Understanding
... Mark's
Way:
239
Introduction
the M e s s i a h ' s o w n p e o p l e likewise misunderstood, and even continued to misunderstand.
A n d this without the additional and almost insuperable
i m p e d i m e n t o f a M e s s i a h w h o is crucified.
In this respect, M a r k m i g h t
well b e addressing the s a m e sort o f issue faced b y P a u l in R o m a n s 9 - 1 1 : h o w is it that G o d ' s o w n p e o p l e c o u l d m i s s , to b o r r o w N . T . W r i g h t ' s p h r a s e , the c l i m a x o f the c o v e n a n t ?
M a r k ' s r e s p o n s e , o n c e again, is
couched in terms o f the nation's past as expressed in her Scriptures. T h e r e had been on many occasions a hard-heartedness
in I s r a e l a n d
her
leadership that led t h e m to prefer their o w n w i s d o m to that o f Y a h w e h . F o r M a r k , this t e n d e n c y r e c u r r e d in J e s u s ' day, b l i n d i n g t h e n a t i o n ' s religious authorities a n d e v e n J e s u s ' o w n disciples. T h e great difference being that the latter, although ' b l i n d ' (10:32), nevertheless f o l l o w e d . Granted
the above, what
72
a b o u t the o v e r a l l p r o p o s a l o f an I N E
hermeneutic for M a r k ? If M a r k ' s J e s u s is at o n e and the s a m e time, Israel's Messiah and 'true servant Israel' ( M k 1:11), the true son of G o d , w h o is also u n i q u e l y identified w i t h the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r (thus S o n o f G o d ) a n d w h o s e w o r d s and deeds reflect the icons o f Israel's ' E x o d u s ' deliverances and as such a n n o u n c e the inauguration o f the I N E , w h a t are w e to m a k e of M a r k ' s ' W a y ' s e c t i o n ?
A r e t h e r e , as w e h a v e s u g g e s t e d e a r l i e r ,
correlations b e t w e e n the I N E ' w a y ' and M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section?
W e will
n o w turn first to a discussion o f the ' w a y ' i m a g e in the Isaianic N E , a n d then see if a c a s e c a n b e m a d e for its influence o n the m a n n e r in w h i c h M a r k develops his ' W a y ' .
II. Blindness and Understanding: Mark's 'Way' Section a)
Introduction
A s noted earlier scholarly opinion is largely agreed o n several features o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section (see C h a p t e r 5 ) . B y w a y o f recapitulation, M a r k ' s
7
2
T h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h y Y a h w e h c h o s e t o effect h i s d e l i v e r a n c e in t h i s u n e x p e c t e d w a y lies b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s t h e s i s , a l t h o u g h a s i m i l a r d y n a m i c c a n b e s e e n in I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 w h e r e t h e e n i g m a t i c 'suffering s e r v a n t ' ( a n d i n d e e d C y r u s ) s e e m s t o s t a n d in m a r k e d contrast to m o r e conventional h o p e s of p e r h a p s a n e w David (given the l a n g u a g e of Isa 9 a n d 1 1 ) o r a n e w M o s e s ( g i v e n t h e E x o d u s i m a g e r y ) . It m i g h t b e t h a t Y a h w e h ' s s t r a t e g y i n o p e r a t i n g in this u n e x p e c t e d m a n n e r w a s t o s u b v e r t h u m a n r e l i a n c e o n its o w n w i s d o m (cf. Watts, 'Consolation', 4 1 - 4 9 ) , a n issue apparently central to the a c c o u n t of creation a n d the e x p u l s i o n in G e n 3 a n d p e r h a p s e c h o e d i n I s a i a h ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e w i s d o m d e b a t e a s c e n t r a l t o t h e r e a s o n for I s r a e l ' s e x i l e .
240
The
New
Exodus
Way
central j o u r n e y section focuses not only o n the issues o f discipleship, but fundamentally on J e s u s ' relatively private teaching o f his disciples about his future suffering.
T h e healing-of-the-blind miracles w h i c h
a n d c o n c l u d e this s e g m e n t further understand.
introduce
s y m b o l i s e the d i s c i p l e s ' n e e d
to
M a r k ' s redactional u s e o f 66o's- e m p h a s i s e s the s e n s e o f
journey (in geographical-theological terms, toward Jerusalem, the place of Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e ) and is associated not o n l y with e a c h o f the three passion predictions b u t also with both the rich m a n w h o rejects J e s u s ' call to follow and B a r t i m a e u s w h o does follow.
T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f 686$
M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation is also in all likelihood p r o g r a m m a t i c , forward to the ' W a y ' p r e p a r e d for b y J o h n
7 3
in
pointing
that J e s u s as the suffering
Messiah m u s t take to Jerusalem and wherein the disciples m u s t f o l l o w .
74
T h e question that concerns us is to w h a t extent, if any, does M a r k ' s linking o f the motifs o f s i g h t / u n d e r s t a n d i n g
and ' W a y ' reflect the Isaianic
N E ? T h e next section of this chapter will e x a m i n e the role of the motifs of sight, understanding, and ' w a y ' in Isaiah's N E . W e will argue that the INE ' w a y ' in c h a p t e r s 4 0 - 5 5 (cf. ch. 3 5 ) i n v o l v e s the r e v e r s a l o f I s r a e l ' s i d o l a t r o u s rejection o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m a n d h e r s u b s e q u e n t 'blinding a n d deafening'.
judicial
T h u s the m e t a p h o r i c a l aspect o f h e r healing
indicates h e r a c c e p t a n c e o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , in particular his plan for national salvation, a n d the rejection o f her idols. b) Isaiah
and the NE 'Way' as the 'Way'
(i) Idolatry,
Blindness,
of Yahweh's
and the Rejection
Wisdom
of Yahweh's
Wisdom
In the previous C h a p t e r w e s a w that throughout Isaiah 1-39 the thematic contrast is b e t w e e n j u d g e m e n t and redemption, promise and threat, with the e m p h a s i s increasingly falling on the n e g a t i v e .
75
Y a h w e h ' s people are
accused o f being impious, evil-doers, speakers o f folly (9:15), godless (10:6),
7
3
7
4
A s n o t e d briefly in C h a p t e r 7, p p . 1 8 4 f , a b o v e . B e s t , Following, 15f. Cf. e.g. Burkill, 'Strain', 3 2 ; K e r t e l g e , 1 8 1 ; K e l b e r , 9 5 . L a n e , o n t h e b a s i s o f p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n 6 : 3 1 - 7 : 3 7 a n d 8 : 1 - 3 0 (fn. 3 0 ) , e x c l u d e s 1 0 : 4 6 - 5 2 f r o m t h e d i s c i p l e s ' l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g m o t i f , s e e i n g 8 : 2 2 - 2 6 a s c o n c l u d i n g t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , e.g. K l o s t e r m a n n , 7 7 ; K o c h , Wundererzahlung, 71f; P e s c h , 1 . 4 2 1 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 4 3 0 . O t h e r s s e e it a s i n t r o d u c i n g w h a t f o l l o w s , e . g . L i g h t f o o t , History, 9 0 f ; B e s t , Disciples, 3; Johnson, ' B e t h s a i d a ' ; G n i l k a , 1 . 3 1 5 . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h y 8 : 2 2 - 2 6 c a n n o t f u n c t i o n a s a ' h i n g e ' t r a n s i t i o n . B e s t , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 3 2 5 ; R o b b i n s , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 236ff. 5
' See p p . 188-94 a n d pp. 2 1 3 - 1 6 above. Chs. 1-12 a r e o r d e r e d a r o u n d ch. 6 with chs. 1 a n d 12 as book-ends: the former primarily of j u d g e m e n t a n d the latter of hope; A c k r o y d , ' P r e s e n t a t i o n ' , passim a n d 4 5 f ; R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' .
Restoration
of Sight:
Being
Taught
by
241
Yahweh
unjust, corrupt, greedy, intemperate, and violent (e.g. l:15ff; 5:7-12).
Far
from being ' h o l y / the nation is characterised b y sin (e.g. 1:4; 33:14), iniquity (e.g. 1:4; 28:9), evil (e.g. 3:9; 32:7), and transgression (1:2, 28; etc.). T h e root o f these social and moral evils lies in the fact that the p e o p l e are inflated with pride and boastful arrogance (2:7f; 3:16ff; 5:21; 9:7ff; 28:1). Y a h w e h is n o t o n l y n e g l e c t e d b u t d e r i d e d , his p u r p o s e s a n d c o u n s e l despised, and his law rejected (1:4b; 3:8f; 5:12,18f, 24b; 8:6; 17:10; 22:11; 28:12; 29:15f; 30:9-13, 1 5 ) . H a v i n g forgotten the G o d of h e r salvation (17:10), which ignorance is from the outset coupled with her rebellion (1:2b, 4 , 5; cf. 3 0 : 1 , 1 3 ) , t h e n a t i o n
demonstrates
understands (1:3, L X X : y i y v c j a K c o ,
that s h e n e i t h e r k n o w s
o\)v\r\\i\;
5:13a, L X X :
e i 6 o v ) ,
nor and
consequently her religion is effectively mere pretence (1:11-15; 29:13ff). M o r e importantly w e noted that the quintessence o f the nation's sin— revolt against Y a h w e h (1:2; 3 0 : 1 , 9 ) and a wilful refusal to r e c o g n i s e , believe, or to h a v e obedient faith (7:9)—was the practice o f idolatry (l:29f; 2:6, 8 (cf. vv. 18, 20); 10:10f; cf. 17:8; 27:9b; 30:22; 31:7; cf. witchcraft, 3:3b; 8:19; 17:8, 10; cf. 2:6). This c o m e s fully into focus in A h a z ' persistent refusal to accept Y a h w e h ' s offer o f salvation, preferring instead his o w n political machinations (chs. 7-8; cf. chs. 28-33).
W e then argued that the blinding
and deafening a n n o u n c e d in Isaiah 6 a n d d e s c r i b e d in I s a i a h 2 9 a n d e l s e w h e r e w a s to b e u n d e r s t o o d as Y a h w e h ' s ironic j u d g e m e n t o n Israel for relying o n its o w n idolatrous w i s d o m .
T h e p e o p l e and in particular
their leaders w e r e , m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , to b e ' r e c r e a t e d ' in the i m a g e o f t h e lifeless and u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g
idols t h e y w o r s h i p p e d .
Consequently,
J e r u s a l e m ' s self-reliant w i s e m e n w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y lead t h e
country
toward that very destruction which they so ardently sought to avoid. (ii) Restoration
of Sight:
Being
Taught
by
Yahweh
U n d e r s t o o d a g a i n s t this b a c k g r o u n d , I s a i a h ' s r e d e m p t i v e p r o m i s e s o f restorational seeing and hearing take on greater significance. Irrespective of a n y p h y s i c a l referent, they too function as m e t a p h o r s describing t h e reversal of Y a h w e h ' s judicial application o f the 'idolators curse', and often do so in the c o n t e x t o f the purified r e m n a n t returning o n t h e ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m to J e r u s a l e m .
76
In other words, Israel's restoration is
described b y m e a n s o f w i s d o m terminology based on 'seeing' and 'hearing' 7
6
Cf. e.g. 1 0 : 2 0 , a n d G e r l e m a n , ' B e r m e r k u n g e n ' ; v o n S o d e n - W a c h t e r , TWAT, O n t h e r e m n a n t m o t i f , H a s e l , Remnant.
5.1190-93.
242
The New
Exodus
Way
m e t a p h o r s i n t e r w e a v e d with the spatial l a n g u a g e o f e x o d u s j o u r n e y i n g along the ' w a y ' to Zion. T h e following e x a m p l e s should suffice.
In 30:21 f Y a h w e h is presented
as I s r a e l ' s ' t e a c h e r ' w h o will n o l o n g e r h i d e h i m s e l f from h i s p e o p l e . Their e y e s will see h i m , they will hear a voice directing them in ^JTin they should go, and they will cast a w a y their i d o l s .
77
That 29:18's depiction of
the restoration of sight and hearing should also b e understood along these lines is s u g g e s t e d b y verse 24 w h i c h promises that those w h o err in mind will k n o w the truth and those w h o criticise will accept instruction (cf. 29:916; 2 8 : 9 - 1 4 ) .
7 8
A s i m i l a r c o n j u n c t i o n a l s o o c c u r s in 3 2 : 3 w h e r e
cessation of judicial blinding
the
is p a r a l l e l e d b y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f its
..consequences such that the hasty will discern truth. This is then followed b y a h o m i l y on the contrast b e t w e e n the fool and the n o b l e m a n (vv. 4 - 8 ; cf. Tg. Isa ad loc). New
Exodus
C h a p t e r 3 5 , Isaiah 1-39's m o s t e x p a n s i v e a c c o u n t o f a
reversal
of Isaiah's judgement
commissioning, links
restoration o f sight to the blind and hearing to the deaf with a description of the h o l y w a y (vv. 8-10; cf. 6 : 3 )
7 9
u p o n w h i c h neither the u n c l e a n n o r
fools will w a l k (v. 6) and which leads to Z i o n .
80
F r o m this it is e v i d e n t that ' w a y ' t e r m i n o l o g y has b o t h spatial and sapiential connotations (cf. also Tg. Isa 35:1-10). This dual e m p h a s i s might b e the point o f the author's using both ^"n and ^ O f c in 35:8 w h e r e the latter s e e m s specifically to refer to a prepared h i g h w a y p e r h a p s leading to the locus o f Y a h w e h ' s presence, n a m e l y the T e m p l e ,
81
while the former is
e l s e w h e r e u s e d in sapiential contexts, for e x a m p l e , 8:11; 3 0 : 1 1 , 2 1 .
8 2
The
sapiential d i m e n s i o n o f the n a t i o n ' s restoration c a n also b e seen in the e m p h a s i s o n Y a h w e h ' s counsel and w i s d o m in the depictions o f the future 7
7
7
8
7
9
8
0
K a i s e r ; C l e m e n t s a n d W i l d b e r g e r r e n d e r "^"HD in t h e s i n g u l a r . O n t h e w i s d o m a s s o c i a t i o n s , e s p e c . J e n s e n , Use, 131ff; W a t t s , Isaiah, i . 3 9 8 f . Clements, 'Beyond', 104, notes the connection of g l o o m a n d darkness with 8:23, ' t h e r e b y l i n k i n g t h i s i m a g e r y w i t h t h a t o f b l i n d n e s s ' ; l i g h t / d a r k n e s s is w i d e l y u s e d for p r o s p e r i t y / d i s a s t e r , H e m p e l , ' L i c h t ' . O n t h e w i s d o m i n f l u e n c e in 2 9 : 1 6 f f , W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 7 3 - 7 5 , 1 3 0 - 3 1 . K a i s e r , 2 . 3 6 5 , s e e s t h e w a y a s l e a d i n g t o t h e T e m p l e ; R o b e r t s , ' I s a i a h ' , 312ff, r e g a r d s Y a h w e h ' s h o l i n e s s a s t h e l o c u s o f h i s d e a l i n g s w i t h h i s p e o p l e , cf. 4 : 3 ; 6 : 1 3 ; 2 9 : 2 3 . O n a sapiential understanding. Kaiser, 1.364; Wildberger, 2.1362. Clements, 1 2 5 , sees t h e i m a g e r y o f d e a f n e s s a n d b l i n d n e s s h e r e in a l i t e r a l a n d n o t m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e , b u t s e e m s t o e q u i v o c a t e in ' U n i t y ' . 8 1
B e r g m a n n , H a l d a r , R i n g g r e n , K o c h , TDOT, 3 . 2 7 8 . O n t h e difficulties in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e v a r i o u s s e m a n t i c fields o f ' w a y ' t e r m i n o l o g y , B e r g m a n n , et al, ibid., 2 7 1 f, 2 7 6 f ; M i c h a e l i s , TDNT, 5.49ff. 8
2
Leading
the Blind
in the
243
INE
idealised Davidic prince. In contrast to the nation's present corrupt rulers, mm
nn
w i l l rest u p o n h i m g r a n t i n g
wisdom,
knowledge,
strength, knowledge, and the fear o f Y a h w e h ( l l : 2 f f ) .
83
counsel,
Likewise, accounts
of restored Z i o n in w h i c h Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e d w e l l s p r e s e n t
Yahweh
residing there as teacher of Israel and the nations (2:3f; cf. 33:6). F r o m this perspective, the ' w a y ' of the N E is not only the ' w a y ' o f the returning exiles to Jerusalem but is also a matter of rejecting the idolatrous w i s d o m o f the past and e m b r a c i n g Y a h w e h ' s teaching. Similarly, whether understood in physical terms or not, the blind 'seeing', the deaf 'hearing', and the ' l a m e ' walking upon the ' w a y ' of holiness which leads to the place of Y a h w e h ' s presence, Zion, should also at least be seen as metaphors for the attaining
o f that w i s d o m
w h i c h s i g n a l s fidelity to Y a h w e h
therefore the return to his p r e s e n c e . (Hi) Leading
the Blind
in the INE
M o v i n g into Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 , it is n o t e w o r t h y that b l i n d n e s s and terminology Israel. 8
3
8
4
8
5
8
6
86
reappears
and
84
throughout
8 5
deafness
in descriptions o f captive J a c o b -
Not only is the language associated with anti-idol polemics (espec.
Cf. W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 1 4 5 ; J e n s e n , Use, 1 2 4 - 3 0 ; K o c h , ' G o t t e s g e i s t ' , 2 5 0 f f ; R o b e r t s , 'Divine'. P u t in t h e s e t e r m s , it m a y b e t h a t t h e E x o d u s p a t t e r n d e r i v e s i n p a r t f r o m a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t it r e p r e s e n t s a r e v e r s a l o f t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c e x p u l s i o n f r o m E d e n (it is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 r e g a r d s t h e N E a s a n e w c r e a t i o n , s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 5 5 , fn. 9 2 a b o v e ) . J u s t a s r e j e c t i o n o f Y a h w e h a s t h e w i s e K i n g r e s u l t s in b e i n g d r i v e n a w a y f r o m t h e p r e s e n c e , s o n o w a c q u i e s c e n c e t o his w i s d o m c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e r e t u r n . O n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f w i s d o m t e r m i n o l o g y in c h a p t e r s 4 0 - 5 5 , e.g. v o n W a l d o w , Hintergrund, 47ff; ' M e s s a g e ' , 2 7 0 , w h e r e t h e p r o p h e t f u n c t i o n s 'like a w i s d o m t e a c h e r ' ; M c K a n e , Prophets, 8 1 - 8 5 , 9 4 - 9 7 ; M e l u g i n , Formation, 31ff, w h o d i s c u s s e s t h e d i s p u t a t i o n s in t e r m s o f W i s d o m g e n r e ; W h y b r a y , Counsellor; W a r d , ' K n o w l e d g e ' ; a n d T e r r i e n , ' Q u e l q u e s ' , w h o a r g u e s t h a t it w a s t h e w i s d o m p o e m J o b t h a t ' i n t r o d u c e d t h e m o t i f o f c r e a t i o n i n t o t h e v e r y h e a r t o f t h e e x i s t e n t i a l s t r u g g l e . D e u t e r o - I s a i a h t o o k t h i s t h e m e a n d a p p l i e d it t o his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I s r a e l ' s m i s s i o n in h i s t o r y ' ( 3 1 0 ) . W a t t s , 'Consolation', 4 1 - 4 9 . T h e t e r m 'Jacob-Israel' reflects the Jacob-Israel p a r a l l e l i s m f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d in I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 (e.g. 4 0 : 2 7 ; 4 1 : 8 ; 4 1 : 1 4 f , 2 0 f ; 4 2 : 2 4 ; 4 3 : 1 , e t c . ) a n d is h e r e u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n I s r a e l per se a n d t h e ' s e r v a n t ' f i g u r e p o r t r a y e d in t h e s o c a l l e d ' S e r v a n t S o n g s ' , s e e ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 3 5 . W h i l e e.g. J u e l , Messianic, 1 2 5 , rightly rejects t h e i d e a t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h e x e g e s i s p r e s u p p o s e d a unified a p p r o a c h t o t h e ' S o n g s ' , h e n o t e s t h a t t h i s d o e s n o t r u l e o u t t h e possibility t h a t e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s l i n k e d e l e m e n t s o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' t e x t s — j u s t a s s o m e e d i t i o n s o f Tg. Isa identified t h e ' s e r v a n t ' in Isa 4 2 a n d p a r t s o f Isa 5 3 w i t h t h e M e s s i a h ( C h a p t e r 3 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 2 7 ) — b u t o n t h e b a s i s o f a different m e s s i a n i c c o n c e p t i o n , ibid., 1 3 1 . T h u s e.g. L u k e a p p l i e s e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e v a r i o u s ' s o n g s ' t o J e s u s , i.e. Isa 4 2 : 1 ; 4 9 : 6 ; a n d 5 3 : 1 2 ; B o c k , Proclamation, 85f, 1 0 4 , 1 3 7 - 3 9 . B u t if o t h e r s c o u l d m a k e the c o n n e c t i o n — a n d n o t e h e r e later J e w i s h notions of vicarious m e s s i a n i c suffering, p o s s i b l y o n t h e b a s i s of t h e c a r e e r o f S i m o n b a r K o k h b a , cf. V e r m e s , Jesus, 1 3 9 , b. Sukk. 5 2 a ; S e g a l , Children, 6 4 - 6 7 , 8 6 ; c i t e d in ibid., 1 2 7 — w h y n o t J e s u s , e s p e c i a l l y if h e s a w h i m s e l f
244
The New
44:9-20),
8 7
Exodus
Way
b u t it is linked w i t h Y a h w e h ' s c o m p l a i n t s c o n c e r n i n g J a c o b -
Israel's consistent lack of u n d e r s t a n d i n g and unwillingness either to obey his niin or to walk
VDT13
(e.g. 42:18-25, note v. 17!; 43:8; 48:8, 1 8 - 2 0 ) .
88
P e r h a p s e v e n m o r e striking, given the u s u a l l y positive c o n s t r u c t i o n given to these chapters, is the stridently polemical use of blind and deaf m e t a p h o r s in the d i s p u t a t i o n s . altercation
with his people,
C o m p r i s i n g the n e x u s o f
these centre
on
Y a h w e h ' s ' a n o i n t e d ' deliverer, n a m e l y C y r u s .
t h e i r refusal
89
Yahweh's to
accept
O n c e again the matter at
issue is Israel's criticism of Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m as it relates to his m e a n s of effecting salvation and deliverance for his people (cf. Isa 7-8, 30f). As I h a v e suggested elsewhere, this implies that the prophet regards the exile, b y and large, as having c h a n g e d n o t h i n g . a n d deaf as before.
90
T h e people are as blind
T h e y continue to insist on dictating to Y a h w e h
how
and w h e n h e o u g h t to save them. This it w o u l d appear explains w h y the post-exilic c o m m u n i t y is still described as those w h o 'grope for a wall like the blind, like those w h o h a v e n o e y e s ' (59:9-10). That this last expression is also to b e u n d e r s t o o d within the s a m e ' w i s d o m ' framework is evident in m e s s i a n i c t e r m s a n d , in t h e light o f t h e i m p l i e d s u f f e r i n g o f D n 7's S o M , i n t e g r a t e d t h e 'servant's' suffering into his messianic self-understanding? M u c h d e p e n d s , therefore, o n the v a l i d i t y o f e.g. H o o k e r ' s a r g u m e n t s . Servant, that Jesus did n o t a p p e a l to Isa 5 3 w h e n d e s c r i b i n g h i s s u f f e r i n g s — b u t o n this s e e b e l o w — a l t h o u g h D o d d ' s s u g g e s t i o n . According, 1 0 9 f , t h a t t h e s e m i n a l i m p e t u s lies w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l g e n i u s o f J e s u s s e e m s t o m e t o m a k e b e t t e r h i s t o r i c a l s e n s e . S i m i l a r l y , if c e r t a i n I s a i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' a c t i v i t i e s c o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a s i n g l e f i g u r e ( e . g . t h e M e s s i a h in Tg. Isa a n d 1 Enoch, see V a n d e r K a m , 'Righteous') t h e n it is n o t a l a r g e s t e p t o reflect o n t h e ' s e r v a n t ' a s a u n i f i e d f i g u r e in h i s o w n r i g h t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e a m b i g u i t y o f h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n m i g h t h a v e c r e a t e d difficulties, n o less t h e n a s t o d a y . In a r g u i n g h i s c a s e J u e l a l s o p r e s u m e s t h a t t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s n e c e s s a r i l y e n g a g e d in w h a t is h e l d t o b e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y a t o m i s t i c e x e g e s i s o f first c e n t u r y J u d a i s m . H o w e v e r , this c o m m o n l y h e l d e s t i m a t i o n o f first c e n t u r y e x e g e t i c a l t e c h n i q u e h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d , b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e r a b b i s ( s e e I n s t o n e - B r e w e r , Techniques) a n d the N T ( s e e t h e v a r i o u s e s s a y s in B e a l e , e d . . Doctrine). 8
7
O n these passages. Watts, 'Consolation', 36, 38. Merrill, 'Language', has cited e x a m p l e s o f e l a b o r a t e B a b y l o n i a n r i t e s in w h i c h t h e e y e s a n d e a r s e t c . o f t h e i d o l s a r e o p e n e d b y their w o r s h i p p e r s . In a c o n v e r s a t i o n h e p o i n t e d o u t the i r o n y of idolators 'opening' the e y e s of their g o d s ' representative f o r m s while Y a h w e h h a s to o p e n the eyes of h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , I s r a e l , cf. I s a 4 2 : 1 8 - 2 0 ; 4 3 : 8 - 1 3 . 8
*> ' W a y s ' m e a n i n g a b r o a d e r c o n c e p t i o n o f mm, cf. 4 2 : 2 1 , 2 4 c ; C h a p t e r 7, p . 1 9 2 , fn. 4 4 . W a t t s , 'Consolation', 41-49. F o r Clements, 'Unity,' 1 2 5 , blindness, deafness, a n d lack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a r e a l l u s i o n s t o Isa 6:9f's p r o p h e t i c c o m m i s s i o n , w h e r e t h e 'entire p e r i o d o f I s r a e l ' s s u b j u g a t i o n t o t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n p o w e r s (is v i e w e d ) a s a o n e o f n a t i o n a l b l i n d n e s s a n d deafness' a n d 'the t h e m e of Israel's blindness a n d deafness ... a p p e a r e d ... as a v e r y striking feature of the p r o p h e t i c e x p l a n a t i o n for the c a t a s t r o p h e s w h i c h h a d o v e r t a k e n Israel'. In ' B e y o n d ' , 1 0 2 , h e states: ' t h e t h e m e o f Israel's b l i n d n e s s a n d d e a f n e s s , u n d e r s t o o d in a m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e , is c l e a r l y o f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e t o Is. 4 0 - 5 5 ' . W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 4 7 - 4 9 ; cf. W a r d , ' K n o w l e d g e ' , 127f. 8
9
9
0
Leading
the Blind
245
in the INE
in the final lament w h e r e , in language reminiscent o f 6:9f, 63:17 asks ' w h y do y o u c a u s e us to w a n d e r from y o u r w a y s and h a r d e n our hearts so that w e d o not fear y o u ? ' T h e appearance, therefore, o f ' b l i n d n e s s ' and 'sight' terminology in conjunction with the N E "?J1T in 40-55 also implies, as in 139, a sapiential aspect to the d e l i v e r a n c e .
91
G i v e n the o v e r a r c h i n g t h e m e o f the w i s d o m d e b a t e w i t h its ' w a y ' o f wisdom
m o t i f , I s a i a h 4 2 : 1 6 is o f p a r t i c u l a r
interest.
Here
announces that h e will, nevertheless, lead the blind W P vb
Yahweh (cf. 50:10f
w h i c h contrasts those w h o hear the w o r d o f Y a h w e h ' s servant and yet are in d a r k n e s s w i t h t h o s e w h o s e e k i n d e p e n d e n t l y to establish their o w n 9 2
' l i g h t ' b y w h i c h to w a l k ) . w h i c h in r e s p o n d i n g
T h e p a s s a g e is a p r o c l a m a t i o n o f salvation
to a c o m m u n a l
lament declares that
although
Y a h w e h had b e e n silent h e is n o w going to act on b e h a l f o f his p e o p l e .
93
H o w e v e r , there is s o m e d e b a t e o v e r the significance o f the b l i n d n e s s imagery w h i c h has b e e n variously interpreted as referring to the e x i l e , travellers w h o c a n n o t s e e the p a t h , perception of Y a h w e h ' s p l a n s .
9 7
9 5
to h o p e l e s s n e s s ,
96
94
to
or to the lack o f
T h o s e w h o reject the fourth alternative
u s u a l l y do s o o n the b a s i s o f there b e i n g n o m e n t i o n o f unbelief, b u t several lines o f e v i d e n c e suggest that it is to b e preferred. First, as w e h a v e seen, ' b l i n d n e s s ' and 'deafness' l a n g u a g e consistently bears s a p i e n t i a l / r e l i g i o u s connotations throughout Isaiah and is one o f the unifying t h e m e s of chapters 1-39 and 40-55. S e c o n d , the form and content of t h e s u m m a r y
s t a t e m e n t ( 4 2 : 1 6 c - 1 7 ) d e r i v e from w i s d o m
w h i c h i m p l i e s that a sapiential c o n t e x t is i n t e n d e d .
98
literature
Third, there is the
o t h e r w i s e u n e x p e c t e d c e n s u r e o f those w h o trust in idols (v. 17) w h i c h , considering 1-39 and the anti-idol polemics throughout 40-48, suggests that the ' u n k n o w n w a y ' o f Y a h w e h is to b e contrasted to the ' k n o w n w a y ' o f 9
1
9
2
C f . S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 6 7 , 'In D t - I s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f derek... past and present o v e r l a p , m o r a l i t y a n d g e o g r a p h y c o m m i n g l e ' . A g a i n ^yi is u s e d a s i d i o m : i n p a r a l l e l t o RNFC f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g in 4 0 : 1 4 ; o f t h e w a y o f Y a h w e h ' s RNLN ( 4 2 : 2 4 ; 4 8 : 1 7 ; 5 5 : 8 f ) ; a n d o f t h e lifestyle o f s i n n e r s w h o r e j e c t t h a t RNIN ( 5 3 : 6 ; 5 5 : 7 , 8 f ) . A l s o M u i l e n b u r g , 4 9 5 . S e e e.g. W e s t e r m a n n , b u t w i t h v. 1 1 b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d a s a p i c t u r e o f t h o s e w h o s e e k t o o v e r c o m e t h e d a r k n e s s b y d i n t o f t h e i r o w n e f f o r t , t h e L X X ' s T < $ <|>a)Ti b e i n g a paraphrastic rendering. 9
3
9
4
9
5
9
6
9
7
9
8
M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 0 2 f ; W e s t e r m a n n ; S c h o o r s , Saviour, 9 0 f . F i s c h e r ; W h y b r a y ; S c h o o r s , Saviour, 92; E l l i g e r . Skinner; Kissane. Calvin; Cheyne; McKenzie; W e s t e r m a n n . D e l i t z s c h ; L e u p o l d ; N o r t h ; S m a r t ; Y o u n g ; cf. M u i l e n b u r g . M e l u g i n , ibid.; cf. C h i l d s , Assyrian, 1 2 8 - 3 6 ; W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 7 5 - 7 9 ; N o r t h .
246
The New
the i d o l s . "
Exodus
Way
Fourth, in the i m m e d i a t e l y s u c c e e d i n g verses J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s
captivity is attributed to a b l i n d n e s s that is u n e q u i v o c a l l y related to a refusal to w a l k in the w a y s / r n i n of the Lord (42:18-25). Finally, the Hiphil of "J"n (cf. DDniK in v. 16b) occurs only in o n e other place in 40-55 and there it describes Y a h w e h ' s role as teacher ( 4 8 : 1 7 ) .
100
T a k e n together, these t h e m e s are consistent with those found in the w i s d o m d e b a t e s o f c h a p t e r s 1-39.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e n p l a c e d in the
context o f chapters 4 0 - 5 5 , the phrases wv
T p - J 3 and i j r r - t f
nl:rn33
(42:16) s e e m best interpreted as the unexpected m e a n s b y whi ch Y a h w e h in his wise counsels h a s determined for the N E to b e accomplished, namely, his scandalous election o f a pagan, Cyrus, to b e Israel's deliverer. Israel is 'blind' and does not ' k n o w ' this ' w a y ' because b y and large she refuses to accept Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m as expressed in his choice o f C y r u s .
101
This sapiential c o n c e r n is further stressed in the p u r p o s e o f the N E which is so that Y a h w e h ' s people Vrsftn Wftn w n
%rp that it is h e alone,
not the idols, w h o delivers (41:20; cf. 43:10; 49:23; E x 6 : 5 - 7 ) .
102
Likewise, the
restoration is characterised as a time w h e n J e r u s a l e m ' s n u m e r o u s children will b e taught b y the Lord (54:3, 13; cf. 48:17-19). T h e continuation o f the w i s d o m t h e m e m i g h t also b e the point o f t h e c h a p t e r 5 5 w h i c h b e a r s r e m a r k a b l e similarities to the s p e e c h o f D a m e W i s d o m in P r o v e r b s .
1 0 3
H e r e at the conclusion o f 40-55 an invitation is m a d e to enter into life b y accepting instruction in accordance with Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m . Once again
a s i m i l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g is e v i d e n t
in s o m e o f
the
interpretive traditions contained in Tg. Isaiah w h e re, for e x a m p l e , in 42:18 those w h o are d e a f and blind are explicitly described as b e i n g fcTJTttn (wicked) and fcOD^n ( u n g o d l y / s i n n e r s ) with either j u d g e m e n t or potential blessings b e i n g c o u c h e d in terms of either rejecting or observing the law (vv. 14, 2 1 , and 2 4 ) .
L i k e w i s e , ' d e a f n e s s ' in 4 8 : 8 m e a n s rejecting the
instruction o f the l a w , w h i l e 5 5 : l f f is c o u c h e d in terms o f learning and 9
9
W e s t e r m a n n ' s c o n t e n t i o n , 1 0 9 , t h a t b l i n d n e s s is n o t a sin, fails t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t b o t h t h e o r i g i n s o f this c o n d i t i o n a n d t h e s e v e r i t y o f Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e t o it, cf. 4 8 : 1 - 8 . O n a n t i - i d o l p o l e m i c s : C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 4 1 , fnn. 2 3 , 2 4 , a b o v e ; W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 3 6 - 3 8 , 4 4 . Elliger. 1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
2
1
0
3
W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 41ff; cf. t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in fn. 9 7 . T h a t I s r a e l m i g h t ' k n o w Y a h w e h ' is o n e o f t h e m a j o r t h e m e s o f E x o d u s : E x 6:6f; 10:2; 1 6 : 1 2 (cf. v. 6 ) ; 2 9 : 4 6 ; 3 1 : 1 3 . B e g r i c h , Studien, 5 9 - 6 1 ; M e l u g i n , Formation, 2 5 ; a n d C l i f f o r d , Persuading, 190ff, s e e h e r e a n i m i t a t i o n o f W i s d o m G e n r e cf. t h e s u m m o n s t o life: P r o v 3 : 1 3 - 1 8 ; 4 : 2 2 ; 8 : 3 5 ; 9:6ff; Sir 4 : 1 2 ; t o e a t a n d d r i n k : P r o v 9:2, 5 ; Sir 1:17; 15:3; 2 4 : 1 9 , 2 1 ) .
The
'Way' in
attending diligently to Y a h w e h ' s Memra.
247
Mark
T h e s a m e perspective is also
evident in t h e Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y ' s self-defining d o c u m e n t , 1 Q S , w h e r e to prepare Isaiah 40:3's ' w a y o f the L o r d ' (1QS 8:12b-16a; 9:17b-20a) means to study Torah (8:15; 9:9bf) and to ' w a l k ' v a n V o n D'on (2:2; s e e also l:12f; m
3:9bff; 5:7b-ll; 9:17f; and the ' w a y ' language infra).
According to C D l:9ff,
the m e m b e r s o f the c o m m u n i t y w e r e - p i D'fflraa'Dl D m w
(cf. Isa 59:10; see
also 2:2-6, 14-16; etc.) b u t n o w they are exhorted to ' h e a r ' that their e y e s m i g h t b e ' o p e n e d ' s o that they might ' s e e ' and ' k n o w ' the w o r k s o f G o d and as a result b e able
TOTl *7M
D'on
"[bnnnb
(CD 2:14ff; cf. the use o f the a
language o f healing over against blindness in 1QS 4 : 6 b - l l a ; cf. 4 Q p H o s 1:8; C D 16:lff).
H e r e , t o o , t h e p r o p h e t i c a l l y reconstituted i c o n s o f I s r a e l ' s
founding m o m e n t are integral to the self-understanding
of a Jewish
eschatological c o m m u n i t y . (iv)
Conclusion
T h e w i s d o m connotations o f 'sight', 'hearing', and 'understanding' suggest that the N E ' w a y ' h a s m o r e than a m e r e l y spatial focus.
T h e language
originates in Isaiah's c o m m i s s i o n i n g and reflects Y a h w e h ' s j u d g e m e n t o n Israel's adherence to idols in preference to his ' w i s d o m ' : the idolators will b e c o m e as blind, deaf, etc., as their inanimate idols. T h e N E ' w a y ' is thus also a holy ' w a y ' , a sapiential ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m w h e r e i n t h e restoration o f sight a n d t h e rejection o f idols signifies t h e rejection o f human wisdom and the acceptance of and reliance upon Yahweh's peculiar counsels in bringing about his N E purposes for Israel.
T h e y are
t w o sides o f t h e o n e coin: true h o l i n e s s entails true w i s d o m a n d
vice
versa. c) The 'Way' in Mark G i v e n these t h e m e s w i t h i n the setting o f the I N E , the n e x t question is w h e t h e r or n o t a similar theological construct is e v i d e n t in M a r k .
We
h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d for the t h e o l o g i c a l significance o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section particularly with regard to the motifs of 'journey', discipleship, a n d the ' r e s t o r a t i o n o f s i g h t ' .
But what about the 'wisdom debate' over
Y a h w e h ' s m e t h o d s o f d e l i v e r i n g h i s p e o p l e , a n d Y a h w e h ' s frustration with the persistent ' b l i n d n e s s ' o f those w h o m h e h a s c o m e to deliver? Is there any evidence o f M a r k a n counterparts? In a word, yes. 104 5 ^
e
g
L e a n e y , Rule,
222f.
248
The New
(i) 'Blindness'
and the
Exodus
Way
Disciples
First, there is clearly a general similarity b e t w e e n M a r k and Isaiah ( L X X ) b o t h in v o c a b u l a r y (pXcTTO), o p a a ) , dKou'co) and in the diversity o f t e r m s related to 'understanding'
(yiyi/cjaKO),
Isaiah 6:9 is the Grunilage
for the imagery o f blindness and deafness etc. in
aui/irjui, €i6ov, voc'a)). Second, just as
Isaiah, so also in M a r k the interpretive context for this cluster o f terms is his appeal to Isaiah 6:9 in 4:12f where for the first time, auv{rjui, €i6ov, and
yivaJaKO)
are found t o g e t h e r .
105
P X C T T O ) , o p a a ) , aKou'a),
This fits well with the
suggestion m a d e earlier that the circumstances s u r r o u n d i n g J e s u s ' appeal to Isaiah 6 are consistent with an Isaianic polemic against J e r u s a l e m ' s wise o n e s w h o reject Y a h w e h ' s plan for their deliverance.
Further s u p p o r t is
found in M a r k 7, w h e r e again in response to the only other challenge b y authorities from J e r u s a l e m outside of M a r k l l f f J e s u s quotes Isaiah 29:13, w h i c h as w e h a v e s e e n is particularly i m p o r t a n t in linking the judicial blindness o f Israel's leaders with sapiential c o n c e r n s .
106
I suggest that the
conflict b e t w e e n J e s u s and I s r a e l ' s leaders, g i v e n the firm
continuity
b e t w e e n Isaiah 6 ( M k 4) and the themes o f blindness, etc. in Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 , reflects the m o r e e x t r e m e response in the Isaianic w i s d o m debate. J e r s u a l e m authorities h a v e rejected Jesus outright.
The
T h e s e 'blind and d e a f
leaders, b y and large, amply fill the role o f those w h o are unremittingly critical o f Y a h w e h ' s plan, and especially his c h o i c e o f agent (cf. J a c o b Israel's response to Cyrus, see above), as he effects the N E . But w h a t then are w e to m a k e of the application o f this language to the disciples?
D o e s M a r k intend that they, like Israel in the Isaiah (and,
p r e s u m a b l y , apostate J e w s from the m o r e c o n t e m p o r a r y p e r s p e c t i v e o f Q u m r a n ) , a r e idolatrous and u n d e r j u d g e m e n t ?
1 0 7
This m i g h t appear so
except that this terminology as w e h a v e seen is applied not only to Israel under sentence of judgement deliverance h a s b e e n a n n o u n c e d .
but
a l s o to I s r a e l in e x i l e to
whom
T h e fact that M a r k ' s portrayal o f the
disciples c o m b i n e s not just Isaianic ' w i s d o m ' imagery ( M k 4 etc. in his first section and the t w o sight miracles), but also ' w a y ' i m a g e r y (both in his
1
0
5
Lemcio, 'Structure'; Petersen, 'Composition'; Johnson, 'Theme', 227; Beavis, 157ff. L e m c i o , 'Structure', 337f, noting the o b d u r a c y motif, s u g g e s t s the structure of 4:1-20; 7:14-23; a n d 8:14-21 reflects 'the sort of didactic i n t e r c h a n g e ' e x p e r i e n c e d b y the p r o p h e t s .
Audience, 1
0
6
1
0
7
J o h n s o n , ' B l i n d n e s s ' , 3 7 , 2 2 7 , r e c o g n i s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f 4:10ff f o r t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n motif b u t provides n o discussion of the Isaianic significance of these terms.
'Blindness'
and
the
249
Disciples
introduction a n d t h r o u g h o u t the second m a i n section), indicates that his focus is on Israel's deliverance. Several data confirm t h i s .
1 0 8
First, just as Israel in Isaiah 4 2 is rebuked for having seen m a n y things but failing to u n d e r s t a n d , so too the disciples ( M k 8:14-21; cf. 4:13; 6:52; 7:18).
G i v e n o u r interpretation o f the relationship b e t w e e n the d e m o n s
and the n a t i o n s ' idols, and especially in the light o f the latter's role in I s a i a h ' s w i s d o m d e b a t e s , J e s u s ' r e b u k e o f P e t e r — " Y t T a y e oTTiao) Zaravd—may
\iov
y
in o n e s e n s e b e seen as analogous to Y a h w e h ' s rebuke o f
exiled Israel's adherence to idolatrous w i s d o m .
1 0 9
S e c o n d , Israel's rebuke
is yet on the threshold o f Y a h w e h ' s proffered deliverance; salvation is still available for those w h o would follow. Likewise, M a r k places J e s u s ' rebuke immediately p r e c e d i n g his ' W a y ' s e c t i o n .
110
Third, a characteristic of the
I N E is that Y a h w e h will lead the blind along a p a t h they d o not k n o w (provided, o f course, they are willing)—which i m a g e r y w e h a v e a r g u e d refers to the u n e x p e c t e d n a t u r e o f Y a h w e h ' s plan for deliverance.
108 S g 1
0
9
1
1
0
e
n
o
w
a
i
s o
And,
M a r c u s , 34f.
Cf. D a n k e r , ' D e m o n i c ' , 6 3 . O s b o r n e , ' S t u m b l i n g - B l o c k ' , n o t e s Q u m r a n ' s belief t h a t t h o u g h t s o p p o s e d to G o d ' s ' w a y ' w e r e u n d e r s t o o d as c o m i n g f r o m Satan. In w h a t sense, h o w e v e r , is it a p p r o p r i a t e t o s p e a k o f a n ' i d o l a t r o u s w a y o f t h i n k i n g ' a n d is t h e r e a n y e v i d e n c e for s u c h a m e t a p h o r i c a l u s a g e ? In e.g. 1 Q S 4 : 1 1 ; 1 Q H 4 : 1 9 ; C D 2:14f; C D 16:2f; C D 2 : 1 6 f t h e l a n g u a g e o f s t u b b o r n n e s s o f h e a r t , b l i n d n e s s , d e a f n e s s , a n d g o i n g a s t r a y , is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h a t o f s e e i n g , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d w a l k i n g in t h e ' w a y ' . O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t is t h e e x p r e s s i o n 3*7 n W T C D w h i c h a p p e a r s in t h e c u r s e p r o n o u n c e d o v e r t h e false m e m b e r o f t h e c o m m u n i t y w h o b l e s s e s h i m s e l f w h i l e h e c o n t i n u e s t o w a l k in t h e s t u b b o r n n e s s o f h i s h e a r t , 1 Q S 2 : 1 4 , cf. D t 2 9 : 1 9 . T h i s d u p l i c i t y is a t t r i b u t e d t o his h a v i n g e n t e r e d t h e c o m m u n i t y a l o n g w i t h 'the i d o l s o f his h e a r t ' (13*7 ^ V O T , 1.11), t h e i d o l s b e i n g t h o s e t h i n g s w h i c h c a u s e h i m t o fall i n t o i n i q u i t y , cf. C D 2 0 : 9 ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y E z e k 1 4 : 3 - 7 , D a v i e s , Damascus, 1 8 4 . D^Vw, w h i c h a p p e a r s 3 9 t i m e s in E z e k i e l ( o u t o f 4 8 in O T ) , r e f e r s t o c u l t o b j e c t s b u t w i t h a s t r o n g s e n s e o f u n c l e a n n e s s (e.g. 1 6 : 3 6 , Z i m m e r l i , Ezekiel, cf. C D 3 : 1 7 ) , itself a m a j o r c o n c e r n a t Q u m r a n (e.g. H u p p e n b a u e r , ' S e k t e n r e g e l ' ) . E i c h r o d t , Ezekiel, 1 8 0 , understands a secret syncretism which, while not countenancing public apostasy from Y a h w e h , n e v e r t h e l e s s a d o p t e d 'the prevailing p a g a n attitude of m i n d ' c o m b i n i n g 'a r e c o g n i t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s l o r d s h i p w i t h r e c o u r s e t o s u b o r d i n a t e p o w e r s ' ; cf. S c h o n e v e l d , ' E z e k i e l ' , w h o s e e s t h e w e a r i n g o f a m u l e t s . H o w e v e r , G r e e n b e r g , Ezekiel, r e j e c t s s y n c r e t i s m a s h e c a n find n o r e a s o n f o r t h e p r o p h e t ' s s i l e n c e u n t i l this p o i n t , n o t i n g i n s t e a d t h a t t h e elders a p p a r e n t l y e s t e e m themselves w o r t h y of Y a h w e h ' s attention. G r e e n b e r g suggests t h a t t h e r e a l s i n is t h e i r a s s u m p t i o n t h a t all is w e l l b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d Y a h w e h w i t h o u t h a v i n g r e s o l v e d t h o s e i s s u e s t h a t c a u s e d t h e e x i l e in t h e first p l a c e : ' T h e "idols" in t h e p e o p l e ' s t h o u g h t s ... m u s t b e a r u b r i c for a n u n r e g e n e r a t e s t a t e o f m i n d ' , 2 5 3 . In a n y c a s e it is i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t m e m b e r s o f t h e m o n a s t i c b r o t h e r h o o d ( t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f 1 Q S if not C D ) could h a v e secretly w o r n amulets or practiced syncretism. W h a t appears to be i n d i c a t e d is a n i d o l a t r o u s a t t i t u d e a l s o d e s c r i b e d a s s t u b b o r n n e s s o f h e a r t w h i c h a l o n g w i t h b l i n d n e s s a n d d e a f n e s s a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h o s e w h o reject t h e ' W a y ' . Cf. A m b r o z i c ' s c r i t i c i s m , 6 9 , o f J e r e m i a s , Parables, 15, noting that the d a m n i n g c o n c l u s i o n o f 4 : 1 2 is m i s s i n g f r o m 8:18; cf. M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 0 1 ; Burkill, ' B l a s p h e m y ' , 6 5 .
250
The New
Exodus
Way
just as Y a h w e h takes the initiative by leading the blind in Isaiah, so also in M a r k the initiative lies with Jesus in his call to f o l l o w .
111
It s e e m s significant, then, that M a r k places his only two 'sight' miracles at the beginning and end of his ' W a y ' section, along which ' W a y ' Jesus will lead his d i s c i p l e s .
112
A s several scholars have argued, the sight miracles
s e e m to highlight the sapiential (Best: 'spiritual') aspects o f the journey. In M a r k ' s case, the major ' w i s d o m ' issue, judging b y the carefully structured placement o f the three passion predictions, is the extraordinary lesson that Israel's M e s s i a h (and S / s o n o f G o d ) m u s t s u f f e r .
113
c e n t r a l c o n c e r n is s u p p o r t e d b y h i s p l a c e m e n t
That this is M a r k ' s o f the first
passion
prediction, and P e t e r ' s rejection o f the s a m e , i m m e d i a t e l y following his confession at the opening o f the ' W a y ' section w h i l e the last immediately precedes B a r t i m a e u s ' confession at its c o n c l u s i o n . (ii) Healing
of Sight and the Way of the
114
Cross
G i v e n the foregoing, it appears that M a r k intends the
sapiential-spatial
j o u r n e y o f the I N E to b e the hermeneutical horizon for his ' W a y ' .
What
Y a h w e h h a d p r o m i s e d to do for ' b l i n d ' and ' d e a f Israel, leading t h e m along a p a t h they did not k n o w , Jesus does for his disciples. T h e y are his true family (and faithful Israel, 3:13-19, 2 1 , 31-35). But even though given the mystery o f the k i n g d o m (4:11) they fail to understand the nature o f the 'path' that Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m has planned (as is evident in their responses to the passion predictions, 8:32-33; 9:32; 10:35-41). Nevertheless, Jesus leads t h e m along the I N E ' w a y ' w h i c h they too 'do not k n o w ' .
A n d again, the
central point for M a r k is that the ' w a y ' o f the I N E , the ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s wise deliverance, revolves around the death o f his messianic S / s o n . 1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
4
1
1
5
1 1 5
B e s t , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 3 2 7 ; F o c a n t , ' L ' i n c o r n p r e h e n s i o n ' , 1 8 5 ; M a l o n e y , ' V o c a t i o n ' ; cf. Schweizer, 'Portrayal'; H a w k i n , 'Incomprehension', 4 9 3 . F o r a helpful discussion o n the r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f t h e d i s c i p l e s ' c o n t i n u e d failure t o s e e after 2 0 : 4 5 , B e s t , Following, 1 3 6 f . O n the literary a n d t h e m a t i c integrity of this section, see C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 124-32.
E.g. Strecker, 'Passion'; Best, 'Discipleship', ' E n d i n g ' ; K i n g s b u r y , 89f.
3 2 5 f f ; P e r r i n , 'Gattung';
Reedy,
S t r e c k e r ' s c r i t i c i s m , ' P a s s i o n ' , 4 3 8 n 4 9 , o f L i g h t f o o t , History, 90f, a n d Burkill, 1 5 0 , t h a t 8:27ff c a n n o t a n t i c i p a t e P e t e r ' s c o n f e s s i o n b e c a u s e ' o n e d o e s n o t h e a r a b o u t t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e " b l i n d n e s s " o f t h e d i s c i p l e s ' is o n l y p a r t i a l l y c o r r e c t . T o s e e J e s u s a s M e s s i a h c o n s t i t u t e s a p a r t i a l h e a l i n g , b u t t h e d i s c i p l e s a r e still b l i n d a s t o Y a h w e h ' s p l a n for the N E . In d e n y i n g a distinction b e t w e e n the disciples' m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g before a n d a f t e r 8:27ff, S t r e c k e r , 4 3 9 n 5 0 , a s d o e s J o h n s o n , ' B e t h s a i d a ' , 3 8 2 , fails t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e significance of the loaves. Cf. t h e ' s u f f e r i n g ' o f I s a 5 3 a s t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h t h e I N E is e f f e c t e d ; s e e b e l o w , a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d e a r l i e r in C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 5 .
Healing
In v i e w
of Sight
and the Way of the
251
Cross
o f t h e a b o v e , o n e final c o m m e n t is w a r r a n t e d
on
the
relationship b e t w e e n the t w o sight miracles and M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section.
A
n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s r e c o g n i s e that the t w o - s t a g e h e a l i n g w h i c h b e g i n s the section indicates that P e t e r ' s confession n e e d s the additional i n s i g h t that t h e M e s s i a h m u s t die.
T h i s raises the q u e s t i o n o f t h e
significance o f B a r t i m a e u s ' healing. For Ernest Best, 'after full instruction, w e h a v e ' in B a r t i m a e u s ' t h e h e a l i n g o f a blind m a n w h o i m m e d i a t e l y follows J e s u s " o n the w a y " , i.e. h e is r e g a r d e d as a true d i s c i p l e ' .
1 1 6
H o w e v e r , Best is a w a r e that the disciples t h e m s e l v e s fail to act as ' t r u e disciples', e v e n after instruction while on the ' W a y ' , and therefore appears to suggest that Bartimaeus symbolises what ought to h a p p e n .
1 1 7
B u t h o w so? N o t o n l y does Bartimaeus p r o m p t l y disappear from the story, but it is not o b v i o u s that his following ' o n the w a y ' implies that h e understands or e v e n k n o w s o f J e s u s ' death—the disciples w h o m o s t o f all follow ' o n the w a y ' clearly do not and there is n o t h i n g in the narrative that s u g g e s t s B a r t i m a e u s is a n y d i f f e r e n t .
118
O n the contrary, h e o n l y
recognises J e s u s as the ' S o n o f D a v i d ' and, as Best admits, his confession c o m e s 'while h e is blind, just as Peter used " C h r i s t " at the time w h e n h e could not s e e p r o p e r l y ' .
1 1 9
B a r t i m a e u s is n o m o r e a 'true disciple' than
Peter: both ' b l i n d ' m e n h a v e m a d e imperfect confessions and even though both follow in the ' w a y ' there is nothing in the text to suggest that either have grasped the truth that the Messiah must die or its significance. T h e key, therefore, s e e m s n o t to lie in the role o f B a r t i m a e u s as a m o d e l disciple b u t instead in M a r k ' s editorial p u r p o s e s in linking the healings of sight with the I N E ' w a y ' as the ' W a y ' o f the suffering Messiah. G i v e n M a r k ' s a p p a r e n t evocation o f the Isaianic w a y / w i s d o m
framework
and his e m p h a s i s on the disciples' blindness, etc., it w o u l d appear that the t w o sight miracles are there to inform the reader of the true significance o f his ' W a y ' section: it is all about understanding the ' w a y ' of Y a h w e h ' s I N E wisdom. 1
1
6
1
1
7
1
1
8
1
1
9
C o n s e q u e n t l y , as m a n y h a v e r e c o g n i s e d , the first, ' t w o - s t a g e '
Following, 1 3 6 ; cf. R o b b i n s , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 2 2 6 . A s t h e ' h e a l i n g ' is A o r i s t a n d t h e ' f o l l o w i n g ' I m p e r f e c t , it m i g h t b e t h a t t h e e m p h a s i s lies o n t h e a c t o f ' f o l l o w i n g ' , a l t h o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n c e in t e n s e s m i g h t s i m p l y reflect t h e c o m p a r a t i v e t e m p o r a l i t y o f t h e a c t i o n s . Ibid., 1 3 6 ; cf. J o h n s o n , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 1 9 8 . G u n d r y , 4 4 2 , 5 9 7 , p l a c e s c o n s i d e r a b l e e m phasis o n the disciples' failure. Cf. L a n e , 3 8 9 ; K i n g s b u r y , 1 0 4 f . Pace, S c h e n k e , W under erzahlungen, 368, although he correctly interprets the Markan symbolism. Ibid., 1 4 0 .
252
The New
Exodus
Way
healing signifies the incompleteness of Peter's confession; the deficiency of w h i c h is indicated b o t h by Peter's refusal to accept that the Messiah must die and J e s u s ' p u n g e n t response. W h a t follows is a carefully constructed account wherein the subsequent passion predictions reiterate that Jesus the M e s s i a h — n o w , h o w e v e r , identified in each case as 6 mbg T O U dv0pamou— must die. O n l y after this has b e e n driven h o m e , d o w e then find another ' m e s s i a n i c ' c o n f e s s i o n linked with sight.
T h i s t i m e , h o w e v e r , sight is
restored b y o n e simple c o m m a n d (Mk 10:46ff). M a r k ' s literary point s e e m s clear: the o n l y messianic confession that coincides with Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m is o n e predicated o n the teaching that the messianic ' S o n o f M a n ' must die as a r a n s o m for m a n y .
G e n u i n e restoration o f sight, a n d therefore the
genuine ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' w h i c h is the sine qua non o f truly j o u r n e y i n g on the I N E ' w a y ' , can only c o m e b y accepting that the I N E ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s r e d e m p t i v e w i s d o m is expressed in Christ crucified (cf. 1 C o r 1 : 1 8 - 2 5 ) .
120
O n l y w h e n understood from this perspective can w e then agree with Best 'that M a r k v i e w s true discipleship with real understanding as a possibility after 1 0 : 4 5 ' . d) Jesus
121
and the Isaianic
'Servant'-Teacher
It w a s argued in C h a p t e r 6 that J e s u s ' healing and delivering activities are portrayed b y M a r k in terms applicable not only to the Yahweh-Warrior but also to the Isaianic 'servant'-deliverer w h o also plays a major role in the 1 2 2
NE.
In the light o f b o t h this and the p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n o n the
sapiential significance o f ' b l i n d - a n d - d e a f terminology and o f M a r k ' s sight miracles for his ' W a y ' section the possibility o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n J e s u s as t e a c h e r and the apparent teaching role o f the Isaianic 'servant' w a r r a n t brief examination. T h e e n i g m a t i c 'servant' figure in Isaiah 40-55 is not only instrumental in delivering Jacob-Israel from b o n d a g e (e.g. 42:lff; see Chapter 6) b u t also o p e n s the e y e s o f the blind (42:7; 49:6; cf. also 6 1 : l f ) . 'deafness' o f Jacob-Israel (y\vo\y\i4.va
TOC WTOC,
Kai
OUK
1 2 3
f|KouaaT€,
48:6-8 L X X ) , the 'servant' is described in 50:4 as having 1
2
0
1
2
2
1
2
3
In contrast to the 42:20 L X X ; cf.
GJTIOV
dKoifeiv.
In
C f . J o h n s o n , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 1 9 7 . P e r h a p s J e s u s ' q u e s t i o n i n 1 0 : 1 8 is t o s h o w t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f t h e 6 i 6 a a K a X c dyaGc c o n f e s s i o n a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o d i s c i p l e s h i p ( 1 0 : 1 7 - 2 2 ) . * Ibid., 1 3 6 . Cf. C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 4 2 - 4 3 ; a n d a l s o C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 1 1 4 - 1 8 , o n I s a 4 2 : 1 in M a r k ' s prologue. Watts, 'Consolation', 50-56. 12
Jesus
and
the Isaianic
253
'Servant'-Teacher
view of the sapiential connotations of both 'sight' and ' h e a r i n g ' i m a g e r y throughout, w e m a y b e justified in seeing here a teaching or instructional role for the 'servant' (50:4f, 10; cf. 30:21; 32:3; 3 3 : 5 ) .
124
A l t h o u g h a notoriously problematic text, Isaiah 53:11 m i g h t also refer to the 'salvific' k n o w l e d g e o f the ' s e r v a n t ' .
125
A . G e l s t o n h a s recently
argued that i r u n a cannot m e a n ' k n o w l e d g e ' primarily on the g r o u n d s that it d o e s not fit the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t .
1 2 6
O n the other h a n d , the united
testimony o f the L X X and the later G r e e k versions, the Peshitta, and Isaiah,
Tg.
all o f w h i c h u n d e r s t a n d something along the lines o f ' k n o w l e d g e /
suggests that this option ought not b e dismissed too quickly. G i v e n that the suffix is almost certainly subjective then w e h a v e s o m e t h i n g like 'his knowledge', b u t does it go with what precedes or w h a t follows? Since w e are dealing w i t h p o e t r y it is p e r h a p s not surprising that there is s o m e ambiguity, and p e r h a p s e v e n intentionally so. T a k i n g i n i n D w i t h w h a t p r e c e d e s , o n e c o u l d translate ' h e will b e satisfied w i t h / b y / i n his k n o w l e d g e ' .
Contextually, granted there is n o
immediate indication o f the nature o f this knowledge, it is not impossible that the m o s t recent s p e e c h o f the 'servant' w h i c h c o n c e r n s h i s teaching role (50:4-9) is in view. If so, then the idea might well b e that the 'servant' w i l l b e satisfied (J^to*!) ' i n ' h i s k n o w l e d g e vindication (cf. 50:7-9; and Ps 1 6 : 7 - 1 1 ) . a
127
b
of Yahweh's
promised
This coheres well with 'he will
see light' (53:11a; following l Q I s , l Q I s , and L X X ) ,
1 2 8
not least in v i e w o f
the salvific a n d sapiential connotations o f the i m a g e r y (cf. 50:10-11).
In
other words, the 'servant' has earlier castigated those w h o seek to provide their o w n light, w a r n i n g t h e m o f their i m p e n d i n g ' d i s c o n t e n t ' (ro^tfE;
1
2
4
1
2
5
1
2
6
1
2
7
1
2
8
E . g . W e s t e r m a n n , 2 2 8 f , 2 3 4 f . A s n o t e d earlier, a n i n v i t a t i o n t o h e a r is f o u n d in w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e a ' D a m e W i s d o m ' s p e e c h w h i c h c o n c l u d e s 4 0 - 5 5 , i.e. 5 5 : 1 - 3 ; s e e f u r t h e r t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in fn. 1 0 3 a b o v e . In p a r t t h e i s s u e in 5 3 : 1 1 t u r n s a r o u n d A ) t h e m e a n i n g o f ini?lD ( w h i c h c a n n o l o n g e r b e u n d e r s t o o d a s ' h u m i l i a t i o n ' ; cf. J o h n s t o n e , ' Y D " ) , B) w h e t h e r it is t o b e t a k e n w i t h w h a t p r e c e d e s o r w h a t f o l l o w s , a n d C ) w h e t h e r t h e suffix is o b j e c t i v e o r s u b j e c t i v e . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in G e l s t o n , ' K n o w l e d g e ' . 'Knowledge', 134f. P s a l m 1 6 : 7 - 1 1 e x p r e s s e s a s i m i l a r c o n j u n c t i o n o f t r u s t i n g in Y a h w e h ' s w o r d o f i n s t r u c t i o n a n d a c o n f i d e n c e in t h e f a c e o f t h r e a t e n i n g d e a t h w h i c h l e a d s t o nlnDfo 1)3(0. S e e K r a u s , Psalms 1-59, ad loc; C r a i g i e , Psalms 1-50, ad loc. T h e M T a l s o m a k e s s e n s e o n this b a s i s . W h e r e a s h e e a r l i e r w a l k e d in d a r k n e s s a n d h a d n o l i g h t ( 5 0 : 1 0 b ) , n o w , a s a r e s u l t o f h i s o b e d i e n c e , l i i s s o u l w i l l s e e ' ( 5 3 : 1 1 : n^n* 1 0 3 3 ; n o t e t h e u s e o f t h e v e r b w i t h o u t d i r e c t o b j e c t in 6:10; 2 9 : 1 8 ; cf. 3 0 : 1 0 ; 49:7; 6 0 : 5 ) .
254
The New
50:11).
Exodus
Way
H e , h o w e v e r , ' k n o w s ' (cf. v. 7;
that although h e w a l k s in
darkness, h e will yet, as one w h o trusts in Y a h w e h , see light (50:10). T h e e x p r e s s i o n in 53:11b s e e m s to describe, in contrast to the discon s o l a t e r e p r o b a t e s o f 50:11c, t h e full v i n d i c a t i o n ( ' s a t i s f a c t i o n ' ) o f the 'servant' in his reliance on, and adherence to, Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m .
1 2 9
is p e r h a p s w h y the 'fourth' s o n g o p e n s with sapiential a n d
reversal
This
themes (52:15b; 53:1: those w h o thought they understood, do not, etc.). Not only are they entirely congruent with Isaiah's ' w i s d o m debate' as a whole, b u t also w i t h the distillation o f this issue as reflected in the life o f the 'servant'. O n the other h a n d , if i m n a is taken with w h a t follows, then w e h a v e s o m e t h i n g like ' b y his k n o w l e d g e m y (righteous?) servant shall justify m a n y ' . Chapters 40-48 earlier focussed on the debate over Y a h w e h ' s ability to save Israel, his concern for them, and the w i s d o m of his choices. If this context is b o r n e in m i n d , then, in contrast to the failure o f servant J a c o b Israel, the faithful 'servant' through his obedience to and proclamation of Y a h w e h ' s instruction b e c o m e s Y a h w e h ' s ultimate agent o f d e l i v e r a n c e , not only for Jacob-Israel but also for the nations ( 4 9 : 6 ) .
130
In sum, whereas the first alternative focuses on the impact o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m on the 'servant' himself, namely his vindication, the second deals with the c o n s e q u e n c e s of his faithful a d h e r e n c e to Y a h w e h ' s w o r d for Jacob-Israel and the nations, that is, they will be 'justified'. Either approach m a k e s g o o d sense, and it is not unlikely given the poetic nature o f the material that the reader is invited to see both meanings h e r e .
1 3 1
This conception o f the 'servant' as a teacher is supported b y the expansionistic renderings o f Tg. Isaiah where in 42:7 it understands 'blindness' as b l i n d n e s s to the l a w ( « n m «
p
pOD), w h i l e the deafness in v. 2 0 is a
refusal to h e a r instruction, ID^K pn^'Qp (cf. v. 24).
F u r t h e r m o r e , 50:4 is
interpreted as referring to the ability to teach w i s d o m to the righteous and to open s i n n e r s ' ears to instruction.
Similarly, in 53:11 it is through his
w i s d o m that the 'servant' justifies 'the just so that m a n y might b e subject
1
2
9
1
3
0
O n this t h e m e in t h e ' s o n g s ' s e e B e u k e n , 'MlSPAT;
Ward, 'Knowledge'.
A l t h o u g h C y r u s i n i t i a t e s t h e p r o c e s s t h e full p r o m i s e s o f t h e r e t u r n a r e n o w predicated o n the action of the 'servant'. Watts, 'Consolation', 54-57. 1 3 1
S e e e.g. t h e h e l p f u l c o m m e n t s in W a r d , ' K n o w l e d g e ' , 1 3 1 . O n e m i g h t n o t e t h a t this s o r t o f a m b i g u i t y is n o t o n l y o n e o f t h e h a l l m a r k s o f t h e l y r i c s o f m o d e r n p o e t s b u t a d d s t o t h e i r a p p e a l , e.g. t h e w o r k o f T. S. Eliot a n d m o r e r e c e n t l y B o b D y l a n .
Jesus
to T o r a h ' .
and
the Isaianic
255
'Servant'-Teacher
L i k e w i s e , Q u m r a n ' s p r o g r a m m a t i c and self-definitional state
ments in 1 Q S 8:13-16 and 9:16-21 also interpret ' m a k i n g straight the w a y ' o f Isaiah 40:3 as fulfilled in their s t u d y of T o r a h (8:15; 9:17) in the desert. H e r e , too, t h e r e is a c o n f l u e n c e o f the spatial and the sapiential. intriguing, g i v e n the Isaianic c o l o u r i n g o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s standing,
1 3 2
It is
self-under
that this t e a c h i n g is largely u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f their
esteemed ' T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s ' w h o is recorded as describing h i m s e l f in terms reminiscent of, a m o n g other O T figures, the 'servant' o f Isaiah (in addition to the frequent use o f 'servant', see especially 1 Q H 15:10; 16:36; [cf. Isa 50:4]; 17:29-31; [cf. Isa 49:1]; and also 23:14f; [cf. Isa 6 1 : l f ] ) .
133
G i v e n this ' w i s d o m ' d i m e n s i o n , M a r k ' s interest in J e s u s as t e a c h e r m i g h t take on greater s i g n i f i c a n c e .
134
W e h a v e already seen that not o n l y
are promises o f instruction characteristic of the N E but in Isaiah 42:1-9, a passage already of i m p o r t a n c e for M a r k in identifying J e s u s (1:11), it is the task o f the S p i r i t - e n d o w e d ' s e r v a n t ' figure to b r i n g liberation and sight, that is, u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m . points can b e noted.
1 3 5
With this in m i n d , several
First, a s i m i l a r d u a l d e l i v e r i n g - t e a c h i n g role is
h i g h l i g h t e d b y R. T . F r a n c e w h e n h e c o m m e n t s o n ' t h e s t r i k i n g
and
emphatic use o f 6 i 6 a x r i in M a r k 1:22, 2 7 in the context of an e x o r c i s m ' — a n e x o r c i s m w h i c h he too h a s s e e n as ' p r o g r a m m a t i c for J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y ' — and then c o n c l u d e s that, for M a r k , J e s u s ' teaching and action contribute 'together to the fulfilment o f his messianic r o l e ' .
1 3 6
S e c o n d , in M a r k 4 , a
c h a p t e r w h i c h w e h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d is h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d to I s a i a n i c 'wisdom' language, Jesus' repeated summons—"Oc;
GJTO:
CXKOUCIV
dKoucTo (vv. 9, 2 3 ; cf. v. 2 4 ) — a n d the preponderance o f ' h e a r i n g ' terminol o g y (4:3, 12, 1 5 , 16, 1 8 , 2 0 , 33) c o h e r e s perfectly with an Isaianic ' s e r v a n t ' p a r a d i g m (espec. e.g. Isa 50:4).
1
3
2
Third, not o n l y does M a r k 4 p r o v i d e t h e
S t a r k o v a , ' I m p o r t a n c e ' , a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y in C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 2 , fn. 1 5 7 . 133 ^ f t h e r , D u p o n t - S o m m e r , Writings, 3 5 8 - 6 7 ; Kittel, Hymns, 130, 136; Ringgren, Faith, 196ff. E v a n s , Beginning, 4 3 - 6 1 ; M a r t i n , 1 1 3 ; F r a n c e , ' T e a c h i n g ' ; cf. R i e s n e r , Lehrer; R o b b i n s , Teacher; B a a r l i n k , Anfangliches, 148-74; A c h t e m e i e r , 'Reflections'; H o o k e r , 'Mark'; Piper, 'Unchanging', 19. O n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e M e s s i a h a s t e a c h e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y in I s a i a n i c t e r m s , R i e s n e r , Lehrer, 3 0 4 - 4 4 ( a l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o d e a l w i t h t h e w i s d o m c o n n o t a t i o n s of ' b l i n d n e s s ' a n d 'sight' t e r m i n o l o g y ) ; o n I s a 11 J e n s e n , Use, 124ff. O n t h e w i s d o m e l e m e n t in J e s u s ' m e s s a g e , H e n g e l , Charismatic, 45ff. 1 3 6 T e a c h i n g ' , 1 0 7 , H O f ; cf. K e e , Miracle, 1 6 1 ; K o c h , Bedeutung, 42-45; Egger, Frohbotschaft, 165ff; a n d C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 154ff, a b o v e . u r
1
3
4
1
3
5
256
The New
Exodus
Way
basis for J e s u s ' s u b s e q u e n t use o f sapiential language but it also follows h a r d o n the heels o f J e s u s ' redefinition both o f his true family and, since h e is S / s o n o f G o d , also of Israel (3:20-35). In the light o f M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e and especially J e s u s ' p r o g r a m m a t i c a n n o u n c e m e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g (l:14f), these data suggest that reconstituted I s r a e l ' s participation in the I N E is d e p e n d e n t o n hear i ng J e s u s ' teaching (4:9, 2 3 ; and 3:34f). It is possible, then, that w e have here an e c h o of the 'servant' inviting ' d e a f Jacob-Israel to hear and respond (cf. Isa 42:20). It is noteworthy that in both Q u m r a n and Tg. Isaiah the focus o f the I N E instruction w a s T o r a h .
In M a r k , h o w e v e r , the focus is on J e s u s '
teaching w h i c h implies that, for M a r k , it n o w ' r e p l a c e s ' T o r a h on centre stage.
1 3 7
The presentation o f Jesus as 'deliverer-teacher' is, therefore, particularly apposite if M a r k is operating with an I N E hermeneutic.
This is especially
so given the previously discussed m o t i f o f the u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g
'blind'
disciples a n d the w i d e s p r e a d recognition that in the ' W a y ' section J e s u s n a r r o w s his teaching from the c r o w d s at large to focus o n his disciples (including the T w e l v e ) w h o a r g u a b l y represent the N e w / R e c o n s t i t u t e d Israel (cf. M k 3:13-19, 3 1 - 3 5 ) .
1 3 8
If so, then M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section would b e
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f J e s u s as t h e I s a i a n i c
'servant-
deliverer-teacher' w h o , as Y a h w e h ' s agent, leads blind Israel in a N E along a w a y they d o not know. e)
Conclusion
There has been considerable debate over what understood b y his use o f 666$
Mark intends
to b e
terminology, usually with e m p h a s i s b e i n g
placed on o n e or another o f several a l t e r n a t i v e s .
139
F r o m the perspective
taken here, M a r k ' s p u r p o s e is p e r h a p s best u n d e r s t o o d as multifaceted. Based on the Isaiah 40:3 imagery to which M a r k ' s opening citation appeals, 1
3
7
Cf. H o o k e r , ' M a r k ' , w h o a d d r e s s e s this t e n s i o n b e t w e e n J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g a n d T o r a h .
1
3
8
S e e b r i e f l y C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 128ff, a n d C h a p t e r 7, p . 1 9 5 , fn. 5 6 , a b o v e .
1
3
9
See M a r c u s ' analysis, 2 9 - 4 5 , of the m e a n i n g of M a r k ' s ' W a y ' sets o u t the differences in p e r s p e c t i v e b e t w e e n S n o d g r a s s , ' S t r e a m s ' ; S w a r t l e y , ' F u n c t i o n ' ; a n d K e l b e r , ' K i n g d o m ' ; o n t h e o n e s i d e , a n d t h a t o f L o h m e y e r , Markus, o n t h e o t h e r . H e a g r e e s w i t h L o h m e y e r t h a t t h e m a i n e m p h a s i s is o n Y a h w e h ' s s a v i n g a c t i o n a n d o n l y s e c o n d a r i l y o n h u m a n r e s p o n s e . W h i l e n o t d e n y i n g for M a r k t h e o n t o l o g i c a l l y p r i o r s t a t u s o f Y a h w e h ' s a c t i o n , t h e r e s e e m s n o r e a s o n w h y this s h o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y r e l e g a t e t h e n e e d for h u m a n r e s p o n s e t o s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . T h a t is, s i n c e Y a h w e h h a s a c t e d t h r o u g h t h e I N E ' W a y ' o f t h e c r o s s , it is n o w i n c u m b e n t o n all t o a c c e p t hi s w i s d o m a n d in s o d o i n g t h e m s e l v e s p a r t i c i p a t e in its fulfilment.
Jesus:
'Suffering
Servant'
and Son of David:
257
Introduction
his ' W a y ' s e e m s clearly to b e the ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g .
In
addition, h o w e v e r , the sapiential connotations of M a r k ' s language suggest that his ' W a y ' serves to s h o w that true participation in the I N E entails acceptance o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , namely, that the Messiah, S / s o n o f G o d , m u s t go the ' w a y ' o f the cross.
F u r t h e r m o r e , given the p r o m i n e n c e o f
Isaianic w i s d o m l a n g u a g e in M a r k , it is hardly surprising that his I N E ' w a y ' of J e s u s is likewise a journey of instruction. M o r e g e n e r a l l y , the a b o v e a s s e s s m e n t s u g g e s t s that M a r k ' s ' W a y j o u r n e y ' m o t i f c o i n c i d e s with (and m i g h t thus inform) that early a n d particularised conception of the Christian life which described itself as ' T h e W a y ' (e.g. Acts 9:2; 19:23; cf. Bar. 18-20; Did. 1-5; also 5:16; R o m 6:4; and E p h 5:15). only
with
Qumran's
TTCPITTCXTCCJ
in e.g. G a l
It thus shares a similar cultural milieu not
Isaianic 'spatial-sapiential'
self-conception
in
particular (e.g. 1QS 8:13-16; 9:16-21) but also more broadly with the absolute use of ' w a y ' terminology in J u d a i s m at large (e.g. 1 Q S 3:9 - 4:26; Jub. 23:20f) through which it traces its roots to the O T .
1 4 0
HI. Jesus: 'Suffering Servant' and Son of David? a)
Introduction
In the discussion o f the p r o l o g u e w e argued that the voice from h e a v e n contained allusions to Psalm 2 and Isaiah 4 2 which indicated that for M a r k J e s u s was to b e understood in terms of the Isaianic 'servant' and D a v i d ' s messianic son.
Similarly, M a r k ' s editorial use of Isaiah 4 0 : 3 — g i v e n its
larger ideological a n d intertextual c o n n o t a t i o n s — m i g h t also b e seen to have similar implications.
In v i e w o f the p r o l o g u e ' s
introductory
function, w e w o u l d e x p e c t these identifications to b e e c h o e d t h r o u g h o u t M a r k ' s Gospel, and w e h a v e argued at numerous points that this is indeed so. In the context o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section, this raises two questions: does M a r k in 10:45 also u n d e r s t a n d J e s u s in t e r m s o f the suffering o f t h e 'servant' figure o f Isaiah 5 3 , and does he, as s o m e claim, present J e s u s as repudiating Davidic messiahship (10:46-52)?
1
4
0
Cf. B e r g m a n n , H a l d a r , R i n g g r e n , K o c h , TDOT, 3 . 2 9 1 - 9 3 ; M i c h a e l i s , TDNT, 5 . 4 8 - 9 6 ; N o t s c h e r , Gotteswege, 7 6 - 9 6 , lOOf; R e p o , Weg; M c C a s l a n d , ' " W a y " ' ; F i t z m y e r , ' C h r i s t i a n ity'; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 1 6 3 - 9 0 .
258
The New
b) Jesus and Isaiah's
'Suffering
Exodus
Servant':
Way
the INE and Mark
Several observations have been made
10:45
t h r o u g h o u t on the
similarities
b e t w e e n J e s u s ' d e l i v e r i n g , healing, and t e a c h i n g activities a n d ascribed to Isaiah's enigmatic 'servant'.
those
It has also been suggested
that
Isaiah 5 3 , within the literary context of the b o o k ' s final form, indicates the w a y in w h i c h the N E promises w e r e finally to b e r e a l i s e d .
141
Likewise,
J e s u s ' concentration o n reorienting his disciples' conception o f messiahship a p p e a r s to parallel Israel's n e e d , in the light o f the d e b a t e o v e r Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , to reconsider her expectations of h o w her redemption is to occur.
Given, then, that m a n y scholars have seen in M a r k 10:45—the
conclusion o f the third and final passion prediction collection ( 1 0 : 3 2 - 4 5 )
142
and itself at the climax of the ' W a y ' section—an allusion to Isaiah 53:1012,
1 4 3
a foray into this well-known minefield seems unavoidable.
In the light o f the unified Isaianic presentation w h i c h this b o o k is proposing, an allusion to Isaiah 53 w o u l d not b e surprising.
But this is
hardly a forgone conclusion and several w e i g h t y a r g u m e n t s h a v e b e e n mounted
against
it.
1 4 4
O n the o t h e r h a n d , m o s t s c h o l a r s
although
recognising the existence of conceptual similarities—how else w o u l d the debate h a v e arisen?—tend to approach the question by m e a n s o f detailed linguistic s t u d i e s a n d s e e m u l t i m a t e l y to b a s e their d e c i s i o n on
the
existence or otherwise of exact and one-for-one correspondences b e t w e e n w o r d s in M a r k a n d w o r d s in I s a i a h .
1 4 5
G r a n t e d the validity o f this
m e t h o d , s o m e c a v e a t s are in order, not least b e c a u s e o f M a r k ' s operandi
1 4 1
1
4
2
1
4
3
1
4
4
1
4
5
modus
elsewhere.
A g a i n s e e C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 5 , a b o v e .
A prediction (vv. 33-34), misunderstanding (vv. 35-41), and teaching (vv. 42-45); P e r r i n , 'Gattung', 6. T h e l i t e r a t u r e is i m m e n s e . H o w e v e r , in a d d i t i o n t o t h e w o r k s c i t e d infra s e e e.g. P e s c h 2 . 1 6 3 f ; T r o c m e , 1 5 7 ; T a y l o r , 4 4 5 f ; C r a n f i e l d , 3 4 2 ; T o d t , Son, 2 0 0 f f ; H a e n c h e n , 3 6 9 ; S c h w e i z e r , 2 1 9 ; L a n e , 3 8 3 f ; K e e , 1 3 5 ; G n i l k a , 1.104; E r n s t , 3 1 0 ; L i n d a r s , Son, 7 8 ; a l s o G r i m m , 231-77; Stuhlmacher, 'Vicariously'. Moulder, 'Background', a d d s Dn 12:3. Dissenters i n c l u d e B e s t , Temptation, 140-44, a n d A n d e r s o n , 2 5 7 , while H u r t a r d o , 159f, ignores the issue. N o t a b l y t h e s e m i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , a n d H o o k e r , Jesus. T h e l a t t e r is c o n c e r n e d w i t h J e s u s ' s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g , n o t M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n . H o w e v e r , s i n c e H o o k e r ' s w o r k p r e d a t e s t h e r i s e o f r e d a c t i o n a l a n a l y s e s o f M a r k h e r t r e a t m e n t is a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e final f o r m o f t h e t e x t . K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 1 8 3 , c o n c l u d e s , ' T h e r e a r e n o s u r e r e f e r e n c e s t o Isa 5 3 . ' T o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s in e.g. H o o k e r , Servant; B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' ; H i g g i n s , Jesus; Moulder, 'Background'.
OT
Setting
of Jesus'
Suffering:
Mark
259
9:12
In the only other place w h e r e M a r k records Jesus offering s o m e sort o f explanation o f a significant aspect o f his activity, n a m e l y his e x o r c i s m s ( M a r k 3:23-29), the c o n c e p t u a l parallels are such that h e is g e n e r a l l y understood b y the majority o f c o m m e n t a t o r s to b e alluding to Isaiah 4 9 . A n d this in spite o f the a b s e n c e o f u n a m b i g u o u s lexical parallels.
We
have
the
a l so a r g u e d
that
a similar relationship
obtains between
i m m e d i a t e l y following ' b l a s p h e m y ' saying and Isaiah 6 3 .
G i v e n these
p r e c e d e n t s , n o t o n l y w o u l d it not b e surprising if M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f another o f J e s u s ' explanations is similarly 'allusive' but it m i g h t e v e n b e expected.
In addition, given not only M a r k ' s ' m i x e d ' O T citations and
allusions e l s e w h e r e b u t also similar practices e v i d e n t in c o n t e m p o r a r y Jewish literature,
146
an assumption o f a single exclusive influence b e h i n d
the saying might well b e reductionistic. S e c o n d , m o s t o f t h e earlier linguistic a p p r o a c h e s t e n d e d to focus, naturally e n o u g h , o n M a r k 10:45 i t s e l f .
147
In practice this took place to a
greater or lesser extent in isolation from the rest of Mark. But since J e s u s ' predictions o f his passion, references to his future suffering, and M a r k 10:45, relate to the s a m e event, surely s o m e consideration o u g h t to b e given not only to the question o f their overall coherence but also to the fact that t h e f o r m e r m a t e r i a l s c o n s t i t u t e the i m m e d i a t e
interpretive
context for the latter. A l o n g similar lines, assuming an overarching unity to M a r k ' s gospel s o m e weight should also b e given to its larger conceptual framework as proposed herein, namely, the I N E . Finally, it is important to r e m e m b e r that while the use or non-use o f like m a t e r i a l in c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s m i g h t p r o v i d e b a c k g r o u n d
to
M a r k ' s account of J e s u s ' understanding, it cannot b e determinative.
It is
a l w a y s p o s s i b l e that a c r e a t i v e m i n d w i t h a different ' h o r i z o n '
may
validly—provided the wording of the text is not violated—see n e w things in the text that others because of their particular presuppositions have not. (i) OT Setting
of Jesus'
Suffering:
Mark
9:12
Granted the foregoing, it is well to ask if M a r k ' s J e s u s himself gives any indication of the background
1
4
6
1
4
7
from w h i c h his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s
S e e C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 5 , fn. 1 7 0 ; in t e r m s o f t h e l a t t e r , e.g. V a n d e r K a m , ' R i g h t e o u s ' , and Stanley, Authority. L a t e r w o r k s s u c h a s C a r a g o u n i s , Son; a n d K i m , '"Son"', g i v e g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e overall coherence of Jesus' statements on these matters.
260
The
suffering derives. giving
one's
martyrs),
1 4 8
In fact, h e does.
life
contemporaries
New
for
another
Exodus
Way
N o matter h o w prevalent the ideas o f might
have
been
among
( p e r h a p s u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e e.g. o f t h e
Mark's
Maccabean
it s e e m s quite clear that in 9:12b the M a r k a n J e s u s links his
understanding of his suffering specifically to the O T 6€i in M k 8 : 3 1 ) .
1 4 9
(KOCI
T\&$ yiypaurax;
B u t if the source o f his understanding is derived
cf. from
the O T , and if as m a y at least initially b e assumed its content is reflected in J e s u s ' w o r d s , w h a t passage or passages lie behind J e s u s ' language o f noXXa TTOtSrj KOI € £ 0 U 6 € V T j 9 f j ?
A l t h o u g h M . D . H o o k e r n o t e s there is n o direct O T p r o p h e c y o f a suffering S o M ,
1 5 0
she nevertheless sees in €£OU6€VTI9T} a pointer to Daniel 7
(citing € £ o u 6 € v T i i i a in Ps 21:7 LXX,
see b e l o w ) .
1 5 1
T h e r e is possibly an
implication in Daniel 7 of the S o M identifying with, if not sharing in, the suffering o f the s a i n t s .
152
T h e problem is that, conceptually, it is only an
148 g e e e.g. B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 12f; H o o k e r , Servant, 1 5 8 f ; H e n g e l , Atonement, 6-28; a n d G u n d r y w h o a p p e a l s t o 6 o 0 v a i TTIV IJJUXTIV in G r a e c o - R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e , c i t i n g B u s c h e l , TDNT, 2 . 1 6 6 ; b u t cf. t h e c o m m e n t s o f B e s t , Temptation, 1 4 3 f . 1 4 9
S o e.g. L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 8 1 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 3 f ; M o o , Passion, 8 7 ; G u n d r y ( b u t o f d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) , 4 6 5 ; M a r c u s , 9 4 - 1 1 0 ; cf. H o o k e r , Mark, 2 2 0 ; E r n s t , 2 6 3 ; G n i l k a , 41ff; a l t h o u g h t h e e x p r e s s i o n is u s e d e l s e w h e r e t o i n t r o d u c e e x e g e t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e O T , M a r c u s , ' " W r i t t e n " ' , 44f. A s i d e f r o m o u r p a s s a g e ( p a r . 1 4 : 2 1 ) , M a r k ' s J e s u s u s e s ycypaTTTai o n l y w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e O T ( 7 : 6 ; 1 1 : 1 7 ; 1 4 : 2 7 ; cf. 1:2). A g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t y e y p a t T T a i r e f e r s t o A p o c r y p h a l w r i t i n g s , s e e Ellis, Canon, 3 - 5 0 ; B e c k w i t h , Canon, infra. A l s o , k^ovSev a n d its v a r i a n t s p e l l i n g s o n l y o c c u r in 1 M a c e 3 : 1 4 a n d 2 M a c e 1:27 a n d in n e i t h e r o f t h e s e c a s e s d o t h e c o n t e x t s fit J e s u s ' s a y i n g in M a r k 9 : 1 2 . T a k e n t o g e t h e r this e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t M a r k i n t e n d s u s t o s e e in 9 : 1 2 b a n a l l u s i o n t o t h e O T . I n s p i t e o f s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s ' c o n c e r n s , t h e r e f e r e n c e t o Elijah in v. 1 3 p r o b a b l y m e a n s n o m o r e t h a n j u s t a s the O T p r o p h e t h a d b e e n r e j e c t e d b y I s r a e l ' s i d o l a t r o u s l e a d e r s h i p s o t o o h a d J o h n . T h i s m u c h is a t l e a s t i m p l i e d b y t h e w a r n i n g in M a i 3 : 2 4 b M T . T o r e a d 9 : 1 3 a s t h o u g h it s u g g e s t s a v i o l e n t fate f o r t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l E l i j a h f i g u r e n o t o n l y g o e s b e y o n d t h e t e x t , b u t fails t o take seriously the d e t e r m i n a t i v e status that M a r k ' s Jesus implicitly gives the O T allusion. M a r c u s , ' " W r i t t e n " ' , d e n i e s this p o s s i b i l i t y o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e r e is n o e x p l i c i t m e n t i o n of t y p o l o g y . B u t t o a s s u m e t h a t N T a u t h o r s m u s t a l w a y s e x p l i c i t l y i n d i c a t e t y p o l o g i c a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s in t h e w a y t h a t M a r c u s s u g g e s t s fails t o a p p r e c i a t e t y p o l o g y ' s m e t a p h o r i c a l n a t u r e . O n t h e J e w i s h i d e a o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t r i b u l a t i o n , A l l i s o n , End, 5 - 2 5 . 1 5 0
Mark, 2 2 0 . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , a s s u m e s t h a t S o M is a title w i t h O T r o o t s , a n d n o t a t e r m of g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e . T h e d e b a t e c o n t i n u e s , s e e e.g. M o u l e , ' F a c t s ' ; C a s e y , ' I d i o m ' ; S l a t e r , 'One'. Ibid. S e e e.g. M o u l e , Phenomenon, 8 3 ; H o o k e r , Son, 27ff; B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 13f; a n d the l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in M o o , Passion, 1 0 1 n 3 . C a s e y , Son, 2 4 - 2 7 , 39ff, v i g o r o u s l y d e n i e s this a r g u i n g t h a t A ) t h e a u t h o r ' s e m p h a s i s in D n 7 : 1 3 , 1 4 is o n t h e u l t i m a t e v i c t o r y o f I s r a e l a s s y m b o l i s e d b y t h e S o M a n d t h u s e x c l u d e s a n y n o t i o n o f s u f f e r i n g f o r t h e l a t t e r ; B ) if t h e a u t h o r d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y a t t r i b u t e 'suffering' t o t h e S o M , t h e n it m u s t b e e x c l u d e d ; C ) t h e n o t i o n o f a s u f f e r i n g S o M is f o u n d n o w h e r e a m o n g a n c i e n t e x e g e t e s . W h i l e C a s e y ' s p o i n t a b o u t t h e e m p h a s i s is v a l i d , his s e c o n d d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w — n o t l e a s t b e c a u s e it 1 5 1
1 5 2
OT
implication and,
Setting
of Jesus'
Suffering:
Mark
261
9:12
l i n g u i s t i c a l l y , n o n e o f M a r k ' s suffering l a n g u a g e
(or
s y n o n y m s thereof) is found in either the L X X or later G r e e k v e r s i o n s o f D a n i e l 7, e i t h e r w i t h r e g a r d to the saints or the S o M .
1 5 3
F u r t h e r , the
n o t i o n or d e s c r i p t i o n o f a suffering S o n o f M a n figure is u n k n o w n in c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h literature.
At best it s e e m s that the explicit descrip
tions of suffering are d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y from e l s e w h e r e in the O T
and
then used to explicate the implied suffering of Daniel 7's Son o f M a n . T u r n i n g to other possibilities, a m o r e likely c a n d i d a t e p e r h a p s is P s a l m 21:7 ( L X X ) w h i c h is later cited on two occasions in the passion narrative in M a r k 15:24 and 34 (appealing to L X X Ps 2 1 , verses 19 and 2 respectively). T h e p e t i t i o n e r ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i m s e l f as o n e s c o r n e d b y the p e o p l e is certainly a p p r o p r i a t e to Jesus; although M a r k uses a verbal form w h e r e a s the L X X u s e s € ^ o u 6 € v r m a .
Similarly, g i v e n M a r k ' s use of P s a l m 117:22
(LXX) e l s e w h e r e (12:10, cf. 8:31), s o m e h a v e also s u g g e s t e d its influence here.
1 5 4
Since it is a h y m n o f t h a n k s g i v i n g for deliverance, an appeal to
this p s a l m m i g h t not b e inappropriate. E v e n so, it is not clear w h y M a r k s h o u l d use € £ o u 6 € V € 0 )
here
when
aTTo6oKiua£o) (in 12:10; cf. 8 : 3 1 ) .
1 5 5
elsewhere
he
retains
the
LXX's
P s a l m 118 ( L X X ) , w h i c h is not usually
m e n t i o n e d in this r e g a r d , m i g h t also b e a possibility.
D e a l i n g in p l a c e s
a l l o w s n o r o o m f o r t h e s u b t l e t y o f t h e implicite. S i n c e t h e first f o u r s y m b o l s in D n 7 r e l a t e to both t h e s u c c e s s a n d t h e d o w n f a l l o f t h e i r r e f e r e n t s , it m i g h t b e t h a t t h e r e a d e r is b e i n g e n c o u r a g e d t o b r i n g t h e s a m e ' r e v e r s a l ' p a r a d i g m t o t h e fifth, i.e. t h e S o M , e v e n if t h e e m p h a s i s lies o n the S o M ' s e x a l t a t i o n . T h e t h o r o u g h - g o i n g m o t i f of v i n d i c a t i o n after s u f f e r i n g in D n 2 , 3 , 5 , a n d 6 ( b e a r i n g in m i n d t h e i r c h i a s t i c l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , L e n g l e t , ' s t r u c t u r e ' ; cf. a l s o c h . 1 2 ) , l i k e w i s e e n c o u r a g e s r e a d e r s t o s e e t h e S o M ' s ' c o m i n g o n t h e c l o u d s ' t o b e o n e , n o t o f d e s c e n t , b u t o f a s c e n t , i.e. o f e x a l t a t i o n a n d v i n d i c a t i o n . A n d if vindication, t h e n this implies suffering w h i c h c o h e r e s n a t u r a l l y w i t h the l a r g e r t h e m e s o f the b o o k a n d a l s o w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f ' t h e p e o p l e o f t h e S a i n t s ' in D n 7 w h o m t h e S o M clearly represents. Similarly, ancient exegetical tradition can hardly be taken as n o r m a t i v e s i n c e it c o u l d e q u a l l y b e t h e r e s u l t o f p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s w h i c h m i g h t h a v e a priori e x c l u d e d t h e p o s s i b l i t y o f s u f f e r i n g f o r s u c h a n e x a l t e d f i g u r e (cf. t h e m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Tg. Isa 5 3 ) . A c h a n g e o f h o r i z o n m i g h t e n a b l e r e a d e r s t o s e e in D n 7 m o t i f s t h a t their former w o r l d v i e w c a u s e d t h e m to miss. Consequently, n o t only d o e s D n 7 n o t e x c l u d e the suffering o f t h e S o M / I s r a e l p r i o r t o v i n d i c a t i o n , b u t o n t h e c o n t r a r y m i g h t i m p l y it. 1 5 3
Again, although the S o M self-designation m i g h t b e u n d e r s t o o d as alluding to D n 7 in g e n e r a l , g i v e n t h e ' m i x i n g ' o f t e x t s in M a r k a n d t h e i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f c o n c e p t s f r o m different p a s s a g e s ( s e e fn. 1 4 6 a b o v e ) , it s e e m s u n w a r r a n t e d t o a s s u m e t h a t all of M a r k ' s S o M p r e d i c a t i o n s m u s t b e f o u n d in D n 7. 1 5 4
E.g. G u n d r y , 4 8 5 . G u n d r y , 4 8 5 ; cf. S t e i c h e l e , Sohn, 9 3 n 2 0 3 , w h o s e a p p e a l t o L u k e ' s u s e o f €^ou6€vt'o) in A c t s 4:11 falters w h e n h e c i t e s M a r k 8:31 a s a n a l l u s i o n — M a r k h e r e u s e s a * n o 6 o K i n a < o ) j u s t a s h e d o e s in h i s c i t a t i o n in 1 2 : 1 0 (cf. 1 P e t 2 : 7 ) . A p p e a l s t o P a u l ' s s t y l i s t i c p r e f e r e n c e a r e l i k e w i s e u n c o n v i n c i n g a n d G u n d r y fails t o r e s p o n d t o F r a n c e ' s c r i t i c i s m , Jesus, 123f, t h a t t h e contexts are too dissimilar. 1 5 5
262
The New
Exodus
Way
w i t h a r i g h t e o u s sufferer, v e r s e 2 2 r e c o r d s t h e p s a l m i s t Y a h w e h to deliver h i m from i^ovdiv^oiv, himself as faithful and yet
petitioning
and in verse 141 h e describes l5e
k£o\)8€vu\i£vos.
Finally, w h e n S y m m a c h u s , Aquilla, and T h e o d o t i o n translate Isaiah 53:3, they display an unusual degree o f unanimity in rejecting the L X X ' s s o m e w h a t idiosyncratic choice and uniformly adopting € £ o u 6 e v a ) H € v o c ; —the s t a n d a r d r e n d e r i n g e l s e w h e r e in the L X X .
1 5 8
157
( W h e r e HT3 o c c u r s
e l s e w h e r e in Isaiah, 37:22 and 49:7 (!), the t r a n s l a t o r / s h a v e also g o n e against the n o r m in using (t>auXi£a).) W e h a v e already seen that although M a r k apparently uses the L X X , h e is clearly not b o u n d b y it, and will go his o w n w a y w h e n it s u i t s .
1 5 9
M a r k ' s term here m i g h t well reflect w h a t he
considers the m o r e appropriate 'standard' or c o m m o n translation. Bearing in m i n d that w e are speaking of o n l y o n e w o r d , it is hardly surprising that the evidence is a m b i g u o u s .
O n e , or s o m e combination, of
the three p s a l m s m i g h t b e in view. O n the other h a n d , it is possible that €£OU6€VTI0TJ
represents a more c o m m o n rendering o f nt3 in Isaiah 53.
But t h e r e is also the first part o f the phrase: n o X X d r r a e r j .
At a
conceptual level. P s a l m 21 (LXX) and Isaiah 53 h a v e extensive descriptions of the sufferings undergone b y their respective subjects. P s a l m s 117 (LXX) and 118 ( L X X ) m e n t i o n suffering in places but to a lesser degree, w h i l e Daniel 7 at least enters the lists in that it m e n t i o n s the suffering o f the saints (v. 25), and m i g h t thereby imply that of the S o M . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f linguistic parallels, in m a r k e d contrast to its frequent u s e in the N T n a a x c j is found relatively rarely and late in the L X X ( i n c l u d i n g the A p o c r y p h a ) w i t h o n l y a few o f t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s 156 M o o , Passion, 9 0 , c i t e s P s 8 8 : 3 9 ( L X X ) a s u s i n g k^ovdeviiioag t o s p e a k expressly 'of the r e j e c t i o n b y I s r a e l o f i t s M e s s i a h ' ; h o w e v e r , it is a c t u a l l y Y a h w e h w h o is a c c u s e d o f covenant unfaithfulness. R u p p e r t , Gerechte, posits a n influential role for the P s a l m s ' 'righteous sufferer', but barely considers the O T origins of Mark's material, while S t e i c h e l e , Sohn, lOOff, g e t s s o m e w h a t s i d e t r a c k e d b y t h e E l i j a h r e f e r e n c e (cf. fn. 1 4 9 a b o v e ) . S e e B e s t , Temptation, xlviiiff, for a c r i t i q u e o f t h e ' r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r e r ' p o s i t i o n . 1
5
7
F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 3 f , cf. C r a n f i e l d , 2 9 8 . G u n d r y , 4 8 5 , a r g u e s a g a i n s t t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of these versions since t h e y a r e n o t pre-Christian. But given that M a r k freely modifies the L X X w h e n it s u i t s , a s G u n d r y h i m s e l f i m p l i e s w h e n h e a r g u e s t h a t M a r k ' s €£ou6€VTi9fj 'is a n o n - S e p t u a g i n t a l a l t e r n a t i v e t o d t T T o 6 o K i u a a 0 ^ v a i ' (cf. a l s o p p . 6 1 f , 1 3 0 , a n d 1 8 6 a b o v e for e x a m p l e s of this practice) at least the later versions p r o v i d e s o m e indication of translat i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s . T h e L X X is a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y e a r l i e r t h a n t h e N T a n d a l l o w a n c e o u g h t t o b e m a d e f o r t h e s e m a n t i c shifts o f t h e k i n d d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r ; s e e e s p e c i a l l y C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 4 8 , fn. 5 7 , a b o v e . Cf. S a n t o s , Expanded, 2 3 ; H o o k e r , Servant, 9 4 . S e e e.g. t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 61ff, a n d C h a p t e r 7, p p . 186ff, a b o v e . 1
5
8
1
5
9
OT
Setting
of Jesus'
having Hebrew counterparts
Suffering:
in t h e M T .
263
Mark 9:12
(Is this y e t a n o t h e r c a s e o f
diachronic semantic variation?) In A m o s 6:6 it renders the Niphal o f nbn, 'to b e weak, s i c k ' a n d thus 'to b e in pain, to suffer', a n d in E s t h e r 9:26 it t r a n s l a t e s w r n f c (what they ' s a w ' , i.e. experienced). Both Zechariah 11:5 and Ezekiel 16:5 h a v e it for Q a l forms of ^ftn, 'to h a v e c o m p a s s i o n ' , w h i l e Daniel
11:17 seems to have
T h e o d o t i o n ' s Kai ou
mistakenly
Trapau,€ii/T|).
used
it for ifovn
Kb) ( c f .
160
O f the a b o v e e x a m p l e s , while Esther reflects m o r e the original m e a n i n g of 'experience something', only the Septuagintal use o f
Traaxw
in A m o s 6:6
corresponds to the sense found in the M a r k a n passage. T h e fact is that the L X X uses a w i d e range o f words, and s o m e in greater n u m b e r s than rraaxco, to render t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e s e m a n t i c range o f n^n. T h e y are, in order o f frequency:
dppoxjTea), ttov€0),
and <()X€yuaiva).
161
aoQeveu,
\iaXaKiCo\iai,
gvoxXc'cj,
U€Tpia£a),
W h a t is striking, h o w e v e r , is that a l t h o u g h
various
n o m i n a l forms o f these verbs are found throughout the N T , t h e p r i m a r y verbal forms used b y N T authors are daGcveu and c v o x X c u , two
convey the more
/
narrowly defined
expressions of
1 6 2
a n d these unpleasant
experience, respectively, 'to b e w e a k , to b e sick' a n d ' t o c a u s e trouble, to annoy'. G i v e n this data, it s e e m s a reasonable conjecture that t h e r e m a i n i n g , ' m i s s i n g ' v e r b s — w h e r e t h e y h a v e n o t c o a l e s c e d into o t h e r t e r m s (e.g. dppu)aT€to m i g h t w e l l h a v e b e e n absorbed into d a S c v e c j ) — w e r e l a r g e l y replaced b y Tra'axo), w h i c h , a l t h o u g h originally m e a n i n g ' t o e x p e r i e n c e ' e i t h e r g o o d o r ill, h a s in t h e N T c l e a r l y c o m e t o m e a n ' t o suffer, to endure'.
1 6 3
I f s o , t h e n w e m a y b e justified in s e e i n g in udox^
a
c o n t e m p o r a r y G r e e k counterpart o f n^n in its specific sense o f 'to suffer o r endure'. R e t u r n i n g to p o s s i b l e O T b a c k g r o u n d s o f TroXXd na'Si], w e find that none
of the relevant
verbal
or substantival
forms
of n^n
o r its
Septuagintal counterparts are found in either the H e b r e w , the L X X , or, as far as could b e discovered, the later Greek versions o f a n y o f t h e candidate
1 6 0
Cf. M i c h a e l i s , TDNT,
5.907f.
1 6 1
S e y b o l d , TDOT, 4 . 4 0 2 , w h o a l s o n o t e s t h e d e r i v e d n o u n s dppcoaTia, u a X a i a a , voaos", TTOVOS , a u a p T ( a , a n d T p a O u a . 1
1 6 2
H o w e v e r , dppaxjTca) d o e s o c c u r in a variant r e a d i n g t o M t 14:14 in D , a n d several o c c u r in P h i l o , J o s e p h u s , a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e ; s e e t h e r e l e v a n t l i s t i n g s in B A G D . Cf. B A G D , 6 3 3 f . S e e f u r t h e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n M i c h a e l i s , TDNT, 5.907ff. 1 6 3
264
The
New
Exodus
Way
psalms or Daniel 7. O n the other hand, Isaiah 53 has two substantives and a Hiphil form of nbn:
(in v. 3 ) , ir^n (v. 4 , rendered rag diiapjiag
and ^ n n (v. 10), while the LXX has \Le\ia\dK\o7ai cf. n o vog,
v. 4 ) .
The versional evidence includes
Symmachus
appcjaTia,
CTTITTOVOS-
and
vooog,
fj^div),
(v. 5) and \ia\aKiav Aquilla
and T h e o d o t i o n
(v. 3; reading in
\ia\aKia
53:3, S y m m a c h u s voaos* in 53:4, and Aquilla (Eus.) dppcoaTia in 53:10.
One
can only c o n c l u d e that if the w o r d s TroXXa TTaOrj are intended to e v o k e a passage in the O T , Isaiah 53 w o u l d seem to b e the primary c a n d i d a t e .
164
To s u m m a r i s e o u r findings so far, in terms o f conceptual parallels the p r i m e O T c a n d i d a t e s are P s a l m 21 ( L X X ) and Isaiah 5 3 ; a l t h o u g h s o m e suffering o n the part o f ' o n e like a h u m a n b e i n g ' is p r o b a b l y implied in Daniel 7. F r o m the point of v i e w of linguistic parallels €£ou6€vnefj on its o w n is a m b i g u o u s s i n c e it could point either to o n e or m o r e o f several psalms a n d / o r to a m o r e customary rendering of Isaiah 53:3. T h e absence of any linguistic parallels disqualifies Daniel 7. H o w e v e r , the phrase with which M a r k ' s Jesus begins his statement, noXXa
Tra9rj,
suggests only o n e of
the candidate passages: Isaiah 5 3 . Consequently, while it must b e recognised that w e are dealing with an allusive saying rather than a direct citation, and that w e h a v e only a short phrase, nevertheless, the unavoidable conclusion to w h i c h all three lines of e v i d e n c e — O T origins, conceptual and linguistic parallels—run s e e m s to b e that if a n y O T text lies b e h i n d M a r k 9 : 1 2 b ' s TToXXa udQr\ K a i €^ou6€vrj9t)
it is I s a i a h 5 3 .
Again, engendering a semantic clash by
c o n j o i n i n g s u b j e c t s ( S o M ) w i t h largely u n e x p e c t e d or e v e n
dissonant
predicates (Isaiah 53) is s o m e w h a t characteristic o f Mark, and as H. C. K e e observed, not least w h e n he is citing or alluding to S c r i p t u r e .
165
1 6 4
Cf. M o o , Passion, 9 1 . H o w e v e r , in a r g u i n g for t h e p r i m a c y o f I s a 5 3 I w o u l d n o t e x c l u d e o t h e r i n f l u e n c e s . G u n d r y , 4 8 5 , d e n i e s t h e possibility o f a n a l l u s i o n t o I s a 5 3 : 3 o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e r e is n o h i n t o f a t o n e m e n t h e r e , a n d t h a t M a r k n o w h e r e e l s e a p p e a l s t o I s a 5 3 : 3 . T h e f o r m e r is s i m p l y a n a r g u m e n t f r o m s i l e n c e a n d is e s p e c i a l l y d u b i o u s g i v e n t h a t t h e r e is n o s u g g e s t i o n a t all o f p u r p o s e in e i t h e r this s a y i n g o r t h e t h r e e p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s p r o p e r w h i c h m e a n s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n M a r k ' s J e s u s h a s n o t h i n g t o s a y o n p u r p o s e a t this p o i n t — a l t h o u g h M a r k 10:45 s u g g e s t s t h a t J e s u s h a d o n e in m i n d . G u n d r y ' s s e c o n d a r g u m e n t h a s w e i g h t o n l y if o n e a s s u m e s t h a t M a r k m u s t a l w a y s a l l u d e t o O T t e x t s a t l e a s t t w i c e in o r d e r t o s h o w t h a t h e is a w a r e o f t h e m . F u r t h e r m o r e , G u n d r y ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f TToXXa Tia0T|, 446 (on 8:31), s e e m s not to treat adequately the O T origins that 9:12 suggests. 165 " r h p r o c e s s in all o f this is t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e b y S c r i p t u r e , b u t w i t h a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a i m t h a t s e e s in J e s u s t h e f u l f i l l m e n t (sic) o f w h a t c a n b e d i s c e r n e d o n l y w h e n the synthesis of unrelated passages has been achieved', 'Function', 177. e
OT
Setting
of Jesus'
Suffering:
The Passion
265
Predictions
If w e take this data and its context seriously, that is A ) Jesus declares that his suffering is in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h ' w h a t is w r i t t e n ' and B ) h e t h e n describes his suffering in language alluding primarily, but not exclusively, to Isaiah 5 3 , then it s e e m s a reasonable initial assumption that the content of his other 'suffering' sayings should at least b e consonant with this text. If not, then the net m i g h t need to b e cast further afield.
H o w e v e r , if it
could b e s h o w n that M a r k ' s passion predictions consistently betray clear resonances either linguistically a n d / o r conceptually with a given text(s) then very good cause would h a v e to b e given as to w h y that text(s) should not b e taken as determinative for the background of the sayings as a whole. (ii) OT Setting
of Jesus'
Suffering:
The Passion
Predictions
The three passion predictions in M a r k are generally taken to b e 8:31; 9 : 3 1 ; and 1 0 : 3 3 - 3 4 . IJJUXTIV
auTou).
E a c h o n e speaks o f J e s u s ' death (cf. M k 1 0 : 4 5 , 6 o 0 v a i
TTJV
T h e characteristic actions described are, respectively, n a a x c j
T T o X X a , a T T o 6 o K i j i a C a ) , aTTOKTciva), TTotpot8i6o)|ii, ciTTOKT€ivcj,
and
and
\i€Td
\ierd
avioTrwii
rpeig
r\\idpag
TTapa6i6cL)jii, K a T a K p i v a j 0 a v a T a > , CIITTCXICG), C ^ T T T U O ) ,
Tpctg- T | | i € p a c ; dvioTi\\i\
and
(8:31);
(9:31); a n d
naaTvydu
(10:33-34).
Since the M a r k a n J e s u s is undoubtedly speaking o f the one event, w e are justified in treating all three groups together.
A survey o f the appearance
of the same or similar language in the L X X reveals s o m e interesting data. W e have already seen that ndoxu
TToXXa
in M a r k
9:12,
if referring to the
O T at all, is m o s t likely alluding to Isaiah 5 3 . There is nothing to suggest that the s a m e source is not in v i e w in M a r k 8:31. O c c u r r i n g only in the saying in M a r k 8:31,
dTTo6oKiiid£aj
is also found in the citation o f P s a l m
1 1 7 : 2 2 (LXX) in M a r k 1 2 : 1 0 and might well b e an allusion to that p s a l m .
1 6 6
This does not, h o w e v e r , u n d e r m i n e the general influence of Isaiah 5 3 b u t m e r e l y serves to confirm what w e k n o w o f the M a r k a n J e s u s ' use o f the O T e l s e w h e r e : h e is not averse to c o m b i n i n g v a r i o u s texts to m a k e his point.
T h e similarities b e t w e e n Isaiah 5 3 and the t h a n k s g i v i n g
psalm
genre, to w h i c h Psalm 117 (LXX) belongs, only enhances the likelihood o f such c o m b i n a t i o n .
167
A l t h o u g h frequent in the L X X , dTTOKT€ivo) (8:31 and 9:31) d o e s n o t a p p e a r in a n y o f the texts s u g g e s t e d as b a c k g r o u n d s for M a r k 9 : 1 2 b . 1 6 6
Black, ' P a s s i o n ' ; G u n d r y , 4 2 9 , 4 4 6 . S e e e.g. W h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, 132ff, w h o c a t e g o r i s e s I s a 5 3 a s a t h i r d p e r s o n , individual, thanksgiving Psalm. 1 6 7
266
The
New
Exodus
Way
H o w e v e r , the third passion prediction, M a r k 10:33, reiterates the thought b u t reads KaTaKpivoOcuv a u T o v O a v a T o j .
P s a l m 21:16 (LXX)
h a s €ic; xou v
GavctTou K a T T i y a y c c ; \ie and Psalm 117:18, Tt3 9 a v a T a > ou TTap€6u)K€v \i€.
But
again it is apparent that Isaiah 5 3 , e v e n if o n e insists that the l a n g u a g e is m e t a p h o r i c a l , h a s a far greater e m p h a s i s on the ' d e a t h ' of the 'individual' i n v o l v e d (cf. 9 a ' v a T o c ; in vv. 8, 9, 12; L X X ) . ' d e a t h ' is d u e to ' j u d g e m e n t ' explicitly o n l y in Isaiah 53:8
1 6 8
Further, the idea that this
(cf. K a T a K p i v o O c u v in M k 10:33) o c c u r s
( C D B t o T "raitf),
cf. the LXX, K p i c u c ; ) .
1 6 9
'Being h a n d e d o v e r ' to o n e ' s opponents ( T r a p a 6 i 6 a ) n i in 9:31 and 10:33f) continues the judgement t h e m e
1 7 0
and is found in P s a l m 118:121 ( L X X )
w h e r e the psalmist prays that h e might not b e ' h a n d e d o v e r ' to those w h o oppress him.
J e s u s ' p r e d i c t i o n , h o w e v e r , s e e m s to b e h e a d i n g in the
opposite direction.
J . S c h a b e r g has p r o p o s e d that 9:31's T f a p a 6 i 6 o T a i eig
X€ipac; and ji€Ta Tpctc; ruiepas d v a a T r j a € T a i e c h o e s Daniel 7:25, w h e r e the latter's 4'coc; K a i p o u K a i KaipcSv Kai c u e ; r|u.iaouc; K a i p o u c a n m e a n a half ' w e e k ' (cf. D n 9 : 2 7 ) — h e n c e M a r k ' s
[icra
T p c t c ; r\ \ie pag—with
r e s u r r e c t i o n e l e m e n t b e i n g d r a w n from D a n i e l 1 2 : 2 ;
1 7 1
the
a passage which
according to s o m e scholars has strong affinities with Isaiah 5 3 .
1 7 2
S c h a b e r g ' s p r o p o s a l is n o t unattractive—there is e v i d e n c e to s u g g e s t that M a r k also u n d e r s t a n d s J e s u s as ' t r u e I s r a e l ' — a n d h a s an i n h e r e n t p l a u s i b i l i t y as a g e n e r a l p a r a d i g m .
In addition, D a n i e l 3 a n d 6 s e e m
d e s i g n e d to function as p e r s o n a l ' r e s u r r e c t i o n s ' w h i c h a d u m b r a t e
the
national v i n d i c a t i o n o f Israel writ large in the s y m b o l i s m o f the S o M in D a n i e l 7 (cf. t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n m e t a p h o r u s e d in E z e k 3 7 ) .
1 7 3
O n this
reading, a n d taking the overarching t h e m e o f Daniel into account, M a r k ' s J e s u s sees h i m s e l f as the S o M w h o lives out the e x p e r i e n c e o f the saints, that is, Israel, w h o t h e m s e l v e s suffer ]1V vindicated.
3^31 p i D l
pjTTJ?
a n d are then
It h a s b e e n objected that Daniel is c o n c e r n e d w i t h duration
1 6 8
C f . e.g. W h y b r a y , ibid., 9 9 f , w h o , a l t h o u g h d i s p u t i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t literal d e a t h is i n v o l v e d , n e v e r t h e l e s s r e c o g n i s e s t h e l a n g u a g e o f trial a n d i m p r i s o n m e n t . 1 6 9
T h i s is s o e v e n g i v e n t h e d i v e r s e a p p r o a c h e s t a k e n b y e.g. N o r t h , Suffering, W e s t e r m a n n , 2 6 4 ; C l i n e s , Literary, 17i; W h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, 9 9 f ; cf. W a t t s , 2:220ff. 1 7 0
1 7 1
1 7 2
1 7 3
149f; Isaiah,
S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n in M o o , Passion, 92ff. ' P a s s i o n ' , 209ff; cf. C a r a g o u n i s , Son, 1 9 9 . E . g . G i n s b e r g , ' O l d e s t ' ; N i c k e l s b u r g , Resurrection, C f . C o l l i n s , Daniel, 2 7 3 .
24ff; C o l l i n s , Daniel,
385, 393.
OT
Setting
of Jesus'
Suffering:
The Passion
267
Predictions
w h e r e a s M a r k focuses on a p o i n t after the period o f s u f f e r i n g .
174
This is
s o m e w h a t p e d a n t i c since b o t h Daniel and M a r k are ultimately interested in the final v i n d i c a t i o n o f t h o s e w h o suffer.
T h a t the 'after three d a y s '
a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t s w h a t M a r k says e l s e w h e r e
1 7 5
— a l l o w i n g that
he
k n o w s the content of his o w n passion narrative (and m a y therefore see n o c o n t r a d i c t i o n ) — c o u l d b e t a k e n to i n d i c a t e that h e i n t e n d s a D a n i e l l i c allusion o v e r a g a i n s t , for e x a m p l e , H o s e a 6:2 (see b e l o w ) .
This might
perhaps b e supported b y the presence €ic; xstpac;, but since it is only found in M a r k 9:31 s o m e caution might b e in order. At the s a m e time, napa6i6cap.i occurs twice in Isaiah 53 (vv. 6 and 12, L X X ) to d e s c r i b e the ' s e r v a n t ' w h o is ' h a n d e d o v e r ' . m e n t i o n to w h o m ,
1 7 7
1 7 6
T h e text d o e s not
a l t h o u g h this is h a r d l y a p r o b l e m since the n a t u r a l
a s s u m p t i o n is that t h e y are o p p o n e n t s o f the n a t i o n s or Israel o r b o t h . c o n s t i t u t e n o difficulty.
1 7 8
'servant', whether
M a r k ' s t h r e e different g r o u p s
the
therefore
Q u e s t i o n s a b o u t w h o it is that ' h a n d s o v e r ' —
w h e t h e r J u d a s , Y a h w e h as the o n e w h o s t a n d s b e h i n d S c r i p t u r e (cf. K a i TTCJC; y e y p a n T a i in M k 9:12 and 6et in M k 8:31; cf. R o m 8:32), or Pilate (why not all three?)—are ultimately unhelpful since the text does not say and it w o u l d b e u n w i s e to i n v o k e a given subject as a r e a s o n for or against an
1
7
4
1
7
5
1
7
6
1
7
7
1
7
8
G u n d r y , 5 0 6 , w h o a d d s t h a t M a r k ' s ' m e n ' i n t o w h o s e h a n d s J e s u s is g i v e n d o n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e 'king' in D n 7. H o w e v e r , g i v e n t h e D n 7 a l l u s i o n ( s e e a l s o h e r e A l l i s o n , End, 1 2 8 - 4 0 ) , J e s u s ' m e n t i o n o f t h e e l d e r s , c h i e f p r i e s t s , a n d s c r i b e s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y a r e t o b e indentified w i t h t h e 'beast'. T h u s , t h e s t u n n i n g l y i r o n i c i m p l i c a t i o n o f J e s u s ' r e s p o n s e in M k 1 4 : 6 2 (cf. 1 0 : 3 3 ) — i f h e is t h e ' c l o u d r i d i n g ' S o M , w h a t d o e s t h a t m a k e t h e H i g h P r i e s t ? S c h a b e r g , ibid., 2 1 1 , h e r e c i t e s S t r e c k e r , ' P a s s i o n ' , 4 2 9 , w h o n o t e s 1 4 : 5 8 ; 1 5 : 2 9 ; a n d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f M a r k ' s p a s s i o n a c c o u n t w h e n t h e m e t h o d o f G r e e k c o u n t i n g is c o n s i d e r e d . S e e M o o , Passion, 9 2 - 9 6 ; cf. C a r a g o u n i s , Son, 1 9 7 , w h o a l t h o u g h h e is i n t e n t o n e s t a b l i s h i n g a D n 7 b a c k g r o u n d r e c o g n i s e s h e r e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f I s a 5 3 . H o o k e r , Son, 9 4 , a r g u i n g t h a t t h i s is m e r e l y ' t h e n a t u r a l w o r d t o u s e in t h e c o n t e x t ' ( w h i c h m i g h t a l s o b e w h y it w a s u s e d in Isa 5 3 ) , q u e s t i o n s a n y a t t e m p t t o u s e it t o e s t a b l i s h a l l u s i o n s . G r a n t e d . B u t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , if a n a l l u s i o n w a s i n t e n d e d w h a t o t h e r w o r d w o u l d o n e u s e ? G u n d r y ' s c o n t e n t i o n , 5 0 6 , that the omission of 'into h a n d s of ...' disqualifies this p a r a l l e l (cf. C a r a g o u n i s , Son, 1 9 9 ) , v e r y m u c h d e p e n d s o n w h e r e o n e p u t s t h e e m p h a s i s . T h a t M a r k ' s J e s u s h i m s e l f u s e s d i f f e r e n t m o d i f i e r s — e l s ' x ^ p a s avGpojTTwv ( 9 : 3 1 ) b u t T O I S * a p x t € p € u a i v Kai raig y p a u u a T c u a i v ( 1 0 : 3 3 ) — s u g g e s t s t h a t n o t m u c h s t o r e s h o u l d b e p l a c e d o n t h e p r e c i s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e r e c i p i e n t s , w h i c h i m p r e c i s i o n is, b y t h e w a y , n o t all t h a t different f r o m I s a 5 3 . A t l e a s t I s r a e l , W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 5 3 n 9 3 (cf. M i l l e r , ' P r o p h e t i c ' , 79ff; B e g r i c h , Studien, 1 5 3 ; B e u k e n , 'MlSPAT; O r l i n s k y , ' S o - C a l l e d ' , 5 3 f ) b u t in v i e w o f t h e i r s u r p r i s e ( I s a 5 2 : 1 3 f f ) p e r h a p s a l s o t h e n a t i o n s . W h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, 119, understands Babylonian authorities.
268
The
allusion h e r e .
1 7 9
New
Exodus
Way
W h a t is a b u n d a n t l y clear is that the ' s e r v a n t ' is also
'handed o v e r ' to face 'death': something that is not immediately evident in Daniel 7 (but then see D n 3 and 6 ) .
1 8 0
Again, the best option is apparently
Isaiah 5 3 , b u t this o u g h t not b e allowed to rule out a Daniellic influence as well—after all J e s u s ' self-designation is ' S o n o f M a n ' . M a r k 10:33-34, the third and final prediction, e x p a n d s o n the suffering m o r e t h a n a n y o f the others, a d d i n g that the S o M will b e m o c k e d , spat upon, and scourged.
W h i l e n o n e of these terms is found in a n y o f the O T
texts presently u n d e r consideration, it is noteworthy that the last two occur in another ' s e r v a n t ' song, Isaiah 50:6, w h e r e they describe the affliction of the 'servant' (cf. T\\iepag
\idoj\yag
and
cjiTTTuauaTCJv).
1 8 1
Finally, the
\L€jd
Tpeig
d v i a T T i u i is not explicitly found in any o f o u r proposed O T sources
and is often seen as a reference to H o s e a 6:2. O n the other h a n d , there is Schaberg's proposal as discussed above, and both P s a l m 21 (LXX) and Isaiah 5 3 i n d i c a t e a n e x p e c t a t i o n o f d e l i v e r a n c e from d e a t h , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w h e t h e r the latter is interpreted as impending, actual, or m e t a p h o r i c a l . In s u m m a r y , several points can b e m a d e .
182
First, it is a p p a r e n t that any
attempt to isolate o n e and only o n e influence o n J e s u s ' predictions o f his passion is mistaken. A substantial case can b e m a d e for varying degrees of influence from several passages.
S e c o n d , w h i l e it is possible that M a r k ' s
J e s u s is o n e o f the first to see and so develop from Daniel 7 the idea o f a suffering S o M , the conceptual and linguistic data suggest that h e derived the descriptive details o f this suffering from other sources. Third, if o n e is to accept s o m e d e g r e e of congruence b e t w e e n the O T b a c k g r o u n d of M a r k 1
7
9
1
8
0
1
8
1
1
8
2
G u n d r y , 5 0 6 , rejects t h e n o t i o n o f G o d ' h a n d i n g o v e r ' ( a n d t h u s I s a 5 3 ) s i n c e h e o n l y d o e s s o ' o u t o f a n g e r o r a n i m o s i t y ' a n d t h e r e is n o t h i n g like t h a t h e r e . W h i l e o f t e n t r u e , Isa 5 3 : 6 ( L X X ; cf. 5 3 : 1 0 M T , s e e e.g. M o o , Passion, 9 4 f ) d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , m e n t i o n Y a h w e h ' s anger. In t e r m s of G u n d r y ' s a r g u m e n t , the distinctive character of M a r k ' s 'handing over' (i.e. w i t h o u t a n g e r o r m a l i c e ) s e e m s o n l y t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e c a s e f o r a n I s a i a n i c a l l u s i o n . T h e n a t u r e of the fourth beast, the literary proximity of Dn 6, a n d the a p p a r e n t chiastic parallel b e t w e e n D n 3 a n d 6 (Lenglet, 'structure') m i g h t well s u g g e s t that 'being h a n d e d over' implies 'to death'. S e e M o o , Passion, 8 8 f ; a n d o n P s 2 2 in M a r k 1 5 , M a r c u s , Way, 174ff. G u n d r y , 5 7 6 , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e v e r s e d o r d e r o f t h e w o r d s a n d t h e ' r e m a r k a b l e ' o m i s s i o n — s i n c e it a p p e a r s in M k 1 4 : 6 5 — o f t h e m i d d l e t e r m , pamo\iaTa, are g r o u n d s against a n Isa 50:6 ( L X X ) a l l u s i o n . Au contraire, g i v e n t h a t J e s u s h a s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d h i s s u f f e r i n g is in k e e p i n g with the Scriptures, the omission of the middle term m i g h t simply be a case of expecting an i n f o r m e d l i s t e n e r / r e a d e r t o s u p p l y w h a t is m i s s i n g . T h i s is s o e v e n f o r W h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, 79ff, 1 2 0 . N o t e a l s o h e r e , S n a i t h ' s c o m m e n t , ' S t u d y ' , 2 0 7 , t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e ' s e r v a n t ' suffers t h e u l t i m a t e t h r u s t o f t h e s o n g s is his vindication a n d triumph.
The Passion
Predictions
and Mark
269
10:45
9:12 and the passion predictions—and there is n o obvious reason not to d o so—and if the data is considered as a w h o l e , rather than p i e c e m e a l , it is difficult to see h o w Isaiah 53 (cf. also, however, Isa 5 0 : 6 L X X ) should not b e regarded as the most influential background. In other words, e v e n if Jesus is e l u c i d a t i n g t h e i m p l i e d suffering o f the S o M in D a n i e l 7, Isaiah 5 3 a p p a r e n t l y p r o v i d e s the b a s i c q u a r r y for details o f the suffering m o t i f w h i c h is t h e n filled o u t a n d d e v e l o p e d b y a l l u s i o n s to o t h e r t e x t s concerning suffering and v i n d i c a t i o n . (Hi) The Passion
Predictions
183
and Mark
10:45
G r a n t e d this c a s e for the centrality o f Isaiah 53 as b a c k g r o u n d for J e s u s ' predictions o f the details of its purpose—we
o f his future suffering—nothing has yet b e e n said
are n o w in a position to review s o m e o f the arguments
for and against Isaiah 5 3 ' s influence on the text to w h i c h they lead, M a r k 10:45.
Before d o i n g s o , h o w e v e r , it is w e l l to s a y s o m e t h i n g o n t h e
relationship b e t w e e n these findings and the overall M a r k a n context. W e h a v e a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d that M a r k ' s ' W a y ' s e c t i o n , carefully bracketed b y his only t w o 'healing o f sight' miracles, is built a r o u n d the theme of the blindness o f J e s u s ' disciples to the m e a n s b y w h i c h Y a h w e h has chosen to fulfil his Isaianic promises o f a N E : n a m e l y the suffering o f his Messiah. T h e three passion predictions and the disciples' u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g r e s p o n s e s s e r v e to illustrate and u n d e r l i n e the point: Y a h w e h must lead the blind along a path they do not know.
G i v e n this carefully
constructed literary pattern, it is significant that a l t h o u g h M a r k ' s J e s u s three times predicts the fact
o f his suffering, it is only at the conclusion o f
his ' W a y ' section and immediately preceding the final bracketing healingof-sight miracle that w e find any indication o f the purpose of the S o M ; n a m e l y , M a r k 10:45b.
o f the ' c o m i n g '
That 10:45b o u g h t not b e segregated
from the prediction o f 10:32-34 is indicated b y the o t h e r w i s e consistent tripartite s t r u c t u r e o f A ) p r e d i c t i o n ( 8 : 3 1 ; 9 : 3 1 ; 10:32f), B ) failure to understand (8:32-33; 9:32; 10:35-41), and C ) s u b s e q u e n t teaching (8:34-38;
1
8
3
O n t h i s a p p r o a c h , i n p a r t i c u l a r , H a r t m a n n , Prophecy. H o o k e r , Son, 9 5 , r e c o g n i s e s that '... the p r e d i c t i o n s d o c o r r e s p o n d b r o a d l y with the picture of Isa. 5 3 ' . Interestingly, t h e p r i m a r y ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e s a l l u d e d t o in M a r k a r e I s a 4 2 a n d I s a 5 3 — p r e c i s e l y t h o s e w h i c h Tg. Isa identifies w i t h t h e M e s s i a h . In v i e w o f t h e T a r g u m ' s a t t e m p t t o i s o l a t e t h e M e s s i a h f r o m a n y o f I s a 5 3 ' s s u f f e r i n g , it m i g h t b e t h a t t h e initial i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f J e s u s w i t h I s a 4 2 is i n t e n d e d t o s h a r p e n , o n o n e level, t h e l a t e r a l l u s i o n s t o I s a 5 3 in t h e M a r k a n J e s u s ' p r e d i c t i o n s o f h i s m e s s i a n i c sufferings.
270
The New
9:35-37; 1 0 : 4 2 - 4 5 ) .
184
Exodus
Way
In terms of Markan literary technique, this pattern of
progression c u l m i n a t i n g in an explanation is not dissimilar to the build up to the Beelzebul controversy and the explanation contained therein. Consequently,
while
verse
4 5 a , ou
K
T]X0€V 6 i a K o v n 9 f i
6 i a K o v f i a a i , is o b v i o u s l y o f a p i e c e w i t h the i m m e d i a t e l y material, verse 4 5 b , 6 o 0 v a i
TT\V 4 J U X T J V
auTou
goes b e y o n d the concerns of the present c o n t e x t .
185
d XXd
foregoing
X u T p o v dvTl n o X X c S v ,
clearly
Not only is J e s u s ' point
well m a d e w i t h o u t it but it constitutes a shift in horizon. doing here?
vai
S o w h a t is it
I suggest, first, that verse 4 5 b , b y neatly s u m m a r i s i n g the
thrust of the preceding
passion
predictions,
s e r v e s to r e f o c u s
the
discussion b a c k on the over-riding concern of the ' W a y ' section: the S o M has c o m e 6o0voci T T | V
4>UXTJV a u T o u .
S e c o n d , and m o r e importantly, at the
climax of the w h o l e section—it is immediately followed b y the concluding granting-of-sight miracle—verse 4 5 b introduces at last the reason for the passion: ...
X u T p o v dv-rl TTOXXOJV.
F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , M a r k 10:45b
functions as the final e x p l a n a t o r y c a p s t o n e to M a r k ' s ' W a y ' s e c t i o n .
1 8 6
This, it m i g h t b e noted, is entirely congruent with the literary function o f I s a i a h 5 3 w i t h i n I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 w h i c h , as h a s a l r e a d y b e e n indicates the w a y in which Israel's I N E is to b e a c c o m p l i s h e d . (iv) Mark
suggested,
187
10:45 and Isaiah 53
In the light o f the above, one might b e forgiven for e x p e c t i n g to find in M a r k 10:45 an allusion to Isaiah 53 since the latter not only links suffering with redemption of o t h e r s
1 8 8
but apparently indicates the w a y in w h i c h
the hopes o f the I N E are fully to b e realised. H o w e v e r , as observed earlier, a n u m b e r o f scholars have demonstrated that an Isaiah 53 allusion is not as straightforward
as might b e s u p p o s e d .
189
A l t h o u g h this ground has
b e e n well w o r k e d over, in the light o f the a b o v e it s e e m s w o r t h w h i l e to
1
8
4
See C h a p t e r 5 , p. 1 2 4 , above. 185 p g H o o k e r , Jesus, 7 5 , w h o c o r r e c t l y s t r e s s e s t h e n e e d f o r c o n t e x t b u t t h e n r e s t r i c t s it m e r e l y t o t h e i m m e d i a t e p e r i c o p e , v v . 42ff. It is a l s o , t h e r e f o r e , m o r e t h a n a ' t o p i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n ' , pace, F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 1 7 . a
1
8
6
1
8
8
1
8
9
c
e
e
T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a p p e a r s t o u n d e r l i e t h e u s e o f 6 € i in M k 8:31 (cf. 9 : 1 2 ; 1 4 : 2 1 , 4 9 ; a l s o B a y e r , Predictions, 2 0 1 f f ) — i n l i t e r a r y t e r m s 8:31 a n d 1 0 : 4 5 r e s p e c t i v e l y i n t r o d u c e a n d c o n c l u d e t h e ' p a s s i o n / s u f f e r i n g ' m o t i f in t h e ' W a y ' s e c t i o n a n d m a y t h e r e f o r e b e u n d e r s t o o d as interpreting each other. 187 A g a i n s e e t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y in C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 5 . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n t h e r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s o f Isa 5 3 b e l o w . T y p i c a l l y B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' ; H o o k e r , Jesus, 74ff; G r i m m , 2 3 5 - 4 6 .
Mark
reassess the arguments. into two u n i t s
1 9 0
10:45 and Isaiah
271
53
Since m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s tend to b r e a k the verse
w e will tackle it accordingly.
W i t h regard to verse 4 5 a , 6 uloc;
TOU
dv9pojTrou
OUK TJXGCV
6iaKovr)6fjvai
dXXd 6 i a K o v f j a a i , it w a s formerly held that the service envisaged alluded to that o f the 'servant'.
H o w e v e r , it has since been argued that although
the root 12V is rendered in the LXX b y a great variety o f G r e e k w o r d s — particularly SoOXoc; and
SOUXCUCJ
in Isaiah 40-55, while ualg
is preferred o f
the 'servant'—6iaKovea) is not a m o n g them. In fact, 6iaKov€a> is u n k n o w n in the LXX and although used in the N T it is urged that it there concerns domestic s e r v i c e .
1 9 1
Further, Peter S t u h l m a c h e r h a s argued that rather
than e m a n a t i n g from the ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e s , S i a K o v c a ) d e r i v e s entirely from an earlier w o r d p l a y o n the roots rntti/tthtti
192
and this in 'unmistak 193
able c o n t r a s t ' to the 'ruling S o M ' tradition in D a n i e l 7 and 1
Enoch.
A n d in a n y c a s e , as H o o k e r h a s pointed out, in Isaiah the ' s e r v a n t ' s ' service is directed toward G o d whereas in M a r k others are in v i e w . Clearly, the syntax o f the sentence itself is prima facie
1 9 4
e v i d e n c e that the
service motif stands in contrast to expectations of a ruling S o M — a l t h o u g h it should b e noted that Daniel 7:13-14 reads X a T p e u o j (Theod.) or (Orig.).
1 9 5
6OUX€UCJ
B u t this raises the m o r e fundamental question: h o w is o n e to
explain the predication o f 'ministering' to an otherwise exalted and ruling SoM?
W h i l e there is an implication o f suffering in Daniel 7, the idea o f
self-giving service is n o t present.
C . K . B a r r e t t argued that the oirdXXa
contrast in 10:45 arises out of the 'circumstances of the ministry o f J e s u s ' w h o as the S o M n e v e r t h e l e s s c o m e s in ' h u m i l i t y to s e r v e ' .
1 9 6
B u t this
view fails to take seriously the thorough-going O T b a c k g r o u n d to M a r k ' s g o s p e l ( n o t a b l y l : 2 f ) a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' selfunderstanding
in 9:12 w h i c h together s u g g e s t that the d u a l c o n c e p t o f
suffering-service is derived from the O T . Perhaps a w a r e o f this, Barrett 1
9
0
1 9 1
1
9
2
1
9
4
1
9
5
1
9
6
S e e t h e l i t e r a t u r e in fn. 1 4 3 . H o o k e r , Servant,
7 4 ; cf. B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 4 .
P r o p o s e d b y D e l i t z s c h , HebNT, a n d D a l m a n , Jesus-Jeshua, 1 1 8 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; cf. Emerton, 'Aramaic'. 193 ' V i c a r i o u s l y ' , 2 1 ; cf. D n 7 : 1 0 ; 1 Enoch 4 5 : 3 - 4 ; 6 1 : 8 - 9 ; 6 2 : 2 . C i t i n g T h e i s o h n , Richter, 15ff, o n t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f 1 Enoch 4 6 : l f o n D n 7 : 9 - 1 0 , 1 3 - 1 4 . H o o k e r , Servant, 74f, 1 8 5 n 6 ; f o l l o w e d , a p p a r e n t l y , b y G u n d r y , 5 9 1 . S t u h l m a c h e r ' s o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s , 1 Enoch 4 5 : 3 - 4 ; 6 1 : 8 - 9 ; a n d 6 2 : 2 ( ' V i c a r i o u s l y ' , 2 1 ) a r e , a s f a r a s I a m a w a r e , n o t e x t a n t in G r e e k . ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 9 , a p p a r e n t l y r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e ' l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e ' (i.e. I s a 5 3 ) t h e o r y o f J a c k s o n a n d L a k e , Beginnings, 1.1, 3 8 1 - 9 2 .
272
The
New Exodus
Way
also notes that the concept o f ' s e r v i c e ' is found in m a n y other places in the O T and lists n u m e r o u s O T characters as e x a m p l e s . H o w e v e r , these figures a r e all h i s t o r i c a l (i.e. n o n - e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ) a n d t h e y are ' a l l d e s c r i b e d as God's
servants' (my e m p h a s i s ) .
1 9 7
In o t h e r w o r d s , his e x a m p l e s d o not
b e l o n g to t h e s c h e m a o f I s r a e l ' s future h o p e s , n o r d o t h e y e x e m p l i f y service o f t h e kind m e n t i o n e d here: a 'suffering' service directed toward 'the m a n y ' (i.e. not G o d ) and, anticipating verse 4 5 b , characterised b y dying. M o r e o v e r , M a r k h a s clearly established a c o n t e x t in w h i c h his story o f J e s u s and particularly his ' W a y ' section is to b e understood. Chapters
o f this b o o k h a v e sought
to s h o w
that
T h e preceding
this context, not
s u r p r i s i n g l y in v i e w o f the role o f i d e o l o g y in s h a p i n g c o m m u n i t y selfunderstanding, is the Isaianic h o p e o f a N e w E x o d u s . In addition, the I N E rubric affords
a considerable degree of consanguinity within
Mark.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , if w e are to take M a r k ' s context seriously, then in relation to M a r k 10:45 w e n e e d to ask if there are a n y O T figures w h o are associated with the biblical expectation of a N E deliverance and w h o could be described as w i l l i n g l y a s s u m i n g the position o f suffering ' s e r v i c e ' t o w a r d others?
( W e already k n o w the ' s e r v i c e ' includes suffering a n d e v e n death
b e c a u s e o f M a r k 9:12 and the three passion predictions.) Everything s o far points p r i m a r i l y to the Isaianic 'servant' o f chapter 5 3 (and chapter 5 0 ) . But
1 9 8
H o o k e r a n d Barrett d e n y a n Isaiah 5 3 b a c k g r o u n d b e c a u s e the termi
nology a n d the recipients o f the service differ: Isaiah 5 3 has the 6 o u \ - stem, but Mark
SiaKoveco,
a n d in Isaiah 5 3 the 'servant' serves G o d b u t in M a r k
the service is directed towards others. T h e two objections are related. First, t h e c a t e g o r i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t y p e s o f s e r v i c e is m o r e apparent than real. T h e LXX states that the 'servant' also serves the ' m a n y ' (53:11: €u 6 o u \ € u o v T a
TTOAXOIC;),
o b e d i e n c e to G o d ( 1 4 : 3 6 ) .
1 9 9
w h i l e in M a r k J e s u s ' d e a t h is a l s o in
T h e 'servant' in Isaiah is primarily described
in terms o f his relationship to Y a h w e h b e c a u s e that is the v e r y m a t t e r at issue w i t h J a c o b - I s r a e l . T h e nation o u g h t to b e Y a h w e h ' s servant b u t has failed miserably and h e n c e the need for a faithful 'servant' o f Y a h w e h . But this, as Isaiah 53:11 (LXX)
1 9 7
indicates, is scarcely intended to i m p l y that the
Ibid. C f . W o l f f , Jesaja, 6 5 . O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f i n t e g r a t i n g v a r i o u s t h e m e s f r o m t h e different ' S o n g s ' , a n d o n a s p e c t s o f t h e v a r i o u s ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e s b e i n g s e e n b y s o m e J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s a s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a n d m e s s i a n i c , s e e fn. 8 6 . Cf. F r a n c e , 'Servant', 34n40. 1 9 8
1 9 9
Mark
'servant'
offers
no
10:45 and Isaiah
service to others.
273
53
After
all, this
'servant'
is
c o m m i s s i o n e d not o n l y to restore Jacob-Israel but also to b e a light to the nations (e.g. Isa 4 2 : l b - 4 , 6bf; 49:6, 8 b , 9a; 5 3 : 1 2 ) .
2 0 0
T h e two types of service
are s i m p l y different facets o f the o n e reality: to b e Y a h w e h ' s ' s e r v a n t ' m e a n s 'to serve the m a n y ' . This leads to the matter o f terminology.
In the N T
SiaKoveco
is not in
fact restricted solely to strictly domestic service (cf. Matt 25:42ff) and e v e n here in M a r k 10 the context concerns political domination (vv. 37, 42) with Jesus having m o r e in m i n d than merely serving at table (v. 4 5 b ) . to the point, as Barrett rightly notes,
6iaKov€0)
2 0 1
More
and its c o g n a t e s a p p e a r
either not at all or only rarely (and late?) in the L X X (e.g. 1 M a c e 11:58; 4 Mace 9 : 1 7 ) .
2 0 2
B u t then h o w d o e s o n e e x p l a i n the t e r m ' s
relatively
' s u d d e n ' and widespread use in the N T ? It appears that either the
6ouX-
or
6iaKov-
stem, or both, had b y N T times u n d e r g o n e a semantic shift w i t h
6IO:KOV-
taking o v e r s o m e o f the former's functions.
the possibility that b y N T times
SiaKovcw
This e v i d e n c e raises
w a s a viable, and in s o m e cases
perhaps even a preferable, rendering of the L X X ' s 6 o u X € u ' a ) .
2 0 3
R e t u r n i n g to M a r k 10:45, the Semitic parallelism b e t w e e n M a r k 10:43 and 4 4 m e r e l y tells us w h a t w e h a v e already suspected: 6ouXoc;
6IO:KOVOC;
are c l o s e l y r e l a t e d a n d m i g h t in s o m e c a s e s b e r e g a r d e d
synonyms.
2 0 4
But w h y then
6iaKov€cj
strophe o f v e r s e 4 3 .
as
in verse 4 5 ? Higgins suggested that
it w a s influenced b y v e r s e 43 s u c h that 2 0 5
and
SiaKovfiaai
e c h o e s the p r i m a r y
If so, then the choice could h a v e b e e n determined
b y s o m e sort o f ' s a n d w i c h ' motif
(6iaKovoc;
- SoOXoc; -
6iaKovea))
and, what-
200 W a t t s , 'Consolation', 5 0 - 5 6 , a n d the literature cited therein. In r e g a r d to the t e x t s c i t e d , it n e e d s t o b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t first c e n t u r y r e a d e r s w o u l d n o t b e e n g a g e d in a c r i t i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t e x t , a s is t h e c a s e in, e.g.. N o r t h , Suffering. S e e B e y e r , TDNT, 2.82ff, 8 8 - 8 9 . ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 4 ; cf. H o o k e r , Servant, 7 4 . H i s c a s e w o u l d b e s t r o n g e r if t h e 6 i a K o v s t e m h a d b e e n w i d e l y u s e d in t h e L X X b u t n o t in t h e s o - c a l l e d S e r v a n t S o n g s . M a r k ' s c h o i c e could then with m o r e w a r r a n t b e read as a m o v e a w a y from the Isaianic 'servant'. T h a t S y m m a c h u s t a k e s n e i t h e r o p t i o n b u t u s e s AotTpcuo) in I s a 5 3 : 1 1 o n l y u n d e r l i n e s the fact t h a t s e m a n t i c fields w e r e i n d e e d shifting (cf. J e r 8:2 in A c t s 7 : 4 2 ) . T h e r e a s o n / s f o r t h i s is / a r e difficult t o d i s c e r n . I n a d d i t i o n t o d i a c h r o n i c f a c t o r s , t h e r e m i g h t a l s o h a v e b e e n s y n c h r o n i c c o n c e r n s , s u c h a s c u l t u r a l issues. E . g . t h e L X X w a s p r i m a r i l y for J e w s for w h o m t h e i d e a o f s u b j u g a t i o n in 6 0 0 X 0 ? m i g h t h a v e b e e n a c c e p t a b l e (in r e l i g i o u s s e t t i n g s ) , w h e r e a s for G e n t i l e s e i t h e r s u c h c o n n o t a t i o n s m i g h t h a v e b e e n l e s s a c c e p t a b l e o r , p e r h a p s m o r e likely, 6 i a K o v o s o f f e r e d a m o r e n u a n c e d s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e , cf. B e y e r , TDNT, 2 . 8 1 , f o l l o w e d b y W e i s e r , EDNT, 1.302:2. 2 0 1
2 0 2
2 0 3
,
2 0 4
2 0 5
>
F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 3 4 . O n s y n o n y m s s e e , S i l v a , Biblical, Son, 4 2 .
120-29.
274
The New
Exodus
Way
ever the literary purpose, M a r k ' s 6 i a K o v € c j would b e of less significance in d i s a l l o w i n g an Isaiah 53 allusion. certain.
W h i l e p o s s i b l e , this p r o p o s a l is not
A n o t h e r r e a s o n m i g h t arise from the b a l a n c e d a c t i v e - p a s s i v e
syntax o f t h e sentence which in the case o f the passive e l e m e n t naturally excludes the use of
6OUX€UOJ
since it does not form the p a s s i v e .
206
If so, the
argument from different terminology again falls to the ground. H o w e v e r , there is one further consideration.
Although
6I<XKOV€G)
and
SouXfcucj (and their substantives) are near s y n o n y m s (or at least contigu ous),
2 0 7
there appears to b e a tendency in the N T to use o n e or the other to
e m p h a s i s e different aspects o f the s a m e individual's service. For example, Paul largely uses the
stem w h e n h e is e m p h a s i s i n g his ' s e r v i c e ' in
6iaKov
Christ oriented towards others, but uses 6ouX- w h e n discussing his 'service' oriented t o w a r d C h r i s t .
2 0 8
Granted this is a trend and not a fixed rule, it
nevertheless suggests that different terms can b e used o f the s a m e service depending on what facet o f that service is in view. M a r k 10:45's
6iaKov€0)
might reflect this tendency and thus constitute a m o r e n u a n c e d allusion to the 'servant' w h i c h e m p h a s i s e s that aspect o f his general ' s e r v i c e ' toward G o d that results specifically in service toward others as per Isaiah 53:11. In turning to the second section, verse 45b, X u T p o v dvT\
TTOXXCJV,
KOC!
6o0vai
TT\V
v
ty\*x*\
«UTOU
the q u e s t i o n o f linguistic parallels m u s t again b e
p r e c e d e d b y that o f the origin o f the central idea.
O n c e m o r e M a r k 9:12
forces us b a c k , n o t to the M a c c a b e a n m a r t y r s or to G r a e c o - R o m a n or rabbinical b a c k g r o u n d s but to the O T . W h e r e in the O T is there any such general c o n c e p t o f a ' s e r v i n g ' figure, in an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l context, w h o gives his life for 'the m a n y ' ?
It is immediately obvious that the notion o f
suffering, e v e n to the point o f death, b e c a u s e o f (or for) o t h e r s ' sins and specifically as a m e a n s to their restoration, is not a c o m m o n o n e in the O T . 2
0
6
2
0
7
2
0
8
H i g g i n s , Sow, 4 2 n l ; B A G D , 2 0 5 .
S e e o n t h i s t e r m i n o l o g y , a g a i n , S i l v a , Biblical, 1 2 0 - 2 9 . R e s p e c t i v e l y e.g. R o m 13:4; 15:8; 2 C o r 3:6; 5 : 1 8 (cf. 1 T i m 4 : 6 ) , a n d R o m 1 4 : 1 8 ; 1 6 : 1 8 ; a n d 1 T h e s s 1:9 (cf. P a u l ' s s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n s in R o m 1:1; P h i l 1:1; e t c . ) . S e e f u r t h e r G a l 4 : 8 ; M t 6:24 (par.); A c t s 20:19. T h e only possible e x c e p t i o n s m i g h t b e 2 C o r 11:23 a n d 2 C o r 4:5 ( b u t e v e n h e r e this is 'for J e s u s ' s a k e ' ; cf. 1 C o r 9 : 1 9 ) b u t t h e l a t t e r is c l e a r l y r h e t o r i c a l (cf. G a l 1:10), w h i l e t h e f o r m e r s e e m s b e s t u n d e r s t o o d a s c o m p a r i n g h a r d s h i p s e n d u r e d in o r d e r t o m i n i s t e r t o t h e C o r i n t h i a n s ; cf. B A G D , ad loc. O f S t u h l m a c h e r ' s r e f e r e n c e s in J o s e p h u s , Ant. 1 8 . 2 8 0 r e p r e s e n t s a p a g a n ' s v i e w o f J e w i s h s e r v i c e t o t h e L a w ; in 1 0 . 7 2 ' s e r v i c e ' is n o t e d a s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e p e o p l e ; in 5 . 3 4 4 S a m u e l ' s ' s e r v i c e o f G o d ' is a m b i g u o u s ; a n d 8 . 3 5 4 d e s c r i b e s t h e s e r v i c e o f E l i s h a t o Elijah. H o w e v e r , it m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t e.g. J o h n 1 2 : 2 6 c o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t r e n d is n o t u n i f o r m , a n d t h e r e a r e t i m e s w h e n b e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e of t h e g e n i t i v e ( e . g . o b j e c t i v e o r s u b j e c t i v e ) it is difficult t o tell.
Mark
10:45 and Isaiah
275
53
In fact, Isaiah 5 3 , g r a n t e d that certain e l e m e n t s o f its interpretation are problematic, is the foremost c o n t e n d e r .
209
T h e I N E context o f M a r k and
the strong likelihood of an Isaiah 5 3 b a c k g r o u n d to b o t h M a r k 9:12 and the passion predictions m a k e an allusion to it here even m o r e likely. A s Barrett recognises, it is a b s u r d to d e n y a m e a s u r e o f between 6o0vai
TT\V
i\i\ix?\v
auTou
qualifies this b y noting that iWS3
and Isaiah 53:12.
parallelism
But he i m m e d i a t e l y
Hli?n is u n i q u e in the O T and that
2 0 9 w h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, has a r g u e d at length and with s o m e vigour that vicarious s u f f e r i n g is n o t in v i e w in I s a 5 3 , cf. O r l i n s k y , ' S o - C a l l e d ' ; W i l l i a m s , Death, 1 0 7 - 1 1 . His c a s e — a n d m a n y of his p o i n t s a r e w e l l m a d e — i s t o o detailed t o discuss a t length h e r e . Nevertheless, s o m e points m a y be noted. A) W . places considerable weight on the supposi tion t h a t t h e e x i l e s a r e p r e s e n t l y s u f f e r i n g for their sins, a n d s o t h e ' s e r v a n t ' c a n n o t b e s a i d t o suffer in t h e i r p l a c e ( e . g . 3 0 , 5 8 , 6 1 , e t c . ) . T h i s a s s u m e s t h a t t h e ' s e r v a n t ' s ' s u f f e r i n g is r e l a t e d t o I s r a e l ' s p r e - e x i l i c iniquities. B u t if I s a 4 0 : 1 - 2 a n n o u n c e s Y a h w e h ' s f o r g i v e n e s s o f the past, then as I h a v e a r g u e d (Watts, 'Consolation') the fundamental problem facing Israel n o w is h e r p r e s e n t o b d u r a c y (e.g. I s a 42:18ff; 4 8 : 1 - 1 6 ) w h i c h h a s n o t o n l y c a u s e d h e r t o reject Y a h w e h ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f s a l v a t i o n b u t a l s o p r o l o n g s h e r suffering (e.g. Isa 5 6 - 6 6 ) . It is o n a c c o u n t o f this p r e s e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n t h a t t h e ' s e r v a n t ' suffers; cf. B e u k e n , 'MlSPAT, 27. B) a s all a g r e e , in a d d i t i o n t o o u r i m p e r f e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f H e b r e w t e n s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s r e g a r d s p o e t r y , m a n y o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n s in this c h a p t e r a r e u n i q u e a n d q u i t e difficult, n o t least the all-important 53:10a. T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e w r i t e r , e v e n if u s i n g o l d e r terminology, might be seeking to give expression to n e w ideas—something that W . refuses t o c o u n t e n a n c e . E . g . o n t h e b a s i s o f 5 9 : 1 6 a n d 1 S a m 1 7 , W . r e j e c t s t h e i d e a t h a t iras* i n 5 3 : 1 2 c c o u l d m e a n t o i n t e r v e n e b y d y i n g o r b e i n g h u m i l i a t e d , s i n c e it ' w o u l d n o t c o n v e y t o t h o s e w h o h e a r d it t h e i d e a o f a m a n w h o o b t a i n e d d e l i v e r a n c e f o r h i s p e o p l e n o t b y v i c t o r y o v e r t h e e n e m y b u t b y b e i n g h i m s e l f d e f e a t e d a n d w o u n d e d o r killed', 7 3 . B u t this is p r e c i s e l y t h e p o i n t . T h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e s p e a k e r s is e x a c t l y s u c h t h a t t h e i r s a l v a t i o n h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d in a n u t t e r l y u n e x p e c t e d w a y , i.e. t h e s u f f e r i n g a n d ' d e a t h ' o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' . F u r t h e r m o r e , h i s ' d e a t h ' is n o t t h e e n d , h e is ' r e s u r r e c t e d ' — j u s t a s I s r a e l w i l l b e if s h e a d h e r e s t o Y a h w e h ' s w o r d (cf. E z e k 3 7 ) . W h a t if Y a h w e h ' s m e t h o d o f a c h i e v i n g h i s v i c t o r y in 5 9 : 1 6 e n t a i l s h i s u s i n g t h e ' d e a t h ' o f h i s ' s e r v a n t ' ? A f t e r a l l , t h e i d e a s o f sacrifice a n d Y a h w e h ' s v i c t o r y w e r e a l r e a d y integral to Israel's deliverance in the E x o d u s o n w h i c h p a t t e r n I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 is p r e d i c a t e d , cf. E x 3 2 : 3 0 . C ) t h i s l e a d s t o W . ' s r e j e c t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e a d m i t t e d l y difficult u s e o f DfflHt in I s a 5 3 : 1 0 a c o u l d b e v i c a r i o u s b e c a u s e t h e J e w s f o u n d t h e i d e a o f ' h u m a n s a c r i f i c e ' u n t h i n k a b l e , a n d t h a t t h e e f f i c a c y o f a n DE?K w a s in a n y c a s e q u i t e l i m i t e d a n d c e r t a i n l y n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e s i n s t h a t l e d t o t h e e x i l e ( 6 5 ) . B u t is I s a 5 3 s p e a k i n g a b o u t h u m a n sacrifice a n y m o r e t h a n , s a y , 2 M a c e 7:37f; 4 M a c e 6:27ff, 1 7 : 2 2 ; 1 8 : 4 ( i n d e e d , o n e m i g h t w e l l a s k w h e r e t h e i d e a s e x p r e s s e d in M a c c a b e e s o r i g i n a t e d ; cf. e.g. F i s h b a n e , Biblical, 4 9 3 , on the probable influence of Isa 5 3 o n Dn); m. Sanh. 6:2; Lev. Rab. 2 0 : 7 ; o r Sipre Dt. 3 3 3 ? O r is it s i m p l y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e ' s e r v a n t ' s ' i n n o c e n t s u f f e r i n g w a s a c c e p t e d b y Y a h w e h a s (i.e. in t h e p l a c e of) a n 'DfflH'? W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f a n D2m, a g a i n it is n o t e v i d e n t t h a t ' h i g h h a n d e d ' p r e - e x i l i c s i n s a r e in v i e w a n d in a n y c a s e a h u m a n D2?K g o e s far b e y o n d a n y t h i n g p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n . O n e p o i n t is a g r e e d : t h e ' s e r v a n t ' is suffering n o t for h i s o w n sins, b u t b e c a u s e o f t h o s e o f o t h e r s . B u t is t h i s in a n y w a y r e l a t e d t o J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s s a l v a t i o n ? W . , 1 2 6 , o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e ' s p e a k e r s in I s a . 5 3 : 4 - 6 t h u s a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s h a v e b e e n r e s t o r e d t o a full s t a t e o f w e l l - b e i n g in c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s u n d e r g o n e b y t h e S e r v a n t ' . T h e ' s e r v a n t ' s ' s u f f e r i n g s a n d d e l i v e r a n c e a r e i n s t r u m e n t a l in t h e s p e a k e r s ' s a l v a t i o n a n d restoration. A g a i n s u c h a v i e w is c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h a t m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r w h e r e I s a 5 3 d e s c r i b e s t h e w a y in w h i c h J a c o b - I s r a e l is t o e x p e r i e n c e h e r ' r e s u r r e c t i o n ' .
276
The New
Exodus
Way
1
rn/2 ? 'is generally excised b y editors on metrical g r o u n d s ' .
2 1 0
However,
Barrett's c a v e a t s are hardly telling. W h a t e v e r the preferences o f m o d e r n editors, there is n o textual e v i d e n c e for an alternative r e a d i n g and it is clear that the G r e e k versions and Tg. Isaiah reflect the M T . It is, therefore, exceedingly doubtful if M a r k or his audience w o u l d have b e e n meditating o n an excised text. A s for uniqueness, this in itself is of n o c o n s e q u e n c e — w h a t else d o e s one call singularly new ideas, and h o w does understanding g r o w w i t h o u t n e w ideas?—except p e r h a p s to m a k e the idea e v e n m o r e striking a n d therefore allusions to it m o r e readily r e c o g n i s e d . 6o0vai
TTJV
^UXTJV
auTou
Further,
constitutes a close parallel to a n o t h e r
Isaianic expression itt?S3 ... •'•ton ( 5 3 : 1 0 ) .
211
unique
M o r e importantly, this phrase
does not o c c u r alone. It is not merely the giving o f a life, b u t rather giving o n e ' s life as a XuTpov
dvTi
TTOXXGSV
that Jesus has in view.
Barrett h a s argued that not only is XuTpov never found in the L X X as a sacrificial term, b e i n g instead concerned with c o m p e n s a t i o n , but there is n o evidence that XuTpov and DgJM were ever c o n n e c t e d .
212
Barrett proposes
that the idea o f the H e b r e w root 1 D D lies behind J e s u s ' u s e of X u T p o v .
2 1 3
H e cites rabbinic e x a m p l e s (b. Qidd. 3 1 b ; m. Sank. 2 . 1 ; Est. Rab. 13a; m. Neg. 2.1) and suggests that behind these conventional expressions o f piety lies the e x a m p l e o f the martyrs (2 Mace. 7:37f; 4 Mace 6:27ff; 17:22; 1 8 : 4 ) ,
214
and
earlier still the offer o f M o s e s (Ex 32:30) w h ic h in later rabbinic tradition concerning M o s e s ' subsequent death (Dt 34:5-8) is seen as an atonement for the sin o f the golden calf or that at Peor (cf. b. Sota 1 4 a ) . o f devotion w h i c h informs M a r k 1 0 : 4 5 .
2 1 5
It is this concept
2 1 6
But, again, the difficulty with the M a c c a b e a n martyrs is that they lie outside M a r k ' s O T .
2
1
0
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
3
T h e case o f M o s e s is m o r e interesting.
H e r e is an
' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 5 . F o r H o o k e r , 2 4 8 , ' t h e s e w o r d s m e a n little m o r e t h a n . . . "he g a v e u p t h e g h o s t ' " . T r u e , b u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this o b s e r v a t i o n is u n c l e a r , s i n c e w h a t m a t t e r s is c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n c l u s t e r s o f s e m a n t e m e s , n o t t h e m e a n i n g o f single e l e m e n t s . F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 3 4 , c i t i n g t h e V u l g a t e ' s e v e n c l o s e r r e n d e r i n g ; M o o , Passion, 122ff. B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , d o e s n o t d i s c u s s this possibility. ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 5f. Cf. M k 1 0 : 4 5 in D e l i t z s c h , HebNT. ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 12f; cf. L o h s e , Martyrer, 38-112. ' R a n s o m ' , 22f; s e e J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 4 . 8 5 4 ; cf. P i p e r , ' U n c h a n g i n g ' , 1 9 . B a r r e t t , ' R a n s o m ' ; cf. L o h s e , Martyrer, 113-203, according to w h o m the application of Isa 5 3 to Christ's d e a t h w a s m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h Jewish m a r t y r o l o g y ; see Hengel, Atonement, 60ff, b u t a l s o h i s c a u t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r e r a n d m a r t y r - p r o p h e t motifs. 2
1
4
2
1
5
2
1
6
Mark
10:45 and Isaiah
277
53
E x o d u s setting w h e r e salvation is jeopardised b y the people's rebellion and M o s e s , to rectify the situation, offers to m a k e ' a t o n e m e n t ' for t h e m .
2 1 7
G i v e n Barrett's rejection o f Isaiah 5 3 , largely b e c a u s e o f the absence o f sufficiently c l o s e linguistic parallels, his s u g g e s t i o n is s u r p r i s i n g
since
aside from the v e r b — M a r k has the noun—there are n o linguistic points o f contact w i t h E x o d u s 3 2 .
E v e n this c o n n e c t i o n is p r o b l e m a t i c , h o w e v e r ,
since a l t h o u g h the s u b s t a n t i v e "133 is rendered in the L X X b y X u T p o v , it appears that the verb 1 3 3 w a s not translated b y X u T p d o ) .
2 1 8
Further, it is
not clear that M o s e s offers his life to facilitate idolatrous Israel's continued Exodus journey.
T h e r e is an e l e m e n t o f b a r g a i n i n g — i f y o u will n o t
forgive then b l o t m e out o f y o u r b o o k — b u t this could easily b e identifi cation instead o f substitution. thrust o f M a r k 9:12 and 10:45.
E x o d u s 32:30ff hardly explains the explicit O n the other hand, the story m i g h t h a v e
inspired a trajectory o f reflection for another p r o p h e t w h o w a s likewise struggling with the p r o b l e m o f an idolatrous Jacob-Israel on the threshold of a later E x o d u s .
2 1 9
The strong Isaianic colouring of the
passion
predictions and M a r k 9:12 point us again to this very situation. U n l i k e Barrett, H o o k e r is a w a r e o f the significant p l a c e o f XuTpoo) Isaiah.
A l t h o u g h it generally renders
in
(a similar relationship o b t a i n s
b e t w e e n XuTpov / XuTpa>aic; and n*?K2) it is primarily related to the original E x o d u s (Ex 6:6; 15:16; D e u t 7:8; 9:26; Isa 43:1; M i c 6:4), to the long-awaited return from E x i l e (Isa 5 2 : 3 ; 62:12; M i c 4 : 1 0 ; J e r 15:21; 3 8 ( 3 1 ) : 1 1 ) , and is especially used for the N E activity o f Y a h w e h in Isaiah (35:9; 41:14; 4 3 : 1 , 1 4 ; 44:22-24; 5 2 : 3 ; 62:12; 6 3 : 9 ; cf. r n s in 5 1 : 1 1 ) .
2 2 0
But, although granting the
existence o f ' c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e to justify the linking o f XuTpov with ... the e x p e c t e d r e d e m p t i o n o f Israel b y Y a h w e h ' , this c a n n o t b e e x t e n d e d to
2
1
7
S e e f u r t h e r , C h i l d s , Exodus, 5 7 1 ; D u r h a m , Exodus, 4 3 2 f . 1 c o u l d d i s c o v e r n o i n s t a n c e in H a t c h a n d R e d p a t h , 2 . 8 9 0 . O n M o s e s a n d t h e ' s e r v a n t ' , cf. B e n t z e n , Messias, 64ff, c i t e d in D a v i e s , Sermon, 117i; von W a l d o w , ' M e s s a g e ' , 2 8 4 ; W o o d s , 'Jesus', 22f, 4 8 , citing L a m p e , 'Holy'; a n d n o w e s p e c i a l l y t h e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f H u g e n b e r g e r , ' S e r v a n t ' , 129ff. T h e r e is a l s o t h e s t r o n g O T t r a d i t i o n a s c r i b i n g t h e title ' s e r v a n t o f G o d ' t o M o s e s ( e . g . E x 1 4 : 3 1 ; N u 12:7f; i n J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5 . 6 6 3 , cf. 6 8 1 ) . C o n c e r n i n g t h e l a t e r r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l s c i t e d a b o v e o n D t 3 4 : 5 - 8 , it is difficult t o tell w h e t h e r this t h e o l o g i s i n g o n M o s e s ' d e a t h is a r e s p o n s e e i t h e r t o C h r i s t i a n i t y o r t h e d e m i s e o f t h e T e m p l e (i.e. a n a l o g o u s t o t h e r i s e o f A q e d a h t h e o l o g y , Davies a n d Chilton, ' A q e d a h ' ) o r a r e a n i n d e p e n d e n t reflection o n E x 3 2 . W h a t e v e r the c a s e , t h e biblical m a t e r i a l s n o w h e r e s u g g e s t t h a t M o s e s ' d e a t h is s o u n d e r s t o o d . 2 1 8
2
1
9
2 2 0
Son, 1 4 4 ; a l s o R i n g g r e n , TDOT,
2.354f.
278
The New
the ' s e r v a n t ' o f w h o m
and m s
Exodus
Way
are not u s e d .
2 2 1
H o o k e r , therefore,
denies any connection in either thought or language b e t w e e n Isaiah 53 and M a r k 10:45, except p e r h a p s for very
probably
an
TTOXU'C;.
Aramaism
B u t e v e n this is dubious since it is
reflecting
universalism than Isaiah 53 in p a r t i c u l a r .
222
more
a
general
Isaianic
Likewise for Barrett, not only
is the c o n c e p t c o m m o n in the O T b u t Isaiah 53:1 I f is at m o s t ' o n l y o n e e x a m p l e , t h o u g h an o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e ' o f the p e r v a s i v e O T t h e m e o f the O n e for the M a n y .
2 2 3
H o o k e r is c o r r e c t in n o t i n g that
and m s
are n o t u s e d o f the
'servant', b u t is this really a p r o b l e m ? W h i l e Y a h w e h is a l m o s t invariably the subject o f the v e r b — h e will r e d e e m his p e o p l e 'how?'.
2 2 4
— t h e q u e s t i o n is
A s w e h a v e already m e n t i o n e d o n several o c c a s i o n s , the literary
structure o f Isaiah 52-54 strongly suggests that Y a h w e h ' s I N E redemption o f Israel is i n t i m a t e l y related to t h e ' d e a t h ' o f his ' s e r v a n t ' 'for the many'.
2 2 5
In Isaiah 52:1-10 Zion is instructed to bestir and prepare herself,
a n d in 5 2 : 1 1 - 1 2 , u s i n g l a n g u a g e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e first E x o d u s , the c a p t i v e s are e x h o r t e d to d e p a r t .
2 2 6
T h e n in chapter 54 there is the dual
picture o f Y a h w e h ' s reconciled wife and an e n l a r g e d and dazzling Zion rejoicing o v e r the r e t u r n o f h e r c h i l d r e n .
2 2 7
T h u s the c o n t e n t o f the
p r o c l a m a t i o n s m o v e from deliverance out o f b o n d a g e to the p r o m i s e o f tranquillity in restored Zion. T h e question is, w h a t is it that facilitates the shift from o n e s c e n e to the other?
T h a t Isaiah 5 3 sits b e t w e e n the t w o
suggests that the suffering o f the 'servant' is integral to this transition. In spite o f the well-attested E x o d u s i m a g e r y p e r v a d i n g Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 , C e r e s k o o b s e r v e s that little w o r k h a d b e e n d o n e on its influence in the 'Servant
Songs'.
2 2 8
H e then d e m o n s t r a t e s that the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the
' s e r v a n t ' s ' suffering in Isaiah 52:13 - 53:12 is not only heavily indebted to the stories o f Israel's pre-Exodus affliction before deliverance, but also to 2
2
1
Servant, 76ff; cf. P r o c k s c h , B i i s c h e l , TDNT, 4 . 3 2 8 - 5 6 ; H i l l , Greek, 5 8 - 8 0 . Pace B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 7, t h e t h e m e o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r a n s o m o f I s r a e l is n o t s o w i d e s p r e a d a s t o p r e c l u d e a n I s a i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 0 0 , fn. 5 5 , a b o v e ) . 2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
4
2
2
5
2
2
6
2
2
7
2
2
8
H o o k e r , Servant, 7 8 f . B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 7; S u h l , 1 1 9 .
In o n l y t w o o u t o f s e v e n t e e n o c c u r r e n c e s of in I s a 4 0 - 5 5 is t h e s u b j e c t n o t c l e a r l y Y a h w e h . HID o c c u r s o n l y o n c e b u t h e r e t o o Y a h w e h a p p e a r s t o b e t h e subject. O n c e m o r e . C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 5 , a b o v e . W e s t e r m a n n , Isaiah, 2 4 8 ; M e l u g i n , Formation, 164-67; Ceresko, 'Rhetorical', 4 8 . S a w y e r , Isaiah, 1 5 0 f f ; W e s t e r m a n n , Isaiah, ad loc. Ibid. B u t s e e n o w H u g e n b e r g e r , ' S e r v a n t ' .
Mark
279
10:45 and Isaiah 5 3
,
the language o f D e u t e r o n o m y 2 8 s covenant curse.
In fact, the former is
the basis o f the latter such that Israel's unfaithfulness will cause her to b e afflicted with the p l a g u e s of E g y p t .
'Infidelity involves a reversal o f the
exodus and o f the A b r a h a m i c p r o m i s e ' .
229
A s w e h a v e seen, Jacob-Israel in Isaiah 40-55 is indeed rebellious (e.g. 45:9-13; 4 8 : l - 2 2 )
2 3 0
E x o d u s (cf. 5 2 : 4 ) .
and it is not difficult to see the exile as a reversal of the In this setting, C e r e s k o c o n c l u d e s that t h e ' S o n g ...
describes the S e r v a n t b e a r i n g in his o w n person the effect o f these [i.e. D e u t e r o n o m y ' s ] c u r s e s ' a n d ' h e thus effects the " h e a l i n g " his p e o p l e require ( 5 3 : 5 d ) ' .
2 3 1
C o n s e q u e n t l y , b e c a u s e o f the servant's bearing o f the
Israel's guilt, 'the w h o l e p e o p l e is n o w free to enjoy the great gift—the land'.
2 3 2
H o w then d o e s Y a h w e h redeem Israel, effecting the m o v e from
Isaiah 5 2 to 5 4 ? B y c a u s i n g his 'servant' to b e a r the c o v e n a n t curse 'for many'.
It is i m m e d i a t e l y following this section that w e also find the first
m e n t i o n o f plural ' s e r v a n t s ' (Isa 5 4 : 1 7 ) ;
2 3 3
apparently
anticipating
the
success of his mission (cf. Isa 49:6). Here then is a picture o f Jerusalem and her people r e s t o r e d .
234
F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e H o o k e r is correct to relate r e d e m p t i v e activity o n Israel's behalf.
XuTpov
to Y a h w e h ' s
B u t in the light o f the a b o v e this
hardly excludes Isaiah 5 3 in M a r k 10:45. O n the contrary, since Isaiah 5 3 apparently
relates h o w Y a h w e h will effect his r e d e m p t i o n o f Israel, it
makes perfect sense for M a r k ' s J e s u s to describe his death as a
XuTpov
when
speaking o f its purpose if h e believes that Y a h w e h has purposed his death as the m e a n s o f r e d e m p t i o n for 'the m a n y ' . TfoXXcjv,
2
2
9
2
3
0
2
3
1
2
3
Consequently, Mark's
OLVTI
although clearly not a citation, is not inappropriate as an allusion
B l e n k i n s o p p , ' D e u t e r o n o m y ' , 1 0 6 , c i t e d in ibid., 5 0 . See p p . 2 4 1 - 4 7 a b o v e .
Ibid., 5 0 a n d 5 3 ; cf. n o w H u g e n b e r g e r , ' S e r v a n t ' , 1 3 6 - 3 8 . C l i f f o r d , ' I s a i a h ' , 5 7 3 , c i t e d i n C e r e s k o , ' R h e t o r i c a l ' , 5 4 . Tg. Isa's m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I s a 5 3 f u r t h e r s u p p o r t s this c a u s a l link; cf. C h i l t o n ' s n o t e s , A r B , l l : 1 0 3 f f . Watts, 'Consolation', 5 5 . D u m b r e l l , ' P u r p o s e ' , 1 1 1 ; cf. C l i f f o r d , Persuading, 1 8 1 ; a n d M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 6 9 , for w h o m ' 5 2 , 1 3 - 5 3 , 1 2 is a n i m p o r t a n t b r i d g e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n in c h a p t e r s 5 4 a n d 5 5 ' . S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 8 5 - 8 7 , n o t e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n I s a 5 2 , 5 3 , a n d 5 4 , b u t r e a d s Y a h w e h ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t t o J e r u s a l e m in I s a 5 2 a s a fait accompli w h e r e a s t h e p r o m i s e d r e s t o r a t i o n is n o t a c t u a l l y d e s c r i b e d u n t i l I s a 5 4 , s e e M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 6 4 . Tg. Isa a l s o s e e m s t o u n d e r s t a n d I s a 5 2 - 5 4 in this w a y w h e n it p r e s e n t s t h e M e s s i a h in 52:13ff a s t h e o n e w h o r e a l i s e s Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e s o f 5 2 : 1 - 1 2 r e s u l t i n g in t h e s i t u a t i o n in 5 4 : l f f ; cf. 5 2 : 1 2 w i t h 5 2 : 1 3 ; 5 3 : 8 , 1 0 . S e e f u r t h e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n J e r u s a l e m ' s r e s t o r a t i o n in C h a p t e r 9 . 2
2
3
3
2
3
4
280
The
New
Exodus
Way
to Isaiah 53:1 I f a n d g i v e n the c o n t e x t u a l m a r k e r s t h e r e s e e m s little justification to look e l s e w h e r e .
235
W e r n e r G r i m m , however, has recently argued along s o m e w h a t similar lines but sees Isaiah 4 3 as the primary b a c k g r o u n d . be
TTOXX&V
and in a n y case
root not found in Isaiah 5 3 .
2 3 7
'XuTpov
TTape6d9T|,
TT|V
ipuxTi'v
identisch', a
so dafi m a n w e g e n des d v r l
allein keinen Einflufi ... wird a n n e h m e n
Since 6 o 0 v a i nnn I S D ,
ist mit d e m hebr.
Isaiah 53:12 L X X 'fehlt hier das " L o s e g e l d "
u n d heifit e s nicht 6 o 0 v a i sondern TTOXXWV
Isaiah 5 3 could not
nor 0*212 is equivalent to
the p r i m a r y b a c k g r o u n d since neither wnb
dvTi
236
konnen'.
is best rendered b y
p3
and
2 3 8
XuTpov
dvji
by
G r i m m argues that the closest parallels are in Isaiah 43:3f w h e r e
Y a h w e h a n n o u n c e s to Israel, T give (Tina) Egypt as your r a n s o m
(^|"IS5),
Ethiopia and Sheba in exchange for you C^nnn), ... people in return for you C^nnn) and nations for your life (^tttoj n n n ) ' . in, for e x a m p l e , Mek. 21:30; Ex. Rab. 11:2;
2 3 9
Isaiah 43:3f is appealed to
and Sipre Dt. 333 o n 32:43, whi ch
portray the nations b e i n g cast into G e h e n n a in Israel's p l a c e .
2 4 0
The SoM
could either correspond to or derive from D"JN (43:4c), while the antithesis p e r h a p s reflects Y a h w e h ' s rebuke in 4 3 : 2 3 f f .
241
G r i m m posits, therefore,
that Isaiah 43:3f is the p r i m a r y influence o n M a r k 10:45, a l t h o u g h affirms an Isaiah 5 3 allusion in M a r k ' s T T O X X C 3 V .
2 4 2
he
T h u s , J e s u s takes the
nations' p l a c e as Y a h w e h ' s ' r a n s o m ' for Israel, while the Isaiah 5 3 allusion indicates that the nations are also included in this redemption. A l t h o u g h o n e m i g h t query his linking the S o M w i t h DTK, G r i m m ' s w o r k is certainly insightful. M a r k ' s 6 o 0 v a i glance constitutes a remarkable echo o f context of ^"JSD
TX\V i l w x f j v « U T O 0 X u T p o v
at first
S 3 nnn (v. 4 d ) , particularly in the
*nn3 (v. 3c) and "?pnnn ... ]HK (v. 4 c ) and given the language
of E x o d u s 21:23 and 30:12 ( M T and L X X ) .
2 4 3
G r i m m also cites b.
Berakoth
2 3 5
Cf. S t u h l m a c h e r , ' V i c a r i o u s l y ' , 2 4 , f u r t h e r a r g u e s t h a t J e s u s is p r e s e n t e d a s t h e S o n of M a n w h o i n s t e a d o f b e i n g s e r v e d b y t h e n a t i o n s ( D n 7 ) g i v e s h i s life in t h e i r p l a c e f o r t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f Israel. 2 3
° 231-77; cited approvingly by Stuhlmacher, 'Vicariously', 2 3 , although he grants a greater influence to Isa 5 3 t h a n G r i m m . 235. 2 3 7
2 3 8
236. R e a d i n g D1K in», cf. l Q I s a ; l Q I s a pace W e s t e r m a n n , 1 1 4 . °245f. " 253, 3 0 2 . 236f. A g a i n , see also S t u h l m a c h e r , 'Vicariously', 2 4 . R e s p e c t i v e l y , ti§3 nnn # 9 5 nnna a n d 1033 tin* 13113; a n d S w a c i ijiuxT)v dvTi 6CJ<J€I XuTpa rr\g i\i\)X*\S a i u o O .
2 3 9
a
b
2 4
2 4 1
2 4 2
2 4 3
and
t|njxfjs-
Mark
10:45 and Isaiah
281
53
62b and Tg. Isaiah 43:2 w h i c h further suggest that ^WB3 nnn implies death for the s u b s t i t u t e .
244
His position, however, requires important caveats.
First, while it is true that
is an acceptable rendering o f the root
XuTpov
1BD, it is not the only alternative. In Isaiah, the root 1BD occurs six times, two o f these in chapters 40-55: Y ! ? ? in 43:3 (the only n o m i n a l form) and r n s 3 in 47:11. H o w e v e r , on not one of these six occasions does either the L X X or the later G r e e k versions use
XuTpov
or
XuTpdoj.
Instead,
XuTpdo)
m o s t c o m m o n l y translates ^Ka (seven o c c a s i o n s in Isa 4 0 - 5 5 ) w h i l e the only occurrence o f
XuTpov
in these chapters is for
the Isaianic context, the connection b e t w e e n
TTtfc
XuTpov
(45:13). In terms o f
and 1 B 3 is s o m e w h a t
tenuous, let alone as strong as G r i m m suggests. S e c o n d , in Isaiah 4 3 it is Y a h w e h w h o ' g i v e s ' , w h e r e a s in M a r k 10:45 the S o M gives himself.
It
m i g h t b e this shift o f subject rather than an allusion to Isaiah 4 3 that explains the c h a n g e from TTap€6d6ri to 6 o 0 v a i . Third, G r i m m argues that in the context o f a 'Heilstod eines messianischen M e n s c h e n ' , is sufficient to indicate an Isaiah 53 allusion.
TTOXXCJV
threefold repetition o f D'Q"! in Isaiah 5 3 : l l f serves to locate M a r k ' s g i v e n the ' H e i l s t o d '
context,
2 4 5
TT|V IJJUXTJV
auTou?
2
4
6
TTOXXCJV
then s u r e l y the s a m e a p p l i e s to t h e
threefold o c c u r r e n c e o f 1WB3 in verses 10-12—the s a m e three as and M a r k ' s
alone
B u t as K i m notes, if t h e
TTOXXCJV—
Fourth, the idea o f g i v i n g o n e ' s life,
SoOvai T T | V i|iuxTiv, is still clearer in Isaiah 5 3 which stresses the 'death' for 'the m a n y ' o f the one w h o 'serves' (53:11 and
BavaToc;
in vv. 8, 9 , 1 2 ; L X X ) .
T h e n there is the issue o f the preceding M a r k a n context. T h e passion predictions and 9:12 are heavily dependent on Isaiah 5 3 (and 5 0 ) . It would b e m o r e than passing strange if M a r k 10:45, which w e have argued belongs to the c l i m a x o f the ' W a y ' section, should s u d d e n l y initiate a c o m p l e t e shift a w a y from what h a s otherwise provided an important horizon.
interpretative
A t the s a m e time, given the c o n g r u e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p a s s i o n
predictions and M a r k 10:45, the concept of an 'individual' w h o 'suffers' is m u c h m o r e developed in Isaiah 53—in Isaiah 43 the nations (pi.) are given and there is n o explicit m e n t i o n o f the n a t i o n s ' suffering o r
2
4
4
2
4
5
2
4
7
dying.
2 4 7
Ibid., 2 4 8 . G r i m m , 2 3 6 f ; cf. J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 4 . 5 4 0 - 4 6 ; N o r t h , Suffering, 1 2 7 ; L i n d a r s , Son, 8 1 ; D a l m a n , Studies, 1 7 1 f ; F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 3 6 . 2 4 6 "'Son'", 5 3 f . A s w e h a v e s u g g e s t e d earlier, K i m a l s o n o t e s t h a t in Isa 4 3 Y a h w e h is t h e o n e w h o g i v e s , w h e r e a s in M a r k 1 0 : 4 5 t h e S o M g i v e s himself. Ber. 5:5 n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , K i m , '"Son"', 5 4 ; pace, G r i m m , 2 5 3 .
282
The New
Finally, although compensation
much
(AuTpov)
Exodus
Way
has been made
of the distinction
between
and penitential offering (DWK), it is noteworthy that
the literalistic Aquilla uses
AuTpoxjic;
to translate
in Leviticus 5:18 and
2 5 (cf. 7:1). W h i l e this ought not b e overplayed, it is indicative of at least o n e later translational tradition that did not r e c o g n i s e a major difference b e t w e e n the two w o r d s .
G i v e n w h a t w e h a v e already s e e n in t e r m s o f
d i a c h r o n i c s e m a n t i c shifts, t h i s data s h o u l d at least e n c o u r a g e s o m e tempering o f otherwise absolute c l a i m s .
2 4 8
So then, w h i l e G r i m m correctly notes the relevance o f Isaiah 43:3f, the factors a b o v e s t r o n g l y c o u n t e r his a r g u m e n t s for an a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e reference in 10:45.
I f there is a link b e t w e e n Isaiah 5 3 a n d 4 3 it is m o r e
probable that M a r k ' s J e s u s sees the former as a fuller d e v e l o p m e n t o f the ideas suggested in the latter (cf. 'service', 'death', 'for m a n y ' ) b u t this time p e r h a p s w i t h a m o r e positive o u t l o o k for the nations w h o m J e s u s m i g h t h a v e i n c l u d e d in the a m b i g u o u s ' m a n y ' .
2 4 9
(Both the literary structure
a n d extent o f the material suggests that Isaiah 5 3 is m o r e significant than Isaiah 43.) T h e n e x u s b e t w e e n the t w o texts is thus captured b y
AuTpov
s u c h that J e s u s , w h o as S o M m i g h t h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d to j u d g e the nations, instead has c o m e to serve not only Israel b u t also t h e m . H e does so b y taking their p l a c e through his obedient suffering and death at the h a n d s of b o t h and so effects Y a h w e h ' s N E redemption of b o t h .
2 5 0
That the
nations s h o u l d b e p r o m i n e n t h e r e is understandable, not o n l y given the immediate context in w h i c h the rulers o f these nations are b e i n g discussed (Mark 10:42f) but also perhaps in the light o f Isaiah 56:7 in M a r k 11:17. Finally, this integration o f S o M and 'servant' motifs h a s b e e n criticised for b e i n g t o o ' e l a b o r a t e ' a n d i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y
2
4
8
2
4
9
2
5
0
j o i n i n g ' t h e title o f an
S e e a l s o K e l l e r m a n , TDOT, 1.433f, o n L e v 5 . T h i s m i g h t offer s l i g h t s u p p o r t t o t h o s e s c h o l a r s s u c h a s J e r e m i a s , Servant, 1 0 0 ; H i g g i n s , Son, 4 5 f ; F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 3 5 ; B D B , 7 9 f ; d e V a u x , 2 . 4 1 8 - 2 1 ; M o o , Passion, 1 2 5 ; for w h o m M a r k ' s Aurpov a v r i s h o u l d n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s fundamentally distinct f r o m Isaiah 53:10b. G r i m m , ibid., 2 5 4 ; K i m , "'Sow'", 5 6 - 5 8 ; S c h e d e , ' F r a g e n ' ; b u t o n t h e l a t t e r s e e , W e r n e r , ' F r a g e ' . O n t h e n a t i o n s in I s a i a h , v a n W i n k l e , ' R e l a t i o n s h i p ' . I s a 5 3 m i g h t reflect a m o r e n u a n c e d v i e w o f t h e n a t i o n s in t h e light o f I s a 4 9 : 6 a n d p e r h a p s 4 5 : 2 2 ; cf. I s a 52:14f. K i m , '"Son"', 5 5 - 5 7 , s u g g e s t s t h a t G r i m m ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n in p o i n t i n g o u t I s a i a h 4 3 : 3 f w a s t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s v e r y link, w h i c h , f o r K i m , is b a s e d o n t h e ' m a t e r i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ' o f 1QD a n d D2?K ( K i m ' s p r o p o s a l m a y offer s o m e c o n f i r m a t i o n for t h e v i e w e x p r e s s e d h e r e w h i c h w a s f o r m e d b e f o r e b e i n g a w a r e o f h i s p o s i t i o n ) ; cf. S t u h l m a c h e r , 'Righteousness', 40-43; Beale, 'Reconciliation', 5 5 6 .
Mark
10:45 and Isaiah
283
53
apocalyptic figure ... to the sufferings o f a prophetic o n e ' .
2 5 1
Although
such a distinction b e t w e e n 'apocalyptic' and 'prophetic' appears something of an a n a c h r o n i s m , it does, h o w e v e r , raise the question o f the fusing o f ideas and for completeness should b e addressed. Apart from the questions canvassed above concerning the sufficiency o f Daniel 7 alone as background to M a r k 10:45, it m a y b e asked if this merging is s o
improbable,
e s p e c i a l l y in
view
of evidence
suggesting
the
c o n t e m p o r a r y integration o f the S o M m o t i f with several aspects o f t h e Isaianic 'servant'.
H Q M e l c h 2:18 describes the bearer o f good tidings (Isa
52:7) as 'the Anointed O n e ' ( cf. Isa 61:1; 4 2 : 1 ) w h i c h p o i n t the text b r e a k s off.
2 5 2
' o f w h o m Daniel said ...', at
Although J . Milik and Geza Vermes
p r o p o s e a reference to D a n i e l 9 : 2 5 ,
2 5 3
William Horbury suggests
Daniel 2:34f or 7:13 w o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e .
254
that
Considering the importance
of the Similitudes o f 1 Enoch in the d i s c u s s i o n ,
255
the pervasive influence
of 'servant' imagery o n its description o f the S o M is s i g n i f i c a n t .
256
Thus,
'the term "the Elect O n e " points ... unequivocally to the elect Servant o f Second Isaiah' (e.g. 48:4-6 cf. Isa 42:6; 49:2-7; 60:10; 6 1 : l f ; and 1 En 62:1; cf. 49:lff).
2 5 7
T h e constant humiliation o f the kings and the mighty (46:4; 62:3;
62:1-9; cf. 4 6 : 6 ; 48:6) is also reminiscent o f Isaiah 49:7 and 5 2 : 1 4 f .
2 5 8
Not
only will h e slay the wicked with the sword o f his m o u t h (62:2; cf. Isa 49:2; 51:16), but h e will b e the light o f the Gentiles (48:4 cf. Isa 42:6; 49:6; also M k 13:10).
2 5 9
A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, b u t less direct, is the later d i s c u s s i o n
c o n c e r n i n g the t i m e o f M e s s i a h ' s return in b. Sanhedrin
2
5
2
^
2
5
9 8 a w h e r e for
1
H o o k e r , Servant, 9 6 , in r e l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s , e.g. 8 : 3 1 ; 9 : 1 2 , 3 1 1 0 : 3 3 . B u t t h e a r g u m e n t a p p l i e s h e r e . A l t h o u g h H o o k e r ' s c o n c e r n is w i t h w h e t h e r J e s u s w o u l d h a v e m a d e t h e c o n n e c t i o n , o n e m a y a s k w h y n o t J e s u s if M a r k d o e s s o ( s e e b e l o w ) ? It is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t in t h e final f o r m o f t h e g o s p e l s S o M h a s b o t h D a n i e l 7 a n d m e s s i a n i c c o n n o t a t i o n s , e.g. P e r r i n , ' C r e a t i v e ' ; W a l k e r , ' Q u e s t i o n ' ; M u l l e r , Ausdruck. On the possibility of p r e - C h r i s t i a n m e s s i a n i c c o n n o t a t i o n s for the S o M motif, see H o r b u r y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' . O n t h e u s e o f t h e S o M i d e a in M a r k , s e e e.g. H o o k e r , Son; T o d t , Son, 2 7 9 f ; P e r r i n , ' C r e a t i v e ' ; S e i t z , ' F u t u r e ' ; C o p p e n s , ' L o g i a ' ; L i n d a r s , Son, 6 0 - 8 4 , 1 0 1 - 1 4 ; a n d f o r s u r v e y s of the larger debate. Walker, 'Recent'; D o n a h u e , 'Recent'. 2
3
2
5
4
2
5
5
2
5
6
Enoch, 2
5
7
2
5
8
2
5
9
Fitzmyer, 'Further', 4 0 . 'Mm', 97ff, 1 0 8 a n d DSSE, 3 0 1 r e s p e c t i v e l y . 'Messianic', 42. O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f d a t e . C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 7 , a b o v e . J e r e m i a s , Servant, 5 8 f f ; C o p p e n s , Fz7s, 1 3 4 f ; T h e i s o h n , Richter, 1 8 1 - 2 5 2 . H o o k e r , Son, 3 3 - 4 8 , o m i t s a n y m e n t i o n o f t h e s e p a r a l l e l s . B l a c k , Enoch, 1 8 9 . Cf. W a t t s , ' M e a n i n g ' . O n this f u s i n g , s e e a g a i n C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 5 , fn. 1 7 0 , a b o v e .
114-25; Black,
284
The New
Exodus
Way
e x a m p l e Isaiah 59:20; 59:16; 48:11 and 60:22 are cited alongside Daniel 7:13 as pertinent to the issue. Later still, Isaiah 52:13; 4 2 : 1 , together with Daniel 7:13f, are applied to a messianic figure in Midr. Psalms 2:9. M o r e o v e r , as noted earlier, H o o k e r readily affirms that the background to J e s u s ' ministry is ' D e u t e r o - I s a i a n i c '
260
— i t is the identification o f J e s u s
w i t h the ' s e r v a n t ' that she rejects—and therefore, given the S o M selfdesignation, conception
t h e r e is a l r e a d y a fusion o f an I s a i a n i c (i.e. p r o p h e t i c ) of Jesus' ministry
apocalyptic) in particular.
in g e n e r a l
and
t h e S o M figure
(i.e.
If M a r k presents J e s u s using a combination o f
various i m a g e s and actions appropriate to the Y a h w e h - C r e a t o r - W a r r i o r , the Isaianic 'servant-deliverer', and the S o M (not to mention the influence of several other O T f i g u r e s ) ,
261
is it so elaborate that the suffering element,
instead o f deriving from Daniel 7, should also c o m e from o n e or t w o o f Isaiah's 'servant' texts where it is far m o r e p r o m i n e n t ? (v)
Concluding
262
Considerations
It w o u l d appear, then, that those w h o reject an Isaiah 5 3 influence on M a r k 10:45 tend to d o so on the b a s i s o f assessing isolated w o r d s or phrases.
2 6 3
W h e n taken in isolation, it is true, n o n e of the elements point
unquestionably to Isaiah 5 3 . But M a r k has not given us individual w o r d s w i t h o u t a context.
W e h a v e consistently argued for a constant, u n d e r -
girding I N E motif for Mark.
A n d , without wishing to overstate the case,
M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section with its three-fold passion predictions s h o w s clear signs o f intentional structure.
W h e n the w h o l e is taken as M a r k put it
together, it is difficult to see h o w o n e could d e n y that there are m o r e
2
6
0
2
6
1
2
6
3
Servant,
6 6 , 6 7 f , 7 3 , cf. 9 5 ; Mark,
2 4 9 ; cf. G r i m m , passim;
S c h u r m a n n , Reich, 2 4 0 .
S e e e s p e c i a l l y , F r a n c e , Jesus, 4 3 - 5 0 , 1 0 3 - 1 0 . 262 ' W e n n m a n a b e r i m Z e n t r u m d e r V e r k u n d i g u n g J e s u s A b h a n g i g k e i t v o n D t j e s n a c h w e i s e n k a n n , w a r u m d a n n n i c h t a u c h in d e n G o t t e s k n e c h t s l i e d e r n ? ' , S c h u r m a n n , Reich, 2 4 0 , w i t h c a u t i o n s , 2 4 1 - 3 ; cf. L i n d a r s , Son, 8 2 . H o r b u r y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 4 2 - 4 7 , a r g u e s t h a t m e s s i a n i c e x e g e s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d v a r i o u s t e x t s in c r e a t i v e w a y s ; o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f J e s u s h i m s e l f b e i n g t h e o r i g i n a t o r , cf. D o d d , According, 1 0 9 f ; H e n g e l , Atonement, 59. A s d o e s H o o k e r ' s a r g u m e n t , cf. J e r e m i a s , 'Jesus', 1 4 2 f ; F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 36f. C a s e y ' s d i s m i s s a l . Son, 2 0 6 , o f a n I s a 5 3 a l l u s i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f its d i s s i m i l a r i t y t o ' c o n t e m p o r a r y Jewish exegesis' s e e m to p r e s u m e that neither Jesus n o r the early Christians w e r e capable of i n d e p e n d e n t t h o u g h t ; a r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g a s s u m p t i o n for a m o v e m e n t c o n f e s s i n g a c r u c i f i e d M e s s i a h , cf. G r i m m , 6 5 . O n a possible e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I s a 5 3 i n v o l v i n g a s a v i o u r - f i g u r e w h o ' a c h i e v e s a t o n e m e n t for all t h e s o n s o f h i s r a c e ' , w h o ' t e a c h e s t h e w i l l o f G o d ' , w h o s e w o r d ' w o r k s t o t h e e n d s o f t h e e a r t h ' , a n d w h o a l s o a p p a r e n t l y b o t h suffers a t t h e h a n d s o f h i s e n e m i e s a n d is i n v o l v e d in ' s o r r o w s ' (...*? "pDfcOQl a n d ... r D ' S l o n "HH; cf. I s a 5 3 : 4 ) , s e e S t a r c k y , ' e t a p e s ' , 4 9 2 ; H e n g e l , Atonement, 58.
Concluding
285
Considerations
explicit parallels, c o n c e p t u a l l y and verbally, with the ' s e r v a n t ' figure o f Isaiah 53 than with a n y similar grouping o f characteristics ascribed to any other O T figure in a given p a s s a g e .
264
This is surely the case with the S o M
in Daniel 7 w h o s e o n l y explicit connection with M a r k 10:45 appears to b e in the title; the ideas o f bringing Israel's deliverance through his suffering for
the m a n y h a v i n g to b e m o r e or less i m p l i e d or i m p o r t e d as b o t h
Barrett's and Hooker's constructions illustrate.
265
A n d as w e have seen,
e v e n those w h o are least w a r m to the ' s e r v a n t ' idea nevertheless a d m i t that J e s u s ' predictions o f his passion 'correspond broadly' to Isaiah 5 3 .
2 6 6
O n the other hand, the argument for the primary influence o f Isaiah 5 3 o n J e s u s ' p r e d i c t i o n s o f his suffering and death o u g h t not b e taken as e x c l u d i n g a role for D a n i e l 7 or other p a s s a g e s .
As already
suggested
several times earlier in this b o o k , there is a strong c a s e for J e s u s b e i n g presented as 'true Israel'. This being so. H o o k e r ' s suggestion that the term SoM serves to identify J e s u s as 'the one true Israelite w h o is able to accept the mission and destiny o f his p e o p l e ' is to b e a f f i r m e d .
267
M y concern is
that this identification should not exclude other O T patterns. In the e n d , M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' interpretation o f his
suffering
appears to reflect an integration o f Isaiah 40-55's prophecies of h o w Israel's salvation w a s to b e effected. Y a h w e h ' s redemptive I N E (cf. X u T p o ) 9 T f a € a 9 € in Isa 52:3 LXX) s e e m s to b e accomplished b y the ' s e r v a n t ' s ' suffering and death w h i c h is accepted not o n l y as a reparation and 'guilt offering' for 'diseased' Israel (Dtitt; Isa 5 3 ) ,
2 6 8
but also as a substitute for the nations w h o
w e r e to b e Israel's ' L o s e g e l d ' (Isa 4 3 ) .
2 6 9
Interestingly, such an innovative
2 6 4
Cf. e.g. K u m m e l , Promise, 7 3 , w h o rejects a n y i d e a o f ' s e r v a n t ' c o n s c i o u s n e s s in J e s u s . ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 9 - 1 5 ; a n d Son, 2 7 - 3 0 , 1 4 0 - 4 7 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; b u t s e e t h e c r i t i c i s m s o f F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 47ff; H i g g i n s , Son, 4 1 - 5 0 ; C a s e y , Son, 2 0 5 f . H o o k e r , Servant, 9 5 , cf. 7 4 f . Son, 1 9 3 . 2 6 5
2 6 6
2 6 7
2 6 8
Is t h e r e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r i e s t l y r e q u i r e m e n t f o r l e p e r s in L e v 1 4 : 2 5 a n d I s r a e l ' s ' l e p r o u s ' w o u n d s in I s a l:5f, w i t h t h e l a t t e r b e i n g b o r n e b y t h e ' s e r v a n t ' in 5 3 : 4 - 6 ? J e r e m i a s Servant, 6 2 f , d i s c u s s e s A q u i l l a ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f INE b y a<j>T)ii€vov ( s o J e r o m e ) , cf. V u l g a t e : quasi leprosum a n d b. Sank. 9 8 b w h e r e t h e w o u n d s a r e t h o s e o f a l e p e r . T h e w h o l e i s s u e o f sacrifice is v e r y c o m p l e x , s e e M i l g r o m , Cult, a n d Leviticus-, a n d K i u c h i , Offering. 2 6 9
Cf. L i n d a r s , Son, 7 8 , w h o r e g a r d s X u T p o v a s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i v e ' in t h a t ' t h e r a n s o m i d e a is a l e g i t i m a t e w a y o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e p r o p h e c y a s a w h o l e ' . T i t 2 : 1 4 r e l a t e s C h r i s t ' s d e a t h t o b o t h r e d e m p t i o n a n d c l e a n s i n g (CSGJKCV COCUTOV i ' v a X u T p c o a T j T a i . . . KOI Ka9apiaxi) i n the c o n t e x t o f h i s h a v i n g a X a o v T i e p i o u a i o v ; t h e l a t t e r p h r a s e b e i n g u s e d in E x 1 9 : 5 L X X o f G o d ' s i n t e n t i o n f o r h i s p e o p l e in t h e first E x o d u s , cf. D t 1 4 : 2 ; 7 : 6 ; E x 2 3 : 2 2 . F u r t h e r , t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w o u l d b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h m y p r o p o s a l in ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' in t h a t a l t h o u g h
286
The New
Exodus
Way
a n d c r e a t i v e h e r m e n e u t i c is n o t dissimilar to that in M a r k 3:27 w h e r e M a r k ' s J e s u s interprets his e x o r c i s m s in t e r m s o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r ' s activities o n Israel's b e h a l f (Isa 49:24ff).
It is w o r t h noting the substantial
similarities b e t w e e n these two passages. B o t h s t a t e m e n t s p l a y a major role in M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' selfu n d e r s t a n d i n g and b o t h occur at the climactic m o m e n t s in their respective sections.
2 7 0
In b o t h cases this self-understanding is crucial to interpreting
central features o f those sections: J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s and his passion.
Both
s t a t e m e n t s a p p e a r o n J e s u s ' lips, a n d b o t h e x h i b i t the s a m e a l l u s i v e character.
2 7 1
A n d as noted, both provide e v i d e n c e o f a similar, innovative
hermeneutic. H o o k e r ' s observation on M a r k 3:27 is, therefore, apposite: A l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o v e r b a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e G r e e k t e x t a n d t h e L X X v e r s i o n o f I s a i a h 4 9 . 2 4 f . , t h e s i m i l a r i t y in m e a n i n g is s o g r e a t t h a t t h e r e is little d o u b t t h a t J e s u s h a d t h i s p a s s a g e in m i n d w h e n h e s p o k e t h e s e w o r d s ; n o r is t h e r e a n y c o m p a r a b l e p i c t u r e e l s e w h e r e in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t
2 7 2
I s u b m i t that the application of t h e s e criteria to M a r k 10:45 s h o u l d result in a s i m i l a r verdict c o n c e r n i n g the influence o f I s a i a h 5 3 .
The
p e r v a s i v e i m p r e s s o f that text on M a r k 9:12 a n d the passion predictions o n l y serves to reinforce the suggestion. R e t u r n i n g to M a r k 10:45 in its i m m e d i a t e context, w h i l e the disciples are arguing about status and power, J e s u s explains that this is not w h a t his present capacity as S o M entails. This is not to deny a 'cloud-riding' role to the S o M b u t for M a r k ' s J e s u s this is future (13:26; 14:62). ' c o m i n g ' (note the
rjXScv)
is, instead,
SiaKovfiaai.
His present
S o while Stuhlmacher is
right in insisting that the i m m e d i a t e contrast is with the S o M ' s expected role,
2 7 3
I w o u l d u r g e that the underlying and ultimately crucial presup-
positional shift that facilitates the contrast finds its impetus in the linking of the c o n c e r n s o f Daniel 7 and Isaiah 5 3 and 4 3 with Israel's deliverance. D a n i e l 7, w i t h its S o M s y m b o l i s m , o n l y deals w i t h the fact o f suffering Israel's vindication a n d exaltation—that is, her return from Exile.
It does
Y a h w e h offers t o g i v e t h e n a t i o n s o n Israel's b e h a l f , h e r r e b e l l i o u s r e s p o n s e i n d i c a t e s t h a t n o t m e r e l y r e d e m p t i o n b u t e x p i a t i o n o f g u i l t is r e q u i r e d ; t h e ' s e r v a n t ' a c c o m p l i s h e s b o t h . 2
7
0
2
7
1
S e e C h a p t e r 5 , a n d in a d d i t i o n t o t h e a r g u m e n t s a b o v e , H e n g e l , Atonement, 4 2 . F r a n c e , 'Servant', 2 9 , following Taylor, 'Origin', 1 6 3 , r e g a r d s t h e allusive c h a r a c t e r o f M a r k 1 0 : 4 5 a s e v i d e n c e o f its a u t h e n t i c i t y ; cf. L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 77-79. Servant, 7 3 . B a r r e t t ' s c o m m e n t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 8 , t h a t if t h e s a y i n g d e r i v e s f r o m I s a 5 3 t h e n t o s a y h e c o m e s t o s e r v e w o u l d b e ' a little p r e c i o u s ' is p e c u l i a r . A f t e r all t h e ' s e r v i c e ' i n M a r k is n o t b e i n g p r e d i c a t e d o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' b u t o f t h e S o M . 2
7
2
2
7
3
Jesus
and the Son of
not explain h o w this will c o m e about.
287
David
Isaiah 40-55, which also deals with
the return from Exile, provides the explanatory ' h o w ' in Isaiah 53 and 4 3 . Suffering Israel's salvation and vindication, as 'one like a son o f man', is to b e brought about b y the redemptive suffering service of the true 'servant' Israel of Isaiah. But this is not just for Israel; the nations will also benefit. For M a r k , true Israel, and therefore the o n e truly like a S o M , is n o n e other than J e s u s . A t the s a m e time, J e s u s ' unconventional messianic selfunderstanding—that h e is to die as a ransom for many—is consistent with the m i s u n d e r s t o o d
c a r e e r o f the ' s e r v a n t ' o f Isaiah 5 3 w h o s e rejection,
suffering, a n d d e a t h 'for' the sin o f ' m a n y ' b e c o m e s Y a h w e h ' s e q u a l l y unexpected m e a n s o f effecting Israel's N E . c) Jesus and the Son of
2 7 4
David
G i v e n the t h e m e o f m e s s i a h s h i p t h r o u g h o u t the ' W a y ' , s o m e c o m m e n t should b e m a d e on M a r k ' s attitude to J e s u s as ' S o n o f D a v i d ' .
In M a r k
10:46-52 it has b e e n observed that although Jesus does not overtly reject Bartimaeus' confession h e does not explicitly affirm it. This has led s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s to see in J e s u s ' lack of affirmation his tacit rejection o f Davidic
messiahship.
2 7 5
H o w e v e r , s i n c e this a r g u m e n t
is o n l y b y
implication all are agreed that it is necessary to go e l s e w h e r e for firmer evidence, and proponents o f this view go to M k 12:35-37 which, according to Paul A c h t e m e i e r , clearly s h o w s that the Christ, that is J e s u s , is not o f Davidic d e s c e n t .
276
Several points can b e m a d e in response. reading o f M a r k 12 is self-evident.
First, it is not clear that this
A s an interrogative o f manner, TTO6€V
does not necessarily imply a negative a n s w e r , 2
7
4
2
7
5
2 7 7
while
TTCJC;
m a y seek an
T h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t in t h e N T is r e l a t e d t o r e c o n c i l i a t i o n a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e w a y of entering into God's presence, themselves key c o m p o n e n t s of the N E , E p h 2:13-19; H e b 4 : 1 6 ; 1 P e t 3 : 1 8 ; cf. B e a l e , ' R e c o n c i l i a t i o n ' , e s p e c . 5 7 8 f f ; H e n g e l , Atonement, 52; S t u h l m a c h e r , ' " P e a c e " ' , 187ff. K e l b e r , 9 6 ; A c h t e m e i e r , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; s u r v e y s in S c h n e i d e r , ' D a v i d s s o h n f r a g e ' ; B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 5 2 - 5 9 ; a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n in M a t e r a , Kingship, 84-89. 7
6
* A c h t e m e i e r , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 1 3 0 ; cf. B u l t m a n n , History, 136f; L o h m e y e r , 2 6 2 ; v a n Iersel, 'Fils', 1 2 1 f ; K e l b e r , 9 6 . C h i l t o n , 'Reflections', 1 0 1 , h a s J e s u s p r e s u p p o s e s o n o f D a v i d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b u t ' d e n i e s t h i s is a m e s s i a n i c c l a i m ' ; cf. S u h l , 9 3 f ; F i t z m y e r , ' T r a d i t i o n ' ; L o v e s t a m , 'Fils'. A c h t e m e i e r s e e s 1 0 : 4 6 - 5 1 a s a d i s c i p l e s h i p s t o r y a n d n o t a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e e n t r y . B u t w h y c a n n o t b o t h i n t e r e s t s b e in v i e w ? S e e a l s o M a t e r a , ibid., 6 8 , a n d 8 7 f , w h e r e t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t i n d i c a t e s t h e i s s u e is c o r r e c t e d n o t r e j e c t e d m e s s i a h s h i p . T h e r e m i g h t b e a s e n s e o f i n c r e d u l i t y in M k 8 : 4 , b u t in M k 6:2; M t 1 3 : 2 7 , 5 4 ; 2 1 : 2 5 ; L k 1:43 it is u s e d o f a n u n s e t t l i n g o r s u r p r i s i n g fact t h a t r e q u i r e s e x p l a n a t i o n . C f . L N , 2 . 7 8 9 : 89.86; BAGD, 732. 2
7
7
288
The New
explanation.
2 7 8
Exodus
Way
J e s u s could simply b e discomforting the scribes b y posing
t h e m an a p p a r e n t contradiction—hence, p r e s u m a b l y , the c r o w d ' s g l e e . G i v e n the w i d e s p r e a d
e x p e c t a t i o n o f a D a v i d i c M e s s i a h , if J e s u s
2 7 9
was
d e n y i n g that the Christ w a s D a v i d ' s S o n the c r o w d ' s response w o u l d b e difficult to e x p l a i n .
O n the contrary, then, there is no d e n i a l that the
C h r i s t is t h e S o n o f D a v i d , o n l y that h e c a n n o t m e r e l y b e ' s o n ' ;
2 8 0
an
assertion that is particularly appropriate considering the p e r i c o p e ' s place m e n t at t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f J e s u s ' J e r u s a l e m c o n t r o v e r s i e s a n d
as
an
introduction to his denunciation o f the scribes. S e c o n d , the C a e s a r e a Philippi c o n f e s s i o n , l i n k e d as it is with
the
preceding healing, is rightly understood as parallel to this pericope, and there J e s u s accepts P e t e r ' s messianic c o n f e s s i o n .
281
A s s u m i n g that M a r k
12:35 suggests that for Peter and Bartimaeus mbg A a u i 6 and synonymous,
2 8 2
XpiaToc;
were
the ' W a y ' b e g i n s w i t h a s e c o n d - b e s t r e c o g n i t i o n o f
messiahship and similarly ends with a confession of ' S o n o f D a v i d '
2 8 3
and
the c r o w d ' s messianic acclaim ( l l : l f f ) , b u t in the meantime establishes that the M e s s i a h m u s t die.
Therefore, a l t h o u g h M a r k ' s J e s u s d o e s not use
t h e s e titles o f h i m s e l f , and a l t h o u g h
they m i g h t not b e M a r k ' s
most
important Christological designations, h e n o m o r e has J e s u s rejecting ' S o n of D a v i d ' than he does 'Messiah'.
2
7
8
2
7
9
2
8
0
Cf. M t 1 2 : 2 9 w h e r e t h e e x c e p t i o n c l a u s e s t a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e o t h e r w i s e u n e x p e c t e d c a n t a k e p l a c e ; a l s o e.g. M t 2 1 : 2 0 ; 2 2 : 1 2 , 4 3 ; J n 4 : 9 ; 9 : 1 0 ; e t c . , B A G D , 7 3 2 . In M k 1 2 t h e q u e s t i o n is left u n a n s w e r e d b u t this is a l o n g w a y f r o m a d e n i a l . It is t h e c o n t e x t , n o t t h e p a r t i c l e , t h a t is d e t e r m i n a t i v e . F i t z m y e r , T r a d i t i o n ' , 123f; L a n e , 4 3 6 n 6 2 ; a n d K i n g s b u r y , 1 0 9 , correctly n o t e the h a g g a d i c c h a r a c t e r o f J e s u s ' q u e s t i o n . A c h t e m e i e r , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 1 4 1 n 3 9 c i t e s Barn. 1 2 : 1 0 11 a s a s i m i l a r ' d e n i a l ' , b u t this d e a l s w i t h t h e c h a r g e t h a t if J e s u s is t h e C h r i s t t h e n h e c a n n o t b e S o n o f G o d s i n c e t h e C h r i s t is t h e S o n o f D a v i d . T h e r e s p o n s e is t h a t e v e n D a v i d calls his s o n , ' L o r d ' , h e n c e J e s u s is b o t h S o n o f D a v i d a n d S o n o f G o d . E . g . L a n e , 4 3 7 ; B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 64ff; R o b b i n s , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 2 4 2 ; H u r t a r d o , 1 9 2 ; cf. P e s c h , 2 . 2 5 1 ; G n i l k a , 2 . 1 7 1 f ; D a u b e , ' E a r l i e s t ' , 1 8 2 . K e l b e r , 9 5 n 2 4 , c i t e s a n i m p r e s s i v e a r r a y o f s c h o l a r s w h o s e e J e s u s rejecting D a v i d i c s o n s h i p in f a v o u r o f s o n s h i p o f G o d . 8 1
^ R o b b i n s , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 2 2 7 ; cf. H o o k e r , Message, 6 3 ; B e s t , Following, 140. A c h t e m e i e r , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 1 3 1 , a l t h o u g h c i t i n g R o b b i n s , i g n o r e s this i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f the context. 2
8
2
2
8
3
Cf. a l s o Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 3 ; a n d t h e r a b b i s in b. Sanh. 9 8 a ( A D 1 1 0 ) ; y. Ta 'anith 4 . 8 , 6 8 d ( A D 1 3 0 ) ; b. Sanh. 9 7 a ( A D 1 5 0 ) ; a l s o B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 1 6 - 2 4 ; L o h s e , TDNT, 8.484-86; F i t z m y e r , ' T r a d i t i o n ' , 115ff. Cf. H o o k e r , Mark, 2 5 3 . C h i l t o n , 'Reflections', 1 0 1 , s e e s J e s u s ' h e a l i n g a f f i r m i n g 'Son o f D a v i d ' in t h e S o l o m o n i c s e n s e (cf. C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 6 8 , fn. 1 6 2 ) ; b u t s e e M a r c u s , 151f.
Jesus
and the Son of
289
David
Third, appeals to missed opportunities to stress J e s u s ' Davidic heritage (2:23-27; 6:1-3) a m o u n t to second-guessing M a r k ,
2 8 4
and arguments that a
positive interpretation requires d r a w i n g on other N T e v i d e n c e (e.g. M t 22:42-45; R o m l:3f) cuts both w a y s .
2 8 5
It could equally b e that M a r k is not
m o r e explicit b e c a u s e h e never expected any o f his readers to doubt for a m o m e n t that J e s u s is the Davidic Messiah.
But then, h a v i n g disallowed
the importing of other N T evidence, Achtemeier's assessment of the 'unusual a m b i g u i t y ' o f 11:9-10 itself d e p e n d s primarily on a c o m p a r i s o n with
Matthew.
2 8 6
B u t M a t t h e w is frequently m o r e explicit than M a r k
(witness his fulfilment f o r m u l a e ) , and h e n c e w h e n A c h t e m e i e r asserts that M a r k ' w o u l d surely have followed the procedure of M a t t h e w ' — o n e is tempted to ask w h o is writing M a r k ' s gospel, Mark or Matthew? O n the other h a n d , the point o f the c r o w d ' s unusual expression, 'the kingdom o f our father D a v i d ' seems precisely to s h o w that they, like Peter earlier, are thinking in terms o f traditional military-political categories. Achtemeier
also
misconstrues
pappouvi
2 8 7
w h i c h is i n s t e a d to b e
understood within the context o f the ' w i s d o m ' imagery and J e s u s ' teaching which has dominated the ' W a y ' section: Jesus, messianic 'servant' and S o n of D a v i d , o n the w a y to his death as a r a n s o m for m a n y , is the w i s e Teacher w h o gives 'sight'.
Further, if our understanding o f the messianic
confession b e i n g a prerequisite to true N E 'sight' is correct, then the t w o healing miracles not only set the scene for J e s u s ' S o n of David debate and his rejection in Jerusalem, but also poignantly reveal the inadequacy of the 'blind' c r o w d ' s confession w h o see Jesus solely in terms of the 'r| cpxojicvri paaiXeia
TOU
TTotTpos" T\\L&V
A a u i 6 ' (11:10) and do not follow 'in the w a y ' .
2 8 8
Finally, there is the matter o f M a r k ' s opening O T citation and o f the imagery associated w i t h the rending of the h e a v e n s and the voice, with the Beelzebul controversy, and with the sea-walkings. T h e implication in these cases tending t o w a r d identifying J e s u s as the S o n o f G o d . suggest, is w h a t M a r k 12:35-37 is driving at.
2
8
4
2
8
5
2
8
6
2
8
7
2
8
8
A c h t e m e i e r , 'Discipleship', 130. A c h t e m e i e r , ibid.; cf. K e l b e r , 9 6 . Ibid., 1 3 0 . Ibid., 1 3 1 ; S u h l , 9 3 . Robbins, 'Bartimaeus', 227, 240.
This, I
J e s u s is not simpliciter
the
290
The New
Exodus
Way
messianic S o n o f David w h o m the scribes, and n o doubt m a n y others, are expecting. H e is also David's L o r d .
2 8 9
IV. Conclusion A l t h o u g h the v o i c e from h e a v e n reveals J e s u s ' identity and the unclean spirits r e c o g n i s e h i m , for his p e o p l e Israel things are less clear. J e s u s is variously r e g a r d e d as an extraordinarily authoritative teacher, a w o n d e r worker, a prophet, a family m e m b e r w h o is b e s i d e himself, or an exorcist w h o is in l e a g u e w i t h B e e l z e b u l . T h e question insistently p u s h e s itself forward: w h o is this?
This, too, is the matter w h i c h the disciples m u s t
resolve. Peter's confession that Jesus is the Christ might well b e imperfect, b u t it p r o v i d e s , for M a r k , the b a s i s u p o n w h i c h J e s u s ' d e a t h c a n b e portrayed as the effective means of the I N E . T h i s is n o t to d e n y that M a r k ' s ' W a y ' s e c t i o n has a p a r a d i g m a t i c function
in
instructing
the
church
on
the
N e v e r t h e l e s s , the I N E motif s e e m s p r e d o m i n a n t .
life
of
discipleship.
O n this interpretation,
M a r k has placed the great majority of his miracles within the first section to d e m o n s t r a t e that the I N E is being inaugurated in Jesus.
H o w e v e r , he
also appears to b e interested in s h o w i n g that participation in the miracles of
the m e s s i a n i c - ' s e r v a n t ' - D e l i v e r e r cum
Yahweh-Warrior does
not
necessarily imply participation in the I N E . W h a t matters is u n d e r s t a n d ing, and h e r e even the disciples are blind, failing to discern the significance of w h a t transpires (8:14-21). point.
P e t e r ' s confession surely m a r k s a turning-
B u t it is only a 'men-as-trees-walking' confession. T h e o n e thing
that sets the disciples apart is not that they immediately u n d e r s t a n d , but instead w h e n called they follow, even though hardly comprehending. A c c o r d i n g l y , j u s t as I s a i a h ' s ' s e r v a n t ' t e a c h e r w o u l d
through
his
ministry effect Israel's N E , so too in Mark. Jesus the teacher opens the eyes of the ' b l i n d ' by instructing them in the ' W a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , even though they like Israel of old are slow to see. In Isaiah the c l i m a x lies in the unexpected suffering o f the 'servant'. In M a r k , everything hinges on a S o M - M e s s i a h w h o is, against all expectation, to b e rejected and crucified.
2
8
9
Cf. B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 64ff; K i n g s b u r y , 1 1 2 . S e e n o w a l s o G u n d r y ' s r e s p o n s e , 721ff, a n d the m o r e n u a n c e d a p p r o a c h o f M a r c u s , 1 4 2 - 4 5 a n d 1 5 1 - 5 2 .
Excursus:
Misplaced
Miracles?
2 9 1
In this I s a i a n i c N E , as J o e l M a r c u s c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e s , J e s u s g o e s to Jerusalem not to launch a w a r o f conquest b y killing his e n e m i e s but b y being k i l l e d .
290
Not b y taking others' lives, but b y giving his. This is not a
denial o f the p r o p h e s i e d c o m i n g o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , o n l y a radical inversion o f it. It might well b e that this, ultimately, is the content o f the 'secret' w h i c h is s p o k e n o f in the Parables Chapter; and is p e r h a p s the M a r k a n equivalent o f Paul's jiuaTtfpiov
TOO 9 € O 0
(1
Cor
2:1;
cf.
1
Cor
1:18-
25).
In Isaiah the N E ' w a y ' leads to a n e w enthronement of Y a h w e h as K i n g in gloriously restored J e r u s a l e m w h i c h then b e c o m e s the centre o f t h e nations' pilgrimage for teaching and worship in his presence.
W e might
h a v e expected s o m e t h i n g similar except that M a r k has already
sounded
several notes of caution: Malachi's warning
opening
sentence, J o h n as Elijah redivivus
is c i t e d in t h e
is rejected, i m p r i s o n e d , a n d e x e c u t e d ,
and J e s u s h i m s e l f h a s m e t with hostility and censure. A s w e shall see in Chapter 9 , matters turn out rather differently from Israel's expectation.
Excursus:
Misplaced
Miracles?
It h a s often b e e n r e m a r k e d that the healing o f the possessed b o y and o f blind B a r t i m a e u s are the only t w o healing stories that occur outside t h e first
section.
2 9 1
G i v e n M a r k ' s interest in m i r a c l e s a n d h i s o b v i o u s
redactional activity, a n y treatment seeking to explain the significance o f miracles for M a r k m u s t account for this particular p h e n o m e n o n .
I have
already s u g g e s t e d that the ' d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e ' distribution o f m i r a c l e s is integral to M a r k ' s I N E h e r m e n e u t i c .
H i s first s e c t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s
Y a h w e h ' s d e l i v e r i n g o f h i s p e o p l e from b o n d a g e a n d
to
appropriately
contains the vast majority of J e s u s ' miracles. B u t h o w are these apparent departures from his N E framework to b e explained? T h e answers will again d e p e n d on the degree o f skill one attributes to M a r k . Either M a r k w a s unconcerned with consistency, in w h i c h case the N E s c h e m a still r e m a i n s largely intact, or, as a n u m b e r o f scholars h a v e argued, M a r k although not to b e overdrawn as a literary giant did intend
2
9
0
2
9
1
Way,
36.
E.g. B r o w n , 'Miracles', 1 6 8 ; Best, 'Miracles', 5 4 2 ; Robbins, 'Bartimaeus', 2 2 5 ; a n d a s
n o t e d in C h a p t e r 6 , a b o v e .
292
The New
Exodus
Way
to c o m m u n i c a t e s o m e t h i n g b y his p l a c e m e n t o f these miracles. It is to the various proposals along the latter line that w e n o w turn. T h e m o s t influential explanation, at least in the case o f the d e m o n i s e d b o y , is that o f a p o l e m i c against a 'divine m a n ' Christology, illustrated b y t h e d i s c i p l e s ' failure to a c c o m p l i s h a m i r a c l e . implies
that
discipleship,
the 2 9 3
two
miracles concern
2 9 2
Mark's
Alternatively, Best growing
focus
on
while others have seen evidence of an increasingly
difficult battle against the d e m o n i c .
2 9 4
O f these suggestions, the first and
last do not e x p l a i n B a r t i m a e u s w h e r e a s Best at least p r o v i d e s a rationale for both.
H e does n o t explain, h o w e v e r , w h y M a r k includes only these
t w o miracles. D o e s an I N E m o d e l provide a m o r e satisfactory account? In the light o f the preceding discussion, M a r k ' s inclusion o f only t w o healings o f the blind, and these t w o in particular, are explained as integral to the w i s d o m t h e m e s o f his ' W a y ' section (cf. Isa 42:16). A s in the case of the feedings, a l t h o u g h M a r k generally adheres to the I N E s c h e m a h e is willing to adapt the pattern in order to m a k e a m o r e important point.
But
w h a t about the b o y ? T h i s s t o r y h a s p o s e d s e v e r e difficulties for c o m m e n t a t o r s w i t h generally agreed solution yet proposed.
no
W h a t w e h a v e in general terms is
a m o m e n t o f glory o n the m o u n t a i n , an i n t e r l u d e d u r i n g the d e s c e n t c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s a n d Elijah, a n d finally the failure o f t h e ' f a i t h l e s s ' disciples to deal with the demonic.
W h a t m a k e s this
particularly
interesting is that 9:14-29 is A ) the o n l y e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e
demonic
outside o f the first section (intriguingly an aXaXov K O I KO)(|>6V nvcOjia, cf. Ps 115:5f M T ) , B ) the o n l y i n s t a n c e in the g o s p e l w h e r e the disciples are directly i n v o l v e d in a specific healing, and, C ) they fail (cf. 6:7-13).
Why
then h a s M a r k i n c l u d e d it, and w h a t is his point, e s p e c i a l l y g i v e n the disciples' earlier success (Mk 6:7-13; cf. c K p a X X o ) in 6:13 and 9:18)? A s n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y a n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s are c o n v i n c e d that M a r k ' s transfiguration account has M o s e s ' experience on Sinai in view (Ex 24:16).
2
9
2
2 9 5
C o n s e q u e n t l y , in t e r m s o f the following confrontation s c e n e ,
See e.g. K o e s t e r , 'Jesus'; K e c k , 'Christology'; A c h t e m e i e r , 'Origin'; Kelber; D o n a h u e , Trial; e t c . S o m e s c h o l a r s , h o w e v e r , n e v e r a c c e p t e d t h i s v i e w , e.g. S c h u l z , Stunde; B u r k i l l , ' D u a l i s m ' ; s e e f u r t h e r , D o w d , Prayer, 15ff. 'Miracles', 544f. E . g . S e r g e a n t , Lion, 5 7 f . S e e t h e p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 5 , p p . 1 2 6 f . 2
9
3
2
9
4
2
9
5
Excursus:
Misplaced
293
Miracles?
several scholars see a reflection o f the descent o f M o s e s from Sinai and his s u b s e q u e n t confrontation w i t h idolatrous Israel ( E x 3 2 ) . detected in y e v e a amo-Toc; the influence o f G o d ' s Klage (especially Dt 32:20 L X X , cf. M t 17:17; Lk 9 : 4 1 ) .
2 9 7
2 9 6
Others have
against his p e o p l e
N o t surprisingly another
suggestion reads the incident in terms o f the continued and exasperating failure o f disciples to ' u n d e r s t a n d ' .
298
Finally, s o m e see in J e s u s ' use o f
d v € ' x o | i a i an allusion to Y a h w e h ' s 'bearing' his idolatrous people in Isaiah 46:4 (cf. Isa 4 0 : 1 1 ) .
299
U n d e r an I N E rubric all of these observations prove constructive. First, in the p a r a d i g m a t i c first E x o d u s , M o s e s ' e x p e r i e n c e on Sinai (Ex 24) is intimately linked with his descent to encounter a faithless p e o p l e (Ex 3 2 ) . Here in M a r k , J e s u s ' transfiguration on the mountain is likewise followed b y a confrontation w i t h his faithless disciples w h o are then r ebuked for being a yevea
ot TTKJTOC;.
In t e r m s o f the s e c o n d and third proposals, this
designation is linked with Israel's idolatry (cf. L X X D t 32:20 and 32:16f, 2 1 , probably w i t h the g o l d e n calf incident o f E x 3 2 in m i n d ) and, given the continuity b e t w e e n in M a r k b e t w e e n idolatry (and its demonic expression) and
failure to u n d e r s t a n d , t h e r e b u k e sits w e l l w i t h
d e m o n i s a t i o n a n d J e s u s ' frustrated
q u e s t i o n s o f his
disciples in M a r k 8:17f (cf. D t 3 2 : 6 , 2 8 ) .
3 0 0
the motif o f
uncomprehending
A n d turning to the fourth
suggestion, similar t h e m e s recur in the disputation introduced b y Isaiah 46:4 ( d v € x o | i a i , L X X ) .
T h e r e , in the setting o f the a n n o u n c e m e n t o f a
s e c o n d E x o d u s , Y a h w e h restates his superiority o v e r the idols (vv. 5 - 6 ) , expresses his frustration with the nation's faithless inability to learn from their past experiences (vv. 8, 12), and yet affirms his c o m m i t m e n t to effect the N E salvation in spite o f the nation's obduracy (vv. lOf, 1 3 ) .
3 0 1
Finally,
in the light o f the a b o v e discussion on the possible influence o f E x o d u s 3 2 2 9 6 vv. 9 - 1 3 n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , pace B e s t , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 5 4 4 . It m i g h t b e t h a t M a r k ' s s u b s e q u e n t p l a c e m e n t o f a n e x t e n d e d t e a c h i n g s e c t i o n ( B e s t , Following, 7 5 - 1 3 3 ) , w h i l e still i n t e g r a t e d w i t h h i s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' j o u r n e y a n d t h e p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s , is a l s o p a r t o f a N e w Sinai p a t t e r n : J e s u s a s t h e g r e a t e r - t h a n - M o s e s g i v e s i n s t r u c t i o n s for t h e N e w I s r a e l . R e c o g n i s i n g first E x o d u s p a r a l l e l s d o e s n o t d a m a g e t h e t h e s i s s i n c e I s a i a h ' s N E d e r i v e s f r o m Israel's f o u n d i n g m o m e n t a n d t h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h y M a r k c o u l d n o t i n t e g r a t e t h e m e s f r o m b o t h t o m a k e h i s p o i n t , e s p e c i a l l y if t h e r e is a M o s e s - ' s e r v a n t ' c o n n e c t i o n . 2
9
7
2
9
8
2
9
9
3
0
0
3
0
1
G n i l k a , 1 . 4 7 ; P e s c h , 1.90; H o o k e r , 2 2 3 .
L a n e , 3 2 9 , c i t i n g E b l i n g , Messiasgeheimnis, 1 7 2 - 7 8 ; S c h e n k e , W under 3 2 4 f , 3 4 5 ; B e s t , Following, 6 6 , s e e s i n s t e a d a failure t o a c t . M a r t i n , 1 0 9 , f o l l o w i n g T o d t , Son, 1 7 9 . T h e r e f o r e , pace B e s t , Following, 6 7 , t h e r e b u k e m i g h t n o t b e 'pointless'. S c h o o r s , Saviour, 2 7 3 f f , 150ff; M e l u g i n , Formation, 131ff.
erzahlungen,
294
The New
Exodus
Way
on Isaiah 5 3 , an E x o d u s 3 2 motif here in M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section w o u l d not b e out o f place: in the first Exodus an idolatrous and u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g Israel needed s o m e o n e to intercede, so too here in the second. All four s u g g e s t i o n s can, therefore, b e integrated if M a r k 9:14-29 is understood
as a continuing
portrayal
of Jesus'
faithfulness
confronted with the d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n and failure—even
when when
o n the I N E ' W a y ' — a faithfulness m o d e l l e d on Y a h w e h ' s faithfulness in t h e face o f I s r a e l ' s failure in b o t h the first E x o d u s a n d
its I s a i a n i c
counterpart. If this analysis o f the two sight miracles and the e x o r c i s m o f the deaf and d u m b spirit is correct, then in accordance with the N E s c h e m a , M a r k places all o f J e s u s ' healing miracles and e x o r c i s m s in the first section, but h e m a k e s e x c e p t i o n s o f these, and o n l y these, b e c a u s e o f their didactic contribution to the overall p u r p o s e of his ' W a y ' s e c t i o n .
3
0
2
T h e ' c u r s i n g o f t h e fig t r e e ' will b e a d d r e s s e d in C h a p t e r 9 .
302
Chapter 9: Isaiah's Promise ... and Malachi's Threat: Part 2 Arrival in Jerusalem Jesus'
arrival
in Jerusalem
the Isaianic overshadowed Mark theme
brings
by official together
of judicial
the other
hand,
bears
NE in that
little
resemblance
the initial
hostility.
the logical
blinding—the
In this final
outcome Temple
the Isaianic
popular
section
of Malachi's
and its hierarchs
NE is ultimately
'servant'
to the expectations euphoria
effected
is
of his
threat
of
quickly Gospel,
and
are 'cursed'. through
Isaiah's On Jesus'
death.
I. Introduction A l t h o u g h the Isaianic N E reaches its culmination in the joyful reception and e n t h r o n e m e n t o f Y a h w e h in a gloriously restored J e r u s a l e m , M a r k ' s story c o n c l u d e s s o m e w h a t differently.
J e s u s ' cursory visit to the T e m p l e
and his refusal to stay in the city overnight is unsettling e n o u g h , b u t the n e x t d a y s e e s the t e n s i o n w h i c h h a s b e e n b u i l d i n g
throughout
the
previous sections finally erupt as, in his first major action on reaching the city, J e s u s ' c l e a n s e s ' the T e m p l e (11:15-19).
T h i s act, a c c o m p a n i e d b y the
disturbing c u r s i n g o f the fig-tree (11:12-14), his p r o b i n g q u e s t i o n a b o u t J o h n (11:20-33), and the p r o v o c a t i v e parable o f the tenants (12:1-12), sets the tone for an i n c r e a s i n g l y a c r i m o n i o u s and ultimately d e a d l y conflict w i t h the J e w i s h authorities.
After e m e r g i n g victorious from a series o f
confrontations (12:13-40 [41-44]), J e s u s announces the T e m p l e ' s destruction (13:1-37), interprets his death as initiating a covenant (14:24), a n d is tried, sentenced, and e x e c u t e d (15:1-47). Finally, in a remarkably brief passage, M a r k s u b s e q u e n t l y i n f o r m s us that J e s u s w a s r a i s e d from the
dead,
apparently c o n c l u d i n g with the unusual statement that the first witnesses told n o b o d y for they w e r e seized with fear and a m a z e m e n t (16:8).
1
1
,
O n t h e t h e m a t i c u n i t y o f t h i s m a t e r i a l , s e e e.g. t h e o v e r v i e w in H o o k e r , T r a d i t i o n s , 8 - 1 1 ; cf. a l s o D o n a h u e , Trial, 115ff.
296
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
T h e aim o f this Chapter is to investigate h o w m u c h of M a r k ' s carefully crafted final section is consistent with an I N E p a r a d i g m .
After dealing
with J e s u s ' entry, w e will e x a m i n e the i m a g e r y o f the cursing o f the figtree, the u s e o f Isaiah 56:7 and J e r e m i a h 7:11 in M a r k 11:17, a n d
the
allusion to Isaiah 5 : l f f in M a r k 12:1-9 within the context o f J e s u s and the T e m p l e . Given the argument o f the previous Chapter on the influence of Isaiah 53 on the passion predictions and M a r k 10:45, w e will weigh the case for echoes o f Isaiah 5 3 in the w o r d s o f institution, and J e s u s ' subsequent passion.
Finally, w e will offer o n e or t w o very brief c o m m e n t s as to h o w
the end of M a r k ' s Gospel might also relate to the I N E . It will b e argued, in general terms, that the p r o m i s e and the w a r n i n g inherent
in M a r k ' s o p e n i n g
citation and
which have been
present
throughout the narrative are finally b r o u g h t to their respective climaxes. M o r e particularly, M a r k ' s recounting o f J e s u s ' 'triumphal' and 'messianic' entry, his declaration o f what the T e m p l e ought to have b e c o m e (Isa 56:7), a n d his e x p l a n a t i o n o f his d e a t h (Isa 5 3 ) are all at h o m e w i t h i n framework
o f the
I N E fulfilment.
On
the other
hand,
the
Malachi's
threatened 'cursing o f the land' c o m e s to the fore in the j u d g e m e n t o f the fig-tree and the recitation o f J e r e m i a h ' s famous utterance o n the T e m p l e .
II. The 'Triumphal' Entry a) The INE Expectation
of Yahweh's
Return
T h e hope of the Isaianic N E culminates in the glorious return o f Y a h w e h to a restored J e r u s a l e m .
J u s t as w o r s h i p p i n g Y a h w e h at Sinai w a s the
guarantee and sign o f the prototypal first E x o d u s (Ex 3:12), the goal o f the I N E is the enthronement of Y a h w e h in a restored Z i o n - J e r u s a l e m .
2
2
Hence
S c h o o r s , Saviour, 2 4 3 ; cf. D u r h a m , Exodus, xxiff. Sinai is s u b s u m e d in M o u n t Z i o n , a n d t h e N e w E x o d u s r e a c h e s its c u l m i n a t i o n in t h e a r r i v a l o f Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e in J e r u s a l e m . M u i l e n b u r g , T s a i a h ' , e n t i t l e s Isa 4 0 - 4 8 , ' T h e i m m i n e n t c o m i n g o f G o d ' , cf. a l s o S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 183; Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 306f; a n d Dumbrell, 'Purpose'. A s n o t e d earlier, Preufi, Deuterojesaja, 4 5 , m a k e s the point e m p h a t i c a l l y (as d o e s Kilian, 'Strasse') w h e n h e s a y s t h a t the 'Ziel d e s n e u e n E x o d u s ist n i c h t d a s L a n d a l l g e m e i n , s o n d e r n ist d e r Z i o n , u n d e s ist n i c h t p r i m a r d a s V o l k , s o n d e r n J a h w e selber, d e r j e t z d o r t h i n , s o dafi v o n d e r R i i c k k e h r d e s V o l k e s d a n n n u r als d e r F o l g e u n d B e g l e i t e r s c h e i n u n g d e r R i i c k k e h r J a h w e s ' .
INE
Expectation
of Yahweh'
s
297
Return
the declaration: 'your G o d reigns!' (52:7; cf. 41:21; 43:15; 44:6; and E x 1 5 : 1 8 ) . Consequently,
c o n c e r n for J e r u s a l e m , t h e Z i o n o f Y a h w e h ,
3
appears
i m m e d i a t e l y in the p r o l o g u e (40:1-11) w h e r e as n o t e d e a r l i e r the city appears in the inclusio passages o f verses 1-2 and 9 - 1 1 .
4
P r e v i o u s l y , in I s a i a h 6, the p r o p h e t h a d seen Y a h w e h as the L o r d enthroned in h i s T e m p l e - p a l a c e in J e r u s a l e m .
O m i n o u s l y set in the t i m e
of K i n g U z z i a h ' s death, this portent p r e p a r e s us for the o u t c o m e o f t h e imminent
clash of two
imperiums
(7:lff):
the heavenly
a w e s o m e j u d g e , a n d t h e corrupt D a v i d i c m o n a r c h y .
5
King,
now
Confronted
with
p i o u s unbelief, Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e d c o m i n g — I m m a n u e l (7:14)—can o n l y m e a n d e v a s t a t i n g j u d g e m e n t (7:17) a n d this, as w e h a v e a l s o s e e n , is particularly focussed o n Jerusalem (3:1, 26; cf. 6:11-13). B u t as in j u d g e m e n t , so in redemption.
6
J e r u s a l e m - Z i o n , as the u r b a n
s y m b o l for Israel, is again central. In the prologue the w o r d o f comfort in 4 0 : I f f c u l m i n a t e s w i t h w h a t s e e m s to b e a m e s s e n g e r a n n o u n c i n g n e w s to J e r u s a l e m (40:9f, L X X ; £\jayye\iC6\i£vog
7
(bis)),
and
good then
throughout Isaiah 40-55 and up to the closing scenes o f chapters 65-66 there is a t e n d e n c y to focus o n J e r u s a l e m - Z i o n ' s restoration. pivotal in Y a h w e h ' s plans (cf. 2 : l f f ) .
T h e city is clearly
8
T h u s , a l t h o u g h C y r u s and Y a h w e h ' s ' b l i n d and d e a f ' s e r v a n t ' J a c o b Israel are the focus o f the polemical chapters 40-48 (but see 44:26; 45:13), in the largely p r o c l a m a t i o n - o f - s a l v a t i o n s e c t i o n (49-55) the r e s t o r a t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m — a n d the role o f the enigmatic 'servant'—is clearly to the f o r e .
9
Z i o n ' s waste places will b e c o m e like Eden as Y a h w e h effects a n e w creation 1 0
(51:3, cf. 4 1 : 1 7 - 2 0 ) . 3
n
Chapter 5 4 comprises something of a c l i m a x with its
C f . E z e k 2 0 : 3 3 w h e r e Y a h w e h will r e i g n a s K i n g in t h e N e w E x o d u s .
4
K i e s o w , Exodustexte, 23-66, see C h a p t e r 3, p. 7 8 , above. Dumbrell, 'Worship', 2; a n d Liebreich, 'Position', w h e r e Isa 6 contrasts K i n g Y a h w e h with the kings of Isa 7-8. 5
6
S e e e.g. t h e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 7, p p . 1 8 9 - 9 0 , a n d C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 213ff, a b o v e . T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p h r a s e q^tin"; rnto^Q is u n c l e a r . T h e L X X t a k e s it a s ' m e s s e n g e r t o J e r u s a l e m ' , cf. Tg. Isa; s e e W a t t s , Isaiah, 2 . 8 2 . 7
8
D u m b r e l l , ' P u r p o s e ' ; R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 305ff; a n d C l e m e n t s , ' U n i t y ' , 1 2 8 . O n t h i s W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 4 9 , 5 6 f , c i t i n g M e t t i n g e r , Farewell, 2 6 ; H e s s l e r , Gott, 82ff; M e l u g i n , Formation, 8 5 , w h o s e e s t h i s p r e f i g u r e d in I s a 4 0 : 1 - 1 1 ; K i e s o w , Exodustexte, 1 6 3 ; a n d W i l c o x a n d P a t o n - W i l l i a m s , ' S e r v a n t ' , 82ff. Isa 41:17ff refers to the land n o t the desert crossing, as per v a n d e r M e r w e , Pentateuchtradisies, 5 1 - 5 7 , c i t e d in B e u k e n , 'MlSPAT ', 2 0 . S c h o o r s , Saviour, 3 0 0 , s e e s o n l y a v a g u e i m p l i c a t i o n o f r e d e m p t i o n a s n e w c r e a t i o n , f o l l o w i n g R e n d t o r f f ' s o b s e r v a t i o n ( ' S t e l l u n g ' ) t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n t e r m i n o l o g y is p r i m a r i l y c o n f i n e d t o d i s p u t a t i o n s o r s a l v a t i o n o r a c l e s w h e r e it s e r v e s o t h e r p u r p o s e s . H o w e v e r , 9
1
0
1 1
298
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
picture o f glorious Z i o n (52:7-9; 54:1 I f ) , n o w re-established in righteous ness, k n o w i n g divine protection and vindication, and w h o s e accusers will all be overthrown (54:14ff),
12
while 55:1-5 concludes with w h a t Spykerboer
suggests is an invitation to return to the N e w J e r u s a l e m .
13
The summons
in Isaiah 5 2 to the exiles to prepare to depart also recalls Isaiah 35 w h e r e t h e r e d e e m e d , w a l k i n g a l o n g the ' w a y o f h o l i n e s s ' , e n t e r Z i o n ' w i t h singing' and, crowned with D^ii? nrafo, are overtaken b y nn&fcn ]1toto (v. 10). In facing the delay of the N E (Isa 56-66), the restoration o f J e r u s a l e m Zion is e v e n m o r e clearly the focal p o i n t . daughter) Zion is s u m m o n e d to a r i s e
15
14
In 60:1 ( p r e s u m a b l y prostrate
for the glory o f Y a h w e h is about to
d a w n u p o n her (cf. 4 : 5 ) . Explaining w h a t this entails involves a series o f salvation proclamations ( 6 0 - 6 2 ) ,
1 6
arguably the p i n n a c l e o f the b o o k .
1 7
F r o m the first, the imagery of light (60:1, 3 , 1 9 ; 62:2) stands in stark contrast to the present g l o o m and darkness (59:9ff; cf. 9:lff).
T h e description o f the
city's splendour (60:17f; cf. 5 4 : l l f ) is only outshone b y h e r spiritual glory w i t h its e m p h a s i s o n ' p e a c e , righteousness, salvation, and climactically, praise' (60:17ff)—again in stark contrast to the present (59:9, 1 1 , 1 6 f ) .
18
A
n e w d e v e l o p m e n t h e r e is the attribution o f characteristics o f Y a h w e h — light and r i g h t e o u s n e s s — t o Israel and J e r u s a l e m (58:8; 60:17, 2 1 ; 61:10; 62:2).
1 9
O n c e destroyed b y foreigners, J e r u s a l e m will n o w b e rebuilt b y
them (60:10). N o longer forsaken she will not only enjoy the fruits o f her labour (62:8; 65:21 ff) b u t she will b e nourished b y the wealth o f the nations (60:15ff).
S o c o m p r e h e n s i v e is this transformation o f the desolation (e.g.
64:10f) that the w h o l e is c r o w n e d in an e d e n i c description o f the n e w creation (65:17f).
N o t only is marvellous longevity seen as the n o r m for
her inhabitants, but, as in 40-55, there will b e a miraculous increase in the
w h e n c o n s i d e r e d in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e C h a o s k a m p f / w a r r i o r i m a g e r y a n d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e first E x o d u s a s a c r e a t i o n e v e n t , a n d g i v e n t h a t b o t h a r e i n p r o c l a m a t i o n s , S t u h l m e u l l e r ' s a s s e s s m e n t . Creative, is t o b e p r e f e r r e d ; a l s o v o n W a l d o w , ' M e s s a g e ' , 2 7 7 . 1
2
1
3
1
4
Clements, 'Beyond', 108. 'Invitation'. Often seen as a w i s d o m invitation, the t w o m a y not b e m u t u a l l y exclu s i v e , g i v e n t h e link b e t w e e n a c c e p t i n g Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m a n d t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m . S e e fn. 8 . M u i l e n b u r g ; cf. 5 0 : 1 ; 51:17ff; 5 2 : l f e t c . See W e s t e r m a n n , 352f. C h a r p e n t i e r , Jeunesse, 7 9 - 8 0 ; W e s t e r m a n n , 2 9 6 - 3 0 8 ; G o t t w a l d , Hebrew, 308; Polan, Ways, 14-15. 1 5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1 9
M u i l e n b u r g , ad loc; cf. B o n n a r d , ad loc. Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 3 1 3 .
INE
Expectation
of Yahweh's
299
Return
n u m b e r s and strength o f her people (60:22; cf. 54:lff). Not surprisingly, this creation of a n e w J e r u s a l e m is greeted by great j o y ( 6 5 : 1 8 ) .
20
A s the final l a m e n t reveals, all this is predicated on Y a h w e h ' s presence (63:7-64:ll).
2 1
J e r u s a l e m ' s restoration is primarily a matter o f the return
of Y a h w e h ' s glorious p r e s e n c e w h i c h is b o t h the goal o f the N E and the hallmark o f the restoration; h e n c e the s a m e kind o f self-designation w h i c h in 40:9f and 35:4 characterised the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h a p p e a r s in 6 2 : 1 1 .
2 2
W h e r e a s in the earlier chapters o f Isaiah Y a h w e h ' s glory w a s the stimulus for J e r u s a l e m ' s j u d g e m e n t , here it b e c o m e s the chief attribute o f r e d e e m e d Zion and her inhabitants (cf. 60:7, 9, 13, 19; 61:3) and so m u c h so that the e n t i r e city s e e m s to b e c o m e o n e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g T e m p l e to Y a h w e h (60:1-3; cf. 2:2ff; 4:5f).
A l t h o u g h the s u n and m o o n a p p a r e n t l y r e m a i n ,
Y a h w e h h i m s e l f will b e the c i t y ' s light (60:19f).
It is this to w h i c h the
n a t i o n s are d r a w n (62:2; cf. 2:1-5) and w h i c h c a u s e s r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d praise to spring up a m o n g them (61:11; 62:lf, 7): praise and j o y again being the m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the p e o p l e s ' r e s p o n s e t o Y a h w e h ' s s a v i n g intervention (56:7; 60:5, 6, 2 0 ; 61:2f, 7 , 1 0 , 1 1 ; 66:18ff). G i v e n the p r e c e d i n g discussion o f Isaiah 5 3 and M a r k 10:45, o n e also notes the centrality o f the XuTpov-XuTpoo) w o r d g r o u p .
The most promi
nent motif in this respect is that o f the ' r e d e e m e r ' - ^ K a ) m a r r i a g e w h e r e J e r u s a l e m , the o n c e c h i l d l e s s a n d rejected b r i d e , is n o w m i r a c u l o u s l y fruitful due to the restored marital love o f Y a h w e h ( 5 4 : 1 - 1 0 ) . Jerusalem had
23
p l a y e d t h e h a r l o t (cf. 1 2 : 2 1 ) , h e r h u s b a n d
j u d g e m e n t o f h e r w a s a matter o f discipline not divorce ( 5 4 : 4 f ; 3).
2 5
Although Yahweh's 24
cf. 5 0 : 1 -
So although forsaken for a time, s h e will b e s a v e d b y Y a h w e h , h e r
loving kinsman spouse, and
o n c e - b a r r e n J e r u s a l e m is p o r t r a y e d
as
rejoicing o v e r h e r m y r i a d d e s c e n d a n t s (44:4; 49:19ff; 5 4 : 1 - 3 ; cf. 4 9 : 2 5 ; alluding p e r h a p s to the p a t r i a r c h a l p r o m i s e s ) . 2
0
2
1
A n d this in contrast to
S e e O l l e n b u r g e r , Zion, 4 8 ; a n d R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 2 9 9 . S o F i s c h e r o n 6 3 : 7 - 6 4 : 1 1 , ' D a s P r o b l e m d e r K l a g e n d e n ist d i e g e b r o c h e n e n B e z i e h u n g z u J H W H ' , Wo?, 2 5 4 . Cf. E x 33:15ff. R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 3 0 1 ; s e e C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 0 , fn. 1 4 8 , a b o v e . S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 1 0 3 f , 115ff. K r u p p , Verhaltnis, w h o discusses role of the m a r r i a g e b o n d in c o v e n a n t a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , s e e s it a s b o t h t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e f o r chs. 4 0 - 5 5 , a n d the highlight of the c o m i n g of Y a h w e h , s u c h that ch. 5 4 forms the goal t o which the whole moves. v a n d e r M e r w e , ' E c h o e s ' ; cf. H o s 1-3; J e r 2 - 3 . M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 5 6 ; a l t h o u g h d i v o r c e is n o t a n u n c o m m o n m e t a p h o r o f p u n i s h m e n t for i d o l a t r y , J e r 3:8; H o s 2:4. 2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
300
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
p r o u d 'daughter B a b y l o n ' w h o will b e childless and w i d o w e d (47:8f). It is not surprising, then, that
-language also appears in connection with the
m o m e n t o u s chapters 60-62, both in terms o f Y a h w e h ' s advent as W a r r i o r (59:20; 63:4) and in the crowning designation o f Y a h w e h ' s people (62:12). G i v e n , t o o , the role o f the 'servant' in effecting J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s r e d e m p tion, s o m e c o m m e n t o n his relationship to J e r u s a l e m is
appropriate.
26
T h e idea o f ' c o m f o r t ' for J e r u s a l e m is key to the o p e n i n g p r o c l a m a t i o n o f 40:1 and recurs in 5 1 : 3 , 12; 52:9; and 5 4 : 1 1 , all in 49-55 and thus probably related to the action o f the 'servant'.
Indeed, in 49:13 the i n s t a l l a t i o n
27
of
the 'servant' is seen as Y a h w e h comforting his p e o p l e and his suffering in 53 apparently effects J e r u s a l e m ' s restoration.
T h a t ' c o m f o r t ' is picked up
again in 5 7 : 1 8 in conjunction with N E imagery (cf. 5 7 : 1 4 f )
28
and reiterated
in 66:13 w h e r e Y a h w e h comforts his p e o p l e in restored J e r u s a l e m under lines its i m p o r t a n c e .
29
Since in 56-66, the a n n o u n c e m e n t (and
inaugura
tion?) o f comfort, release, sight ( L X X ) , etc. is the task o f the individual in 61:1-3, it is w o r t h e x a m i n i n g his relationship with the earlier 'servant'. T h e similarities b e t w e e n this figure and the preceding ' s e r v a n t ' p o e m s h a v e long b e e n noted: the s a m e m o n o l o g u e style, similar l a n g u a g e , the anointing w i t h the Spirit o f Y a h w e h (cf. 42:1), the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f liberty to the captives (cf. 4 9 : 6 ) , v e n g e a n c e (cf. 4 9 : 8 ) .
2
6
3 1
3 0
and (perhaps) the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f the day of
O n the other h a n d , there are differences: there
O n t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h i s i s s u e , s e e n o w S t e c k , Gottesknecht, chapter, 173-207.
especially his last
7
^ W i l l i a m s o n , ' C o n c e p t ' , 1 4 6 f ; cf. M e l u g i n , Formation, 70f; v a n d e r M e r w e , Pentateuchtradisies ( c i t e d i n S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 52). 28 W e s t e r m a n n , 3 2 7 , citing Z i m m e r l i suggests that the ' w a y ' l a n g u a g e h e r e takes o n a m o r e paraenetical sense. Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 2 9 9 . W e s t e r m a n n ' s p r o p o s a l t h a t this r e f e r s n o t t o t h e c a p t i v e s b u t t o i m p r i s o n e d d e b t o r s ( 5 8 : 6 ) h a s s o m e m e r i t . B u t in v i e w o f t h e p o s t p o n e d N E b a c k g r o u n d , o f 59:9ff, t h e i m a g e r y in 4 0 - 5 5 , a n d t h e n a t u r e o f ' d e l i v e r a n c e ' t h r o u g h o u t , t h e r e m a y a l s o b e a w i d e r r e f e r e n t . 2
9
3
0
3
1
C a n n o n , ' I s a i a h ' , s e e s it o f a p i e c e w i t h t h e m , cf. H a n s o n , Dawn, 65ff; K o c h , 'Gottesgeist'; Michel, 'Eigenart'; Z i m m e r l i , '"Gnadenjahr"' (the latter s u g g e s t s that 61:lff r e p r e s e n t s t h e earliest i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the ' s e r v a n t ' s o n g s , ' S p r a c h e ' , 69ff; S c h r e i n e r , ' B u c h ' , 1 5 7 ) ; cf. C h e y n e ; D r i v e r ; M e t t i n g e r , Farewell, 1 0 ; a n d S m a r t . D e l i t z s c h , 6 2 0 , n o t e s the following similarities: e n d o w m e n t with the Spirit of Y a h w e h (42:1), Y a h w e h h a s sent h i m a n d w i t h h i m h i s S p i r i t ( 4 8 : 1 6 ? ) , h e c o m f o r t s t h e w e a r y ( 5 0 : 4 ; cf. 4 2 : 3 ) , a n d t h e deliverance mentioned here does not seem a mere prophetic announcement but an a n n o u n c e m e n t t h a t n e c e s s a r i l y i n i t i a t e s , a n d is i n t e g r a l t o , l i b e r a t i o n ( v v . 3 , 4f; cf. 4 2 : 7 ; 49:9). W h y b r a y , 239f, a l s o n o t e s the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n v. 2 a n d 4 9 : 6 . A c h t e m e i e r , Community, n o t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s : v . 1, 4 2 : 1 , 7; v . 2 , 4 9 : 8 , 1 3 ; v. 3 , 4 2 : 1 3 ; v . 4 , 4 9 : 8 ; v. 5 , 4 9 : 9 ; a n d v . 11 ( ? ) w i t h 4 9 : 1 8 ; a l t h o u g h s h e s e e s t h e ' s e r v a n t ' a s t h e c o m m u n i t y .
INE
Expectation
of Yahweh'
s
301
Return
appears to b e n o specific c o n n e c t i o n with the nations, there is n o hint o f suffering or rejection, and the p h r a s e o l o g y TIN m m leled.
32
ntin
(61:1) is unparal
W h o , then, are w e intended to see as the speaker?
F o r m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s it is the author o f this section, w h o e v e r he is u n d e r s t o o d to b e , w h i l e o t h e r s s e e an i n d i v i d u a l i s a t i o n o f the faithful c o m m u n i t y (interestingly, b o t h options are also p r o p o s e d for the earlier servant s o n g s ) .
3 3
O n the literary reading taken here, several o f the older
c o m m e n t a t o r s ' o b s e r v a t i o n s are w o r t h y o f attention.
T h i s k i n d o f self-
34
disclosure characterised earlier 'servant' p a s s a g e s — t h a t the 'servant' title does not appear is not overly problematic as it is also absent from 50:4-9. In addition, if chapters 5 6 - 6 6 represent the reconfiguration o f the N E h o p e and given that the picture o f restored Zion in chapters 60-62 is its heart, it w o u l d b e fitting that the final a n n o u n c e m e n t has a ' s e r v a n t ' figure at its c e n t r e , e s p e c i a l l y g i v e n w h a t a p p e a r s to b e the function o f the o t h e r 'servant' p a s s a g e s in regard to the I N E .
3 5
T h i s w o u l d support the natural
reading of " t o (61:1) as reflecting the concerns o f 40:9 and 5 2 : 7 .
36
While a
'mission' to the nations is not apparent—neither is it m e n t i o n e d in t w o o f the earlier ' s o n g s ' (Isa 5 0 and 53)—it is not entirely absent h e r e .
From a
literary perspective, if the restoration of J e r u s a l e m forms the centre, then the c o m i n g o f the n a t i o n s c o m p r i s e the b o o k e n d s (56:3-8; 66:18ff).
This
structure s u g g e s t s that J e r s u a l e m ' s restoration inaugurates, or is at least integral to, the m o v e m e n t o f t h o s e from the o u t e r r e g i o n s t o w a r d centre.
3 7
the
T h e r e f e r e n c e in the t w o W a r r i o r p a s s a g e s to Y a h w e h ' s
a s t o n i s h m e n t (DBti) that JnDfc f»» (59:16) o r l t b
... ^ i o
y*)
(63:5),
stresses both his intimate c o n n e c t i o n with the figure o f 61:Iff a n d Israel's total incapacity. M u c h as in the case o f the 'servant' p o e m s o f 40-55, there is t h e s a m e m a r k e d c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the p a r l o u s c o n d i t i o n o f I s r a e l N o r t h ' s final r e a s o n , Suffering, 1 3 8 f , for e x c l u d i n g 6 1 : I f f — c h s . 6 0 - 6 2 a r e n o t a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of D e u t e r o - I s a i a h — i s , in v i e w o f his a d m i s s i o n o f t h e ' u n d o u b t e d similarities', tacit s u p p o r t for its i n c l u s i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e l i t e r a r y a p p r o a c h t a k e n h e r e . ^ W h y b r a y , Isaiah, ad loc. H a n s o n , Dawn, 6 6 ; Smart, 2 5 9 ; Achtemeier sees a 'Levitical-prophetic Servant community'. D e l i t z s c h ; cf. M u i l e n b u r g , w h o s e e s t h e p r o p h e t h e r e n e v e r t h e l e s s n o t e s , 'it is s u r e l y a p r o f o u n d a n d i m p r e s s i v e m i s s i o n t h a t is g i v e n t o h i m : h e is t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o p h e t in a s u p e r l a t i v e d e g r e e . ' W h y b r a y n o t e s t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n s u c h a lofty s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n a n d yet restricted function w h e n c o m p a r e d t o the earlier prophets. 2
3
3
3
4
3
5
3
6
3
7
Cf. A c h t e m e i e r , 89ff; a n d B e u k e n , ' S e r v a n t ' . Pace W e s t e r m a n n , 3 6 5 f . Pace B o n n a r d , Isaie, 4 1 6 n 2 ; cf. A c h t e m e i e r , 1 4 7 f .
302
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
throughout 56-66 and the figure in 61:1-3. A n d just as the ' s e r v a n t ' s ' role in 52-54 is linked to the democratisation o f the promises to David (55:3), introducing the first reference to plural 'servants' in 40-55, so also h e r e .
38
Admittedly the issue is difficult but the similarities with the preceding songs (cf. 4 2 : 1 ; 49:9) can hardly have b e e n accidental. Within the confines of the b o o k it s e e m s most natural to take the speaker as the s a m e kind o f figure e n v i s a g e d in the earlier ' s o n g s ' but with the prophetic dimension emphasised (Tg. Isa 61:1 reads 'the prophet'; cf. 1 K g s 19:16; Ps 1 0 5 : 1 5 ) .
39
On
b a l a n c e , 6 1 : l f f a p p e a r s to describe a ' s e r v a n t ' figure w h o is intimately related to the I N E restoration, certainly b y w a y o f its p r o c l a m a t i o n and most probably also its inauguration.
At the s a m e time, in the two Warrior
passages o f 59:15-21 and 63:1-6 there is considerable e m p h a s i s on Y a h w e h seeing that there is n o n e to help, taking the initiative and himself c o m i n g to Jerusalem's aid. From this perspective then, the restoration o f J e r u s a l e m is a matter o f Y a h w e h c o m i n g as Warrior, but also involving a h u m a n agent (usually 40
understood b y later interpreters as a messianic figure; so Tg. Isaiah ,
and
41
cf. e.g. Pss of Sol, given its I N E i m a g e r y ) . F i n a l l y , t h e r e is o n e c r i t i c a l d i s t i n g u i s h i n g salvation d e s c r i b e d in these later chapters.
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the
It is n o l o n g e r a s s u m e d to
include Israel as a whole. Just prior to the conclusion o f the book, w e have Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e to the p r e c e d i n g l a m e n t s (65:Iff): h e h a s a l l o w e d himself to b e found b y those w h o w e r e not seeking him—the phrase ^jan 4 2
'jan as w e h a v e seen has strong connections with the N E o f 4 0 - 5 5 — b u t they did n o t respond (65:2ff).
43
So, in contrast to 40-55 w h e r e salvation was
offered to the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y , the threat implicit in, for e x a m p l e , chapter 4 8 has developed into a definite cleavage b e t w e e n the faithful and the w i c k e d .
4 4
Y a h w e h n o w also has an ironic w o r d o f ' c o m f o r t ' for his
enemies (57:6; 66:5; cf. 1:24). Isaiah 65:13-16 is exemplary o f this decisive rift 3
8
3
9
4
0
4
1
4
2
B e u k e n , ' M a i n ' , 8 1 - 8 5 , n o t i n g t h a t 1 3 1 ) in 5 6 - 6 6 is a l w a y s p l u r a l , ( s e e f u r t h e r b e l o w ) . Cf. E m m e r s o n , Isaiah, 4 2 .
S e e a g a i n t h e r o l e o f t h e M e s s i a h in s e v e r a l e d i t i o n s o f Tg. Isa 4 2 : I f f ; 5 2 : 1 3 f ; a n d 53:10ff; a l s o C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 7 . E . g . Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 1 , 3 2 . In t h e light o f Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 1 , cf. I s a 4 2 : l f f ; 4 9 : l f f , e t c . ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 3 1 ; cf. I s a 5 5 : 5 ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 4 ; cf. I s a 4 9 : 2 ; 2 7 b ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 7 ; cf. I s a 5 4 : 1 3 ; Pss. Sol. 17:30; cf. I s a 4 5 : 1 4 ; 4 9 : 2 2 . S e e a l s o S c h i i p p h a u s , Psalmen, 124ff a n d 1 1 5 . Also Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 3 0 1 . O n t h e l i t e r a r y u n i t y o f this s e c t i o n , W e b s t e r , ' R h e t o r i c ' . W e s t e r m a n n , 301f, 330f, 399f. 4
3
4
4
INE
Expectation
of Yahweh's
with its fivefold c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n
"HZii?
303
Return
and the i d o l a t r o u s .
45
E v e n the
m e n t i o n o f the v o i c e o f Y a h w e h ' s retribution in the ^D^n in Isaiah 6 6 : 6 s u g g e s t s the j u d g e m e n t m o t i f that w a s earlier associated w i t h the t e m p l e in I s a i a h 6, a n d a g a i n the r e c i p i e n t s a p p e a r to b e faithless I s r a e l i t e s .
46
Several observations are in order. First, in v i e w o f t h e interest in the e a r l y c h a p t e r s o n idolatry, it is significant that not o n l y d o the w o r d s of j u d g e m e n t in 56-66 consistently follow accounts of idolatry (57:13, cf. vv. 1-12; 65:6f, cf. vv. 1-5; 65:12a, 13-15, cf. v. l l f ; 66:4, cf. vv. 3 , 1 7 ) , b u t idolatry is almost exclusively g i v e n as the reason for j u d g e m e n t .
T h e relationship b e t w e e n b l i n d n e s s / d e a f n e s s a n d
idolatry is implicit in the fact that it is in precisely these c o n t e x t s that the language o f deafness occurs (65:12; 6 6 : 4 ) .
47
S e c o n d , t h e t e r m ^1.2 V h i g h l i g h t s an i n t e r e s t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t .
In
chapters 40-55 the application o f the ' s e r v a n t ' designation w a s apparently r e d u c e d to a n individual, the ' s e r v a n t ' par excellence. H o w e v e r , after the c o m p l e t i o n o f his activity, the plural reappears and s e e m s to b e related to those w h o are the beneficiaries o f his activity (miT ^2V, In chapters 5 6 - 6 6 this trend c o n t i n u e s .
49
o n c e only, 5 4 : 1 7 ) .
48
W h i l e the term ' s e r v a n t s ' in 63:17
m a y recall Israel's earlier election, it could also look forward to those w h o will b e r e d e e m e d in the now-deferred N e w E x o d u s and indeed ' s e r v a n t s ' is used thereafter solely in this latter sense (65:8, 9 , 1 3 - 1 5 (5 x ' s ) ; 66:14).
What
is particularly n o t e w o r t h y , if I a m correct in reading the "ni? t e r m i n o l o g y in this w a y , is that, for the first t i m e in the entire b o o k , i n d e e d in t h e introduction o f 56-66, foreigners are described as ministering to Y a h w e h as his D ' l M (56:6; cf. v. 8; see b e l o w ) .
50
In c o n c l u s i o n then, the I N E restoration o f J e r u s a l e m is c l o s e l y linked with the return of Y a h w e h himself and ' s e r v a n t ' , w h o in l a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n u n d e r s t o o d in m e s s i a n i c terms.
the career o f an
enigmatic
is s o m e t i m e s a n d o n l y in p a r t
At the s a m e time, t h e r e is an bifurcation
in national Israel with Y a h w e h distinguishing b e t w e e n his ' s e r v a n t s ' , w h o
4
5
S e e B e u k e n , ' M a i n ' , 7 8 f ; A c h t e m e i e r , 122ff.
4
6
4
7
Pace W e s t e r m a n n ; cf. W h y b r a y . P e r h a p s a l s o cf. 5 6 : 1 2 a n d 6 5 : 1 1 . S o e.g. N o r t h , cf. W e s t e r m a n n . S o n o w also Beuken, 'Main'. See also W e s t e r m a n n , 3 1 2 ; A c h t e m e i e r , 35f.
4
8
4
9
5
0
304
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
n o w apparently include foreigners, and those w h o although natural born h a v e apostatised. b) Jesus'
Entry
into
Jerusalem
T h e healing o f blind Bartimaeus, replete with the messianic connotations of his plea for help, is intended b y M a r k not o n l y to c o n c l u d e his ' W a y ' section b y recalling Peter's 'trees-as-men-walking' confession but also to set the scene for J e s u s ' carefully orchestrated entry into J e r u s a l e m .
51
In this
respect D a v i d C a t c h p o l e n o t e s the repetition o f 66dc; t e r m i n o l o g y ( M k 10:46, 5 2 ; 11:8), o f the Davidic acclamation (10:47f; 11:10), o f the reference to i j i a p T i o v (10:50; l l : 7 f ) , of the p r o m i n e n c e o f the salvation t h e m e (10:52; 11:9), and o f the linking o f acclamation with the act o f following (10:52; 11:9).
52
That M a r k devotes as m u c h space as h e does to a detailed chronicle
of what at first s e e m s immaterial detail ought to alert us to its significance. At the s a m e time this section is part o f a larger, double i n t e r c a l a t i o n : Jesus' identity a n d authority: 'triumphal' e n t r y (Ps 118:25f)
53
(11:1-11)
C u r s i n g o f t h e fig-tree
(11:12-14)
I n c i d e n t ( ' c l e a n s i n g ' ? ) in t h e T e m p l e (Isa 5 6 : 7 / J e r 7 : 1 1 )
(11:15-19)
W i t h e r e d fig-tree, a n d m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g
(11: 20-25)
Jesus' identity a n d authority: authority questioned, response in t h e v i n e y a r d p a r a b l e a n d s t o n e s a y i n g ( P s 118:22f)
(11:26 - 1 2 : 1 2 )
Similarly, F . J . Matera had earlier suggested that M a r k frames this material in three w a y s : the S o n of David issue (11:10, [cf. 10:47f]; 12:35f), the double quotation o f Psalm 118 ( l l : 9 f ; 12:10f), and references to the M o u n t of Olives (11:1; 1 3 : 3 ) .
54
M a r k , therefore, s e e m s to regard this section as forming a
unified w h o l e w h i c h deals in s o m e w a y with the relationship b e t w e e n the c o m i n g o f J e s u s a n d the T e m p l e and, o n c e again, the k e y issues are his identity a n d authority (11:28; cf. the p r o g r a m m a t i c r e s p o n s e to the first miracle:
5
1
5
2
TI
€cmv
TOOTO;
6i6axf|
Koavf| K G T '
e^ouaiav, 1:27).
55
C a t c h p o l e , ' E n t r y ' , 321ff. G u n d r y , 6 3 4 f , w h o a l l o w s n o s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o b u t s e e s 1 0 : 4 6 - 5 2 o n l y a s b e i n g i n t e g r a l t o J e s u s ' p r e c e d i n g m i n i s t r y , r e g a r d s 11:1 Iff 'as an uneventful e n t r y b y a private pilgrim', 6 3 5 . This h a r d l y s e e m s the plain m e a n i n g of 11:8-10. 'Entry', 3 1 9 . W h i l e not wishing to overstate the connections, G u n d r y ' s dismissal of them, 634, seems hasty. Cf. H o o k e r , 2 6 1 , b u t w i t h 1 2 : 1 - 1 2 a d d e d . Kingship, 68f. S e e C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 227ff, a b o v e . 5
3
5
4
5
5
Jesus'
Entry
into
305
Jerusalem
In terms o f general b a c k g r o u n d , C a t c h p o l e and B r e n t K i n m a n h a v e both d r a w n attention to the i m p o r t a n c e o f the entries o f visiting digni taries in the ancient w o r l d .
56
C a t c h p o l e notes the basic features o f such
entries w h e r e i n J e r u s a l e m w a s involved: they are often the c o n s e q u e n c e of having w o n a great victory and having already achieved considerable status,
involve
a 'formal
and
ceremonial
entry',
entail
greetings,
acclamations, and invocations o f G o d , peak in a visit to the T e m p l e , and e m b r a c e s o m e sort of cultic activity. J e s u s ' entry clearly shares a n u m b e r o f these standard t r a i t s .
57
In addition, granted M a r k ' s interest in the O T as Rahmen
for his gospel
and the thorough-going O T language of the acclamation ( l l : 9 f ) , w e should p e r h a p s also look for possible O T antecedents; but as K i n m a n points out celebratory e n t r a n c e s into J e r u s a l e m are n o t c o m m o n l y detailed in t h e OT.
5 8
Nevertheless, w i t h o u t m i n i m i s i n g the substantial a g r e e m e n t w i t h
features of c o n t e m p o r a r y entries, the O T parallels suggests that M a r k also intends J e s u s ' entry to b e understood particularly in the light o f 'royal' (to use K i n m a n ' s terminology, 1 K g s 1; cf. Zech 9:9-10), and possibly 'coming o f the ark' (2 S a m 6 ) , arrivals. First, in terms of the 'royal' category, the accent on ' S o n o f D a v i d ' in the preceding Bartimaeus pericope and the k i n g d o m language (cf. rj cpxoucvri p a a i X c i a TOU TraTpoc;
fjucjv Aaui6, M k 11:10) stress its 'regal' n a t u r e .
59
Jesus
also rides u p o n a animal rather than walks (cf. 1 K g s 1:33, 3 8 ; Z e c h 9 : 9 ) ,
60
he is hailed as king ( M k 11:10; 1 K g s 1:34, 39; Zech 9:9), the attendant chorus
5
6
K i n m a n , Entry, 2 5 - 6 5 , f r o m w h o s e w o r k — a l t h o u g h it is c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h L u k e — a n u m b e r o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s a r e d r a w n . S e e a l s o t h e b r i e f e r s u m m a r i e s in Catchpole's earlier article, 'Entry', 3 1 9 - 2 1 , w h e r e h e notes v a r i o u s parallels with the a r r i v a l s o f A l e x a n d e r in J o s . Ant. 1 1 . 3 2 5 - 3 9 , 3 4 2 - 4 5 ; A p o l l o n i u s in 2 M a c e 4 : 2 1 f ; J u d a s M a c c a b a e u s , 1 M a c e 4 : 1 9 - 2 5 ; 5 : 4 5 - 5 4 ; J o s . Ant. 1 2 . 3 1 2 , 3 4 8 f ; J o n a t h a n M a c c a b a e u s , 1 M a c e 1 0 : 8 6 ; S i m o n M a c c a b a e u s , 1 M a c e 1 3 : 4 3 - 4 8 , 4 9 - 5 1 ; A n t i g o n u s , B.J. 1.73f; Ant. 1 3 . 3 0 4 - 6 ; e t c . , a n d n o w Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 59ff; C o a k l e y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 470ff, c i t i n g a l s o P e t e r s o n , ' E i n h o l u n g ' . 5
7
5
8
5
9
6
0
C a t c h p o l e , ibid., 3 2 1 ; cf. K i n m a n , Entry, K i n m a n , Entry, 4 8 - 6 5 .
9 1 - 1 2 2 ; a n d Duff, ' M a r c h ' .
S e e a l s o M a t e r a , Kingship, 7 0 - 7 4 . G u n d r y ' s c l a i m , 6 2 6 , t h a t M a r k is u n i n t e r e s t e d in J e s u s ' k i n g s h i p s i n c e h e fails t o q u o t e Z e c h 9:9 ( M t d o e s ) a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e a m b i g u i t y o f T T C S A O S " , is difficult t o r e c o n c i l e w i t h h i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t J e s u s is a c t i n g ' m e s s i a n i c a l l y b y c a r r y i n g o u t Z e c h 9 : 9 ' , 6 3 3 . W h i l e M a r k m a y n o t w i s h t o e m p h a s i s e t h e fact, t h e p a r a l l e l s h e r e o f f e r e d s u g g e s t t h a t a k i n g s h i p m o t i f is n o t far a w a y . R a t h e r t h a n r e p u d i a t e t h e i d e a of J e s u s a s I s r a e l ' s k i n g , M a r k a n C h r i s t o l o g y r e c a s t s I s r a e l ' s i d e a l o f k i n g s h i p . Mark's TTCJXOS', while perhaps indicating 'horse' to a R o m a n audience (so G u n d r y , 6 2 6 ) , is a n o t u n c o m m o n P a l e s t i n i a n t e r m for a d o n k e y c o l t a n d M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e c o u l d h a v e b e e n f a m i l i a r e n o u g h w i t h t h e s t o r y t o r e c o g n i s e w h a t a n i m a l w a s in v i e w , M i c h e l , ' F r a g e ' .
306
Isaiah's
Promise
...
from t h o s e w h o p a r t i c i p a t e 118:26),
6 2
Malachi's
61
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
has messianic o v e r t o n e s ( M k l l : 9 f ; cf. Ps
a n d the c o v e r i n g o f the p a t h with g a r m e n t s recalls J e h u ' s
acclamation (cf. 2 K g s 9 : 1 2 - 1 3 ) .
63
T h e detailed account o f J e s u s ' prepara
tions, in particular the thorough instructions, and the subsequent recital of t h e i r fulfilment
not only suggests
their import
but
thereby
invites
c o m p a r i s o n with the pattern o f D a v i d ' s preparations for S o l o m o n (1 K g s 1:33, 38). O f course, M a r k has twice informed us that Jesus has accepted the designation ' S o n o f D a v i d ' . A n d as, for example, Psalms
of Solomon
17:21-
22, 30-33 m a k e s clear—granted this is a royal task in the O T (e.g. 2 K g s 12; 2 3 ) 6 4 — t h e c o m i n g o f the Davidic King sits alongside an expectation o f the p u r g i n g o f J e r u s a l e m w h i c h is in effect w h a t J e s u s signals in the outer court o f the T e m p l e (see b e l o w ) . the d y y a p c i a
conventions
6 6
6 5
In addition, there are s u c h features as
and, d e p e n d i n g o n the extent to w h i c h the
later written sources reflect earlier traditions, similarities with the 'colt' o f the m e s s i a n i c a l l y interpreted oracle o f G e n e s i s 4 9 : 1 0 - 1 2 heighten the royal and messianic character o f the e v e n t .
68
6 7
which
further
T a k e n together
this data suggests that M a r k intentionally presents J e s u s ' c o m i n g in 'royal', and almost certainly, 'messianic' terms which are then picked up in J e s u s ' 6
1
It is i m p o r t a n t n o t t o o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e s i z e o f t h e c r o w d i n v o l v e d . M a r k u s e s t h e t e r m s T T O X X O I a n d a X X o i , b u t d o e s n o t u s e o x X o s T T X C I O T O S , a s h e d o e s in e.g. M k 4:1. O n t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s i z e o f J e s u s ' e n t r y v e r s u s t h a t o f P i l a t e , s e e K i n m a n , Entry, 1 5 9 - 7 2 . 1
2
£ W e r n e r , " ' H o s a n n a ' " , c i t i n g e.g. b. Pesah 1 1 7 b ; y. Meg. 2 . 1 ; L o h s e , TDNT, 9.682-84, c i t i n g Midr. Ps. 1 1 8 : 2 2 ; S c h n e i d e r , TDNT, 2 . 6 6 7 - 7 1 ; J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, 257ff; Str-B, 1 . 8 4 5 - 5 0 . A l t h o u g h m u c h o f t h e e v i d e n c e is q u i t e l a t e , s e e B u r g e r , Jesus, 4 8 , it is w i d e s p r e a d w h i c h s u g g e s t s a n e a r l y o r i g i n , C o a k l e y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 4 7 3 f f , c i t i n g a l s o Tg. Pss 1 1 8 . O n t h e probable m e a n i n g of 'Hosanna', see Fitzmyer, 'Interpretation'. 6
3
6
4
6
5
6
6
6
7
6
8
C o a k l e y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 4 7 2 f , in c i t i n g t h e c a s e o f t h e y o u n g e r C a t o ( P l u t a r c h , Cato Minor xii. I ) w h o ' w a s a c c o r d e d s i m i l a r t r e a t m e n t . . . b y h i s t r o o p s ' s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y o v e r t o n e s w o u l d s u i t a m e s s i a n i c l e a d e r . B u r k i l l , 'Strain', 3 4 , a n d K i n m a n , Entry, 9 5 , a l s o s u g g e s t t h e ' M o u n t o f O l i v e s ' s e t t i n g ( Z e c h 1 4 : 1 - 5 ; cf. 2 S a m 1 5 : 3 0 ) ; b u t s e e G u n d r y ' s criticisms, 6 3 3 . J e r e m i a s , Jesus, 4 1 - 4 4 . M a r c u s , 1 3 8 ; D a v e n p o r t , '"Anointed"', 6 8 ; Hamilton, 'Temple', 370ff; also Kee, Community, 1 2 6 , w h e r e h e c i t e s t h e u s e o f t h e c l e a n s i n g m o t i f in I s a 5 6 i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a D a v i d i c k i n g a t Q u m r a n in 4 Q F l o r a n d 4 Q P B l e s s , b u t I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o s u b s t a n t i a t e his claims; see Seeley, 'Act', 277. I m p r e s s m e n t , w h i l e p e r m i t t e d for o t h e r s , w a s v e r y m u c h a ' r o y a l p r e r o g a t i v e ' , Stauffer, ' M e s s i a s ' , 8 5 ; D e r r e t t , ' P a l m ' . T h e 6 Kiipios p r o b a b l y m e a n s n o m o r e t h a n o n e w h o is a ' l e g i t i m a t e c l a i m a n t ' . J u d g e , NDIEC, 1.43. O n t h e m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f G e n 4 9 : 1 0 f f (e.g. Tg. Onq.', Tg. Ps.-J.; Tg. Neof.; cf. 4 Q P B l e s s ) a n d its c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Z e c h 9 : 9 , B l e n k i n s o p p , ' O r a c l e ' ; M a t e r a , Kingship, 71ff; cf. P e s c h , 2 . 1 7 9 . Pace K e l b e r , 'Kingdom, 94ff, w h o h a s M a r k rejecting t h e a c c l a m a t i o n ; s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in e.g. C a t c h p o l e , ' E n t r y ' , 3 2 6 ; a n d T e l f o r d , Barren, 2 5 1 - 6 9 .
Jesus'
Entry
into
307
Jerusalem
anointing (14:3), the repeated s t a t e m e n t s d u r i n g the trial (15:2, 9, 1 2 ) , P i l a t e ' s e p i g r a p h y o n the c r o s s (15:26), a n d the m o c k e r y o f the J e w s (15:32).
69
T h a t M a r k records that 'those going before and after' offered a
m e s s i a n i c a c c l a m a t i o n h a r d l y m e a n s h e rejects t h e n o t i o n o f J e s u s as Messiah. A s i d e from indicating h o w Jesus should h a v e been received, it is also an ironic indication that the c r o w d , w h o has not b e e n privy to J e s u s ' p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s o r e n s u i n g teaching, is n o further a d v a n c e d in its p e r c e p t i o n o f w h a t this e n t a i l s t h a n w a s P e t e r w h e n h e offered
his
confession at the beginning of the ' W a y ' . But w h a t o f the idea o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g h i m s e l f which is so crucial to the INE? K i n m a n has suggested s o m e parallels with the ' c o m i n g o f the ark' model w h i c h has both 'royal'—'the Lord is K i n g ' (cf. Ps 24:8; Isa 43:15; Zeph
3:15)—and 'military'
associations, but
representative o f Y a h w e h ' s kingly p r e s e n c e .
70
is first
and
foremost
H e points out that M a r k ' s
interest in J e s u s ' preparation for his entry is not only reminiscent o f those for S o l o m o n b u t also for the c o m i n g of the ark to J e r u s a l e m in 2 S a m u e l 6—'each b e i n g a royal w e l c o m e o f a s o r t ' .
71
In this case 'the concern for the
transport o f J e s u s , the king, could b e seen as analogous to the preparations m a d e for the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h , the king, symbolically in the a r k ' .
72
In
this r e s p e c t , K i n m a n n o t e s the ' n e w n e s s ' o f the w a g o n ( 2 S a m 6 : 3 ) , s u g g e s t i n g it is set a s i d e for s a c r e d p u r p o s e s , c o m p a r i n g it w i t h
the
' u n u s e d ' colt. G r a n t e d that w h e n c o m p a r t e d to L u k e ' s treatment o f this c o n n e c t i o n , M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n is not q u i t e as o b v i o u s .
7 3
Still, given
M a r k ' s account o f J e s u s to date, the expression 'in the n a m e o f the L o r d ' almost certainly m e a n s 'with authority to act on b e h a l f o f the L o r d ' and therefore J e s u s is at the very least Y a h w e h ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
74
C a n w e say m o r e ? W e have already suggested that M a r k ' s introductory sentence and J e s u s - a s - Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r m o t i f imply that J e s u s is in s o m e 6
9
7
0
7
1
O n t h e k i n g s h i p o f J e s u s in t h e p a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e , s e e e s p e c i a l l y M a t e r a , Kingship. S e e h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e O T p a t t e r n , ibid., 5 8 - 6 0 . Ibid., 9 1 . Ibid., 9 2 . Ibid., lOlf. H o w e v e r , in t h e l i g h t o f J e s u s ' j u d g e m e n t o n J e r u s a l e m , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e L X X o f 1 S a m 6 : 1 9 t h e s o n s o f J e c h o n i a h d i e b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t rejoice a t t h e r e t u r n o f t h e a r k , cf. P s 68:lff. 7
2
7
3
7
4
G u n d r y , 6 3 1 . Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 5 9 f , o b s e r v e s t h a t o n o c c a s i o n G r a e c o - R o m a n e n t r i e s w e r e d e s c r i b e d in e p i p h a n i c t e r m s t a k i n g o n t h e a s p e c t o f t h e e n t r a n c e o f a d e i t y . G i v e n t h e O T e c h o e s , h o w e v e r , it is d o u b t f u l if M a r k i n t e n d e d h i s a c c o u n t t o b e r e a d p r i m a r i l y in t h i s light.
308
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
w a y uniquely to b e identified with the very presence of Y a h w e h , that is, h e is the S o n o f G o d .
T h e motifs in M a r k l l : l f f w o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t b e
antithetical to the O T idea o f a ' d i v i n e ' e n t r y .
75
Further, as C a t c h p o l e
pointed out, these entries often c a m e as a celebratory c o n s e q u e n c e o f a victory already achieved. Is this the case for M a r k ? Catchpole, in rejecting R e i m a r u s ' o p i n i o n that J e s u s h a s in m i n d a ' s e c u l a r k i n g d o m ' , points to 'the presupposed victory that is clearly gained b y healings, o f w h i c h M a r k 10:46-52 is intended as a typical e x a m p l e ' .
76
A s s u m i n g an I N E paradigm,
this is certainly the case in that J e s u s ' healings testify to Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g 'in strength' o n b e h a l f o f his p e o p l e .
77
It is even m o r e so, however, if o n e
reads the e n t r y in the light o f M a r k ' s constant and e m p h a t i c portrayal o f J e s u s as the o n e w h o has defeated the d e m o n i c (3:22-27; cf. 1:21-8; 5:1-20; 7:24-30; 9:14-29; also 3:15; 6:7-13; and 1:34, 3 9 ; 3 : 1 0 f ) . would
78
This connection
o n l y b e r e i n f o r c e d i f t h e ' e n t r y ' g e n r e led o n e to e x p e c t the
possibility o f an earlier victory. A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, Paul Duff has recently argued o n the b a s i s o f a putative Z e c h a r i a h 14 b a c k g r o u n d to M a r k 11:1-23 and again
understood
within the Graeco-Roman genre o f 'entries' that M a r k presents J e s u s as the D i v i n e W a r r i o r (of Z e c h a r i a h ) w h o c o m e s to J e r u s a l e m a n d p u r g e s T e m p l e , a m o n g other things, o f its t r a d e r s .
79
the
Granted that the idea o f the
Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r m o t i f is p i v o t a l , a p a r t from t h e c o n c e p t u a l i d e a o f 8 0
e x p e l l i n g t h e t r a d e r s w h i c h m a y reflect Z e c h a r i a h 1 4 : 2 1 b — a l t h o u g h M a r k ' s J e s u s ejects not just the sellers but also the buyers—there is in fact very little else of Zechariah 14 echoed h e r e .
81
Starting out at the M o u n t of
O l i v e s ( M k 11:1) m a y just possibly b e an allusion to Z e c h a r i a h 14:4, but then, M a r k 11:23 notwithstanding, there is nothing that corresponds to the predicted cataclysmic results (Zech 4:4b, 6-8). That all the c o o k i n g pots in J e r u s a l e m will b e h o l y (Zech 14:21) differs from J e s u s ' interdicting those
7
5
7
6
7
7
7
8
7
9
8
0
8
1
S e e K i n m a n , Entry, ' E n t r y ' , 322ff.
5 9 f , c i t i n g L X X P s s 2 3 : 7 - 1 0 ; 46:6ff; 67:24ff; 131:7f.
S e e C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 170ff, a b o v e . See again Chapter 6, pp. 152-60, 163-64, 166-69. ' M a r c h ' , 6 5 n n 4 2 a n d 4 4 , c i t i n g in s u p p o r t o f a Z e c h 1 4 h o r i z o n , E v a n s , 'Galilee'; R o t h , ' C l e a n s i n g ' ; S c h w e i z e r , Mark, 2 3 1 ; H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' ; M a l b o n , Narrative, 121-24; and Catchpole, 'Entry'. R e c e n t l y , Tilly, ' K a n a a n a n e r ' , in e x a m i n i n g t h e T a r g u m s h a s s h o w n t h a t can a l s o r e f e r t o ' b e t r u g e r i s c h e n ' a n d ' s o z i a l d i s q u a l i f i z i e r t e H a n d l e r ' , 35f. B u t w h e t h e r this is w h a t J e s u s i m p l i e s b y X ^ a T a i is a n o t h e r m a t t e r ( s e e b e l o w ) . S e e Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 6 6 .
Jesus'
carrying a vessel (Mk 1 1 : 1 6 ) , reference
to
Yahweh's
unambiguously so.
Entry
82
into
309
Jerusalem
a n d a l t h o u g h Z e c h a r i a h 14:5b m i g h t b e a
procession
to
Jerusalem
it
is
not
in
fact
Nevertheless, given Mark's earlier presentation of
J e s u s , it w o u l d a p p e a r that w e h a v e h e r e t h e e n t r y o f t h e v i c t o r i o u s ' D i v i n e W a r r i o r ' into J e r u s a l e m .
83
In the s a m e vein, the exultant praise o f
the ' m a n y ' is entirely in keeping with the j o y and praise w h i c h a c c o m p a n y Y a h w e h ' s restorational c o m i n g to Zion in the I N E . G i v e n t h e foregoing a n d o u r a r g u m e n t for the c o r r e l a t i o n o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' with the I N E , it is p o s s i b l e that there are also e c h o e s o f the j o y o u s p r o c e s s i o n o f Y a h w e h a n d h i s p e o p l e to Z i o n in I s a i a h 3 5 .
Although
displaying b u t few direct linguistic parallels (e.g. 'blind', ' w a y ' ) , there are a number
of interesting conceptual correspondences: A ) the coming o f
Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e in J e s u s , the S o n o f G o d and Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r w i t h v e n g e a n c e ' t o s a v e ' ( l l : 9 f ; Isa 35:4), B) the blind m a n is e n c o u r a g e d (10:49; cf. Isa 35:4), receives his sight (10:52; cf. Isa 35:5), and is thus ' s a v e d ' (10:52; cf. Isa 35:4), C ) they are o n the ' W a y ' (10:52; cf. 4 6 ; Isa 35:8), D ) t h e y e n t e r Z i o n with j o y (11:1, 8f; cf. Isa 3 5 : 1 0 ) , a n d E ) d e c l a r e t h e p r a i s e s o f G o d (11:10b, (hoavva
kv TOIC; u i | n a T o i c ; ; cf. Isa 35:2, TO UI^OC; TOU 6 € 0 \ J ) .
What
s e e m to h a v e h e r e in t h e c e l e b r a t o r y ' e n t r y ' o f t h e S o n o f G o d
we
and
victorious W a r r i o r a c c o m p a n i e d b y his ' h e a l e d ' p e o p l e into J e r u s a l e m is the M a r k a n equivalent o f the c l i m a x o f the I N E . H o w e v e r , M a r k h a s a l r e a d y a d u m b r a t e d o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s that all is n o t w e l l .
K i n m a n ' s o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e d i s c u s s i o n is to
s h o w , in t e r m s o f b o t h the general 'entry' and m o r e particular ' r o y a l ' a n d 'messianic' genres, the significance o f Jesus not being m e t b y city officials o r leading citizens n o r b e i n g escorted b a c k to the city. S u c h a response, or lack thereof, to J e s u s ' T i a p o u a i a c a n o n l y b e interpreted as an intentional a n d blatant affront.
84
T h a t their first meeting, w h e n at last the authorities d o
appear, is o n e o f confrontation ( M k 11:27-33) only heightens the insult a n d h e l p s explain t h e severity o f J e s u s ' r e s p o n s e in the p a r a b l e o f the tenants (Mark 12:1-12).
In k e e p i n g w i t h I s a i a h ' s p r o m i s e d I N E a n d M a l a c h i ' s
w a r n i n g , I s r a e l ' s m e s s i a n i c - ' s e r v a n t ' - d e l i v e r e r and S o n o f G o d h a s at last 8
2
8
3
8
4
A s Duff recognises, 'March', 5 6 , telling against Roth's suggestion, 'Cleansing', 177f; see B a u c k h a m , ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' , 77f. T h e integration, o r at least blurring, of roles of the Divine W a r r i o r a n d the Messiah c a n b e s e e n in e.g. 4 E z r a 1 3 : 1 - 3 , cf. v. 3 7 ; Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 6 7 n 5 5 . K i n m a n , ibid., 1 2 1 .
310
Isaiah's
c o m e to Z i o n .
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
B u t in a s t u n n i n g r e v e r s a l o f t h e I N E h o p e , official
Jerusalem h a s in a m o s t pointed m a n n e r not w e l c o m e d h i m . W h a t might transpire w h e n h e 'suddenly c o m e s to his T e m p l e ' is not a h a p p y thought.
85
III. Jesus and the Temple a)
Introduction
O n c e a g a i n the t h e m e s o f the I N E e x p e c t a t i o n a n d the a n c i e n t formal 'entry' g e n r e coincide. A standard feature o f the formal ' e n t r y ' is that the processional entrance is followed b y a ceremonial visit to a temple; M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' T e m p l e visit is therefore true to t y p e .
8 6
Duff's article
offers an additional insightful nuance. T o offer sacrifice or to participate in s o m e sort o f cultic activity a m o u n t e d to an ' a c t o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n ' , ' p r o v i d e d t h e c o n q u e r o r the religious l e g i t i m a t i o n to r u l e ' .
8 7
and
In M a r k ,
h o w e v e r , w e hear nothing o f a regular cultic activity but instead o f J e s u s ' condemnation of present practice.
H e r e his p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s as
D a v i d ' s S o n r e s o n a t e s with the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d e x p e c t a t i o n s o f T e m p l e c l e a n s i n g (again, Pss. Sol. 1 7 ) . Similarly, at the c u l m i n a t i o n o f the I N E , Y a h w e h is greatly c o n c e r n e d with the restoration o f 'his h o u s e ' (56:5, 7; 60:7; cf. M k 11:17).
In v i e w o f the implications o f M a r k ' s introductory
appeal to M a l a c h i 3 : 1 , it is not h a r d see in J e s u s , as T. A. Burkill suggests, 'the Lord o f the temple and the God-sent guardian o f its s a n c t i t y ' .
88
Mark's
account o f J e s u s ' visiting the T e m p l e and looking around s e e m s intended to set the stage for his actions o n the next d a y .
89
H e also twice mentions
that J e s u s does not remain in J e r u s a l e m (11:11b, 1 9 ) , a w i t h d r a w a l w h i c h m a y indicate the messianic K i n g ' s awareness, o n the basis o f his s n u b b e d entry, that h e is u n w e l c o m e in his o w n c i t y .
8
5
8
6
90
A l t h o u g h of s o m e relevance, since they d o not immediately involve allusions to I s a i a h (e.g. I s a 5 6 in t h e T e m p l e ) o r M a l a c h i ( t h e ' c u r s i n g ' ) , w e will n o t b e e x a m i n i n g t h e c l a i m s o f t h e f a l s e w i t n e s s e s a t t h e trial, 1 4 : 5 8 , n o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e v e i l b e i n g t o r n , 1 5 : 3 8 . O n t h i s s e e e.g. D o n a h u e , Kingship, 1 0 3 - 3 8 , 201ff; J u e l , Messiah, 1 1 7 - 2 2 5 ; L u h r m a n n , ' Z e r s t o r u n g ' ; M a t e r a , Kingship, 137ff; V o g t l e , ' T e m p e l w o r t e ' ; a n d K i m , ' T e m p l e ' . E.g. A r c h e l a u s ' 'royal' entry into Jerusalem w a s also followed b y a procession to the T e m p l e , J o s . Ant. 1 7 . 1 9 4 f f , C a t c h p o l e , ' E n t r y ' , 3 2 1 ; Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 60ff. 'March', 62. 'Strain', 37. Lane, 398; Gundry, 635. 8
7
8
8
8
9
9
0
Pesch, 2.187, s u g g e s t s lack of a c c o m m o d a t i o n .
The
Fig-Tree
and
the
311
Temple
In terms o f M a r k ' s literary technique, it is c o m m o n l y accepted that the i n t e r c a l a t i o n o f the c u r s i n g o f the fig-tree and t h e T e m p l e - ' i n c i d e n t ' reflects his c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m e t h o d o f i n d i c a t i n g that the p a s s a g e s
are
mutually interpretive and s y m b o l i s e the e n d o f the cultic practice in the T e m p l e , a n d e v e n its p h y s i c a l destruction (cf. 1 3 : 2 ) . recently been questioned examined.
9 2
91
This has more
o n v a r i o u s g r o u n d s a n d w i l l n e e d to b e
A related issue is the apparent contradiction b e t w e e n the
clear statements in M a r k c o n c e r n i n g the destruction o f the T e m p l e (e.g. 13:lff) and the s y m b o l i s m o f J e s u s ' action in the 'cleansing', or better still 93
'incident' (to u s e M . D . H o o k e r ' s non-prejudicial t e r m ) , w h i c h s e e m s not to signify destruction ( l l : 1 5 f )
9 4
Further, h o w is o n e to understand J e s u s '
aphoristic teaching in the outer court and his ' s t o n e ' saying at the end o f the 'wicked tenants' parable? b) The Fig-Tree
and the
Temple
J e s u s ' cursing the fig-tree has generated a good deal o f discussion as W . R. Telford's e x t e n s i v e s u r v e y s h o w s .
9 5
M a n y scholars h a v e understood its
relationship to the T e m p l e incident as a mutually interpretative c o m p l e x such that the cursing o f the tree bespeaks the T e m p l e ' s future.
However,
R. H. G u n d r y h a s recently devoted a entire subsection o f his c o m m e n t a r y to challenging this near-consensus, and particularly Telford, w h o s e m o n o graph has largely shaped present day d e b a t e .
96
G u n d r y ' s primary points,
w h i c h m a y s e r v e as a c o n v e n i e n t s u m m a r y o f t h e major (and
9
1
9
2
some
S e e e.g. D o b s c h u t z , ' E r z a h l e r k u n s t ' ; D o n a h u e , Christ, 5 8 - 6 3 ; A c h t e m e i e r , 2 3 - 2 6 ; T e l f o r d , Barren, in s u m m a r y , 161ff; B u r k i l l , 'Strain', 3 8 ; S c h n e l l b a c h e r , ' T h e o l o g y ' ; K e l b e r , 9 7 - 1 0 2 ; H o o k e r , ' T r a d i t i o n s ' ; E d w a r d s , ' S a n d w i c h e s ' ; E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , 239ff; a n d e s p e c i a l l y n o w S h e p h e r d , Sandwich, 2 0 9 f f . D o w d , Prayer, 3 9 , n o t e s t h a t t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e fig tree g o e s back to Victor of Antioch's sixth cent, c o m m e n t a r y o n M a r k . E . g . R a i s a n e n , 2 4 f ( c i t i n g W e r n e r , Einflufi,
a n d D s c h u l n i g g , Sprache),
and Gundry,
671ff. 9
3
9
4
9
5
9
6
' T r a d i t i o n s ' , 7. This h a s e n g e n d e r e d considerable debate concerning Jesus' historical intention. O u r c o n c e r n is w i t h h o w M a r k p r e s e n t s t h e i d e a . Barren, 1 - 3 8 . S p e c i a l i s t s t u d i e s c o n t i n u e t o a p p e a r , m o s t r e c e n t l y i n c l u d i n g e.g. a s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a p p r o a c h in O a k m a n , ' C u r s i n g ' ; K r a u s e , ' N a r r a t e d ' , w h o a r g u e s f o r H o s 9:10-17 as the basic horizon; a n d the midrashic approach of Buchanan, 'Withering' (on M t ) w h o sees an evolutionary process beginning with Ps 1 through Jer 17, Ezek 47, a n d Z e c h 14. S e e G u n d r y , 6 7 1 - 8 2 ; a n d a l s o D o w d , Prayer, 7 2 - 7 5 . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , G u n d r y c i t e s D o w d in s u p p o r t o f h i s c a s e , b u t fails t o m e n t i o n h e r a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e fig t r e e i n c i d e n t b o t h t e a c h e s a b o u t faith a n d s y m b o l i s e s j u d g e m e n t o n J e r u s a l e m , Prayer, 5 5 .
312
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
m i n o r ) difficulties, are as f o l l o w s .
97
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
A ) W h i l e fruitlessness, fig-trees, and
figs are u n d o u b t e d l y c o m m o n J e w i s h m e t a p h o r s , M a r k ' s n e e d to explain J e w i s h practices in 7:2-4 'contradicts the argumentative presupposition that M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e w a s steeped in J e w i s h l o r e ' .
9 8
B) O T prophetic actions
arose out o f an intention to c o m m u n i c a t e , not out o f hunger, and did not entail the miraculous. C ) In the six O T e x a m p l e s cited b y T e l f o r d ,
99
the fig-
tree does n o t represent the T e m p l e b u t Israel, and even if o n e allows the T e m p l e to r e p r e s e n t Israel, M a r k ' s u s e o f the fig-tree i m a g e d o e s not c o r r e s p o n d to O T usages.
D ) M a r k ' s text does not a d m i t o f a s y m b o l i c
interpretation, since only a failure to h a v e b o r n e fruit constitutes religious sterility and J e s u s is not looking for fruit. not correspond
to t h e d e s t r u c t i v e
E ) T h e events in the T e m p l e do
implications of the cursing.
For
e x a m p l e , J e s u s d o e s not s e e k to stop sacrifices in the i n n e r court, b u t i n s t e a d s i m p l y p r e v e n t s c o m m e r c i a l traffic in the o u t e r m o s t
court.
1 0 0
F ) Telford's attempts to excise 11:24-25 being unconvincing, the second half o f the fig-tree story teaches the p o w e r o f p r a y e r and i n d i c a t e s that the w h o l e a c c o u n t does not c o n c e r n the T e m p l e . G ) Finally, ( a l t h o u g h from this a u t h o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e not c r u c i a l ) , 'this m o u n t a i n ' c a n n o t m e a n the Temple mount. T h e array is impressive, but to b o r r o w G u n d r y ' s question, h o w well do these arguments practices
1 0 1
hold up?
A ) Mark
7:2-4 deals
with
extra-Torah
and implies nothing as to the familiarity o f M a r k ' s audience
with O T imagery.
In fact, M a r k ' s frequent appeal to the O T s u g g e s t s
otherwise. O n the other hand, Telford has recently produced an extensive o v e r v i e w o f G r a e c o - R o m a n v i e w s o f fig-trees w h e r e i n h e n o t e s
that
several revered fig-trees w e r e associated with R o m e , the withering o f o n e of which w a s regarded as an o m i n o u s p o r t e n t .
102
O n these latter grounds
alone, the significance o f J e s u s ' action for the city could easily have b e e n divined.
B ) W h a t e v e r J e s u s ' original m o t i v a t i o n in a p p r o a c h i n g the fig-
tree, there is n o t h i n g to disallow h i m s u b s e q u e n t l y m a k i n g a prophetic point if h e s o desired. G u n d r y ' s o w n argument assumes as m u c h w h e n h e 9
7
F o r a t h o r o u g h s u r v e y of the issues raised over the past 1 5 0 years, again Telford, 1-38. Ibid., 6 7 2 .
Barren, 9
8
9
9
1
0
0
1 0 1
1
0
2
Barren, 1 4 2 - 5 6 ; n a m e l y , J e r 8:13; I s a 2 8 : 3 - 4 ; H o s 9 : 1 0 , 1 6 ; M i c 7:1; J o e l 1 : 7 , 1 2 . Following Hamilton, Temple'. S e e G u n d r y ' s d i s c u s s i o n , 3 5 8 f , a n d for c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l . B o o t h , Purity, 1 5 5 - 2 1 6 . 'More', 299f.
The
Fig-Tree
and
the
313
Temple
states that the w h o l e e v e n t a r o s e out o f J e s u s ' h u n g e r , and only later resulted in a discourse on faith. S e c o n d , there is no logical necessity that non-miraculous O T prophetic s y m b o l i s m must b e determinative for J e s u s ' actions.
C ) G r a n t e d the i m p o r t a n c e o f the T e m p l e for J e r u s a l e m , a n d
J e r u s a l e m for Israel—Jerusalem b e i n g s o m e t h i n g o f a s y n e c d o c h e for t h e nation—it is difficult to see w h y the fig-tree as a symbol for Israel could not also be used
to s y m b o l i s e t h e
Temple and
its
establishment.
1 0 3
F u r t h e r m o r e , T e l f o r d p r o d u c e s n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s that link h o r t i c u l tural i m a g e r y o f Israel flourishing, the ' m o u n t a i n o f the L o r d ' , and the proper operation of the T e m p l e and c u l t u s .
104
With regard to h o w M a r k ' s
J e s u s uses the fig-tree s y m b o l o v e r against the diverse u s a g e s in the O T (which diversity itself a n s w e r s G u n d r y ' s objection), it is context
that sets
up the referent—in M a r k at least the T e m p l e establishment—just as is the case in the various O T passages. G u n d r y later happily allows that M a r k 12:1-12 is b a s e d on Isaiah 5:lff e v e n though 'Jesus shifts the e m p h a s i s ' b y omitting the kind o f p r o d u c e the vine gives and, b y introducing instead tenant farmers, m a k i n g the point not the destruction o f the v i n e y a r d b u t the tenants. D ) H o w e v e r w e h a n d l e the difficulty o f J e s u s ' expectation o f the t r e e ,
1 0 5
e v e n allowing that 'not the season . . . ' indicates that J e s u s w a s
looking for b u d s not f i g s , b u t d o e s n o t find it.
106
the issue remains that J e s u s expects something
E i t h e r w a y , the s y m b o l i s m o f an
outwardly
productive plant that fails to m e e t the expectations it generates is retained. ( D e p e n d i n g o n the p r e c i s e t i m e o f year, n o b u d s m a y w e l l indicate n o future figs.) E ) T h e lack o f correspondence b e t w e e n the ' c u r s i n g ' and the 'cleansing' has already b e e n noted as a significant consideration. This will be dealt with in m o r e detail b e l o w , but suffice to say here that they m a y not b e as m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e as is s o m e t i m e s s u g g e s t e d a n d , g i v e n o u r
1
0
3
S e e D o w d , Prayer, 3 9 , w h o n o t e s t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t r e e s a n d t e m p l e s i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . V o n K i e n l e , ' F i e g e n b a u m ' , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e fig t r e e r e p r e s e n t s t h a t p a r t o f t h e T e m p l e c r o w d w h i c h fails t o r e s p o n d t o J e s u s . W h i l e t h e b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n is r i g h t — o b v i o u s l y n o t e v e r y I s r a e l i t e is c o n d e m n e d — M a r k ' s c o n c e r n s e e m s m o r e g e n e r a l , i.e. t h e passing of the old religious establishment a n d the reconstitution of the n e w . 104 T e l f o r d , Barren, 1 4 0 f . T h e t e x t s a r e c i t e d b e l o w in t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n o n t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e ' m o u n t a i n ' in M k 1 1 : 2 2 ; s e e a l s o F e l d m a n , Parables, 151ff. 1 0 5 A g a i n s e e T e l f o r d , Barren, natives, 673f. 1
0
6
1-38; a n d G u n d r y ' s brief r e v i e w of m o r e recent alter
G u n d r y , 6 3 6 , c i t i n g . B a c o n , DCG, 217; a n d Carrington, 237.
1 . 5 9 3 ; C h r i s t i e , Palestine,
118-20; Bishop,
Jesus,
314
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
argument to date regarding contextual awareness o f O T texts, the Jeremiah 7 quotation could w e l l imply judgement. Point F ) is m o r e substantial.
T h e s e c o n d part o f the story is indeed
developed into a lesson on faith (vv. 22-25) and, b e c a u s e w e are concerned 107
w i t h the text as it stands, v e r s e s 2 4 - 2 5 m u s t b e e x p l a i n e d in
situ.
(Incidentally, that G u n d r y s e e m s to regard the defining influence o f verses 22-25 as the most powerful element of his case almost implies that without t h e m Telford's position would b e quite strong.) T h e matter turns o n o n e crucial issue: is the m e a n i n g of the fig-tree incident necessarily determined b y the t e a c h i n g o n m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g faith? mountain-moving
material
Regardless of how
is u n d e r s t o o d ,
determinative link safely b e assumed?
can
such
a
the
rigorously
In spite o f G u n d r y ' s and Telford's
agreement o n this point, I think not. M a r k ' s J e s u s seems to m e to b e quite adept at c h a n g i n g tack if the situation offers a rationale for doing s o .
1 0 8
T h e famous twists and turns o f the 'salt-sayings' crux of 9:49-50 appear to b e the result o f a l i n k a g e forged solely o n the b a s i s o f their c o m m o n t e r m i n o l o g y and related if shifting t h e m e s .
1 0 9
Similarly, the disciples'
forgetting b r e a d leads to a w a r n i n g about the leaven o f H e r o d and the Pharisees, w h i c h then turns into a rebuke over hardness o f heart (8:14-21). J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g o n t h e disciples' relationship to o n e a n o t h e r in 10:35-44 b e c o m e s t h e o c c a s i o n to g i v e the p u r p o s e b e h i n d his d e a t h ( 1 0 : 4 5 ) . P e r h a p s , t o o , this t e n d e n c y is reflected in the w a y M a r k ' s J e s u s often c o m b i n e s t w o O T texts in u n u s u a l w a y s .
1 1 0
N o w these are clearly not
w e l l - f l a g g e d , n i c e l y p a c e d , s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n s , b u t n e i t h e r are they entirely unrelated, irrational lurches.
A n d w h i l e in terms o f m e c h a n i c a l
issues s u c h as the n u m b e r or b a l a n c e o f w o r d s or verses n o n e o f these e x a m p l e s c o r r e s p o n d precisely to M a r k 11 or e v e n to each other, they do, nevertheless, m a k e the point. It seems, then, not only possible but even typical that o n e kind of action or teaching b y the M a r k a n J e s u s can give rise to instruction o n another p e r h a p s initially unrelated topic but w h i c h on reflection reveals a greater 1
0
7
1
0
8
1
0
9
1
1
0
R e d a c t i o n a l i n s e r t i o n o r n o , a s T e l f o r d h i m s e l f s e e m s t o a p p r e c i a t e , Barren,
49.
T h i s is n o t s o m u c h a q u e s t i o n o f r e d a c t i o n , b u t i n s t e a d o f w h a t M a r k , a n d p e r h a p s his audience, w a s h a p p y to regard as acceptable continuity. E . g . L a n e , 3 5 0 ; a n d a l o n g s i m i l a r lines, G u n d r y h i m s e l f , 5 1 5 . W h e t h e r M a r k p u t t h e s e s a y i n g s t o g e t h e r o r n o t is i m m a t e r i a l a t t h i s p o i n t s i n c e h e p r e s e n t s t h e m a s J e s u s ' words. Again, Kee, 'Function'.
The
continuity.
Fig-Tree
and the
315
Temple
A n d , unless o n e holds that J e s u s w a s seeking out b u d l e s s b u t
leafy fig-trees s o h e c o u l d c u r s e t h e m as an o p p o r t u n i t y
to teach o n
m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g faith, c h a n g i n g tack is exactly w h a t h e does here.
This
data suggests that the teaching on 'faith' (11:22-25) does not determine the m e a n i n g o f t h e fig-tree c u r s i n g , a n d t h e r e f o r e it d o e s n o t rule metaphorical or s y m b o l i c significance for the fig-tree i n c i d e n t .
111
out
Granted
this, G u n d r y ' s demurrals based on the identity o f the ' m o u n t a i n ' ( G ) are n o longer directly relevant, although they will b e considered later w h e n w e discuss M a r k l l : 2 2 f f . Accordingly, Telford's arguments based o n O T and later use o f fig-tree imagery
1 1 2
and
his recognition of the supporting
intentional ' s a n d w i c h ' s t r u c t u r e
113
role of M a r k ' s
remain intact. Furthermore, w e w o u l d
s u g g e s t that a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t c a n b e found in t h e M a r k a n matrix o f M a l a c h i i m a g e r y .
114
thorough-going
His opening Malachi 3:1 citation, as
Telford notes (see b e l o w ) , implicitly warns o f 'the L o r d ' s s u d d e n coming to his T e m p l e ' .
T h i s is n o t an i n a p p r o p r i a t e a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' arrival in
Jerusalem, if 'suddenly'
is t a k e n to stress the n e e d for
preparedness,
particularly in light o f the leaders' absence at his T r a p o u a i a .
115
A n d it is
p e r h a p s e v e n m o r e s o seeing that J e s u s ' activity in J e r u s a l e m is centred o n the T e m p l e
1 1 6
and that h e takes the initiative against his opposition 'in an
unprecedented fashion' (11:15-18; 12:1-12, 3 8 - 4 0 ) .
1 1 7
M o r e o v e r , M a r k ' s o p e n i n g p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J o h n s u g g e s t s that h e is M a l a c h i ' s Elijah ( 1 : 6 ) .
1 1 8
Granted M a l a c h i ' s linking 'the c o m i n g L o r d ' and
Elijah, it is n o t e w o r t h y that M a r k frequently links J e s u s w i t h J o h n .
Not
only is J o h n ' s i m p r i s o n m e n t the catalyst for J e s u s ' b e g i n n i n g his ministry (1:14a; cf. 1:5 a n d 3:7f) b u t e v e n in his death J o h n is still, o m i n o u s l y b o t h 1
1
1
D o w d , Prayer, 3 7 - 5 5 , a p p e a l i n g t o r a b b i n i c c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e e f f i c a c y o f p r a y e r i n t h e f a c e o f t h e T e m p l e ' s d e s t r u c t i o n , t h i n k s t h a t b o t h fig t r e e p a n e l s c o m b i n e j u d g m e n t o n t h e T e m p l e a n d , a s a n a t u r a l c o r r e l a t i v e ( f o r a J e w ? ) , t h e e f f i c a c y o f p r a y e r . It is n o t c l e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e o f p r a y e r per se is t h e i s s u e f o r M a r k . Barren, 128-204. 1
1
2
1
1
3
Ibid., 4 8 . T o p o i n t o u t t h e s a n d w i c h s t r u c t u r e is n o t t h e r e b y n e c e s s a r i l y a r e j e c t i o n o f h i s t o r y , b u t o n l y t o n o t e t h a t M a r k c o u l d h a v e c h o s e n n o t t o i n c l u d e t h e s t o r y o r t o d o s o in a n o t h e r w a y . M a r k ' s s e t t i n g , a l t h o u g h s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r t o M a t t h e w 2 1 : 2 1 , is d i s t i n c t f r o m t h a t o f t h e o t h e r G o s p e l s ( M t 17:19f; L k 1 7 : 5 - 6 ) . 1
1
4
1
1
5
1
1
6
1
1
7
1
1
8
S e e C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 58ff, 8 7 ; a n d C h a p t e r 7, p p . 1 8 4 f , fh. 3 , a b o v e . S e e C h a p t e r 7 , p . 1 8 5 , fn. 4 , a b o v e . J u e l , Messiah, 127ff; H o o k e r , T r a d i t i o n s ' , 7ff. Burkill, 'Strain', 3 1 , 3 9 . S e e e a r l i e r . C h a p t e r 3 , p . 5 9 , fn. 3 8 ; C h a p t e r 7, p . 1 8 9 , fn. 3 .
316
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
for J e s u s a n d Israel, functioning as J e s u s ' forerunner
( 6 : 1 4 - 2 9 ; 9:9-13).
Further, ' E l i j a h ' w a s to prepare the w a y , lest Y a h w e h at his ' c u r s e ' the land ( M a i 3:21 M T ) .
appearing
G i v e n the p e r v a s i v e t h e m e o f J o h n ' s
rejection, t h e s y m b o l i s m o f J e s u s ' c u r s i n g the fig-tree t a k e s o n greater significance.
F i n a l l y , in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the T e m p l e incident, J o h n is
m e n t i o n e d again—pointedly recorded, n o t i m m e d i a t e l y after the T e m p l e s c e n e itself, b u t after the intercalated fig-tree incident ( 1 1 : 2 7 - 3 3 ) — a n d is thereby directly connected with J e s u s ' authority to do and say w h a t h e does (again see b e l o w ) . Mark's presuppositional
u s e o f the M a l a c h i c o n t e x t s e e m s e v i d e n t .
J e s u s ' action, as the Lord w h o after the long delay o f his I N E appearance now suddenly
c o m e s to his T e m p l e , is p r e d i c a t e d
on the
authorities' failure to hear 'Elijah' (11:31; cf. 1:4, 14; 9 : 1 3 ) .
1 1 9
religious All o f this
strongly s u g g e s t s that J e s u s ' cursing o f the fig-tree, w h a t e v e r its other m e a n i n g / s , in M a r k ' s present setting carries considerable s y m b o l i c freight. A s a result, in v i e w o f our a r g u m e n t for the p r o g r a m m a t i c character o f l:2f, w e a g r e e with Telford's almost passing c o m m e n t that M a r k intends that the c u r s i n g o f the fig-tree s h o u l d b e r e a d in light o f M a l a c h i ' s prophecy: Elijah t h e p r o p h e t had b e e n s e n t b e f o r e t h e g r e a t a n d t e r r i b l e d a y o f t h e L o r d ( M a i . 4 . 5 ; cf. M k . 9 . 1 2 ) b u t t h e y h a d d o n e t o h i m w h a t e v e r t h e y p l e a s e d ( M k . 9 . 1 3 ) ! Therefore the Lord w o u l d c o m e and smite the land with a curse (Mai. 4.5) a n d the b l o w had b e e n s t r u c k a g a i n s t t h e b a r r e n f i g - t r e e !
1 2 0
In light o f this i m a g e r y there is a p o s s i b l e further c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Isaiah, n a m e l y , the last great l a m e n t w h i c h w e h a v e a l e a d y a r g u e d is
1
1
9
Cf. S h a e , ' Q u e s t i o n ' , 2 3 ; M a r t i n , 6 7 f ; b u t pace H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 8 f , w h o s u g g e s t s t h a t 1 1 : 3 0 i n d i c a t e s J e s u s ' a u t h o r i t y is e q u i v a l e n t t o J o h n ' s , i.e. h e t o o is a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l Elijah. B o w m a n , 2 2 1 f , c i t e s Midr. Cant. 2 . 1 3 , w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h a r e f e r e n c e t o C a n t 2 : 1 1 - 1 3 , o n t h e fig t r e e p u t t i n g f o r t h its figs a n d t h e n s t a t e s t h a t t h e s e c o n d E x o d u s is e x p e c t e d t o t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g . U s i n g this a s b a c k g r o u n d . B o w m a n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c u r s i n g o f t h e fig t r e e is a d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t ' t h e J e w i s h v i e w o f t h e n e w E x o d u s . . . is n o t t o b e ' . G r a n t e d t h e l a t e n e s s o f t h e s o u r c e , a less g e n e r a l a n d m o r e p r e c i s e i m p l i c a t i o n s e e m s r a t h e r t h a t t h e p r e s e n t T e m p l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t w i l l n o l o n g e r h a v e a p a r t in t h e N E . 120 Barren, 1 6 3 ; cf. H o o k e r , ' T r a d i t i o n s ' , 8 ; B u r k i l l , ' S t r a i n ' , 3 9 ; H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 8 ; C l a r k , ' I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' ; pace G a s t o n , Stone, 8 3 . B a r r e t t ' s o b s e r v a t i o n , ' H o u s e ' , 2 0 (cf. L i n d a r s ' c o m m e n t . Apologetic, 1 0 8 ) t h a t t h e M a l a c h i p r o p h e c y 'is s o m a n i f e s t l y a p p r o p r i a t e ' t h a t its o m i s s i o n is s u r p r i s i n g , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e a d e r is p e r h a p s e x p e c t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d it s o . O n t h e c u r s i n g o f g r o u n d ( G n 3 : 1 7 ) a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t r e e s ( E x 9 : 2 5 ; P s 1 0 5 : 3 3 ; J o n a h 4:6f) b e i n g a c t s o f Y a h w e h , s e e B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 1 9 6 f .
The
Fig-Tree
and the
317
Temple
significant for M a r k (1:10; 3:28ff; p e r h a p s 5:25-34; a n d e v e n 4:1 - 5 : 4 3 ) .
1 2 1
Again, Isaiah 56-66 appears to b e addressing Israel's situation after it failed through unbelief and rejection o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m in his c h o i c e o f agent (i.e. C y r u s ) to participate in the full h o p e s o f the I N E .
1 2 2
N o w facing the
aftermath, these chapters describe the nation's awful circumstances. T h e i r sanctuary
1 2 3
h a s b e e n b u r n e d and trodden d o w n b y their e n e m i e s (63:18;
64:12 M T ) a n d Z i o n - J e r u s a l e m a n d their cities h a v e b e c o m e like deserts (64:9 M T ) . 40:7
1 2 5
1 2 4
T h e y h a v e withered like a leaf
^ 3 , 64:5 M T ; cf. 1:30;
) , and n o t only d o A b r a h a m and Israel (the patriarch) not recognise
t h e m (63:16) b u t t h e y h a v e b e c o m e as if Y a h w e h , ' o u r father' (cf. first Exodus, Ex 4:22) and 'our redeemer', had never called t h e m (63:16, 1 9 ) .
1 2 6
It
is possible that as desolation a n d b e i n g withered w e r e the results o f the first refusal to a c c e p t Y a h w e h ' s ' w i s e ' c h o i c e o f a deliverer, n o w in the fulfilment o f the I N E w h e n there h a s again b e e n a failure to repent a n d Y a h w e h ' s ' w i s e ' choice has again b e e n rejected, desolation and withering is again the result.
(The objection that the desolation w a s there prior to the
a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the I N E does not detract from the s y m b o l i s m . ) B u t the language of b e i n g withered also points to another option. R. A . Cantrell has suggested that the imagery o f Y a h w e h seeking figs on his fig tree is found Jeremiah's
famous
in J e r e m i a h 8:13, a text n o t far r e m o v e d Temple
sermon
from
which
Jesus draws
from his
subsequent p r o n o u n c e m e n t in the outer court (cf. J e r 7:11 in M k 1 1 : 1 7 ) .
1 2 7
T h e question o f the literary structure o f this section o f J e r e m i a h is w i d e open
1 2 8
and the interpretation o f the text in question, all are a g r e e d , is
particularly difficult.
129
T h e p r e c e d i n g v e r s e s l a m e n t the c o r r u p t i o n o f
people, prophet, and priest (vv. 10-12); the latter echoing o f the concerns o f the T e m p l e s e r m o n a n d not unrelated to J e s u s ' critique o f the activities in
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
4
1
2
6
1
2
7
1
2
8
1
2
9
S e e r e s p e c t i v e l y . C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 1 0 2 - 8 ; C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 5 0 - 5 1 ; p . 1 7 2 , fn. 1 8 0 ; a n d p . 1 7 6 , fn. 2 0 3 . O n c e again. Watts, 'Consolation'. 123 W e s t e r m a n n , 3 9 8 .
Cf. also Schnellbacher, 'Theology', 1 0 4 . 125 W e s t e r m a n n , 3 9 6 . O n the E x o d u s i m a g e r y here, Achtemeier, 113f. Cantrell, 'Cursed'. T h o m p s o n , 2 9 7 , r e g a r d s 8:4 - 1 0 : 2 5 a s a m i s c e l l a n e o u s c o l l e c t i o n f o l l o w i n g d i r e c t l y o n f r o m t h e T e m p l e s e r m o n , cf. C r a i g i e , et al, 1 2 9 . M c K a n e , 1 8 7 , s e e m s c o n t e n t t o a d d r e s s t h e t e x t in s m a l l u n i t s w i t h o u t a s k i n g w h y t h e b o o k e v e n t u a l l y f o u n d t h e f o r m it d i d . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n in H o l l a d a y , 2 8 3 - 8 6 .
318
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
t h e outer c o u r t (see b e l o w ) .
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
In verse 13 the b a s i c options are w h e t h e r
A ) Y a h w e h w a s seeking a harvest (a positive sense, cf. Isa 5:Iff) but found the vine a n d the fig tree e m p t y and the leaves withered, and thus ensures j u d g e m e n t (v. 1 2 b ;
1 3 0
or B) b e c a u s e h e found t h e m e m p t y Y a h w e h will
cause the leaves to w i t h e r ;
131
or C ) b e c a u s e o f their sin Y a h w e h w a s going
to harvest t h e m as a n act o f final destruction, so that there will b e neither grapes n o r figs, and the leaves will b e w i t h e r e d .
132
A l t h o u g h the second
alternative might b e closest to J e s u s ' action, all three readily exhibit points of contact. O n this basis, Cantrell suggests that J e s u s ' cursing o f the fig-tree is a dramatic invocation o f these verses, symbolising the j u d g e m e n t that w a s to fall o n account o f the parlous state o f the T e m p l e (Jer 7:11). This m a y raise a question about the necessity o f Telford's appeal to Malachi 3:lff, but it n e e d not.
If, for M a r k , M a l a c h i serves to relate J o h n
the Baptist and Jesus b y providing the larger context of J e s u s ' c o m i n g to the T e m p l e a n d the r e a s o n for a c u r s e in g e n e r a l ( 3 : 1 , 2 4 M T ) , t h e n the J e r e m i a h b a c k g r o u n d establishes b o t h the particular basis o n w h i c h the curse is applied and the antecedent o f J e s u s ' prophetic s y m b o l i s m (Jer 7:11; cf. 8:13). O n c e again M a r k ' s J e s u s brings together several O T perspectives to m a k e his point. c) Jesus (i)
and the Temple
Incident
Introduction
In v i e w o f o u r p r i m a r y interest in whether or not M a r k is operating with an I N E paradigm, J e s u s ' use o f Isaiah 56:7 will b e our first concern. A g a i n w e note the presence o f a combined 'citation' w h i c h suggests something o f the importance o f this scene for M a r k .
1 3 3
There is also a certain ambiguity
to J e s u s ' action w h i c h , granted our reading o f the cursing o f the fig-tree, raises questions as to the overall coherence o f M a r k ' s presentation. This is especially s o if the T e m p l e incident is to b e interpreted as a reforming act and not o n e o f j u d g e m e n t .
O u r second concern, then, will b e to e x a m i n e
t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f J e s u s ' a c t i o n a n d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or n o t it contradicts the cursing o f the fig-tree.
1
3
0
T h o m p s o n , 301f.
1
3
1
1
3
2
1
3
3
C r a i g i e , et al. M c K a n e , 1 8 9 ; H o l l a d a y , 2 8 3 f ; cf. L X X a n d Tg. Jer. Kee, 'Function', 173.
The INE and the
(ii) The INE and the
319
Nations
Temple
Before turning to the explicit u s e o f Isaiah 5 6 s o m e brief c o m m e n t s on the role o f t h e T e m p l e in t h e I N E a r e in order.
Given the considerable
emphasis o n the return o f Y a h w e h ' s presence in the I N E , it is remarkable that there are s o few references to the restoration o f the T e m p l e in Isaiah 40-55.
Isaiah 44:28 m a k e s the clearest statement w h e n it u n e q u i v o c a l l y
p r o m i s e s the T e m p l e ' s rebuilding.
T h e return o f t h e sacred vessels is
m e n t i o n e d in Isaiah 5 2 : 1 1 , b u t h e r e the concern is apparently primarily o n e o f purity a n d h o l i n e s s .
134
In almost direct contrast, w h e n o n e m o v e s into chapters 55-66 o n e o f the signal aspects o f their portrayal o f Y a h w e h ' s return is their interest in the restoration o f t h e T e m p l e (TP?: 5 6 : 5 , 7; 60:7; ^£1}
Dip&: 60:13; cf.
^"ip'in, 56:7; 57:13). N o t only s o , but in a striking indication o f a radical inclusiveness, participation in worship is affirmed b o t h for the e u n u c h s
1 3 5
and those foreigners w h o h a v e joined themselves to Y a h w e h (56:2-7; cf. Isa 2:2-3), e v e n to the p o i n t w h e r e the latter apparently p a r t a k e in priestly service ( 6 6 : 1 9 f f ) .
136
O n the other hand, it is noteworthy that t h e only time
the t e r m ^D^n a p p e a r s , as in 1-39, is in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Y a h w e h ' s judgement o n the apostates a m o n g his people ( 6 6 : 6 ) . (Hi) The INE and the
137
Nations
T h e m e n t i o n o f foreigners in Isaiah 56:7 o p e n s u p a p a n d o r a ' s b o x o f s e e m i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o n t h e role o f t h e nations in t h e I N E . T h i s is largely d u e to t w o apparently mutually exclusive features.
O n the o n e
h a n d , there a r e clear denunciations o f the nations. T h e y are presented as foolish idolaters (40:15ff; 44:9-20) n o w under j u d g e m e n t ( 4 1 : l l f , 15f; 49:24ff; 51:7f, 1 2 , 21ff; cf. 43:3f).
T h i s is particularly so in t h e c a s e o f arrogant
d a u g h t e r B a b y l o n (43:14; 46:lff; 4 7 : 1 - 1 5 ) .
1 3 8
T h e nations c o m e in abject
surrender (45:14), b e a r i n g the exiles upon their shoulders a n d licking t h e
134 W e s t e r m a n n , 2 5 2 f , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s i l e n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e t e m p l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t the criteria for Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e a r e t o d o with holiness, faithfulness, a n d p u r i t y of t h e p e o p l e , n o t t h e c u l t u s p e r s e ; cf. S t u h l m u e l l e r , ' T r a n s i t i o n s ' , 8 n 2 9 . 3 5
* P e r h a p s t h o s e , m e n t i o n e d in 3 9 : 7 , w h o h a d a c c e p t e d t h i s c o n d i t i o n o n e n t e r i n g official e m p l o y m e n t in e x i l e , cf. W h y b r a y , 1 9 8 . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n p p . 321ff, b e l o w . 1
3
6
1
3
7
T h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e s e e n e m i e s is d i s p u t e d . W e s t e r m a n n , 4 1 9 , is c o n v i n c e d t h e y a r e foreign nations, w h e r e a s for A c h t e m e i e r , 142f, they a r e a p o s t a t e J e w s . T h e c o n t e x t s e e m s t o s u p p o r t the latter. * O n this i m a g e r y in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e b o o k , s e e E r l a n d s s o n , Burden, 1 3 5 - 4 2 . 3 8
320
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
d u s t off the feet o f their conquerors (49:22f).
in
Jerusalem
A c c o r d i n g to 5 2 : 1 , theKfta]
b^V will not b e permitted into Jerusalem. Just as Jacob-Israel's j u d g e m e n t o c c a s i o n e d the n a t i o n ' s victories, so her d e l i v e r a n c e b r i n g s about their defeat.
It is largely o n the b a s i s o f this b e l l i c o s e m a t e r i a l that several
scholars h a v e denied any 'universalistic' tendencies in these c h a p t e r s . O n the o t h e r h a n d , there are texts w h i c h indicate a different W h i l e 40:5; 42:10ff; 4 4 : 5 ;
1 4 0
and 4 5 : 6
V a n W i n k l e has demonstrated that
1 4 1
142
future.
are a m b i g u o u s in this regard, D . W . in 51:5, w h e r e the nations wait for
Yahweh's salvation, means 'to wait with eagerness' and negative c o n n o t a t i o n s .
139
never
has
H e further s h o w s that the D?1a liK and DV rr"|3
language is soteriological (cf. 49:6; 5 1 : 4 f ) ,
143
and h e n c e Y a h w e h ' s invitation
to the n a t i o n s that t h e y turn to h i m and b e s a v e d ( 4 5 : 2 2 ) .
1 4 4
Following
G . F . O e h l e r , V a n W i n k l e c o n c l u d e s that the v i s i o n s o f s a l v a t i o n
and
s u b m i s s i o n s h o u l d b e c o m b i n e d in that the attitude s e e m s to b e o n e o f salvation y e t not equality, 'This rule (i.e. Y a h w e h ' s ) is both that for w h i c h the n a t i o n s w a i t e x p e c t a n t l y a n d to w h i c h they m u s t s u b m i t ' .
1 4 5
This
m o r e positive e l e m e n t m a y not b e so surprising if it is r e m e m b e r e d that it is the p a g a n C y r u s w h o is mentioned as the agent o f B a b y l o n ' s defeat and Israel's deliverance (44:24; cf. 45:7; 41:2ff, 2 5 ) . V a n W i n k l e ' s proposal m a y also find s u p p o r t if n o ^ S is s y n o n y m o u s with rrnKfl (cf. 37:32), in w h i c h c a s e 45:20 d e s c r i b e s a r e m n a n t from the n a t i o n s w h o are s u m m o n e d to turn to Y a h w e h . If so, this equivalence suggests another w a y o f resolving
1
3
9
1
4
1
1
4
2
1
4
3
E . g . S n a i t h , ' S t u d y ' ; S c h o o r s , Saviour; a n d O r l i n s k y , ' S o - C a l l e d ' . 140 W e s t e r m a n n , a n d S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 129ff, s e e t h i s a s r e f e r r i n g t o p r o s e l y t e s . Snaith, 'Study', 154-65, tends to see p a s s a g e s that m i g h t otherwise be taken as p o s i t i v e l y r e f e r r i n g t o t h e n a t i o n s a s s p e a k i n g o f t h e J e w i s h e x i l e s a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s ; cf. S c h o o r s , Saviour, 302f. D a vies, 'Destiny', m a y a s s u m e t o o m u c h in i n t e r p r e t i n g the l a n g u a g e o f ' s e e i n g ' a n d ' k n o w i n g ' in e.g. 4 1 : 2 0 ( ? ) ; 4 9 : 7 in a salvific light. O n 5 2 : 1 5 f s e e Watts, 'Meaning'. ' R e l a t i o n s h i p ' , 4 4 7 f ; a s i m i l a r c a s e c a n b e m a d e for m p , cf. 4 0 : 3 1 a n d 4 9 : 2 3 .
Ibid., 4 5 2 f f ; A n d e r s o n , ' C o v e n a n t ' , 3 5 7 ; pace S n a i t h , ' S t u d y ' , 1 5 7 , a n d O r l i n s k y , ' S o C a l l e d ' , 97ff; cf. a l s o H o l l e n b e r g , ' N a t i o n a l i s m ' , w h o a r g u e s t h a t D ^ l in 5 2 : 1 5 a n d 5 3 : 1 2 r e f e r s t o t h e n a t i o n s . L i n d a r s , ' T i d i n g s ' , 485ff, a r g u e s t h a t t h e m e s s a g e t o t h e n a t i o n s is n o t s u b s e q u e n t t o , b u t o n e a n d t h e s a m e w i t h , t h e m e s s a g e t o t h e exiles. -1
* S n a i t h , ' S t u d y ' , 1 8 5 , d e c l a r e s t h a t pK^OBK ?? d o e s n o t m e a n G e n t i l e s , c i t i n g 43:5f. H o w e v e r , t h e c o n t e x t ( a trial s p e e c h against the n a t i o n s ) implies t h e c o n t r a r y , a n d e l s e w h e r e t h e e x p r e s s i o n a p p e a r s s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e n a t i o n s , s e e 5 2 : 1 0 ; cf. Z e c h 9:10; M i c 5:3; D t 3 3 : 1 7 ; a n d P s s 2:8; 22:28f; 72:8; e t c . 1 4
1
4
5
Ibid., 4 5 7 . D a v i e s , ' D e s t i n y ' , 1 3 f , s e e s i n s t e a d a n i r r e d u c i b l e d i v e r s i t y d e r i v i n g f r o m a redactional m e n t a l i t y that s a w the text as a 'billboard o n w h i c h different political p a r t i e s o r r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s d a u b their s l o g a n s ' .
The INE and the
321
Nations
the tension. It could b e that the remnant hermeneutic used o f Israel, w h o h a d b e c o m e like the n a t i o n s a n d w a s t h u s u n d e r j u d g e m e n t , is a l s o a p p l i e d to the n a t i o n s .
J u s t as Y a h w e h offers to h e a l the b r u i s e s h e
inflicted on rebellious Israel (53:4f cf. 30:26; 1:5), so too the ' s u r v i v o r s ' o f the nations are invited to turn to h i m and b e saved (45:20-22). I n a s m u c h as the s a l v a t i o n a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s for w h i c h the n a t i o n s wait is an expression o f Y a h w e h ' s justice (51:4f), it is n o t e w o r t h y that the revelation o f Y a h w e h ' s OSWft is w h a t unites the b u l k o f 4 0 - 5 5 with the v a r i o u s ' S e r v a n t S o n g s ' w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s present n e w insights into its true nature.
In the s o n g s Y a h w e h ' s justice includes light for the nations
and so m e a n s not only deliverance for Jacob-Israel, b u t also, b y the s h o w ing forth of his glory, light and salvation for the w h o l e w o r l d .
1 4 6
Similar kinds of t h e m e s are found in Isaiah 56-66 w h i c h also preserves both the particularism and universalism o f 4 0 - 5 5 .
1 4 7
O n the o n e hand, the
nations are j u d g e d (59:18f; 63:3f; 66:16, 24) and c o m e in subjection to Israel (59:18; 60:10, 14; 61:5f) with any nation that refuses b e i n g destroyed (60:12; cf. 41:1 Iff).
O n the o t h e r h a n d , in p e r h a p s the h i g h e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f
universalism in the b o o k and using l a n g u a g e w h i c h is quite r e m a r k a b l e given the place o f ' s e r v a n t s ' terminology throughout these c h a p t e r s ,
148
the
survivors o f the nations not only c o m e to Zion to worship (66:19; cf. 45:2025; and 60:3, 6ff; cf. 2:1-4; 4:2-6; 42:6; 49:6; and 62:2f), but are even described as Y a h w e h ' s • ' H ? ^ ( 5 6 : 6 f ) . Wtovn'tt 66:19.
n'wrrrra ( 5 6 : 7 ) .
1 4 9
1 5 0
T h e T e m p l e , therefore, is to b e c o m e a E v e n m o r e striking is the related text o f
A l t h o u g h n o t o r i o u s l y difficult, the a n t e c e d e n t o f on in verse 19
seems to b e the nations in verse 1 8
1 5 1
and, therefore, indicates that s o m e o f
these foreigners will b e c o m e priests and Levites. This suggests that there will n o longer b e a distinction b e t w e e n the natural-born and the proselyte (66:21).
1 5 2
T h i s does not, h o w e v e r , release the Gentiles ' o f their task o f
assuring the return o f the scattered J e w s to their h o m e l a n d ' (60:4, 9; cf.
1
4
6
1
4
7
1
5
0
1
5
2
Z i m m e r l i a n d J e r e m i a s , TWNT, 5 . 6 6 8 f ; = TDNT, 5.668ff; B e u k e n , Muilenburg, 659. 1 4 8 A g a i n , see n o w especially B e u k e n , 'Main'. 1 4 9 W e s t e r m a n n ; W h y b r a y ; Smart; Blenkinsopp, 'Second'.
'MISPAT'.
In this c o n t e x t , it is difficult t o d e t e r m i n e if t h e i r m i n i s t r y t o J e r u s a l e m ( 6 0 : 5 - 1 1 ) is w i l l i n g o r n o t , a l t h o u g h 6 0 : 1 2 s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e is a n e l e m e n t o f t h r e a t i n v o l v e d , a t l e a s t to those w h o refuse to serve. 151 Westermann; Whybray. A c h t e m e i e r , 124f.
322
Isaiah's
43:5).
1 5 3
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
B u t it m a y b e that these D'D^B will do so b y declaring Y a h w e h ' s
glory a m o n g the nations (66:19).
Indeed, this could b e the w a y in which
the glory o f Y a h w e h ' s work in Zion is 'seen' b y the n a t i o n s .
154
In s u m , w h i l e t h e r e is n o d o u b t a m e s s a g e o f j u d g e m e n t for the nations, t h e r e is also an offer o f salvation.
N o t only s o , b u t the m o r e
inclusive p a s s a g e s suggest the b r e a k i n g d o w n o f distinctions such that e v e n foreigners m a y serve as priests as Y a h w e h ' s T e m p l e b e c o m e s ' a house of prayer for all nations'. (iv) Jesus,
Isaiah
56:7, and the
Temple
H a v i n g c u r s e d the fig-tree, J e s u s enters the T e m p l e or at least the outer court and drives out various groups.
In v i e w o f the action a n d
J e r e m i a h allusion, the Isaiah 5 6 c i t a t i o n
1 5 5
the
is c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d
as
m e r e l y returning this court to its intended role as a place w h e r e Gentiles may pray u n h i n d e r e d .
1 5 6
This scenario is possible, but as C. K. Barrett
noted s o m e time ago and our immediately preceding discussion confirms s o m e t h i n g m o r e is in v i e w in Isaiah 5 6 .
1 5 7
T h e e v i d e n c e to date for a
M a r k a n I N E h e r m e n e u t i c , the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l slant g i v e n b y the KXTjSrfacTai,
1 5 8
and the dative of benefit,
increases o n e ' s doubts.
ndaiv
TOIC; c ' O v c a i v ,
future 1 5 9
only
Further, the nature of the circumstances—at best
they w o u l d h a v e constituted only a t e m p o r a r y disruption—and M a r k ' s
1
5
3
1
5
4
1
5
5
1
5
6
1
5
7
1
5
8
1
5
9
Whybray, 291.
Cf. C o n r a d ' s a n a l y s i s of I s r a e l ' s r o l e in t h e N e w E x o d u s , ' O r a c l e s ' . A p a r t f r o m a s l i g h t c h a n g e o f w o r d o r d e r , t h e f o r m is a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l t o I s a 5 6 : 7 L X X , w i t h t h e 'for all n a t i o n s ' d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g it f r o m I s a 6 0 : 7 , L X X o r 1 M a c e 7:3. O n t h e v a r i a t i o n s in w o r d i n g , w h i c h a r e n o t o f g r e a t significance, s e e G u n d r y , Use, 19f. E . g . T a y l o r ; L a g r a n g e ; L a n e ; K e e , Community, 1 1 5 , although h e notes that M a r k c o n t r a s t s his inclusivist c o m m u n i t y w i t h the e x c l u s i v i s t o n e of t h e T e m p l e ; Roloff, Kerygma, 9 7 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 9 3 ; G n i l k a ; D a v i e s , Gospel, 350f; Eppstein, 'Cleansing', 56; H u r t a d o ; H o o k e r . Both G u n d r y , 6 4 4 , w h o sees here merely a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of Jesus' authority, a n d surprisingly G r i m m , 197f, barely a d d r e s s the significance of the Isaiah text. 'House', 15, w h e r e he asserts that the Temple never served such a function, and therefore Jesus' action c a n n o t be construed as safeguarding Gentiles' present rights of w o r s h i p . O t h e r s w h o s e e a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n i n c l u d e L i g h t f o o t , Message, 63; G a s t o n , Stone, 8 4 , w h e r e J e s u s h a s in m i n d a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e ; H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 9 ; P e s c h , 2 . 1 9 9 ; cf. K e l b e r , Kingdom, 1 0 2 f , w h o e n v i s a g e s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e a n d its r e p l a c e m e n t w i t h M a r k ' s c o m m u n i t y . L o h m e y e r , ' R e i n i n g u n g ' , 2 6 1 ; H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 9 ; K e l b e r , Kingdom, 102f. Pace W e l l h a u s e n , 9 0 , a n d K i l p a t r i c k , Studies, 157, on the basis of the immediate c o n t e x t in b o t h Isa 5 6 : 7 a n d 6 0 : 7 ( L X X ) , a n d a l s o F r a n c e , Use, 9 3 , s i n c e this p h r a s e i n d i c a t e s t h a t for M a r k it is n o t m e r e l y 'a h o u s e o f p r a y e r ' v e r s u s 'a d e n o f t h i e v e s ' ( s e e b e l o w ) .
Jesus,
Isaiah 56:7, and the
323
Temple
intercalation with the symbolic cursing o f the fig-tree, suggest this too is an acted p a r a b l e .
160
So what does M a r k ' s Jesus intend, at least as far as his use o f Isaiah 56:7 is c o n c e r n e d ?
E . L o h m e y e r h a s noted the w a y in w h i c h J e s u s ' actions,
b e g i n n i n g w i t h the ' u n c l e a n ' spirit in C a p e r n a u m ( M k 1:24), h a v e o n m a n y o c c a s i o n s b e e n to deal w i t h u n c l e a n n e s s either b y r e m o v i n g t h e s t i g m a or redefining the t e r m s , all o f w h i c h are i n c l u s i v e rather t h a n e x c l u s i v e in o r i e n t a t i o n .
161
It is significant, too, that J e s u s ' action is n o t
directed against the inner, m o r e sacred areas o f the T e m p l e proper.
What
he 'cleanses' is the outer court (or JVDn "in, b u t c o m m o n l y k n o w n in t h e literature b y its m o r e m o d e r n title, the ' C o u r t o f t h e G e n t i l e s ' ) .
1 6 2
That
b u s i n e s s w a s c o n d u c t e d there w i t h o u t a n y record in extant s o u r c e s o f s e r i o u s o p p o s i t i o n to its location (apart from the a c c o u n t in q u e s t i o n ) suggests that this area w a s regarded in s o m e w a y as less ' h o l y ' . space which Jesus defines as a 'house of p r a y e r ' .
1 6 3
It is this
164
T h e c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f this s t a t e m e n t are not i m m e d i a t e l y apparent unless several points are considered. First, the p h r a s e ' h o u s e o f prayer' although being for all nations in Isaiah 56:7 also appears later in 1 M a c c a b e e s 7:37, w h e r e it is explicitly delimited b y ' T O ? Xac$ a o u ' , n a m e l y , Israel. T h e point here is not that the Gentiles w e r e n o t to h a v e a place to pray, but that the T e m p l e w a s not really for them. A s Lloyd G a s t o n states, 'that the Gentiles m a y enter the outer court is occasionally mentioned, b u t o n l y in the n e g a t i v e sense: t h e y m a y n o t pass the soreg courts u n d e r p e n a l t y o f d e a t h ' .
1 6 5
into the inner
S e c o n d , w h e n o n e e x a m i n e s w h a t is
m e a n t b y the designation in Isaiah 56:7 and 60:7 (LXX), it clearly has to d o 1 6 0
G a s t o n , Stone, 8 4 ; cf. S a n d e r s , Jesus, 7 0 ; B a u c k h a m , ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' ; H o o k e r , 2 6 5 . Lord, 24ff; c i t i n g a l s o , t h e l e p e r , 1 : 4 0 - 4 5 ; t h e f o r g i v e n e s s o f sins, 2:lff; t h e c a l l i n g o f Levi, 2:13-17; the w o m a n w i t h the flow of blood, 5:24b-34; a n d the parable o n defilement, 7:15. O n e m a y a l s o n o t e h e r e t h a t t h e ' w a y ' o f t h e I N E is a l s o c a l l e d in I s a 3 5 : 8 t h e ' W a y o f H o l i n e s s ' , in w h i c h c a s e L o h m e y e r ' s o b s e r v a t i o n w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t J e s u s ' a c t i o n s a r e a i m e d a t o p e n i n g u p this h o l y ' w a y ' t o all. 1 6 1
1 6 2
1
6
S e e G a s t o n , Stone,
87n2.
3
A l t h o u g h C h i l t o n , Temple, 107, emphasises the area's holiness, a distinction a p p a r e n t l y r e m a i n e d , cf. 1 0 4 - 9 , a s t h e l a c k o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s c r i t i c i s i n g t h i s i n n o v a t i o n for i m p u g n i n g t h e T e m p l e ' s h o l i n e s s i m p l i e s . H i s e x a m p l e s o f J e w i s h o u t r a g e a t R o m a n i n s e n s i t i v i t i e s , e.g. J o s . B . J . 2 . 2 2 4 - 2 7 ; Ant. 2 0 . 1 0 6 - 1 2 , d o n o t r e a l l y a d d r e s s t h e i s s u e o f a differentiation in p e r c e i v e d holiness. Cf. Roth, 'Cleansing', 1 7 8 , w h e r e Z e c h 14:21 m a y h a v e p r o v i d e d justification for the exclusion of Gentiles f r o m the inner courts. 4
^
L o h m e y e r , ibid., 3 9 . Stone, 8 7 , c i t i n g J o s . B.J. 5 . 1 9 4 ; 6 . 1 2 4 f ; Ant. prohibition, Bickerman, 'Warning'. 1
6
5
15.417; a n d A c t s 21:26ff; a n d o n t h e
324
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
w i t h the v e r y heart o f T e m p l e practice, not just the periphery, since both instances mention offerings and sacrifices (cf. 1 K g s 8 : 2 8 f f )
1 6 6
If this is s o , t h e n the M a r k a n J e s u s , as I s r a e l ' s m e s s i a n i c king and inaugurator o f the I N E , is neither as m a n y h a v e a s s u m e d m e r e l y protect ing the s o m e w h a t m i n i m a l access of Gentiles to the h o u s e o f G o d , n o r is h e against the profanation simpliciter
o f the T e m p l e ,
1 6 7
nor is h e m a k i n g a
statement a b o u t the eschatological replacement o f the T e m p l e . the Lord o f the T e m p l e its final g o a l .
1 6 9
1 6 8
Instead,
h a v i n g arrived, n o w orients the T e m p l e toward
A n d this is n o t so m u c h that t h e G e n t i l e s w o u l d b e
p e r m i t t e d into t h e i n n e r c o u r t s ( a l t h o u g h it m a y i m p l y as m u c h , s e e below),
1 7 0
b u t rather that the 'Court o f the Gentiles' w a s to b e considered
not just a s a c r e d s p a c e , b u t an equally sacred s p a c e .
1 7 1
B y implication,
given the inclusive theology o f Isaiah 56-66, this indicates that the time is at h a n d w h e n even Gentiles can belong to the ' k i n g d o m of priests' (cf. 12:9; 15:39; cf. 13:27; Isa 66:18f; Z e c h 14:16; M a i 1 : 1 1 ) .
1 7 2
A s to w h e t h e r the
m e n t i o n o f ' p r a y e r ' constitutes a n implicit critique o f sacrifices, pointing forward to the t i m e w h e n his death w o u l d m a k e t h e m u n n e c e s s a r y , M a r k ' s account offers n o o b s e r v a t i o n .
1 7 3
174
L i k e w i s e , there is n o further c o m m e n t in t h e larger c o n t e x t a b o u t Gentiles per se. T h u s , although the statement is certainly c o n s o n a n t with a n I N E p e r s p e c t i v e o n the n a t i o n s , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the M a r k a n J e s u s ' h e s i t a n c y to actually i n a u g u r a t e a ' m i s s i o n to the G e n t i l e s ' ( M k 7:27), nothing m o r e is d o n e to elucidate this brief but pregnant declaration.
1
6
6
1
6
7
1
6
8
1
6
9
A l s o G a s t o n , Stone, ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' , 83f.
On
87, a n d t h e e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n ; s e e B a u c k h a m ,
E . g , F r a n c e , Jesus, 9 3 ; T a y l o r , 4 6 3 . E . g . G a s t o n , ibid., 8 8 ; K e l b e r , Kingdom, 1 0 2 f ; G n i l k a ; S t o c k , Method, 2 9 8 ; E r n s t . S e v e r a l c o m m e n t a t o r s d e n y a M a i 3 a l l u s i o n h e r e , e.g. G a s t o n , Stone, 8 2 ; a n d B a r r e t t , ' H o u s e ' , 2 0 , w h o is s u r p r i s e d a t its o m i s s i o n . B u t g i v e n t h a t t h e f r a m i n g fig t r e e s t o r y h a s a l r e a d y a l l u d e d t o it, a n d t h i s w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r M a l a c h i m a t r i x o f t h e b o o k , n o f u r t h e r a l l u s i o n is n e c e s s a r y . Pace B o r g , Conflict, 171-77. B a u c k h a m , 'Demonstration', 83f, m a k e s the connection b e t w e e n sacrifice a n d p r a y e r , b u t t h e n g o e s o n to see this m e r e l y a s a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t the p r i m a c y of p r a y e r , w h i c h m i s s e s t h e p o i n t o f 'for all n a t i o n s ' in b o t h I s a 5 6 a n d M a r k . T h a t p r a y e r m a y t a k e t h e p l a c e o f t h e d e f u n c t T e m p l e is p o s s i b l e , s e e D o w d , Prayer, 3 7 - 5 5 , b u t p r o b a b l y n o t M a r k ' s i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n h e r e s i n c e it p u t s ' m y h o u s e ' o v e r a g a i n s t ' a p l a c e o f p r a y e r ' . 1
7
0
1
7
1
1
7
2
1
7
3
1
7
4
L o h m e y e r , ibid., 4 0 . H o o k e r , 2 6 5 , a l s o s e e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l dimension to the action. A s e.g. in S c h w e i z e r , 2 3 3 S e e L i g h t f o o t , Message, 6 3 ; T a y l o r , 4 6 3 .
Jesus,
Jeremiah
7:11,
and the
325
Temple
the other h a n d , set in contrast to Isaiah 5 6 ' s future h o p e is J e s u s ' indict ment of the enterprise's current role as a 'den o f thieves'—a critique w h o s e m o m e n t is h e i g h t e n e d b y the preceding cursing of the f i g - t r e e .
175
It is to
this less encouraging aspect o f J e s u s ' statement that w e n o w turn. (v) Jesus,
Jeremiah
7:11, and the
Temple
While scholarly consensus is agreed that the cursing o f the fig-tree implies j u d g e m e n t , the M a r k a n J e s u s ' action in the T e m p l e is m o r e a m b i g u o u s and h a s e n g e n d e r e d a spirited d e b a t e . therefore
'reformation'
'disruption' point?
1 7 9
and
1 7 6
D o e s it i m p l y c l e a n s i n g a n d
(as p e r t h e c o m m o n d e s i g n a t i o n )
judgement?
1 7 8
1 7 7
or
O r is c h o o s i n g either o n e b e s i d e t h e
G i v e n the extensive n a t u r e of the material, our a i m s here are
modest, n a m e l y , to outline the m a i n options (and there are all m a n n e r o f m i n o r variations), to n o t e various p r o b l e m s , and to see if w e can m a k e sense of w h a t M a r k is doing. At first glance, the reforming or 'cleansing' idea is fairly obvious. J e s u s drives out the merchandisers in order that the outer court m i g h t return to its p r o p e r u s e . surprising
C o n s i d e r i n g h u m a n n a t u r e , it w o u l d n o t b e at all
if unscrupulous
vendors took advantage of their
market
position and h e n c e J e s u s ' allusion to J e r e m i a h 7. It used to b e countered that there w a s n o h a r d e v i d e n c e o f s u c h c h i c a n e r y , b u t t h e r e is n o w e n o u g h m a t e r i a l to s u g g e s t the strong p o s s i b i l i t y o f v a r i o u s levels o f corruption and unsavoury
1
7
5
1
7
6
1
7
7
1
7
8
1
7
9
1
8
0
activity.
1 8 0
R. B a u c k h a m offers a n u a n c e d
E . g . L a g r a n g e , 2 9 6 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 9 3 ; E m s t ; t e n d t o m a k e this t h e e x c l u s i v e p o i n t . E.g. T a y l o r ; H i e r s , 'Purification'; D o w d a , 'Cleansing', 231ff; T r o c m e , Formation, 1 0 5 n l ; P e s c h ; B i l e z i k i a n , Liberated, 8 9 ; H o o k e r , ' T r a d i t i o n s ' , 17ff; E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , 2 6 9 f , a l t h o u g h h e s e e m s t o s u g g e s t o t h e r w i s e in ' " C a v e " ' , 1 0 7 f ; C h i l t o n , Temple, 1 0 0 ; a n d G u n d r y , 645. T h e w o r d itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r in M a r k ' s a c c o u n t . E . g . S c h w e i z e r ; D o n a h u e , Trial, 1 1 4 ; K e l b e r , Kingdom, 1 0 2 f ; G n i l k a ; D o w d , Prayer, 4 5 ; M y e r s , 3 0 1 ; G e d d a r t , Watchwords, 1 2 5 ; S a n d e r s , Jesus, 61ff; N e u s n e r , ' M o n e y - C h a n g e r s ' . L a n e , 4 0 7 , in v i e w of t h e fact t h a t J e s u s ' w o r d s c o m b i n e Isaiah a n d J e r e m i a h , r e g a r d s speculation o n this m a t t e r as 'irrelevant'. F o r o n e of the m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e accounts, see E v a n s , 'Action', 256-69; also Bauckham, 'Demonstration'; Bockmuehl, 'Destruction', 15; Hooker, 264; a n d Eppstein, ' C l e a n s i n g ' , b u t n o t i n g E v a n s ' c r i t i c i s m s , ' A c t i o n ' , 2 6 6 f ; cf. H a y w a r d , A r B 1 2 , Jeremiah, ad loc. S e e l e y , ' T e m p l e ' , h a s r e c e n t l y r e j e c t e d E v a n s ' d a t a , b u t A ) h e s e e m s t o r e q u i r e e v i d e n c e of a n o r d e r w h i c h m o s t h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y s i m p l y c a n n o t p r o v i d e , B) his o w n c a s e h a s n u m e r o u s h i s t o r i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s , e.g. ' w o u l d p r o b a b l y ' , ' s e e m s u n l i k e l y ' , f o r w h i c h h e offers v e r y little c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e , a n d C ) h i s a s s u m p t i o n t h a t J e s u s ' a c t s m u s t a l w a y s b e transparently clear does not take into account the highly allusive a n d enigmatic nature of e.g. M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g .
326
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
approach w h e n h e sees. A ) J e s u s ' action as constituting a wholesale attack o n the fundamental
concept o f a T e m p l e tax, B ) the explicit m e n t i o n of
doves alludes to the abuse o f the poor (citing Ker. 1:7), and C ) the vessels a n d other a n i m a l s refer to establishment profit t a k i n g .
181
O n this view,
the place h a d b e c o m e a 'den o f thieves' and so J e r e m i a h 7 is m o r e than apt.
1 8 2
N o t only s o , but s i n c e the c o m m e r c i a l interests are u n d e r the
auspices o f the T e m p l e hierarchs the implications for them are not hard to see.
It m u s t b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , that J e s u s does not actually attack the
sacrificial s y s t e m i t s e l f , Temple
proper.
1 8 4
183
in fact he keeps well a w a y from the heart o f the
F u r t h e r , w e h a v e n o e v i d e n c e o f m e s s i a n i c or
prophetic figures c o m i n g to destroy the Temple, but 'cleansing' is c o m m o n 1 8 5
enough.
Finally, it w o u l d m a k e little sense to s p e a k o f the T e m p l e
b e c o m i n g a place o f prayer (Isa 56:7) if it is already u n d e r sentence.
One
m i g h t also n o t e h e r e that the parable o f the w i c k e d tenants is not told against the T e m p l e but those in charge. Those taking the j u d g e m e n t or disruption v i e w would argue that there are several p r o b l e m s with the cleansing position.
Neusner maintains that
J e s u s ' h i n d e r i n g the sale o f sacrificial items in effect ' s h u t s d o w n ' the system.
1 8 6
According to Sheqalim
1:3 the m o n e y - c h a n g e r s w e r e essential
for the collection o f the half-shekel T e m p l e t a x ,
1 8 7
which funds w e r e used
for the m a i n t e n a n c e o f the p u b l i c daily w h o l e offerings w h i c h a t o n e m e n t for the nation's sin (t. Sheqal. b u y i n g a n d selling sacrificial a n i m a l s
1
8
1
1
8
2
made
1:6). T h e s a m e applies to those 1 8 8
H o w e v e r , it is not clear that
'Demonstration', 75-81. Catchpole, 'Entry', 3 3 3 , suggests Zech as the primary background but Mark's XnaTai is n e v e r u s e d in t h e L X X o r a n y o f t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n s t o r e n d e r Z e c h a r i a h ' s Cf. a l s o R o t h , ' C l e a n s i n g ' ; f o l l o w e d b y G a s t o n , Stone, 8 6 ; Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 65ff, c i t i n g G r a n t , ' C o m i n g ' ; see also the discussion o n p. 3 0 8 above, a n d pp. 333f, below. 183 p j ^ Messiah, 1 3 4 , 12:33 only highlights the point at issue h e r e in the ' c l e a n s i n g ' : s a c r i f i c e w i t h o u t o b e d i e n c e is w o r t h l e s s . C h i l t o n , Temple, a r g u e s t h a t J e s u s is e n g a g e d in a d i s p u t e a b o u t t h e p u r i t y o f a n i m a l s , b u t s e e t h e r e s p o n s e o f E v a n s , 'Jesus'. 184 g e e e.g. G a s t o n , Stone, 8 8 ; T a y l o r ; L i g h t f o o t , Message, 6 3 . a
1
8
5
c
e
u
e
S a n d e r s , Jesus, 8 9 f ; E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , 2 4 9 - 5 6 ; cf. G a s t o n , Stone, 1 0 2 - 1 2 . 186 ' M o n e y - c h a n g e r s ' ; cf. S a n d e r s , Jesus, 6 6 ; M y e r s ; a l s o E p p s t e i n , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 4 5 ; a n d F o r d , ' M o n e y ' , w h o , c i t i n g Ker. 1 7 : 1 5 ; 1 8 : 2 ; 2 6 : 2 ; m a k e s t h e i n t e r e s t i n g b u t f i n a l l y u n c o n v i n c i n g p r o p o s a l t h a t G K C O O S ' ( V . 1 5 ) refers t o m o n e y - c o n t a i n e r s u s e d t o t r a n s f e r f u n d s t o t h e T e m p l e d e p o s i t s cf. J o s . B.J. 6 . 2 8 1 . N e u s n e r , ibid., 2 9 0 , offers t h e i n g e n i o u s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e o v e r - t u r n i n g o f t h e m o n e y - c h a n g e r ' s ' t a b l e ' signifies J e s u s ' i n t e n t i o n t o s e t u p a n o t h e r 'table', that of the Eucharist. See B a u c k h a m , 'Demonstration'. Cf. E p p s t e i n , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 4 3 ; B a u c k h a m , ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' , 7 5 . 1
8
7
1
8
8
Jesus,
Jeremiah
7:11,
and the
327
Temple
expelling the sales from the o u t e r court constitutes a crippling attack o n the sacrificial s y s t e m . markets,
1 8 9
N o t o n l y is there s o m e e v i d e n c e for c o m p e t i n g
b u t if J e s u s w a n t e d to attack the idea of sacrifices per se t h e n
this s e e m s a particularly indirect w a y o f d o i n g s o .
1 9 0
A t the s a m e t i m e ,
b a s e d on the e v i d e n c e cited above, the T e m p l e hierarchy w a s v e r y probably i n v o l v e d to s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t in t h e b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s .
Jesus'
action w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e c o n s t i t u t e d at the v e r y least a n i n d i r e c t criticism of t h e m ,
1 9 1
as t h e i r r e s p o n s e a n d the s u b s e q u e n t
' c o n t r o v e r s i e s ' in M a r k l l : 2 7 f f s u g g e s t s .
1 9 2
series o f
B u t J e s u s c h a r g e is not, a s
m i g h t initially b e thought, m e r e l y directed at pecuniary malpractice; that is if w e take the J e r e m i a h 7 allusion s e r i o u s l y .
193
T h e e x p r e s s i o n QTTTfXaiov XrjaTCJv c o m e s
from
Jeremiah's
famous
' T e m p l e S e r m o n ' (cf. 7:2b-15) w h i c h addresses the p e o p l e ' s foolish m i s c o n c e p t i o n that t h e y c a n c o m m i t all m a n n e r o f sin a n d t h e n ' f l e e ' to t h e T e m p l e like a b r i g a n d to his c a v e , h o p i n g to e s c a p e the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f their actions t h r o u g h participation in the c u l t .
1 9 4
B u t , b e c a u s e they h a v e
disdained Y a h w e h ' s w a r n i n g s and persisted in following the c o u n s e l s o f their
rebellious hearts
( v v . 1 3 , 24ff),
their
significance t h a n ' d o m e s t i c m e a l s ' (v. 2 1 )
1 9 5
sacrifices have
no
more
and are therefore r e j e c t e d .
A s a result, j u d g e m e n t is irrevocable ( w . 13f, 16ff, 2 0 )
1 9 7
1 9 6
and the T e m p l e is
to suffer a fate similar to that o f the Shiloh shrine (v. 1 4 ) . Since there h a s b e e n n o obedience, neither will there b e sacrifices. M. D. Hooker, recognising the appropriateness
o f J e r e m i a h 7:1 I f f ,
s u b m i t s that the p r o p h e t also offers h o p e (7:5-7) and s o J e s u s ' s t a t e m e n t o u g h t not b e taken as indicating irrevocable j u d g e m e n t .
1 9 8
But, the verses
w h i c h offer h o p e p r e c e d e those from w h i c h J e s u s ' allusion is d r a w n .
On
the o t h e r h a n d , v e r s e 11 leads directly t h r o u g h a series o f c o n n e c t i v e s 1
8
9
Eppstein, 'Cleansing', 5 5 - 5 6 , a l t h o u g h his theory concerning the recent institution o f a m a r k e t in t h e T e m p l e h a s n o t b e e n w i d e l y a c c e p t e d ; s e e E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , 265ff. 1
9
0
1
9
1
1
9
2
1
9
3
1
9
4
1
9
5
1
9
6
1
9
7
1
9
8
S e e l e y , ' A c t ' , 2 6 7 ; cf. C h i l t o n , Temple, HOf. G u n d r y , 6 4 5 , s e e m s t o u n d e r p l a y this. B u r k i l l , ' S t r a i n ' , 4 2 , n o t e s t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n this s e r i e s o f c o n t r o v e r s i e s a n d those at the beginning of the gospel. Both lead to climactic confrontations. T h e a l l u s i o n t o J e r 7 is o n t h e b a s i s o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e T e m p l e (ntn rP3, M T ; 6 O I K O ? Hou, L X X ) a s a av^kaiov X T J C F T W V ( S O L X X ; 0 ^ 1 3 mi>Dn, M T ) . Bright, 5 6 ; M c K a n e , 1 6 3 . Carroll, 2 1 5 . Thompson, 287. V v . 5 - 7 a p p e a r t o b e r e g a r d e d a s a v a i n h o p e , cf. v. 2 7 . 'Traditions', 18.
328
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
(v. 12: K3"0*p ' 9 ; v. 13: ]2l nrun) to the m e s s a g e o f j u d g e m e n t (vv. 14-20). T h i s literary progression suggests that 7:1 I f f is a response to the p e o p l e ' s refusal to listen, and therefore that j u d g m e n t is i n e s c a p a b l e .
199
David C a t c h p o l e rejects this reading since it 'scarcely does justice to the situation described in verses 1 5 f of M a r k l l .
2 0 0
But does it not? Although
J o s e p h u s frequently describes the Zealots as X r j a T a i and M a r k 15:27 uses t h e w o r d to m e a n ' i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t ' ,
201
it is s o m e t i m e s a r g u e d that the
b e h a v i o u r envisaged in M a r k 11:15 implies the sense o f a c o m m o n violent thief.
2 0 2
If taken in this latter sense, then as B a u c k h a m argues, it is the
rapacious b e h a v i o u r o f the priestly aristocracy that is at issue: 'they treat the temple ... as a b a s e from which they go out on m a r a u d i n g raids and to w h i c h t h e y r e t u r n w i t h their l o o t ' .
2 0 3
F o r B a u c k h a m , it is this v e r y
attitude, as in J e r e m i a h , that occasions their j u d g m e n t . Perhaps.
But within the larger M a r k a n s c h e m a J o s e p h u s ' usage m a k e s
excellent s e n s e , first, o f J e s u s ' conflict w i t h the authorities, particularly t h o s e from J e r u s a l e m , s e c o n d , o f M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s as b o t h messianic King and nationalist
Yahweh-Warrior, and
connotations
of the
term.
third,
given
First, there
are
the
highly
significant
similarities b e t w e e n M a r k ' s characterisation o f the J e r u s a l e m authorities and the attitudes displayed b y the general p o p u l a c e a n d / o r ruling class in J e r e m i a h 7.
B o t h are portrayed as refusing to listen, as w a l k i n g in the
stubbornness o f their o w n foolish counsels, and as confusing cultic practice w i t h true o b e d i e n c e ( w h a t e v e r else m i g h t b e said about their b u s i n e s s dealings a n d t h u g g e r y
204
) . In M a r k ' s case, this equates to opposing G o d ' s 205
present purposes in Jesus and so inviting j u d g e m e n t (Mk 4 and 7).
Both
in I s a i a h 6, a n d n o w a l s o in the J e r e m i a h 7 a l l u s i o n w h i c h is so appropriate to the T e m p l e setting, this j u d g m e n t entails the destruction of
1
9
9
E . g . M c K a n e , 1 6 3 ; cf. C r a i g i e , et al, 1 2 2 ; T h o m p s o n , 2 8 2 , w h o s e e s this a s a r e s p o n s e t o n o t h e a r i n g . Cf. J u e l , Messiah, 1 3 3 f . 2
0
0
2
0
1
2
0
2
2
0
3
2
0
4
2
0
5
' E n t r y ' , 3 3 4 ; a n d e.g. E p p s t e i n , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 4 3 ; S e e l e y , ' A c t ' , 2 6 7 .
R e n g s t o r f f , TDNT, 'Act', 2 6 9 .
4 . 2 5 7 - 6 2 ; R o t h , ' C l e a n s i n g ' ; B u c h a n a n , ' B r i g a n d s ' ; cf. S e e l e y ,
S o e.g. J o s e p h u s ' d e r o g a t o r y u s a g e is a s s u m e d t o i m p l y a c o m m o n b r i g a n d , P e s c h , 2 . 1 9 9 ; B a u c k h a m , ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' , 8 4 ; G u n d r y , 6 4 4 ; cf. K e e , Community, 1 5 0 . Ibid. C f . J u e l , Messiah, 1 3 3 , a l t h o u g h h e a r g u e s that the p h r a s e 'den of thieves' i t s e l f 'is i n a p p r o p r i a t e ' . B a u c k h a m , 'Demonstration', 84; Evans, 'Action', 2 5 9 ; Bockmuehl, 'Destruction', 15. Interestingly, t h e leaders' d e s i r e to d e s t r o y Jesus (v. 1 8 ) also e c h o e s J e r e m i a h ' s experience (26:4-8).
Jesus,
Jeremiah
7:11,
and the
329
Temple
Jerusalem. It should also b e noted that J e s u s ' allusion to the O T undercuts the not u n c o m m o n objection that there w a s n o p o p u l a r e x p e c t a t i o n o f a M e s s i a h w h o destroys the T e m p l e . T h a t Peter has already fallen foul o f a s s u m i n g that J e s u s ' m e s s i a h s h i p c o n f o r m e d to p u b l i c e x p e c t a t i o n ( M k 8:31-33)
2 0 6
s h o u l d alert us to the fact that the M a r k a n J e s u s d r a w s h i s
m o d e l from his o w n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the O T , not p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n s nor those o f c o n t e m p o r a r y or subsequent J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e .
207
Second, the stakes are clearly raised w h e n all of this is put in the larger context o f the M a r k a n J e s u s w h o proclaims the reign o f G o d (l:14f), w h o functions as its inaugurating e m i s s a r y a n d messianic king, a n d w h o also in a unique w a y is closely associated with the presence o f Y a h w e h himself, n a m e l y as G o d ' s Son. T o reject h i m can only b e treasonous rebellion. T h i s is n o w h e r e s o c l e a r as in J e s u s ' ' t r i u m p h a l ' e n t r y , w h e n , as the k i n g c o m i n g to his o w n city, h e is pointedly s n u b b e d b y these v e r y leaders o f Jerusalem.
A n d if t h e T e m p l e , the n e x t i n s t i t u t i o n to b e v i s i t e d , is
understood
as Y a h w e h ' s o w n ' p a l a c e ' , t h e n their q u e s t i o n i n g o f h i s
authority (11:28) is e v e n m o r e offensive; let alone their plot to kill h i m (11:18), h a t c h e d e v e n w h i l e t h e S o n o f G o d is in his o w n
'house'.
2 0 8
'Insurrectionists' are exactly what they are. Third, it is the use o f Ana-nfc; w h i c h m a k e s t h e p o i n t at i s s u e ' t h e nationalist o c c u p a t i o n o f the h o u s e that w a s i n t e n d e d for i n t e r n a t i o n a l use';
2 0 9
and this is precisely w h a t the Isaiah 5 6 allusion suggests.
These
insurrectionists h a v e put their nationalist a g e n d a s ahead o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E intention that his h o u s e b e a place o f prayer for all nations. O n these twin bases, that A ) J e s u s ' action w a s both an implicit attack o n the T e m p l e h i e r a r c h s a n d a c h a l l e n g e to their a u t h o r i t y a n d B ) h i s J e r e m i a h a l l u s i o n in v i e w o f its i m m e d i a t e context constitutes a not-soveiled threat o f d e s t r u c t i o n , it is not difficult to s e e w h y i m m e d i a t e l y following in 11:18 M a r k informs us that they plot his d e a t h .
2
0
6
2
0
7
2
0
8
2 1 0
F r o m the
E v e n m o r e s o if J e s u s ' a c t i o n s a r e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d t o b e p a r a b l e s . In t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , b o t h J e r 7 a n d E z e k p r e s u p p o s e d e s t r u c t i o n . S e e f u r t h e r B o c k m u e h l , ' D e s t r u c t i o n ' , 12ff; a n d E v a n s , 'Jesus'. D o n a h u e , Trial, 1 1 4 , o b s e r v e s t h a t j u s t a s J e s u s ' ' b y p a s s i n g o f t h e J e w i s h c u l t a n d r i t u a l in h i s h e a l i n g s a n d t e a c h i n g s ' i n s t i g a t e d a c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e o u t c o m e t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s p l o t h i s d e a t h in 3 : 6 , s o t o o h e r e . B a r r e t t , ' H o u s e ' , 1 7 ; cf. R o t h , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 1 7 6 f . Cf. E v a n s , 'Jesus', 105ff, a n d t h e s t o r y o f J e s u s , s o n o f A n a n i a s ; J o s . B.J. 6 . 3 0 0 - 9 . 2
0
9
2
1
0
330
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
M a r k a n s t a n d p o i n t , J e s u s h a s a l r e a d y a c c e p t e d s o m e form o f m e s s i a n i c acclamation, and n o w threatens both their authority and their existence. R e t u r n i n g to the juxtaposition of Isaiah 5 6 and J e r e m i a h 7, the o n e sets the s t a n d a r d for w h a t the T e m p l e should h a v e b e c o m e in the I N E , a place of prayer for all nations, w h i l e the other s h o w s w h a t it has in fact b e c o m e , a 'refuge o f insurrectionists'. If the rebels will not allow the T e m p l e to b e a h o u s e o f p r a y e r for all nations, neither will it b e p e r m i t t e d to r e m a i n a refuge for t h o s e w h o h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y o p p o s e d G o d ' s I N E p u r p o s e s in Jesus.
2 1 1
W h i l e J e s u s ' w o r d s m a y i n c i d e n t a l l y r e v e a l t h e futility o f a
sacrificial s y s t e m u n d e r these c o n d i t i o n s (as w a s the c a s e w i t h J e r e m i a h a n d Isaiah; cf. 1 2 : 3 3 ) ,
2 1 2
d e s t r u c t i o n (cf. 1 5 : 3 8 ) .
2 1 3
they m o r e clearly p o r t e n d the T e m p l e ' s c o m i n g P e r h a p s , then, J e s u s ' disruption o f the institu
tional p r o c e d u r e s a d u m b r a t e a greater a n d m o r e p e r m a n e n t disruption to c o m e . A s indicated b y the ensuing parable of the w i c k e d tenants, G o d after p r o l o n g e d sufferance and m a n y emissaries will not long restrain his anger a g a i n s t t h e r e b e l s ( M k 12:1-12).
Are we perhaps hearing the voice of
Y a h w e h in the T e m p l e dealing r e c o m p e n s e to his e n e m i e s (Isa 66:6)? It is e s s e n t i a l to state at this point, as M a r k 12 e m p h a s i s e s , that the central thrust o f the material is directed against the J e r u s a l e m leadership and Temple h i e r a r c h y .
214
T h e general populace, as w e argued concerning
M a r k 4 , s t a n d in the balance. W h a t will h a p p e n to the p e o p l e d e p e n d s on t h e i r r e s p o n s e to t h e i r K i n g — t h u s t h e i r c l a m o u r in M a r k 1 5 : 6 - 1 5 is ominous
indeed.
2 1 5
A n interesting adjunct to this interpretation is the M a r k a n detail o f the a T i p a 6 a c ; - b e a r i n g c r o w d so c l o s e to J e s u s ' cleansing action. W h e n J u d a s a n d S i m o n M a c c a b a e u s h a d c o m e to J e r u s a l e m their a i m w a s to c l e a n s e a n d r e d e d i c a t e the T e m p l e a n d o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s they w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y branch-carrying followers (1 M a c e 4:36; 2 M a c e 10:7; and 1 M a c e 1 3 : 5 1 ) .
216
4
T h e i m a g e o f the p a l m a n d the inscription ]VX n^KJ ? are also found o n
2
1
1
T h e G r e a t S a n h e d r i n m e t r e g u l a r l y in t h e C h a m b e r o f H e w n S t o n e in t h e T e m p l e , cf. E p p s t e i n ' s d i s c u s s i o n , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 5 0 f . cf. L o h m e y e r , Lord, 4 7 . It is o n l y o n this b a s i s t h a t J u e l ' s s u g g e s t i o n , Messiah, 1 3 4 , o f a n o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n l i o u s e o f p r a y e r ' a n d sacrificial c u l t is t o b e a f f i r m e d . 213^See e.g. B e s t , Temptation, xlif. S o a l s o J u e l , Messiah, 1 3 1 . See also Marcus, 128f. F a r m e r , Maccabees, 1 3 6 f , 1 5 5 f ; c i t e d in K i n m a n , Entry, 1 1 6 ; cf. C a t c h p o l e , ' E n t r y ' , 3 2 0 . C o a k l e y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 4 7 2 , r e g a r d s M a r k ' s OTifiddas a s d e f y i n g e x p l a n a t i o n . 2
1
4
2
1
5
2
1
6
Jesus,
Jeremiah
7:11,
and the
331
Temple
coins p r o d u c e d d u r i n g the first J e w i s h r e v o l t .
217
( O n e might b e forgiven
for pointing out again the importance o f this term, ^fcO, in describing the hope
of the 219
oTifiddag
INE.)
2 1 8
B e a r i n g in m i n d
the
differences—here
the
are laid d o w n , not carried, and the specific w o r d ' p a l m ' is not
used, although one m a y inquire w h a t the people thought they w e r e doing in s t r e w i n g
t h e p a t h in this w a y
(cf. J n 1 2 : 1 3 ) — n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e
acclamation o f the c r o w d suggests that they understood the entry in terms of s u c h a ' d e l i v e r a n c e ' m o d e l .
2 2 0
A n d , indeed, as w i t h the M a c c a b e a n
entries, the 'cleansing' o f the T e m p l e is the focal point. F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , J e s u s , fresh from his victories as the Y a h w e h Warrior in p u r g i n g the land of the demonic, c o m e s as the messianic K i n g to effect the c o n s u m m a t i o n in Jerusalem. T h e irony, o f course, is that the c l e a n s i n g / e x p u l s i o n is directed n o t against the R o m a n s b u t against the present T e m p l e authorities and their functionaries and operatives, w h o m Jesus apparently regards as the true insurrectionists. Jerusalem has indeed b e e n t h r o w n into t u m u l t as Y a h w e h ' s voice is heard 'dealing
retribution
to his e n e m i e s ' (Isa 66:6, R S V ) . T h e fig-tree has been cursed, and recalling M a r k ' s use o f Malachi, Telford observes: ' T h e Lord w h o m they sought had suddenly c o m e to his T e m p l e (cf. Mai. 3.1 and M k . 1.2) but had c o n d e m n e d rather than restored i t ! '
2 2 1
W. W. Watty, however,
rejects the M a l a c h i i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
because
A ) J e s u s does not c o m e suddenly but prefaces his action with a public entry ( l l r l f f ) and a n inspection o f the T e m p l e (11:11), B ) the v e n d o r s not the priests are driven out, and C ) there is no explicit reference to M a l a c h i .
2 2 2
In response, ' s u d d e n n e s s ' has also to do with the ' u n e x p e c t e d ' and J e s u s '
2
1
7
2
1
8
2
1
9
2
2
0
2
2
1
2
2
2
E a r l i e r a t t r i b u t e d b y R e i f e n b e r g , Ancient, to the Maccabees, the evidence n o w s u g g e s t s t h e first r e v o l t ; s e e H e n g e l , Zealots, 117. F a r m e r , 'Palm', 6 3 , cites Reifenberg, Ancient, 37, w h o n o t e s t h a t t h e p a l m is 'first a n d f o r e m o s t ' t h e s y m b o l o f t h e 'feast o f tabernacles w h i c h so manifestly expresses the joy of deliverance'. S e e e.g. t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f M k 1 0 : 4 5 , C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 278ff; a l s o H e n g e l , Zealots, 1 1 8 , w h o s e e s e s p e c i a l l y I s a 5 2 : 1 , w i t h its p i c t u r e o f Y a h w e h a s r e d e e m e r , a s e x p r e s s i n g t h e k e r n e l o f J e w i s h h o p e s , a t e x t w h i c h w e h a v e s u g g e s t e d is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e l i t e r a r y f u n c t i o n o f Isa 5 3 . B A G D , 7 6 8 , a n d B S , 3 . 2 7 6 b , s u g g e s t s o m e t h i n g like 'leafy b r a n c h e s ' . G u n d r y ' s c o m m e n t , 6 2 9 , t h a t M a r k s a y s ' n o t h i n g a b o u t b r a n c h e s o f a n y kind', a s s u m e s t o o m u c h . O n the messianic e x p e c t a t i o n s for a ' w a r h e r o ' Son of D a v i d , see H e n g e l , Zealots, 298ff, a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n . Barren, 1 6 3 ; cf. fn. 1 2 0 . 'Jesus', 2 3 5 f ; t a k e n u p b y G u n d r y , 6 4 3 .
332
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
actions w e r e apparently t h a t ,
2 2 3
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
and, there is n o n e e d for explicit reference
if other indicators m a k e the allusion clear. But W a t t y is correct concerning the vendors.
H o w e v e r , this m a y b e a c c o m m o d a t e d if J e s u s ' symbolic and
proleptic act is understood in m o r e general terms, indirectly reflecting on those w h o permitted them to operate in the first place. M o r e to the p o i n t , does n o t M a l a c h i s p e a k o f p u r g i n g , rather t h a n destruction?
2 2 4
Y e s , ... and no. W h i l e it is true that M a l a c h i 3 envisages
purging, t h e p u r p o s e o f Elijah's c o m i n g is so that Y a h w e h will not curse the land, w h i c h is the language o f destruction. In the end, as it w a s in the p r o p h e t s a n d as J e s u s ' implied in M a r k 4 , the p u r g i n g is to b e effected b y m e a n s o f j u d g m e n t (cf. Isa 6:11-13). d) Which
Mountain?
The Meaning
of the Mountain-Moving
Saying
N u m e r o u s scholars h a v e c o m m e n t e d o n w h a t they feel to b e the a b r u p t a p p e a r a n c e o f the ' m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g ' s a y i n g in M a r k 11:22-25. preceding discussion we have already argued
that such
In the
'disjointed'
materials a r e not u n c o m m o n in the teaching style o f the M a r k a n J e s u s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , in v i e w o f the fig-tree s y m b o l i s m , a c o m m o n r e s p o n s e has b e e n to read this saying as an eschatological statement referring either to the M o u n t o f O l i v e s
2 2 5
or the T e m p l e M o u n t .
2 2 6
The first option takes the demonstrative to refer to the M o u n t o f Olives a n d s e e s Z e c h a r i a h 14:4's description o f the e a r t h - s h a t t e r i n g (literally) c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the M e s s i a h ' s arrival as the i n t e r p r e t i v e frame.
For
T. W . M a n s o n , this 'striking b a c k g r o u n d ' e x p l a i n s the s a y i n g ' s M a r k a n location.
2 2 7
R. M . G r a n t , p o i n t i n g out n u m b e r s o f p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n
Z e c h a r i a h 9-14 a n d M a r k l l ,
2 2 8
suggested that since the H e b r e w ' t o the
w e s t ' (nw, Z e c h 14:4) m e a n s 'to the s e a ' M a r k 11:23 alludes to Zechariah's
2
2
3
2
2
4
2
2
5
2
2
6
2
2
7
2
2
8
D a u b e , Sudden, 74i; cf. N e u s n e r , ' M o n e y - c h a n g e r s ' , 2 8 9 . It is a l s o h i s first s u b s t a n tial a c t o n a r r i v i n g in J e r u s a l e m , H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 2 . H o o k e r , 'Traditions', 8, sees a connection with the p r o l o g u e b u t denies that the M a l a c h i t e x t is in v i e w s i n c e M a r k s p e a k s o f d e s t r u c t i o n n o t c l e a n s i n g . Message, 8 3 . E . g . M a n s o n , Messiah, 2 9 f , 3 9 f ; G r a n t , ' C o m i n g ' , 3 0 0 ; E v a n s , ' G a l i l e e ' , 7; S m i t h , ' F i g s ' , 3 2 2 ; cf. H u r t a d o , 1 8 4 . A n u m b e r o f s c h o l a r s , n o t l i s t e d h e r e , a l s o s e e J e s u s a s indicating the M o u n t of Olives but without a n y eschatological implications. E . g . A b b o t t , Fourfold, 5 . 2 0 8 ; D o d d , Parables, 6 3 n l ; L i g h t f o o t , Message, 78; Gaston, Stone, 4 5 4 ; C a r r i n g t o n , 2 4 2 f ; M c K e l v e y , Temple, 6 5 n 3 ; T e l f o r d , Barren, 95-127; Trocme, Formation, 1 0 5 f ; K e l b e r , Kingdom, 1 0 3 f ; H o o k e r , ' T r a d i t i o n s ' ; B r o a d h e a d , ' M o u n t a i n ' . M a n s o n , ibid., 3 0 . ' C o m i n g ' , 298ff. E . g . v. 1: Z e c h 9 : 9 ; 1 4 : 4 ; v . 2: 9 : 9 ; v v . 8 - 1 0 : 1 4 : 1 6 - 1 9 ; v . 1 1 : 1 4 : 5 ; v. 1 3 : cf. 1 4 : 8 ; v. 1 4 : 14:4; v. 1 5 : 1 4 : 2 1 ; v. 1 6 : 1 4 : 2 0 ; v. 1 7 : 1 4 : 1 6 ; v. 2 3 : 1 4 : 4 .
Which
eschatological t u r m o i l .
Mountain?
229
The Mountain-Moving
333
Saying
C. F . E v a n s , following Wright, noted additional
parallels and argued that M a r k 11:23 is 'not a general exhortation to faith, but a precise injunction ... to see that this is the period o f the last days, and that Jerusalem is being j u d g e d ' .
2 3 0
N o t all o f t h e s e p a r a l l e l s are c o n v i n c i n g , yet t h e r e are e n o u g h s u g g e s t that Z e c h a r i a h p l a y s an influential role.
to
But does Mark's Jesus
h a v e in m i n d the specifically e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t r e m o r s o f the M o u n t o f Olives?
P r o b a b l y not.
In Zechariah, the setting is Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g to
r e s c u e his p e o p l e , w h i c h w o u l d certainly fit the o v e r a l l I N E thrust o f M a r k , b u t the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t o f M a r k 11:23 is o n e o f w a r n i n g imminent judgement on the Temple establishment.
and
Second, allowing
that this might b e eschatological imagery (but see Zech 14:5), the M o u n t o f O l i v e s is in fact ' d i v i d e d ' , w h i c h s o u n d s like a t h e o p h a n y o f Y a h w e h ' s descent rather than j u d g e m e n t (e.g. E x 19:16ff). cast into the sea s u g g e s t s total r e m o v a l
2 3 1
O n the other h a n d , b e i n g
and, since the sea represents
chaos (e.g. Pss 18:16; 32:6; 46:2; 6 9 : 1 , 14; J o b 7:12; 26:12), e v o k e s images o f judgement
and
obliteration.
2 3 2
T h i r d , S h a r y n D o w d a r g u e s that it is
inconceivable that the messianic dislocations should b e d e p e n d e n t o n just a n y b o d y ' s e x e r c i s e o f faith (11:23a: og a v ) .
2 3 3
T h e c a s e for a s y m b o l i c
eschatological reference to the M o u n t o f Olives is not strong. M o r e c o m m o n l y , 'this m o u n t a i n ' is understood to refer to the T e m p l e Mount.
T e l f o r d , w h o s e w o r k is g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d
exposition, has argued the case e x t e n s i v e l y .
234
as t h e
standard
First, since M a r k has placed
this material here, Telford argues that it m u s t b e related to the foregoing and, therefore, m u s t s o m e h o w b e connected to the fig-tree and T e m p l e .
2 3 5
Next, turning to the O T , h e notes that 'the mountain o f the L o r d ' is a well k n o w n designation for the place w h e r e Y a h w e h will 'plant' his p e o p l e so
2
2
9
2
3
0
2
3
1
Miracle, 167. E v a n s , 'Galilee', 7, cf. 5ff, c i t i n g e.g. Z e c h 9:11 in t h e w o r d s o f i n s t i t u t i o n , M k 1 4 : 2 4 ; a n d Z e c h 1 3 : 7 in t h e s m i t i n g o f t h e s h e p h e r d , M k 14:27. M a r s h a l l , Faith, 1 6 8 , n o t e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m o v i n g n o r t h a n d s o u t h a n d being cast into the sea. * C f . e.g. M k 5 : 1 3 a n d 9 : 4 2 , M a u s e r , 1 2 6 ; S c h n e l l b a c h e r , ' T e m p l e ' , 1 0 4 ; M a r s h a l l , Faith, 168f; pace G u n d r y , 6 7 8 , w h o fails t o r e a l i s e A ) t h e E x o d u s b a c k g r o u n d , a n d t h e r e f o r e j u d g m e n t c o n n o t a t i o n s , o f M k 5 : 3 1 , a n d B) t h a t M k 9 : 4 2 is still a n a c t o f t e r r i b l e j u d g m e n t , if only to heighten the seriousness of the alternative. 3 2
2
3
3
2
3
4
2
3
5
Prayer, 7 3 f . Barren. S e e e.g. ibid., 4 9 , u p o n w h i c h t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r k is p r e d i c a t e d .
334
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
that they might flourish (espec. E x 15:17; Ps 78:54; Ezek 17:22f; Isa 2:2; = Mic 4 : 1 ; cf. Isa 27:6), although 'cultic aberration' results in j u d g e m e n t against both fig and vine (e.g. Jer 5:17; 8:13; H o s 2:12; 9 : 1 0 , 1 6 ; A m o s 4:9). M u c h the s a m e relationship obtains for rabbinic l i t e r a t u r e . in
the
OT
and
later
literature
236
There is already, then,
a conjunction
of Temple
Mount,
h o r t i c u l t u r a l i m a g e r y ( i n c l u d i n g the fig-tree), w i t h b l e s s i n g s e e n as flourishing,
and j u d g m e n t as withering.
This w o u l d fit w i t h M a r k w h e r e
although the fig-tree is clearly flourishing, the signs o f fruitfulness to c o m e are utterly absent. Telford also cites rabbinic texts w h e r e 'the m o u n t a i n o f the L o r d ' is apparently shortened to 'this m o u n t a i n ' and as such refers to the T e m p l e (b. Pesah 8 7 b , and b. Git. 5 6 b ) ,
2 3 7
and notes a discussion in b. Baba
Bathra
3b-4b w h i c h s p e a k s o f m o v i n g m o u n t a i n s in the context o f theoretically d e s t r o y i n g the T e m p l e in o r d e r to b u i l d a n e w o n e .
2 3 8
Finally, it is a
feature o f the ' M e s s i a n i c A g e ' that all obstacles to G o d ' s returning people will b e r e m o v e d , particularly mountains (Isa 40:4; 45:2; 49:11; cf. 6 4 : l - 3 ) .
2 3 9
O n this basis, the oddity o f M a r k l l : 2 2 f f being so closely attached to the preceding can b e explained. Its function is to announce ... . . . t h a t ' t h e m o v i n g o f m o u n t a i n s ' e x p e c t e d in t h e l a s t d a y s w a s n o w t a k i n g p l a c e . I n d e e d , a b o u t t o b e r e m o v e d w a s t h e m o u n t a i n par excellence,
the T e m p l e Mount.
T h e T e m p l e , k n o w n t o J e w i s h p e o p l e as 'the m o u n t a i n of the h o u s e ' o r 'this m o u n t a i n ' w a s n o t to b e elevated, a s expected, b u t cast d o w n ! A s R. E . D o w d a states: " T h e t e m p l e is t h e m o u n t a i n o u s o b s t a c l e w h i c h is t o v a n i s h b e f o r e t h e faith o f t h e gospel movement. interests,
T h e t e m p l e s y s t e m w i t h its c o r r u p t c l e r i c a l i s m a n d v e s t e d
is t o b e r e m o v e d i n t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e r a , w h i c h is n o w
experienced."
being
2 4 0
D o e s this interpretation fare any better? G u n d r y think s o .
2 4 1
Neither S h a r y n D o w d , n o r
For D o w d , A ) the rabbinic designations are too late
and Telford h a s not demonstrated that 'this m o u n t a i n ' w o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as a reference to the T e m p l e b y M a r k ' s readers, and in fact Telford is u n a b l e to a d d u c e a n y a n c i e n t interpretation (unlike fig-tree cursing) to support this view. In terms o f m o v i n g mountains, B ) 'in Isa 2:2 2
3
6
2
3
7
Ibid., 1 3 4 - 4 1 . Ibid., 1 7 0 n 6 5 . Ibid., 1 1 2 . Ibid., 1 1 6 , c i t i n g D e r r e t t , ' F i g t r e e s ' , 2 5 3 ; cf. H a h n , ' W o r t ' , 1 5 7 . Ibid., 1 1 9 , c i t i n g D o w d a , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , p . 2 5 0 ; c f . M a r s h a l l , Faith, Schnellbacher, 'Temple'. R e s p e c t i v e l y , Prayer, 72f; Mark, 6 7 7 . 2
3
8
2
3
9
2
4
2
4
0
1
168f; and
Which
Mountain?
The Mountain-Moving
335
Saying
and M i c 4:1, "the m o u n t a i n o f the house o f the L o r d " will b e established
in
the M e s s i a n i c a g e , n o t r e m o v e d ' , C ) the m o u n t a i n s in Isaiah (40:4f; 45:2) are levelled, not r e m o v e d or cast into the sea, D ) in Z e c h a r i a h 4:6-10 the ' m o u n t a i n will b e levelled so that the T e m p l e can b e restored', Bathra
E ) b. Baba
3b is n o t about r e m o v i n g the T e m p l e b u t about solving impossible
legal difficulties, a n d , finally, F ) the d e m o n s t r a t i v e clearly refers to t h e Mount of O l i v e s .
2 4 2
Considering D o w d ' s concerns before going on to Gundry, A ) granted the late date o f the rabbinical material, she is correct in that 'this m o u n t a i n ' o n its o w n is n o t u n a m b i g u o u s l y
a r e f e r e n c e to t h e T e m p l e
Mount.
2 4 3
However, it d o e s occur hard on the heels o f what appears to b e a stunning reversal o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l expectation for the ' h o u s e o n the m o u n t a i n o f the L o r d ' , and this m i g h t b e a contextual hint. A n d as Donald J u e l notes, in Tg. Isaiah
5:lff,
a passage that provides the imagery for the parable o f the
tenants in M a r k 12:lff, Israel is given an inheritance D l
(5:1b).
244
On
the other h a n d , that n o ancient interpreter s a w it this w a y is significant, but m a y in fact say m o r e about M a r k ' s interpreters' horizons than M a r k . G i v e n that the text occurs e l s e w h e r e without a T e m p l e setting (Mt 17:1920; 1 C o r 13:2), it is quite possible that ancient interpreters might h a v e read their M a r k through the e y e s o f Paul, or m o r e likely M a t t h e w , as did their scribes.
245
M o v i n g n o w to points E ) and F ) . D o w d is correct with regard to
E ) that, b a s e d o n the rabbinic u s a g e Telford h i m s e l f cites, t h e m e t a p h o r concerns s o l v i n g i m p o s s i b l e legal p r o b l e m s , not r e m o v i n g T e m p l e s .
On
the other hand, F ) h a v i n g stood o n the M o u n t o f Olives and looked across at the T e m p l e Mount, I see n o reason w h y o n e pointing at it could not use the demonstrative 'this'. A s to points C ) and D ) , granted the l a n g u a g e is 'levelled',
the
fundamental
concept
is o b v i o u s l y
the
removal
of
mountainous obstacles.
T h e l a n g u a g e o f c a s t i n g into the s e a m e r e l y
expresses the s a m e idea.
But, and this is the crucial connection, granted
the negative connotations noted a b o v e o f the sea as c h a o s and b e i n g cast into it as an act o f j u d g m e n t — w h i c h , b y the w a y , is consistent with the w i t h e r e d fig-tree a n d M a r k 1 3 : 2 — ' c a s t i n g into the s e a ' o n l y s e r v e s to 2
4
2
2
4
3
Prayer,
72f.
T h e l a n g u a g e is in f a c t i n d e t e r m i n a t e , cf. S c h m i t h a l s , 2 1 4 . Messiah, 136f. O n the well k n o w n p h e n o m e n o n of scribes harmonising the texts of M a r k a n d L u k e to M a t t h e w ; s e e A l a n d , Text, 2 9 0 f ; M e t z g e r , Text, 1 9 7 . 2
4
4
2
4
5
336
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
h e i g h t e n t h e i r o n y o f the e x t r a o r d i n a r y reversal o f p r o p h e c i e s s u c h as t h o s e m e n t i o n e d in B ) . T h a t is to s a y , r e m o v a l is not antithetical to establishment w h e n w h a t is r e m o v e d is a corrupt system in order that the n e w m i g h t b e established in its stead. H e r e w e h a v e yet another e x a m p l e o f M a r k ' s J e s u s b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r t w o ideas to m a k e a powerful point, n a m e l y , the idea o f the r e m o v a l of m o u n t a i n o u s objects, w i t h the idea o f the sea as t h e place o f c h a o s a n d j u d g m e n t .
A n d all this allusively, and
w i t h considerable irony, applied to M o u n t Zion. G u n d r y , likewise rejects Telford's interpretation o n the basis o f a series o f putative 'failures', s o m e o f w h i c h are similar to D o w d ' s concerns. W e d i s c u s s o n l y t h o s e n o t a d d r e s s e d a b o v e , viz.
Telford's 'failure' A ) 'to
d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the T e m p l e and the m o u n t o n w h i c h it s t a n d s ' ,
2 4 6
B ) to realise that the M o u n t m u s t r e m a i n as the site o f the T e m p l e ruin (13:2), C ) 'to d e m o n s t r a t e ' that the destruction o f the T e m p l e is to h a p p e n as the result o f the disciples' faith, and finally, D ) to account for that fact that M a r k n o w h e r e e l s e uses ' m o u n t a i n ' to refer to the T e m p l e site. In response. A ) if J e r u s a l e m can b e a s y n e c d o c h e for Israel, then, given T e l f o r d ' s e x a m p l e s , it s e e m s s o m e w h a t p e d a n t i c to d e n y that mountain'
c o u l d refer to w h a t is o n t h e m o u n t a i n , a n d
'this
a g a i n , the
i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t b o t h in t e r m s o f s y m b o l i s m a n d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e s u g g e s t s t h e T e m p l e M o u n t . B ) is o n l y o f c o n c e r n o n a literal r e a d i n g w h i c h n o b o d y , as far as I can tell, is proposing. T a k i n g D ) next, that M a r k n o w h e r e else uses the term in this w a y hardly disqualifies h i m from doing so n o w — u n l e s s h e is not p e r m i t t e d a u n i q u e u s e o f a t e r m (but cf. e.g. ayioc; in a title for J e s u s only in 1:24).
Finally, C ) is o f c o u r s e the issue.
First, t w o points. In this case, 'demonstration' is an impossibly unrealistic d e m a n d for either position (e.g. note the ambiguity o f the demonstrative). A ' g o o d l i k e l i h o o d ' is m o r e reasonable.
S e c o n d , it is not clear from the
a b o v e q u o t e that Telford m e a n s that the disciples will effect the actual p h y s i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e t h r o u g h t h e i r p r a y e r , as
Gundry
suggests. O n the contrary, s u p p o s e o n e allows an underlying eschatologi cal (or apocalyptic) s y m b o l i s m . T h e n , j u s t as J e s u s c o m e s to a rebellious J e r u s a l e m — c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a corrupt T e m p l e s y s t e m (cf. M a i 3:5; 1:6 2:16 2
4
6
2
4
7
2 4 7
) w i t h w h o s e m a s t e r s h e h a s b e e n in c o n s t a n t c o n f l i c t — a n d
677. See earlier. C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 6 8 a n d 70.
Which
Mountain?
The Mountain-Moving
337
Saying
adumbrates j u d g e m e n t b y cursing the fig-tree (cf. Mai 3:lf, 21 M T ) , is it not possible that his disciples, b y their prayerful faith, might see the ' r e m o v a l ' of this ' o b s t a c l e ' that is s t a n d i n g in the w a y not o n l y o f the L o r d ' s I N E c o m i n g but o f the c S v c a i v c o m i n g to h i m (Isa 56:7 in M k 11:17a; and also e.g. Acts 4:1-31; 13:44-50)? N e v e r t h e l e s s , D o w d is surely correct in her intention to regain w h a t s e e m s to b e the p r i m a r y point o f the p a s s a g e .
It is difficult from this
distance to k n o w w h e t h e r Jesus m e a n t his w o r d s to apply quite literally to physical them
2 4 8
mountains—as
early
tradition
suggests
some people
took
— o r metaphorically, as for e x a m p l e in M a r k 10:43-47. If the latter,
then w e have graphic hyperbole, not to b e taken literally but understood as a m e m o r a b l e w a y o f s a y i n g that all things are possible to those w h o h a v e faith.
2 4 9
In a n y c a s e , as D o w d points out, the e a r l y c h u r c h t o o k it as
referring to the p o w e r o f faith (1 C o r 13:2; M t 17:19-20; 21:21; L k 1 7 : 2 - 8 ) .
250
W h a t e v e r t h e m e r i t s o f an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s y m b o l i c reading, it s e e m s a m i s t a k e to m a k e this p r e d o m i n a n t appears to b e the straightforward
o v e r , or e v e n e x c l u s i v e of,
what
reading: believing p r a y e r c a n a c h i e v e
even the impossible. S o w h a t a b o u t the s y m b o l i c reading? forward.
T h e solution s e e m s straight
J u s t as D o w d is content to allow a dual function to the first fig-
tree incident, is it n o t also p o s s i b l e for the s e c o n d , w i t h the included?
mountain
M a r k already s e e m s to do something like this with his healing-
of-the-blind miracles w h i c h not only demonstrate that J e s u s is Israel's I N E healer b u t also s a y s o m e t h i n g , using typical w i s d o m i m a g e r y , about the n e e d to s e e t h i n g s in G o d ' s w a y .
W h a t if M a r k h a s r e c o r d e d
the
' m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g ' here precisely because it too has a dual function? Y e s , believing prayer can effect the
dSuvaTov,
a n d , m o r e o v e r , e v e n deal w i t h
such formidable obstacles to the I N E gospel as an e n t r e n c h e d ,
powerful,
unrepentant, and hostile religious establishment (again espec. A c t s 4:1-31). Even this k£o\)oia
2
4
8
2
4
9
2
5
0
OIKOC;,
taken o v e r as it is b y strong men, will b e subject to the
of a stronger o n e (cf. 3:27, and 3:3).
S e e t h e a c c o u n t in D o w d , Prayer, 7 4 , o f o n e St. G r e g o r y T h a u m a t u r g u s , w h o r e p u t e d l y d e m o n s t r a t e d p r e c i s e l y t h i s k i n d o f faith. E . g . T a y l o r a n d N i n e h a m w h o s e e it e n t i r e l y a s m e t a p h o r , a n d e.g. L a g r a n g e , G r u n d m a n n , C r a n f i e l d , L a n e , w h o , g i v e n t h a t t h e fig t r e e is literal a n d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e , s e e it a s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e M o u n t o f O l i v e s b u t w i t h m e t a p h o r i c a l intent. Prayer, 7 4 .
338
Isaiah's
e) The Question
Promise
About
... Malachi's
Jesus'
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
Authority
W e have already alluded to the importance o f this event. N o t only does it close off t h e fig-tree-Temple intercalation, b u t it serves to lead into the crucial p a r a b l e o f the w i c k e d tenants. J e r u s a l e m authorities in full array.
J e s u s is a p p r o a c h e d b y I s r a e l ' s
Here, for the first time since M a r k 4
and 7, those w h o o u g h t to h a v e w e l c o m e d h i m appear, b u t belatedly and yet
a g a i n to confront h i m .
appropriate
In w h a t s e e m s o n the s u r f a c e to b e an
e x e r c i s e o f t h e i r lawful p r e r o g a t i v e , t h e y q u e s t i o n
c o n c e r n i n g his itovoia
'to do these t h i n g s ' ,
2 5 1
him
which almost certainly
refers to the preceding T e m p l e 'incident' (cf. 1 1 : 1 8 ) .
252
The k e y issue here as far as this b o o k is c o n c e r n e d is J e s u s ' response. H e neither p e r f o r m s a m i r a c l e , as h e did at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the first s e q u e n c e o f controversies (2:5-12), nor engages in a theological debate, as w h e n t h o s e c o n t r o v e r s i e s w e r e finally c o n c l u d e d (3:23-30; cf. 7:6-13). Instead, h e asks a question about J o h n ' s baptism: did it c o m e from heaven or from m a n ?
C o m m e n t a t o r s generally c o n s t r u e this link w i t h J o h n in
t e r m s o f J o h n ' s G o d - g i v e n a u t h o r i t y , t a k i n g J e s u s to i m p l y that h i s authority t o o c o m e s from the s a m e source. T h u s , the leaders' unbelieving r e s p o n s e to J o h n is w h a t e n s u r e s their rejection o f J e s u s ; w h i c h in a general s e n s e is t r u e .
2 5 3
G u n d r y takes a different tack in contending that
the issue is J o h n ' s testimony which pointed to Jesus as the 'stronger one': if they had b e l i e v e d J o h n they w o u l d h a v e accepted J e s u s .
2 5 4
Similarly, it
m a y refer to J o h n ' s affirmation o f J e s u s ' as the messianic 'Spirit-baptizer' (1:8). But w h a t has this to do with J o h n ' s baptism in particular? It is w i d e l y agreed that ' b a p t i s m ' is a s y n e c d o c h e for J o h n ' s ministry; h o w is this to b e understood?
H o o k e r m a k e s the tentative suggestion that
s i n c e M a r k links J o h n with M a l a c h i 3 : 1 , J e s u s is M a l a c h i ' s L o r d o f the T e m p l e a n d h e n c e his a u t h o r i t y . T e m p l e ' s L o r d (cf. M k 12:1-12).
255
This s e e m s right, J e s u s is indeed the
C a n w e b e more specific?
2 5 1
' E £ o u a i a is m e n t i o n e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s ( 1 : 2 2 , 2 7 ) w h i c h w e h a v e s u g g e s t e d w e r e l i n k e d w i t h t h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r m o t i f , a n d h i s c l a i m t o f o r g i v e sin ( 2 : 1 0 ) . ^ L o h m e y e r , Lord, 4 3 ; L a n e ; P e s c h ; S h a e , ' Q u e s t i o n ' , 2 2 . 5 2
253 T a y l o r ; S c h w e i z e r ; L a n e ; H u r t a d o ; G n i l k a ; E r n s t ; H o o k e r . 2 5 4
2
5
5
Gundry, 658. Mark, 2 7 2 .
The
Vineyard
and
the Wicked
339
Tenants
J e s u s ' a c t i o n in t h e T e m p l e is n o t o n l y a m a t t e r o f a c t i n g in a n authoritative w a y .
N o r is it s i m p l y a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t r e f o r m i n g t h e
T e m p l e . It specifically presages judgement. they w a n t to kill h i m .
This is, w e w o u l d urge, w h y
After all, M a r k presents t h e m as e x p e r t s in the
Scriptures w h o p r e s u m a b l y well understood the implications o f J e r e m i a h 7. O n this v i e w , in keeping with J o h n ' s preaching ( M k 1:4) and thus the thrust of Malachi w h i c h w a s primarily concerned with priestly abuses and infidelities,
256
the authorities o u g h t to h a v e repented in preparation for
the Lord o f the T e m p l e ' s delayed I N E coming (cf. Isa 40:3). Their failure to do so, that is, to submit to J o h n ' s 'baptism o f repentance', a m o u n t e d to a refusal to prepare t h e m s e l v e s .
257
A n d so, as Telford rightly maintains, the
L o r d o f the T e m p l e h a s c o m e , cursed the fig-tree (•"|.n, cf. M a i 3:24 M T ) , and announced sentence Qer 7:11; cf. Jer 25:3-11; Isa 43:28; and M k 12:2-5, 9 ) . This is w h y J e s u s points to J o h n ' s baptism: their refusal to prepare through repentance is the grounds for his a n n o u n c e m e n t of j u d g m e n t . S o the authorities reason a m o n g themselves (vv. 31-32).
O n c e again,
w i s e in their o w n conceits, they cleverly extricate themselves b y replying, with extraordinarily wonderful
irony ( p e r h a p s s o m e o f t h e finest in
M a r k ' s Gospel), that they do not know. Quite so. T h e wheels o f Isaiah 6 in M a r k 4 and Isaiah 2 9 in M a r k 7 h a v e c o m e full circle.
H o w little they
' k n o w ' , in the midst o f their 'perception', will soon b e revealed. In c o n c l u s i o n , if w e c o n s i d e r all this w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e 'entry' genre, and considering M a r k ' s cumulative presentation o f J e s u s as representative true Israel, messianic 'servant', S o n o f David, S o n o f M a n , and
even Yahweh-Warrior and
S o n o f G o d , t h e n to c o n f r o n t
him
concerning his authority is in effect to deny h i m the act o f appropriation and to refuse h i m the right to rule. This is nothing if not m u t i n y . f) The Parable
of the Vineyard
and the Wicked
258
Tenants
F o l l o w i n g h a r d o n the h e e l s o f the f i g - t r e e / T e m p l e ' i n c i d e n t ' a n d t h e ensuing seditious confrontation o v e r his authority (11:18 suggests that this w o u l d hardly b e a polite request), M a r k ' s J e s u s p r e s s e s the j u d g e m e n t 2
5
6
2
5
7
See C h a p t e r 3 , p. 6 8 , above. O n t h e p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this s e e C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 0 4 , fn. 7 2 . 2 5 8 Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 6 1 f, c i t e s t h e e x a m p l e o f A l e x a n d e r , w h o w h e n r e f u s e d t h i s r e q u e s t b y t h e T y r i a n s , l a i d s i e g e t o t h e i r c i t y . Is it p o s s i b l e t h a t a s i m i l a r i d e a is i n v i e w h e r e ? T h e J e r u s a l e m a u t h o r i t i e s ' r e f u s a l t o s u b m i t will l e a d t o t h e i r c i t y c o m i n g ' u n d e r s i e g e ' , cf. M k 13.
340
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
theme, b y taking up the initiative in the vineyard p a r a b l e . well-known rabbinic i m a g e ,
2 6 0
version o w e s m u c h to Isaiah 5 . is c o n s i d e r a b l e ,
262
259
Although a
it is generally accepted that the M a r k a n
2 6 1
T h e amount o f literature o f this passage
b u t again our concerns are limited to its present M a r k a n
form a n d s e t t i n g , a n d to its g e n e r a l significance in t e r m s o f an I N E hermeneutic. (i) The Isaiah
Context
A piece o f considerable literary merit, the so-called V i n e y a r d S o n g (5:1-7) brings to a c l i m a x Y a h w e h ' s inauguration o f his lawsuit against his people a n d a p p e a r s j u s t p r i o r to his a p p e a r a n c e as s u z e r a i n in t h e T e m p l e (6:lff).
2 6 3
A l t h o u g h the form and genre o f the p o e m has b e e n debated at
length—which probably reflects the need in the original setting initially to conceal the true significance o f the parable so as to e n g a g e the listeners—it h a s b e e n suggested that it is a 'Liebslied' w h e r e b y the 'best m a n ' sings on behalf o f his w r o n g e d friend, the aggrieved ' b r i d e g r o o m ' .
264
T h e majority o f c o m m e n t a t o r s hold that after a brief introduction the s o n g p r o p e r c o n t a i n s four e l e m e n t s : the o w n e r ' s tender a n d
thorough
provision for his vineyard is contrasted with its obnoxious harvest (vv. l b 2 ) , an a p p e a l for a verdict b a s e d o n the disparity b e t w e e n the o w n e r ' s u n i m p e a c h a b l e faithfulness and the v i n e y a r d ' s inexcusable failure (vv. 34 ) , a declaration o f the verdict (vv. 5-6), and finally an interpretation: the vineyard
is t h e
nation
righteousness (v. 7 ) .
and
the
sought-after
fruit
is j u s t i c e
and
2 6 5
However, G. A . Y e e , supported b y G. T. Sheppard, has recently offered a m o r e n u a n c e d interpretation, b a s e d o n a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e form o f D e u t e r o n o m y 3 2 , contending that the structure is best analysed along the
2
5
9
Burkill, 'Strain', 4 0 . 2 6 0 F e l d m a n , Parables, 1 2 8 - 3 5 ; J e r e m i a s , Parables, Y o u n e , Jesus, 298ff; S t e m , 'Rabbinic'. 2
6
1
2
6
2
2
6
3
2
6
4
2
6
5
8 8 ; S n o d g r a s s , Tenants,
22ff; cf.
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a j o r c o m m e n t a r i e s , J e r e m i a s , Parables, 7 0 ; J u e l , Messiah, 1 3 6 f ; C h i l t o n , Galilean, 11 Iff; a n d S n o d g r a s s , Tenants, 47ff, w h e r e h i s d i s c u s s i o n p r e s u p p o s e s a s much. S e e t h e d e t a i l e d s t u d y b y S n o d g r a s s , Tenants; a l s o Y o u n g , Jesus, 2 8 2 - 3 1 6 . M u c h o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n p a r a b l e s , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r this o n e , h a s u n t i l r e c e n t l y b e e n h a m s t r u n g b y Jiilicher's u n d e r s t a n d a b l y r e d u c t i o n i s t r e a c t i o n t o e a r l i e r e x c e s s i v e a l l e g o r i s i n g . F o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , s e e C h a p t e r 7, p p . 188ff, a b o v e . O n t h e j u d i c i a l n a t u r e o f Isa 5:1-7, see Y e e , ' S t u d y ' , 3 3 - 3 6 . Wildberger, 164; Clements, 57. C l e m e n t s , 5 8 ; K a i s e r , 5 9 ; cf. W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 4 4 .
The
Isaiah
lines o f a modified juridical p a r a b l e ,
341
Context
266
consisting of A ) a parable (vv. l b - 2 ) ,
B ) call for j u d g m e n t (v. 3 ) , C ) recital o f G o d ' s b e n e v o l e n t a c t i o n s (v. 4 a ) , D ) i n d i c t m e n t (v. 4 b ) , E ) s e n t e n c e (vv. 5-6); and F ) , interpretation (v. 7 ) .
2 6 7
T h e m a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n o f this analysis is that it h i g h l i g h t s the c e n t r a l point o f the form w h i c h is to lure the hearers into p a s s i n g j u d g m e n t o n themselves (cf. N a t h a n ' s parable to David in 2 S a m 1 2 : 1 - 1 0 ) .
268
T h e v i n e y a r d i m a g e r y h a s o c c u r r e d earlier, in 3 : l l f , w h e r e Y a h w e h takes his stand in court against the elders and leaders o f his people: 'it is y o u w h o h a v e r u i n e d m y v i n e y a r d . . . ' (3:11-15, L X X ; cf. Tg. Isa). previously
discussed,
2 6 9
this is in k e e p i n g w i t h the c o n s i s t e n t Isaianic
c r i t i q u e o f t h e r e b e l l i o u s J e r u s a l e m i t e l e a d e r s h i p (cf. 1:2; 2 8 ) . however,
the
vineyard
As
signifies
the
whole
people
Here,
including
the
l e a d e r s h i p , w h o t o g e t h e r are the elect o f G o d a n d recipients o f all t h e privileges pertaining t h e r e t o . his vineyard
is i m a g e r y
2 7 0
used
Y a h w e h ' s planting o f and p r o v i s i o n for in P s a l m 8 0 : 9 - 1 9
( M T ) to describe,
interestingly e n o u g h , Israel's deliverance in the E x o d u s and h i s provision of the land in the c o n q u e s t (see J e r 2:21 w h i c h s e e m s to d r a w o n Isa 5 — Y a h w e h p l a n t s pl.W g r a p e s — a n d also recalls Sinai w h e r e Y a h w e h g a v e Israel birth, w . 26-28; cf. Dt 32:10-14, 3 7
2 7 1
) . O n c e again the importance o f
the founding m o m e n t is evident. T h e story itself is quite straightforward, expressing Y a h w e h ' s complaint against his faithless p e o p l e .
2 7 2
In spite o f h e r s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to
Y a h w e h , the nation h a s not r e s p o n d e d in kind.
Y a h w e h , w h o has d o n e
everything possible for his people, c a m e seeking justice and righteousness b u t f o u n d o n l y b l o o d s h e d a n d t h e c r y o f suffering r i s i n g from
the
oppressed. H e calls for a decision, although h e himself gives it. N o d o u b t the hearers w o u l d agree until they realise that they are, ironically, j u d g i n g themselves.
2
6
F i n a l l y , in k e e p i n g w i t h the j u r i d i c a l form, o n c e the self-
6
'Study' a n d 'More' respectively, following the critique of Willis, 'Study'. See also S i m o n , ' P o o r ' , 2 2 0 f , w h o c i t e s five e x a m p l e s : 2 S a m 1 2 : 1 - 1 4 ; 1 4 : 1 - 2 0 ; 1 K g s 2 0 : 3 5 - 4 3 ; I s a 5 : 1 - 7 , a n d Jer 3:1-5 (?). 2
6
7
2
6
8
2
6
9
2
7
0
Y e e , 'Study'; Sheppard, 'More'. Y e e , 'Study', 38f, w h o also discusses the close parallels b e t w e e n the t w o . C h a p t e r 7, p p . 189ff, a b o v e . S n o d g r a s s , Tenants, 7 5 , a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n . 2 7 1 y e e , ' S t u d y ' , 31ff, s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s o n g ' b e s t u d i e d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e f o r m a l a s p e c t s ' o f D t 3 2 ; cf. H o l l a d a y , 1 0 4 f ; C r a i g i e , et al, 3 7 ; T h o m p s o n , 1 8 0 ; a n d C a r r o l l , 1 3 1 . 2 7 2 w h e d b e e , Isaiah,
4 7 ; Y e e , 'Study'; Clements, 5 5 .
342
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
j u d g m e n t h a s o c c u r r e d , the last verse b r i n g s the d e n o u e m e n t : the failed vineyard is the hearers themselves. (ii)
The Parable
in
273
Mark
H a v i n g b e e n c h a l l e n g e d b y the T e m p l e authorities, J e s u s r e s p o n d s b y m e a n s o f a n a p a p o X T i — a term last used b y J e s u s in his previous meeting with the J e r u s a l e m authorities' emissaries in M a r k 7. In fact, o n all three occasions w h e r e J e s u s has b e e n confronted b y authorities from J e r u s a l e m (3:22ff, 7:14ff, and here), his response has been in p a r a b l e s .
274
W h e r e a s the
first parable-rejoinder represented the c u l m i n a t i o n o f a series o f contro versies (2:lff) this o n e initiates another ( 1 2 : 1 3 - 4 0 ) .
275
Although using the imagery o f the 'vineyard s o n g ' in Isaiah 5, there is a change o f emphasis. N o longer is the concern about the quality o f the fruit n o r is the v i n e y a r d en toto to b e destroyed, b u t rather the tenants.
In
m a k i n g this distinction b e t w e e n p e o p l e and leaders J e s u s appears to b e influenced b y Isaiah 3:1 Iff (cf. LXX, Tg. Isa). Based on standard O T imagery, a n u m b e r o f the referents are generally a g r e e d .
2 7 6
T h e vineyard is Israel
(Jer 2 : 2 1 ; H o s 10:1), the o w n e r is G o d himself, and the servants are the prophets (cf. 60OX01 in e.g. J e r 7:25; 25:4; A m o s 3:7; Zech 1:6). Based o n rabbinic parallels (e.g. Ex. Rab. 30.17; 15.19), K. R. S n o d g r a s s m a i n t a i n s that 'while
the story w a s b e i n g t o l d ' the tenants w o u l d h a v e
b e e n m o r e likely understood as either the earlier Canaanites or the present R o m a n forces o f o c c u p a t i o n and the servants w h o w e r e killed Israel's leaders s u c h as J u d a s M a c c a b a e u s .
277
Apart from the question o f whether
M a r k ' s hearers w o u l d have so understood it, given A ) that in the vineyard imagery o f Isaiah 3 : l l f f (LXX; cf. Tg. Isa) the national leadership is in view, B ) that v a r i o u s J e w i s h traditions u n d e r s t o o d the t o w e r a n d the vat in Isaiah 5 to refer to the T e m p l e and the altar (e.g. Tg. Isa 5:1b; 4 Q 5 0 0
2 7 8
),
2 7 9
2 7 3
T h e m o s t r e c e n t t h o r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s p a r a b l e in t h e G o s p e l s is t h a t o f S n o d g r a s s , Tenants, t o w h o s e w o r k w e will c o n s t a n t l y refer. 2 7 4
S e e C h a p t e r 7, p . 2 2 4 , a b o v e . B u r k i l l , ' S t r a i n ' , 4 2 ; cf. T e l f o r d , Barren, 4 8 . G u n d r y , 6 6 5 , m e n t i o n s p o s s i b l e , if n o t entirely convincing, parallels b e t w e e n the t w o g r o u p s of controversies. Cf. E v a n s , ' V i n e y a r d ' , 8 4 f ; S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 761; K i n g s b u r y , 1 1 5 . S n o d g r a s s ' i d e n t i fication o f t h e v i n e y a r d a s t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f G o d ' s p e o p l e , o n t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y o f I s r a e l a s a n a t i o n c a n n o t b e t r a n s f e r r e d , fails t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e i s s u e c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e o f l e a d e r s h i p (cf. L k 2 2 : 3 0 ) . Tenants, 77i, 2 3 f . See B a u m g a r t e n , 'Vineyard'. S e e a l s o t. Me'il. 1:16; t. Sukk 3:15; cf. 1 Enoch 8 9 : 5 6 - 7 3 ; Barn. 1 6 : 1 - 5 . 2 7 5
2 7 6
2 7 7
2 7 8
2 7 9
The
Parable
in
343
Mark
C ) that the J e w i s h authorities such as the Sanhedrin m e t there r e g u l a r l y ,
280
a n d D ) the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t , it s e e m s clear that the t e n a n t s are the Temple authorities.
281
O n the other h a n d , if S n o d g r a s s is right, then the surprise w o u l d h a v e b e e n even greater in that the expected C a n a a n i t e o r R o m a n ' t e n a n t s ' turn out to b e Israel's leaders. This sits well with the earlier suggestion that the behaviour o f the c r o w d at J e s u s ' entrance recalled aspects of the M a c c a b e a n entries. This time, h o w e v e r , it is not the R o m a n s b u t the present T e m p l e incumbents w h o are to b e r e m o v e d . Further, in our discussion o f the d e e p e r significance o f J e s u s ' casting out o f d e m o n s , w e h a v e already suggested that part o f M a r k ' s concern is to s h o w that Israel's p r o b l e m is not the R o m a n s but the idolatrous-demonic within (cf. J e s u s ' first m i r a c l e w h i c h w a s the casting out o f an ' u n c l e a n ' spirit in a S y n a g o g u e , 1:21-28; and the d r o w n i n g o f L e g i o n in 5 : l - 2 0 ) .
2 8 2
G r a n t e d the Isaianic link b e t w e e n idolatry a n d false w i s d o m , it is n o t surprising that J e s u s ' actions are directed not against the R o m a n s b u t the i d o l a t r o u s , a n d e v e n d e m o n i c , c h a r a c t e r o f the ' w i s d o m ' that rejects Y a h w e h ' s purposes. In the l i g h t o f M a r k ' s i n t e r e s t in J o h n as M a l a c h i ' s Elijah,
the
astounding ' p a t i e n c e ' o f the o w n e r in the repeated sacrifice o f his servants a n d the e q u a l l y astonishing a r r o g a n c e o f the tenants m a k e s g o o d s e n s e . This, for M a r k ' s J e s u s , is w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d constantly and n o w finally e v e n to M a l a c h i ' s Elijah, n a m e l y , J o h n ( 9 : 1 3 ) .
2 8 3
What may have been
surprising is the o w n e r ' s reasoning in sending his son: if the tenants h a d not respected his servants, w h y should they the s o n ?
2 8 4
( A n d herein the
hearers accurately assess t h e m s e l v e s ) . Further, this idea o f obtaining the vineyard b y m u r d e r i n g the heir has been criticised since, it is claimed, it is not a legal p o s s i b i l i t y .
285
B u t not o n l y d o e s the similarity w i t h A h a b ' s
2
8
0
Eppstein, 'Cleansing', 50f.
2
8
1
2
8
2
Pace P e s c h , 2 . 2 2 0 f o r w h o m t h e y r e p r e s e n t I s r a e l ' s ' H a l s s t a r r i g k e i t ' . C h a p t e r 6, p p . 163f, above.
2
8
3
2
8
4
2
8
5
O n v a r i o u s J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s o n t h e n a t i o n ' s t r e a t m e n t o f its p r o p h e t s , s e e S n o d g r a s s , Tenants, 79f, w h o c i t e s Pesiq. R. 2 6 a n d S c h o e p s , ' P r o p h e t e n m o r d e ' ; a l s o S t e c k , Israel. O n it b e i n g t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e n a t i o n w h o w e r e l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e , G u n d r y , 6 8 9 . Y o u n g , Jesus, 2 8 8 . C a r l s t o n , Parables, 1 8 4 f ; b u t s e e Y o u n g , Jesus, 2 8 2 f , w h o a r g u e s t h a t , s i n c e y€o>pyoi' p r o b a b l y r e n d e r s D^onK, t h e t e n a n t s e n v i s a g e d h e r e c o u l d t a k e o v e r t h e l a n d i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n h e i r . H o w e v e r , h i s e v i d e n c e , Sipre Dt § 3 1 2 , a p p e a r s a m b i g u o u s s i n c e t h e o w n e r c a n still g i v e t h e p r o p e r t y t o o t h e r s .
344
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
m u r d e r of N a b o t h put the tenants in the worst possible light (1 K g s 21:1-19, cf.
eKXTipovourjaac;/
v. 19; 2 K g s 9:25f), but if their plan is utterly unrealistic,
it o n l y a c c e n t u a t e s their indescribable folly.
E v e r y o n e k n o w s w h a t an
o w n e r w o u l d do to the tenants in s u c h a situation.
How much more
foolish their actions and perilous their plight w h e n the o w n e r is G o d ? In spite o f the occasional d o u b t as to w h e t h e r the son is J e s u s ,
2 8 6
h e is
undoubtedly so for M a r k , since A ) w e already k n o w that Jesus is G o d ' s u i o v a y a i r r i T o v (1:11; 9:7), B ) M a r k has constantly signalled the i m p e n d i n g death of only o n e figure, J e s u s , (how h e dies is not the point o f the parable but m e r e l y reflects its inner narrative w o r l d ) , C ) the i m m e d i a t e context has already informed us o f the intentions o f the T e m p l e hierarchs (11:18; cf. 3:6; 12:12), and finally D ) the combination o f M a r k ' s presentation o f J e s u s as the m e s s i a n i c K i n g a n d the motif o f the ' e n t r y ' g e n r e c o m b i n e to m a k e h i m the true h e i r .
2 8 7
T h e p a r a b l e , then, a n n o u n c e s that b e c a u s e the J e w i s h l e a d e r s h a v e neither rendered Y a h w e h his proper due n o r respected the heir to w h o m the
vineyard
ultimately
belongs
2 8 8
they will be destroyed and
oversight o f the v i n e y a r d g i v e n to others.
the
T h e i m p o r t a n t point, as the
majority o f c o m m e n t a t o r s a g r e e , is that the p a r a b l e is a l m o s t totally negative and, in keeping with the appeal to Isaiah 6 and 29 in M a r k 4 and 7, directed primarily against the J e w i s h authorities, not I s r a e l .
289
H e r e too
the theme o f M a l a c h i ' s threatened j u d g m e n t is continued. A l t h o u g h the use o f the P s a l m s in M a r k is not part o f o u r i m m e d i a t e concern, a brief w o r d about P s a l m 118:22-23 is in order since it functions as
286 M i l a v e c , ' I d e n t i t y ' , h a s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e last ' o n e ' is n o t u n a m b i g u o u s l y J e s u s b e c a u s e ' h e i r ' is n o t a k n o w n t i t l e f o r t h e M e s s i a h , ' l a s t ' d o e s n o t fit J e w i s h E l i j a h e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d t h e s o n is m u r d e r e d b y t h e t e n a n t s a n d ' c a s t o u t ' w h e r e a s J e s u s is e x e c u t e d b y t h e R o m a n s a n d b u r i e d ( o n t h i s l a s t p o i n t s o a l s o W e d e r , Gleichnisse, 1 4 9 n l l ; cf. R o b i n s o n , ' W i c k e d ' , 4 4 9 ) . B u t M i l a v e c fails t o p l a c e t h e s e t e r m s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p a r a b l e . ' H e i r ' s i m p l y m e a n s t h e o n e w h o h a s u l t i m a t e c l a i m a n d a u t h o r i t y , w h i c h is e x a c t l y w h a t t h e i s s u e h a s b e e n s i n c e J e s u s a r r i v e d in J e r u s a l e m ; 'last' is in k e e p i n g w i t h M k 3 : 2 8 f w h e r e J e s u s is I s r a e l ' s final a n d o n l y o p t i o n ; a n d o n 'killed a n d c a s t o u t ' s e e p o i n t (B) b e l o w . T h a t I s r a e l is n o t t o b e d e s t r o y e d is q u i t e t r u e , a f t e r all t h e ' t w e l v e ' a r e t h e n e w leaders (3:13-19). 2
8
7
2
8
8
2
8
9
S e e a l s o S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 8 0 - 8 7 . It is i m p o r t a n t n o t t o p u s h t h e i m a g e r y t o o , t h e p o i n t is o w n e r s h i p a n d w h a t is d u e t o t h e o w n e r s , n o t i s s u e s a b o u t w h e n t h e h e i r will inherit. S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 8 7 - 9 5 ; T r o c m e , 2 0 7 f , a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n ; cf. C o r n e t t e , 'Vignerons'. A l t h o u g h h e recognises the primacy of the Jewish leaders, Kingsbury's view, 1 1 5 , t h a t t h i s is a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e ' c h u r c h ' a s s u m i n g I s r a e l ' s p l a c e n e e d s c l a r i f i c a t i o n .
The
the ' c a p s t o n e '
2 9 0
Parable
in
345
Mark
to the story. N u m e r o u s c o m m e n t a t o r s feel the c i t a t i o n
291
to b e i n c o n g r u o u s s i n c e the p a r a b l e c o n c e r n s the p u n i s h m e n t o f the tenants while the 'citation' concerns the exaltation, probably, o f the s o n .
2 9 2
H o w e v e r , a n u m b e r o f factors indicate that it is well-placed. First, as w e h a v e a r g u e d , this sort o f j u x t a p o s i t i o n is typical o f the M a r k a n J e s u s ' teaching style, and reflects his technique o f citing together two previously unrelated texts at crucial junctures in his argument, in this case Isaiah 5 : l f and P s a l m 1 1 8 .
2 9 3
H e h a s already done something similar in the T e m p l e
(Isa 5 6 and J e r 7). S e c o n d , j u r i d i c a l p a r a b l e s w o r k b y d e l a y i n g t h e m o m e n t o f selfidentification until the hearers h a v e passed j u d g m e n t .
This is c o m m o n l y
followed b y a clarification or interpretation, as for e x a m p l e , N a t h a n ' s ' Y o u are the man!' (2 S a m 12:7; cf. Isa 5:7). J e s u s ' citation o f Psalm 118 functions analogously.
2 9 4
Third, the passion predictions constantly s p e a k o f J e s u s '
death and his s u b s e q u e n t rising again.
T h e p s a l m is appropriate to t h e
theme of reversal and subsequent vindication (cf. aTTo6oKi|iaCa) in 8 : 3 1 ) .
2 9 5
This is e v e n m o r e so in the light o f its messianic u s e in the ' e n t r y ' s c e n e (11:9), with w h i c h it forms a neat inclusio.
Fourth, if M a t t h e w Black is
right about a possible ' w o r d play' o n p / p a / D ^ T D , then this w o u l d indicate its appropriateness h e r e .
2 9 6
Finally, the term 'builders' is s o m e t i m e s used
in Q u m r a n ( C D 4:19-20; 8:12, cf. v. 3) and rabbinic literature (e.g. b.
Shabb.
114a; b. Ber. 64a; Tg. Pss 118:22-29) to m e a n 'scholars' or 'religious leaders', and thus serves to tie in the verse to the preceding (cf. Acts 4 : 1 1 ) .
2 9 7
A s to the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the p s a l m , the e v i d e n c e is a m b i g u o u s .
2 9 8
Suffice to s a y that in rabbinic w o r k s , the reversal m o t i f w a s applied to A b r a h a m , J a c o b , Israel, an unidentified figure, and D a v i d , and although there is n o certain e v i d e n c e o f messianic application it does s e e m to h a v e 2
9
0
2
9
1
2
9
2
2
9
3
2
9
4
2
9
5
2
9
6
2
9
7
2
9
8
T h e m e a n i n g o f K€<J>a\fiv yuviag is d i s p u t e d . J e r e m i a s , 'K€<|>aAf|' a n d ' E c k s t e i n ' , a n d D e r r e t t , '"Stone"', a r g u e f o r ' c a p s t o n e ' , w h i l e for M c K e l v e y , Temple, 1 9 4 - 2 0 4 , it m e a n s f o u n dational 'cornerstone'. O n t h e i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l v a r i a t i o n s in w o r d i n g , s e e G u n d r y , Use, 2 0 . E . g . N i n e h a m ; S u h l , 1 4 1 ; D o n a h u e , Trial, 1 2 4 ; C a r l s t o n , Parables, M a r c u s , 1 1 2 ; cf. T a y l o r . S e e a l s o G u n d r y ' s a r g u m e n t s t o t h e c o n t r a r y , 6 9 0 .
190; Hooker;
See again Kee, 'Function', 176. S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 9 6 f . S o a l s o S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 1 0 0 ; S t r - B , 1 . 8 7 5 - 7 6 . 'Christological', 12. D e r r e t t , ' " S t o n e " ' ; S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 9 6 , c i t i n g S t r - B , 1 . 8 7 6 ; M a r c u s , 1 2 4 f . Cf. t h e P a u l i n e i m a g e r y in 1 C o r 3 : 1 0 - 1 7 w h e r e C h r i s t i a n t e a c h e r s a l s o b u i l d G o d ' s t e m p l e . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in D e r r e t t , '"Stone"'; S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 99ff; M a r c u s , 114f.
346
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
b e e n understood eschatologically. In the light o f the messianic overtones of the i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g v e r s e s (118:25f) as u s e d in 1 1 : 9 , M a r k probably m e a n s that these verses here should recall that acclamation and likewise b e messianically construed (cf. Acts 4:11; 1 Pet 2:7).
In any case, the
i m m e d i a t e point s e e m s clear: the son-stone w h o w a s killed-rejected b y the tenants-builders will b e vindicated b y G o d and m a d e the K€aXr|v ya)viae; of the people of G o d ' s future hopes. T a k i n g the i m a g e r y further, J . R. D o n a h u e c o n t e n d s that the ' s t o n e ' i m a g e r y , in the l i g h t o f the p r e c e d i n g a n t i - T e m p l e m a t e r i a l a n d
the
thematic unity o f these chapters as w h o l e , suggests m o r e specifically that J e s u s is to b e either the capstone or foundation stone o f the n e w T e m p l e that will replace the old (cf. 1 Pet 2 : 4 - 7 ) .
2 9 9
T h e charges b r o u g h t against
Jesus at his trial m a y lend support to this possibility (14:58; cf. 15:29, 3 8 ) , as d o a l s o p e r h a p s the e c h o e s o f T e m p l e , s t o n e , o i K o 6 o j i a i OIKOSO^OUVTCC;),
13:lf.
3 0 1
and
TTOTCITTOC;
3 0 0
(cf. o i
(cf. S a u j i a a T t f ; s e e B A G D , 6 9 5 ) in M a r k
T h i s w o u l d suggest a progression t h r o u g h these materials from
J e s u s as t h e messianic K i n g c o m e to 'cleanse the T e m p l e ' (11:1-11), to the o n e w h o a n n o u n c e s the p r e s e n t a r r a n g e m e n t ' s d e m i s e ( 1 1 : 1 2 - 2 5 ) , and finally to its eventual replacement b a s e d on h i m s e l f (11:26 - 1 2 : 1 2 ) .
If so,
then w e m a y h a v e here intimations that the M a r k a n J e s u s sees h i m s e l f as the one w h o fulfils the N E h o p e o f Isaiah 2:2 and 56:7 (cf. 1 1 : 1 6 ) . The
302
h i e r a r c h s ' r e s p o n s e to this declaration o f J e s u s ' a s c e n d a n c y and
their final d e m i s e , is to seek his arrest (12:12). A c c o r d i n g to H. Raisanen, 303
the leaders' perception contradicts Mark's so-called
Parabeltheorie.
H o w e v e r , as argued earlier, this fails to do justice to M a r k ' s sophistication either in t e r m s o f his view o f parables or his fine i r o n y .
3 0 4
T h e point is
that o n t h e o n e o c c a s i o n w h e n M a r k ' s informs us that t h e J e r u s a l e m authorities ' p e r c e i v e ' that the parable is told against them, it is their very 'perception' that sets in train their o w n demise. T o reject J e s u s and to seek to destroy h i m results in the destruction of the T e m p l e . Y e s , they h a v e ' u n d e r s t o o d ' the p a r a b l e , m u c h like A h a z u n d e r s t o o d Isaiah. 2 9 9
3 0 0
3 0 1
B u t they
Trial, 1 2 2 - 2 7 ; cf. M a r c u s , 1 1 9 - 2 2 . S e e f u r t h e r D o n a h u e , ibid., 1 0 3 - 3 8 .
M a r c u s , 120f. S e e a l s o M a r c u s , 1 2 1 , a l t h o u g h h e s e e m s t o g o t o o f a r in r e a d i n g ' o t h e r s ' ( 1 2 : 9 ) t o e i t h e r m e a n o r i n c l u d e G e n t i l e s . T h i s is n o t e v i d e n t in t h e t e x t . 303 "Messianic", 8 8 ; cf. L a m b r e c h t , Astonished, 1 3 2 ; S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 7 3 ; G u n d r y , 6 9 1 . S e e C h a p t e r 7, p p . 206ff, a b o v e . 3 0 2
3 0 4
The
Parable
in
347
Mark
h a v e refused to accept that it is also the truth before which they must yield. This, after all, is w h a t g e n u i n e w i s d o m is about. Isaianic p a r a d i g m
a r e two-fold.
T h e parallels with the
First, Isaiah 5 is a j u r i d i c a l p a r a b l e
designed to lure the hearers into j u d g i n g themselves, and that is e x a c t l y w h a t is happening here. A n d second, in keeping with M a r k ' s use o f Isaiah 6 and 2 9 , just as Y a h w e h used the Jerusalem leadership's reliance on their o w n w i s d o m to lead t h e m into judgment, so also here. Finally, the p a r a b l e leads into an second series o f confrontations and questions w h i c h , as H o o k e r h a s suggested, are generally related to the preceding matter o f J e s u s ' a u t h o r i t y .
305
T h e 'taxes' question put b y s o m e o f
the Herodians and the Pharisees not only highlights their failure to give to G o d that w h i c h is d u e h i m (loyalty to his Son; cf. 3:6), b u t p e r h a p s adumbrates the J e r u s a l e m leadership's greater loyalty to C a e s a r in getting J e s u s e x e c u t e d as a n insurrectionist.
The Sadducees' question on the
resurrection resonates with the M a r k a n t h e m e of the ultimate vindication of J e s u s (the m u r d e r e d ' s o n ' and rejected stone), while k e e p i n g the great c o m m a n d m e n t s — l o v e G o d ( w h o m in J e s u s they h a v e n o t ) a n d
your
n e i g h b o u r ( i n c l u d i n g the n a t i o n s ) — a r e truly w o r t h m o r e t h a n all t h e sacrifices in the T e m p l e (cf. Isa 56:7 and J e r 7:11 in M k 11:17). T h e last o f the controversies, n o w initiated b y J e s u s , deals again with J e s u s ' messiahship; a principle t h e m e for M a r k .
3 0 6
B y starting with P s a l m
110's affirmation o f lordship, and couching the question in terms o f b e i n g D a v i d ' s son, J e s u s highlights the ambiguity of D a v i d ' s s t a t e m e n t .
307
Since
in M a r k ' s account e v e r y o n e s e e m s agreed that the M e s s i a h is D a v i d ' s son, the question w o u l d h a v e at first perplexed.
But if the s e c o n d line w a s
agreed, p e r h a p s it w a s the first line of the syllogistic question that n e e d e d thought.
What does David mean by Lord?
What does Jesus mean?
Exactly.
H e is n o t m e r e l y D a v i d ' s m e s s i a n i c S o n , b u t a l s o his ( a n d
therefore their) Lord (cf. 11:10) and once again w e return to the question o f
3
0
5
3
0
6
3
0
7
T r a d i t i o n s ' , 9f. D e w e y , Debate, 1 5 6 - 6 3 , h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e J e r u s a l e m c o n f l i c t s t o r i e s c o u n t e r b a l a n c e 2:1 - 3:6; b u t s e e S m i t h , ' O p p o n e n t s ' , 1 7 5 f . D a u b e , ' E a r l i e s t ' , 180ff, p r o p o s e s that t h e y c o r r e s p o n d to a rabbinical classification of four questions closely related t o P a s s o v e r Haggadah, viz. q u e s t i o n s o f w i s d o m : a b o u t p o i n t s o f l a w ; q u e s t i o n s o f v u l g a r i t y : m o c k i n g q u e s t i o n s u s u a l l y a b o u t r e s u r r e c t i o n ; q u e s t i o n s o f t h e p r o p e r w a y o f t h e land: a b o u t p i e t y ; a n d q u e s t i o n s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : a b o u t a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s in S c r i p t u r e . O n G u n d r y ' s r e a d i n g , 7 1 8 , J e s u s is m e r e l y e n g a g e d in p o i n t - s c o r i n g , a n d d i s p l a y s a r i g i d i t y a n d p l o d d i n g l i t e r a l i s m t h a t is f o r e i g n t o h i s o w n u s e o f S c r i p t u r e e l s e w h e r e . M a t t 2 2 : 4 5 clarifies t h e i n t e n t b u t l o o s e s t h e i m p a c t o f t h e d e s t a b i l i s i n g l o g i c .
348
Isaiah's
authority.
3 0 8
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
S o then, at the conclusion o f J e s u s ' verbal conflict with the
J e r u s a l e m authorities, M a r k here brings together the two k e y c o m p o n e n t s of J e s u s ' identity: h e is both Messiah and Lord. F o l l o w i n g h a r d o n the h e e l s o f the defeated silence o f the T e m p l e authorities, c o m e s t h e d e n u n c i a t i o n o f the s c r i b e s ' insincere piety.
As
Israel's teachers they h a v e constantly b e e n h e a d i n g up J e s u s ' opposition (2:6, 1 1 ; 3:22; 7:1, 5; 9:14; 11:18; cf. 1:22) so the j u d g e m e n t l a n g u a g e here probably serves as a final condemnation o f the kind o f 'building' activities in which they have b e e n engaged. Blind and deaf to Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m but m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y refusing to follow a p a t h n o t o f their o w n u n d e r standing, they are n o longer fit to b e Y a h w e h ' s servants and are Israel in n a m e only (cf. Isa 4 8 : l f ) .
T h e results o f 'building' in such a w a y are then
openly revealed in M a r k 13 w h e r e Jesus begins with an explicit statement of w h a t to this point has only b e e n expressed parabolically or implicitly, namely, the c o m i n g destruction o f the T e m p l e (13:lf). g)
Conclusion
T h e I N E e n v i s a g e d the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h , the victorious deliverer o f his people to a liberated and soon-to-be gloriously restored Jerusalem. A n d on the surface, J e s u s , as m e s s i a n i c S o n o f G o d and Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , does indeed c o m e on the I N E way, accompanied b y the 'blind' and in procession with rejoicing crowds. So identified, Jesus bears the appropriate authority. H o w e v e r , the absence o f any official w e l c o m e d r a w s attention to the other m a i n M a r k a n n a r r a t i v e plot: t h e u n p r e p a r e d n e s s and h o s t i l i t y o f the nation's leaders. Consequently, w e are confronted not with signs o f escha tological blessing, but instead, in keeping with M a l a c h i ' s threat, the cursing of the fig-tree.
This along with the 'cleansing' incident constitutes J e s u s '
c l i m a c t i c c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h his o p p o n e n t s a n d signifies t h e c o m i n g destruction o f the T e m p l e . M a r k ' s account o f J e s u s ' use o f Isaiah 5 6 and Jeremiah 7 provides the rationale. W h e r e a s in the I N E the T e m p l e should h a v e b e c o m e a ' h o u s e o f prayer for all nations', the institution had instead engendered a false security and b e c o m e a 'den o f thieves' for an obdurate, nationalistic, and hostile leadership. A s in Jeremiah, such practice w a s not only m e a n i n g l e s s b u t subject to judgement.
At this point, the m u c h cited
a b s e n c e o f m a t e r i a l describing a m e s s i a n i c figure w h o will d e s t r o y the
3
0
8
C h a p t e r 8, p p . 288ff, a b o v e .
349
Introduction
T e m p l e is to s o m e extent irrelevant.
T h e M a r k a n J e s u s ' is n o t c o m i n g to
the T e m p l e m e r e l y as M e s s i a h — h i s multifaceted p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s n e e d s m o r e to b e taken into account—but o n the b a s i s o f M a l a c h i , a n d Isaiah's Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , also as its Lord (cf. Isa 66:6). This is w h y J e s u s asks the religious establishment for their assessment o f J o h n . B e c a u s e o f their 'failure' (read 'refusal') to 'understand', M a l a c h i ' s p u r g i n g curse will b e applied, and this in the terms o f J e r e m i a h 7. In b o t h cases s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e s e v e r e than m e r e renovation is in view.
T h e parable o f the
tenants then c o m e s full circle to the issue o f J e s u s ' identity and authority. In spite o f the tenants m u r d e r o u s ' plans, their ' w i s d o m ' will lead to their o w n destruction, and the heir's vindication. A n d predicated o n Jesus, the true son and heir, a n e w leadership, and p r e s u m a b l y a n e w T e m p l e to wh i ch all nations will c o m e , will emerge to take the place of the old.
IV. The Words of Institution: Jesus' Death and Isaiah's Servant? a)
Introduction
In Chapter 8 w e argued that while not excluding the influence o f other O T t e x t s — M a r k ' s J e s u s characteristically c o m b i n e s ideas from several s u c h s o u r c e s — t h e p r i m a r y b a c k g r o u n d for J e s u s ' s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g coming death appears
m o s t l i k e l y to h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d
descriptions o f the sufferings o f the enigmatic Isaianic 'servant'.
of his
from
the
T h e aim
of this section is to s e e if there is any e v i d e n c e that the M a r k a n J e s u s understood his death in a similar w a y in this final part o f his gospel, and if so, to m a k e s o m e suggestions as to its significance. commentators
A s it is, n u m e r o u s
h a v e s e e n a n a l l u s i o n to I s a i a h 5 3 in t h e w o r d s o f
institution in M a r k 14:24, w h i c h also h a p p e n s to b e the only place in these last chapters w h e r e J e s u s offers a n y indication o f his p e r c e p t i o n o f his c o m i n g death. A n u m b e r o f other allusions to Isaiah 5 3 (and 50) have also been proposed, but here opinion b e c o m e s increasingly divided (see b e l o w ) . W e will therefore concentrate o n M a r k 14:24, and then offer s o m e brief observations o n several of the other candidate passages. B e f o r e d o i n g s o , h o w e v e r , it is i m p o r t a n t
to n o t e s o m e
features o f M a r k ' s accounts of J e s u s ' self-understanding. of h i s g o s p e l , a l t h o u g h M a r k frequently
cardinal
In the first section
m e n t i o n s t h e fact o f J e s u s '
350
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
exorcisms—they could even b e regarded as characteristic o f J e s u s ' activity herein—he has only one instance where some explanation of their significance is offered (3:27).
Likewise, in the ' W a y ' section w i t h its focus
o n J e s u s ' i m p e n d i n g p a s s i o n — a l s o p e r h a p s t h e c h i e f c o n c e r n o f the s e c t i o n as is s u g g e s t e d , for e x a m p l e , n o t o n l y b y the t h r e e s i m i l a r l y constructed predictions but also their careful p l a c e m e n t within the overall structure—there is again only o n e brief statement as to the import o f this future suffering (10:45). T h e s a m e pattern apparently applies in this final section.
A l t h o u g h m u c h material is d e v o t e d to the e v e n t s i m m e d i a t e l y
l e a d i n g u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g J e s u s ' death, only 14:24 g i v e s a n y specific indication o f its s i g n i f i c a n c e .
309
S e c o n d , in all t h r e e cases the e x p l a n a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s e x h i b i t s o m e ' f o r m a l ' similarities.
T h e y are quite brief, a l m o s t to the p o i n t o f b e i n g
terse. T h e y are also characteristically highly allusive and, as w e have seen, the majority o f scholars have suggested s o m e sort o f O T b a c k g r o u n d e v e n if there has b e e n debate as to its precise nature. Third, M a r k s e e m s to h a v e placed these statements at crucial points in his developing narrative.
The
Beelzebul c o n t r o v e r s y stands at the j u n c t u r e o f the first series o f contro versies and the all-important parable materials. T h e r a n s o m saying c o m e s in the third and final passion prediction at the c l i m a x o f the ' W a y ' section. Likewise, the c u p s a y i n g is situated b e t w e e n the concatenated accounts o f Jesus' various pronouncements—again
in w o r d a n d in d e e d — o f t h e
Temple's destruction, and the narratives of the T e m p l e authorities' attempt to destroy h i m (i.e. J e s u s ' trial and execution). All t h i s a p p e a r s thoughtful d e s i g n . relative
3 1 0
infrequency
apparently
t o o c o n s i s t e n t to b e c o - i n c i d e n t a l a n d
suggests
W h y does M a r k do this? It is difficult to tell, but the of explanations—one
per
section—and
c a r e f u l p l a c e m e n t s u g g e s t that t h e y o u g h t
to be
their given
considerable weight. Consequently, although it represents o n l y o n e verse, M a r k 14:24 is m o r e than likely o f considerable importance. 3
0
9
3
1
0
It is difficult t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e s a y i n g in t h e T e m p l e i n c i d e n t s h o u l d a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d h e r e . Is J e s u s ' d e a t h t h e s o l e f o c u s , o r p e r h a p s a s o u r a n a l y s i s m i g h t s u g g e s t , is it t o b e c l o s e l y t i e d w i t h h i s p r o n o u n c e m e n t i n t h e T e m p l e ? If s o , a n d a l t h o u g h m e r e l y s p e c u l a t i o n , m i g h t it b e t h a t t w o k e y s a y i n g s , i.e. a b o u t t h e s t r o n g m a n a n d t h e r a n s o m , find t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f u l f i l m e n t in t h e T e m p l e m a t e r i a l ( 1 1 : 1 7 , s u m m a r i s i n g c h s . 1 1 - 1 3 ) a n d in J e s u i ' d e a t h ( 1 4 : 2 4 ; s u m m a r i s i n g c h s . 1 4 - 1 6 ) s u c h t h a t b o t h t h e t h e m e s o f t h e first a n d s e c o n d s e c t i o n s c o m e t o g e t h e r in t h e final c l i m a c t i c s e c t i o n ? B e s t , Temptation, liii.
Mark
b) Mark
14:24: The Cup
14:24:
The Cup
351
Saying
Saying
In placing side b y side the preparations for the Pas s over and the J e w i s h authorities' preparations to seize Jesus 'kv 6 6 X O J ' , M a r k 14:1 continues the t h e m e of the parable o f the w i c k e d tenants.
(The intervening material o f
M a r k 13, wh i c h contains several allusions to Isaiah but is so c o m p l e x as to require its o w n additional C h a p t e r and so is not dealt with in this b o o k , could well b e intended to explain the eschatological implications o f J e s u s ' p r o n o u n c e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g the T e m p l e and its hierarchy.)
The nation's
leaders seek J e s u s ' death, but Y a h w e h will wondrously use their plans b o t h to j u d g e them and to effect his final I N E purposes. happens
during
the
feast
that
S e c o n d , that all o f this
recalls Israel's
founding
moment
deliverance only heightens the irony, and e v e n m o r e so if, as is indicated b y later tradition, this w a s the night on which Israel's next deliverance w a s expected to take p l a c e .
3 1 1
Furthermore, for M a r k the meal at w h i c h these
w o r d s are s p o k e n is itself the P a s s o v e r m e a l ( 1 4 : 1 2 - 1 6 ) .
312
The Exodus-
N e w Exodus paradigm could hardly b e clearer. T h e s t a t e m e n t in question h a s c o m m o n l y b e e n treated in t w o parts: TOUTO
€anv
TO ai\id
\iov
Tfjc;
SiaSTiKTis' and
TO €KXUVV6|1€VOV
tmcp
TTOXXCJV.
It is almost universally agreed that the first half alludes to E x o d u s 2 4 : 8 .
3 1 3
If so, then w e note at the outset that once again there is a combination o f different motifs (i.e. iconic augmentation).
T h e events at Sinai (Ex 24:3-8)
are recalled within the context o f a Passover meal.
Passover, o f c o u r s e ,
r e m e m b e r s the night w h e n Y a h w e h r e d e e m e d his p e o p l e from b o n d a g e . But what is the significance of Exodus 24 and w h y add it here? It generally agreed that E x o d u s 24:8 describes part of the blood ritual at the foot o f M o u n t Sinai (cf. E x 20:18-21) w h e r e , after setting up t w e l v e stones representative o f the tribes o f Israel (v. 4 ) , M o s e s takes half o f the blood o f the sacrifices and ' d a s h e s ' ( p i t ) it u p o n the altar (v. 6) and, after 3
1
1
3
1
2
3
1
3
C h a p t e r 2 , p . 3 9 , fn. 2 9 . O n t h e p o s s i b l e m e s s i a n i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e b r e a d s a y i n g , s e e D a u b e , Cometh; a n d C a r m i c h a e l , ' E u c h a r i s t ' . S e e f u r t h e r e.g. J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, P a s s o v e r context, see Pesch, 'Gospel,' 139-48.
16ff. O n t h e c o h e r e n c e o f v v . 1 2 - 2 6 w i t h i n a
T h e t w o v a r i a n t s — t h e a d d i t i o n o f Kaivfjs" a n d c l ? afyeoxv a j i a p n o i v — a r e b e s t s e e n a s a s s i m i l a t i o n s t o M t a n d / o r l a t e r t r a d i t i o n ; o n t h e t e x t u a l i s s u e s , s e e G u n d r y , Use, 57ff. S o m e s e e a l s o a n e c h o o f Z e c h 9 : 1 1 w h i c h m a y h a v e t h e E x o d u s in v i e w (cf. Tg.), a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e m e m b r a n c e o f t h e E x 2 4 c o v e n a n t ; cf. T a y l o r ; H o o k e r , Servant, 82; and M a r c u s , 157, o n the basis of the possessive p r o n o u n b u t which m a y simply indicate that Jesus is s p e a k i n g o f h i s b l o o d . H o w e v e r , M a r k is c l o s e r t o E x 2 4 : 8 ; e.g. F r a n c e , Jesus, 6 6 . L a t e r J u d a i s m u n d e r s t o o d rP"D • ! a l s o t o refer t o t h e rite o f c i r c u m c i s i o n , J e r e m i a s , ibid., 2 2 5 n n 4 , 5 .
352
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
reading from the b o o k of the covenant (v. 7 ) , ' d a s h e s ' ( p i t ) the other half u p o n the p e o p l e (v. 8 ) . All this is i m m e d i a t e l y followed b y a c o v e n a n t ratification m e a l on the mountain of G o d (vv. 9-11). F r o m the perspective of the B o o k o f E x o d u s , these e v e n t s signal the fulfilment o f Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e d d e l i v e r a n c e w h e r e b y Israel is n o w able to 'sacrifier et servir Y H W H «sur cette m o n t a g n e » ' (cf. E x 3 : 1 2 ) ,
3 1 4
and m a r k the inauguration
of Y a h w e h ' s covenant with Israel as his n e w l y redeemed people. The
exact
significance
of
the
rite
itself
has
been
debated.
3 1 5
E. W . Nicholson, h o w e v e r , has cogently argued that its point is to c o n v e y holiness a n d thus s e r v e s to constitute Israel, in the l a n g u a g e o f E x o d u s 19:6, 'as Y a h w e h ' s " k i n g d o m of priests and a holy nation" (cf. Isa. lxi 6 ) ' .
3 1 6
T h a t the s a m e kind o f procedure is followed in Leviticus 8, w h e r e during the sanctification o f the priests b l o o d is placed on t h e m (vv. 23f) and the r e m a i n d e r ' d a s h e d ' o n the altar ( p l T , v. 2 4 b ) , l e n d s further s u p p o r t to N i c h o l s o n ' s suggestion.
A l o n g similar lines, R. S. Hendel in his treatment
of the social function o f sacrifice suggests that the w h o l e E x o d u s event can b e seen as ' a n elaborate rite of p a s s a g e ' w h e r e b y Turner's tripartite s c h e m e of separation, limen, and r e a g g r e g a t i o n is e n u n c i a t e d in I s r a e l ' s e s c a p e from E g y p t , her e n c o u n t e r with Y a h w e h , and j o u r n e y h o m e w a r d (i.e. to the promised
land).
3 1 7
In this m o d e l , the c e r e m o n y o f E x o d u s 24:3-8
b e c o m e s p a r t o f the m e a n s b y w h i c h Israel's ' n e w religious and social identity is a r t i c u l a t e d ' thereby c o n s e c r a t i n g h e r to Y a h w e h as his o n e p e o p l e — h e n c e the t w e l v e s t o n e s .
3 1 8
In terms o f M a r k , just as the first E x o d u s entailed a journey followed b y the 'blood o f the c o v e n a n t ' (and a meal) at the ' m o u n t a i n o f G o d ' , so too M a r k ' s J e s u s at the e n d of the ' W a y ' j o u r n e y s p e a k s o f the b l o o d o f the c o v e n a n t (in the c o n t e x t o f a meal) in J e r u s a l e m , that is, M o u n t Z i o n .
3 1 9
Perhaps it is coincidence, but o n e also notes that just as the twelve stones
3
1
4
3
1
5
3
1
6
3
1
7
S c h e n k e r , 'Sacrifices', 4 9 1 . S e e e.g. t h e m o r e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s in K u t s c h , ' " B u n d e s b l u t " ' ; N i c h o l s o n , 'Ritual'; H e n d e l , 'Sacrifice'; a n d S c h e n k e r , 'Sacrifices'. 'Ritual', 8 6 . 'Sacrifice', 3 7 5 . A l t h o u g h r e c o g n i s i n g that 'aspects of T u r n e r ' s t h e o r y h a v e b e e n criticised', H e n d e l a r g u e s that his 'discussion n e v e r t h e l e s s p r o v i d e s a n i m p o r t a n t step t o w a r d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the ritual s y m b o l i s m of E x 24,3-8'. 3
1
8
3
1
9
Ibid., 3 7 6 . A a l e n , ' O p f e r m a h l ' , 149ff, n o t e s t h a t E x 2 4 is t h e o n l y p l a c e in t h e O T w h e r e t h e b l o o d of the c o v e n a n t a n d the eating of a m e a l a r e explicitly joined.
Mark
14:24:
The Cup
353
Saying
in E x o d u s 2 4 represent all Israel w h o s e leaders s u b s e q u e n t l y a s c e n d the holy m o u n t a i n to eat in Y a h w e h ' s presence, so M a r k particularly records that 'the T w e l v e ' , w h o m h e apparently v i e w s as Israel's n e w leadership (3:13-19), are with J e s u s at this c o v e n a n t m o m e n t (14:17; cf. v. 2 0 ) .
3 2 0
Be
that as it m a y , the E x o d u s allusion s e e m s to imply that J e s u s ' death not only i n a u g u r a t e s a c o v e n a n t b u t also articulates, if not a n e w c o v e n a n t people, at least a n e w identity for them. Several data point in this direction. First, E x o d u s 24 is itself precisely about this w i t h the b l o o d rite establishing the ' n e w religious and social identity' o f the n e w l y r e d e e m e d people as Y a h w e h ' s k i n g d o m o f priests, a holy people. S e c o n d , w e h a v e earlier suggested that J e s u s ' choosing of the T w e l v e (3:13-19) a n d h i s r e s p o n s e to his family (3:20-30) indicates that b e i n g a m e m b e r o f true Israel is predicated, not o n o n e ' s nationality o r filial ties, b u t o n o n e ' s response to J e s u s .
3 2 1
This implies a redefinition o f
w h a t it m e a n s to b e Israel. T h i r d , w e h a v e already seen h o w L o h m e y e r viewed
many
of Jesus'
actions either
as r e m o v i n g
the
stigma of
u n c l e a n n e s s or redefining u n c l e a n n e s s / h o l i n e s s in an inclusive m a n n e r , again indicating a redefinition o f G o d ' s people.
At the s a m e time, J e s u s '
p r o n o u n c e m e n t in the T e m p l e implies that G e n t i l e s too are n o w to b e included in n e w w a y s a m o n g G o d ' s p e o p l e .
3 2 2
W h e n seen in this light, an
appeal to E x o d u s 24 only underlines the point that M a r k ' s J e s u s is about the reconstitution of Israel. D o e s this h a v e a n y connection with the I N E ? Clearly so, first, in terms of the general E x o d u s / N e w E x o d u s pattern. After all, the Passover recalled Israel's r e d e m p t i o n — a n d thereby p r o v i d e d w h a t w e h a v e s e e n is a k e y motif in the I N E , n a m e l y , ^KlfcT
m m — a n d this so that s h e m i g h t b e
constituted as G o d ' s p e o p l e at the M o u n t o f G o d .
S e c o n d , as w e h a v e
o b s e r v e d a b o v e , the I N E also e n v i s a g e s a radical redefinition o f Israel w h i c h not o n l y s e e s a b i f u r c a t i o n w i t h i n the n a t i o n b u t a l s o offers unprecedented opportunities for Gentiles. Indeed, the only other place in the prophetic corpus w h e r e as part of the eschatological vision the nation is described in l a n g u a g e r e m i n i s c e n t of E x o d u s 19:6 is in the c r o w n i n g
3
2
0
3
2
1
3
2
2
Cf. M y h r e , ' P a k t e n s ' . S e e C h a p t e r 7, p p . 185ff, a b o v e . See also Gnilka, 2.246.
354
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
declaration o f Isaiah 61:6 0*O£n m r r *?n5 n n n ) .
323
in
Jerusalem
T h e goal o f the I N E , as
w i t h its precursor, is thus the reconstitution o f G o d ' s priestly people, and this as suggested a b o v e also involves, at its most inclusive, a priestly role for Gentile proselytes (66:19). Third, integral to this reconstitution is Y a h w e h ' s promised ^pibtt? IV"n that cn»n
(54:10), which is likened both to that o f the days o f Noah (56:9-
17; cf. 54:11-17) and to the Davidic rbiD n n ? (55:3). the M o s a i c c o v e n a n t
is n o t m e n t i o n e d ,
B e c a u s e a renewal o f
particularly
in v i e w o f t h e
formative influence o f the E x o d u s traditions, it is often a s s u m e d that it is thereby e s c h e w e d ; analyses
raises
exclusion.
3 2 5
3 2 4
a l t h o u g h P. M . H o e p e r s ' a n d B . C . O l l e n b u r g e r ' s
questions
as to the validity
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e fundamental
of such
a categorical
characteristic o f this n e w
c o v e n a n t , t o w h i c h t h e N o a h i c a n d D a v i d i c o n e s testify a n d w h i c h is perhaps w h y the specific mention o f a renewal o f the Mosaic covenant is absent ( b u t cf. 48:17ff), is c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d to b e its everlasting, unilateral, a n d unconditional nature. H e n c e Israel's salvation is described as a D*tf7to nwtin (45:17, 51:8) and her joy as a D*7to nn&fo ( 5 1 : 1 1 ) .
326
With these characteristics in view, it s e e m s significant that not only is the ' d e a t h ' o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' linked to I s r a e l ' s d e l i v e r a n c e s u c h that it apparently occasions the e m e r g e n c e o f other 'servants o f Y a h w e h ' (54:17), 3
2
3
3
2
4
3
2
5
3
2
6
A c h t e m e i e r , Community, 9 0 . Itself i n a c o n t e x t o f a n i n v i t a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n Y a h w e h ' s c o v e n a n t , S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 9 0 . Cf. Rost, 'Sinaibund'. A n d e r s o n , 'Covenant', 3 4 2 , observes that Isa 4 0 - 5 5 d r a w s deeply from Israel's historic traditions yet s e e m s h a r d l y t o m e n t i o n Sinai o r the condi t i o n a l p r o m i s e s o f t h e c o v e n a n t . M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s , a l t h o u g h r a r e l y r e f e r r e d t o i n first s e c t i o n ( S a n d e r s , Torah, 5 6 f ; V r i e z e n , ' E s s e n t i a l s ' , 128ff), a r e m o r e a p p a r e n t i n c h s . 4 0 f f a n d suggest that t h e p r o p h e t mediates (as d i d M o s e s ) b e t w e e n people a n d G o d (Evans, 'Use', 9 3 n 5 ) . T h e s a m e r o l e c o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e ' s e r v a n t ' , e.g. I s a 4 2 : 6 ; 4 9 : 8 . H o e p e r s , Bund, h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e D a v i d i c c o v e n a n t s h o u l d n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s a l t o g e t h e r n e w a n d d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e Sinaitic o n e b u t is i n s t e a d t h e s a m e c o v e n a n t w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l e n a b l e m e n t f o r t h e h o u s e o f D a v i d . If this is t h e c a s e , t h e n it m a y b e m i s t a k e n t o s e t E x o d u s a n d D a v i d / Z i o n t r a d i t i o n s in o p p o s i t i o n . O l l e n b u r g e r , Zion, 152ff, h a s a l s o criticised this t o o - e a s y distinction b e t w e e n J e r u s a l e m a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s o n o t h e r g r o u n d s . A l s o G u n n e w e g , 'Sinaibund', 3 4 0 ; A n d e r s o n , ' C o v e n a n t ' , 344ff; K r a u s , Worship, 1 8 8 - 2 0 0 ; H a m e r , Grace, 147ff. A n d e r s o n , ' C o v e n a n t ' , 342ff, 3 4 8 , w h e r e i n I s a 4 0 - 5 5 I s r a e l ' s f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n is n o t ' c o n t i n g e n t o n t h e r e n e w a l o f t h e M o s a i c c o v e n a n t in t h e p r e s e n t ' . I n r e l a t i n g t h e E x o d u s a n d C o v e n a n t traditions, the p r o p h e t 'adopts- the unconditional c o v e n a n t with David, t h o u g h s e p a r a t i n g it f r o m t h e c o n d i t i o n a l M o s a i c c o v e n a n t w i t h w h i c h it h a d b e e n b o u n d f r o m t h e v e r y first; a n d h e a d o p t s t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l c o v e n a n t w i t h D a v i d , t h o u g h s e p a r a t i n g it f r o m the u n h a p p y h i s t o r y of t h e D a v i d i c d y n a s t y a n d transferring its p r o m i s e s o f g r a c e t o the p e o p l e ' , 3 5 7 ; M c C a r t h y , ' C o v e n a n t ' , 236ff. T h e i m m i n e n t c o v e n a n t is o f s u c h a n o r d e r t h a t o n l y t h e N o a c h i c c o v e n a n t is c o m p a r a b l e , M u i l e n b u r g , ' I s a i a h ' , 6 3 7 .
Mark
14:24:
The Cup
355
Saying
that is, Israel's reconstitution, b u t on two occasions w e are informed that the 'servant' is also to b e D?1a TiK and DP n n a (Isa 42:6; 49:6, 8 ) .
3 2 7
W h a t is
m e a n t b y t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s is n o t entirely clear, but, as w e h a v e n o t e d a b o v e . V a n W i n k l e h a s s h o w n that the l a n g u a g e links t h e motifs o f salvation for the nations with that of covenant. This is so at least for Israel (cf. J e r 31:31-33), if not, given the use o f OV in the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g context (Isa 42:5), the nations also (cf. Isa 2:2-4; 1 9 : 2 3 f ) .
328
In light o f the
discussion o f E x o d u s 2 4 above and the I N E h o p e of a n e w covenant, such a role for the 'servant' w o u l d not b e unexpected, especially if he is construed in s o m e w a y as a n e w M o s e s .
3 2 9
T h e crucial point, h o w e v e r , is that the Isaianic ' s e r v a n t ' is explicitly c o n n e c t e d w i t h the N E a n d c o v e n a n t ,
3 3 0
a n d furthermore is the o n l y
figure associated with the h o p e o f a N E s o conceived in the O T . If M a r k ' s J e s u s is construed within the context of the I N E then the natural precursor to
his
covenant-inaugurating
'servant'.
3 3 1
role
would
be
that
of the
Isaianic
J e s u s ' u s e o f covenant-inaugurating l a n g u a g e in the context
of his forthcoming death only strengthens the conceptual connection with the 'servant' w h o s e 'death', w e h a v e already argued, is s o m e h o w central to the N E . That M a r k ' s J e s u s should choose to m a k e such a heavily freighted declaration o n Passover, w h e r e b y his violent death itself d u r i n g P a s s o v e r will b e the i n s t r u m e n t a l m e a n s o f the c o v e n a n t a l b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w l y defined Israel, is entirely fitting. Nevertheless, a l t h o u g h H o o k e r regards the idea o f SiaGrfKr) as t h e 'greatest similarity' b e t w e e n M a r k 14:24 and 'the thought o f the prophet', she argues that the concept of J e s u s as 'the leader w h o w a s to b e a covenant to his p e o p l e ' (cf. Isa 42:6 and 49:8) is 'clearly only a secondary o n e in this
3
2
7
3
2
8
3
2
9
3
3
0
3
3
1
Duhm's original demarcation of the so-called Servant Songs has been m u c h debated. T h e y a r e h e r e delimited a s follows: 42:1-7(9); 49:1-9; 50:4-9; a n d 52:13 - 53:12. B u t cf. e.g. M e t t i n g e r , ' F a r e w e l l ' , w h o i n c l u d e s 4 9 : 8 - 1 3 a n d 4 2 : 1 8 - 2 5 ; N o r t h , Suffering, 132ff, w h o e.g. l i m i t s t h e first ' s o n g ' t o v v . 1 - 4 ; a n d O r l i n s k y , ' S o - C a l l e d ' , 17ff, w h o a r g u e s against the unity of 52:13 - 53:12. A l t h o u g h QV is c o m m o n l y u s e d o f I s r a e l — f r e q u e n t l y w i t h a p r o n o m i n a l p o s s e s s i v e s u f f i x — i n t h e ' s o n g ' f r o m w h i c h t h e p h r a s e is t a k e n OV is a p p a r e n t l y u s e d o f h u m a n i t y i n g e n e r a l (cf. 4 0 : 7 ; p l u r a l in 4 9 : 2 2 ; 51:4f); s e e W e s t e r m a n n , 9 9 f , a n d t h e n u m e r o u s c o m m e n tators listed there. S e e t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d a b o v e in C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 2 7 7 f a n d fn. 2 1 9 . F r a n c e f a v o u r a b l y c i t e s C u l l m a n n , Christology, 55, w h o regards covenant-making a s ' o n e o f t h e t w o " e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " o f t h e S e r v a n t ' , Jesus, 1 2 2 . A l s o e.g. W o l f f , Jesaja, 6 5 .
356
Isaiah's
passage'.
3 3 2
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
Further, 'the complete absence of the idea of blood-shedding
from b o t h I s a . 4 2 . 6 a n d 4 9 . 8, as w e l l as from
the S e r v a n t S o n g s
t h e m s e l v e s ' m a k e s ' a n y connection b e t w e e n these passages and the w o r d s of Jesus ... extremely u n l i k e l y ' .
333
In r e s p o n s e to the first objection, ' s e c o n d a r y ' does not m e a n 'invalid', since surely function and identity are related. In the light o f b o t h M a r k ' s INE hermeneutic—Hooker
freely a d m i t s the g e n e r a l D e u t e r o - I s a i a n i c
b a c k g r o u n d to J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y
334
— a n d the p r e c e d i n g discussion o n the
role o f the ' s e r v a n t ' in the I N E , what other interpretive p a r a d i g m might we propose?
A s w e h a v e argued a b o v e , only the figure o f the Isaianic
(Moses-like?) ' s e r v a n t ' c o m b i n e s the roles o f effecting t h e N E , b e i n g a covenant, a n d ' d y i n g ' for others.
A n explicit identification m a y n o t b e
m a d e in M a r k , b u t it s e e m s v e r y m u c h to b e the u n d e r l y i n g foundational a s s u m p t i o n .
' t h e idea o f b l o o d - s h e d d i n g ' passages.
335
and
T h i s leads to H o o k e r ' s s e c o n d objection that
However, if dx\ia
is c o m p l e t e l y a b s e n t from t h e
€KX€cj
'servant'
merely m e a n s 'bloodshed', that is, the
taking o f life (see b e l o w ) , and since this on the basis o f O T usage is often associated w i t h violent and unjust death (e.g LXX: 2 K g s 21:16; 24:4; Ps 13:3, 79:10; Prov 1:16; and 6:17), then surely the 'idea' is present, if not in Isaiah 4 2 and 4 9 , then certainly in t h e suffering and ' d e a t h ' o f t h e i n n o c e n t 'servant' as described in Isaiah 5 0 and 5 3 . T h e s e c o n d phrase,
T O C K X U V V O J A C V O V UTT€P TTOXAGJV,
describes both h o w
this c o v e n a n t is to b e effected and on w h o s e behalf. M a n y scholars h a v e seen here a n allusion to Isaiah 5 3 , if n o t o n account o f the ' p o u r e d out' since €KX€0) is never used of r n y in the L X X ,
3
3
2
Servant, 8 2 ; s o a l s o B e s t , Temptation, t h e O T t o b e l i n k e d w i t h o n e figure. 3
3
3
3
3
4
3 3 6
then usually in terms o f the
1 4 6 , for w h o m ' c o v e n a n t ' is t o o w i d e a t e r m in
Ibid.; a n d a l s o B e s t , ibid. A g a i n , Servant, 6 6 , 6 7 f , 7 3 , cf. 9 5 . 335 w h i l e true w i t h r e g a r d to those texts that specifically m e n t i o n c o v e n a n t (42:lff; 49:Iff), this a r g u m e n t a s s u m e s that M a r k ' s J e s u s c o u l d n o t h a v e related the 'servant' figure of Isa 42:Iff a n d 49:Iff to that of Isa 5 3 , with the latter explaining h o w the former w e r e to o c c u r . B u t if t h e t r a d i t i o n in s o m e e d i t i o n s o f Tg. Isa c a n s e e t h e M e s s i a h m e n t i o n e d in b o t h ( a g a i n C h a p t e r 3 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 7 ) , t h e n , g i v e n t h e c r e a t i v i t y o f M a r k ' s J e s u s , it is n o t i m p o s sible t h a t h e t o o s a w s o m e link b e t w e e n t h e m , e v e n if t h e m a j o r i t y o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s d i d n o t ( a l s o C h a p t e r 8 , p . 2 4 4 , fn. 8 6 ) . T h e i s s u e o f t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o v e r a g a i n s t c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g will b e d e a l t w i t h in C h a p t e r 1 0 b e l o w . 3 3 6 p e s c h , 2 . 3 5 9 , (cf. W h y b r a y , fn. 3 4 0 , b e l o w ) w h o d e n i e s t h a t it c o n s t i t u t e s a n a l l u s i o n t o I s a 5 3 : 1 2 , w h e r e a s G u n d r y , Use, 5 9 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 2 ; a n d M o o , Passion, 1 3 1 , a s s e r t t h a t CKXC'U) e x a c t l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o r r a .
Mark
14:24:
The Cup
357
Saying
reference to 'the m a n y ' based o n its frequent appearance in 53:1 I f . as in the c a s e o f M a r k 10:45 b o t h H o o k e r and G r i m m h a v e separate challenges to this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
3 3 7
But
mounted
338
H o o k e r raises two objections. First, p o u r i n g out b l o o d ( D l
/ dx\ia
€KX€co) s i m p l y m e a n s ' b l o o d s h e d ' (i.e. 'to take life', e.g. G n 9:6; Dt 19:10; Is 59:7; Ezek 22:3-12; Prov 1:16; Ps 106:38; but see b e l o w )
3 3 9
a n d therefore
' a p p e a r s to h a v e n o c o n n e c t i o n ' with Isaiah 53:12 w h e r e 'the S e r v a n t is 1
laid b a r e to d e a t h ' (iWsi m i } ? r r y j n ) .
3 4 0
Second, having
denied
or
m i n i m i s e d a n y o t h e r c o n n e c t i o n w i t h I s a i a h 5 3 , t h e r e f e r e n c e to t h e ' m a n y ' is alone insufficient to establish an Isaiah 53 a l l u s i o n .
341
O n the first point, at a c o n c e p t u a l level and g i v e n the
previously
mentioned connotations o f violence and injustice, it is difficult to see any s u b s t a n t i a l difference b e t w e e n ' b l o o d s h e d ' a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e innocent 'servant' w h o is at least under the threat o f death, and probably worse.
M o r e o v e r , m y n is 'a strange and mysterious m e t a p h o r ' o f w h i c h
' p o u r out' is a valid rendering, and in either case, M a r k ' s ' p o u r e d o u t ' ' b l o o d ' is hardly to b e differentiated from Isaiah 5 3 ' s 'laid b a r e ' 'his soul to d e a t h ' , as the latter's context m a k e s c l e a r . 3
3
3 4 2
W i t h regard to H o o k e r ' s
7
Cf. W o l f f , Jesaja, 6 6 ; M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , 1 8 ; L o h s e , Martyrer, 1 2 4 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 2 ; L a n e ; G r i m m , 2 9 7 ; G n i l k a ; M o o , Passion, 1 3 0 f ; G u n d r y , 8 3 2 ; M a r c u s , 1 8 7 ; o n t h e b a s i s o f ' t h e many', espec. Pesch, 2.358. 3
3
8
3
3
9
3
4
0
Suhl, 1 1 4 - 2 0 , i n g e n i o u s l y p r o p o s e s a g n o s t i c o r i g i n . A l s o L o h s e , Martyrer, 1 2 5 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 122; G r i m m , 2 9 7 . Servant, 8 2 ; a l s o P e s c h , 2 . 3 5 8 , (cf. Abendmahl, 9 4 ) , w h o sees the expression as s y n o n y m o u s w i t h 6 o u v a i T T | V ^ U X T I V in 1 0 : 4 5 . A g a i n , W h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, 104f, h a s q u e s t i o n e d w h e t h e r t h e a c t u a l d e a t h o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' is in v i e w . H e a r g u e s t h a t w h i l e ' p o u r o u t ' o r ' e m p t y ' m o s t n a t u r a l l y s u g g e s t d e a t h , P s 1 4 1 : 8 , w h i c h is t h e o n l y o t h e r p l a c e w h e r e mi? h a s tfS3 a s d i r e c t o b j e c t , m e a n s ' t o l e a v e d e f e n c e l e s s ' , i.e. 'lay b a r e ' , cf. P s 1 3 7 : 7 . T h u s I s a 5 3 : 1 2 s h o u l d r e a d ' h e left h i m s e l f d e f e n c e l e s s t o t h e d e a t h ' ( o r ' t o t h e u t t e r m o s t ' ) ; i.e. e n t i r e l y ' a t t h e m e r c y o f h i s e n e m i e s o r p e r s e c u t o r s ' . B u t s i n c e t h e c o n t e x t s o f b o t h p s a l m s i m p l y t h a t w h a t is b e i n g r i s k e d is i n j u r y o r d e a t h a n d d e s t r u c t i o n , w h y s h o u l d I s a 5 3 : 1 2 a d d nya*? s i n c e o n W h y b r a y ' s r e a d i n g it c o n t r i b u t e s n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n w h a t m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y b e i n f e r r e d ? In v i e w o f t h e a b s e n c e o f in p a r a l l e l e x a m p l e s , its p r e s e n c e h e r e s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d e f e n c e l e s s n e s s w a s m a i n t a i n e d e v e n 'to t h e p o i n t o f d e a t h ' . H o w e v e r , e v e n if o n e a c c e p t s W h y b r a y ' s r e a d i n g , i.e. t h e ' s e r v a n t ' is w i l l i n g t o o b e y e v e n if it m e a n s d e a t h b u t d o e s n o t in fact d i e , t h a t M a r k ' s J e s u s r e n d e r s h i m s e l f ' d e f e n c e l e s s ' e v e n to actual d e a t h , h a r d l y disqualifies the parallel. T h e L X X a n d the Greek v e r s i o n s a p p e a r to u n d e r s t a n d that the 'servant' dies. 3
4
1
3
4
2
Ibid. F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 2 . L a t e r , in 2 4 4 n l 8 , h e c i t e s I s a 3 2 : 1 5 w h e r e t h e s i n g l e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e N i p h a l — d e s c r i b e d a s t h e p a s s i v e o f t h e H i p h i l 2 u n d e r w h i c h c a t e g o r y I s a 5 3 : 1 2 is listed, B D B , 7 8 8 — c l e a r l y m e a n s ' p o u r o u t ' . T h e T a r g u m ' s "lOD, ' t o s u r r e n d e r , d e l i v e r ' , m a y b e a n a t t e m p t t o r e n d e r t h e s e n s e o f 'to l a y b a r e ' (cf. P s 137:7; 1 4 1 : 8 ) w h i l e t h e L X X ' s a n d t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n s ' , -napcSdGTi, is m o r e i n t e r p r e t i v e .
358
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
s e c o n d objection, it is to b e questioned w h e t h e r all w e h a v e is a solitary reference to 'the m a n y ' . H o o k e r freely admits the point of the passage to b e that J e s u s ' death establishes a new covenant between G o d and 'many'
3 4 3
the
s u c h that it is ' t h e r e d e m p t i v e act w h i c h b r i n g s the n e w
c o m m u n i t y o f G o d ' s p e o p l e into b e i n g ' ,
3 4 4
and, as noted earlier, that the
general b a c k g r o u n d to J e s u s ' ministry is ' D e u t e r o - I s a i a n i c ' . O n c e again, M a r k 9:12's linking o f J e s u s ' death to the O T and the contextual correspon d e n c e s outlined a b o v e considerably reduce the r a n g e o f options: w h o else within the I N E h o r i z o n ' d i e s ' for the benefit of the ' m a n y ' a n d brings 'the n e w c o m m u n i t y o f G o d ' s people into b e i n g ' , if not the 'servant'? W e r n e r G r i m m , n o t i n g M a r k 14:24's linguistic s i m i l a r i t y to M a t t h e w 23:35's
u a v al\ia
6iKaiov cKxuvvdjicvov,
also argues that ' b l o o d . . . p o u r e d
o u t ' is n o t sacrificial l a n g u a g e b u t m e a n s m e r e l y d e a t h , a l t h o u g h
the
covenant language in the context of a meal probably refers to E x o d u s 2 4 .
3 4 5
In terms o f Isaiah 5 3 , while there is a conceptual parallel—Jeremias is right in seeing
TTOXXCJV
as a reference to Isaiah 53:12—the preposition
utrep
finds
n o c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e c a u s e 5 3 : 1 2 b ' s nnn is ' e i n d e u t i g konjunctional u n d nicht prapositional v e r w e n d e t ' and ••Q-D.
346
UTTCP TTOXXCJV
is distinct from D ^ l * ? and
Instead, the constructions ^ n n n . . . y } M Tina and ^Tinn ... )m, (Isa
43:3a, b , 4) suggest that nnn can b e a shortened form o f nnn l © 5 . Since in Isaiah 43:3
LXX,
is rendered b y 10:45's
w h i c h stands behind M a r k 10:45's ime'p,
then M a r k 14:24's
(XuTpov) (XVTI TTOXXCJV.
Thus
XuTpov dvTi TTOXXCJV,
uTT€p T T O X X C J V
UTTC'P
nnn
is s i m p l y a parallel to
again reflects I s a i a h 4 3 : 3 f n o t
3 4
53:12. 7
In a\\ia of
the light o f G r i m m ' s first assertion, it is o f s o m e interest that does in fact o c c u r in sacrificial contexts in the LXX
€KX€CJ
particularly as part
the ritual w h i c h b o t h 'sanctifies' the altar a n d ' m a k e s a t o n e m e n t ' for it
(vbv
inunj^l, L e v 8:15; cf. E x 24:6) and as s u c h is integral to acts o f
consecration o f priests (Ex 29:12; L e v 8:15) and o f Israel (cf. E x 24:8), and of atonement as effected b y the sin offering (e.g. L e v 4:7, 18, 2 5 , 3 0 , 3 4 , for the priests and for I s r a e l ) .
3 4 3
3 4 4
3 4 5
3 4 6
3 4 7
3 4 8
Servant, 8 2 . Mark, 3 4 3 . Verkundigung,
348
It is possible, given the allusion to E x o d u s 2 4 and
297.
Ibid., 297, 2 9 8 . Ibid. S e e a l s o M o o , Passion,
130;
c i t i n g T o d t , Son, 2 0 4 f .
Mark
14:24:
the modifying prepositional p h r a s e has sacrificial o v e r t o n e s ,
3 4 9
The Cup
359
Saying
u - r r e p TTOAXG3V
which D . J . Moo argues
that J e s u s ' c o n c e p t o f ' p o u r e d
out b l o o d '
functions as a m e t o n y m y for an act of consecration and atonement (cf. Tgs. Onq.
and Yer.
o n E x 24:7-8 w h i c h s e e m to indicate that this p a r t i c u l a r
consecrating sacrifice w a s also a t o n i n g ) .
350
A n d even if not so specific, the
P a s s o v e r m e a l context and the language o f ' c o v e n a n t ' and ' b l o o d ' s e e m s clearly to i m p l y the idea o f sacrifice. Again, the only figure w h o is related to the I N E and w h o is in any w a y connected with sacrificial language is the Isaianic 'servant'.
E v e n if the u n i q u e expression in 53:10 is difficult, the
fact remains that he is described in terms o f an DttiN, the purpose of w h i c h is to m a k e a t o n e m e n t for sin (e.g. L e v 5:6f, 15-19; e s p e c . 7:lff w h i c h also entails the act o f b l o o d b e i n g ' d a s h e d ' [ p i t ] u p o n the altar; cf. E x 2 4 : 6 - 8 ) .
351
A l l o w i n g for the c o m p l e x i t y o f the sacrificial s y s t e m and t h e a l l u s i v e nature of J e s u s ' statement,
which
m a y y e t a g a i n reflect a
creative
c o m b i n a t i o n o f older ideas, the c o m m o n cluster o f motifs s u g g e s t s that s o m e t h i n g a l o n g t h e s e lines is in v i e w in M a r k 1 4 : 2 4 .
3 5 2
Nonetheless,
e v e n if the e x p r e s s i o n refers o n l y to violent death, the a r g u m e n t s
put
forward u n d e r the p r e v i o u s discussion o f M a r k 10:45 still apply h e r e .
3 5 3
N a m e l y , as G r i m m apparently recognises, the idea o f 'death' ' o n b e h a l f o f others' is far clearer in Isaiah 53 than in Isaiah 4 3 . A n d this e v e n m o r e so in the light o f the ' c o v e n a n t ' l a n g u a g e w h i c h in the I N E is p r i m a r i l y associated with the 'servant'. R e g a r d i n g t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e , it m a y b e a d d e d in s u p p o r t o f G r i m m ' s position that Isaiah 43:3f is the only place in the b o o k w h e r e
imcp
is used with anything like the sense of M a r k 14:24 (cf. Dt 24:16, the o n l y place in the T o r a h , b u t h e r e translating by; par. 2 K g s 14:6 a n d 2 C h r o n 25:4). Not only so, b u t Isaiah 43:3f is the only occurrence of
uTT€p
for nnn in
the L X X — d v T i is u n q u e s t i o n a b l y the regular rendering o f nnn w h e n the latter has the sense o f exchange, that is, 'in the place o f .
3
4
9
Passion, 1 3 1 , a s it c e r t a i n l y d o e s in t h e N T , s e e B A G D , 8 3 8 ; cf. L X X : 1 E s d r 8 : 6 3 ; 2 M a c e 1:26; 3 : 3 2 . E . g . P e s c h , Ahendmahl, 95f. S e e f u r t h e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 2 7 5 f , fn. 2 0 9 . See e.g. H a a g , 'Opfer'; M e y e r , ' E x p i a t i o n ' , w h o sees a c o v e n a n t sacrifice a n d e x p i a t o r y offering. A s w i t h w i t h E x 2 4 a t o n i n g b l o o d a s a c o v e n a n t s i g n is h e r e l i n k e d w i t h a meal, Myhre, 'Paktens'. C h a p t e r 8, p p . 281ff, a b o v e . 3
5
0
3
5
1
3
5
2
3
5
3
360
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
But h o w realistic is it to base an explicit allusion to Isaiah 43:3f solely on its unusual u s e o f a single and very c o m m o n N T preposition?
Grimm
seems to suggest that Isaiah 4 3 is already in view due to M a r k 10:45. But, it can
b e c o u n t e r e d , o n the basis o f that s a m e text, and the three
passion
predictions, and M a r k 9:12, that Isaiah 5 3 is m o r e so. Allusions also tend to b e established on the basis o f a cluster o f linguistic a n d / o r conceptual similarities.
T h e o n l y point o f contact with Isaiah 4 3 is the preposition;
there are n o linguistic parallels with 'death' or 'the m a n y ' , nor is it easy to see h o w Isaiah 4 3 relates to the idea of covenant inauguration ( M k 14:24a). Further, that nnn c a n b e a shortened form o f nnn I3i> is b a s e d on Isaiah 43:3a, b a n d only w o r k s there b e c a u s e the c o m p l e t e expression occurs in the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g stichos.
N o such c o m p l e t e line appears in
M a r k 14 and therefore it is hardly evident that unc'p stands for nnn O n the other hand, if u n c p is taken at face value and not as an attempt to render either o f the prepositions b or 3 (Isa 53:11), then the integration of the motifs o f the 'death' of an individual, the 'on behalf o f , and 'the m a n y ' is far m o r e congruent with the actions o f the 'servant' in Isaiah 53 w h o s e 'death' is m o r e than adequately summarised as being 'on b e h a l f or 'for the benefit' ' o f the m a n y ' . It h a s a l s o b e e n o b s e r v e d that Q u m r a n u s e d ' t h e m a n y ' as a selfreferent, w h i c h implies, in keeping perhaps with their self-designatory use of Isaiah 4 0 : 3 , that they are the true covenant c o m m u n i t y , that is, faithful Israel.
3 5 4
T h i s could well b e its m e a n i n g here, w h i c h w o u l d fit with the
E x o d u s 24 allusion and with those w o r d s and actions o f Jesus elsewhere in Mark
which
community.
3 5 5
indicate
that
he
is t h e
locus
of the
new
covenant
T h e 'servant' having already been associated with the idea
of covenant facilitates the conceptual link between M a r k 14:24a and 2 4 b . So then, on this reading, w h e r e a s M a r k 10:45's d v i i reflect the thought o f Isaiah 4 3 , it seems that
urrep
TTOXXCJV
TTOXXCJV
might
in M a r k 14:24
o w e s m o r e to the influence of Isaiah 5 3 . W e h a v e so far largely focussed only o n M a r k 14:24 itself, but as w e h a v e seen w i t h M a r k 10:45 m e r e l y e x a m i n i n g isolated p h r a s e s or w o r d s without regard to larger contexts is b o t h artificial and poor m e t h o d .
We
354 W e r n e r , ' F r a g e ' , c i t i n g t h e n u m e r o u s o c c u r r e n c e s in 1 Q S 6 - 7 . See S c h e d e , ' F r a g e n ' ; Gnilka, 2 . 2 4 5 , w h o cites Isa 4 2 : 6 ; 49:7f, a n d the discussion of v a r i o u s J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s in J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, 2 2 7 f f ; cf. C h a p t e r 8 , p . 2 8 2 , fn. 2 4 9 , above. 3 5 5
Mark
14:24:
The Cup
361
Saying
h a v e already a r g u e d that M a r k ' s overarching I N E h e r m e n e u t i c p r o v i d e s us with indications as to the larger b a c k g r o u n d within w h i c h these data are to b e interpreted.
M o r e precisely, h o w e v e r , w e h a v e also argued that
the p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s , in k e e p i n g with w h a t 'is w r i t t e n ' ( M a r k 9:12), point primarily to the sufferings associated with t w o ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e s , n a m e l y , Isaiah 5 0 and 5 3 . W e w o u l d expect the s a m e horizon here.
And
indeed, the clear e c h o e s o f M a r k 10:45 which m a n y scholars h a v e noted in M a r k 14:24—H. M . Wolff sees 10:45 as the 'Selbstvertretung' a n d 14:24 as the ' F r u c h t '
356
— s t r o n g l y suggest that s o m e sort of c o m m o n interpretative
framework is a s s u m e d .
3 5 7
It w o u l d appear, then, that w e should at least
begin with Isaiah 5 0 and 53 as interpretive frames for subsequent material, only going e l s e w h e r e if they fail to elucidate the texts at h a n d or if, o n linguistic or conceptual grounds, they are clearly inapplicable. o n c e an I N E f r a m e w o r k
is a s s u m e d
However,
a n d in the c a s e o f M a r k 1 4 : 2 4
particularly the career and role o f the enigmatic 'servant' as described in Isaiah 50 and 5 3 , not only do w e see a good degree o f coherence with other M a r k a n themes, but it also m a k e s considerable sense o f the passage. In the light o f the preceding discussion, and since the Passover recalled the old E x o d u s and almost certainly in the first century looked forward to the N e w , it is hardly surprising that M a r k 14:24 combines motifs associated with Israel's past and future deliverances. First, the allusion to E x o d u s 2 4 ' s covenant-inaugurating
'blood'
at
Sinai,
which
appears
to
include
a t o n e m e n t for a n d the c o n s e c r a t i o n o f Israel, c a p t u r e s the h e a r t o f the Exodus/Passover
event
whereby
the
nation
becomes God's
newly
constituted people. B u t if this is in the past, the Isaiah 53 c o m p o n e n t looks forward.
T h e 'servant' is not only the one figure associated with the N e w
E x o d u s t h e m e s o f c o v e n a n t and the future reconstitution o f G o d ' s people, but Isaiah 5 3 in particular is intimately related to the I N E ' s m o v e m e n t o f Israel from b o n d a g e (Isa 5 2 ) to a gloriously restored Jerusalem (Isa 54) with its description o f ' s e r v a n t s ' ( p l u r a l ) .
358
M o r e o v e r , the 'servant' is the only
figure w h o s e ' d e a t h ' is s o m e h o w c o n n e c t e d with this future event.
All
this suggests that M a r k ' s J e s u s sees his death on Passover as effecting the
3
5
6
3
5
7
3
5
8
Jesaja,
64ff.
Cf. e.g. L a n e , 5 0 7 ; G r i m m , 2 9 7 ; G n i l k a , 2 . 2 4 2 ; M a r c u s , 1 8 7 . A s in C h a p t e r 8 , p . 2 7 9 , a n d this C h a p t e r , p . 3 0 3 a b o v e .
362
Isaiah's
Promise
...
Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
I N E ' s p r o m i s e d c o v e n a n t a l reconstitution o f ' t r u e ' Israel a n d as s u c h marks her 'rite of passage' from bondage to the presence of G o d . Finally, o n c e a g a i n there are hints o f the operation o f an i nnovat i ve hermeneutic that takes up and combines several distinct motifs (cf. e.g. the p r o l o g u e w h i c h s e e m s to present J e s u s as M e s s i a h , true Israel, a n d yet closely identifies h i m with Y a h w e h ' s very presence, and 10:45 w h e r e h e is b o t h S o M and 'servant'). T h e reference to his c o m i n g death in the setting of a P a s s o v e r meal m a y suggest, although this is o p e n to s o m e question, that M a r k ' s Jesus s e e s himself in terms o f the Passover l a m b and thus as the o n e w h o s e d e a t h inaugurates Israel's deliverance (cf. 1 C o r 5 : 7 f ) .
3 5 9
M o r e likely perhaps, the imagery of E x o d u s 2 4 indicates that the M a r k a n Jesus sees his death as analogous to the sacrifice at the foot o f Sinai whi ch both constituted and consecrated Israel in her n e w identity. Lastly, perhaps itself reflecting on M o s e s ' offer in E x o d u s 32:30ff, the allusion to Isaiah 53 suggests that he is also to b e seen as the Dtitt w h ic h deals with Israel's guilt and is s o m e h o w related to effecting the I N E . c) Other Possible
Allusions
to Isaiah 50 and 53
In addition to Isaiah 53 in M a r k 14:24, o t h e r p o s s i b l e allusions to the suffering o f the I s a i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' in the p a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e h a v e b e e n proposed.
For e x a m p l e , N A
2 6
suggests Isaiah 53:7 in 14:49 and 14:61, and
53:12 in 15:27. K e e grants first place to Isaiah 50:6 in M a r k 14:65, then sees allusions to Isaiah 53:12 in 14:21 (possible), 53:5 (Tg. Isa) in 14:58, 53:7 in 14:60 (possible), 53:6 (LXX) in 15:15, 50:2f in 15:33, 53:9 in 15:43 and 4 6 , and finally suggests the 'influence' o f 53:3-5 in 1 4 : 6 5 .
3 6 0
Surprisingly, h e does
not mention Isaiah 53:12 in M a r k 14:24. M o o discusses 53:3 in 14:8, 53:7 in 14:61, 50:7 and 53:7 in 14:65 and 15:19, 53:7 in 15:5, and 53:12 in 15:27. finds favourably for all except M a r k 14:8 and 1 5 : 2 7 .
361
He
O b v i o u s l y there is
m o r e debate about s o m e o f these proposed allusions than others—Hooker and A. Suhl, for example, would question most if not all o f these supposed parallels—and it is not our intention to e x a m i n e e v e r y c a s e .
A few o f
these texts do, however, seem to confirm the presence o f the larger pattern
3
5
9
3
6
0
3
6
1
Cf. J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, 2 2 0 - 2 4 ; b u t s e e M a r s h a l l ' s c r i t i c i s m s . Supper, 87ff. 'Function', 169-71. Passion, 1 2 7 - 7 2 . M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , s u g g e s t s far m o r e possibilities; a n d s e e n o w a l s o M a r c u s , 1 8 6 - 9 6 . O f t h e s e . M o o ' s w o r k is t h e m o s t d e t a i l e d .
Other
Possible
Allusions
to Isaiah 50 and
363
53
already suggested b y M a r k 9:12, the passion predictions, M a r k 10:45, a n d the 'cup saying'. P r o b a b l y the clearest case is the 'spitting' and ' s l a p p i n g ' in 14:65 (cf. 15:19). M o o h a s pointed out that €|ITTTUOJ and its c o g n a t e n o u n is found only three times in the L X X ( N u m 12:14, Dt 25:9, Isa 50:6) and that p a m a j i a is m e n t i o n e d in the L X X only in Isaiah 50:6 and the verb o n l y in H o s e a 11:4 and J u d g e s 16:25 (in B ) .
3 6 2
O f these references, again given M a r k 9:12's
'it is written', only Isaiah 50:6 offers a genuine parallel. W h i l e H o o k e r allows that these passages 'quite evidently e c h o w o r d s in the L X X v e r s i o n o f Isa. 5 0 . 6 ' , she doubts an intentional c o n n e c t i o n since the writer ' w o u l d surely h a v e kept m o r e closely to the o r i g i n a l ' . w h y should h e ?
3 6 3
But
H o o k e r ' s p o i n t might b e tenable if M a r k ' s a i m w a s to
d r a w direct attention to e a c h and every parallel. But w h a t if M a r k , having already established an O T context, chose instead to stay with the narrative, expecting that his audience w o u l d notice the allusions, especially given his preceding material? After all, as Joel M a r c u s has observed, if M a r k 14:65 is read in the light o f 10:34, then these t w o p a s s a g e s together ' c o n t a i n the three essential e l e m e n t s o f Isa. 5 0 : 6 ' .
3 6 4
It is difficult then, given influence
of Isaiah 5 3 o n the passion predictions, not to see in 14:65 an allusion to the suffering o f the 'servant'. T h e ' s i l e n c e ' o f J e s u s (14:61; 15:5) h a s b e e n r e c o g n i s e d as a definite M a r k a n p a t t e r n and h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d as an allusion to Isaiah 5 3 .
3 6 5
H o w e v e r , H o o k e r a r g u e s that A ) the ' s i l e n c e ' is o n l y partial since h e answers P i l a t e ,
3 6 6
B ) if M a r k h a d intended an allusion to t h e 'suffering
servant' it w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e explicit, C ) there is ' n o indication' that J e s u s ' w a s 'consciously acting in accordance with that p i c t u r e ' ,
367
and D ) it
is ' i n c o n c e i v a b l e that (Jesus) ... s h o u l d n o w w r a n g l e w i t h his a c c u s e r s ' since all along h e 'is prepared to a n s w e r an h o n e s t question b u t ignores partisan a s s e r t i o n s ' .
3
6
2
3
6
3
3
6
4
368
Passion, 8 8 a n d 1 3 9 ; s e e M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , 11. Servant, 9 0 f . Way, 1 9 0 . 3 6 5 M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , 9 ; H o o k e r , Servant, 8 8 f ; M o o , Passion, 5 1 4 , w h o sees this a s a later insertion. Servant, 8 9 . Ibid., 8 8 f . Ibid., 8 9 . 3
6
3
6
6
7
3
6
8
148ff; cf. H a e n c h e n ,
Weg,
364
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
T a k i n g A ) first, e v e n g i v e n o c c a s i o n a l ' l a p s e s ' , the ' s i l e n c e ' m o t i f a p p e a r s intentional a n d still n e e d s to b e explained. (On the other h a n d , it could p e r h a p s b e a r g u e d that in Isaiah the ' s i l e n c e ' is closely related to the perversion o f justice (53:7, 8 )
3 6 9
and thus J e s u s ' silence is o n l y in r e s p o n s e
to false accusations.) Turning next to D ) , J e s u s ' actions in several instances would indicate otherwise.
In M a r k 7:6ff the M a r k a n J e s u s d e s c r i b e s his
q u e s t i o n e r s as ' h y p o c r i t e s ' w h i c h h a r d l y s u g g e s t s that h e r e g a r d s their question as 'honest'.
Similarly, in 12:13ff it is e v i d e n t that h e r e c o g n i s e s
their attempt at e n t r a p m e n t as hypocrisy (v. 15), b u t still e n g a g e s in debate. J e s u s ' s i l e n c e is to b e explained o n o t h e r g r o u n d s .
Any assessment of B )
necessarily involves a subjective j u d g e m e n t as to w h a t constitutes a ' c l e a r ' allusion a n d this i n c l u d e s an a s s u m p t i o n o f h o w m u c h e m p h a s i s M a r k o u g h t to h a v e p u t o n an i n t e n d e d a l l u s i o n .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , if for t h e
m o m e n t w e h o l d the objection in a b e y a n c e , w h a t o f C ) , w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s the matter o f the larger context? O n the basis of the preceding a r g u m e n t of this b o o k a n d particularly in light of M a r k ' s accounts of J e s u s ' o w n w o r d s in 9:12, the p a s s i o n predictions, the ' r a n s o m ' s a y i n g (10:45), a n d the ' c u p ' s a y i n g (14:24), w e w o u l d u r g e to the c o n t r a r y that there is c o n s i d e r a b l e indication
that
if
any
OT
pattern
informed
the
Markan
Jesus'
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s suffering a n d d e a t h , it w a s that o f t h e I s a i a n i c 'servant'.
S i n c e t h e ' s i l e n c e ' m o t i f a p p e a r s intentional a n d c o h e r e s w e l l
w i t h I s a i a h 5 3 , t h e r e s e e m s little o b j e c t i v e r e a s o n to d e n y that it t o o derives from the description o f the 'servant'. O t h e r parallels h a v e b e e n proposed: for e x a m p l e , the m o t i f o f e x c h a n g e in the B a r a b b a s incident (cf. Isa 5 3 : 6 , 1 2 ) ,
3 7 0
the p r o m i n e n c e o f n a p a 6 i 6 a ) u i
t h r o u g h o u t (14:10f, 1 8 , 2 1 , 41f, 4 4 ; 15:1, 10, 1 5 ) ,
3 7 1
the a m a z e m e n t o f Pilate
(15:5; 9 a u i i a £ a ) , cf. Isa 52:15, L X X ; but not the M T ) , and p e r h a p s the implied awe of the centurion ( 1 5 : 3 9 ) .
3 7 2
T h e latter t w o s u g g e s t i o n s are l a r g e l y
u n c o n v i n c i n g s i n c e t h e r e s p o n s e s in M a r k a n d I s a i a h h a v e causes.
3 7 3
N o r d o either o f the former, in their o w n right, establish a link
with the Isaianic 'servant'.
3
6
9
H o w e v e r , if t h e p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s
B o t h W e s t e r m a n n , 2 5 7 , a n d W h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, e n v i s a g e d h e r e is a trial. 3
7
0
3
7
1
3
7
2
3
7
3
different
are
118f, suggest that the context
So Gnilka, 2.303. M o o , Passion, 9 2 - 9 6 ; G n i l k a , ibid.; M a r c u s , 1 8 8 . M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , 9 ; M o o , Passion, 148ff; a n d M a r c u s , 1 8 5 . S e e M o o , Passion, 1 4 8 n 2 .
'For
They
Were
365
Afraid
influenced b y Isaiah 5 3 — b o t h 9:31 and 10:33 use T r a p a 6 i 6 a ) | i i — a n d a r e intended
to set the c o n t e x t for the p a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e , t h e n it s e e m s
reasonable to s u p p o s e that M a r k intended Trapa6i6o)jii t h r o u g h o u t
this
section to b e read in their light and thus also to echo Isaiah 53:6 and 12. If the p r e c e d i n g a r g u m e n t s c o m m e n d t h e m s e l v e s , then, prima
facie,
they raise the possibility that J e s u s ' trial and execution, as a whole, is to b e read in the light o f Isaiah 5 0 and 5 3 . This m a y then, on the grounds o f consanguinity, s u g g e s t that s o m e o f the other allusions p r o p o s e d a b o v e , which b y themselves d o not immediately evoke these chapters, are to b e so understood. c)
B u t this is another matter and w e shall pursue it n o further.
Conclusion
W e argued in the previous Chapter that the n u m e r o u s references to J e s u s ' suffering and death in M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section and particularly the r a n s o m saying in 10:45, w h e n read within the parameters established b y M a r k 9:12, appear to h a v e b e e n influenced primarily b y Isaiah 5 3 .
In spite o f s o m e
arguments to the contrary, the s a m e seems to apply to the cup saying and to other features in the passion narrative itself. If so, then o n the e v e o f the Passover, w h i c h both c o m m e m o r a t e d the first E x o d u s a n d in all probability looked forward to a n e w deliverance under the Messiah, and in the only place in this section where there is any indication o f the significance o f his c o m i n g death, M a r k ' s J e s u s creatively integrates Israel's founding m o m e n t — t h e covenantal formation o f G o d ' s p e o p l e at Sinai—with the prophetic h o p e o f the N E — t h e self-offering o f the Isaianic 'servant', itself p e r h a p s derived from M o s e s ' offer o n M o u n t Sinai. Thus the I N E in M a r k c o m e s to its climax, as in Isaiah, in the final 'self-offering' o f the 'servant', w h o is not only to b e a 'covenant' but w h o s e 'death' is s o m e h o w integral to facilitating the N E .
V. The Short
a) 'For they were afraid
Ending
of
Mark
...'
The s u d d e n and almost anti-climactic e n d i n g o f M a r k c o n t i n u e s to b e a source of fascination and has s p a w n e d a considerable literature.
Although
w e d o not intend entering this debate in any detail, w e will nevertheless briefly mention an interesting parallel with the message o f Isaiah 40-55.
366
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
G e n e r a l l y Isaiah 40-55 is seen as a n n o u n c i n g Israel's deliverance from exile, and this is b o r n e out b y the prologue and the content o f the various oracles, p r o c l a m a t i o n s , and h y m n s w h i c h a n n o u n c e , detail, a n d celebrate the nation's imminent s a l v a t i o n .
374
But, as w e h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e ,
there is also an on-going and increasingly polarised altercation b e t w e e n Y a h w e h a n d Jacob-Israel c o n c e r n i n g his p o w e r , his faithfulness, and his wisdom.
3 7 5
O n e o f the issues underlying this tension s e e m s to b e J a c o b -
Israel's fear as is evident in the constant refrain o f 'fear n o t ' as Y a h w e h e n c o u r a g e s his p e o p l e to trust h i m and to accept that their salvation is 37
near (Isa 40:9; 4 1 : 1 0 , 1 3 , 1 4 ; 43:1, 5; 44:2; 44:8; cf. 5 1 : 7 , 1 3 ; 54:4, 1 4 ) . * W e also argued that it w a s ultimately b e c a u s e o f Jacob-Israel's 'fear' a n d refusal to accept, to believe, a n d to act on the ' g o o d n e w s ' o f the prophet's m e s s a g e that the I N E w a s delayed. Apparently not m u c h had changed in M a l a c h i ' s day nor, if our reading is correct, in that o f the M a r k a n J e s u s . If w e are right in seeing M a r k ' s J e s u s as the o n e w h o inaugurates the long-awaited I N E it is p e r h a p s not surprising, as C h r i s M a r s h a l l h a s s h o w n , that the question o f 'faith and u n b e l i e f is a central issue for M a r k .
3 7 7
It figures p r o m i n e n t l y in J e s u s '
o p e n i n g invitation to repent a n d b e l i e v e ,
3 7 8
and also in the unbelief and
lack o f r e p e n t a n c e that characterises Israel's l e a d e r s h i p . too, r e s p o n d in a m i x t u r e o f 'faith' and ' f e a r ' .
3 8 0
379
T h e disciples,
In c o m m e n t i n g o n the
latter in M a r k 4:34 M a r s h a l l o b s e r v e s that ' w h e n b e l i e v e r s fail to act in faith, they are not merely "small in faith"; they are actually s u c c u m b i n g to
3
7
4
3
7
5
3
7
6
U s i n g t h e f o r m a l c a t e g o r i e s o f W e s t e r m a n n , ' H e i l s w o r t ' ; S c h o o r s , Saviour; a n d M e l u g i n , Formation; cf. H a r n e r , ' S a l v a t i o n ' ; a n d a l s o e.g. t h e c r i t i c i s m s o f S c h i i p p h a u s , 'Stellung'; v o n W a l d o w , ' M e a n i n g ' , 2 6 7 ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y C o n r a d , ' O r a c l e s ' . H o w e v e r , a s all p a r t i e s r e c o g n i s e , m a n y o f t h e t e x t s in I s a 4 0 - 5 5 d o n o t a d h e r e t o s t a n d a r d Gattungen, and t h u s e v e n C o n r a d m u s t a d m i t ' i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s ' i n h i s a l t e r n a t i v e p r o p o s a l . U l t i m a t e l y , it is n o t clear that C o n r a d h a s s o m u c h delineated different forms as d e t e c t e d the influence of older traditions o n their content. Watts, 'Consolation', 35-49. S e e a l s o e.g. 4 2 : 1 0 - 1 7 a n d 4 4 : 2 3 w h e r e Y a h w e h h i m s e l f c r i e s o u t a n d s u m m o n s creation to c r y aloud a n d sing songs of praise. Faith. 3
7
7
3
7
8
3
7
9
3
8
0
O n t h e l i t e r a r y f u n c t i o n o f 1 : 1 4 - 1 5 f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , s e e e.g. M a r s h a l l , 36ff, w h o a l s o a r g u e s for a link b e t w e e n 1 : 1 4 - 1 5 a n d 1 6 : 7 - 8 , s e e 4 1 f . A s in C h a p t e r 7 a b o v e , a n d M a r s h a l l , ibid., 1 7 9 - 2 0 8 . C h a p t e r s 7 a n d 8 a b o v e , a n d M a r s h a l l , ibid., 2 0 8 - 2 5 .
Faith,
367
Conclusion
the p o w e r o f the
ytvda
Nevertheless, their
amoTog
that stands o p p o s e d to G o d ' s r u l e ' .
unbelief does not prevent
3 8 1
Jesus exercising his
authority, e v e n in the face o f w h a t appears to b e a d e m o n i c a l l y inspired onslaught.
J e s u s c a l m s t h e fearfully c h a o t i c sea j u s t as h e h e a l s t h e
d e m o n i s e d lad. If w e are o n the right track, this m a y e x p l a i n w h y M a r k ' s g o s p e l c o n c l u d e s rather abruptly with a statement about a 'fear' that results in silence.
A t the outset o f the I N E ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t , there is the u r g e n t
c o m m a n d to proclaim, to not hold back, to not b e afraid in announcing the ' g o o d n e w s ' (Isa 4 0 . 9 ;
3 8 2
cf. 52:7-9).
B u t in the e n d , it w a s 'fear' that
threatened the full realisation o f Y a h w e h ' s promised deliverance.
Perhaps
M a r k , recalling that t h e s e first w i t n e s s e s o f true I s r a e l ' s ' r e s u r r e c t i o n ' w h e r e silenced b y their fear, also has in mind the possibility that m e m b e r s of his audience might also b e tempted, out o f fear, to b e silent, to s u c c u m b to the unbelief o f the 'faithless generation'.
O n the other h a n d , M a r k h a s
already explained that it w a s in Galilee (cf. 16:7) that J e s u s prevailed over the p o w e r o f the watery deep (4:35ff), with all o f its deathly connotations, and this in spite o f the fear o f the disciples. Perhaps, then, in addition to the warning, there is also a w o r d o f encouragement to his audience. E v e n if they too h a v e b e e n tempted to b e silent, they need to recognise that J e s u s has still c o n q u e r e d .
A n d if, for M a r k , 'discipleship evidently involves a
c o n t i n u i n g s t r u g g l e for the v i c t o r y o f faith o v e r u n b e l i e f '
3 8 3
(and w e
w o u l d add 'fear'), then m a y b e b e i n g reminded o f J e s u s ' great victory will provide the a d d e d strength and e n c o u r a g e m e n t they need to p r o c l a i m the gospel in the face of hostility and rejection.
VI. Conclusion C o r r e s p o n d i n g to the I N E h o p e o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g to Z i o n , the last section o f M a r k b e g i n s with J e s u s ' victorious arrival at J e r u s a l e m as b o t h M e s s i a h and S o n o f G o d / Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r .
N o t u n e x p e c t e d l y g i v e n the
rising hostility in the first section, J e s u s ' entry is snubbed b y the J e r u s a l e m authorities. 3
8
1
3
8
2
3
8
3
Nevertheless, true b o t h to M a l a c h i and to the ancient ' e n t r y '
Ibid., 2 1 9 . S e e fn. 7 a b o v e . M a r s h a l l , ibid., 2 2 4 .
368
Isaiah's
Promise
... Malachi's
Threat:
Arrival
in
Jerusalem
genre, J e s u s next visits the T e m p l e both as its Lord and guardian, and as its deliverer u n d e r t a k i n g an act o f purification a n d appropriation.
O n the
o n e hand, the intercalatory cursing o f the fig-tree e c h o e s M a l a c h i ' s threat a n d a d u m b r a t e s the j u d g e m e n t e x p r e s s e d in J e s u s ' citation o f J e r e m i a h 7:11.
O n the other, b o t h the entry and ' c l e a n s i n g ' motifs c o h e r e with the
M a c c a b e a n entries, b u t this t i m e it is the insurrectionist T e m p l e hierarchs and not foreigners who are 'cleansed'.
S i m i l a r l y , the s a y i n g
about
m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g faith s e e m s to a d u m b r a t e the ultimate r e m o v a l o f the present T e m p l e establishment which, in its present form, constitutes such a f o r m i d a b l e o b s t a c l e to the fulfilment o f the I N E .
O n a m o r e positive
note, the citation o f Isaiah 56:7 presages the fulfilment o f Isaiah's vision for the T e m p l e and g i v e n the ' o u t e r court' setting e c h o e s the I N E h o p e o f a m o r e inclusive role for Gentiles. W h e n challenged over his authority to d o these things, M a r k ' s J e s u s alludes to the authorities' rejection o f J o h n the B a p t i s t — M a l a c h i ' s Elijah—thereby e v o k i n g M a r k ' s o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e . This leads directly into the Isaiah 5 derived parable o f the w i c k e d tenants parable w h i c h p r o n o u n c e s their demise (cf. M k 13). After d e a l i n g w i t h J e s u s ' threats to the p r e s e n t T e m p l e institution, M a r k t u r n s to the realisation o f the institutional threat to J e s u s , again interpreted within the INE horizon.
M a r k ' s story, after the e m p h a t i c
repetition o f the p a s s i o n predictions contained in the ' W a y ' section, n o w r e a c h e s it c l i m a x in an e x t e n d e d a c c o u n t of J e s u s ' suffering and death, m u c h o f t h e s u b s t a n c e a n d p u r p o s e o f w h i c h c o h e r e s w i t h that o f the Isaianic 'servant' w h o s e suffering and death provides the catalytic m o m e n t for the N E . In keeping with the two preceding sections, the M a r k a n J e s u s offers o n l y o n e b r i e f and h i g h l y a l l u s i v e s t a t e m e n t as to the c e n t r a l significance o f this final part, the 'cup saying' in M a r k 14:24. J e s u s ' death is n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n the self-offering o f the M e s s i a h a n d t r u e ' s e r v a n t ' Israel (who is both S / s o n of G o d and S o M ) , b y w h i c h he effects a covenant for the p e o p l e (v. 24a, cf. E x 24:8; Isa 42:6; 49:6) and thus initiates the I N E for ' t h e m a n y ' (v. 2 4 b ; Isa 5 3 : l l f ) , b o t h J e w s a n d G e n t i l e s , w h o will n o w constitute the n e w people o f G o d . Finally, the u n d o u b t e d l y e n i g m a t i c short e n d i n g o f M a r k m a y s e r v e b o t h as stark r e m i n d e r o f the deblitating role that fear had o n c e played in the delay o f the N E , and as a warning against allowing it to d o so again.
Chapter 10: Conclusions While
not suggesting
nevertheless the Gospel
the INE as a whole.
that everything seems
in Mark
to provide
Whewell's
'theory
offer further
must fit
the best
the proposed
integrative
of consilience'
model,
paradigm and social
for theory
confirmation.
I. Observations W e b e g a n this study b y noting the current hiatus in M a r k a n research with regard to that ' a i m ... and ... perspective w h i c h gives coherence to all the features of the S e c o n d G o s p e l ' .
1
Rejecting the idea that n o such coherence
exists as both premature and a counsel of despair—Mark's literary achieve m e n t h a s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e e n n o t e d e v e n if o c c a s ional l y o v e r p l a y e d — o u r line o f research w a s prompted both b y the thorough-going influence o f the O T o n M a r k ' s w o r k and the idea that texts can function as indicators o f larger hermeneutical frameworks.
In the light o f the suggestive proposals
of C. H. D o d d and F r a n c i s F o u l k e s on the i m p r e s s o f the O T schauung
Weltan
on the N T , w e surveyed earlier analyses o n the O T ' s influence
on the Mark.
A l t h o u g h in m a n y places w e found that certain O T events
a p p e a r e d p a r a d i g m a t i c for particular e p i s o d e s within M a r k ' s story, w e concluded that former proposals o f larger overarching syntheses failed o n o n e or m o r e o f the following grounds: so c o m p l e x or subtle as to defy credibility, u n a b l e to integrate adequately M a r k a n structure a n d t h e m e s , reliant on q u e s t i o n a b l e or overly subtle O T allusions, a n d / o r failure to integrate the p r o p o s e d structural p a r a d i g m with the e m p h a s e s o f M a r k ' s a c t u a l O T c i t a t i o n s , in p a r t i c u l a r , his o p e n i n g a p p e a l to a
putative
quotation o f Isaiah. W e then e x a m i n e d the role o f ideology's schematised representation o f a group's
history
understanding.
in s t r u c t u r i n g
and
i n c u l c a t i n g that g r o u p ' s
self-
It w a s p r o p o s e d that while earlier attempts at analysing
M a r k ' s theological structure rightly discerned the i m p o r t a n c e o f Israel's
1
Kee, 'Recent', 3 5 3 .
370
Conclusions
f o u n d i n g m o m e n t , t h e y s i n g u l a r l y failed to a p p r e c i a t e the
prophetic
transformation o f the first E x o d u s into the future h o p e of a N e w E x o d u s . R e c o g n i s i n g that a p p l y i n g the findings o f m o d e r n social theory to an ancient d o c u m e n t runs the risk o f severe anachronism, there nevertheless seemed
s u f f i c i e n t prima
facie
e v i d e n c e to w a r r a n t e x a m i n i n g
t h r o u g h the lens o f this social heuristic.
Mark
It w a s h o p e d , in c o n c e i v i n g of
M a r k ' s O T citations and allusions as iconic indicators of his hermeneutical f r a m e w o r k , that a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l might be discovered.
underlying organising principle
W e are n o w in a position to offer the following
observations: 1. In k e e p i n g w i t h a n c i e n t literary p r a c t i c e , M a r k ' s
introductory
s e n t e n c e (1:1-3) i n d i c a t e s h i s G o s p e l ' s c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k .
After
e x a m i n i n g the O T b a c k g r o u n d s and s o m e t h i n g o f the social function o f the texts involved, w e proposed that M a r k ' s opening c o m p o s i t e citation is intended to e v o k e t w o different but closely related s c h e m a t a .
First, the
a p p e a l to Isaiah 4 0 e v i n c e s Israel's great h o p e o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g to initiate h e r restorational N E .
S e c o n d , the allusion to M a l a c h i not only
recalls the delay o f this N E but also sounds an o m i n o u s note o f warning in that the nation m u s t b e prepared or else face p u r g i n g j u d g e m e n t .
(Since
Malachi is c o n c e r n e d with the delay o f the N E , it is in a s e n s e s u b s u m e d within the N E s c h e m a , although due to the n e w historical situation the focus is not so m u c h o n Y a h w e h ' s initial c o m i n g to B a b y l o n (Isa 40:lff) as o n his c o m i n g to J e r u s a l e m , cf. Isa 6 5 - 6 6 ) .
T h e s e twin t h e m e s o f the
fulfilment o f the delayed I N E promise and possible j u d g e m e n t d u e to lack of preparedness are fused in M a r k ' s opening citation and together s e e m to establish the basic thematic contours for his presentation o f Jesus. 2. T h e p r o l o g u e ' s innovative integration of motifs and allusions is not only consistent with b o t h of these schemata but elaborates them. In terms of the I N E , the content of evayyiXiov
(1:1, 14) concerns Y a h w e h ' s Warrior-
S h e p h e r d delivering activities o n Israel's behalf.
E c h o i n g the integration
o f E x o d u s motifs as found in Isaiah 6 3 : 7 - 6 4 : l l ' s lament o v e r the N E ' s d e l a y , t h e rent h e a v e n s a n d d e s c e n t o f the S p i r i t (1:10) s i g n a l s the b e g i n n i n g o f Y a h w e h ' s saving intervention.
In this setting, the allusions
in the divine attestation (1:11), particularly given the descent o f the Spirit, designate J e s u s as Israel's messianic-'servant' deliverer (cf. Ps 2:7 and Isa 42:1). Equally, the iconic augmentation o f the ' m y s o n ' language with the
371
Observations
E x o d u s e c h o e s o f p a s s i n g through the w a t e r and the s u b s e q u e n t j o u r n e y into the desert (1:10-12) p r e s e n t J e s u s as ' t r u e ' Israel (cf. E x 4 : 2 2 , w i t h ayaTTTiTos" indicating his unique Sonship, cf. G n 2 2 ) . T h e p a r a d i g m w h i c h appears to h a v e facilitated the c o n v e r g e n c e of these t w o identifications is also Isaianic. T h e a m b i g u i t y inherent in the e n i g m a t i c ' s e r v a n t ' motif— alluded to in the v o i c e and the descent of the Spirit (cf. Isa 42:1)—enables J e s u s to b e at o n c e true 'servant'-Israel and ' b l i n d - a n d - d e a f J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s m e s s i a n i c - ' s e r v a n t ' deliverer.
( O n e notes in passing that in spite of the
M a r k a n J e s u s ' t h o r o u g h - g o i n g u s e o f ' S o M ' t h e r e is n o t h i n g in t h e p r o l o g u e that particularly e v o k e s Daniel 7; p e r h a p s reflecting the e a r l y c h u r c h ' s n o n - u t i l i s a t i o n o f the term.)
F i n a l l y , the l a n g u a g e o f J e s u s '
p r o g r a m m a t i c a n n o u n c e m e n t (1:14-15) is not only consistent with an I N E hermeneutic, b u t there is s o m e suggestion that M a r k also construes J e s u s ' declaration in terms o f the ' m e s s e n g e r ' tradition of Isaiah 61:1. C o n c e r n i n g M a l a c h i ' s warning, M a r k ' s presentation of J o h n the Baptist (1:6) is c o n s o n a n t w i t h his b e i n g M a l a c h i ' s Elijah to w h o m Israel m u s t respond if s h e is to participate in the long-delayed N E . It hardly a u g u r s well that the b e g i n n i n g o f J e s u s ' preaching (1:14a and 14b) is i m m e d i a t e l y preceded b y the abrupt notification of J o h n ' s imprisonment. 3. T h e G o s p e l ' s b a s i c literary s t r u c t u r e is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the I N E schema. A survey o f a diverse range of literary analyses reveals two major ' b r e a k s ' in M a r k ' s narrative (8:21-27 and 10:45 - 1 1 : 1 ) w h i c h suggest that h e uses a three-part m a c r o - s t r u c t u r e .
T h e s e three s e c t i o n s m a y b e s u m
marised as describing A) J e s u s ' 'evangelistic' ministry o f powerful w o r d s and deeds in Galilee and b e y o n d , B) a journey with his 'blind' disciples iv TfJ 66c5, a n d C) a r r i v a l in J e r u s a l e m , w h i c h s t r u c t u r e d i s p l a y s
broad
parallels with the I N E s c h e m a o f A) Y a h w e h ' s deliverance and healing o f his exiled people, B) a j o u r n e y w h e r e 'blind' Israel is led along ' a w a y they do not k n o w ' , and C) arrival in Jerusalem. Likewise, the Malachi s c h e m a is reflected in A) M a r k ' s o p e n i n g account of an Elijah-like forerunner and his rejection, and B) the c o n c l u d i n g crisis precipitated b y J e s u s ' arrival in J e r u s a l e m w h i c h is characterised both b y the emphatic intercalation o f the cursing o f the fig-tree with the 'cleansing' and a preoccupation with the T e m p l e (cf. M a i 3:1, 2 4 , M T ) . 4. In M a r k ' s first section, his presentation of J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , healings, and s t o r m - s t i l l i n g / s e a - w a l k i n g recapitulate the images and actions associ-
372
Conclusions
ated w i t h Y a h w e h ' s I N E deliverance o f the exiles. T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s in this section also accords with their distribution in the INE.
T h a t M a r k regards the e x o r c i s m s as the h a l l m a r k o f J e s u s ' m i g h t y
d e e d s is e v i d e n t in their frequent m e n t i o n a n d structural
prominence
(1:21-28, 3 4 , 3 9 ; 3:10f, 1 5 , 22ff; 5:1-20; 6:13; 7:24-30, 9:14-29). It is, therefore, n o t e w o r t h y that o n t h e o n e climactic o c c a s i o n w h e n the M a r k a n J e s u s c o m m e n t s o n their significance it is apparently in terms o f the Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r (Isa 49:24f in M k 3:27). But whereas in Isaiah the captives w e r e in b o n d a g e to B a b y l o n w h o s e idols epitomised her p o w e r , in M a r k it is the u n c l e a n spirits / d e m o n s , u n d e r s t o o d to b e the p o w e r s b e h i n d the idols, w h o are the oppressors.
F r o m this standpoint, J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s are
the M a r k a n e q u i v a l e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e d release o f the Isaian exile. A n d just as Y a h w e h in Isaiah appealed to the Chaoskampf
to d e m o n s t r a t e
his ability to effect the N E , so too M a r k ' s Exodus-like juxtaposition o f the storm-stilling and the d r o w n i n g o f the d e m o n i c legion d e m o n s t r a t e s not only J e s u s ' p o w e r to effect the I N E but also something o f his identity (4:35 5:20). J e s u s ' healings o f the blind, deaf, and lame likewise e c h o Y a h w e h ' s h e a l i n g o f t h e exiles in the I N E .
Finally, the feedings e v o k e Y a h w e h ' s
p r o v i s i o n for his p e o p l e in t h e E x o d u s a n d its Isaianic transformation (6:34-44; 8:1-10). Noting that w e might h a v e expected the feedings to occur in M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section, w e suggested that their ' d i s p l a c e m e n t ' indicates that
genuine
participation
in
the
INE requires
more
than
mere
involvement in the signs o f its presence. 5. A l o n g s i d e this, M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s ' hostility t o w a r d J e s u s continues the threatening u n d e r c u r r e n t implicit in Malachi's warning.
After a s e r i e s o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n s
(2:1 - 3 : 6 ) , t h e
b l a s p h e m y w a r n i n g in the p i v o t a l B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y (3:22-30) is r e m i n i s c e n t o f Isaiah 6 3 (cf. M k l:10f) and its r e c o u n t i n g o f rebellious Israel's 'grieving' the Spirit during the first Exodus. N o w , as then, Y a h w e h b e c o m e s their e n e m y (Isa 63:10 cf. M k 3:28f).
T h e i m m e d i a t e l y following
and programmatic material on the purpose o f the parables (4:1-34) cites the hardening text of Isaiah 6 (4:12) and, in d r a w i n g u p o n the terminology o f t h e Isaianic ' w i s d o m ' p o l e m i c , suggests that J e s u s ' rejection is similarly d u e to the self-reliant ' w i s d o m ' o f the Jerusalemite leadership.
The same
t h e m e continues in the only other place in the first t w o sections o f M a r k w h e r e J e s u s is confronted b y leaders 'from J e r u s a l e m ' (Isa 29:13 in M k 7:6f).
373
Observations
In keeping with the later chapters o f Isaiah (espec. Isa 65:1-15), a bifurcation is n o w b e i n g effected within Israel. T h o s e w h o a d h e r e to J e s u s ' teaching are 'insiders' and so ' t r u e ' m e m b e r s o f his family (and h e n c e also o f true Israel?; 4 : 1 1 , cf. 3:13-19, 2 0 - 2 1 , 31-35) while those leaders w h o h a v e ranged t h e m s e l v e s against h i m ( 4 : l l b - 2 3 ; cf. 3:22-30) are 'outsiders'.
In b e t w e e n
stand the vast and as-yet-undecided c r o w d s w h o s e fate d e p e n d s o n h o w 'carefully' they 'hear' ( 4 : 1 , 3 , 9 , 2 3 , 3 3 ) . 6. T u r n i n g to M a r k ' s s e c o n d section, his account o f J e s u s ' leading his 'blind' disciples along the ' W a y ' o f the suffering S o M parallels the action o f Y a h w e h a n d his t r u e ' s e r v a n t ' o n b e h a l f o f ' b l i n d ' J a c o b - I s r a e l in t h e s e c o n d part o f the I N E s c h e m a . involved
two
components,
J u s t as in the I N E the ' w a y ' o f r e t u r n
spatial—to
Jerusalem—and
sapiential—
accepting Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , so also in M a r k the ' W a y ' to J e r u s a l e m is a ' W a y ' of instruction, n a m e l y , that the M e s s i a h must suffer.
Arising from
the use o f Isaiah 6 in M a r k 4 , M a r k ' s ' b l i n d n e s s ' and 'deafness' l a n g u a g e i n v o k e s t h e I s a i a n i c ' w i s d o m ' p o l e m i c w h i c h , as amplified in the I N E materials, c o n c e r n s J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s inability to a c c e p t the n a t u r e o f Y a h w e h ' s p l a n for h e r deliverance.
unconventional
Symbolising the disciples'
condition (4:13, 4 1 ; 6:52; 7:18f; 8:14-21), M a r k ' s o n l y healing-of-the-blind miracles bracket his ' W a y ' section (8:22-26; 10:46-52) and thereby e v o k e the Isaianic picture o f Y a h w e h , through his 'servant', leading the ' b l i n d ' along a path they d o not k n o w (cf. Isa 42:16). Just as in Isaiah Y a h w e h ' s purposes w e r e ultimately to b e a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h the astonishing c a r e e r o f a suffering 'servant', so in M a r k the three-fold passion predictions (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; cf. 9:12; Isa 5 3 , 5 0 ) e m p h a s i s e that the w a y o f w i s e Y a h w e h ' s N E deliverance finds it s u p r e m e expression in the ' W a y ' o f a crucified faithful 'servant' Israel-SoM-Messiah (also 10:45; cf. Isa 5 3 ) . 7. In M a r k ' s final section, the two s c h e m a t a introduced b y his o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e c o m e to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s .
The Malachi/Exodus
allusion, intimating the d a r k side o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g , projects t h e interpretive framework for M a r k ' s intercalation of J e s u s ' cursing of the fig tree and ' c l e a n s i n g ' o f the T e m p l e .
S i n c e the insurrectionist
leadership
h a d earlier rejected J o h n ' s preparatory b a p t i s m (1:14a; 11:30-33) it is n o t surprising that they should disregard the entry o f J e s u s , the T e m p l e ' s L o r d and their m e s s i a n i c k i n g , and question his authority (11:28; cf. 3:6, 2 2 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the ' l a n d ' is cursed
(11:12-25) and the T e m p l e , intended to
374
Conclusions
b e a house o f prayer for all nations (Isa 56:7) but n o w a den o f thieves Qer 7:11), is placed under sentence of destruction (13:lff; cf. 11:23). At the s a m e t i m e and quite c o n f o u n d i n g the h i e r a r c h s '
murderous
intentions, J e s u s announces that they will b e deposed and that he himself will b e c o m e the ' c o r n e r s t o n e / c a p s t o n e ' o f a n e w building (12:1-11; a n e w Temple?).
And here the INE paradigm,
a l r e a d y e v i d e n t in J e s u s '
m e s s i a n i c e n t r y into the city in as m u c h as it e c h o e s the arrival o f the victorious Warrior-Shepherd
Y a h w e h in J e r u s a l e m , e m e r g e s
again.
Y a h w e h ' s deliverance o f his people will c o m e to pass but only through the suffering o f his 'servant' Messiah. J u s t as the self-offering o f the Isaianic 'servant', w h o w a s also to b e ' a c o v e n a n t for the p e o p l e ' , is integral to effecting Israel's I N E deliverance, so too M a r k ' s J e s u s at the climax o f his inauguration o f the I N E establishes through his death the n e w covenant for the n e w l y reconstituted people o f G o d (14:24, cf. E x 24:8 and Isa 42:6; 49:8; 53:10-12).
II. Assessment a)
Introduction
Obviously, the first concern is the validity o f each, or part thereof, o f the o b s e r v a t i o n s offered above.
T h e m o r e c o n v i n c i n g each observation, the
m o r e c o m p e l l i n g their c o m b i n e d effect.
If w e grant that these individual
observations are substantially correct, h o w is their overall c o h e r e n c e to b e interpreted? It m a y o f course b e argued that M a r k intends n o further significance than is contained in the face value of the w o r d s h e actually quotes, that he intends neither linkage b e t w e e n them nor any larger s c h e m a overall, and that all o f the a b o v e is m e r e l y the result o f reading too m u c h into the material a n d the o c c a s i o n a l h a p p y c o i n c i d e n c e . T h i s is, it is not to b e d e n i e d , a possibility.
O n the other h a n d , o n e m u s t ask at w h a t p o i n t
coincidences b e c o m e both so n u m e r o u s and so h a p p y as to suggest design. Perhaps these congruities, given that they appear in the o n e b o o k , and in this particular order, and with such comfortable collusion, are n o m o r e a matter o f h a p p e n s t a n c e than the appearance o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l itself. This, it m a y b e c o u n t e r e d is ' m e r e l y ' a matter o f personal j u d g e m e n t , b u t as
Argument
from
Philosophy
of
375
Science
M i c h a e l Polanyi has d e m o n s t r a t e d personal j u d g e m e n t is to a greater or lesser degree quite central to the acquisition of all growth in k n o w l e d g e ; and hardly to b e dismissively assigned a lesser epistemological status 'merely').
2
(viz.
B u t if p e r s o n a l j u d g e m e n t is the key, h o w t h e n are t h e s e
correlations to b e evaluated? b) The Argument In e v a l u a t i n g philosopher
from
the Philosophy
of
3
Science
the t r u t h v a l u e o f i n d u c t i o n s
to p o s s i b l e c a u s e s , the
of science William Whewell postulated
his theory of
Consilience: T h e Consilience of Inductions takes place w h e n a n Induction, obtained from one class of facts, coincides w i t h a n Induction, obtained f r o m a n o t h e r class. This Consilience is a test o f t h e t r u t h o f t h e T h e o r y in w h i c h it o c c u r s .
4
In other w o r d s , w h e n t w o chains o f inductive reasoning from
different
classes o f p h e n o m e n a lead to the s a m e 'conclusion', then a consilience o f inductions has occurred.
T h e greater the n u m b e r o f i n d u c t i o n s ,
the
greater the possibility that the theory is true. For example, on the basis o f the role of prologues in literary antiquity, w e 'induce' that the Isaianic N E is of importance for Mark. With regard to another class o f p h e n o m e n a , for e x a m p l e , literary structure, w e find that the overall literary structure o f M a r k also c o i n c i d e s w i t h an I N E s c h e m a .
O r , with regard to thematic
concerns, for e x a m p l e J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , w e find that M a r k in the crucial Beelzebul controversy records an allusion to Isaiah 49:24f w h i c h describes the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r ' s N E deliverance o f b o u n d Israel. of
these three chains of reasoning
from
T h e conjunction
t h r e e different
classes of
p h e n o m e n a c o n s t i t u t e s a c o n s i l i e n c e o f i n d u c t i o n s , and t h u s t e n d s to corroborate the theory. 1 suggest that in M a r k w e h a v e numerous classes o f p h e n o m e n a , A ) the function o f o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e s in literary antiquity, B ) the content o f the prologue, C ) M a r k ' s overall structural outline, D ) the relationship b e t w e e n certain sub-units of M a r k a n structure (e.g. 3:20ff, 4:lff and 4:35ff), E ) various allusions to O T motifs (e.g. l:9ff; 3:27; 10:45), F ) specific citations o f the O T (e.g. Isa 6:9f; 29:13; 56:7), and G ) various M a r k a n themes (these could count 2
3
S e e t h e o u t s t a n d i n g s u m m a t i o n o f h i s t h o u g h t in S c o t t ,
Everyman.
I a m indebted to m y f o r m e r fellow-student, n o w Dr. Steven M y e r , for d r a w i n g m y attention to this material. W h e w e l l , Philosophy, 4 6 9 . O n c o n s i l i e n c e in m o d e m p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e : T h a g a r d , ' C r i t e r i a ' ; L a u d a n , ' C o n s i l i e n c e ' ; H e s s e , ' C o n s i l i e n c e ' ; cf. G o u l d , ' H o m o l o g y ' , 6 5 . 4
376
Conclusions
as s e p a r a t e c l a s s e s o f p h e n o m e n a b u t w e will l u m p t h e m t o g e t h e r ) , for e x a m p l e , J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , his healing miracles, the stilling o f the storm, J e s u s as teacher, J e s u s as ' M e s s i a h ' , J e s u s ' 'suffering' b e i n g described in l a n g u a g e b e s t e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s o f t h e I s a i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' , a n d
the
i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f the ' b l i n d ' disciples b o t h prior to and within M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section.
A l l t h e s e different c l a s s e s o f p h e n o m e n a
e l u c i d a t e d in t e r m s in the I N E .
seem best
M o r e o v e r , the appeal to i m a g e r y from
M a l a c h i a l s o fits in that this b o o k itself likewise appears to a d d r e s s the delay of the I N E .
5
Again, the h a r m o n y o f this induction, from yet another
class o f data, w i t h the p r i m a r y theory further s t r e n g t h e n s the proposal. T h e h y p o t h e s i s o f an I N E framework (including the M a l a c h i subset), w e suggest, l e a d s to a greater d e g r e e o f c o n s i l i e n c e than a n y other literary t h e o r y yet p r o p o s e d for M a r k in that it e x p l a i n s a n d integrates a large n u m b e r o f previously separate classes o f recognised p h e n o m e n a . S e c o n d , W h e w e l l ' s s y s t e m also i m p l i e d a n o t h e r c o n t r o l l i n g criterion, that of 'simplicity'. T h e m o r e consilient a theory, the m o r e it explains and systematises.
6
Inherent in this idea is the restriction o f the n u m b e r of
auxiliary h y p o t h e s e s w h i c h are required to enable a given theory to fit the data. That is, a characteristic o f a theory's accuracy is that it leaves less that n e e d s to b e e x p l a i n e d b y o t h e r m e a n s .
F o r e x a m p l e , g i v e n the u s u a l
e x p e c t a t i o n o f the I N E — t h e M e s s i a h w o u l d b e w e l c o m e d — M a r k m u s t offer his o w n auxiliary hypothesis to explain J e s u s ' rejection (e.g. Isa 6 in Mk 4).
In o u r c a s e s u c h h y p o t h e s e s w o u l d i n c l u d e , for e x a m p l e , the
e x p l a n a t i o n s required for the feeding n a r r a t i v e s ' u n e x p e c t e d position, or those few m i r a c l e s that occur outside the first section. T h e s e h y p o t h e s e s are not
in t h e m s e l v e s n e g a t i v e , b u t
the fewer
required
the
more
c o m p r e h e n s i v e the m a i n theory is s h o w n to b e . A n I N E m o d e l , b e c a u s e it requires few auxiliary hypotheses, meets the criterion o f simplicity. Third, the final guideline advanced for theory selection is the principle of a n a l o g y .
7
This principle holds that if two p h e n o m e n a exhibit a range of
similar properties then comparable causes should h a v e c o m p a r a b l e effects. F o r e x a m p l e , D a r w i n a r g u e d that s i n c e artificial s e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s in c h a n g e s in a n i m a l m o r p h o l o g y so then m i g h t natural selection.
5
6
7
S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 6 7 - 7 4 , a b o v e . See further especially T h a g a r d , 'Criteria'. T h a g a r d , ibid.
In o u r
Argument
from
Social
377
Science
c a s e , and as m a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d , if Israel u n d e r s t o o d
her
founding m o m e n t in terms o f an Exodus, so then might N e w Israel appeal to a N e w Exodus; as Israel's early documents reflect an Exodus ideology, so then might those o f N e w Israel assume a N e w E x o d u s perspective. C o n s e q u e n t l y , although these criteria b y the nature o f the case do n o t constitute ' p r o o f , nevertheless, high consilience, simplicity, a n d a n a l o g y together c o m p r i s e an argument o f considerable force that M a r k did indeed have in mind an Isaianic N E framework. c) The Argument
from
Social
Science
But even so, w h a t evidence is there that suggests not merely the possibility but the plausibility o f the existence o f such a conceptual framework?
The
criterion o f analogy raises again the previously discussed matter o f the role ideology.
It is w o r t h w h i l e t h e n briefly to r e v i e w t h e m a t e r i a l
from
C h a p t e r 2 , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e it c o n c e r n s that w h i c h is i m p l i c i t a n d assumed. T h e nature o f ideology is c o m p l e x b u t its essential function is to justify and explain a c o m m u n i t y ' s existence vis-a-vis other c o m m u n i t i e s .
8
Ideology provides the interpretive framework through which a given c o m m u n i t y b o t h u n d e r s t a n d s and shapes its internal relations, its history and its environment; that is, ideology provides a total w o r l d v i e w .
9
It is
not a proposition thought through, but an assumption thought from. A s w e s a w , recent studies h a v e highlighted the role o f a c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t in shaping its ideology, which in turn seeks to keep the founding m o m e n t alive. history
is r e t o l d
and
T h r o u g h ritual r e - e n a c t m e n t s a c o m m u n i t y ' s the
values
and
energies enshrined
in
that
c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t are inculcated, thereby re-constituting the c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h o u t s u c c e e d i n g generations.
Israel's E x o d u s and its
r e m e m b r a n c e in the Passover haggadah are exemplary. T h e great event is retold, v a l u e s e x p l a i n e d , and t h e n a t i o n ' s special identity r e i n f o r c e d . H o w e v e r , to facilitate this inculcation the re-enactment must b e simplified and s c h e m a t i s e d .
A t o o - c o m p l e x accounting, w h i l e satisfying scholars,
8
T h e ' v i s - a - v i s ' is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e it e x p r e s s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l e g i t i m a t i n g a n a s y m m e t r i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o w e r , e.g. I s r a e l ' s E x o d u s i d e o l o g y justifies t h e i r h e g e m o n y over Canaanite land. Pace Geertz's cultural systematic, 'Ideology', a n d Seliger's e c u m e n i c a l a p p r o a c h . Ideology, w h i c h a r e t o o o m n i p r e s e n t , t h e r e b y r o b b i n g t h e c o n c e p t o f its c r i t i c a l e d g e . 9
A g a i n , t h i s is s i m p l i s t i c — r e a l i s t i c a l l y t h e r e is a c t u a l l y a h i e r a r c h y o f c o m p e t i n g a n d o v e r l a p p i n g i d e o l o g i e s — b u t m u s t suffice d u e t o s p a c e l i m i t a t i o n s .
378
Conclusions
w o u l d b e i n a c c e s s i b l e to t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y a n d t o o c u m b e r s o m e to function.
Its m e d i u m
is t h e s y m b o l a n d
l i n g u i s t i c — c o m p a c t a n d full o f m e a n i n g .
icon—whether visual
or
S i n c e it is r e i n f o r c e d from
youth, very little is required to invoke i d e o l o g y ' s interpretive framework. B y the s a m e token, ' u n t r a i n e d ' participants will often fail to m a k e the connections. G i v e n that the r e m e m b r a n c e of the past p r o v i d e s the c a t e g o r i e s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the present and projecting the future, F o u l k e s and D o d d w e r e right in recognising that Israel understood its history in terms o f the consistent a n d repeated acts of G o d . A s noted earlier, this is especially true of the E x o d u s w h o s e influence on several p r o p h e t i c m o v e m e n t s in the N e w T e s t a m e n t era (e.g. T h e u d a s , the u n n a m e d prophet, and the w e a v e r J o n a t h a n ) a n d the r a b b i s is w e l l attested.
Numerous studies likewise
confirm the influence o f E x o d u s traditions o n the N T . This provided s o m e justification for the theories discussed in Chapter 1 w h i c h posited the E x o d u s as M a r k ' s guiding principle. T h e inadequacy of these studies w a s their failure to recognise that d u r i n g the exilic period the p r o p h e t s n o t only d r e w on the E x o d u s e x p e r i e n c e as a m o d e l for future deliverance (as social theory w o u l d lead us to expect), but transformed the earlier f o u n d i n g - m o m e n t i d e o l o g y into the future h o p e o f a n e w a n d greater Exodus. W h a t a r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s for o u r t h e s i s , g i v e n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s offered above? First, social theory suggests that the existence of integrating conceptual
frameworks
are
integral
to
the
maintenance
of
any
c o m m u n i t y . S e c o n d , it almost axiomatic that M a r k should w i s h to present his account o f G o d ' s great act o f salvation in terms o f an Isaianic N E , not least s i n c e Isaiah is p e r h a p s the greatest p r o p h e t o f I s r a e l ' s restoration. M a r k ' s basic three-fold outline also displays the s i m p l e clarity inherent in ideological formulations. His unaffected 'allusive' and symbolic references to the i c o n s of I s r a e l ' s m e m o r y (e.g. Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , s t o r m - s t i l l i n g , f e e d i n g s ) a r e a l s o p e r f e c t l y at h o m e w i t h o n e i m m e r s e d in I s r a e l ' s ideologically-shaped
recounting
of her
history.
That we
do
not
i m m e d i a t e l y recognise them is m o r e likely due to o u r b e i n g outsiders than M a r k a n ineptitude o r lack o f intention.
Social theory also explains h o w
M a r k ' s o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e could i n v o k e an I N E framework—the first line of L i n c o l n ' s G e t t y s b u r g a d d r e s s
f u n c t i o n s in m u c h t h e s a m e
way.
Mark's
Audience
and OT
379
Awareness
O n c e established as his fundamental hermeneutic, m o r e detailed parallels could be a d d e d as M a r k reflected on the significance o f J e s u s ' life in the light o f I N E expectations—a plausible epistemological d e v e l o p m e n t from a relatively s i m p l e idea to M a r k ' s c o m p l e x presentation can thereby b e postulated. Related to this is o n e final and important consideration.
When a
c o m m u n i t y divides o v e r an issue, a struggle m a y quickly d e v e l o p o v e r w h o are the true heirs to the m o r e s and ideals of the founding m o m e n t . W e m e n t i o n e d in this regard, for e x a m p l e , J e r o b o a m w h o set up golden calves declaring, ' T h e s e are the gods w h o brought y o u out o f Egypt', and Lincoln w h o appealed to the Founding Fathers. If a major issue in the N T is that o f self-definition in the light o f division o v e r w h i c h g r o u p c a n legitimately c l a i m to constitute faithful Israel, it is n o t surprising M a r k s h o u l d s e e k to s h o w t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f h i s s t or y w i t h prophetically transformed founding m o m e n t to m a k e his case.
that
Israel's T h e r e is
n o w even further consilience: inductions from the literary data and the expectation o f social theory also coincide. d) Mark's
Audience
and OT
Awareness
H a v i n g said all this, a c o m m o n question arises: what evidence do w e have that M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e
1 0
w o u l d h a v e u n d e r s t o o d t h e intention o f these
citations and allusions, particularly given the absence o f explicit p r o m i s e and fulfilment motifs s u c h as those found in M a t t h e w and, to a lesser extent, L u k e ?
C a n w e reasonably expect such a war enes s on the part o f
M a r k ' s readership? Again, as argued earlier, M a r k ' s frequent if not ubiquitous use o f O T texts and motifs, often at crucial points in his narrative, is prima
facie
evidence o f an intentionality w h i c h strongly suggests that h e a s s u m e d at least s o m e o f his audience were reasonably familiar with parts o f the O T .
1 1
O n e notes here the vastly different approach of the L u c a n Paul in Acts 17 c o m p a r e d to, for e x a m p l e , the S y n a g o g u e S e r m o n in A c t s 13 w i t h its thorough-going use o f O T themes.
That M a r k ' s G o s p e l appears m o r e in
k e e p i n g w i t h t h e latter s u g g e s t s that it too p r e s u p p o s e s a n
audience
containing s o m e J e w s or at the very least Gentile 'god-fearers' and that h e 1 0
O n the question of w h e t h e r the Evangelists write to particular communities, see n o w the unpublished paper b y Bauckham, 'Whom'. See C h a p t e r 4 , p. 9 4 , above. 1 1
380
Conclusions
could reasonably expect on the basis of their previous experience s o m e familiarity with the O T and its t h e m e s .
synagogue
12
It is hardly less probable that M a r k also intended fellow Christians to benefit from his w o r k .
Since the O T w a s no doubt from the very begin
n i n g the foundation o f b o t h their c a t e c h i s m and apologetic, it is surely r e a s o n a b l e to e x p e c t m o r e than a p a s s i n g a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h those O T materials w i t h w h i c h M a r k d e a l s .
13
Again, it s e e m s highly unlikely that
M a r k ' s G o s p e l appeared 'out of the b l u e ' like s o m e theological supernova. I n s t e a d , it m o r e likely represents a c o m p e n d i u m o f the t e a c h i n g with w h i c h his c o m m u n i t y w a s already au fait.
In other words, perhaps there
w a s not a great deal in M a r k ' s b o o k that w a s particularly n e w at all and that at least part o f his intended audience were just as likely to b e reading his gospel m a k i n g sure h e h a d it right as gaping in w o n d e r at his n e w insights.
In this respect w e recall C h r i s t o p h e r S t a n l e y ' s findings w h i c h
given the o b v i o u s w a y in w h i c h M a r k uses and adapts his texts suggests that he assumes s o m e degree of acquaintance with the O T source material.
14
Ultimately, h o w e v e r , the only hard data w e h a v e is the evidence o f the d o c u m e n t itself. O n the basis o f the arguments p r o p o u n d e d here—if they are j u d g e d successful—of c o n s i l i e n c e (i.e. overall c o h e r e n c e , simplicity, analogy) and the role o f ideology in shaping group consciousness, it w o u l d appear that M a r k ' s Gospel has been structured along the lines proposed. If so, I w o u l d urge that the m o s t natural conclusion is that M a r k produced his w o r k in this w a y on the assumption that he w o u l d b e understood. It is appropriate to ask, w h y then did not this understanding survive to the present? suffice.
A b r i e f r e s p o n s e , m o r e i n d i c a t i v e than c o m p l e t e , m u s t
O n the o n e h a n d , in s o m e respects it did survive: m a n y h a v e
noted the general Isaianic b a c k g r o u n d to J e s u s ' life and ministry. O n the other, clearly the overall structure and m a n y o f the details outlined here h a v e not b e e n carried over into the teaching tradition o f the church. This should not, h o w e v e r , b e regarded as surprising.
E v e n a cursory e x a m i
nation o f the history o f the interpretation o f J e s u s ' parables reveals h o w , with
1 2
1 3
1 4
t h e c h a n g i n g c e n t r e o f g r a v i t y o f t h e e a r l y c h u r c h from
O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f M a r k ' s r e a d e r s h i p , s e e e.g. M a r t i n , 61ff; H e n g e l , ' O r i g i n ' . Cf. D o d d , According; Lindars, Apologetic. See C h a p t e r 2, p p . 51f.
its
Response
to Earlier
381
Scholarship
J e w i s h roots to a G e n t i l e constituency, their interpretation reflected t h e literary
and
hermeneutical
context
of
the
prevailing
culture.
Consequently, the original force o f the parables dissipates relatively quickly within the h o r i z o n o f the Graeco-Roman w o r l d .
B y the s a m e token it is
not difficult to see h o w , as the c h u r c h b e c a m e increasingly G e n t i l e a n d found itself interacting m o r e and m o r e w i t h others from that milieu, t h e riches o f its J e w i s h roots w h i c h lay at the heart o f h e r Gospels should also c o m e gradually to b e misunderstood or neglected.
III. Conclusions a) In Response
to the Survey
of Recent
Scholarship
1. M a r k has not a b a n d o n e d Heilsgeschichte, 'indispensable presupposition'.
but o n the contrary it is his
G i v e n the contemporary interpretations o f
the O T materials he appeals to, and as h e offers n o clear indication o f h i s rejection o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l orientation o f those interpretations, it is affirmed that M a r k p r e s e n t s J e s u s in t e r m s o f the fulfilment o f I s r a e l ' s hopes for a N E , especially as described in the b o o k o f Isaiah. H i s Gospel is therefore to b e s e e n in continuity with G o d ' s historic d e a l i n g s w i t h h i s people, but n o w also including Gentiles qua Gentiles (cf. e.g. M k 7:19). 2. K e e ' s observations o n the M a r k a n tendency to conflate O T references and to place t h e m at critical points in his a r g u m e n t are to b e confirmed. A s p e c t s o f this t e n d e n c y are p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t in M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation and in his accounts o f J e s u s ' use o f the O T , and as such reflects the literary conventions o f his day (cf. Stanley). 3. If this thesis is d e e m e d convincing, the w e a k n e s s o f earlier attempts to relate Israel's founding m o m e n t to that o f reconstituted Israel resides not in the deficiency o f their basic intuition, which w a s correct in essence, but rather in their failure to a p p r e h e n d the significance o f the prophetic transformation o f the past E x o d u s into the future h o p e o f the N E . 4. In the cases w e e x a m i n e d M a r k does appear to b e a w a r e o f the O T context, although w h a t w e m e a n b y 'context' m a y need modification (see 5 below).
In fact, in several p l a c e s s o m e familiarity w i t h the O T context
seems essential to understanding correctly M a r k ' s point (e.g. Isa 6 in M k 4 ) .
382
Conclusions
5. D o d d ' s conception of citations as pointers to 'text plots' m a y benefit from a m o r e n u a n c e d articulation.
A l t h o u g h p e r h a p s s o m e w h a t subtle,
the p e r s p e c t i v e o f social theory suggests that it is not o n l y the 'literary setting' per se which is in view—although it is clearly important—but also the u n d e r l y i n g ideological and, therefore, schematised representation of Israel's on-going 'story' which those texts not only record but also presume and with w h i c h they interact. motifs.
T h e s a m e applies to the N T ' s use o f O T
T h a t is, the citations or motifs themselves, b y m e a n s o f the 'text
plots' to w h i c h they point, function as s y m b o l s or icons and so provide a shorthand
method
o f referring
to w h o l e fields o f m e a n i n g
which
t h e m s e l v e s are l o c a t e d within the o n - g o i n g s c h e m a o f I s r a e l ' s ' s t o r y ' . Equally important, this 'story' seems best understood from the perspective of the larger on-going dynamic o f Israel's relationship with her G o d : A ) as Y a h w e h had acted to save his people in the past, so he does n o w , but B ) as his people in the light of their o w n w i s d o m had in the past frequently questioned Y a h w e h ' s methods a n d / o r agents o f salvation, so also now. b) In Relation
to the Thesis
Proper
1. T o t h e e x t e n t that e a c h i n d i v i d u a l o b s e r v a t i o n listed a b o v e is accepted, either fully or in part, it offers its o w n s t a t e m e n t o f findings concerning M a r k ' s presentation. These will not b e reiterated here. 2. T h e g r e a t e r t h e n u m b e r o f o b s e r v a t i o n s a c c e p t e d , the m o r e the criteria o f theory selection and the logic of social theory's understanding of the ideology will suggest that M a r k is operating with a consistent Isaianic N E framework. If so, the argument from social theory also suggests that it is M a r k ' s i d e o l o g i c a l l y - s h a p e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f I s r a e l ' s future
hopes
w h i c h p r o v i d e s the major structural c l u e to the s h a p e o f his g o s p e l . M a r k ' s selection, editorial arrangement, a n d / o r composition of pericopae, derives primarily
from
the i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n
an I N E
fulfilment
framework and his understanding of J e s u s ' teaching and deeds, rejection b y the J e w i s h leadership, death, and resurrection. 3. It is often u r g e d that the p u r p o s e o f M a r k is to b e found in his t h e o l o g y rather than any historical c o n c e r n .
A l t h o u g h s u c h a radical
discontinuity implied is hardly sustainable t o d a y , wishes to s h o w in the broadest terms that:
1 5
C f . W r i g h t , People,
31-144.
15
w e propose that M a r k
In Relation
to the Thesis
383
Proper
a) J e s u s ' ministry w a s the inauguration o f the fulfilment of Isaiah's long-awaited N E developed in accordance with the observations a b o v e . b) J e s u s ' rejection, particularly by the Jewish leadership, is explained b y their ' b l i n d ' reliance on their o w n w i s d o m .
T h i s is not unforeseen
since they h a d already rejected John, M a l a c h i ' s Elijah, and in any c a s e such ' b l i n d n e s s ' h a s characteristically p l a g u e d the n a t i o n ' s leaders in the past.
B u t J e s u s h a d also b e e n misunderstood b y Israel in general.
This, too, is not as i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e as might initially b e s u p p o s e d , since even J e s u s ' closest followers were blinded
by
their
own
expectations to the full significance of his ministry. In a w o r d , M a r k is 1 Corinthians 1:18-25 writ large. 4 . H o w e v e r , p o s i t i n g the I N E h e r m e n e u t i c as the major c o n c e r n o f M a r k does not require that it w a s M a r k ' s only interest.
W e can h a p p i l y
accept that M a r k w a s influenced b y additional concerns. For instance, h e could equally use J e s u s ' teaching on the ' W a y ' to address the question o f suffering discipleship, and choose his selection o f J e s u s ' teaching, and e v e n m a k e use o f the d i s c i p l e s ' o b d u r a c y , for m o r e pastoral p u r p o s e s .
Such
aims can b e integrated within a larger I N E rubric w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g the overall thesis. 5. At the turn of the century, A . E . Garvie wrote: T h e Christian religion w a s s p o k e n of simply as the w a y , either b e c a u s e Christ c l a i m e d t o b e t h e W a y , o r b e c a u s e h e h a d s p o k e n o f t h e n a r r o w w a y u n t o life, o r l a s t l y b e c a u s e i n h i m w a s fulfilled t h e p r o p h e t i c s a y i n g s r e g a r d i n g t h e w a y ( I s a 3
1
4 0 ; Mai 3 ) .
1 6
S. V . M c C a s l a n d , affirming this suggestion, w e n t on to argue that 'the W a y ... as a designation of Christianity w a s derived from Isa 4 0 3 and that it is an abbreviated form o f "the w a y o f the L o r d ' " .
1 7
This b o o k w o u l d confirm
t h e s e v i e w s w i t h the a d d e d c o m m e n t that the ' W a y ' m a y w e l l b e a shorthand reference to the I N E w a y of Y a h w e h ' s eschatological salvation for his people (accomplished through a crucified M e s s i a h ) and that it also shares the ' w i s d o m ' connotations o f this language. 6. Finally, in regard to Christology. T h e primary d a t u m for M a r k s e e m s to b e that J e s u s is to b e u n d e r s t o o d as S / s o n o f G o d .
W h i l e not at all
d o w n - p l a y i n g M a r k ' s interest in J e s u s ' u n i q u e filial relationship to the
16 " ' W a y ' " , 2 3 0 . 1 7
Ibid.
384
Conclusions
Father, this language must first b e seen in terms o f Jesus being 'true Israel', w h o after all w a s intended to b e Y a h w e h ' s ' s o n ' (Ex 4:22) a n d in w h i c h category Israel's messianic kingship w a s likewise understood (Ps 2 ) . At the s a m e time, Israel w a s intended to b e Y a h w e h ' s faithful 'servant'. But since she had failed, a n e w 'servant' w a s to b e installed (Isa 4 2 , 4 9 ; cf. Tg. Isa), revealed n o w in J e s u s .
A n d given the ' s e r v a n t ' s ' role, J e s u s is not only
'true' Israel b u t also 'blind and d e a f Israel's messianic deliverer (Tg. Isa 4 2 ; Ps 2 ) . T h i s m u c h s e e m s established at the outset in M a r k ' s story ( M k 1:915).
A s s u c h J e s u s is also the 'genuinely h u m a n o n e ' , that is, ' o n e like a
Son of M a n ' , w h o truly bears the image o f G o d and w h o presides over the people o f G o d ' s vindication in their new-creational N e w E x o d u s (cf. D n 7). T h i s S o M a l s o e x e r c i s e s authority s u c h as has heretofore b e e n the sole p r e r o g a t i v e o f Y a h w e h h i m s e l f (forgiving sins, M k 2:10; s u b d u i n g the chaotic sea, M k 4:39-41). For Mark, there is clearly m o r e to J e s u s ' particular sonship than m e r e metaphor: his is indeed Y a h w e h ' s ' u n i q u e ' Son. W e h a v e also argued that the M a r k a n J e s u s apparently understood his death in t e r m s o f the Isaianic 'servant' in that his descriptions o f his future sufferings are d r a w n largely from the so-called ' S e r v a n t S o n g s ' , primarily Isaiah 5 3 b u t also 5 0 . This naturally raises questions as to the significance of this language, not only for Mark, w h o m a y h a v e understood one thing, b u t also for J e s u s , w h o m a y h a v e intended another.
It is possible that the
terminology is used s i m p l y b e c a u s e it most clearly and fully expresses the suffering o f a righteous figure, and w a s , after all, near to h a n d given that m u c h o f t h e M a r k a n J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y w a s s h a p e d b y reflection on the Isaianic expectation. H o w e v e r , such an interpretation d o e s not, w e h a v e argued, adequately take into account the strongly purposive nature of this suffering b o t h in Isaiah and in M a r k .
N o t only is the idea o f suffering
linked with N E deliverance solely, in the O T (cf. M k 9:12), in Isaiah, it is also a suffering that is clearly on b e h a l f o f others.
T h o s e w h o w i s h to
argue that o n l y the fact of the suffering is in view, need to s h o w w h y the M a r k a n J e s u s did not intend a direct link b e t w e e n the p u r p o s e w h i c h is clearly an i r r e d u c i b l e e l e m e n t o f his p e r c e p t i o n o f his d e a t h and
the
p u r p o s e implied in Isaianic texts from which, w e h a v e argued, h e almost certainly d r a w s his suffering language. I N E framework.
A n d this especially given M a r k ' s
It m a y b e argued that if this c o n n e c t i o n w a s intended
w h y w a s it not clearer?
B u t this e x p e c t a t i o n quite runs c o u n t e r to the
In Relation
to the Thesis
385
Proper
M a r k a n J e s u s w h o apparently delights in the oblique and the allusive and in 'dark s a y i n g s ' that w e r e anything but immediately obvious. Given the sheer evocative p o w e r inherent in the M a r k a n I N E pattern, the argument from lack of specificity is not only weak but is also out of character with the Markan Jesus. T h i s is n o t to s a y that M a r k ' s J e s u s s a w h i m s e l f as the 'Suffering Servant' o f m o d e r n invention, but on the other h a n d one should not rule o u t the p o s s i b i l i t y that in m e d i t a t i n g
o n the h o p e s o f t h e I N E h e
interpreted Y a h w e h ' s faithful 'servant' as integral to effecting the I N E — parts of Tg.
Isaiah
4 2 and 5 3 are linked w i t h the M e s s i a h and
these
traditions m a y well go b a c k to J e s u s ' day. Having so identified himself, it is not impossible that, p e r h a p s also under the influence o f a n e w exegesis of Daniel 7 (whereby the one like a son of m a n characterises Israel not only in her vindication but also in her suffering, cf. D n 3 and 6 ) , he thereby also b r o k e n e w g r o u n d in deriving primarily from Isaiah 5 3 the necessity o f o w n his suffering and death for the m a n y — w h i c h after all is the natural implication of his d r a w i n g his language primarily from this text. And this irrespective o f c o n t e m p o r a r y interpretations—Mark's J e s u s is hardly o n e w h o g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f b e i n g b e h o l d e n to t r a d i t i o n a l e x e g e s i s whether o f Daniel or Isaiah. W h a t the early c h u r c h (or e v e n M a r k ) did with this, and w h e t h e r or not they fully appreciated its implications, is a separate issue and cannot b e entered into here in any detail.
H o w e v e r , w e m a y at least c a n v a s the
question: if J e s u s did c o n c e i v e o f his death in this w a y , w h y w a s it not taken up earlier and m o r e clearly in the p r i m i t i v e c h u r c h ?
First, the
M a r k a n J e s u s ' sayings, and not only on this subject, are characteristically highly allusive and hardly immediately obvious.
A n y reservations as to
messianic suffering, and especially if no concept of an individual Isaianic 'servant' w a s current, would only have m a d e the easy interpretation of the passion predictions, et al, along such lines intrinsically unlikely.
Second,
the disciples in M a r k are regularly portrayed as failing to c o m p r e h e n d the m a n n e r in w h i c h J e s u s transforms O T h o p e s e v e n as h e fulfils t h e m . Irrespective o f the question of any polemical intent, this m a y b e evidence of a genuine bewilderment, not only a m o n g the disciples but the people at large ( M k 8:27-28).
It is not unrealistic to allow s o m e time for a fuller
386
Conclusions
appreciation o f these allusions to d e v e l o p .
18
Third, there is little evidence
to suggest that the c o n c e p t o f the ' s e r v a n t ' o f Isaiah as an
independent
eschatological or redemptive figure existed in Judaism—although as noted earlier parts o f these ' s o n g s ' appear to h a v e been interpreted messianically. E v e n if the disciples had m a d e the c o n n e c t i o n earlier, w h a t profit w a s there for p r i m i t i v e Christians to offer a " r e d e m p t i o n t h r o u g h ' s e r v a n t ' suffering" apologetic based on texts that w e r e not popularly so understood, let alone as requiring fulfilment? (It is significant that it is Justin Martyr, a Gentile and w h o therefore m a y b e less sensitive to this situation, w h o first clearly seeks to use Isaiah 53 in an apologetic sense.) This of course does not deal with catechetical or paraenetic materials (if w e can m a k e such a distinction). But h o w m u c h catechesis do w e have, in terms o f the life o f Jesus, outside the Gospels? In regard to w h a t w e might describe as p a r a e n e t i c writings, M . D . H o o k e r h a s a r g u e d that the only references to Isaiah 5 3 in primitive materials are concerned with 19
Christi.
imitatio
H o w e v e r , this argument cuts both w a y s . If an author's purpose
is to encourage Christians to stand firm in the face o f suffering, it is hardly surprising that they should s p e a k only o f the e x e m p l a r y m o d e l o f J e s u s w i t h o u t feeling the necessity to e x p o u n d on the ' p r o p h e t i c ' necessity or significance o f J e s u s ' death.
B u t e v e n so 1 P e t e r s u g g e s t s b y its v e r y
casualness that such an idea m a y not h a v e b e e n far a w a y (cf. Barn.
5:lf;
5:13 - 6:2). This is significant. W h a t e v e r else w e might say it is crucial not to gloss o v e r the entirely unaffected m a n n e r in w h i c h 1 P e t e r 2:22ff so easily articulates the 'full identification o f Jesus with the Servant in all its Christological s i g n i f i c a n c e ' .
20
It might b e the 'earliest definite p r o o f ' ,
21
but
the fact that it appears almost as an afterthought strongly suggests that not o n l y w a s t h e n o t i o n not n o v e l , it c o u l d a p p a r e n t l y b e a s s u m e d to b e c o m m o n c u r r e n c y at least a m o n g the intended audience o f the E p i s t l e .
22
W h a t m i g h t b e m o r e fruitful, and w h a t o f course cannot b e carried out
1 8
H o o k e r , Servant, 154ff, p r o p o s e s a s i m i l a r d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e b a s i s o f later reflection o n Jesus' ministry, but d o e s n o t allow that Jesus himself o r the primitive c h u r c h h a d m a d e the connection. 1 9
2 0
Ibid., 130ff; c i t i n g e.g. 1 Clem 16:1-7; Pol. Phil. 8:1-2; e t c .
T o u s e t h e w o r d s o f H o o k e r , ibid., 1 2 7 . Ibid. If t h e r e is s o m e t r u t h t o t h e link b e t w e e n M a r k a n d P e t e r , t h e n t h e f a c t t h a t it is 1 P e t e r w h o h a s this C h r i s t o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g m a y s u g g e s t t h a t M a r k ' s u s e o f I s a 5 3 w a s i n d e e d u n d e r s t o o d in this w a y . 2 1
2 2
Implications
and Suggestions
for Further
387
Research
here, is an analysis o f those passages where O T texts are cited to explain the n e c e s s i t y and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f J e s u s ' death, not in early a p o l o g e t i c or kerygmatic contexts since p r e s u m a b l y the J e w i s h context and theological milieu of the primitive church w o u l d have meant that an appeal to Isaiah 53 m a y not h a v e been terribly meaningful, but instead in catechesis.
IV. Implications and Suggestions for Further Research In c o n c l u s i o n , w e offer
s o m e v e r y b r i e f c o m m e n t s on t h e
possible
implications o f this study for further research. 1. A n I N E r e a d i n g p r o v e n a n c e for M a r k .
may provide additional
s u p p o r t for a R o m a n
O n e o f the major issues of R o m a n s appears to b e
national I s r a e l ' s rejection o f the fulfilment o f G o d ' s p r o m i s e s in J e s u s ( R o m 9-11): just h o w trustworthy is this gospel if the very people w h o s e history and covenant it fulfils reject i t ?
23
At the m o m e n t w h e n Paul turns
to face the issue squarely he draws on E x o d u s / n e w Exodus imagery (9:14ff, 24ff; 1 0 : 1 5 , 1 6 , 2 0 , 21; 1 1 : 3 4 ) . polemics
24
O n e also notes echoes o f Isaianic anti-wisdom
(e.g. 9:20, 3 3 ; 11:34; cf. Isa 29:16; 45:9; 4 0 : 1 3 ) .
25
In other w o r d s ,
P a u l ' s gospel o f 'faith in J e s u s ' is indeed the fulfilment of Israel's h o p e s , and yet, apart from a remnant, Israel has rejected it, choosing her own path instead. M a r k m a y b e addressing the s a m e problem. H e too presents Jesus and his s u m m o n s to b e l i e v e in terms of Israel's N e w E x o d u s hopes.
At
the s a m e time, h e also asserts that the reason for J e s u s ' rejection was the 'blindness' o f the nation's leadership to G o d ' s purposes, arguing that this too is in ' a c c o r d a n c e with the Scriptures'.
That the J e w i s h people b y and
large join in that rejection is not to b e wondered, since even J e s u s ' closest disciples did not understand. These similarities suggest that M a r k ' s Gospel (and p e r h a p s his a c c o u n t o f P e t e r ' s p r e a c h i n g w h i l e in R o m e if the tradition h o l d s true) a l s o a d d r e s s e s a s i m i l a r c o n c e r n , a n d perhaps, has in view a similar constituency.
therefore
H o w e v e r , since this issue in
all likelihood c o n c e r n e d the c h u r c h at large and not merely R o m e , s o m e care should b e taken.
23 W r i g h t , Messiah, 2 2 0 ; D u n n , Romans, 2.518ff. H a y s , Echoes, 66f. E v a n s , ' P a u l ' ; M a i l l o t , 'Essai'; cf. C h a p t e r s 6 a n d 7. 2 4
2 5
388
Conclusions
2. A s w e h a v e primarily restricted ourselves to Isaianic texts, there is r o o m for further research to e x a m i n e this proposal b y investigating the consilience o f M a r k ' s use o f other O T motifs and texts with the I N E theory. For e x a m p l e , in earlier w o r k s the role o f Zechariah w a s considered to b e important;
i f s o , w h a t m i g h t a p p e a l s to Z e c h a r i a h c o n t r i b u t e to this
approach? O r the Psalms? 3. In t e r m s o f C h r i s t o l o g y , g i v e n , for e x a m p l e , M a r k ' s
apparent
application o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r motif to Jesus and his use o f Isaiah and M a l a c h i in his o p e n i n g sentence—both o f w h i c h s e e m to deal with the v e r y c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h himself—an interesting line o f e n d e a v o u r
might
b e to assess w h e t h e r or not a high Christology is already in place, perhaps even presupposed, at this early stage. 4. T h e focus o f this study has b e e n with M a r k as it presently stands. If an I N E hermeneutic h a s been convincingly argued, a further project could b e to seek to d i s c o v e r h o w m u c h o f this p e r s p e c t i v e g o e s b a c k to J e s u s himself.
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W e r n e r , E . , ' " H o s a n n a " in t h e G o s p e l s , ' JBL ( 1 9 4 6 ) 9 7 - 1 2 2 . W e r n e r , F . , ' " T h e o l o g i e " u n d " P h i l o l o g i e s " — Z u r F r a g e d e r U b e r s e z t u n g v o n M k 1 4 , 2 4 "fur d i e V i e l e n " o d e r "fur a l l e " ? , ' BibLiturg 5 4 ( 1 9 8 1 ) 2 2 8 - 3 0 . W e r n e r , M . , Der Einflufi paulinischer Theologie im Markusevanglium (Berlin, 1923). W e s t e r m a n n , C . , Isaiah 40-66, t r a n s . D. M . G. S t a l k e r ( L o n d o n : S C M , 1 9 6 9 ) . ' D a s H e i l s w o r t b e i D e u t e r o j e s a j a , ' EvTh 2 4 ( 1 9 6 4 ) 3 5 5 - 7 3 . ' S p r a c h e u n d S t r u k t u r d e r P r o p h e t i e D e u t e r o j e s a j a s ' in Forshung am A.T. T B u 2 4 (Munich: Kaiser, 1964) 92-170. W h e d b e e , J . W . , Isaiah and Wisdom ( N e w Y o r k a n d N a s h v i l l e : A b i n g d o n , 1 9 7 1 ) . W h e w e l l , W . , Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences founded upon their History vol. 2 2
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the Powers:
The Language
of Power
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984). Unmasking the Powers. The Invisible
Forces
in the New that
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Determine
T h e P o w e r s : vol. I
Human
Existence
The
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3
' D a s T h e m a " u m k e h r " in d e r a l t t e s t a m e n t l i c h e n P r o p h e t e n ' in Gesammelte Studien Zum Alten Testament T B u 2 2 ( M u n c h e n : K a i s e r , 1 9 6 4 ) 1 3 0 - 5 0 . W o o d s , E . J . , ' J e s u s a n d B e e l z e b u b : T h e M e a n i n g o f " F i n g e r o f G o d " w i t h i n L u k e 1 1 : 1 4 - 2 6 ' , D. Litt. e t P h i l , diss.: U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h A f r i c a , P r e t o r i a , 1 9 8 9 . W o o d , J . E . , ' I s a a c T y p o l o g y in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , ' NTS 1 4 ( 1 9 6 8 ) 5 8 3 - 8 9 .
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Discipleship
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81 (1970) 263-
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Index of Passages I. Old Testament Genesis 3:17 7:11 9:6
316n 103 357
9:25 10:2 10:12 10:21f
14:18
164n
12:5
15:16 22
72 370
22:2
108,109
22:12
108,109
22:16 22:17 24:7
108 109 66n
65a
24:27
65n
24:40 24:48
65n 65n
24:56 30:28-33 31:8 48:16 49:10-12
64 80
14:16ff 14:17
81 227n
14:19f 14:21
80 79n
14:25 14:26-15:21
141,160 159 141,160 86n 277n 84n 141
306n
15:10
141,160
10
15:13 15:16 15:17
80, 177 277 334
8n
15:18 15:21 15:22-25 15:26 16:1 16:3 16:6 16:7 16:10 16:12 17:2-7 18:21 19:lff 19:5 19:6 19:9 19:11 19:16ff 19:21
l:2f
6:6 6:6f 7:5 7:19 8: If 8:13 9:16 9:22
13:5 13:21f
14:28
Exodus
4:24
79n
14:30 14:31 15:1 15:3
49:13
4:22f
66
12:23
65n 77n, 140n 77n,140 66n 306
49:10ff
2:13 3:2 3:12 3:14 4:4ff 4:22
316n 246n 140n 140n
66 66n 81n,296,352 231 10 112,116n,117n, 371,384 108,112, 116n,117n 317
140a
277 246n 140n 140n 140n 140n 81n 140n
15:5
159n
81a
297 141,160 12 12
178 178 246n
81 178 246n 81,178 178 65 285n 126, 3 5 2 , 3 5 3 11 11 333 11
20:12 218 20:18-21 351 20:22-23:33 63 20:24ff 64 20:23 62 20:26 64 21:15 218 21:17 218 21:23 280 22:18 72n 22:19 64 22:21ff 64 22:22-24 72n 22:28 64 22:30 64 23:2 64 23:8 64 23:14 64 23:20 5, 20, 21, 25,61, 62,62a 63-67,70a 71, 72, 74, 86, 87,90, 126,134 23:20-33 64 23:21 175 23:22 285n 23:23 61,72n 23:23-33 126 23:24ff 72 24:1-9 127 24:1-18 65 24:3-8
24:4 24:6
24:6-8 24:7 24:7-8 24:8
24:9-11 24:12-15
24:15f 24:16 29:12
351,352,352n 352 352,358
359 352
359 12,351,351a 352, 358,374
79a 3 5 2 127
25 127,292 358
436
Exodus
Index
(cont.)
29:46 30:12 31:13 32:9 32:9-13 32:30
246n 280 246n 66,74 294 275,276
32:30ff 32:32
277 12
33:1-3
126
33:15 33:15ff
104n 299n
33:19-23 34:2ff 34:6 34:6f 34:29-35
231 141 231 173 127
of
27:16 27:16ff 27:17 30:2 Deu
Passages
11 178 25 24
teronomy
l:lff 1:6 1:8 l:13f 1:31
32:20 32:21 32:37 33:8-11 33:17 34:5-8
293 293 341 85n 320n 276,277n
127 24 126 69n 112,116n
2:3
24
4:1
126
Joshua 3:1
215
6:26
85n
10:6ff
141n
11:20
227n
4:7
358
4:24 5:1-21 5:16 5:28f 6:18 7:6 7:8
4:18
358
7:19
140n
3:14
151n
4:25
358
9:26
277
6:19
307n
4:30
358
9:29
140n
4:34
358
11:2
140n
5:6 5:15-19
359 359
11:9
74n
2
12:20
85n
5:17ff
141n
5:18
282
14:2
5:25 7:1 7:1 ff 8:15 8:23f 8:24b
282 282 359 358 352 352
14:8 16:20 18:15 18:18f 19:10 19:15 21:18-21
6:3 7:8-16 7:10f£ 7:10-14 12:1-10 12:1-14 12:7
307 llln llOn 85n 341 341n 345
Leviticus
11:7-8
158
14:25 19:13 20:9
285n 72n 202n, 218
25:10 26:16
147 69n
Numbers 2:2 9:15ff
98n 79n
ll:21f 11:26-29 12:1-15 12:7f 12:14 ( L X X ) 14:2 14:16 20:8 20:16 24:15-17 24:16
178 25 13 277n 363 151n 81n 81,178 65n 85n 164n
140n 72n 218 85n 126 285n 277
Judges
285n 158 126 25 85n 357 89n 2 0 2 a 218
5:5 6:11-14 11:12 16:25 1
105 66n 154 363
Samuel
16:10
75n
Samuel
14:1-20
341n
21:23 23:21-23 24:16 25:9 ( L X X )
239n 24 359 363
15:30 16:10 22:20
306n 154 116n
27:16 28:llf 28:18 28:22 28:28 29:2-4 29:19
218 69n 69n 170n 69n 227 249n
1 Kings l:7-4:42ff 1:33 1:34 1:38
32:lb-2 32:3 32:4a 32:4b 32:6 32:8 32:10-14 32:17 32:16f
341 341 341 341 293 293 341 157,341 293
1:39 4:42b 4:43b 4:44b 8:28ff 8:37f 13:4 17:8-16 17:16 17:17ff 17:18
305,306 305 305,306 305 178 178 178 324 170n 170n 178 161n 176n 154
Index
17:19 18:42
138n 138n
19:11
231
19:16 19:18 20:35-43
302 26 341n
21:1-19
344
21:19
344
2
Kings
1:3 1:6 1:8 1:9-12 2:8 2:13f. 4:1-7 4:18ff 4:42ff 7:9 8:4 9:12-13 9:25-26 13:20f 14:6 18:13 21:16 (LXX) 24:4 ( L X X )
146 146 59n 26 59n 59rt 178 25,176n 25,178,178n
320n 83
2:10 6:3 9:3
112 170 164n
13:3 ( L X X ) 16:7-11 18:16
356 253,253n 154,333
21:2 ( L X X ) 21:7 ( L X X )
261 260,261
25
43:4 44:3
116n 114n, 1 1 6 n
263
Job 5:16 7:12 7:32 9:8 14:12 26:12
169n 333 156 231 103n 333
Psalms 1:1 2:lf 2:4 2:7
85n 85n 112 85n, 108,109, 111,112,371
110:1
113:14a
47:4
164n
114 115:4-8 115:5f 117:22 118:22 118:22f 118:22 ( L X X )
6 7 (68):12
9:26
107:42
333
154
Esther
107:24-30
308n
359
67 178
178 316n
46:6ff ( L X X )
35:21
Chron
178
105:32 105:33
110:1 113:13b
46:2
164n 170 167n 167 158,167 167n 167
118:2-23
6 7 (68):13 67:24ff ( L X X )
167 308n
118:25f 118:25-26
68:lff 68:7f
307n 167
118:26 118:141 ( L X X ) 118:121 ( L X X ) 131:7f ( L X X )
69:1 69:3-24 69:14 72:8 76:6f 77:3 77:19f 77:20 77:21 78:12 78:17-32 78:19f 78:35 78:52f 78:54 79:10 ( L X X )
333 141n 333 320n 160 103 160 80,231 177 215 178 151n, 1 7 9 164n 80,177 334 356
80:9-19 88:39 ( L X X )
341 262n
154,160 302
106:38
114n
103n 174
105:31
167n
43:2
160 157 167,167n
105:15
3 9 (40):9
25
26 356 356
104:7
105:35 105:40 106:7 106:9 106:19-23 106:25 106:37
170
176n 55,359
102:26 103:3
261 262 320n 179n 308n 307 333
41:5
306 344
89:9-15 95:5 9 5 (96):2
21:19 ( L X X ) 22:7 22:28f 23:2 23:7-10 ( L X X ) 24:8 32:6
25:4
Nehemiah 9:9-25 9:15
437
Passages
2:8 2:9
57:3 60:4 67:7 6 7 (68):2 6 7 (68):7 67(68):11
2
of
134:16b 134:17a 135:15-8 137:7 146:8 146:11 147:3 148:8 149:4 Proverbs 1:6 ( L X X ) 1:16 3:13-8 4:22 6:17 ( L X X )
178 178 151n 154,161 67 151n 157 357 160 169n 85n 116n 191 191 161 191 292 261,265 85n 17,304 262 344 304,346 21 306 262 266 308n 191 191 191 357n 170 114n 170 357n 114n,H6n
356 357 178,246n 178n, 2 4 6 n 356
438
Proverbs 8:35 9:2 9:5 9:6ff
Index
(cont.) 178n, 2 4 6 n 178a 2 4 6 n 178a 2 4 7 n 178a 2 4 6 n
Ecclesiastes 4:10 Song of
l!7n Solomon
2:9
146 146 146
3:5 6:1 Isaiah
1:1-31 188-9 1:2 214,241,341 1:2b 241 1:3 189a 1 9 2 , 1 9 3 , 2 4 1 1:4 241 1:4b
241
1:5 l:5f
241,321 285n
l:5ff 1:6 1:7-9 1:10
172n 171 141 190,192,192n
1:10-15 1:11-15 l:12f
215 241 247
l:15ff
241
l:19f 1:23 1:23-6 1:24 l:24f 1:28 l:29f 2:1 ff 2:1-4
189n 189n 190 195n 141 241,341 241 297 189, 321
2:1-5 2:2 2:2ff 2:2-3 2:2-4 2:2-6 2:3 2:4 2:5 2:6 2:6-8 2:6-6:1 2:7f 2:7ff
188a
299 247, 334, 3 4 6 299 319 355 247 192n 189n 192n 241 189 190n 241 189n
of
2:8 2:8-11 2:9b 2:12 2:14-16 2:18 2:18-20 2:20 2:22 2:24 3:1 3:3b 3:8f 3:9 3:9bff 3:11-15 3:1 Iff 3:1 Iff (LXX) 3:12ff 3:16ff 3:26 4:2-6 4:3
4:5f 4:12f 5:lf 5:1 ff 5:1-7
Passages
241 59 198 141 247 241 189 192,241 193 189n
141,297 189,241 189a 241 241 247 341 342 342 190 189a 241 297 189,321 242n
79a 299 249 345 199,296,313,318 190,340,340a 341n
5:1 b-2 340 5:3 345 5:3-4 340 5:5-6 340 5:7 340,345 5:7-12 241 5:7b-ll 247 5:12 241 5:13a 193,241 5:18f 189a 241 5:18-24 190 5:19 192,193 5:20f 191n 5:21 241 5:24b 192,192a 241 5:25b 141 5:25-30 190 5:26-28 341 6:1 ff 340 6:1-5 191 6:3 81a 242 6:6-9 173n 6:9 21, 224, 248 6:9f 183, 184-210, 191a 193a 209a 227,
2 4 4 n , 245, 375
6:9ff 6:9-10 6:10
193 208, 212, 224 170,171,195a 215, 215a 227,253n
6:11-13 6:12-13 6:13 7:1 7:1 ff 7:3 7:9 7:9-13 7:11 7:12-20 7:14 7:17 7:17ff 8:3 8:5-8 8:6 8:11 8:14 8:15 8:18 8:19 8:22ff 8:22-26 8:23 9:lff 9:7ff 9:7-12 9:9bf 9:11b 9:15 9:16b
9:17f 9:20 10:1-4
10:5ff 10:6 10:10f
297,332 189 191a i97a 2 4 2 n 196 193,297 194 189a 241 193 194 193 194,297 297 194 194 141n
189a 241 242 85n
247 194 241 173n 173 134n
298 241 192n 247 141 240 141 247 141 190
189a 193 240 241
10:12-19 10:20
193 241n
10:23 10:46-52 ll:2ff 11:4 11:10
141 173 243
11:6-9
156 143 118
ll:llf
79n
ll:16n
79n 79n lOOn
11:57 12:lff
Index
of
439
Passages
28:18-22 28:22
214 192
12:3 12:21
79n 299
13:lff
141 85n 164n
29:1-4
214,215
29:1-8 29:5-8
214 214n
193 193
29:9 29:9-14 29:9-16
214,215n 214,218 242
29:9-21 29:10
193,214 214,215,215n
13:10 14:14 14:24 14:24ff 14:26f
193
14:28
134n
15:25-33 16:7
172n 134n
17:7f
192
17:8 17:10 17:13
189a 241
29:12 29:13
241 154
29:13ff 29:14
19:3-11
193
29:15f
19:8ff
189n
29:15ff
19:12
193
29:16
19:17
193
29:16ff
19:23f
355
29:18
79n
29:18f
19:23ff 22:11
22:12ff
189a 241 192n
22:14 22:15 22:15-25 23:9
151n 189n 192n 193 103 147 79n
24:18 24:22f 24:23
28:12 28:13-22 28:14ff 28:14-18 28:15 28:16
214 312n
214 241 192,193,
214,242 189a 2 4 1 215 189n 193n 193,214 85n
171,172a
30:1 30:lff
189a 214, 241 193
30:1-5
193, 214, 2 1 5 214
30:6f
141a 241 189a 192a 215
242n 173,242,253n
215
79n 178
334 79n 192 241 79n
193 176
242n 242 375 215
25:4f 25:6-9
27:6 27:8 27:9 27:9b 27:12 28:1 2 8 : 1 ff 28:2f 28:3-4 28:7 28:9 28:9-14
192a
29:23 29:24 29:24f 29:29
30:6
172n 79n
189,241
173,192
193
85a
241 214, 214, 215
29:19
25:1
26:19 27:1
215 1 8 3 , 1 9 9 , 210-218, 224, 248, 3 7 3 , 3 7 5
30:7 30:9
193 79n
192,192a 214,241
30:9-11 30:9-13 30:10 30:11 30:12-15 30:12-17 30:13 30:15 30:21 30:21 f 30:22 30:26
30:29 31:lff 31:1-3
214 241 253n 242 215 193,214 241 189a 2 4 1 242,253 242 172a 1 9 2 , 2 4 1 171,321
84
31:7
32:1
171,189a 1 9 2
215, 242, 253 171,172a 173 242 242 241 242
32:15
32:43 33:5 33:6 33:14 33:22 33:23 33:23f 33:24 34:4 34:14 35:lf 35:2 35:3ff 35:4 35:5
357n
280 253 243 241 174 174 174 174,187 85n
118 179 309 141 80,235a 299,309 85a 171a 172a 173a 192,309
35:5f 173,175 35:6 85a 172a 173,174 35:6f 178,179 35:7 178 35:8 171,242,309, 3 2 3 n 35:9 277 35:10 83, 298,309 37:22 262 37:32 320 37:36 79n 40:1 76,83,300 40:1 f
40:1 ff
189a
193 193,214 193n 189n 192,241
31:2 31:6
32:3 32:3f 32:4-8 32:6 32:7 32:8-10
40:1-2
83,209n
78,81,203, 207, 297 78,78a 83a
275n
40:1-3 83,173 40:1-5 83 40:1-8 78 40:1-11 76a 78,87,83, 76a 142a 143,177, 297,297n 40:2 77,83, 168, 173,174 40:2-3 83n 40:2-4 83 40:3 5,17, 2 1 , 22, 54a 55, 5 7 , 6 1 , 6 1 a 62, 73, 76-78, 80, 81 n, 82-84, 82a 84,85,87,88,89, 90, 95,139, 179, 234a
440
Index
Isaiah
of
Passages
40:3 (cont.) 247,255,256,360 40:3-5 77,78 40:3-11 79n 40:4 83, 85, 3 3 4 40:4f 335 40:4ff 83 40:4-6 83n
41:15 41:15f 41:17ff 41:17-20
83 319 78,297n 78,79n,81n, 178,178n, 297 41:18-43:20 178n 41:19 179 41:20 246,320n
42:17
40:5
41:20f
42:21
78, 80, 83, 3 2 0
40:6-8 40:7
78 317,355n
41:21
40:8
76
40:9
7 6 , 8 0 , 8 1 , 8 3 , 96n,
41:27 42:1
98n, 1 1 9 , 1 6 8 , 2 9 9 , 301, 3 6 6 , 3 6 7 40:9f 297 40:9-11 77,78 40:10 7 7 , 8 0 , 76n, 102n, 139,140,143,168n 40:10f 43, 73n, 8 4
96n,98n,119 22,54n, 85n, 92,
234n lOOn, 2 8 1 , 3 5 8
42:1-4 42:1-7
lOOn
42:1-7(9)
355n
42:1-9 42:2
40:14
42:3 42:4f
255 300n 116n,300n 300n
245n
42:5
83,355
40:15ff
319
42:6
283, 300, 321,
40:17
178
354n, 3 5 5 , 3 5 6 , 3 6 0 , 368,374 42:6bf 273 42:7 116n, 1 4 2 , 1 4 3 n , 171,172n, 252, 254,300n 42:7a 171n
40:30 40:31 41:lf 41:lff 41:1-5 41:2ff 41:4 41:5 41:7 41:8 41:8-9 41:9-20 41:10 41:llf 41:1 Iff 41:13 41:14 41:14f
83 320n lOOn 370 141 320 161,231,235n 320 142 114,243n 83,113 141 100n,235n,366 319 141,321 366 100n,277,366 243n
142 195n, 2 4 3 n ,
43:3
80
83,243n 83
246, 2 5 5 42:28 43:1
43:2
142n 76 78
40:27 40:28
141 243n, 245n,
42:lff
77,80,140,177, 234n, 2 9 3 76n, 168
141n 141,142n 141,160n
42:22f 42:24
43:1-2 43:1-3 43:1-7 43:1-11
40:12-26 40:12-41 40:12-48:22
40:18ff 40:18-20 40:26
254, 256 78,244n, 246
108,108n,109,110, 113,114,115,116, 116n,118,119,243n, 252n, 283, 2 8 4 , 3 0 0 , 300n,302,371 42:lb-4 273
80
40:10-11
40:12
81n,297 141,141n
115,118,252, 302n, 3 5 6 n 355n
40:1 Off 40:11
41:21-29
242n
lOOn, 1 4 1 n , 1 6 0 n , 172n, 244, 2 4 6 42:18 172n,234n,246 42:18ff 275n 42:18-20 227n, 2 4 4 n 42:18-25 244, 246,355n 42:20 234n, 252,
42:8 42:8f 42:8ff 42:10 42:10ff 42:10-17
300 141n 78 84 320
43:5 43:3f 43:4 43:4c 43:4d 43:4-6 43:5 43:6f 43:7 43:8 43:8-13 43:10
277, 3 6 6 83 80 7 9 n , lOOn 161
366 280,282, 282n, 3 1 9 , 3 6 0 114,358 280 280 83 320n,322 117n 78 234n, 2 4 4 141,244n 114,141n,
235n, 2 4 6 43:10-11 231 43:11 lOOn 43:12 lOOn 43:13 235n 4 3 : 1 4 lOOn, 1 4 1 , 2 7 7 , 3 1 9 43:15 81n,297,307 43:16f
141,160
366n
43:16-21
79n
42:13 300,300n 42:13-15 141,160 42:14 246 42:14-17 79n 42:15 83 42:16 80, 171, 219, 234n, 245, 292, 3 7 3 42:16a 222 42:16b 246 42:16c 246 42:16f 78,141n
43:18 43:19 43:19f 43:19-20 43:20 43:20 43:22-28 43:23ff 43:24 43:25
173 80,155 178 78,234n 78,179 118 173 280 73 83,161n, 173, 174, 2 3 5 n
Index
43:28 44:1 44:1-5 44:2 44:3-5 44:4 44:5 44:6
45:6 45:7
lOOn 141n 283,293 161n 293 141,142
49:8-12
79n
49:8-13 49:9
115,142,355n 116a 141,142, 177,300a 302
142 293
141n 366 142 244,319 191 191 173 174 277 83,366n 320 81,297
46:13
100,100a 2 9 3
79a 160 235a 319 233 142 83,160a 334,335 320 320
319 100a 141
47:4 47:8f
300
47:11
281
47:13 47:15
lOOn lOOn
47:17
lOOn
48:1
149a
203 246n
48:1-8
48:1-11
141n
48:1-16 48:1-22 48:4 48:4-6
275n 279 283 283
141a
48:5 48:6 48:6-8 48:8
142n 283 252 244,246
48:11 48:12
161n
279 281
48:14
7 8 , 1 4 1 , 142
142, 281, 297 302a 319 lOOn 142n
100a 141n 100a 354 161 141 142a 320 321 321 100a 1 4 1 n 320 78 81
48:16 48:17 48:17£f 48:17-19 48:18-20 48:20f 48:20ff 48:20-21 49:1 49:lff 49:1-9
155,300n 100a 2 4 5 n 354 246 244 43a 79a 1 7 8 8 0 , lOOn 43n 80 255 302a 3 5 6 n 355n
49:2 49:2-7 49:5
283,302n 283 149n
48:21
49:6
319
8 3 , 149a 243a 252, 254, 2 7 3 , 279,
282a 283, 300a 3 2 0 ,
lOOn 142n
321,355, 368
49:7
49:9a
83,100a 253a
273
49:9f 49:9ff 49:10 49:10f 49:11 49:13
80 80,178 80,177 83,178 300a 334 77,116a
49:13-17
177,300n 83
49:14-26 49:18 49:18ff 49:19ff 49:20f 49:22 49:22f 49:23 49:23-24 49:24f 49:24ff
78,284
lOOn
81, lOOn, 1 4 1 ,
141a
141
47:1-15
49:8b 49:8ff
262,283,320n 360 116a 3 0 0 n , 354a 355, 356, 374 273 83
2 8 3
78,293
47:lff
49:7f 49:8
2 9 3
46:12
45:15
45:16 45:16ff 45:17 45:18 45:18-25 45:20 45:20-22 45:20-25 45:21 45:22 45:23 45:24f 45:25 46:1 f 46:lff
46:1-13 46:4 46:5 46:5-6 46:5-7(8) 46:6 46:8 46:10f
141
45:8
45:14
46:1-4
441
Passages
46:11
45:9-13 45:12 45:13
339 141n
79n 113,114, 195a 366 81 100a 299 81,320 81a 100a 141a 161a 297
44:6ff
44:6-22 44:8 44:9f 44:9-20 44:17f 44:18 44:22 44:22f 44:22-4 44:23 44:24 44:26 44:26-28 44:27 44:28 45:1 45:1-7 45:2
of
49:25 49:25f 49:26 49:27b 50:1
50:1-3
78,149 83,300n 83 100a299 43n 83,302n,355n 320 143,246, 3 2 0 n 150 147,150a 156, 286, 372 141,160a 286,319 100a 150,299 149 81a 100a 141 302n 298n
78,299
50:2
79a 1 6 0 , 1 6 0 n
50:2f 50:3 50:4
22a H6a 362 154
116a 252, 255, 252,254,300n 50:4f 253 50:4-9 253,301,355n 50:6 2 2 n , H6a 268, 268a 362,363 50:6 (LXX) 269, 363 50:7 253,362 50:7-9 253 50:10 253,254 50:10b 253n 50:10-11 253 50:10f 245
442
Isaiah
Index
(cont.)
50:11 50:11c 51:3 51:4 51:4f 51:4-7
254 254 77,297,300 lOOn 320,321,355n lOOn
51:5
78, 1 0 0 , 1 4 3 , 3 2 0
51:6 51:7 51:7f 51:8
lOOn 366 141,319 100n,354
51:9 51:9f 51:9ff 51:9b 51:9-10 51:9-11 51:9-52:12 51:10
78,139,140 160,160n 80,141 161 79n 43n,161 78 lOOn, 1 6 1 n
51:11
277,354
51:12
77,83,161n, 300,39
51:13 51:13ff 51:14 51:15 51:16 51:17ff 51:21ff 51:22f 51:22-23 52:1 52: It 5 2 : 1 ff 52:1-2 52:1-3 52:1-10 52:1-12 52:2
366 160 141,177 141 283 298n 319 141 83 83,320,331n 150,298n 83,168n 83 83 278 115n,142n,279n 141,143
52:3 52:4
lOOn, 2 7 7 , 2 8 5 279
52:6
80,161n
81n,83,96n,98, 98n, 1 1 6 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 8 , 168,174, 283,297,301 52:7-9 298,367 52:7-10 78 52:9 77,300 52:9f 168n 52:10 78, 8 0 , 9 9 n , 139, 140,320n 52:10ff 8 0 , lOOn 52:11 319
of
52:1 If 52:11-12 52:12
Passages
43a
79n
279 89,279n
52:13 52:13ff 52:13-53:12
279a 284 267a 2 7 9 n 115n, 166a 278,355n
52:13-15 52:13-55:13 52:14f 52:15
126n 78,78n 282a 283 169a
320n
52:15b 254 52:15f 320n 52:15 (LXX) 364 53 386 53:1 78,97,98a 139, 143,254 53:lff 172n 53:1-12 127n 53:3 22, 262, 264, 264a 362 53:3a
143n
53:3-5 53:4 53:4f 53:4-6 53:5 53:5d 53:6
22a 362 264 171,321 275a 2 8 5 n 22a 143, 264, 362 279 22a H6a 245a 263,268,268a 364,365 53:6 (LXX) 362 53:7 22a H6a 362,364 53:7b 143 53:8 266,279a 281,364 53:9 22a H 6 n , 266,281,362 53:10 78,197a 264, 268a 276,279n 53:10a
53:10-12
52:7
53:11
275n
22,258, 281, 374 253,253n, 254,
272,273a 274, 280, 281 53:11a
53:11b 53:1 If 53:12
253
254 278,280,281,357 22a 152,116a 151, 243a 266,267, 273, 275, 278, 280, 320a 357,357a 358,
53:12b 53:12c
362,364,365,356n 358 275n
54:lf 5 4 : 1 ff 54:1-3 54:1-10 54:3 54:4 54:4f 54:4-10 54:5 54:5ff 54:7 54:10 54:11 54:llf 54:llff
83,
279a
298 299 100a 2 9 9 100a 2 9 9 246 366 299 83 141 lOOn 178 178,354 83,300 81, 1 5 0 , 2 9 8 299
54:11-17 54:13
354 81,246,302n
54:14 54:14ff 54:17
366
81,100a 100a 115a
55:lff 55:1-3 55:1-13 55:7 55:8f 55:10-12
298 279, 303,354 246 253n 76n 245n 245n 78
55:lff 55:3 55:5
178 354 83,302n
55:12f 55:13 55:10-11 55:10-14 56:1 56:1-7 56:2-7 56:3-8 56:5 56:6 56:6f 56:7
43a 79a
80 78 197 78 7 3 , 82a 1 0 0 73 319 301 310,319 303
321 17, 85a 2 3 8 , 2 8 2 , 296, 2 9 9 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 0 , 318, 319, 321, 322-5, 326, 337, 346, 347, 368, 374, 3 7 5 56:8 104,303 56:9ff 73 56:9-12 107n 56:9-17 354 56:9-57:13 104
Index
57:1-12 57:3-13a 57:6 57:13 57:14 57:14f 57:14ff 57:18 57:18f 58:1-14 58:6
303 107n 303 303,319 59n,61n,73 142,300 104 300 171 73,104 300n 104,298
58:8f
142
61:1-3
58:13f 59: If 5 9 : 1 ff
73 73 104
61:2f
59:l-15a 59:7
104 357
61:2-3 61:3 61:5f 61:6
59:9
298
61:7
59:9f
73,245
59:9ff
298,300n
59:10 59:11
247 298
443
Passages
60:17f 298 60:17ff 298 60:19 298,299 60:20 299 60:21 298 60:22 284,299 61:1 6, 92n, 96n, 9 8 , 9 8 n , 116,119,147,168, 1 6 8 n , 172n, 2 8 3 , 2 9 7 , 3 0 1 , 371 61:lf 61:lff
58:8
of
61:8 61:10
252,255,283 116n,300n,302 83,300,302 299 148 299 321 73,352,354 299 73 83,298,299
59:15bff 104,105 59:15b-20 142,168n,232 59:15-21 302 59:16 141, 275, 285, 301 59:16f 298
61:11 62:1 f 62:1-9 62:2 62:2f 62:3 62:4
59:16ff
139
62:7
299
59:18
321
62:8
298
321
62:10
59:18f 59:20
284,300
59:21
73
60:1-2 60:1-3 60:1-62:12 60:3 60:4 60:4ff 60:4-5 60:5 60:5-11 60:6 60:6ff 60:7 60:7 (LXX) 60:9 60:10 60:12 60:13 60:14 60:15ff 60:17
83 299 142 98n, 2 9 8 , 3 2 1 321 104,142 81n 253n, 299 321n 96n,119,299 321 299, 310, 319 3 2 2 a 324 299,321 283,321 321,321n 299,319 321 298 298
62:10f 62:1 Off 62:11 62:12 63:lff 63:1-5 63:1-6
299 299 283 283, 298, 299 321 283 116n
59,61n, 73 73n, 142 104 298 277,300
104,105 232 142,144n, 168n, 3 0 2 63:3 73 63:3f 321 63:4 300 63:5 139,142, 302 63:7ff 117n 63:7-14 105 63:7-64:11 163, 299, 2 9 9 n 63:7-64:12 104,105, 119,151 63:7-65:11 176,370 63:8-10 67 63:8-14 142 63:9 106,277 63:9ff 105 63:10 104n, 1 0 6 , 1 0 7 ,
1 5 1 , 1 5 1 n , 195, 3 7 2 63:10ff 118 63:10b 108 63:10-14 104n, 176n 63:11 103,106,107,177 6 3 : 1 Iff 108 63:11-13 104n 63:12ff 161,162 63:14 103,106 63:15 63:15-64:4 63:16 63:17
105 105 105,317 303
63:18 63:19
317 92n, 103,106, 176,176n, 232,317 63:19b-64:2 162 63:19ff 63:17 63:36 64:1 64: If 64:lff 64:1-3 64:l-5a 64:2 64:5
142 245 117n 7 3 , 103, 1 0 5 , 106,162 103 103 105,334 105 162,176n 172n,176n,317
64:5f 64:6f
105 73
64:7
172n
64:8-12
105
64:9
317
64:10f
298
64:12
317
64:15 65:3 65:lf 6 5 : 1 ff 65:1-5 65:1-7 65:1-15 65:1-25 65:2ff
73 157 162 302 303 157, 1 5 8 , 162,164 107,373 176n 302
65:3 65:4n 65:6f 65:8 65:9 65:11 65:1 I f 6 5 : 1 Iff 65:12
167,167n 157 303 303 303 157 303 104 303
444
Isaiah 65:12a 65:13ff
Index
(cont.) 303 105
65:13-15
303
65:13-16
303
65:17-25
105,118
of
7:15f 7:20 7:21 7:22 7:24ff 7:25
Passages
328 327 327 79n 327 79n,342
65:17f
298
7:27
327n
65:18
299
65:19f
176n
8:2 8:13
273n 312n, 317, 318,334
65:21ff 66:3 66:3ff 66:3-6 66:4 66:4-6 66:5 66:6
298 158,303 104 107 303 105 303 303,319,331
11:4 11:7 11:17 14:10 15:21 16:14f
79n 79n 8n 114n 277 79n
20:33 22:3-12 22:4-5
81n,297 357 lOOn
24:27
170n
29:18ff 32:7f
140n 85n
33:22
170n
34:5
179
34:23 34:23-31 34:26-9 37:15-28 43:l-llf
233 233n 179 233n 81n
Daniel 2:19
206n
19:1
89n
2:28
206n
66:7ff
105
19:4
89n
2:29
206n
66:13 66:14ff
300 104
19:6 19:11
89n 89n
2:30 2:34f
206n 283
23:5ff
206n
233n
2:47
66:15f
142
23:7f
79n
2:49
66:16
321
268n,385
158,303
339 342
3
66:17
25:3-11 25:4
6
268n,385
66:14bff
105,107
66:18f 66:18ff 66:19 66:19f
324 299,301 321,322,354 83
66:19ff 66:20 66:21 66:22f
105,319 104 321 105 104,105, 107,321
66:24
Jeremiah 2:6f 2:21 3:1-5 3:8 5:17 5:21
79n 341,342 341n 299n 334 21,224, 227,227n 7:2b-15 327 7:5-7 327,327n 7:11 17,60n, 85n, 296, 304,317,318,325, 332,339,347,368,374 7:1 I f f
327,328
7:12 7:13 7:13f 7:14
328 327,328 327 327
7:14-20
328
30:9f 31:8 31:9 31:20
206n
233n 170n 112,117n 117n
7:9-10 7:10 7:10-14 7:13
31:31 31:31-33 31:32 32:20ff
69n 355 79n 79n
7:13f 7:13-14 7:14
33:6 33:14-26 34:13f
170 233 79n
7:21
22n
7:25 9:13
22n,266 55
3 8 ( 3 1 ):11 49:14
277 97
9:25 9:27 11:17 12:1-2 12:2
Lamentations 4:18-19
lOOn
Ezekiel 1:1 3:26 7:7 9:1
102n, 1 0 3 170n lOOn lOOn
10:18-22
81n
11:22-25 12:2 12:23 14:3-7 16:5
81n 224,227,227n lOOn 249n 263
12:3 12:8 12:10
271n 271n 54n 22n, 60n, 8 5 n , 260n, 2 8 3 , 2 8 4 284 85n, 271n, 271 260n
283 266 263 176 266 258n 206n 22n,206n
Hosea 1:2 2:4 2:12 2:16-17 2:16-24 6:2 9:10
17:22f
334
9:10-17
20:5-10
79n
9:16
56n 299n 334 79n 69n 267,268 312n, 3 3 4 311n 3 1 2 a 334
Index
10:1 11:1
342 79n, 112,116a 117n,195n
11:4 12:10-14
13:4-5
363
Haggai 2:6
2:11-14 2:21
445
Passages
If 2:17 2:17-3:5
2:1 103n
172n 103n
3:1
79n
79n
Joel
Zechariah 1:6 4:4b
342 308 308
1:7
312n
4:6-8
1:12
312n
4:14
2:10
85n
6:5 6:9-14
9:9
Amos
1:2 2:9f 3:lf 3:7 4:9 5:18-20 6:6 9:7
of
88n
69 69 69n
21,305,305a 306a 3 3 2 n
79n
9:9-10
305
79n
9:10
320n
342 334 71n 263
9:11
333a 351
79n
10:10
21
68 67,68,69,73 67,68 5, 8 a 12, 21, 25,59, 60, 60a 61, 61a 62,62a 66,66n, 67-71, 70a 71,72,73, 73a 74, 74-76,90, 107,134,134a 136, 183,184a 310,315, 318,331,337, 371
3:lf 3:lff 3:1-3 3:1-4 3:1-8 3:2 3:2ff 3:2-5 3:3 3:3ff 3:4 3:5 3:6-9f
337 318 69n
70 74 69,72 75n
11:5
263
11:13 13:4
89n 59n
Obadiah
13:7 13:9
23,60n 70
1
14:1-5 14:4
306n 308,332n
3:6-12
67
14:5
332a 3 3 3
3:7-12
69n
14:5b 14:8 14:14 14:16 14:16-19 14:20
309 332n 332,332n 324,332n 332n 332n
3:11
14:21 14:21b
308,332n 308
97
Jonah
1:1-16 4:6f Mi
316n
cah
4:1 4:10 5:3
334,335 277 320n
6:4 7:1 7:19 hi
160
79a 277 312n 88n
ahum
1:4 1:11-15 1:12 1:13 1:14 1:15 2:1
168n
168n 168 168 168 167a 168 98n
Zephaniah
3:15
307
Malachi 1:1 1:2 1:2-5 1:6-14 1:6-2:9 1:6-2:16
68 67 67 71 67 68,336
1:11 1:13 1:8 2:7ff
324 67 67 71
2:10
69n 72,72n
2:10ff
2:10-16
67,71
186 69n
71 85n
68,69, 70, 72,336 68
67 72 68
3:llf 3:13f 3:13-21
68
3:14
67 67 68
3:14f 3:15 3:17 3:18 3:19 3:21 3:21 ( M T )
3:22-24 3:23 3:23f 3:24
68,117n 186 71n 316
337 68 59,69, 70, 69a 70a 71a 8 5 n 74 6 9 , 7 1 , 71a
72a 184a 318,371 3:24b 4:5
4:5f
260n 74,316 134
446
Index
of
Passages
II. Old Testament Apocrypha 1
Esdras
8:63 1
359n Maccabees
4
3:14 4:19-25
260n 305n
4:36 5:45-54
320 305n
7:3 7:37
322n 323
10:86 11:58 13:43-48
305n 273 305n
13:49-51
305n
13:51
320
275a
7:37f 10:7
276 320
Maccabees
6:27ff
275a
9:17 17:22 18:4
275a 2 7 6 275a 2 7 6
276 273
15:3
178a
246n
24:19 24:21 27:16 27:17 27:21 33.6
178a 178a
246n 246n 206n 206n 206n 39n
35:22-36:17
42a
46:5 Wisdom
of
2:18 5:16-23 18:13 18:15
48
Solomon
2:16
117n
110a 42a
H7n 143 112 143
Sirach
2 Maccabees 1:26 1:27 3:32
359n 260n 359
3:18
4:21 f
305n
4:10
Prologue 1:17
203n 178a
246n
74
48:10 48:20
76 164n
48:24f 1
143 164n
83
Baruch
5:5 5:5-7 5:6 5:7
83 83 83 83
206n
4:12
178a
HOn
2
246n
9:29-33
Esdras 205n
III. Pseudepigrapha Apocalypse 10:1-14
of
Abraham 66
4
of
Assumption 10
of
4 114n
1
114n
1:6 10:llf 10:20-22 19:1 37-71 45:3-4 46: If 49:lff 54:4f 54:4-5 61:8-9
Moses
118a
10:1
143n 147
2 Baruch
144n
21:21
22:1
114n 102n
29:3
233
29:8
229a 232a 2 3 3
39-42 40:3 72-74 73:2 73:4 73:6
143 lOln 143 171 175 118n
Enoch
62:1 62:2 80:7 89:56-73 90:31 99:7 105:2
HOn
114n
Ezra
7:13
Enoch
1:8 7:24
Apocalypse 5:12 '
3
Baruch
83 147 175n 157 143 271a 271 271 283 147 163 271a 271 283 271a 271 157 342n 74 157 HOn
Ezra
4:36f 6:27f 7:28 12:31-34 13 13:1-3 13:37 13:50 Ezekiel 100 Jubilees 1:11 2:17 4:26 10:8 11:4 12:20 22:17
110a
the
lOln 175n HOn 143 143 309n 309n 171
Tragedian HOn
157 157 175n 147 157 157 157
Index
23:20f 23:27-30 23:29f 48
257 176 171 163
Martyrdom Ascension
and of
of
447
Passages
17:31 17:31-33 17:32 17:36 17:37 18:5
302n 306 302n 88,156 83,115 156
Isaiah
3:17
113n
Sibylline
3:18
113n
3:46-9 3:82
232n 103n
3:669-795 431 8.233
143 103n 103n
Prayer
of
Joseph
F r a g . A., 7 Psalms 5:3 11 13:9
of
17
HOn
Oracles
Testament 10:1-5
175n,310
Testament
of
ln75
Testament
83
108n 75n 102n
Testament
of
Zebulon
9:8 of
147,163,171
Isaac 114n
Testament
238n
6:23
114n
5:10-13
114n
8
17:28 17:30
Judah
Moses
17:21ff
17:23-26 17:24 17:27
of
24 24:1-6 24:2
2:7
17:23
102n HOn 102n 108n 75n 102n 147,155,163
302n
17:21-42
Levi
18:12
17:21 17:21-22
of
2:6 4:2 5:1 18 18:1-9 18:6 18:9
Solomon 147 83,98 114n
Testament
of
Dan 147,163
306 75n 83,288n 143 156,302n 112,302rt 83 117n,302n
Testament 1:13
of
Testament
Jacob
T e s t a m e n t o f the T w e l v e Patriarchs Testament of Simeon 6:6 147,163
of
Naphtali 118n
Testament 3:8
of
Benjamin 152n
11:2
113n
IV. Q u m r a n Writings 4:6b-lla
CD l:9ff 2:14f 2:14ff 2:16f 3:17
247 249n 247 249n 249n
4:19-20 5:12 7:19 8:12 13:1 16:lff 16:2f 20:9
345 151n 55 345 179 247 249n 249n
1QS 2:11-22 2:14 2:21-2 3:9-4:26 3:20-1
233 249n 179 257 146
4:11 4:25 5:llf 5:17 6-7 8:12b-16a 8:13-16 8:14 9:16-21 9:17b-20a 9:19f
247
23:14f
255
249n 155 210 55 360 82,84n,247 255,257 63 255,257 82,84n,247 63
lQIs
a
253,281
lQIs
b
253,281
1QM 1:11 4:1-5 12:10-12
75a
12:10-14 14:9f 19:2-8
1QH 4:19 4:32 13:llf 15:10 16:36 17:29-31 18:14
249n 210 155 255 255 255 98
143n, 1 6 3 75n 179 150,150n 42n, 143 154
42n, 1 4 3 , 1 5 0
lQSa (= 28a) 2:11 2:llf
75n 115n 143
l Q S b ( = 28b) 5:24
156
5:27
143
448
Index
Qumran
(cont.) a
4QpIsa (=
of
Passages
4QTest ( = 175) a
4Q246 ( = PsDan A ) a
4 Q p H o s ( = 166)
1:10f
110n,115n 55
4QTanh ( = 176)
82
HOn
4QPBless
306n
342
4Q504 3:6
114n
4Q521
171
V. N e w Matthew 118 57n
2:18 2:4-6
283 147,163
2: 6ff
175n
2:15-18
147
2:16
148
Testament 347n
1:6
184,315,371
358
1:7
24:29
103n
23n, 54n, 5 9 , 9 2 , 92n, 1 2 0 , 1 4 4 , 1 5 9 59,92,95
25:42ff
273
1:8
27:3-10
89n
l:9ff 1:9-11
3:12 5:17 6:24 8:10ff 8:11
186 195n 274n 165n 98n
Mark
10:1
155
10:5f
165n
1:1-3 1:1-4
1:1
6 , 1 7 , 5 5 , 56, 56n, 9 2 , 9 2 n , 96-99, 96n, 99n,116n,119,370, 120,167, 207, 232 5,95,99, 102,370 23n,56n,92
97,98 172n
1:1-8 1:1-11
91 93n,94n,132
11:10 12:18
61,85 113,113n
1:1-13 1:1-15
1 7 , 2 5 , 9 2 , 9 2 n , 93 92
12:29
288n 155 198n 57n 287n 287n 263n 162 232 263n 293 315n 335,337 125 125 288n 315n,337 287n 288n 289 288n
98,147 148
23:35
195n 61,83,83n 83
12:43 13:13 13:24f 13:27 13:54 14:14 14:22-33 14:23 14:14 17:17 17:19f 17:19-20 20:17 20:30 21:20 21:21 21:25 22:12 22:42-5 22:43
H Q M e l c h ( = 13) 2:9
22:45
2:15 3:3 3:7-12
11:2-6 11:5
76n
85n,306n
1:12
2:6
4 Q a r P (?)
247 4Q500
4 Q F l o r ( = 174)
1:15
85n
161)115n,143
1:1-20 22 1:2 5 4 n , 57, 6 0 n , 6 2 , 8 6 , 92,93,116n,120,134, 1 3 5 , 1 8 3 , 2 6 0 n , 331 l:2f 15,19,20,21,22, 2 3 , 23n, 2 4 , 5 6 , 5 8 - 6 0 , 6 1 , 8 6 , 8 7 , lOOn, 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 4 , 1 5 2 , 231, 271, 316 1:2-3 55,58,175,197n 1:2-4 92n 1:2-15 1:3 1:4 l:4f l:4£f 1:4-6 1:4-8 1:5 1:5-8
93n 57,58,92,116n ll,58,59,92,92n, 95,116n,209n,339 132 23n,58,184n 92 86n, 9 2 n , 9 5 , 1 2 0 116n,184,316 92n
23n,95,375 92n
1:9-13 1:9-15 1:10
95,102 92,384 89n, 92, 102-108, 103,108, 113,119, 121,144,162,176, 176n, 188n, 2 3 1 , 2 3 2 , 234, 3 1 7 , 3 7 0 l:10f 372 1:10-12 1:11
1:12
371 2 1 , 2 2 , 5 4 n , 58n, 85n, 9 2 , 1 0 8 - 1 1 8 , 152,186, 228, 234, 239, 255, 344, 370 ll,54n,92
1:12-13 1:13
92,92n ll,58,91,91n,92, 95,118,118n 1:14 6,91n,92,93, 93n,95,96n,97,108n, 119,120,124,132,185, 208, 218, 329, 370 1:14a 316,371,373 1:14b l:14f
371 99,102n,120,
144, 1 7 4 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 9 , 207, 209, 217, 256 1:14-15 9 2 , 9 2 n , 95, 99n, 1 0 2 , 1 2 1 , 3 6 6 n , 371 l:14-3:6n 19 1:14-7:37 25 1:14-9:50 93n 1:15
17,92,93,93n,
Index
96-99, 99-102, 96n, 98n, 1 0 1 , 1 2 0 , 1 4 9 , 174,199 1:16
19,93
2:4 2:5-12 2:6 2:6f
1:16-20 1:16-45
19 153
2:6ff 2:7f
1:16-3:6
93n
2:8-11
1:16-3:19
156
2:10
1:16-8:21/6 1:21 1:21-28
124, 136, 137-181
449
Passages
204 338 196,348 185n 199 217 59n 338n, 3 8 4
2:11
348
2:12
10,132,133
l:23f
112
2:13 2:13-17 2:16 2:18 2:18-22 2:19 2:21 f 2:23
1:23-27
150
2:23f
173
2:23-7
289
1:21-3:6 1:22 1:23
1:24 1:24b l:24f 1:25 1:25b 1:26 1:27 1:28 1:28-30 1:29 l:29f 1:30 1:31 1:32 1:32-4 1:34 1:35 1:38
l:38f 1:39 1:40-45
1:42 1:45 1:72
1:78 2:lff 2:1-3:6 2:1-10 2:1-12
9 3 n , 149n, 1 6 9 n 154, 156,166n, 308, 343, 372 19 96n,150,196, 255, 338n, 3 4 8 155
of
107,149,154,166, 228, 232, 323, 336 149n 82n, 92n, 1 5 3 , 1 9 8 161,169n 149n, 169n 136,150,169n 93n, 1 3 3 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 5 , 228,255,304,338n 198 150 169n 156 317 132,170,170n, 198 103n,156 139 153,156,169n, 308,372 ll,58n,169n 92n,93n
132 156,308,372 156,323n 102n ll,89n,93n,132 92n 96n
323a 342 20, 133,139, 153,185, 372 24 156, 172,
2:23-3:6
217, 2 2 8 n , 3 4 7 n
24
2:24
185n, 2 1 7
2:25
lll,llln
3:1-6 3:2
156 185n
3:3 3:4f 3:4ff 3:5 3:5f
338 82n,217 14 15 225
3:5-6 3:6
229 128,132,185n, 1 9 5 , 1 9 8 , 1 9 8 n , 329n, 344, 347, 3 7 4
3:6-9 3:6-19 3:7 3:7f 3:7ff 3:7-10 3:7-12 3:7-6:52 3:7-8:21 3:9 3:10 3:10f 3:11 3:1 I f
3:12 3:13ff
3:13-19
173,174 2:1-3:6
204 323n 185n,196,217 185n, 2 1 7 11 238n 195n 125
3:13-35
82n 12 19 133,316 10 139 212,224 223,224 223,224 204 156 156,308,372 llln,228,232,234 153
169a 236 20,202n
19,195a 209a 224, 250, 256, 344a 353,373 19
3:13-6:6 3:14 3:15 3:20 3:20ff
19,19n
132 308,372 145,200a 204 153,195a 200, 209a 217a 228, 229a 375 3:20-1 145,373 3:20-30 353 3:20-35 133, 153, 195, 197,198, 202, 203, 209a 212, 224, 256 3:20-4:34 211,212,216 3:20-5:43 223 3:21 22, 128, 145, 145a 197, 201a 250 3:22 145,145a 146, 3:22ff 3:22-7 3:22-30
3:23
195,196,216n, 374 342,372
308 6, 2 2 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 5 , 176a 3 7 2 , 3 7 3
166, 186,196,197
3:23-26
146
3:23-27
99a 2 1 2 , 2 2 4
3:23-30 338 3:23-29 145,259 3:24 82a 196,197 3:27 144, 146, 147, 167,176a 286,338, 350,372, 375 3:28f 372 3:28ff 317 3:28-30 147 3:29 92a 107,162,187, 195,195a 197,198 3:30 145 3:31
3:31f 3:31ff 3:31-35
145,201 201n
197,199,201n 19, 22, 145, 249, 256, 373 3:32 200, 200a 201 3:32ff 199 3:32-5 145 3:33f 204 3:33-4 202 3:34 200 3:34f 256 3:35 205 4:1 133, 199, 200, 204, 212,306a 373 4:1 ff 197a 227,375 4:1-2
204n
450
Index
Mark 4:1-9 4:1-20 4:1-34
(cont.)
2 0 9 a 227 227,22711,24811 1 6 3 , 1 6 7 , 197, 197n, 209n, 212, 212n, 2 2 4 , 2 2 6 , 2 2 8 , 229, 2 3 4 , 3 7 2 4:1-5:43 19,317 4:2 200 4:3 187,199, 200, 205n,212,227, 254,373 4:3-8 4:3-9 4:4 4:9
4:10 4:10f
187 206 125 145, 1 8 7 , 1 9 9 , 200, 205, 212, 212n, 227, 255,256,373 200,201,209n, 212,221n, 227 197,199
4:10ff 4:11
248n 188n, 1 9 6 , 1 9 7 ,
of
Passages
4:26 4:26-32 4:29ff 4:30 4:33
196 209n 15 196 201, 205n, 221n, 227, 255, 373 4:33f 188n, 199, 200, 207n, 208, 209n 4:34 1 9 , 2 0 1 , 207n, 366 4:35ff 154, 212, 234, 367, 375 4:35-41 228n, 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 4:35-5:20 12, 1 6 2 , 167, 176,176n, 372 4:35-5:43 138,163n, 176n, 2 1 2 , 2 1 2 n , 224, 228 4:35-8:21
229n
4:35-8:26 4:39 4:39-42
170n 161 384
4:40 4:41
5:35-8:1-10 5:38f 5:42 6:1 ff 6:1-3 6:1-6 6:l-6a 6:1-29 6:2 6:4 6:6b-6:13 6:7-13 6:7-31 6:7-8:21(26) 6:8 6:12 6:13 6:14 6:14f 6:14ff
22 176 176n 217n 289 19,133 224 12 287n 128 224 23, 292, 308 19 19,19n 125 132 372 224,229 161n 223n
6:14-16
226,229
128 1 5 6 , 1 6 2 , 212, 221, 224, 229, 230, 231, 373 176n 22
6:14-25 6:14-29
185 218,223n,224, 225, 316
6:14ff 6:15 6:17ff
225 232 208 128
2 0 0 , 2 0 1 , 201n, 206n, 209n, 2 2 8 , 3 7 3 4:1 I f 198,198n, 203n, 207n, 208,208n, 209n,210n,218 4:11-12 207
4:41 f 4:42ff 5:1 5:1b
82n 335
6:17-29 6:24-29
23
4:11-13
5:lff
107
6:30
23
4:12
227 60n, 183,184-210, 195n, 1 9 7 , 1 9 7 n , 198, 213, 224, 227, 255,372
5:1-9
138n
6:30ff
223n
208 128, 205, 206, 209, 212, 221, 224, 226, 227, 228n, 249, 3 7 3 4:13b 224 4:14-20 209n, 227 4:15 125,227,255
5:2 5:2-3 5:7 5:9 5:10 5:11 5:llf 5:13
1 0 , 1 5 6 , 157, 166n, 3 0 8 , 3 4 3 , 3 7 2 155 157 162, 232, 234 159 159 159 157 157
4:16
5:13f
81n
6:37a
178
5:15
176n
6:42-3
178
4:12f 4:13
4:18 4:20 4:21-22 4:21-25 4:23 4:23f 4:23ff 4:23-5 4:24 4:24f 4:24-25
227,255 82n,227,255 227,255 196n 209n 187,212n, 227, 255, 2 5 6 , 3 7 3 199 209n 145 187, 2 2 7 , 2 5 5 205,210 196n
5:1-20
5:20 5:21 ff 5:21-24 5:21-43 5:24b-34 5:25-34 5:29 5:31 5:33 5:34 5:35-43
132,221n 15,25 22 12,176n 323n 22-23, 156, 317 156,172n 333n 176n 132,156 23
6:30-8:21 6:31-34 6:31-35 6:30-44 6:31-7:37 6:32ff 6:33-44 6:34 6:34-44
6:45 6:45-52
225 230n 20 19,223n, 224, 225 240n 25 138,177 2 5 , 1 7 9 , 199 178,372
221n 138, 161, 2 2 4 , 225, 229 6:45-56 2 2 3 a 230n 6:45-7:37 225 6:45-8:21 230n 6:45-8:26 230n 6:48b 231 6:50 230,231 6:51 224 6:52 15, 1 9 , 1 2 8 , 2 2 1 ,
Index
225, 227, 228, 228n, 230, 234, 235, 249, 373
of
451
Passages
6:52a
224
7:25 7:26f 7:27 7:30
6:52b
224
7:31
6:53ff
211
7:31-6
230n
139,211,212, 212n, 217, 2 2 4 6:53-7:13ff 212 6:53-8:21 223,224 6:56 175,217
7:31-7
172,175
7:32 7:32-7 7:33f 7:34 7:36
171,175 138n, 1 5 6 205n 175 132
7:37 8:1 ff 8:1-9 8:1-10 8:1-20
25,175,211,230n 223n 230n 138,177,223n, 224, 2 2 7 , 3 7 2 227
8:1-30
240n
6:53-6
7:1 7:lff 7:1-5 7:1-13 7:1-23
7:1-37 7:2 7:2-4 7:4
348 175,211 211,217 24,212,216,224 24, 133, 1 5 5 , 1 7 5 , 211,212n,216, 223n,230n 223 211 312 211,217
7:5 211,348 7:6 16,55,60,60n, 260n 7:6f 183, 210-218, 3 7 3 7:6ff 364 7:6-7 197n 7:6-8 23n 7:6-13 338 7:8-13 7:12
211 212
7:13
212
7:14
199,205n, 212
7:14f 25 7:14ff 342 7:14-15 227 7:14-23 24,211,212, 224,227,227n, 248n 7:15 196,232n 7:16 211 7:17 2 1 2 , 2 2 1 n , 224, 227 7:17f 205 7:18 128, 212, 224, 225,227,228n,249 7:18f 221,373 7:19 25,381 7:19-23 227 7:24 133,166n 7:24-27 165 7:24-30 133,156,230n, 308,372 7:24-37 19,212, 223n, 2 2 4 7:24-8:21 129
8:1-15:39 8:2
155 166 324 132 133
25
8:21-7 8:22
226 124, 224, 226, 227, 230 371 1 2 4 , 1 3 6 , 137
8:22f
225
8:22ff
230n
8:22-26
129,156n, 229, 230n,240n,373 8:22-30 124 8:23 230 8:26 1 2 4 , 1 3 2 , 139 8:27 124,125,128,129, 131, 230 8:27ff 250n 8:27-8 385 8:27-30 127n, 2 2 9 , 2 3 0 n 8:27-9:13 130 8:27-10:45 8:27-10:52
179
8:3 125 8:4 287n 8:-10:25 317n 8:10 230n 8:11 19,226 8:1 I f 20,133 8:1 I f f 223n,225 8:11-13 13, 2 1 0 n , 2 2 3 n , 224,225,229, 230n 8:13-21 ll,128,223n 8:14 10,55,226 8:14b 8:14ff
8:20b 8:21
8:28
124,136,139 19n, 5 9 , 1 2 6 , 127,128 229,232
8:29 8:29a 8:29b 8:30 8:31
53,llln,223 230 230 124 1 7 , 1 2 4 , 1 9 6 , 261, 264n, 2 6 5 , 2 6 7 , 2 6 9 , 270n, 283n, 3 4 5 , 3 7 3 8:31ff 11,128,131 8:31-33
130,223, 250,329
226n 234
8:31-38 8:31-9:1
127n 128
205, 224, 225, 226, 227, 227n, 228, 229, 230,230n, 237, 248n, 2 4 9 , 2 9 0 , 314,373 8:15 224,226 8:15-16 226n 8:16 226,226n, 227,227n 8:17 15, 206, 224, 227 8:17f 227 8:17-18 226 8:17ff 21,222 8:17-21 225 8:18 21,129, 227 8:18f 224 8:19a 226 8:19b 226 8:19-20 226n, 2 2 7 , 2 2 7 n 8:20a 226
8:32-33 8:34 8:34-38 8:34-9:1 8:35 8:52 9:1 9:1-12 9:1-29 9:2 9:2-8 9:2-13 9:5 9:6 9:7 9:9 9:9-13 9:10-11 9:11
124,129, 269 125 124,269 128 96n 136 98n, 126 138n 127n 127 126n 25 127 129 127,132,344 236 128,185,316 129 196
8:14-21
9:llf
305
452
Index
of
Passages
Mark (cont.) 9:11-13 25,59,218 9:12 22, 2 4 , 1 3 4 , 1 8 4 n , 261,261n, 264,267, 2 6 9 , 2 7 0 n , 272, 275, 277, 277, 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 n , 286, 3 1 6 , 3 5 8 , 3 6 0 , 361,363,364,365, 373,384
10:2-12 10:5 10:5ff 10:5-8 10:10 10:10-12 10:13-14 10:13-16
128
10:15
126
9:12b
10:16 10:16-19 10:17
387 22n 125
10:17-22 10:18
252n 252n
10:21 10:23 10:23-45 10:24 10:24-26
24 126,131 130 16 129
9:13 9:14 9:14ff 9:14-17 9:14-25 9:14-27 9:14-29
260,260n, 264,265 55,184,184n, 260n,316,343 196,210n,348
9:18
166 130 155 128 1 2 9 , 167, 2 9 2 , 294,308,372 129
9:19
127
9:25 9:27 9:29
155 129 132
127,210n 15 25 23n 129 205 129
10:25
126
10:28-31
131
10:29 10:32
96n 10, 124, 125, 129,131,221n, 239 10:32f 269
9:30-32
130,223
10:32-34
223,269
9:30-37
127
10:32-40
130
9:30-41
127n
10:32-45
127, 128, 238n, 258 196,266,268n,
9:30-50 130 9:31 124, 265, 266, 267, 267n,269,365,373 9:32 124, 1 2 9 , 2 6 9 9:33 9:33f 9:33-34 9:34 9:35-37 9:38 9:38-40 9:38-45 9:41 9:42 9:43 9:43-47 9:43-10:41 9:45 9:47 9:49£ 9:49-50 9:51ff 10:1 10:lff 10:1-9 10:1-11:11
125 129 129,131 125 124,270 221n 25 129 293 333n 126 126 127n 126 126 226 314 125 127,128,133 14 128 13
10:33 10:33-4
268n, 365 258n, 265,
10:34 10:35-38 10:35-41 10:35-44 10:37 10:42 10:42f 10:42-45 10:43
268,373 129,363 129 124,258n, 269 314 273 273 282 124,258n, 270 273
10:43-47
337
10:45
12, 2 2 , 1 2 4 , 2 2 3 , 2 3 6 , 2 3 7 , 252, 258, 2 5 9 , 2 6 5 , 265, 269, 270n, 2 7 1 , 2 7 2 , 2 7 3 , 274, 275, 276n, 277, 278, 279, 281, 282, 283, 283n, 2 8 4 , 2 8 6 , 288,296, 299,314, 331n, 350,357n, 359, 360,361,362,363, 364,365, 373,375
10:45-11:1 10:45b 10:46 10:46ff 10:46-52
10:47f
371 269, 270, 272, 273, 274 124, 1 2 5 , 1 3 6 , 304,309 252 124,127n, 156n, 2 4 0 n , 2 5 7 ,
287,304n,308,373 111,304
10:49
309
10:50 10:52
304 1 2 4 , 1 2 5 , 129, 132,304,309 124, 1 3 9 , 2 8 9 ,
11:1
304,308,309,332n ll:lff 308,331 11:1-11 21,304,346 11:1-23 308 11:1-13:37 19n 11:1-16:8 11:2 ll:7f 11:8 ll:8f ll:8ff 11:8-10 11:9 ll:9f 11:9-10 11:10 11:10-12 11:10b 11:11 11:11b ll:llff 11:12-14 11:12-21 11:12-25 11:13 11:14 11:15 ll:15f
20,124,136 332n 304 125,129,304 309 133 304n,332n 304,345,346 304,306,309 289 111,289,304, 305,348 317 309 331,332n 310 304n 23,295,304 60 20,107,134, 346,374 332n 332n 14,328,332n 311
11:15-18 17,315 11:15-19 23,295,304 11:16 309,332n 11:17 2 0 , 5 7 n , 60n, 85n, 238, 260n, 2 8 2 , 2 9 6 , 310,317,332n,347, 350n 11:17a 337 11:18 133, 1 9 6 , 3 2 9 ,
Index
11:19
338,339,344,348 310
11:20-25
304
11:20-33
295
13:lff 13:1-37 13:2 13:3
of
453
Passages
107,311,374 295 205,311,335,336 304
15:1 15:1-47
153 22n, 116n, 2 6 8 n , 362,363 196,364 295
23 313n 334 315 3 1 4 a 332 308,332,332n, 333,374 11:23a 333 11:24-5 312,314 11:26-12:12 304,346 11:27 196,199
13:7
13:10 96n,98,132,283 13:14 19 13:24 57n,60n 13:24f 85 13:25 60n 13:26 60n 13:27 324 14:1 196,351 14:1-15:47 19n 14:1-16:8 126n
15:2 15:5
ll:27ff
327
14:2
133
15:19
330 307 364 133 307 133 22n, 116n, 362,364 363
134, 1 8 5 , 2 0 8 , 218,309,316 304,374
14:3
307
15:24
261
14:8
128,362
15:26
307
14:9
98,99n,132
15:27
12,328,362
14:10f
364
15:28
22n, 1 1 6 n
14:12-16
351
15:29
267n
14:12-26 351n 14:17 353 14:17-25 128 14:18 364 14:20 353 14:21 16,22n,55,116n, 260n,270n,362,364 14:23 60n 14:24 295,333n,349, 350,350n, 351-62, 364,368,374 14:24a 368
15:31 15:32 15:33 15:34 15:38 15:39
196 307 22n,H6n,362 261 103n,310n,330 53,232, 324,364
16:1-8 16:7
19n 23,367
14:24b
16:7-8
366n
16:8 16:15
295 96n
11:20-35 11:22 ll:22f ll:22ff 11:22-5 11:23
11:27-33 11:28 11:30-3 11:30 11:31
373 316 199,316
11:31-32 12:lff.
339 6 0 n , 198n, 1 9 9 , 207,209,218,335 12:1-9 296 12:1-11 17,374 12:1-12 14, 2 0 , 1 0 7 , 1 3 4 , 295,304n,309,313n, 12:2-5
315,330,338 339
12:6
114
12:9
198,202n, 205, 324,339,346n 261,261n, 265 304
12:10 12:10f
12:12 133,199,344,346 12:13ff 364 12:13-40 295,342 12:13-44 133 12:14 125 12:15 364 12:18ff 24 12:28 14,196 12:28-34 24 12:33 326,330 12:35 133,289 12:35f 304 12:35ff 111 12:35-7 287,289 12:38 196 12:38-40 315 12:41-44 295 13:lf 346,348
333n
14:63f 14:65
368
14:27 197a 14:27f 14:28 14:34ff 14:35 14:36 14:38 14:41f 14:41-42
260n,333n 23,23n 96n 22n 22n 272 22n 364 128
14:43 14:44
196
14:49
16,17, 23,
14:53 14:58 14:60 14:61 14:62
364 362,270n 196 22n, 116n, 2 6 7 n , 310n,362 22n, 1 1 6 n , 3 6 2 llln,362,363 22n,60n, 85a 2 6 7 n , 2 8 6
15:6-15 15:9 15:10 15:11 15:12 15:13f 15:15
15:40-16:8 15:43 15:46
llln,307 362,363, 364
25 22n,H6n,362 22n, 116n
Luke 1:32 1:35
164n 164n
1:43
287n
1:75 2:23 3:4ff 3:6-17 3:17 3:22 4:16ff 4:16-21 4:16-30 4:18 4:18f 4:19 4:21
164n 55,56n 84n 83 186 llln 102 147 97,98 98n 116 98n 98n
454
Index
Luke (cottt.)
4:30 7:39ff
4:36 4:43 6:18 7:12 7:18-23 7:22 7:27 8:1
155 92n 155 114n 97 172n 85 92n
7:39-41 7:42 7:48 7:56 9:2 10:11
8:29 8:42
155 114n
13:44-50 17:16
9:6 9:35
98 113,113n
13:33
19:23
of
Passages
110 151n 151n 55, 56n, 273n 164n 102n, 1 0 3 257 103,103n 55 337 151n 257
20:19 21:26ff
274n 323n
28:26ff
210
Romans 1:1 1:2-4
274n 97
15:3f
16
15:3-5
97
15:50
163
2 Corinthians 3:6 3:7-12 4:5
274n 17 274
5:18
274n
11:23
274n
Galatians 1:10 4:8
274n 274n
9:38 9:42 11:19 11:24 15:15 16:16 17:2-8
114n 155 232 155 164 98n 337
l:3f
289
5:15
257
17:5-6
315n
1:17
56n
6:2
218
125 1 9 5 a 342n
2:24
56n
6:12
163
18:35 22:30
6:4 8:32
John 1:14
114n
1:18 1:23 1:34 2:32 3:16 3:18 4:9 6:3 6:5-15 6:14
114n 84n 113 172n 114n 114n 288n 11 233 712n
6:15
23
7:31
172n
9:10 12:13 12:15 12:20ff 12:26 12:37ff 18:36
288n 331 57n 165n 274n 210 163
Acts 1:8 1:21-22 3:13 3:26
165n 58 110 110
4:1-31 4:11 4:27
5:12-21
337 261n,345,346 110
5:16
257
Ephesians 1:6 2:13-19
17 257 11411,11711,267
Philippians 1:1
274n
2:8
14
9:14ff 9:24ff 9:32f 9:33 10:4 10:15 11:34
387 387 85n 387 195n 387 387
Colossians 2:16 4:5
13:4
274n
1:9-10
14:18 15:8 16:18
274n 274n 274n
1:19 4:12
1
1 1 Corinthians 1:18-25 46,252,383 1:23 1:39 2:9 3:10-17 5:7f
238 55,56n 55,56n 345n 362
5:12 9:19 10:1 if 10:1-4 10:1-11 10:20 13:2
203n 274n 108 104n 17 157 335,337
13:35 15:lff 15:1-5
113n 287n
151n 17 99n
11 203n
Thessalonians 97 274n 203n Timothy
4:6
274n
Titus 2:14
285n
Hebrews l:6ff 4:16 11:17 1 Peter 2:4-7 2:6-8 2:7 2:22ff 3:18
117n 287n 114n 346 85n 261n,346 386 287n
Index
2 Peter 1:17 3:10
113,117n 103n
1 John 4:9
of Passages
Revelation 6:14 9:20 10:7 14:6
455
103n 157 97 97
11:19 19:11 22:10
103n 102n 206n
114a H7n
VII. Rabbinic Writings Shemoneh
59b
'Esreh
(Benedictions/ 7
Tefillah)
t.
Sheqal
39n 1:6
326
10
39n
11
39n
14
39n
t.
16
39n
3:15
m.
'Aboth
3:15
342
Keritot
1:7 17:15 18:2 26:2 ;;/.
Nega'im 276
MI. 2:1 6:2
Sanhedrin
MI.
Sheqalim
276 275n
326 Sota
b.
Shabbat 164n
114a 335 334
b.
345
Sota
14a
164n
52a
17b 34b
HOn 138n
b.
62b
164n, 281
64a
345
b.
75n
'Erubin
138n
Tosefta t. Baba 5:7 t. B. K.
75n, 7 6 n
Gittin
8:14
334 164n Pesahim 164n
87b 117b
334 306n
b.
Qiddushin 276
b. Rosh
Hashana
31a
Me'il 342
Ta'anit
3:8
138n
19:b
138n
23a
138n
25a
119n
y.
Ta'anit
b. Sanhedrin 1:1 38b
y.
288n
Megilla
2:1
Mesi'a
165n
116n
14.8,68d
56b 70a
31b 165n
Sitkkah
Palestinian T a l m u d
Ta'anit
3:8
276
Berakot
b. 3b
9:18
1.16
285n
b. b. 3a
b. 1:13
t.
283,288n
98b
138n
43a-b
MI.
98a
67a
Mesi'a
59b 326 326n 326n 326n
2.1
MI.
288n
114n b. Baba
in.
164n
97a
Sukka
Babylonian Talmud b. Baba Batra 3b 3b-4b
Mishnah
118n
65b
306n
Mekilta (R. Ishmael) 3 2 7 12:42 39n 15:1 163 16:25 229n,232n 21:30 280 Rabbah Genesis Rabbah 100.9 84
327n
327n 66
Exodus 1:5 11:2 12:24
Rabbah 163 280 39n
456
Index
Exodus
Rabbah
(cont.)
15:18
39n
15:19
342
18:12 30;17 32:1-3, 5, 7 32:6,9 51:1
233 342 66 66 39n
Leviticus
of
Passages
83
29/30b 29/30b.6
84 63n
E x 12:42
30 32-7 33 35 35.4 36
84 83 84 98n 75 147
Tg. 2
Rabbah
1:14 10.2 20:7 21:7
84 84 275n 84
Pirqe
Rabbi
Eliezer
4 3 [25a] Sipre
75 Numbers
1 1 2 o n 14:20 Deuteronomy
84,85n
11:9
74n
Qohelet
Rabbah
1:9
229n
E c c l . 1:9
232n
1:28
233
Lamentations 1.2.23 1.22.57
Rabbah
Sipre
75
312
343
333
275n,280
Sopherim 19:9 Midr.
84 84
Deuteronomy
41
74 Tan.
Rabbah
232n
Canticles
2:11-13
316n
2:13
316n
232n
116n, 117n 284 84 66 84 84
90:9 118:22 147:1 Pesiqta 28e 29/30a
98n
N u m 2:2
98n
D t 1:1.1
84
Gen49:10ff
306n
G e n 49:11
143n
Tg. Onqelos Gen49:10ff E x 24:7-8
306n 359
Psalms
2:9 4:8 17:3 22:27 23:7
26
Tanhuma (Buber) Ex 16,135
Targums Tg. Neofiti
Qohelet
1:9 Midr. 2:7
98n
276
Midrashim
Midr.
ha-Shalom
13 (59b)
13a
Midr.
tfsullah
21 Pereq
Esther
151
Rabbah
4:11
66 306n 98n
Tg. Yerusalemi G e n 49:11 E x 12:42 Ex 15:18 E x 21:42 Ex 24:7-8
143 39n,233 39n 39n 359
Rabbati 98n,343 98n 84
Fragmentary
29/30a.5
Tg.
Pseudo-Jonathan
Gen49:10ff Dt 30:4
306n 74
233
Kings
2:8 Tg.
Tg.
59n Isaiah
1:29 2:6 3:llff 5:1b 5:lff 8:19 10:27 11:2 17:11 28:10 28:21 31:4 32:4-8 35:1-10 40:3 40:9 40:10 42 42:1 42:lff 42:7 42:16 42:14 42:18 42:21 42:24 43:1 43:2ff 49 50:4 52:1-12 52:7 52:12 52:13 52:13f 52:13ff 53 53:1 53:4 53:5 53:6 53:7 53:8 53:10 53:10ff 53:11 54:lff
190n 190n 342 342 335 190n 143 115n 190n 190n 190n 101 242 242 84 101,174 101 384 115n,233n 115,152,302n 115,254 98n 246 246 246 246,254 281 79n 384,385 254 279n 101 279n 279n 302n 279n 261n,385 97,99n,101 175n 116n,362 175n 169n 279n 279n 302n 254 279n
Index
55:lff 56:1 57:5 57:8
246 101 190n 190n
57:18
101
60:1
101
60:20 60:22 61:1
101 101 98n,302
of
63:lff 65:3 65:11 Tg.
457
Passages
79n 190n 190n
Tg. Psalms 80:16 118 118:22-29
Jeremiah Tg.
4:15 Tg.
116n 306n 345
97
Canticles
4:5
233
7:4
233
Ezekiel
21:12
97
V I I . Hellenistic-Jewish Writings Joseph 18:11 21:4 23:10
and
Josephus:
20.97-99
Asenath HOn HOn HOn 96n, 138n, 263n,328,328n
Antiquitates 1.30
39n
20.168-72 20.97f 20.106-12 20.167ff Contra
39n 138n 323n 138n
Philo 96n,138n,263n De agricultura 51 66 De migratione 174
Abrahami 66
Apion
2.27
202n
De praemiis
et poenis,
de
exsecrationibus
56n
16 (91-7)
2.232
HOn
Bellum
4.260-5 5.344
202n 274n
1.103-5
Judaicum
8 8.354 9.19 10.72
168n 274n 146 274n
1.73f 2.477-80 2.224-7 2.261-63
305n 166 323n 39n
11.325-39 11.342-45 12.312 12.348f 13.304-6 13.391-4 15.417 17.194ff 18.280
305n 305n 305n 305n 305n 166 323n 310n 274n
5.194 6.124f 6.281 6.300-9 7:437ff
323n 323n 326n 329n 138n
1.30
Lives
56n
of the
21.3
143
166 Quaestiones in
et
solutiones
Exodum
2.13 De
66 sobrietate
1.1 De specialibus 1.1 2.225 2.226
56n,66 legibus 56n 202n 202n
Prophets 76n
VIII. G r a e c o - R o m a n Aristotle Rhetoric 1414b D i o n y s i u s of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 1.8.4
54n
Isocrates Philippus 1
56n
Lucian Historia 53 55
56n
54n 93n
Polybius Histories 1.5.1
56n
Quintillian Institutionis 10.1.48f
54n
Tacitus Histories 1.1.1
56n
458
Index
of
Passages
IX. Early Christian and Gnostic Writings Acta
C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a
Thecla
1
113n
Apostolic 2.32
Constitutions 108n
Paedagogus 1.6.25
108n
Didache Athanasius
9
108n
Contra IV.24
Justin M a r t y r 1 Apology 48
88n 172n
Epistle
Arianos 108n of
Barnabas
Irenaeus Adversus 3.20.4
88n 108n 88n 85n 172n
Lactantius Institutes 4.15
108n
3:6
113n 113n
Dialogue 1
75,76n
4:8
113n
4
75,76n
5:lf
386
8
75,76n
Symposium
5:13-6:2
386
49
75,76n
8.9
6:2-4
85n
88
108n
103
108n
288n
16:1-5
342
18 - 20
257
frag 4 1
Clement
16:1-7
386
M e t h o d i u s of O l y m p u s
of the
Ebionites
(or
Banquet) 108n
Polycarp Letter
Gospel
88n
3.22.4 4.5.4 4.22.1 4.33.11 4.55.2
4:3
12:10-11
Haereses
to
the
Philippians
8:1-2
386
108n Tertullian Adversus 4:8
Marcionem 172n
Index of Modern Authors A a l e n , S.,
352n
Abbott, E. A.,
332n
A b r a h a m s , I.,
73n,86n
Achtemeier, E.,
Beck, N. A., B a a r d a , T., Baarlink,
164n
H.,
96n,99n,
105n,
106n, 107n, 116n, 158n,
123n, 255n Bachli,
O.,
176n, 181n, 202n, 300n,
Bacon, B. W . , B a i l e y , K. E . ,
137,
137n, 138n, 163n, 172n, 173n, 178n, 179n, 287, 287n, 288,288n, 289,291n A c k r o y d , P. J.,
67n,79n,
2 9 , 3 0 , 31,
A h l s t r o m , G., Alexander, P., Allegro, J. M.,
203n
Bentzen, A.,
Baird, M. M.,
159n
Berger, K.,
B a l d w i n , J . G.,
68n
Ball, D. R.,
204n
Ball, T.,
36n
Best, E . ,
lOOn
ln,2n,3n,5n,
5 4 , 5 4 n , 57n, 60n, 108n, 118n, 124n, 125n, 126n, 140n, 145n, 146n, 148n,
68n, 70n
Barrett, C. K., 140n, 148n,
150n, 152n, 153n, 177n,
335n
151,173n, 258n, 260n,
199n,200n,201n,221n,
62n,66n
270n, 2 7 1 , 2 7 1 n , 2 7 2 ,
222n,229n,235n,236n, 237n, 238n, 240n, 250,
2 7 3 , 2 7 5 , 276, 276n,
250n, 2 5 1 , 2 5 1 , 252,
151n
316n, 3 2 2 , 3 2 4 n , 3 2 9
258n,260n,262n,291n,
Barstad, H. M.,
267n
B a r t h , G.,
165n
Barthelemy,
In, 55n,
43n
D.,
A n d e r s o n , B. W . ,
Bater, B. R., B a u c k h a m , R.,
Bauernfeind, O.,
79n,
Betz, O., 5 4 , 5 9 n , 98n, 99n,
82n
HOn, 1 1 5 n , 1 1 6 n , 1 3 8 n ,
379n,
140n, 144n, 148n, 159n,
B a u m g a r t e n , J. M.,
209n,32Qn,354n
Baxandall,
28,87n,88n,258n
154n,
M.,
Bayer, H. F., Beale, G.,
342n 30,30n 270n
141n, 170n,
157,157n, 158,
191n, 192n, 244n,
158n, 159n, 163n, 164n,
282n,287n
167n A r b e s m a n n , P. R.,
B e a s l e y - M u r r a y , G. R . ,
158n 34n
102n, 135n
161n,163n Beuken, W . A. M.,
75n, 198n, 203n B e a u d e t , R.,
79n
lOOn,
254n, 267n, 275n, 297n, 302n,303n,321n
163n
81n, 160n, 178n, 17-19, 27,
356n
115n
325n,326n,328,328n
199n,211n,212n,249n
292,293n,330n,350n,
113n, 114n
187n, 188n, 197n, 198n,
Beyer, H. W.,
151n,273n
Bickerman, E. J . , Bieler, L . ,
323n 96
Bietenhard,
H.,
166n
B i l e z i k i a n , G. G . , 2 n , 3 0 n , 54n,325n Bishop, E. F. F.,168n, 3 1 3 n Black, M.,
3 9 n , 7 5 n , lOOn,
HOn, 1 8 7 n , 1 8 8 n , 2 2 1 n ,
ln,2n,
222n,265n,285n,345
55n, 5 6 , 5 6 n
26,30n, 6 0 , 6 0 n , 88n,
Blackburn, B., 137n, 161n,
73n, 190n
163n, 184n, 187n, 188n,
173,175n, 231n, 232n,
98n
197n, 198n, 199n, 203n,
166n
205n,207n,208n,209n,
115n,152n
211n, 227,228n, 248n
Auerback, M., A u n e , D. E . , M.,
A y t o u n , R. A . ,
B e r k e y , R. F . ,
39n
309n,323n,324n,325,
Avi-Yonah,
242n, 257n
Barnett, P.W.,
lOOn, l O l n , 1 0 2 n , 1 2 6 n ,
A r n o l d , G.,
168n
Bergmann, J.,
115n
56n,59n,60n,99n,
Arens, E.,
277n
277,278n,285,286n,
Ambrozic, A. M.,
Arendt, A.,
2n
Baird, J. A.,
83n, 85n,
Alt, A.,
Annen,F.,
198n,229n
Belo, F.,
142n
75n, 260n,
Anderson, H.,
178n, 246n, 267n Behm,
86n, 115n Allen, E. L., A l l i s o n , D. C ,
33,49
77n, 79n,
80n, 140n, 149n,
B a m p t f y l d e , G.,
36,38,39n
A l a n d , K. a n d B . ,
Begrich, J . ,
Barnes, W . E.,
188n,209n,240n A d a m s , J. L.,
260n
113n,3113n
319n,321n A c h t e m e i e r , P. J . ,
146n
Beckwith, R.,
154n
301n,303n, 311n,317n,
226n,233n
Becker, J . ,
Beavis, M
A.,
236n,316n B l a k e , R. P . , Blanchette,
HOn O.,
192n
460
Index
of Modern
Authors
Blenkinsopp, J . , 7 9 n , 2 7 9 , 306n,321n Blevins, J. L . , 235n
Brownlee, W . H., 171n Bruce, F. F., 39n,96n B r u n n e r , H., 192n
278,278n, 279,279n Cerfaux, L., 197n, 198n C h a m b l i n , K., 87n
Blidstein, G., Bligh, P. H.,
218n 96n
B u c h a n a n , G. W . ,
Blomberg, C. L., Bluhm, W.,
228n 34n
B u d e s h e i m , T. L . , 222n Bultmann,R., 125n,127n, 147n, 154n, 160n, 287n Burger, C , 116n, 287n, 288n,290n,306n B u r k e , D . G., 83n
C h a r l e s w o r t h , J . H., 8n, 7 5 n , 8 4 n , HOn, 1 1 5 n , 143n,144n,171n,230n, 238n
Bocher, O., 59n, 75n, 157n B o c k , D., 63n, 87n, 114n, 117n,243n Bockmuehl, M. N. A.,
2 0 3 ^ 32511,32811,32911 Boecker, H. J . , Bokser, B. M . ,
67n 39n
Bonnard, P. E . , 78n, 79n, 141n,298n,301n Boobyer, G. H., 127n, 134n, 135n, 196n, 197n, 198n,206n,208n,233n B o o t h , R. P . , 216n,312n Borg, M J., 324n Boring, M. E . , B o r n k a m m , G., Botterweck,
56n, 123n, 132n 203n 191n
Boucher, M , 163n, 179n, 188n, 196n, 197n, 198n, 199n,200n,203n,204n, 205n,207n,208n,209n, 225n,226n,228n,231n, 232n,234n,235n B o u d o n , R., 34n, 37n Bousset, W . , 108n Bowker,J. W., 196n,203n Bowman, J., 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 8 , 27, 59n,85n,87n,163n, 172n,178n,179n,316n Bowman, J. W., 97n, 99n B o x , G. H., HOn Brady, J . R.,
168n
B r a u d e , W . G., 63n B r e t s c h e r , P . G., 87n, 108n, l l l n , 1 1 2 , 1 1 6 n , 117n Brierre-Narbonne, J.-J., 115n Bright, J . , 327n B r o a d h e a d , E . K., 173n, 332n B r o o k e , G. J . , 82n, 86n, 115n B r o w n , R. E . , 75n, 113n, 114n,138n,172n,203n, 206n,291n
311n, 328n
B u r k i l l , T. A . , 53,53n, 1 3 2 , 1 3 3 n , 154n, 166n, 167n,187n,198n,240n, 249n,250n,292n,306n, 310n,311n,315n,316n, 327n,340n,342n B u r r i d g e , R. A . , 30n, 59n B u r r o w s , M., 97n Buschel, F., 260n, 278n B u s e , I., 1 0 3 n , 1 0 7 n , 1 0 8 n B y r n e , B . , HOn, 1 1 6 n , 1 1 7 n Cadbury, H. J., C a d o u x , C. J.,
27n 188n
C a i r d , G. B . , 148n, Calvin, J . , Camery-Hoggath, J., Campbell, J.,
198n 245n 184n lOOn
Cancik, R , 2n,%n C a n t r e l l , R. A . , 3 1 7 , 3 1 7 n , 318 Caragounis, C , Carlson, C. E.,
259n, 266n,267 112n
Carlston, C. E.,
127n, 343n,345n C a r m i c h a e l , D. B., 351n Carmignac, J., 143n Carrington, P., 2n, 10-11, 2 7 , 1 0 9 n , 132n, 134n, 332n C a r r o l l , R. P . ,
151n,327n, 341n
C a r s o n , D. A . , 112n Casey, M , 260n, 284n, 285 Cassuto, U., 66n Castoriadis, C , 42,44n C a t c h p o l e , D. R . , 304, 304n, 305,305n, 306n, 308,308n, 310n, 326n, 328,330n C a v e , C. H., 157n, 159n C e r e s k o , A . R., 115n,
Charpentier, E., 76n, 105n,298n Chary, Th., 70n Chavasse, C , Chevallier, M. A.,
39n 102n, 115n C h e y n e , T. K . , 2 4 5 n , 3 0 0 n C h i l d s , B . S., 63n,64n, 79n, 245n, 277n Chilton, B. D., 79n,84n, 91n,93n,97,97n,98n, 9 9 n , lOOn, 1 0 1 , l O l n , 108n, l l l n , 115n, 126n, 143n, 148n, 164n, 168n, 187n,188n,198n,204n, 277n,287n,288n,323n, 326n,327n,340n Chirichigno, G. C , 63n Christie, W . M , 313n Churgin, P., 73n Citron, B., 199n Clark, A., 316n Clark, K. W . , lOOn C l e m e n t s , R. E . , 79n, 81n, 142n, 170n, 171n, 188n, 1 8 9 , 1 9 0 n , 194n, 214n, 215n,242n,244n,297n, 298n,240n,341n Clifford, R. J . , 115n, 141n, 142n,178n,246n,279n, 281n Clines, D. J . A., 266n Coakley, J. F., 305n, 306n, 330n Collins, J. J . ,
HOn, 1 7 1 n , 266n Conrad, E. 322n, 366n Coole,D., 34n,38n Coppens, J., 112n, 284n, 283n Cornette, A., 344n Courts, J., 187n, 197n, 198n Craghan, J. F., 157n, 164n,167n Craigie, P. C , 112n, 253n, 317n,318n,328n,341n Cranfield, C. E. B., 56n,
Index
9 6 n , 10311, l l O n , l l l n , 125n, 127n, 135n, 148n,
17811,17911,19511,20811, 211n,227n,258n,262n, 337n Cross, F. M., 42,82n, 105n, 115n, 140n, 141n, 160n, 161n, 162n C r o s s a n , J. D., 2 0 1 n , 2 1 6 n Crusemann, F., 170n C u l l m a n n , O., 108n, 113n, 355n D a g g e r , R., 36,36n Dahl, N. A., 79n,203n D a l m a n , G., HOn, 1 1 6 n , 164n,271n,281n D a l y , R. J . , 108n Dantelou, J . , 108n Daniels, D. R., 41 Danker, F. W., 199n,249n D a u b e , D., 37n, 38,38n, 64n, 86n, 288n, 332n, 347n,351n D a v e n p o r t , G. L . , 306n D a v e y , N., 152n, 169n, 173n D a v i e s , G . I., 320n Davies, P. R., 249n,277n Davies, W . D., lln,39n, 108n,113n,U4n,322n D a v i s , K. L . , 188n Day, J., 160n Deissler, A., 68n,70n Deissmann, A., 96n DeJonge,M., 84n,98n, 102n, 115n, 143n, 147n, 148n,171n Delitzsch, F., 63,106n, 116n,215n,245n, 271n, 276n,300n,301n D e l l i n g , G., l O l n , HOn, 169n D e r r e t t , J . D. M . , 2n, 24, 27,54n,108n,158n, 1 5 9 , 1 5 9 n , 164n, 168n, 172n, 1 7 8 , 2 1 7 n , 227n, 238n,306n,334n,345n Deubner, L., 158n D e w e y , J., 2n, 133n, 185n, 197n,347n Di Leila, A. A., 83n Dibelius, M., 53,123n, 138n
of Modern
Dietrich, W., von Dobschutz, E.,
213n 85n, 311n D o d d , C. H., 3 , 1 8 , 26, 33,39n,48,49,60n, 62n, 8 4 n , 8 5 n , 8 6 n , 8 7 n , 9 3 n , lOOn, 1 0 8 n , l l l n , 117n, 127n, 134n, 135n, 148n,163n,195n,227n, 244n,284n,332n,369, 378,380n D o n a h u e , J . R., 8 9 n , 1 5 4 n , 163n,283n,292n,295n, 310n,311n,325n, 329n, 345n,346,346n D o r o n , P., 37n, 38 D o w d , S. E . , 172n,292n, 311n,313n,315n,324n, 325n,333,334,335, 336,337,337n D o w d a , R. E . , 3 2 5 n , 3 3 4 , 334n D r i v e r , G. R., D r i v e r , S. R.,
300n 70n
Drury, J., 54n, 1 9 6 n , 2 0 3 n D s c h u l n i g g , P., 311n Duff, P . B . , 305n, 307n, 308,308n,309n,310, 310n,326n,339n D u l i n g , D. C , 93n, 168n Dumbrell, W. J., 71n,73n, 76n,78n,81n,115n, 142n,191n,279n,296n, 297n Dunn,J.D.G., 8 n , HOn, 144n,232n,387n DupontJ., 197n Dupont-Sommer, A., 75n, 255n D u r h a m , J . I., 65n, 66n, 80n,81n,161n,277n, 2%n Earl, D., Eaton, J. H., Ebling,H.J., Edersheim, A , Edgar, W.,
461
Authors
55n llln 169n,293n 63n,89n 63n
E d w a r d s , J . R., 89n, 90n, 153n,201n,311n Egger, W., 93n, 255n Eichrodt, W., 81n, 249n E i s e n m a n , R., 171n E i s s f e l d t , O., 69n, 191n
Elliger, K., 6 7 n , 7 3 n , 7 7 n , 79n, 8 1 n , 1 4 0 n , 2 4 5 n , 246n Elliott-Binns, L . E . , 132n, 133,134n Ellis, E . E . , 8 5 n , 9 4 n , 2 6 0 n Ellul, J . , 4 , 3 3 , 3 4 n , 35, 37-40 E m e r t o n , J. A . ,
271n
E m m e r s o n , G. I., Engels, F.,
302n 34n
E p p s t e i n , V., 3 2 2 n , 3 2 6 n , 327n,326n,328n,330n, 343n E r l a n d s s o n , S., 319n Ernst, J., 53n, 59n, 173n, 178n,258n,260n,324n, 325n,338n Evans, C. A., 141n, 184n, 186n, 187n, 188n, 190n, 192n, 194n, 197n, 198n, 209n,214n,311n,325n, 326n,327n,328n,329n, 342n,354n,387n Evans, C. F., 134n, 135n, 73n,255n,308n,332n, 333n Eversan, A. J., Exum,J.C,
75n 214n,215n
Fabry, H. J . , 82n Faierstein, M. M.,75n,76n F a r m e r , W . R., 8 7 n , 3 3 0 n , 331n Farrer, A. M , 2n, 9-10, 12,13,19,27,54n, 127n, 165n, 197n, 198n F a w , C. E., 132n F a y , G., Feldman, A., Feneburg, W.,
197n 313n, 340n 94n
Feuillet, A., 103n,107n, 108n, 113n, 117n Fichtner, J . , 192n Ficker, Field, F., Fisher, L . ,
65n 114n 168n
Fishbane, M., 4n, 37n, 45n,49n,51,79n, 85n, 275n F i s c h e r , I., 7 3 n , 1 0 5 , 2 9 9 n Fischer, J . , 79n, 245n Fitzmyer, J. A., 3n, 18n, Fitzmyer, J. A., (cont.)
462
Index of Modern Authors 56n, 63n, 75n, 82n, 84n, 85n, 86n,
88a
98n,
llOn, l l l n , 113n, 114n,
205n,208n G e r l e m a n , G., Gibson, J. B.,
118n, 148n, 157n,
225n, 226n,
161n,171n,210n,212n,
147n,148n,172n,257n, 283n,287n,288n,306n
97n
138n
Gils, F . ,
Flusser, D.,
115n
Ginsberg, L.,
Foerster, W . ,
146n, 1 5 7 n
Fohrer, G.,
5 6 , 5 6 n , 59n, 62n, 86n, 89n, 91n, 92n, 96n, 99n,
189n, 190n
Glasswell, M. E . ,
104n
Fokkleman, J . P.,
80n
54,54n,55,
72n, 75n, 266n
Gitay, Y . ,
Guelich, R.,
108n, 113n
221n, 222n,
229n,235n,236n,250n
337n
233n Gillet, G.,
Flammer, B., Focant, C ,
Grundmann, W., 59n,89n,
171n, 241n
225n, 237n
102n, 103n, 108n, HOn, 114n, 116n, 118n, 145n, 153n, 156n, 157n, 159n, 161n, 164n, 164n, 165n, 166n, 172n, 173n, 178n,
Glazier-McDonald, B.,
F o r d , J. M.,
326n
67n, 68n, 69n, 70n,
195n,198n,199n,200n,
Foucart, P.,
158n
71,71n,72n,73n
201n,202n,204n,205n,
Foulkes, F.,
3,38n, 48,
117n,195n,369,378 Fowler, R. M ,
2n, 176n,
223n,225n,232n,237n
Gnilka, J . , 53n, 89n, 107n, 108n, l l l n , 113n, 127n,
207n,208n,211n,216n, 225n,226n,229n,231n, 235n,237n,240n
148n, 161n, 164n, 165n, 173n, 175n, 186n, 188n,
G u n d r y , R. H., I n , 3n, 56n,
196n,198n,202n,204n,
57n, 5 8 , 5 8 n , 59n, 61n,
117n,198n,255,255n,
297n,211n,217n,240n,
62n,63n,89n,94,94n,
260n,261n,262n,270n,
258n,260n,288n,293n,
95,95n,99n,102n,103n,
272n,373n,276n,281n,
322n,324n,325n,338n,
106n, 107n, l l l n , 113n,
282n,284n,285n,286n,
353n, 357n, 360n, 361n,
114n, 117n, 118n, 123n,
322n,324n,325n,351n,
364n
126n, 128-131,145n,
165n
146n, 153n, 154n, 155n,
F r a n c e , R. T . ,
69n, 76n,
355n,356n,357n Frankemolle, H., 97n,99n F r e u d , S.,
G o o d m a n , M., Goppelt, L.,
39
Fredrich,
75n
Fredricksson, H., F r e y n e , S.,
140n
132n, 134n,
Gordis, R.,
92n,96n,
116n
179n 9 9 n , lOOn,
108n, l l l n , 113n, 114n,
197n,199n,200n,201n, 205n,206n,207n,211n,
105n,142n,298n
213n, 216n, 217n, 217n,
Gould, E . P.,
5n, 135n,
230n,237n Funk, R.,
163n
F u s c o , V.,
197n
Gaboury, A.,
108n
251n,260n,261n,262n,
375n
264n,265n,267n,268n,
G o u l d e r , M . D., 2 n , 2 2 - 2 4 ,
271n,290n,304n,305n,
G o u l d , S.,
2 7 , 1 7 3 n , 187n, 199n, 201n,202n,203n Grant, F. C , Grant, R. M., G r a y , G. B., Greenberg, M.,
Gage, W.,
50n
Gartner, B.,
115n
Garvie, A. E . , Gaston, L.,
383 146n, 218n,
Greenfield, J . C , Grelot, P., Gressman, H., Grimes, A., Grimm, W.,
311n,312,312n,313, 313n,314,314n,315,
326n, 332,
322n,325n,327n,328n,
332n
331n,333n,334,335,
191n
336,338,338n,342n,
64n, 249n
343n,345n,346n,347n, 351n,356n,357n
115n
115n, 144n 79n 35 148n, 148n,
316n,322n,323,323n,
172n, 173n, 258n, 270n, 280,280n, 281,281n,
Geertz, C ,
306n,307n,310n,311,
93n
324n,324n,326n,332n G e d d a r t , T. J . ,
226n,228n,230n,233n,
216n
117n, 148n, 152n, 163n, 169n,173n,177n,225n,
186n, 188n, 195n, 196n,
38n,39n,76n,104n,
97n,98n,99n,178n, Fuller, R. H . ,
156n, 159n, 1 6 0 , 1 6 1 n , 164n, 175n, 184n, 185n,
Gottwald, N., 3 5 , 3 5 n , 38,
235n Friedrich, G.,
39n, 160n,
170n, 176n, 178n
Gunkel, H.,
354n
Gutbrod, W.,
192n
Guttgemanns, E . , 3n, 123n, 124n
325n
2 8 2 , 2 8 2 n , 284n, 284n,
Haag, E.,
34n, 38n, 45n,
286n,322n,357,357n,
Habel, N. C ,
377n
358,359,360,361n
Gelston, A., Gerhardsson, B.,
253,253n 117n,
Grindel, J . , Gross, H.,
82n 142n
42
Gunneweg, A. H.,
Habermas, J., Hadas, M., Haenchen, E.,
43n,359n 155n 34n 2n,%n 56n, 57n,
Index
124n, 25811,36311 H a h n , F., 97n, 108n,124n, 334n Haldar, A., 242n,257n Halpern, B., 35,40n H a m b o r g , G . R., 188n Hamilton, R., 312n Hamilton, N. Q.,
154n, 163n H a n h a r t , R., 62n H a n n i n e n , S., 34n H a n s o n , P . D., 7 3 n , 1 0 5 n , 106n, 107n, 116n, 140n, 142n, 158n, 160n, 162n, 181n,202n,233n,300n, 301n H a r e , D . R. A . , 117n Harnack, A., %n, 163n H a r n e r , P. B . , 79n, 80n, 354n,366n H a r r i s , R. J . , 8 5 n , 8 6 n , 8 8 n Hartman, L., 9,85n,269n Harvey, J., 79n H a r v e y , A. E . , 199n, 203n H a s e l , G., 194n,241n Hatch, E., 85n,277n H a w k i n , D. J . , 1 6 3 n , 1 7 3 n , 221n,222n,225n,229n, 233n,236n,237n,250n H a y s , R. B., 387n H a y w a r d , R., 108n,325n H e a d , P. M., 231n Hedrick, C. W . , 93n Heidegger, M., 38n Heil, J . P., 1 6 1 , 1 6 1 n , 2 1 1 n , 225n,228n,229n,231n, 235 Heising, A., 138n, 176n, 178n,179n,229n Heitmuller, W., 13n Held, J. H., 172n Hempel, J.,
242n
H e n d e l , R . S., 352,352n Hengel, M., 8n, 13n, 14n, 39n,59n,97n,99n,U0n, 238n,255n,260n,276n, 284n,286n,287n,331n, 380n H e r i o n , G. A . , 33,35n H e r m a n n , I., 43n Hesse, M., 375n Hessler, E., 76n, 77n, 78n,297n H i e r s , R., 308n,316n,
of Modern
463
Authors
322n,325n Higgins, A. J. B., 258n, 273,274n,282n,285n Hill, D., 278n Hobbs, E. C , 2n, 12-13, 19,27,54n,126n,127n, 159n, 160n, 178n H o e p e r s , P. M., 3 5 4 , 3 5 4 n Hofius, O., 175n Holladay, W. L., 317n, 318n,341n Hollenbach, P., 163n Hollenberg, D. E . , 320n Holmgren, F., 142n H o l m - N i e l s e n , S., 80n Holtzmann, H. L., 93n, 157n Holzmeister, U., 187n H o m m e s , N. J., 86n H o o k e r , M D., 2 4 - 2 5 , 2 7 , 28,53n,59n,88n,96n, 9 9 n , 1 0 8 n , 1 0 9 n , HOn, l l l n , 112,114n, 116, 1 1 7 , 1 1 7 n , 123n, 127n, 145n, 146n, 148n, 152n, 153n, 161n, 166n, 173n, 178n,201n,211n,230n, 233n,237n,244n,255n, 256n,258n,260,260n, 262n,267n,269n,270n, 271,271n,272,273n, 276n,277,278,278n, 279,283n,284,284n, 285,285n,286,286, 288n,293n,295n,304n, 311,311n,315n,316n, 322n,323n,324n,325n, 325n,327,332n,338, 338n,345n,347,351n, 3 5 5 , 3 5 6 , 3 5 7 n , 358n, 362,363,363n,386, 386n v o n H o o n a c k e r , A.,
67n, 70n
Horbury, W., 8n, 75n, 283,283n,284n H o r s l e y , R. A . , 4n Horstmann, M., 124n Hort, F. J. A., 91,94n Horton, F.L., 147n Hoskyns, E. C , 152n, 169n,173n Hubaut, M., 198n H u g e n b e r g e r , G. P., 2 7 7 n ,
Hughes, J., Hultgard, A.,
278n,279n 87n,135n 103n
Humphrey, H. M., 233n H u n t , P. B. W . S., 85n Hunter, A. M., 85n, 108n Huntress, E., 115n Huppenbauer, H. W., 249n H u r t a d o , L , In, 66n, 87n, 108n, l l l n , 127n, 148n, 153n, 161n, 178n, 188n, 260n,289n,322n,338n Hutton, W., lOQn H y a t t , J . P.,
65n
v a n Iersel, B., 93,124n, 178n,206n,289n I n s t o n e - B r e w e r , D., 244n Isbell, C . D., 69n Jackson, F.,
271n
J a m e s , M . R.,
83n
Janowski, B.,
156n
J e l l i c o e , S., 114n Jenni, E . , 142n Jensen, J., 190n,192n, 193n,194n,214n,215n, 242n,243n,255n Jeremias, Joachim, 108n, 110, l l l n , 113n, 115n, 135n, 152n, 161n, 165n, 175n, 176n, 178n, 187n, 188n,196n,199n,227n, 233n,249n, 276n, 277n, 281n,283n,284n,285n, 306n,321n,340n,345n, 351n,358,360n,362n Jeremias, Jorge, 159n JerveU,J., 165n,195n J o h n s o n , E . S., 92n, 198n, 240n,248n,250n,251n, 252n J o h n s o n , S. E . / 88 Johnstone, W., 253n Jones, G . H . , 142n Judge, E. A., 97n,306n Juel,D., 243n,244n,310n, 315n, 326n, 328n, 330n, 335,340n Julicher, A., 340n Kahler, M., Kaiser, O.,
2,14,123 79n, 141n,
464
Index
Kaiser, O., (cont.) 170n, 188n, 193n, 215n, 242n, 340n Kallas, J . , 140n, 155n, 156n, 169n, 177n, 181n K a n g , S.-M., 140n Keck, L., 53,92,92n,94, 96n, 107n, 108n, 163n, 225n,292n Kee,H. C , l,2n,3,4n, 8n, 20-22, 2 5 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 51n, 53n, 54n, 8 5 , 8 5 n , 88,89n,93n,94,107n, 108n, 1 1 6 , 1 3 7 n , 152, 160n,172n,188n,206n, 255n, 258n, 264,306n, 314,318n,322n,328n, 345n, 362,369n, 381 K e e g a n , T. J . , 195n Kelber, W . H., ln,54n, 60n, lOln, 126,126n, 127n, 132n, 154n, 164n, 166n,188n,199n,222n, 230n,233n,235n,240n, 256n,287n,288n,289n, 292n,306n, 311n,322n, 324n,325n,332n Keller, J . , 224n Kermode, F.,
2n
of Modern
Authors
Kirkland, J. R., 1 9 9 n , 2 0 8 n Kirkpatrick, A. F., 170n Kissane, E. J . , 170n, 245n K i t c h e n , K. A . , 192n Kittel, B., 39n,71n,255n Kiuchi, N., 285n K l a u c k , H.-J., 173n, 175n, 187n,198n,221n,226n, 235n Klausner, J., Kline, M.,
75n, 144n, 171n 3n
Klostermann, E., 147n, 150n,164n,172n,240n Knibb,M.A., 110n,113n, 115n K n i e r i m , R., 191n K n i g h t , G. A . F . , 65n Knox, J., 87n K o c h , D. A., l n , 8 6 n , 1 1 6 n , 123n, 135n, 140n, 163n, 177n,232n,240n,255n Koch, K., 79n,98n,142n, 175n,242n,257n Koch, R., 1 1 6 n , 2 4 3 n , 3 0 0 n Koester, H., 292n Kohler, L., 65n,69n,79n Kolenkow, A. B., 138n, 139n
Kertelge, 145n, 161n, 169n,
K., 1,138n, 154n, 155n, 157n, 163n, 164n, 166n, 170n, 177n, 178n, 222n,240n v o n Kienle, B., 313n K i e s o w , K., 43n, 76n, 77n, 78,78n,297n Kiilunen, J . , 185n Kilian, R., 81n,296n Kilpatrick, G. D., 55n, 56n,113n,322n K i m , S., 110n,259n,281, 281n,282n,310n K i m , J. C , 141n
Koole, J. L.,
141n
Kraeling, C. H., K r a u s , D.,
59n 311n
K i n g s b u r y , J . D., In, 53n, 59n,87n,93n,108n, 109n, 185n, 196n, 198n, 199n,205n,208n,229n, 230n, 231n, 233n, 236n, 238n,250n, 251n,288n, 290n,342n,344n Kinman, B. 305,305n, 306n, 307,308n, 309, 309n,330n
L a c h m a n n , K.,
Kraus, H.-J., 104n, 112n, 151n,191n,253n,354n K r u p p , K., lOOn, 2 9 9 n Kruse, H., 150n Kuby,A., 92n,222n,229n, 236n K u h n , K . G., 99n, 144n K u r n m e l , W . G., lOOn, 123n,135n,140n,286n K u t h i r a k k a t t e l , S., 91n Kutsch, E., 352n 57n
Lack, R., 79n L a g r a n g e , M.-J., 56n, 57n, 70n,88n,114n,187n, 203n,322n,325n,337n L a k e , S., 271n Lambrecht, J., 145,184n, 197n,199n,200n,201n, 346n L a m p e , G. W . H . , 148n,
187n,277n Lane, W. L., In, 3n, 5n, 53n, 56n, 59n, 85n, 87n, 89n, 99n, 107n, 108n, 126n, 134n, 146,146n, 1 4 7 , 1 4 8 n , 154n, 173n, 175n, 178,195n, 200n, 201n,202n,204n,211n, 212n,217n,229n,235, 240n,251n,258n,288n, 293n,310n,314n,322n, 325n,337n,338n,357n, 361n Lang,F.G., 123n,124n Langton, 146n Lash, N., 40n Laudan, L., 375n LaVerdiere, E . A., 178n L e a n e y , A . R. C , 247n Leenhardt, F. J . , 113n L e g a s s e , S., 148n, 152n L e i v e s t a d , R., 144n, 146, 152n,163n Lemcio, E. E., 99n, 227n, 248n Lenglet, A., 261n,268n Lentzen-Deis, F., 91n, 103,103n, 104,105, 106,106n, 107,108n, 108n, l l l n , 114n, 115n, 117n Leupold, H. C., 245n L e v e y , S. H . , 115n, 143n, 144n,233n Lichteim, H., 192 Liebreich, L. J . , 191n, 193n,297n L i g h t f o o t , R. H . , 53, 91, 91n,94,99n,132,132n, 1 3 3 , 1 3 4 n , 164n, 167, 229n,240n,250n,322n, 324n,326n,332n Limbeck, M., 146n Lind, M. C., 140n L i n d a r s , B., 57n, 82n, 87n, 94n, 108n, 115n, 176n, 210n,216n,258n,260n, 281n,283n,284n,285n, 286n,316n,320n,380n Lindblom, J., 192n L i n d e s k o g , G., 205n Loader, B., 238n L o e w e n s t a m m , S. E . , 3 7 n Lohmeyer, E., 54n, 56n,
Index
5 8 n , 8 8 n , lOOn, l O l n , 104n, l l l n , 117n, 127n, 132,132n, 133,165n, 1 6 7 , 1 6 9 n , 173n, 231n, 256n,287n,322n,323, 323n,324n,330n,338n, 353 Lohse, E., HOn, 1 1 6 n , 276n,288n,306n,357n Loisy, A., 87n, 169n Longenecker, R., 58n L o n g m a n , T., 168n van der Loos, H., 156n, 160n, 161n, 164n, 165n, 169n, 170n, 172n, 178n, 232n L o u w , J., L o v e , J . P.,
164n, 165n 189n
L o v e s t a m , E . , l l l n , 114n, 116n,151n,168n,289n L u b s c z y k , J. R., 79n Luhrmann,D., Luz, U.,
91n,108n, 116n,310n 60n, 126n, 235n,236n
Maclntyre, A., 34n M a c L a u r e n , E . C B., 146n M c C a r t h y , D. J . , 354n M c C a s l a n d , S. V., 82n, 178n,257n,383 M c C u r l e y , F . R., 127n M c K a n e , W., 192n, 214n, 215n,243n,317n,318n, 327n,328n McKay, J. W., llln M c K e l v e y , R. J . , 3 3 2 n , 3 4 5 n M c K e n z i e , S. L . , 6 9 n , 7 1 n , 72n, 74n, 245n M a a g , V., 191n Mack, B., 2n, 2 1 0 n Maillot, A., 387n M a i s c h , I. M . , 175n M a l b o n , E . S., 2n, 60n, 124n, 133n, 196n, 198n, 199n,210n,212n,221n, 222n,223n,225n,229n, 235n,308n M a l c h o w , B . V., 6 9 n , 7 5 n Malina, B., 185n,202n Maloney, F. E., 221n,250n Manek, J., 39n, 8 9 n M a n n , C . S., Mann, J.,
l%n 74
of Modern
465
Authors
M a n n h e i m , K., 34n M a n n i n g , D. J . , 34n M a n s f i e l d , M . R., 153n M a n s o n , T. W . , 62n, 73, 116n, 117n, 187n, 188n, 208,208n Manson, W., 139n, 198n, 62n, 73,108n, 332, 332n Marcus, J., I n , 3n, 4 n , 5 n , 9,49n,51n,54n,56n, 6 0 , 6 0 n , 75n, 86n, 87n, 99n, 103n, 111, l l l n , 113n, 128n, 136n, 161n, 179n, 184n, 188n, 197n, 198n,199n,200n,203n, 204n,205n,207n,208n, 209n, 210n, 222n, 227n, 228n,231n,249n,256n, 260n,268n,288n,290n, 291,306n,330n,345n, 346n,351n,357n, 361n, 362n,363,364n Marshall, C. D., 163, 3 6 6 , 366n, 367n M a r s h a l l , I. H . , 3n,50n, 1 0 8 n , HOn, l l l n , 1 1 3 n , 114n, 117n, 172n, 174, 174n,207n,208n, 218n, 232n,333n,334n,362n M a r t i , D. K., 70n Martin, R. P., 27,56n, 96n, 98n, 171n, 175n, 192n,193n,255n,293n, 316n,380n M a r t i n - A c h a r d , R., 192n, 193n M a r t i n e z , F . G., HOn Martyn, J. L., 171n, 172n M a r x , K., 34,35 Marxsen, W., 16,54n, 56n, 58n, 63n, 86n, 96n, 99n, 102n, 132n M a s o n , R., 73 M a s u d a , S., 179n Matera, F. J . , 53n, 108n, 221n,230n,232n,237n, 287n,304n,305n,306n, 307n,310n Maurer, C , 103n, 108n, 110n,113n,357n,362n, 363n,364n Mauser, U., 9,39n, 53n, 54n, 58n, 87n, 89n, 92n,
108n, 117n, 126n, 132n, 150n,178n,179n,333n M a y e r , R., 134n Meagher, J. C , 2n, 204n, 207n M e a m s , C. L., 115n Meeks, W., 138n, 172n M e l u g i n , R. F . , 76n, 77n, 78n, 79n, 149n, 150n, 173n, 1 7 8 n , 2 0 9 n , 2 4 3 n , 245n,246n,253n,278n, 279n,293n,297n,299n, 300n,366n Mendels,D., 39n,238n M e n o u d , Ph. H., 170n Merrill, E. H., 244n van der Merwe, B. J., 79n, 149n,297n,299n,300n M e s z a r o s , I., 34n M e t t i n g e r , T., 77n, 116n, 141n,191n,297n,300n, 355n Metzger, B. M.,
113n, 187n,335n M e y e , R. P . , 126n, 137n, 170n,181n,198n,222n, 225n,235n Meyer, B. F., 359n Meyer, H. A. W., 56n,59n M e y n e t , R., 150n Michaelis, W., 63n,74n, 125n,242n,257n,263n Michaels, J . R., 92n Michel, O., M i c h i e , D., Milavec, A.,
86n, 116n, 300n,305n 2n,153n 344n
Milgrom, J., 285n M i l i k , J . T., 148n,283 M i l k i k o w s k y , C / , 75n, 7 6 n Miller, J. W . , 267n Miller, P. D., 140n, 141n, 160n M i l l e r , D., & M i l l e r , P . , 2n M i n e a r , P . S., 1 9 9 n , 2 0 0 n , 203n M i n e t t e d e T i l l e s s e , G., 124n, 196n, 199n M o o , D. J . , 89n, 114n, 117n,216n,260n,262n, 264n,266n,267n,268n, 276n,282n,356n,357n, 358n,359n,362,362n,
466
Index
M o o , D. J . , ( c o n t . ) 363, 363n,364n Moore, C , A., 188n M o o r e , G., F . , 75n Morgenstern, J., 80n,161n Morris, L., l l n , 113n Mosley, A. W., 199n Moulder, W . J., 258n Moule, C . F . D . , 62n,76n, lOln, 108n, 187n, 188n, 199n,208n,260n M o w i n c k e l , S., 7 9 n , 1 9 1 n Muhlmann, W . E., 163n Muilenburg, J., 79n, 142n, 245n,296n,298n,301n, 321n,354n M u l l e r , D., 93 Muller, M., Mullins, W . A., Mufiner, F . ,
283n 34n,35, 40n 102n
of Modern
Authors
Ollenburger, B. C , 81n, 160n, 1 6 1 n , 1 9 1 n , 2 9 9 n ,
354,35411 O l m s t e a d , A . T., O'Neill, J . C ,
171n 108n
Orlinsky, H. M., 267n, 275n,320n,355n Osborne, B. A. E . , 249n v a n d. O s t e n - S a c k e n , P . , O'Sullivan, N., O s w a l t , J . N., Otto, R.,
143n,196n 34n 151n, 170n, 188n 150n
Paldan, L., Pannenberg, W., P a r a n u k , H., Paton-Williams, Patrick, D.,
34n 40,40n 93 D.,
M y h r e , K.,
Pauritsch, K.,
105n
N i x o n , R. E . ,
39n
N o c h , A. D., 97n N o r t h C. R., 116n, 245n, 266n,273n,281n,300n, 303n,355n N o r t h R., 65n Notscher, F., 257n O a k m a n , D. E . , 1 4 9 n , 3 1 1 n O e h l e r , G. F . , 320 O g d e n , G. S., 142n
Quesnell, Q.,
124n, 179n,
184n,200n,204n,205n,
237n
64n 171n
Nillson, M. P., 158n N i n e h a m , D. E . , 2 8 , 6 3 n , 88n, 107n, 148n, 159n, 164n, 167n, 173n, 178n, 179n,198n,216n,337n, 345n
375 125n 159n lOOn 80n, 142n, 191n,2%n Prichard, J. B., 141n Procksch, O., 116n, 278n Pryke,E.J., 23n,227n
225n,226n,235n,236n,
P a u l , S. M . , Paul,
266n 188n 188n, 190n, 194n
Polanyi, M., P o r t e r , S. E . , Preiker, Preisker, H., Preufi, H . D . ,
206n,209n,221n,223n,
199n
N i d i t c h , S., Nielsen, E.,
76n, 142n, 298n
63n
Patten, P.,
Neusner, J., 8n, 75n, 156n, 211n,325n,326,326n, 332n Neyrey, J. H., 2n Nicholson, E. W., 352, 352n Nickelsburg, G. W . E . ,
P o l a n , G. J . ,
77n, 297n
M y e r s , C., 2n, 163n, 164n, 198n,206n,227n,325n, 326n 353n,359n
Pimental, P., 155 P i p e r , O., 11-12,13,19, 27,39n,54n,132, 255n,276n Pokorny, P., In
Peacock, H. P., 235n Peisker, C. H., 188n Perrin, N., In, 93,93n, 95,96n,124n,125n, 126n, 140n, 163n, 181n, 226n,230n,250n,258n, 283n P e s c h R., 3n, 53n, 56n, 59n,63n,73n,88n,92n, lOln, 107n, 108n, l l l n , 123n, 127n, 148n, 157n, 164n, 165n, 167n, 172n, 173n, 178n, 179n, 188n, 195n,211n,212n,225n, 226n,231n,232n,237n, 238n,240n,258n,288n, 293n,310n,322n,328n, 338n, 343n, 351n, 356n, 357n,359n,306n Pesch W., 83n P e t e r s e n , N . R., 2 3 n , 7 1 n , 206n,223n,229n,230n, 237n,248n P e t e r s o n , D. L . , 69,69n Peterson, E., 305n Petzke, G., 96n Pfeiffer, E . , 67n Phillips, A., 218n Pilch, J. J . , 202n
v o n R a d , G.,
80n, 105n, 140n,194n Raisanen, H., 2n, 187n, 188n,190n,199n,200n, 204n,205n,207,207n, 208n,221n,235n,311n, 346 Reedy, C. J., 250n Reifenberg, A., 331n Reiterer, F . V., lOOn Rendtorff, R., 79n,80n, 8 1 n , lOOn, 1 0 4 n , 1 4 2 n , 155n,191n,240n,296n, 297n,298n,299n,300n, 302n Rengstorff, K. H., R e p l o h , K. G . , Repo, E.,
195n, 328n
ln,221n, 222n,235n 125n, 257n
R e y m o n d , P., 169n R h o a d s , D., 2n, 1 5 3 n Richardson, A., 139n, 160n, 163n, 169n, 170n, 172n, 173n, 175n, 177n, 178n,181n,229n Ricoeur, P., 4,30n, 33, 34n,35,35n,36,37, 37n,38n,41n,45n,46, 46n Ridderbos, H., 165n
Index
Riesenfeld, H., Riesner, R., Rigaux, B., Ringgren, H., 140n,
127n 255n 125n 141n,
of Modern
R o b e r t s , J. J . M , 81n, 189n,191n,242n,243n R o b i n s o n , J. A . , 113n, 114n, 116n R o b i n s o n , J. A . T., 57n, 74n,76n,344n Robinson, J. M , In, 28, 53,58n,59n,92n,93n, 99n, 1 0 0 , 1 0 7 n , 140n, 146n, 150n, 152n, 199n, 235n
Schenker, A., 352n Schlatter, A., 71n,98n, 1 1 4 n , 116n, 1 7 2 n Schmahl, G., ln,222n, 235n Schmauch, W., 89n Schmid, J . , 164n, 210n, 212n Schmidt, K., 2,93,93n, 99n, 123,125n, 160n Schmithals, W . , 3,335n Schnackenburg, R., 9 8 n , 113n, 114n Schneck, R., 26-27, 28, 56n, 61n, 86n, 94n, 102n, 103n, 104n, 107n, 1 0 8 n , HOn, 1 1 3 n , 1 4 8 n , 148n, 149n, 157n, 173n, 1 7 8 , 1 7 8 n , 186n, 187n, 188n,191n, 196n,216n, 227n
Rogerson, J. W . , Roloff, J . ,
llln 322n
Schneemelcher, W., 96n, 99n
Romaniuk, K.,
188n
Schneider, G.,
14311,24211,25511,25711, 277n R o b b i n s , V. K . , 2 n , 2 4 0 n , 251n, 255n, 288n, 289n, 291n Roberts, C. H.,
Rose, D. G.,
85n
79n
Rost, L . ,
354n
Roth, C ,
303,308n,
Schnellbacher,
467
Authors
102n, 287n,306n E. L.,
Scott, M . P., 94n S c o t t , R. B . Y . , 171n Seccombe, D., %n, 98n Seeley, D., 306n,325n, 327n,328n Seesemann, H., 151n Segal, A., 108n,243n Seidelin, P., 115n Seidl, T., 141 Seitz, C . , 78n,82n Seitz, O.,
92n,284n
Seliger, M., Sellin, E . ,
34n,377n 68n,73n
Selvidge, M . J . , Senior, D., Sergeant, J . ,
222n 89n
133n, 139n, 292n
v a n Seters, J . , 37 Seybold, 263n S h a e , G . S., 316n,338n Shepherd, T., 144n,311n S h e p p a r d , G. T . , 141n, 340,341n Shigeo, 86n Siegman, E . F . , 199n, 203n Silva, M . , 114n
311n,317n,333n,334n Schniewind, J . , 96n, 169n Schoeps, J . , 343n
Simcox, C. E . ,
82n
Schoneveld, J., 249n Schoors, A., 76n, 79n, 8 1 n , lOOn, 1 4 1 n , 1 4 2 n , 149n,150n,173n,245n, 293n,296n,297n,320n, 366n Schreiber, J . , 86n, 126, 126n,134n Schreiner, J . , 116n, 190n, 193n,300n S c h u p p h a u s , J . , 115n, 3 0 2 n Schiirer, E . , 75n, 84n, 113n, 115n, 144n, 147n, 166n, 171n, 176n Schiirmann, H., 284n S c h u l z , S., 13-15,13n, 27,292n
Simon, U., 341n Skehan, P. W . , 83n Skinner, J., 170n, 245n S l a t e r , T. B . , 260n Smart, J . D., 8 0 n , 116n, 142n,245n,300n,301n, 321n Smith, C. W . F . , 127n, 332n Smith, D. E . , 55n Smith, M., 2n,96n, 138n, 198n Smith, R. H., 39n Smith, R. L . , 68n, 69n, 70n,71n,72n S m i t h , S. H . , 1 5 3 n , 1 9 6 n , 347n
115n, 280n Schaberg, J . , 266,267n, 268 Schede, C , 282n,360n Schelke, K. H., 187n Schenke, L . , I n , 124n, 161n,169n,251n,293n
Schweitzer, A., 179n Schweizer, In, 53,54n, 56n, 59n, 87n, 92n, 96n, 108n, 113n, 124n, 126n, 127n, 179n, 195n, 216n,225n,250n,258n, 308n,324n,325n Scott, D., 375n
Smolar, J . , 73n, 190n Snaith, N. H., 170n, 185n,268n,320n Snodgrass, K. R., 4 2 , 8 3 n , 84n,85n,256n,340n, 341n,342,342n,343n, 344n,345n,346n
309n,326n,329n Roth, W . , In, 25-26,27, 138n Roth, W . M. W . , 141n Rowland, C , 45n Ruckstuhl, E . , 109n, HOn, l l l n Rudolph, W., 69n,70n Ruppert, L., 262n Russell, D. A., 54n Ryle, E . H., 83n, 147n Sahlin, H., 80n,157n, 163n, 164n, 166n Saldarini, A . J . , 196n Sanders, E.P., 164n, 173n, 323n,325n,326n Sanders, J.A., 354n Saner, G., Sawyer, J.F.A.,
Simon-Yofre, H., Simon, M.,
142n 43n 86n
468
Index
Soden-Wachter, 171n,241n Souter, A., 113n, 114n Spykerboer, H. C , 43n, 76n,78n,79n,81n, 141n, 142n, 149n, 185n, 296n,300n Standaert, B. H., 2n, 124n,197n Stanley, C. C , 3n, 51f, 83n,85n,259n,380, 381 Starcky, J . , 75n,284n Starkova, K. B . , 8 3 n , 2 5 5 n Stauffer, E . , 306n
of Modern
320n
von
Steck, O. K , 171n, 193n, 194n,300n,343n Stegner, W . R., 8 6 n , 2 3 1 n Steichele, H.-J., 9,54n, 61n, 63n, 75n, 261n, 262n Stein,
124n
S t e m b e r g e r , G., 1 3 2 n , 1 3 3 n Stendahl, K., 57n,58n, 61n, 73n, 85n, 86n, 87n,88n,114n,117n, 186n,213n,216n Stendebach, F. J . , 158n Stenning, J. F . , 63n, 115n S t e r n , D., 340n Stevens, B. A., 140n, 144n, 161n, 163n Stock, A., 54n, 9 3 , 9 3 n , 9 5 , 1 2 4 n , 134n, 163n, 221n,232n,324n Stock, P., 153n,222n Stolz, F . , 161n Stone, M. E . , 115n Stonehouse, N. B., 53n, 56n, 109n, 124n, 132n, 133n Strecker, G., 96n, 97n, 99,124n,236n,250n, 267n Stuhlmacher, P., 9 6 , 9 6 n , 97,97n,98n,98n,99, 9 9 n , 1 0 1 , HOn, 1 1 6 n , 172n,258n,271,271n, 274n,280n,282n,286, 287n Stuhlmueller, C , 79n, 8 0 n , 8 1 n , lOOn, 1 5 5 n , 160n, 161n, 178n, 185n, 245n,298n,299n,319n,
Authors
Stummer, F., 77n Suhl, A., 16-17,18,19, 21, 23, 26, 2 7 , 2 8 , 49,87n,109n,188n, 216n,227n, 278n,287n, 289n,357n,362n Sundberg, A. C , 26,50n, 86n, 206n Sundwall, J., 92n, 160n, 233n Swartley, W. M., 2n,5n, 19-20, 2 7 , 2 8 , 3 9 n , 54n, 6 0 , 6 0 n , 63n, 72n, 82n,86n,87n,123n, 1 2 4 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 5 n , 126, 1 2 7 , 1 2 8 n , 134n, 135n, 169n,256,257n Sweeney, M. A., 76n,79n, 188n,189n, 214n,279n, 354n Sweet, J . , Swete, H. B.,
198n 62n,88n, 164n,203n
T a g a w a , K., Talbert, C. H.,
199n 2n, l l n , 96n T a l m o n , S., 5 8 n , 8 2 n , 2 3 3 n Tannehill, R., 2n,124n, 185n,221n,235n T a y l o r , V., 56,56n,57n, 103n, 108n, 114n, 125n, 127n,161n,165n,211n, 258n,286n,322n,324n, 324n,325n,326n,337n, 338n,345n,351n Teeple, H. M., 39n Telford, W . R., 1,7,60n, 134,306n,311,311n, 312,312n,313,313n, 314,314n,315n,316, 318,331,332n,333, 3 3 4 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 6 , 339, 342n T e r r i e n , S., 243n T h a g a r d , P., 375n,376n Theisohn, J . , 271n, 283n T h e i s s e n , G., 39n, 138n, 156n, 157n, 161n, 163n, 165n,232n Thiselton, A. C , 40n T h o m p s o n , J. A . , 317n, 318n,327n,328n,341n
T h o m p s o n , K.,
34n
Thompson, M. B., 7 T h o m p s o n , R. C , 158n Thrall, M. E., 127n T i e d e , D. L . , %n, 97n, 137n, 138n, 163n Tilly, M., 308n Todt, H. E . , 151n,258n, 284n,294,358n Tolbert,M. A., l,2n,4n, 30n,139n,176n,200n, 205n,212n Tomasino, A. J., 188n Tooley, W., 232n Torrey, C. C., T o w n e r , W . S.,
79n, 171n 84n
T r e n c h , R. C . , Trilling, W . , Trocme,
159n lOln 93n, 167n,
198n,199n,258n,325n, 332n,344n T r u m b o w e r , J. A., 184n Tuckett, C. M., 184n, 203n,206n,235n Tunyogi, A. C , 151n Turner, C. H., 56n, 61, 108n,113n,114n,352n Turpie, D. M c . C , 62n Tyson, J., 201n,221n, 222n,235 von
Ungem-Sternberg,
A.,
86n
van Unnik, W . C , Urbach, E. E.,
103n
75n, 138n
Van Cangh, J.-M.,
229n, 232n
V a n d e r K a m , J . , 8n, 143n, 144n,244n,259n V a n W i n k l e , D. W . , 283n,320n,355n d e V a u x , R., 158n, 283n Verhoef, P. A., 67n, 68n, 6 9 n , 7 0 n , 71n, 7 3 n V e r m e s , G., 75n, 108n, llln,138n,168n,243n, 284 V e r s e p u t , D. J . , Via, D. O., Vielhauer, P.,
116n 2n
Viteau, J . ,
59n,108n, 124n, 171n 83n
Vogtle, A.,
310n
Index
Volz, P., V o r s t e r , W . S.,
17111,22911 23-24,
27,28,87n V r i e z e n , T. C , 1 8 8 n , 1 8 9 n , 214n,354n Vuilleumier, R., 73n Waetjen, H. C ,
2n
von Waldhe, U. C , 217n von Waldow, H. E., 80n, 115n,243n,279n,298n, 366n Walker, W . O., 284n Wallace, H. N., 69n,71n, 72n,74n Wansbrough, H., 145n W a r d , J. M., 243n, 244n, 254n Watling, E. F., 52 Watson, F., 2n W a t t s , J . D. W . , 80n, 105n, 106n, 158n, 188n, 191n,213n,215n,242n, 267n,297n W a t t s , R. E . , 50n, 73n, 82n,99n,101n,115n, 117n, 141n, 142n, 143n, 149n, 156n, 169n, 171n, 173n,202n,203n,243n, 244n,246n,252n,254n, 268n,273n,275n,279n, 284n,317n,320n,366n Watty, W. W., 331n W e b b , R. L . , 6 9 n , 7 0 n , 7 6 n , 102n, 104n, 184n Weber, M., 36-37,36n Webster, E. L., 302n W e d e r , H., 344n W e e d e n , T. J . , In, 172n, 201n,221n,222n,230n, 235,293,293n
of Modern
469
Authors
140n 191n,273n 88n
Wilkens, 217n Williams, J . G., 2n,197n Williamson, H . G. M.,
Weiss, J., 140n,209n Weiss K., 124n W e l l h a u s e n , J . , 92n, lOln, 322n
73n,149n,202n,300n Willis, J . T., 341n
Wendland, E., Wendling, E., W e n h a m , D.,
Wink, W.,
Weippert, M , Weiser, A., Weiss, B.,
67n,68n 92n,201n 145n
Wenham, J., 13n Werner, E., 187n, 206n, 283n,306n,311n,360n Westcott, B. F., 91,94n W e s t e r m a n n , C , 76n, 77n, 79n,79n,80n,105n, 106n, 107n, 116n, 141n, 142n, 143n, 148n, 158n, 161n,181n,202n,245n, 246n,253n,266n,280n, 281n,298n,300n,301n, 303n,317n,319n,320n, 321n,355n,364n,366n Whedbee, J. W., 190n, 192n,193n,242n,243n, 245n,340n,341n Whewell, W., 375,375n, 376 W h y b r a y , R. N . , 105n, 106n, 107n, 116n, 142n, 143n, 158n, 172n, 192n, 243n,245n,266n,268n, 275n, 300n, 301n, 303n, 319n,321n,322n,356n, 357n,364n Wikgren, A., 55n Wilcox, P., 77n,297n Wildberger, H., 79n, 141n, 171n, 188n, 189n, 190n,192n,193n,214n, 215n,242n,340n
Windisch, H.,
60n, 126n, 187n,226n 59n,84n,86n,
88n,141n,157n,163n Winterbottom, M., 54n Wise, M., 171n Wolff, H. W . ,
82n,355n, 361 W o o d s , E. J., 279n W o o d , J. E . , 108n v a n d e r W o u d e , A . S., 69n,115n,171n Wrede, W., 165n, 181n, 206n, 2 2 1 n , 2 3 2 n , 2 3 5 , 238n W r i g h t , G. E . , Wright, J.,
140n, 188n,221n 58n
Wright, J. W., 221n W r i g h t , N. T., 3 8 2 n , 3 8 7 n W r i g h t , R. B., 115n Wurthwein, E., 114n Yates, J. E., 53n Y e e , G. A., 3 4 0 , 3 4 0 n , 341n Y o r k , A . D., 97n Y o u n g , B. H . , 340n, 343n Y o u n g , E . J., 79n,245n Z a h n , Th., 113n Z i e n e r , G., 178n Ziesler, J . A., 126 Zillessen, A., 79n Zimmerli, W., 79n,80n, 115n,116n,152n,249n, 300n, 321n
Index of Names and Subjects Abraham 41, 3 1 7 , 3 4 5 Abrahamic promise 278 Acted parable 323 Adam
41
Fall of
118
Ahab
6, 2 6 , 3 4 3
Ahaz
193f, 2 4 1
Ai Alexander
158 305,339
Alexander Janneus 166 Allusions 7,21 Altar 342 Analogy A n d m e t a p h o r in history 40 Principle of 376 Angel Of the L o r d 64, 70 Of Y a h w e h 65 Anointed O n e 282 A n o i n t i n g of J e s u s Antigonus ANZAC Apocalyptic Imagery
307 305 44 16,21 102
Secret 205 Apocrypha 259,262 Apollonius 305 Apostates 319 A p p o i n t m e n t of the twelve 186,202 A p p r o p r i a t i o n , act of 3 1 0 Aqedah 108,277 Aquilla 261, 263, 281,285 Ark, of covenant, 305 Assimilation of Jesus to God 174 Athena 158 Atonement 359 Baal
26
Bablyon 141, 2 3 3 , 3 2 0 , 3 7 0 ceremonial parades 77 Baptism Christian 13,110 John's 59,338f
O f J e s u s (see J e s u s ) Barabbas
229, 234f 364
Bartimaeus
172,240, 291, 304f Confession of 249,287 Healing, significance of 163n, 2 5 0 Beelzebul/Beelzebub 10, 145,198, 201, 204, 208, 2 3 7 , 3 7 2 Controversy 6,144, 152f, 1 5 5 , 1 6 2 , 1 7 4 , 1 8 5 , 1 9 5 f , 2 1 9 , 227f, 234, 269, 2 8 9 , 3 7 5 P u r p o s e of Beelzebulparables complex 210 Beliar 147 Bethsaida 230 Beth-Shean 158 Blasphemy 153,174 A g a i n s t the Spirit 151,162 Blind / B l i n d n e s s ( s e e also W i s d o m ) 198f, 2 3 5 , 243ff, 248ff, 3 0 9 Of disciples (see Disciples) Of the Jewish people en toto 210 Grundlage for i m a g e r y of 186ff, 2 1 0 , 226ff, 241ff, 2 4 8 , 2 5 5 Blind m a n 125 B l i n d n e s s / d e a f n e s s (see also W i s d o m ) 214, 2 4 3 , 246, 248f, 3 0 3 , 371 A s ironic j u d g e m e n t 1 9 2 Reversal of Israel's 2 4 0 Of servant Jacob-Israel 297 B l o o d o f the c o v e n a n t 3 5 2 Blood ritual 351,353 Blood shedding and 'servant' passages 355f Boat scene 223, 225,
Caesar Caesarea
347 Philippi
230, 288
Calendars 2 Calendrical schedules 10 C a l m i n g the s t o r m (see Storm, Camelot
stilling) 29
Cana 154 Canaan 24 Canaanites 342f Canon, OT 260n Capernaum 323 Capstone 345 Carmel 22 C a s t i n g o u t of d e m o n s (see d e m o n s ) C a t o the y o u n g e r 306 C e n t u r i o n , a w e of 364 C h a m b e r of h e w n stone 330 Chaoskampf 160,180 Chiastic structure Chief p r i e s t s / Scribes and elders 199 Christ, as son of David 287,289 Declarations of 1 2 5 , 2 8 8 Christology 21,110, 291,305,383 Citation (see also Mark, Introductory citation) One author with composites 89 In r a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s 1 3 5 Citations, Old Testament 20f, 2 3 , 5 1 In M a r k ( m i x e d c h a r a c t e r of) 2 1 , 2 5 8 f Paul's citational method 51 Cleansing of the Temple 7,19,60,134,371,373
Index
Cloud and storm theophany
43
C o l t , in e n t r y s c e n e s 3 0 6 f C o m m a n d s t o silence 18,169 Concatenatio 93 Confrontation with religious leaders 144ft, 153,156,184ff, 195, 210, 224, 2 9 2 , 2 9 4 In J e r u s a l e m 134,288, 338ff, 3 4 7 f Conquest 9,10,11,12, 37,38,41,43,65, 72n,104n,291 Consilience 7,375f Controversy
153,212, 217, 2 2 3 , 3 4 7 Beelzebul controversy
and Isaiah Stories Corban
of Names
Dame Wisdom Daniel D a v i d (-ic)
243 41
Traditions 39 D a y of Y a h w e h 68, 70, 75 Deaf-mute 175,181 Deafness / d u m b n e s s 156n 171,172,175 Decapolis 133,165 Delay of N E / I N E (see N e w Exodus and Isaianic N E ) Delos 158 Demoniac
B o o k of 63ff,352 Curse 278 at E x o d u s 72 Inauguration of n e w 3 6 0 Mediator, Moses 63 Ratification m e a l 352 Reconstitution of Israel Renewal
362 63
A t Sinai Sanction
12,65 218
Unfaithfulness 71,83 Creation 41,239 C r e a t o r - W a r r i o r (see Yahweh) Crowds 128,145, 2 0 0 , 287ff, 3 0 7 C u p Saying 351ff, 3 6 4 f Cursing O f fig t r e e 7, 6 0 , 1 3 3 f , 296,316,337,348, 368,371,373 Of land 71,88,296 Cyrus 82, 203, 239, 244,246,317,320
118,239, 306,345
Prince And Solomon
Demeter
Coronation Psalms 111 C o u r t of t h e G e n t i l e s 3 2 3 f Covenant 1 9 , 2 3 9 , 351ff, 359,361,365 A n g e l of 69-71
247 21,26f
354 6,287 257,348 297
174,185
Demonisation
158 157,164 163
Demons / Demonic 144ff, 154f, 1 5 7 , 160ff, 2 3 6 f , 292,308,331,372 E x o r c i s m s 1 5 4 - 6 0 , 163f, 169,232, 234, 292, 343,372 Legion 157ff, 1 8 0 , 2 1 9 Link with idols 157-9 As ultimate oppressors 163f, 1 8 0 Desert/wilderness 19,43, 58,80,138,178f Detainment motif 18 D e u t e r o - I s a i a h (see also Isaiah) 7,283 Diaspora
471
Subjects
Covenant Messiah Messianic son Monarchy
194ff 133,139, 211,217f
and
136,166
Dionysus 158 Disciples 130,235f, 240,290,292,336,353 Blind a n d deaf 128, 205f, 2 2 1 - 4 , 227,248 Incomprehension of 6, 19,129,131, 203,206, 225ff, 228ff, 2 3 4 , 2 3 7 , 249,269,293 A s N e w Israel 2 0 2 , 2 5 5 Private instruction by Jesus 128,130,238 S u p p o s e d p r o x i e s for Mark's opponents 222
R o l e in M a r k 222 Discipleship 20,92,124, 127,287,291 True discipleship D i v i n e W a r r i o r (see
251
Yahweh) Divorce controversy 127 Doxic threshold 34,46 D r o w n i n g of L e g i o n (see Legion) Early Christian missionaries Early church Eden
165 94,385 297
E x p u l s i o n f r o m as paradigm
243n
Egypt
279
Elders and Chief priests 196,199,267n Elect O n e 75,283 Eleusis
158
Elijah
2 2 , 25f, 68f, 7 1 , 134,161,176,185, 259,274,292,316,332 Elijah-Elisha 22
J o h n the Baptist as Redivivus Elisha
184 74H
25f, 1 7 6 , 2 7 4
Feeding story of 178 Miracles of 25 Enthronement, royal 126 Of Yahweh 296ff Entrance formulas 126 Entry genre 3 0 5 , 3 0 9 , 3 ( 3 9 , 344,367 O f Jesus a s c o n q u e r o r 1 2 , 304-7 Divine entries Ephraim
307-10 214
Epileptic boy 127, 292f Epiphany 53,231 Eschatological Banquet 179 Conflict 53,155f Jubilee 147 Ethiopia 279 Eubuleus 158 Eucharist 13,351ff Eunuchs 319 Exhortations to hear 207f Exile (s) 4 1 , 1 4 8 , 214, 244, 248,277f, 286, 320
472
Index
E x o d u s , First, 2,4, 6,9, 1 5 , 2 4 , 2 7 f , 37ff, 4 2 , 5 2 , 54, 7 2 , 8 0 , 1 0 5 f , 1 2 6 , 1 7 9 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 9 , 2 7 4 , 276ff, 2 8 5 , 2 9 2 , 296ff, 3 4 1 , 3 5 2 , 361,365,370 M a n n a , p r o v i s i o n o f in the a g e to c o m e 232 Rebellion of Israel 1 9 5 E x o r c i s m / s (see D e m o n s ) Faith
207,232,311, 314f, 3 6 6 Faithful Israel 203 False consciousness 35 Fear 366ff Feeding accounts 6,10, 12,15, 48,178,223, 225, 228, 230,235, 237f, 2 9 2 , 3 7 2 F i v e t h o u s a n d 178f, 2 2 8 Four thousand 11,179 As parables 226, 228, 234 Fever
156
Fig-tree
2 9 4 , 3 0 4 , 311f, 314ff, 3 1 8 , 3 3 1 , 333ff, 3 3 9 A s s y m b o l for I s r a e l 3 1 3 Graeco-Roman views
A n d the T e m p l e First Jewish revolt Foreigners (see Nations) F o r g i v e n e s s o f sins
312 311 166
173f, 181 F o r m critics 79 Founding Father 37f, 4 6 Ideolology 3 Mythology 31 Founding m o m e n t 4, 20, 3 1 , 3 3 f , 37f, 4 1 , 4 3 , 4 6 , 48f, 6 4 , 74, 8 0 , 90,105,247,341,351, 370,377 As interpretative schema 39 Prophetic transformation of 4 9 Fruitlessness 312 F u l f i l l m e n t , in M a r k , debate over 15, 17f, 2 1 , 24f, 27f, 5 9
of Names
and
Subjects
Galilee 132,367 Galilean Gospel 11 A n d Jerusalem 1 3 2 , 1 3 5 Ministry 93 Opposition 133 Gallipoli
44
Gattung / Genre 104,368 Gentile 13f, 1 9 , 2 1 2 , 322f, 3 5 3 Christianity 13f, 1 1 0 Gentile - Jew motif 175 Healing 13 I n c l u s i v e r o l e for 368 Mission 97 Proselytes, priestly r o l e for 321f, 3 5 4 Region 165 Geographical theology 132,167 Geras
166
Gerasene Demoniac 157f, 160,181 Gethsemane
24
Gettysburg
31,38
Gezer Gog
158 76
G o l d e n calf
13,19,46, 276,293
Good Samaritan 46 'Gospel', m e a n i n g o f 9 6 - 9 , 167-8 Grand piano Graves Great Sanhedrin Grid system
29f, 32f 162 330 32f
Haemorrahage 156 Haggadah 15f,28,347n Hanina ben Dosa 138 Hardening 15 Of heart Theory Hasmoneans
53,239,314 187f 238
Healings (see also Miracles) 9,10,12, 167n, 1 7 2 f , 1 8 1 , 3 7 2 In eschatological salvation
171
In Isaiah's N E 170 InOT 170 O f the Blind 124,129, 131,156,222, 229, 240, 268f, 3 3 7
Of the flow of blood 172,176 Of the l a m e m a n 174 Heavenly chief servant 66 Heavens, rending of Hegel Heilsgeschichte
119 21
15ff, 23, 27f
Hellenism Hellenistic
26 aretalogies
96 H e r o d 1 8 5 , 2 2 3 , 225f, 2 2 9 Herodians 195,347 Hexateuch 24 History 16,37 Israel's v i e w of 41 As mapping 32 Holiness 66,353 Holy One of G o d 155 H o l y Spirit (see also Spirit) 146f, 1 5 5 , 176,195,198,217 Holy W a r 65 Holy W a y
248
Holy way to Zion Homer
242 54
Honi the Circle-Drawer (Onias the Righteous) 138 Hostility 139,348,367 A s R e s p o n s e t o Jesus 1 8 5 House of prayer 3 2 2 , 3 3 0 H u m a n sacrifice 275 Hypocrisy 211 I c o n (-ic) 33,41, 44,50,90,236,247 Augmentation 34,41, 351,371 Indicators A n d symbol
370 42, 44, 46,49
Ideology
33ff, 3 6 f , 4 1 , 46,271,369,377 A n d crisis 45 Definitions of 35f As hierarchical 43 Icon a n d s y m b o l 46 A s justification a n d project A s legitimation Mediatorial role of Presuppositional
38 35 37 39
Index
Quasi-hierarchical 44f Semantic clash 46 Social function 5 A s stereotype 42 Structural embeddednessof 38 S t r u c t u r i n g of i c o n s a n d symbols 44 Idolatry 1 5 8 , 192, 246f, 249.303.372 A n d blindness 241 Curse 192 Israel 292,127 Jacob-Israel 276 Polemics against (see also Isaiah)
193, 244,246
and Wisdom
190,198, 213 Witchcraft 189 Immanuel 194,198,297 Imperial cult language 9 6 I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n (see Disciples) Induction, principle of 3 7 5 Insider-outsider termi nology 199f, 203f, 207,373 Insurrectionists 328,331 Temple authorities as 329,368 Integration of S o M and 'servant' motifs 282 Intercalation
235,311,
338.371.373 Double 304 Introductory Citation 53-90,184 Inverted hinge 93 Irenaeus 88 Ironic j u d g e m e n t 190ff Irony 15,30,71f, 74,87, 90,103n, 130,164,188, 190ff, 2 0 6 , 2 1 5 , 2 4 1 , 2 4 4 n , 244n, 2 6 7 , 3 0 2 , 3 0 7 , 3 3 1 , 336,339,341,346,351 Isaiah (see also individ ual topics) Anti-idol polemics 141 Commissioning of 105,191,215 Polemic against the wise ones 248 Proclamation of
of Names
and
salvation 245,297f Salvation oracles 141 Sign children 193 Trial speeches 141 Isaianic N e w E x o d u s (INE) 5f, 1 2 , 4 3 , 7 3 , 7 4 , 79-82, 8 6 , 1 0 2 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 8 f , 1 3 5 , 231ff, 236ff, 2 4 0 , 2 4 9 , 2 5 1 , 255f, 2 5 9 , 2 7 1 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 2 , 296, 302f, 3 0 7 , 309f, 316f, 3 2 2 , 339f, 3 4 8 , 3 5 3 , 356,361,370,378, Delay of 6 7 , 7 3 , 8 2 , 3 6 6 368,370 D i v i s i o n in I s r a e l In o t h e r J e w i s h
302
296ff B o n d a g e to the nations
Tenriinology defined 244 True enemies of 237 T r u e Israel 117,179, 223, 284, 286, 339, 362,371,202 Wilderness journey 12 Jacob
passim 157
Division within 185f, 202-5, 209-10 Failure as servant Jacob-Israel 243ff, 252f Failure to understand 188 Faithlessness and idolatry 66,188 A s flock 77 F o u n d i n g m o m e n t of 48,63 Heilsgeschichte 14 Ideological construal of her history 50 Unwillingness to obey 244 O p p r e s s o r s of 163 Restorational healing of 170 Self- u n d e r s t a n d i n g 48 A s God's son 112,116
345
Jacob-Israel 115,120, 1 7 3 , 3 7 1 , 2 7 5 , 278, 300,373,203 A s servant 117 Jechoniah
307
Jehoram Jehu
26 306
Jericho
traditions 82-84 O T t r a d i t i o n s in 80f Redemption by death of 'servant' 278,285 Schema 52 'Servant' 8 , 1 1 5 , 2 5 2 - 6 , 260ff, 2 7 5 n , 2 7 8 f f A s the W a y of Yahweh's Wisdom 241-7, 255f Y a h w e h ' s R e t u r n in Israel
473
Subjects
127,158
Jeroboam 46 Jerome 88,285 Jerusalem (Zion) 77f, 128,130,132,135, 2 4 0 , 297ff, 3 1 7 , 3 7 0 Authorities 338,342, 348,367 C e n t r a l i t y in I s a i a h 8 1 Faithlessness of 189 Leadership 210,214, 330,341,347 Restoration, centrality of 142,297 P u r g i n g j u d g m e n t of 7 0 , 90,190,306,332, (331), 349 Jesus Authority of
145, 338, 348,367 O v e r the sea 231 O v e r u n c l e a n spirits 154 Baptism 11,53,102-17, 119f, 1 6 2 Death 258ff, 3 4 9 f f A s deliverer- teacher 255 E s c h a t o l o g i c a l conflict with Satan 112,140 E x c o r c i s m s o f (see a l s o Exorcisms) 6,147, 149,166,181,219 Explanations, formal similarities 350 Family 153
474
Index
Jesus (cont.) Family / true family 133,185,201 F i r s t m i r a c l e 163ff, 3 4 3 Healing ministry 169ff Healings, response of religious authorities 217 Identified w i t h Malachi's angel of the covenant 87 Identification with Presence of Y a h w e h 8 7 , 1 4 0 f f , 160f, 2 3 1 , 307-10 Identity 225,228f, 2 3 0 , 235ff, 2 8 9 , 3 4 8 Innovative hermeneutic 285 A s Israel's messianic Shepherd 233f, 2 3 2 Kingship 305 Messiah 109ff, 1 7 7 , 235f, 2 3 8 , 3 2 9 , 3 4 7 As new Moses 107 Parabolic deeds 226 Parabolic healings 218 A n d purity 155,323 Relationship to law 25 Relatives 145 A s T r u e Israel Silence o f
108, 363
A s Son of David 286 A s Son o f G o d 110-4, 160ff, 1 8 6 , 2 2 3 Suffering, O T s e t t i n g of
259
A s 'suffering s e r v a n t ' 258-86 As teacher 254,290 Teachings, allusive c h a r a c t e r of 258 A n d T e m p l e Incident 318ff True family 186,255 True Israel 108,119, 266,118 T r u e 'servant' Israel (see also Israel) 2 3 9 Visit t o t h e T e m p l e 2 9 4 Walking on water 225, 235 As Yahweh-Warrior 144-234
of Names
and
Subjects
Jewish authorities 144ff 184ff, 195ff, 210ff, 276, 2 9 4 , 3 4 4 , 3 5 1 Jezebel 26 John, Gospel of 154 John the Baptist 22, 58-60, 8 6 , 1 8 5 , 208, 2 2 9 , 2 4 0 , 3 1 6 , 371 Baptism 104,339 Imprisonment 134,184 A n d Jesus 58-60, 84, 92,134f, 172,185, 229,291,315f, 338 A s M a l a c h i ' s Elijah 5 , 7, 8 7 , 1 3 4 , 2 9 0 , 315,343 Jonathan Maccabaeus 305 Jonathan, the w e a v e r 3 9 Jordan 133 P r e - c o n q u e s t crossing 1 2 Judas 26,267,305
Readings
10
Theory 22 Legion 159f, 2 3 4 , 3 7 2 Drowning of 10,12,48, 234,343 Leprosy
156
Levi, call of 13 Levites 321 Lincoln 31,33,38,40,46 Literary practice. Ancient 370 Literary structure 19, 22, 28,375 Of Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 79 Of M a r k (see M a r k ) Loaves 225,228,235 L o r d of the T e m p l e 338f Lucian 54 L X X (see a l s o M a r k ) 285,307 Idiosyncratic render ings 261
Judas and Simon Maccabaeus 330,342 Judicial blinding a n d hardening (see also Blindness) 186,193, 196, 2 0 5 , 2 1 5 , 218f, 242,248 Juridical parable 341, 345,347 Justin M a r t y r 386 King Arthur
29
K i n g d o m of G o d 96ff, 9 9 , 148,196f, 2 0 2 , 2 2 9 M y s t e r y of (see also S e c r e t / s e c r e c y ) 163n, 2 0 3 , 205ff, 2 2 8 K i n g d o m of D a v i d 288 K i n g d o m of priests 352 K i n s h i p ties 203 Knidos Kyrios-kerygma
158 15
Lament 245 Final Isaianic 162 Law 14,21,24,27 Leaven metaphor 226, 229 Of H e r o d a n d the Pharisees 223,314 Warning against 225 Lectionaries 2,11,28
M a c c a b e e s (see also individual's names) 305 M a c c a b e a n 'entries' 331,368 Maccabean martyrs 259, 274,276 Malachi Elijah 26,59,86, 208,296,371 A n d Isaiah 73 And Exodus O n Israel's
60,71,184
faithlessness 72 Failure of the Return 6 7 Manna 13,24 Mantalogical exegesis 45 Mark A c c o u n t s of J e s u s ' selfunderstanding 349 Audience 18,94 Audience and OT awareness 94,379ff Categories of miracles 138 Gospel, Jewishness of 4 7 I n t e r e s t in J o h n 88 Introductory citation 19, 24, 218, 240, 289,378 Jesus' teaching technique 345
Index
Literary outline 91ff, 123ff, 1 2 7 n , 1 3 5 , 1 3 9 , 152,166, 223-5, 229n, 230,371 L i t e r a r y skill
54,203, 291,369 'Sandwich' 57,90, 145,153,185 Technique 311
LXX
61,148,186,
213, 216,261 MT 61ff Narrative plot 348 Summaries 93,139 Superscription 58 Targums, dependence on 187 Marketplace 211 Marriage 299 Mars 158 Martyr-prophet Meaning systems Melchizedek
276 36 147
Mental maps, schematic a n d simplifying 50 Merging technique 85n Messenger 66,371 Announcing Yahweh's return 78 Of the C o v e n a n t 69f f M e s s i a h 7f, 2 0 , 4 6 , 5 3 , 7 5 , 87,98,111,115,144, 1 5 5 , 2 2 3 , 231ff, 2 3 8 , 249f, 2 5 6 , 2 8 3 , 2 8 8 , 302, 332, 344, 348, 356, 3 6 5 , 367f, 3 7 3 Revealed during the Passover 39 A s teacher 254 In Tg. Isa 244,143 Messianic Age 334f Dislocations Feast Figure
144,333 178 4 1 , 75f,
171, 283,348 King 344,346 Secret 18,235 Servant 152, 2 8 9 , 3 7 0 Son of G o d 348 Sufferings 244 Titles c o m b i n a t i o n s o f 143 U s e s of Ps. 2,115
of Names
and
Messianism 75 Metatron/Enoch 66 Military terminology 159 Miracle, Pre-markan Catenae
176
Miracles (see also H e a l i n g s ) 1 0 , 1 5 , 25f, 2 8 Of charismatic rabbis 138 Distribution of 139 O f Elijah a n d E l i s h a As epiphanic Of feedings
138 138 138
Misplaced 291 AndNE 139 P a r t i c i p a t i o n in 237 Of sight 6,125, 186, 249f, 2 6 9 Significance of 226 Of the E x o d u s 179 Mosaic covenant 354 Moses 1 0 , 1 5 , 24f, 1 0 4 , 172, 2 3 3 , 2 3 9 , 2 9 2 Death as atonement 276 A n d Elisha A n d Jesus And Joshua Leadership
475
Subjects
228 127 41 161
Miracles 10,138 Offer t o d i e llf Second Moses 12 A n d the servant 277 Traditions 178 Mountain 312,333,336 - M o v i n g faith 3 1 5 , 3 6 8 -Moving Saying 332ff M o u n t a i n o f the L o r d 3 3 4 M o u n t o f G o d (Sinai) 3 5 3 365 M o u n t of Olives 3 0 4 , 3 0 6 , 308, 332f, 3 3 5 , 3 3 7 M o u n t of Transfiguration 48 M o u n t Z i o n 296ff, 3 3 6 , 3 5 2 Myth 34f, 4 0 Naboth 22,344 Narrative analysis 23 Nathan's parable to David 341 National a n d family obligations 202
Nations
285f, 2 9 8 , 301,320,324,330 C a s t i n t o G e h e n n a in
Israel's place Gods as demonic And INE
280 165-8 319ff
As Yahweh servants 303,321 Nemesis N e w covenant
158 12, 355, 358,374
Community 19,360 N e w creation 1 0 5 , 1 1 8 , 2 9 8 I m a g e r y in I s a i a h 155 N e w exile 199 N e w E x o d u s (see Isaiah's NE) Nineveh Noah Non-forgiveness Obduracy
168 354 197 139,274
Occupying Legions 164 O n e for t h e M a n y 277 Opening of the H e a v e n s 102 Outer court 323,325 O u t s i d e r s 197f, 203f, 3 7 3 Outstretched a r m 141 Palestine Palestinian C h u r c h Jesus traditions Traditions
158 97 13 98
Parable (s) 42,46,49, 205, 212, 2 2 9 , 3 7 2 First explicit statement c o n c e r n i n g in M a r k 153,195 I m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t for 201 A s judicial r e s p o n s e 2 0 8 P u r p o s e of 186 Seed 11 Theory 18, 2 0 6 , 3 4 6 O f soil ( s o w e r ) 2 0 5 , 2 1 0 , 226 Of tenants 2 1 8 , 2 9 4 , 3 3 5 Parables chapter 153,290 C o h e r e n c e of 209 Predestinarian character 207ff
476
Index
Parables chapter (cont.) Response t o Beelzebul controversy 209 Parabolic signs 231,237 Paralysis 156 Paralytic, forgiveness of sins 174 Paros 158 Parousia 16,18 Passion (Narrative) 18, 139,162,266,362,365 Passion Predictions 124, 128,130f, 223, 249, 257, 263,268f, 277, 281f, 3 0 7 , 3 4 5 , 3 5 0 , 360f, 3 6 4 , 3 6 8 , 3 7 3 , 385 Discipleship O T setting of Passover
125 264 11,15,39,
41,351,353,355, 361,365 Christian 16 Haggadah 37,42,347 Lamb 362 Meal 44,351 Patriarchs Pentateuch Pentecost Peor Peter
41 f 24 11 276
of Names
and
P r e p a r a t o r y figure Priestly Messiah Priests / Priesthood
Subjects
87 147 67, 321
Unfaithfulness of 67f, 104f, 325ff, 3 3 8 f Private ecclesiastical teaching 128 Prodigal Son
164f
Programmatic Function of Malachi 1 3 5 F u n c t i o n of M a r k 126 P r o l o g u e of Is. 4 0 : 5 5 1 4 0 Prologue 93f I m p o r t a n c e in l i t e r a r y antiquity 54 P r o m i s e (s) A n d fulfillment 16f, 2 3 Of restorational seeing and hearing 242 To David 302 Prophets / Prophetic 3 8 , 40f, 3 2 1 , 4 4 1 In J o s e p h u s 138 M o v e m e n t s in N T e r a 3 9 Proud daughter Babylon 299 Public m i n d
P u r i t y 164f, 2 1 0 f , 3 1 9 , 3 2 3
Destruction 43,180 Drowning of 159f Pharisees (-aic) 13,19f, 24,133,195f, 211,223, 225f, 2 2 9 , 3 4 7 Philosophy of science 7, 375-7 Pilate 267,306,363f E p i g r a p h y o n the cross 307 Pirene inscription 96 Positivist school 35 Possessed b o y 291 Post-exilic c o m m u n i t y 2 4 5 Prayer 312,324 Pre-Pauline Hellenistic kurios-kerygma 13 Prediction - incompre hension - instruction triads 128,130,269
Q u e s t i o n (s) About John
Hermeneutic Motif
294
A b o u t John's baptism 338 Quintillian 54 Qumran 21,55, 75,84, 98, 111, 1 4 0 , 1 4 3 , 1 5 0 , 179,205,233,238, 2 4 7 , 254ff, 3 0 6 , 345,360 Isaiah 40:3, use of 82 A n d language of blind ness, deafness 249 Q u o t i n g (see C i t a t i o n ) Rahab 161 Raising of the d e a d 175 R a i s i n g o f t h e d e a d girl 176 Ransom 238,279f, 286 R a n s o m Saying 3 5 0 , 364f Rebel coalition against Assyria 214
321 117
Rending Of the h e a v e n s 2 8 9 , 3 7 0 Of the veil 103 Resurrection metaphor 266 Resuscitations
232
Return 41 Absence of Festival 73 Disappointment with 67,73,104 Revivification 33,37, 40ff R e w r i t t e n Bible Rich m a n
52 125
R i g h t e o u s sufferer
40
250f, 2 8 8
Confession 229f, 235f, 2 3 8 , 250f, 288ff Pharaoh 141
Redemption Redefinition of Israel 3 5 3 Redemption (Redeem/ Redeemer) 27,39n,43n, 66f, 80ff, 1 0 5 , 1 7 1 , 2 2 3 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 7 f , 297f, 3 0 0 Red Sea 12,160f Re-enactments of the founding m o m e n t (see revivification) Remnant
Rite of p a s s a g e Rome/Romans
261, 276
352 163,236f, 342f
R o y a l s o n o f G o d (see S/sonofGod) 112,223 Sabbath 14 Sacrifice (-al) 310 A t Sinai 362 Language 358f System 327 Sadducees 347 Sages, miracles of 138 Salt s a y i n g s 226,314 Sanctification rites for priests Sanhedrin Satan (see also Exorcisms) Schematisation Scribes
352 343 148,150 33
24,145,147, 173,185,196f, 207, 237,287,348 From Jerusalem 153 Sea crossing 48,138,161
Index
Sea-walkings
289
Secrecy/Secret 18,19,26, 53, (20610, 291 Seed 197 Parables Seleucids
11 238
Semantic change 148 Clash 46,264 'Servant' (see Isaiah) 18, 8 2 , 1 0 5 , 1 1 4 f f , 1 5 2 , 1 7 1 , 202f, 2 3 3 , 244f, 252ff, 266ff, 270f, 2 7 9 , 283f, 2 9 0 , 2 9 7 , 301ff, 3 0 9 , 3 2 1 , 3 3 9 , 3 4 9 , 354ff, 357ff, 3 6 0 f f , 3 6 4 f , 368,371,373,384 A s deliverer 283,290 Installation of 149 J e s u s self understanding K n o w l e d g e of Messianic interpre
385 252
and
Social relation Social science Social strain Social theory Solomon
'Songs' 7, 2 2 , 1 1 5 f , 244,278,355f, 384 'Suffering' 7, 2 2 2 , 2 3 9 , 271,285,385 Serving terminology, Pauline use 274n Sheba 279 Sheep / shepherd imagery 80,179 Shiloh 327 Shriveled h a n d 156 Shunammite's son 175 Sidon 133 207
Similitudes 282 Of 1 Enoch 115 Simon bar Kochba 244 Simon Maccabaeus 305 Simplicity, criterion of 376 Sinai lOf, 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 6 4 , 1 0 3 , 1 2 6 , 2 9 2 , 296ff, 341,351, 361,365 Social action 36 Social cohesion 33, 37 Social c o n s c i o u s n e s s 37
477
Subjects
36 2 45 7,33,370 172,306f
Solomonic Son of D a v i d 168 Son of David l l l f , 168, 286ff, 2 8 9 , 3 0 4 f f , 331,339 Son of G o d 6,53,110, 186,202,223, 232,234, 236, 2 3 9 , 255f, 2 8 1 , 287, 289, 308f, 3 3 9 , 367f, 3 8 3 D e s i g n a t i o n for I s r a e l 202 Son of M a n 54,124,223, 2 4 4 , 2 6 4 , 266ff, 2 6 9 f , 2 7 9 f , 282ff, 2 8 6 , 3 3 9 , 362,368,371,373,384 Suffering o f 260 Sophocles
t a t i o n s in T g . Isa 1 1 5 As a new Moses 355 A n d the nations 281 Orientation of service 272
Sifting Israel
of Names
52n
Spirit (see also H o l y Spirit) 16,81,92,106, 115,117f, 150,162, 300,372 Descent of 6,92,104, 114,150,162,229,370 Spiritual blindness a n d deafness, (see also blindness and deafness) 60 Spitting a n d slapping 3 6 3 Splitting of the h e a v e n s 6,92 Stone (saying)
304, 311, 346 S t o r m - stilling 1 6 0 f , 1 7 6 , 180f, 2 1 9 , 230f, 234f, 372 Strength of G o d 143 Stronger one 1 0 3 , 1 4 7 , 1 6 3 , 338 Strong m a n 1 4 4 , 146f, 149f, 2 1 9 , 3 5 0 Structural paradigm 369 Suffering 18 Discipleship 128 Israel's vindication a n d exaltation 286 Messiah 240 Motif 21 Of the saints 262
Suffering s e r v a n t (see Servant, a n d Isaiah) Swine Destruction of 157 Flesh 162 A n d idol w o r s h i p Jewish association
158
with 165 S a c r i f i c i a l u s e in Ancient N e a r East 158 S y m b o l (s) 33,41,44 Symmachus 114,261, 263,273 Synagogue 164,343 Synthesis technique 21 Syria 158 Syrophoenician w o m a n 133,165,181 Tacit knowledge Tammuz myth Targum(s) Isaiah
29 11
97,169,356 247
M e s s i a h in 233,268 Tg. Isa a n d M a r k 101 Tg. Isa a n d ' s e r v a n t ' a s teacher 254 Tg. Isa, I N E i n s t r u c t i o n in T o r a h 255 Teacher of righteousness 254 Temple 19f, 6 8 , 7 1 , 7 3 , 86,134f, 185,191, 243, 299,304,312, 315,323, 331,335, 342,368,374 Authorities 326,342f, 348 C l e a n s i n g of, ( s e e Cleansing) Destruction of 2 1 8 , 2 9 4 , 311,348 Dignitaries Eschatological
104,107
replacement 324 Hierarchy 327,330 Outer court 322 Tax 326 A n d the I N E 319 Temple Mount 332f f Temple Sermon 327 Jeremiah's 317 Temptation 15,109 Tenants 313 Terebinth worship 189
478
Index
Testimonia 15,85,88 Texts as hermeneutical pointers 51 Text plots Textual icon
50,382 50
Thanksgiving h y m n 261 Thanksgiving psalm 265 Theives' den 322, 325f Theodotion 114, 2 6 1 , 2 6 3 Theological super - nova 2,130 Thesmorphia Theudas
158 39
T h r e a t i n h e r e n t in Yahweh's coming 74 Threat of judgement on the Temple 87 T o m b - dwelling demoniac 157,164 Torah 14, 2 1 , 2 7 , 254f Traders 308 Traditions of m e n 2 1 1 , 2 1 6 Transfiguration lOf, 1 3 , 15,124,126f, 292 Transitional (hinge) passages
124
T r i u m p h a l e n t r y (see also Entry genre) 7,133, 296ff, 3 0 4 Messianic character of 306 T r u e Israel (see Israel, Jesus, Disciples) Twelve stones T w o Messiahs T y p o l o g y (-ical) Framework
352 84 259 12
Tyre / Tynans
133,339
Unbelief
366f
Uncleanness U n c l e a n spirits Understanding Universalism
353 155, 289, 323,372 11 277,321
In Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 U n p r e p a r e d n e s s of
320
Israel's leadership 185 U r g e n c y in I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 185 U.S. Civil W a r 31 Utopia 35 Vaticanus
11
of Names
and
Subjects
Veil
310
Vendors
331f
Vineyard Imagery
341
Parable
134,304,340
Song
53,42,190,340
Tenants
343
Voice from Heaven Vulgate
108,
127,289
Invitation, of D a m e
275,285
Wisdom 246 Israel's r e j e c t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s 1 4 2 , 190ff, 213ff, 2 4 0 f f T e r m i n o l o g y 190ff, 2 4 3 Traditions 192
W a r r i o r motif, (see also Yahweh) I m a g e r y in p o s t - exilic hope 142 In later Jewish literature 143 M e s s i a n i c figure 143 - C r e a t o r (see Yahweh) - Messiah - Shepherd W a t e r ritual of Tabernacles
Transformed 178 W i s d o m / wise (see also Sight, Blindness, a n d Yahweh) 6,178, 199, 214f, 238, 2 4 0 , 243, 246f, 249f, 2 8 9 , 291,343,347,349,372 Debate 245,253
152 374 79
W o r d s of the Institution 12, 2 9 6 , 349ff Yahoel Yahweh A r m of Baptism of
66 142 105
C o m i n g of
67
Counsel of
243
Water-walking 180,230 Way 19f, 5 9 , 80f, 8 4 , 124ff, 240ff, 3 0 9 W a y as designation of
As Creator - Warrior
Christianity 256,383 W a y , climax of 281 W a y of discipleship 54 W a y of holiness 243, 298 'The W a y ' section 19f, 129f, 2 3 5 f , 2 3 8 f , 2 4 3 , 2 4 9 , 2 5 5 , 268f, 2 8 9 , 291,307,350,365,373 W a y o f t h e suffering Messiah 251 W a y of Y a h w e h ' s wisdom 240ff, 2 9 0 Weltanschauung 3,48f, 369
A s holy judge 191 I m a g e r y in M a r k 144 I m m i n e n t c o m i n g of 73 Instruction of the wise ones 191 A s Israel's teacher 2 4 2 Justice of 68,321 A s King 290 Leading the blind 6, 235,249 Manifestation of 175 N E c o m i n g of 119 Plan of 193,215,248 Provision of 179 Rebuke of idolatrous wisdom 249
Shared by the N T a n d O T authors 48 Wicked tenants 311, 326, 3 3 0 , 338ff, 3 6 8 Wild animals 118 Wilderness 15,19f Creational restoration 179 I s a i a h ' s w i l d e r n e s s in Mark 11 In M a r k 11
161f, 1 6 4 , 1 6 8 , 2 8 3 Divine kingship of 1 9 6 Glory of 299
Redeemer Marriage Motif (see also Redemption) 100,299 A s Refiner 71 Saving acts, Israel's response to 50 As Shepherd 77, 80, 177,180f, 234 As Warrior 6,42, 50, 66, 7 7 , 8 0 , 9 9 , 1 0 2 ,
Index
1041,120,134,136,140, 142,150,152,156, 160-4,167f, 176,180f, 212,234, 239, 251,285, 2 9 0 , 3 0 0 f , 307ff, 3 3 1 , 338f, 3 4 8 , 367, 372, 375,
of Names
and
As Warrior - Shepherd 370 W i s d o m of 192ff, 2 1 4 f f , 222, 240-7, 253-8, 2 9 0 , 3 1 7 , 3 4 3 , 347f, 366 Zion's great King
479
Subjects
191
Zealots Zechariah Zeus
328 27, 308f, 332f 158
Z i o n (see a l s o J e r u s a l e m ) 1 5 0 , 2 4 3 , 298f, 301,309
R i k k i E . W a t t s ( P h . D . , C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y ) is a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r o f N e w T e s t a m e n t at R e g e n t C o l l e g e i n V a n c o u v e r , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a .
Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Alphabetical Index of the First and Second
Series
Anderson, Paul N.: The Christology o f the Fourth Gospel. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 11/78. Appold, MarkL.: The Oneness Motif in the Fourth Gospel. 1 9 7 6 . Volume II/1. Arnold, Clinton E.: T h e Colossian Syncretism. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/77. Avemarie, Friedrich und Hermann Lichtenberger (Ed.): Bund und Tora. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 92. Bachmann, Michael: SUnder oder 1 9 9 2 . Volume 59. Baker, William R.: Personal Speech-Ethics in the Epistle o f James. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/68. Balla, Peter: Challenges to New Testament Theology. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 11/95. Bammel, Ernst: Judaica. Volume I 1 9 8 6 . Volume37Volume 11 1 9 9 7 . Volume 91. Bash, Anthony: Ambassadors for Christ. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 11/92. Bauernfeind, Otto: Kommentar und Studien zur Apostelgeschichte. 1 9 8 0 . Volume 22. Bayer, Hans Friedrich: Jesus' Predictions o f Vindication and Resurrection. 1 9 8 6 . Volume 11/20. Bell, Richard H.: Provoked to Jealousy. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/63. Bergman, Jan: see Kieffer, Rene Betz, Otto: Jesus, der Messias Israels. 1987. Volume 42. - Jesus, der Herr der Kirche. 1 9 9 0 . Volume 52. Beyschlag, Karlmann: Simon Magus und die christliche Gnosis. 1 9 7 4 . Volume 16. Bittner, Wolfgang J.: Jesu Zeichen im Johannesevangelium. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 11/26. Bjerkelund, CarlJ.: Tauta Egeneto. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 40.
Obertreter.
Blackburn, Barry Lee: Theios Aner and the Markan Miracle Traditions. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 11/40. Bockmuehl, Markus N.A.: Revelation and Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity. 1 9 9 0 . Volume 11/36. Bohlig, Alexander: Gnosis und Synkretismus. Teil 1 1 9 8 9 . Volume 47 - T e i l 2 1 9 8 9 . Volume 48. Bdttrich, Christfried: Weltweisheit - Menschheitsethik - Urkult. 1 9 9 2 . Volume 11/50. Buchli, Jdrg: Der Poimandres - ein paganisiertes Evangelium. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 11/27. Buhner, Jan A.: Der Gesandte und sein W e g im 4 . Evangelium. 1977. Volume 11/2. Burchard, Christoph: Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth. 1 9 6 5 . Volume 8. Cancik, Hubert (Ed.): Markus-Philologie. 1 9 8 4 . Volume 33. Capes, David B.: Old Testament Yaweh Texts in Paul's Christology. 1 9 9 2 . Volume 11/47. Caragounis, Chrys C: The Son o f Man. 1 9 8 6 . Volume 38. - see Fridrichsen, Anton. Carleton Paget, James: The Epistle o f Barnabas. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/64. Crump, David: Jesus the Intercessor. 1 9 9 2 . Volume 11/49. Deines, Roland: JOdische SteingefaBe und pharisaische Frdmmigkeit. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 11/52. - Die Pharisaer. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 101. Dietzfelbinger, Christian: Der Abschied des Kommenden. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 95. Dobbeler, Axel von: Glaube als Teilhabe. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 11/22. Du Toit, DavidS.: Theios Anthropos. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 11/91 Dunn, James D.G. ( E d . ) : J e w s and Christians. 1 9 9 2 . Volume 66. - Paul and the Mosaic Law. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 89. Ebertz, Michael N.: Das Charisma des Gekreuzigten. 1987. Volume 45. Eckstein, Hans-Joachim: Der Begriff Syneidesis bei Paulus. 1 9 8 3 . Volume 11/10. - VerheiBung und Gesetz. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 86. Ego, Beate: Im Himmel wie a u f Erden. 1 9 8 9 . Volume 11/34. Ellis, E. Earle: Prophecy and Hermeneutic in Early Christianity. 1 9 7 8 . Volume 18. - T h e Old Testament in Early Christianity. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 54. Ennulat, Andreas: Die * Minor Agreements'. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/62. Ensor, Peter W.: Paul and His W o r k s ' . 1 9 9 6 . Volume 11/85. Feldmeier, Reinhard: Die Kxisis des Gottessohnes. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 11/21. - Die Christen als Fremde. 1 9 9 2 . Volume 64. Feldmeier, Reinhard and Ulrich Heckel (Ed.): Die Heiden. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 70. 4
Wissenschafiliche
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Fletcher-Louis, Crispin H.T.: Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 11/94. Forbes, Christopher Brian: Prophecy and Inspired Speech in Early Christianity and its Hellenistic Environment. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/75. Fornberg, Tord: see Fridrichsen, Anton. Fossum, Jarl E.: T h e Name o f God and the Angel o f the Lord. 1 9 8 5 . Volume 36. Frenschkowski, Marco: Offenbarung und Epiphanie. Volume 1 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/79 - Volume 2 1 9 9 7 . Volume 11/80. Frey, Jdrg: Eugen Drewermann und die biblische Exegese. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/71. - Die johanneische Eschatologie. Volume I. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 96. Fridrichsen, Anton: Exegetical Writings. Ed. by C . C . Caragounis and T. Fornberg. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 76. Garlington, DonB.: T h e Obedience o f Faith'. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 11/38. - Faith, Obedience, and Perseverance. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 79. Garnet, Paul: Salvation and Atonement in the Qumran Scrolls. 1 9 7 7 . Volume 11/3. Grafter, Erich: Der Alte Bund im Neuen. 1 9 8 5 . Volume 35. Green, Joel B.: The Death o f Jesus. 1988. Volume 11/33. Gundry Volf, Judith M.: Paul and Perseverance. 1 9 9 0 . Volume 11/37. Hafemann, Scott J: Suffering and the Spirit. 1 9 8 6 . Volume 11/19. - Paul, Moses, and the History o f Israel. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 81. Heckel, TheoK.: Der Innere Mensch. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 11/53. Heckel, Ulrich: Kraft in Schwachheit. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 11/56. - see Feldmeier, Reinhard. - see Hengel, Martin. Heiligenthal, Roman: Werke als Zeichen. 1 9 8 3 . Volume I 1/9. Hemer, Colin J.: T h e Book o f A c t s in the Setting o f Hellenistic History. 1 9 8 9 . Volume 49. Hengel, Martin: Judentum und Hellenismus. 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 8 8 . Volume 10. - Die johanneische Frage. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 67. - J u d a i c a e t Hellenistica. Volume 1. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 90. Hengel, Martin and Ulrich Heckel (Ed.): Paulus und das antike Judentum. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 58. Hengel, Martin and Hermut Lohr (Ed.): Schriftauslegung im antiken Judentum und im Urchristentum. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 73. 3
Hengel, Martin and Anna Maria Schwemer ( E d . ) : Konigsherrschaft Gottes und himmlischer Kult. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 55. - Die Septuaginta. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 72. Herrenbruck, Fritz: Jesus und die Zollner. 1 9 9 0 . Volume 11/41. Hoegen-Rohls, Christina: Der nachosterliche Johannes. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 11/84. Hofius, Otfried: Katapausis. 1 9 7 0 . Volume 11. - Der Vorhang vor dem Thron Gottes. 1 9 7 2 . Volume 14. - Der Christushymnus Philipper 2 , 6 - 1 1 . 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 9 1 . Volume 17. - Paulusstudien. 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 4 . Volume 51. Hofius, Otfried und Hans-Christian Kammler: Johannesstudien. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 88. Holtz, Traugott: Geschichte und Theologie des Urchristentums. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 57. Hommel, Hildebrecht: Sebasmata. Volume 1 1 9 8 3 . Volume 31 - Volume 2 1 9 8 4 . Volume 32. Hvalvik, Reidar: The Struggle for Scripture and Covenant. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 11/82. Kahler, Christoph: Jesu Gleichnisse als Poesie und Therapie. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 78. Kammler, Hans-Christian: see Hofius, Otfried. Kamlah, Ehrhard: Die Form der katalogischen Paranese im Neuen Testament. 1 9 6 4 . Volume 7. Kieffer, /tew? und Jan Bergman (Ed.): L a Main de Dieu / Die Hand Gottes. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 94. Kim, Seyoon: The Origin o f Paul's Gospel. 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 4 . Volume 11/4. - „The 'Son o f Man'" as the Son o f God. 1 9 8 3 . Volume 30. Kleinknecht, Karl Th.: Der leidende Gerechtfertigte. 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 8 . Volume 11/13. Klinghardt, Matthias: Gesetz und Volk Gottes. 1 9 8 8 . Volume 11/32. Kohler, Wolf-Dietrich: Rezeption des Matthausevangeliums in d e r Z e i t vor Irenaus. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 11/24. Korn, Manfred: Die Geschichte Jesu in veranderter Zeit. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 11/51. Koskenniemi, Erkki: Apollonios von Tyana in der neutestamentlichen Exegese. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/61. Kraus, Wolfgang: Das Volk Gottes. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 85. - see Walter, Nikolaus. 2
2
2
2
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Kuhn, Karl G.: Achtzehngebet und Vaterunser und der Reim. 1 9 5 0 . Volume J. Laansma, Jon: *I Will Give You Rest'. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 11/98. Lampe, Peter: Die stadtremischen Christen in den ersten beiden Jahrhunderten. 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 8 9 . Volume 11/18. Lau, Andrew: Manifest in Flesh. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 11/86. Lichtenberger, Hermann: see Avemarie, Friedrich. Lieu, Samuel N.C.: Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval C h i n a . 1 9 9 2 . Volume 63. Loader, William R.G.: Jesus' Attitude Towards the Law. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 11/97. Lohr, Gebhard: Verherrlichung Gottes durch Philosophic 1 9 9 7 . Volume 97. Lohr, Hermut: see Hengel, Martin. Lohr, Winrich Alfried: Basilides und seine Schule. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 83. Maier, Gerhard: Mensch und freier Wille. 1 9 7 1 . Volume 12. - Die Johannesoffenbarung und die Kirche. 1 9 8 1 . Volume 25. Markschies, Christoph: Valentinus Gnosticus? 1 9 9 2 . Volume 65. 2
2
Marshall, Peter: Enmity in Corinth: Social Conventions in Paul's Relations with the Corinthians. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 11/23. Meade, David G.: Pseudonymity and Canon. 1 9 8 6 . Volume 39. Meadors, Edward P.: Jesus the Messianic Herald o f Salvation. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/72. Meifiner, Stefan: Die Heimholung des Ketzers. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 11/87. Mell, Ulrich: Die „anderen" Winzer. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 77. Mengel, Berthold: Studien zum Philipperbrief. 1 9 8 2 . Volume 11/8. Merkel, Helmut: Die Widersprtlche zwischen den Evangelien. 1 9 7 1 . Volume 13. Merklein, Helmut: Studien zu Jesus und Paulus. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 43. Metzler, Karin: Der griechische BegrifT des Verzeihens. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 11/44. Metzner, Rainer: Die Rezeption des Matthausevangeliums im 1. Petrusbrief. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/74. Mittmann-Richert, Ulrike: Magnifikat und Benediktus. 1996. Volume 11/90. Niebuhr, KarUWilhelm: Gesetz und Paranese. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 11/28. - Heidenapostel aus Israel. 1 9 9 2 . Volume 62. Nissen, Andreas: Gott und der NSchste im antiken Judentum. 1 9 7 4 . Volume 15. Noormann, Rolf: IrenSusals Paulusinterpret. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/66. Obermann, Andreas: Die christologische ErfUllung der Schrift im Johannesevangelium. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 11/83. Okure, Teresa: The Johannine Approach to Mission. 1 9 8 8 . Volume 11/31. Park, Eung Chun: The Mission Discourse in Matthew's Interpretation. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/81. Philonenko, Marc ( E d . ) : L e Trone de Dieu. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 69. Pilhofer, Peter: Presbyteron Kreitton. 1 9 9 0 . Volume 11/39. - P h i l i p p i . Volume 1 1 9 9 5 . Volume 87. Pdhlmann, Wolfgang: Der Verlorene Sohn und das Haus. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 68. Pokorny, Petr und Josef B. Soucek: Bibelauslegung als Theologie. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 100. Prieur, Alexander: Die VerkOndigung der Gottesherrschaft. 1 9 9 6 . Volume 11/89. Probst, Hermann: Paulus und der Brief. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 11/45. Raisanen, Heikki: Paul and the Law. 1 9 8 3 , 1 9 8 7 . Volume 29. Rehkopf, Friedrich: Die lukanische Sonderquelle. 1 9 5 9 . Volume 5. Rein, Matthias: Die Heilung des Blindgeborenen (Joh 9 ) . 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/73. Reinmuth, Eckart: Pseudo-Philo und Lukas. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 74. Reiser, Marius: Syntax und Stil des Markusevangeliums. 1 9 8 4 . Volume 11/11. Richards, E. Randolph: The Secretary in the Letters o f Paul. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 11/42. Riesner, Rainer: Jesus als Lehrer. 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 8 . Volume 11/7. - Die Friihzeit des Apostels Paulus. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 71. Rissi, Mathias: Die Theologie des HebrSerbriefs. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 41. Rohser, Giinter: Metaphorik und Personifikation der SOnde. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 11/25. Rose, Christian: Die Wolke der Zeugen. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/60. Ruger, Hans Peter: Die Weisheitsschrift aus der Kairoer Geniza. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 53. Sanger, Dieter: Antikes Judentum und die Mysterien. 1 9 8 0 . Volume 11/5. - Die VerkOndigung des Gekreuzigten und Israel. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 75. Salzmann, Jorg Christian: Lehren und Ermahnen. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/59. 2
3
Wissenschaftliche
Untersuchungen
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Testament
Sandnes, Karl Olav: Paul - One o f the Prophets? 1 9 9 1 . Volume 11/43. Sato, Migaku: Q und Prophetic 1 9 8 8 . Volume 11/29. Schaper, Joachim: Eschatology in the Greek Psalter. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/76. Schimanowski, Gottfried: Weisheit und Messias. 1 9 8 5 . Volume 11/17. Schlichting, Giinter: EinjUdisches L e b e n J e s u . 1 9 8 2 . Volume 24. Schnabel, EckhardJ.: L a w and Wisdom from Ben Sira to Paul. 1 9 8 5 . Volume 11/16. Schutter, William L.: Hermeneutic and Composition in I Peter. 1 9 8 9 . Volume 11/30. Schwartz, Daniel R.: Studies in the Jewish Background o f Christianity. 1 9 9 2 . Volume 60. Schwemer, Anna Maria: see Hengel, Martin Scott, James M.: Adoption as Sons o f God. 1 9 9 2 . Volume 11/48. - Paul and the Nations. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 84. Siegert, Folker: Drei hellenistisch-jQdische Predigten. Teil I 1 9 8 0 . Volume 20 - Teil 11 1 9 9 2 . Volume 61. - Nag-Hammadi-Register. 1 9 8 2 . Volume 26. - Argumentation bei Paulus. 1 9 8 5 . Volume 34. - Philon von Alexandrien. 1 9 8 8 . Volume 46. Simon, Marcel: L e christianisme antique et son contexte religieux l/II. 1 9 8 1 . Volume 23. Snodgrass, Klyne: The Parable o f the Wicked Tenants. 1 9 8 3 . Volume 27. Soding, Thomas: Das Wort vom Kreuz. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 93. - see Thusing, Wilhelm. Sommer, Urs: Die Passionsgeschichte des Markusevangeliums. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 11/58. Soudek, Josef B.: see Pokorny, Petr. Spangenberg, Volker: Herrlichkeit des Neuen Bundes. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 11/55. Speyer, Wolfgang: Friihes Christentum im antiken Strahlungsfeld. 1 9 8 9 . Volume 50. Stadelmann, Helge: Ben Sira als Schriftgelehrter. 1 9 8 0 . Volume 11/6. Strobel, August: Die Stunde der Wahrheit. 1 9 8 0 . Volume 21. Stuckenbruck, Loren T.: Angel Veneration and Christology. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 11/70. Stuhlmacher, Peter ( E d . ) : Das Evangelium und die Evangelien. 1 9 8 3 . Volume 28. Sung, Chong-Hyon: Vergebung der SUnden. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 11/57. Tajra, Harry W.: The Trial o f St. Paul. 1 9 8 9 . Volume 11/35. - T h e Martyrdom o f S t Paul. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/67. Theifien, Gerd: Studien zur Soziologie des Urchristentums. 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 9 . Volume 19. Thornton, Claus-Jurgen: Der Zeuge des Zeugen. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 56. Thusing, Wilhelm: Studien zur neutestamentlichen Theologie. Ed. by Thomas Seeding. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 82. Tsuji, Manabu: Glaube zwischen Vollkommenheit und Verweltlichung. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 11/93 Twelftree, Graham H.: Jesus the Exorcist. 1 9 9 3 . Volume 11/54. Visotzky, Burton L.: Fathers o f the World. 1 9 9 5 . Volume 80. Wagener, Ulrike: Die Ordnung des „Hauses Gottes". 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/65. Walter, Nikolaus: Praeparatio Evangelica. Ed. by Wolfgang Kraus and Florian Wilk. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 98. Watts, Rikki: Isaiah's New Exodus and Mark. 1 9 9 7 . Volume 11/88. Wedderburn, A.J.M.: Baptism and Resurrection. 1 9 8 7 . Volume 44. Wegner, Uwe: Der Hauptmann von Kafarnaum. 1 9 8 5 . Volume 11/14. Welck, Christian: Erzahlte 'Zeichen'. 1 9 9 4 . Volume 11/69. Wilk, Florian: see Walter, Nikolaus. Wilson, Walter T.: L o v e without Pretense. 1 9 9 1 . Volume 11/46. Zimmermann, Alfred E.: Die urchristlichen Lehrer. 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 8 . Volume 11/12. 3
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For a complete catalogue please write to the publisher Mohr Siebeck, P.O. Box 2040, D-72010 Tubingen.
