1l\'TRODUCflON TO
POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY
r
TRODUCTTO TO
POL-ITICAL PSYCHOLOGY Martha Conan1 WOsllinglon Siale Ulliversify
Beth Di tz- Uhler Allam Un
~·lr.slty
Elena J\.{astors IH};\'/i.!'.ftgtOJl S/att Un
~~r.sI ty
Thomas Preston WOs/ling/on Siale U71iversify
LAWRENCE BRLBAUM ASSOCIATE M ahwah. New J=:y
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Lib ",r,. of Con g ..... Calal<>ging·i n- P"bli ... tion [)ala CO!tam . M>r1ha L Introductioo to polit ic . 1 ps)'
bibliogrophirol ref""""""" . 00 inde,. ISBN 0-8058-3770-1 (pbk. : ,lk . paper) I . Politicalpsychology. I. Title. JA74.5D;65 2lX)4 3 2(f. 0 !9-----
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1
DEDICATION The outhors dedk >le this boo\: to Peg Henna,n . for lin" unoeas ing
CONTENTS PR Ef ACE
xiii
CHAPTER: I AN INTItOl)UCll0N TO POLm eAL PSYCHOLOG Y What Is Political Psychology? 3 Conclusion II Key Tenns 11 Suggesti"'" r", Further Reading 11 CHA PTER : : PE RSONA LITY AND POU1, a>
/
J1
When Do P"",oo.Utie< M."er in PoUtic.?
14
Theories and Approaches to Studying Personality 15 Psy<:oo..nal)1ie Approaches 15 TIa~s. Mol ;" ... and Individual Differences 18 Some Framewcrks From Political Psychology 22 The Au{ooritorian Personality 23 Leader Analysis Rameworks 25 Tr.~ - BasedStud i<s 26 Operat ional Code 31 Cooclusioo 32 Key terms 34 Suggesti"'" r", Further Reading 34
""""'- " CHAPTER: ) COGNrnON. SOCL\L m EN11T \,. EMOn ONS. AND A'rI1T UDES IN POLI 'n eA L PSYC II O LOG Y 17 Information Processing 39 Categorization 41 Social Identity 45 Affect ond &llOlion 48 The Di abolical Enemy 52 The B, marian 53 The ~n ptris l hnage 53 The Rogue Image 54 The IXgcne,atc hnagc
SS
vii
vIII
CONTENTS
The Colonial Image Attitudes 57 Condusion 59
56
KeyT= 60 Suggestions fo< Further Reading
&J
C Il A PT~R , J
111E POLITI CAL PSYCHOLOGY OF GROUPS The Nature of Groups 63 Defi n ~ i on of . Group 6:; Group Cornposit ioo 64 Gw up S l ru~ l u r < 65 Group Formatioo 66 Group Dev"loprnell 6 8 ~lll uell"e in Groups 70 Situatioo.l Cooformity ' I PcM'er Reactio"s to Use of Power 73 Minority Infl uence 7~ Group Perfo<ma= 75 Sod,l FacilitMion,nd ~ "'i b iti on 75 Productivity l<>6..., 76 1n1lX
63
n
n
79
c.,,,,,".
C HAPTER: 5 111E ST UDY OF POU 'neAL L F.A l) F. RS 97 Illustration of Applicatioo of Political Psycmlogy Approao:;he!.l0 Le oders The E>:.,.,npie of Bill C linton 107 Bill C linton as DelegMor---Obrerver: A Case Study 109
107
Ix
CONTENTS
The Nuelear Crisis With North Korea (1993-1994) Cooclu"ion 122 Key Ter ms 122 Suggesti"'" f'" R"1htr Read in~ 113 Endnotes 113
11 9
C II A PT~R , (i
VOTING,
R O L~ OFll m M~D IA.AN D TO L~R ANCE
Beliefs, Values, ideology, Attitudes. aud Schema< Political Sophistication in America 126 lbeM ichig.ns.cbool 126 11 1< Maximalis"
1!5
125
i31
KJl<M'ledge Su uclur... 133 Infcmlation Processing am VotiDg 135 Emotion am \obIing 139 Media Framing am Public Opirioo 140 Political Socialization 143 Politkal Tolerrmee 145 Voting Behavior in Britain 14, Cooclusion 149 Key Ter ms 150 SuggestiOIl< for Rlrtber Reading I SO Endnote 150
7 TI lE POLITI CA L PS VCHOLOGY O F RACE AND ETHNIC ITY 151 C II A PT~R ,
E:
Shared Sovereignty StraIegie,
158
182
Utilitari . n integration Str. tegi... 184 Coneiusioo 187 Key Trrms 188 SuggestiOIl< for Rlrtber Reading 188
Endnotes
188
CHAPTER: 8 TI l E POLITI CA L PS VCHOLOGY O F NATIONA U S.\ I 191 AnOverv iewcf Nation.lism 19 1
CONTENTS
I:kfinitioo and Potten" of Beh.1vior 191 N.ticmlism in Noonatioo Slates 194 Causes of Nationa listic Beh3vior 195 Case lllustmti"", of NOIiona1ism 197 N.ticnalism and Perceived lbreOls to N.tiooal Values: Western Europe.nd Imm igrant' 197 NatiOO.1 lism and the I:k,ire for Unity and Intlependen<:e 197 N.ticmlism and Fcreign Policy 211 Conftict Preve'tion and Resolution Stmtegi.. 2 17 Condusioo 2Xt KcyTemu; 22 1 Sugg""t i"n!I rot Furth.". Rewling 22 1 I'.ndrue 222
C HAPTER: 'i 11m POLITI CAL PSYCHOLOGY OF I'OLinCAL EXTREM ISTS The Politic.l Psychology of Political &tremis,. 224
! !J
E>:.tremist Groups 228 &tremist Grou,," in the Unite<:! StOles: Patriots, Ku Kl u~ Klan. Skinheads. Neo-Nazis, and Others 228 Evil. Filthy. Rotten C""'pimcy 230 The Internation.1 C"""""tion 232 Terrorists 233 1'hc Di,')" W" in A
U1AI'TEI(: 1\1 11m POUTI CAL PS YCHOLOG Y O F INTERNATIONA L SECURITY AND CONFLICT 257 Why Violence.m W. r? 251 1'hc Serurity Dilemm.a ~59 1'hc Psychology of Det:errenee 26 1 The Effeds 01 Problem Represematioo
xl
CONTENTS
Suggestions r", Further Reading 175 Endnote 275 GLOSSAHY
277
REFERENCES 287 AUT II OR IN[)EX
111
SURJECT INUEX
117
PREFACE When colleagues from OIher disciplines cl us what we spoc ia lize in. they are often puzzled ,"beD we say poUtic . 1psychology. ·'What ". th.t T" and ." didn't kmw there W,", ,.,eb • thing,. X" frequeottly heard comments. 11..11 is primarily because polit ical ]:6)lelv>logy is tIOI a tradi_ tional fie ld in social sc i= . but "" imerdisd plinary fie ld thai attem~' to ""Ploin polit ical be_ rov ior via psychologic.l principle<. The fie ld is so ino:erd isciplinary th.t calling it ''polit ical l"ychology" i. misleading bocaust it induc1e. scholars from both ]X>litical sciellte and psy_ coology. but also from sociology. public administration. criminal jrstiet . antlYopoiogy. and lI any other areas. Also. unlike m""y fields in the social sciences. rolit ical psychology uses roultiple methodologies. from exptriment. to surveys. to qualitative <>Se Sludies. and bejiood. And. if oor oolleagues from OIher ~ isdpli n.' have not heard of political psychology. they will sooo. Polit ical psychology i. an irr.portant dom . in of ""ademic ,esearch; sluderns find it fascinating >lid very often troubling .. they are exposed to some of the mOO! shoc~i ng exomples ci I"liticol violen<:<:; and policy mlkers would undoubtedly benefit gr<:>Ily frOOl 0 better un_ rerst. nding of I"titic.l psycholog.Y. Understanding the ~cho l ogic'l ca\llleS of I"lit ical behavior is cruciat if we are to afT..::! patterns <:I; bthavior that are hannful to humanity and to [-"omote pan""" of bthavior that ,..e beneficial to humonity. As the field of I"lit ical psychobgy has grown. so has the need for . cOlllprehensive te~ t boo\: that pulls it. many strands of research in I"litical psychology tegeU..... This boo\: is 3 re_ s'llt of the authors' frust ration. whi<:h was produced by teaching <:'OIrSeS in I"litkal psychol_ ogy without sucb . book. R. ther ttan having ",uderlt. purchase. t.,,tbook 00 psychology. of "hkh they will read only a portion. and a number of books desctibin! I"litkal bthavior with_ oot a psychological explanat ion of that bthavior. we dedded to creat" a text that merges these
port"""
xiii
_.,
PREF.lCE
edue>lors by rust ing it .",jet te get a bae~ ground in ..-eas of political psychology thai th<:)l are unfamiliar w ith. Specialists in "oting behavior. for e~.mple, may 00l kII<M' much about geoopp<>
particular cukure or in one typo of political system_ IM,.",J~cr io ~ '''' Poli,le'" P'y,Aology "' doo;gne d f", UPI"" divi>ion und""groduote and groo_ uate courses on politica l psycrnlogy. but it has other use .. We introduce reaciers to m.ny d if_ fe rent methods of research; bence, il is useful to scbot .... outside of tbe classroom . 1be book also COIu.in, material that shoild be ci interest to those in tbe ~o li cY _llI.1 ki ng conununity. It presents ""a.demic findings in f user_friendly way•• nd policy mtkers m.y be quite surprised to d iscover !be e~tent to which percepl ioos. personality, and group dynam ics .ff""t !be policymak ing ortm. In. chaUetJge to tbe c,"nmonly held ""sumptioo thai self_int."..,,, dr ives behavior. this boot shoY.·s wer >lid over again. in one colUext after a l)Olller. how p'ychological fac t..-s affect our beba-.-iot and that of others in ways "'e rarely r""ognize al !be time tbe behaviors take pl""e. ~ l many respects this is a tisturbing boot. for it describes s"me of the saddest in human h istory and some of the most hlu role in impro'o'ing the human <:OI>ddion.
""",ts
Conte nts The boot begins with an introdJctory cha ~er that discusses wlul polit ica l p'ychology is and presents OOlIte of its history "" well "" methodological issues. 111< introduction . lso presents a representat ion of tbe "Political Being: ' a drilWing of tbe generic politica l person depict ing the m ind and heart of people in a ]» Idical environmem. It p l"""s cocoponents of our thinking and feeling-penronality, socisl i drnt ~ y, values, .ttitudes, emotion. and cognit i\·e processes-in layers of tbe m ind. with persontldY being >I its Cote. sor is l idemily and va lues in the next lay_ "'". and >ltitud"". cogn i t iv~ and emotiono dOO«lt to til< OlIn.",. The Being i. 01>0 depicted in bio; ot ber political "", itonmeot with io-groops and out -groups. re..-esenting the importante of group psychology as well "" peroe~ iOllS of polit ica l ~ts. The Potit ica l Being a ppears t,",oughout the ,,:>01: from chapt'" to chapter. The relevant portiolls of the Being and its "",ircrunent are h igbli.nted a1 tbe beginning of eoch chapter so thot tbe reader beg ins each cha~er with a reminder ci the p'ychological theories and ,oneepts that will be used in tbe pages to come. Ch apters 2. 3, and 4 intro:ks used in the field .. ",elL This provides SlUcients who ha,e linle Me~ground in psy chol o~y an intense imro<1uct ioo to tbe psychological coocepls and theories used in political psychology. It prCN ides students who haVt lin le famili.rity with poldics >lld political an imrO<'uct ion to imP""t. nt polit ical <:oneept< • • well. A t! ",ud"",.. ",I\>t""", the ir b, o~grou l ld. . ate given. oon";.., introduetlon to
I'f"<""-"
""en<:<:
PREFACe
c"Ural political psychological fmmeworks in the firs t foo r chaptetS d the booI: . These frame _ "ork. then reappear repeatedly in Ibe fo liowing ch apter. where patterns of beh avior in various "'"texts are e ..milled in detail. In !lddition. other frameworks oot pr=ted in the preliminary theory chapters are introduced where appropriate. Chapter 1 disrus"," personality.based the_ Cfie. and frameworb . ch apter 3 irYol"es cognitive pr<>Cpter 4 the boot tunIS to psnetns of behavior. ellaptet 5 100000s at leadership. specifically pres,dential leadership in dolIestic and intematimal poUtic•. OJapler 6 look. at poIitic.l psychology and the poUtic . 1 behavior of the avemge U.S. citi'''n. with some comparison with Brittin. The chaptet looks at aogumerns cooeerning the strudure and fuoo ioo of attitudes. how P"'Pie I'f"OC"ss information and decide for woom to vote. the impact oftbe media 00 polit ical attitudes. and the important ;,;ou,,", of politi",,1 tolero""" . ella~ers 7 . 8. and 9 draw uJXlll psychological findings in studies of .adal identity. cogni_ I;'"e pr<>C.l ememe in motival ioo. intended ,""wit•. and degree of viole""e. in<:luded in th;' chapter ... e the politieal p"ychologiell causes of white radst organizations. terrorist.. state-spottSO<"ed r"l""es:;;ioo and torture. and geoocide. In additioo. chapters 7 tln>Jgh 9 include discussioos of co:Ulict prevenl ioo and r",,oIut ion whete appropriate. The final chapter. chapter 10. e .. mines tl-.: political psychology of ruciear deterrence and conventional warfare.
Learning Tools Throoghout the boot a n umber of learning tool. are provided 1bese D:;lude a list of hy terms al the end of each chaptet and a gkGSary . t the end of the boot. Political psychology presents smdem s wilh a new vocabulary: 1,." liS! of key tetnlS ..1I1 glossary ..sist them in learning and internalizing that new vocabulary. The key teml' let students mow ",h at they .muld h",'e l<arneof"i..,. <:Of"ieal
PREF.lCE
events rerle<:ting the impact 0' polit ical psychology 00 behavi".. Exomples ind uc1e uth"" street gangs in the United St. tes. the Thl.. race r iot of 192 1. thepligb: of a Kurd ish teenager in Thrkey faci ng jail for speaking in his native l""gu,ge. Northem Irish di£putes about the right to march. and South Af...,a·s h esidem Mbed i·s p""it ior. on AIDS. M,ny other text boxes such as th<se cooI.in tq>ics of discussion that help stuct.ms see a ditect connect ion between the world around them ",ld the political psychology they are learning. Other text boxes. such as those on experi.-nemation. Cooteot a",lysis. and sca les used in research. give students ioaight into h<;M.. research is dooe in politic. l psychology. Another learning tool in fnrrod~ction 10 Poliric4i F.yckJlogy is the JYovision of many t.bles and il lustrative figures that summarize text diS<1ls.ion. thereby giving stude'l< the oppcrtunity for quic~ review and repet ~ i Oll of material. "The tabl", and figures also JYovide ex.mple. of re ..... ch finding. th. t "'ud"",. find in'e..-ing to d;.oo"" ond debote . For e~ " mp l e • ., " ,.ble in 'he chapI"" on leadership (chapter ~). presi,b us are d ..sified in terms of I~"' ,"gen"'''' style. h evious cI .ssific.tions can be debated a:x! current leader. can also be e.. mined by . tuder1. os they try their hand•• t """'" politic,l ?"ychological ,,,"lysis. Each chopter also COID.in• • list of suggested readings for those i,merested in further research in a ~a rticu lar area. This is usefu l for studem. writ ing paper. and for those who wish to expand ,be ir mow ledge 01 poUlic . 1 psychology .nd the behaviors it produces.
Ac knowl edgme nts This project became much mere "",upl.. than we anticipated ·~· hen we embarked upon it. Almg the way. we have beneitled from the ccrnmems. insighl,. and ideu of a n umber of <:<>tt<>gu,," ond
Re<:~.
Ut,;a B;t10rd0. Marilyn Brew«. M ;guet
Ccrtes. Stephen Dy""". Bob Hanes. Peg HermaaUl. R ic~ Herrmann. Michael tilfranoo. Rob F.ith Lutze. Sad;' M>hd",ian. Otlo Marenin. Dick Mereland. Craig Par~. G audia Reyes.Quilodmn.Ann Rlbuble. Paul ·t H.rt. and Michael Young. We would also Ii~e to thank our edit .... Debrrl Ritgert. who has been incredibly patient. C.)m.thia Avery. Diane Berger. and Lisa Jan<M·ski provided invaluable support and assist. nce at WashingtOll State Univ .... ity_ Fina lly. we awreciate all of the valuable suggestions from those who reviewed the manuscript including Richard Hemnann (Ohio St. te University). Leonie Huddy (SlTh'Y. Stony Brook). Michael Milburn (Univ .... ity of Moss;>ctJ.tsett •. Boston). Joswa 3.abin<M·itz (Californi. St. te University. NcrtlYidge). David Sears (UCLA). and David \Vim" (University eX Michig",,).
J"""""".
CHAPTER
An Introducti on
Wby do people
~b;8\'C
i:J:Je
'MIl)'
i:J:Jey do ill poliii::s? \\'bat CS111S!!:8 coofticis such as Ihas!::
n
Bomla. RW!llld.tl, or olthem llelnlt Is 11.lClsm 1r1evltoolet 'i'.'Ily do presidents, 111!lte the deciaioos i:J:Jey do? Wby did 911 1 happm? Th= and many cdtcr CJucsi.ioos aboot poll.ics an:: of
grool COIl.C<:IID to all of w. whdher 'oN'e oo-e d octIy liffecto.';d or are· oruy eYelvitues· ~ 1lCW'S.
Ihroogll
So much politi:: I l:ehavior acw.!S to d=.fy cxplanation and seems incompldtemi:>1e.
e\'\lO dnoogh blndsl~: People f.'t8rt W
'
Ihlll :lre, 1r1llle eo:I, lll00g111 of
poolilJ.es
~ fu-
t ile. s uch as World 'IVa.r I or i:J:Je W;8r in Vt!:In~ civil 'milS erupt amoog p::-cple who h:w-e 1.i\'Cd
tog.1iher lmllliCfllously for yelIS, bUL who lhen ommiLhideous acts of bllbarl.c vloleoce ag inst me 8Ildbcr, , S'in the Ji:ume:r'YugmJ. 'l'ia, L iberia, or S'icrra Le:oIlC; groups commit acis
of terrorlsm Ihlll kllIl1IIIl\efouS imocen. d'fllllVls eocl1 yeIIr: or
dlII-pl
(l
~dpresldeT.It.
cannot rc:.aist I.empUllgf:aie by eng aging in an c.>:tram.a ritlll affair whe:n he kllOl'O'll full w-ell ~
ext<1.l1Lof!he
IOt~' by
ihose looking torm.ole
lIJld.lII UnIe·· 000 md.e:r5t~s, Ihe lll00gbt
8Ild foclings of i:J:Je peopl.e who made Ihc d::ciaiooll to commil lhooc
dennd why m::h
ihln.~
Is, ooe: caoo.o t (uUy un-
ruled. BU1 lVl explomtlon of Ihe IJ&ycll01ogy----lhe perSOOlllitJes,
ihcugj:lt proccsses, emoti.on a., IIIld .motivaliom-of peopl.c irnolv'Cd
n
political acli'l'ity pro-
vJdes (llilique lIIld.lleteS my l:r.:lsls for uOOe:t1ltnlkl.gihl¥ octMty. This is
b ook al:M:!ui. the ps)'ChoIoID' of politics.l ~h;8V'ior. In ~ cbapll:rs Ihat f o llow, v;,'C cx-
ploRI 1l'o:IIIl)' l)6)'ChologIclII P~II Ihlll illftum::e· how IndMwrus oct. In polJtlcs. AL lhe outsec. 1,\'C
cb~ llenge
wrest, TIll
Ihe: iraditiooal octioo iIIat peoplc in pol.iiic8 !lfgumellt
coooollllug rtlllOllilllly 1s,1:r.:lood 00 (I
pol.it ic;aJ acience., but which igno=
~
t
n
a rational pursuit
0(
scJf-
Lof ~pUO!:lli COlllIrrIJIl In
many siDdic8 dollC by ps)'Choiogista... Many people:
Slllne Ihlll pS¥Choiogy 1s commoo sense, becl!11OO they bell.eve 1hat. tel1(lvlof
I~
m.dooal nI
pn::dictablc_ Bu tdocadcg of rcSCllrcb by psychologists n=;";'CS1 ili1It behavio r ill ;3Jlytbing tot com-
moo ooose, AlihOl\&h p )'Chologlsts, recognize· III Lmuch of hlllTIlVl bel:t:lVio Is m:t alWilYs rati.o nal, human beings, as sociaJ percei~'C:ra, ofI.en oper ie o n i:J:Je bel.icflh.s t behwio r Ihcir ov;,n ruld others Is c,J~. fllUm1ilL TIle motMrtloo to e,,
A more
umte pklure of l1LlD\f1/1 beings (IS polklelil llCtoru Is one IfIIIt oclmowledges IhlII
p::-cplc arc mcti'l'ai:ed to act in ,coma nce w ilh i:J:Jeir own 1 rsonality char;acte:risticll, 'l'aloes, tellefs. ruld attilChmeliS to grtq) F'e.q>le are lInt lfecL litmllllUoo pr essors, suuggHng m igbtiJy to u nderstand Ihc complex worId n which they liv'C.. Peoplc eDlflloy Iogic
ten faulty, 1 liCe J:tloo S, of others \yhen ck>:;klil1g how to 1. ~ Ihey ofi<1.l1 re 1111
'iI.Ij\Je.
causes of thei.r own behavio r. People: often do thilJgs Ihllt rc aeem.ingly coot rary to
wrests. villres.. ~ tenet:
. ~'el1bele s
of Ille
~ir
own
, by UIlderetllllilll1g !he cOll1llex.1.tles ofpolltlc:a.l PI>'Y-
choJogy, Vi'C can explain behavior iIIat often a::emll irratioo;8t A few iIIustrntions he:Jp us bring
this pooJ ... hOlllll·, The:se oo-e el{(lDlple., of tebilvlor Ih~ Is, noc al (Ill lllypk I.
,
INTROD UCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
A COIlunollly held belief is that people vOle in acwrda,,,,. with self.weres!; therefore. pec>pie in higher income bracket. will vote for the Republican part)', and those in lCM'et in:;ome bnekets will vOl. for the Demxralic patty. However. tho authMs of this boo\: vOl. for the ",Ille candidates and party. despite tilt r""l that tlltir incomes and personal circums!""""" are YaIil:ly differ.It. Is ooe ratienal and the Ollie,. nol, or do we sh ... certain values and be liefs that we put above economic self_illerest? AOOIhn" ' SSlllllpt ion i1 that people are fully aware of their belief. and attitudes and that they act in atoordanee with b ,rn. behaving in such a way as to m .... irnize values. But .. the foUCM'ing .....mple iIIum a/". we often act in ways that violate our beliefs and values: A friend of "'".
W,",
. il1 ing on • bench in a crowded shoppin. mall when he heard IUD-
ning footo tepo beh;!>d h ;"\. 'fum;ng. he row two b lfiCk men !>eng I"'r.ruod by • wh ;!e 0<-
curi ty guard. The first nUll"" iii. . past him in 3 llash . rut he lei,pt up in time to tack le the second runner. o".'l',,"'erin6 him. From the groom. the panting black man angrily announced thai he was tho stOle owner. Meanwhile. tho thid "",aped. Our friend. who;' wh ~ e and devotes his life 10 helping the 'W"'essed. was mortified. (F\s ~e & Taylor. 1~I_p. 245) Here. the power of social Slere<>t)lpes lay unJ.:nowingly cieql im ide tilt mind of tilt friend. despile h is outv.'ard. and IIO doubt deeply held. values 'l'('OS<'d 10 ouch stereotyping. This is an exanlple of the power of what psychologiSls caU social categorizatioo •• process wherein we nonoonsdouaty categorize othtrs into groups. On tilt surface. tho act of c>!egorizing people into grou(l! appears logical and ration.l 1be danger. bcM'ever. lie> in Ihe consequence. of calego.ation is """ that we devote a great deal of attentioo to in this book.) In the e~arnple just gr.-..,_ lill ie hal1Il W,", done. bul the .arne p:ocess can """"r on societal levels. and it can produce """ of terrific viol=. Rae ;'1 discrimination. etlmit cleansing in Boonia . gmxide in Rwanda. are aU. in part . out· comes of stereotyping. 1bey are political .ctioos th.I cannot be UnderstM through cooventimal poHtk al sd= explonalioos. yet they are some of tho n""'" important and damaging fClf"lllS of bdlavklr in human societies. Consider tilt (oHowing occount: 1be anny was del:ennined W .tamp out the grass I"OOIs SUPPOr1 f'" the gneriUas. A com_ pany of "'tt hundred soldie", fretn Santa Cruz del Quiche' moved into Nebaj tho next day and imtalled. det""hment of milil.ry police. Within day •. leading citizens of the ""m;; began to disappear. Later their bodies were found ml til>!ed and strung up 00 pooto in the t",,'n oquore. (p",,,,,,. I ~3. p. 7 1) Now. consider this e""mple: Juliette>. family. who were ,"'ell-<>ff Tulsis. stayed imide their house that first night. 1be next night. Thursday. when tile militi;; came "'ar<:lring f'" the.-. . they ..n and hid in • ba_ nana plant>!ioo. On Friday they ran to the school where IItr moie ... was an odmini;;_ Iraler. Two days later tilt farJlily decided to go to the place wh. fa mily then went to a sports stadium where a lot of other people were sheltering. But here tilt Interahamwe [militi;; men] caught up with them and ordered tllnn to another place. "" open fieW wh""e thouu.nd< of oth.... had ~ . &O been rou"dod up. The
AN INTfOODUCTlON 10 PO u nCAl PSYCHO LOGY
,
~ue"'hamwe
told all the people " j}O were Hums to go; tllm the)l told all the others to sit and they threw grenades at them . When Juliette became cCfllcious the next morning. she found her mother .nd trothers dead. Her father was also dead and h is body had betn harked to pi"""". (Bone. 1m . p. I) <\cN;o
These two stories depict real life e""mples of two politically mCf.vated atrocities commit_ ted during war. wh ich caaulOI be explained un less the psychology of lho petpe(rators is under_ stood What objective self-interesl: is served by using. machete to chqJ up. h um m being? Why no! just qu i c~l y ~il l and be dooe with it. if the death serv"" one', ilt erest. ? These are true SIanes: The firs t is from Guatemala during the 1900s .nd the second :r om Rwaalda roughly 10 ye .... later. These are ""0 very d ifferent p laces. and th<se ads occuned at d ifferent times. yet th_ two countrioo llilv< e..oounte.ed ""'y aimi!'>r e'P"'"ieolcoo. in te:m. of t.-ut:Jl oct. of vio_ lente waged by one group against aalather. And people in maalY Cfh" countries have similar stories 10 tell Political p5)'chology helps "plain political beh.v ior a100g the continuum (rem everyday politica l behavior. such .. vCfing. to the most .. rraordinary k inds of behavior. such "' m.ass terror and violence.
WHAT IS POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY? lImerstanding the psychological underpinn ings of these behaviors gives us a d ifferelll. and ar_ guably a much more c(.nplex. underSlaalding of political behavior. Traditional explanations of political beh.vior oft ... fail to adequately "pl ain some of the most important political decin< and . ctiC>n< peopte "~e . Potitic. 1ppI imal and other ti""s failures. Bo!h psychol_ ogisrs aald political scieotists have be<:ome inrerested in expaalding t", ir knowledge of issues .00 problem. of common intereSl , such as f..-eigo am domestic pclicy decision msk ing by elites. ooml kts ranging fre,'n etlmic violenee to wars and genocide. terr.ational changes that w ill help improve our .bilities to process inform.tion adequately. Likewise. if we em understand the deeper per""""lily elements of the nl""t impollaau of our politk alleadets. we can comprehend which ait_ 1.IO.ti""" th")l will llimdte welt ond wh ich aitufitiol"<J wit! ""Iu ite mote "",iot""'" =d oovice from others. And. if we understand what motivates terrorisl:. to act, we can find ways in which to try to address too.. motivations and thus cotnter terrorism . On<: goal of political ps)'chotogjl is to eSiablish gener,l laws of rehavior that can help ex_ ~ain and predict everts that occur in . Dwnber of d ifferent situations. 1be a p(Xoach that palitical p"ychologisrs use to understuld and predict behavior is the .... m ilk ",erhoo. This approach reli"" on fou r cyclical sreps that researchers repearedly eXe<:Ute as they try to 1JIIdetstarxi and ..-edict beh.v ior. "The first step irNolv<s making orne"'alioM. "Jbio; step in""Wes tllS~ ing systematic and utlsystematic observations of behtwic.- and e\'eJlts. From these obsetvatiOIlS. a researcher begins to fonn hunehes about the li ~ dy faetors. or . ~rlabl... (, .. 00.). that affect the beh avior ,mer observation. Step two involves jormulan·ng len/aljve e.qAcl'clrloru . or a hypNMSis. During this Slage . a resear<:her msk .. predictions about the nature of the tet.>tion,<>,,,,;,,10'"
•
INTROD UCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
and aptrim,"ling (oee 00» _ Dur ing this sI'ge of the scietrtific melffid. observatioos are made to test the validity of ,he hypothe-
sis. In step four. "fining
",J -tr"ling a_
plana/ioM. ,.searcOOs r. folUlulate their hypo!hesis on the basi. of the observati"",
mac1e in step thr"" _ This migIU ilNolve e.pl..-ing the lim~. of the phemmeIlOO. e:< plc.cillg causes of relotiollships, 0< expand. ing on the relotiooships discO'll..ed. Cl.>rly. the scientific melilld requires agreat deal of
obo<.'v,."""'_
' ;me fot m"king Cfitefu! Essemi. lly. political psychology repre• ents the merging of two diSClplines. psy-
chology .lId political scienc• . although O!ber disdplines have oomribuled to the lit· erature and growth of the field. as w.1L P<>litical psychology can be described '" •
Variables A ""tioo. One ~ 0{ ink,.>! In """w scit:n« is 00w variance in on< variable .e. \\""'n variables Of< meas· ured, idoolly.
u.. ,....,,:lIor want> to """'.
mo""m.""nt iroUumolll th.t i.... It . ~I • • th.t IS. one IIlOI w ll. I"OOJ'" Ill< , ame re.u{[, wllon"9O(I by 0IMI>:1 re ...,ehor. In ..:tc<:urale measUl"_ meIll d ... haJ. ~ daims 10 me"",,,,.
marriage of sorts that fosters 3 very fru it ful di. 10g. Polit ical psychology involves explaining wh at people do, by ad.ping psychologic.l coocep18.!I(l that they are useful and re!evart to politics. then applying them 10 the analysis of . polit ical probler.o '" issue. Rlr example . psy. chologists have beffi helpful to political sdemists ",he study n egative political advertisi ng. PsycbologW:' h ave dooe studios wm.e oulcomes provide evidence 10 suggest that negative potitic,1 adverti...""",. ... < oft", ineff"",i"". _au« the 'P"""'" of the neg>tive <>d ;., """Iu· ated negat ively by same.party voters. Psychologists have brought to poHtkal ",;"nee fresh perspecti'''' Cfl how to make Soul bow groups msk< deci· sions ccone from real·Iife grocp decisions made by potit ical groups (e.g .. Bay of Pigs. the decision to enter the V;emam War) . Eaeh must be welt·versttionsh\>s that they s"'pe<:t .. is1. Such insigits are not (KlSSible with other research methodologies. e:;pecialty thO&e used by political scientist• . The pan"",,,, of behavior OOserved in the lalx:o-atory. therefore. ar. mt likely 10 be oooen"ed in sud! prisline ",ality in the re.1 world. ",here many eKtranooos fact,... C>lUlOt be filteted out as iollueno.. on behavior. If. for example." psychologist "'>IUS t·) study group behavior. they can resign.n experiment in wh ich aU other faclors Csuch as ccrn;>eling group 1000all ies. personality ch aracteristics. gender, or etmicity) can be made irrelevarc to the study. In the real wortd of politics. these things C>lUU be extracted from behavior. The simple )Xlilt is that ",e C>lulOt e,?"d to see an """"t p>raltel betweer! what the psychologist sees and expl.i", and wh at we wiU see and e'Plain in )Xllil ic . 1 behavior. ~"'t ead. we must t>l:, psytoological <:OIl<'eJ'ls or explinatioo", of behavior and cl """",,Iv.,., How ot< the.., thing< ti~ety to be ",,,,,ife
AN IN TfOODUCTlON 10 PO u nCAl PSYCHO LOGY
of the m""t d i flku~ aspeets of tho developExper;menu lIent of the field of polit ic . 1psychdogy. The three char"""",iltics that cl.fi,., uperi_ Some simple examples may cl>rify this p:otllem . If p"ycOOlogists tell us tha! ptrSOO_ me!Ual ",,..arob are ibe ttl. ulp"l.tloo of an ;m.pmcl.n1 , -a:riable. control lnne_ ality tra its influence beIlao.-i .... political psy00' variable,. and ruoixn ... i9I""nt of par_ clv>logists muS! figu re OOt what p"ucl.ut '.r l_ tmits ... e impMant in politics. Are b ot e cer_ .bl, has val .., .. t 000 cltooen by tbo u in polit ical personality tntit.? If so. wh at <xponn.,nIer. If on ,xperimenter waJUd to ace they.•nd whji are they polit ically impor_ examu., the . ITects of room !emp"alure on ant ? Politica l psyclv>logiS!s argue flat there !ttOQo;J. tbon room ~ffiI" r. tu re i> tbo indoace indeed certain political perscoa.ily tra ~s 1"""'iabk. Th .::!t ~ tbt-ir c:nHicl. how comp l e~ the penroll ', tmught mood. M,"",ul atico or tbo iItd<-]>o- vart.bIe involve, '''P'''q participants to variou. ~ "'" (Le.. hoY,· ;t ' f on expcl'im;nt .. <00in import""'" in determin ing tho VCl:e. under tro1 ""'" ... tnln,,,,,, .~ r bb t.s . wlIich may . ff« t tho behavior tl-.at • "''''''''OM is "udy_ :!t tboir roood in reogy benefits political sc ience. bocaose polit_ "IX""" to room l<mp'rut"'. m.y be dilr... nt ica l scientists Ust p"ychological tlY:ories to than if they had not ju t Ie"""d that ""y woo ooderst.nd polit ic . 1 behavicr. But political ibe l OIlery. The variabl< "wirnIIg the IoItery ' .., ieoce a lso benefits psych ology. bocause it; an oxtMttott, .... i.t«. Th manr.:, in t,"s of psychologica l theories in polit ical ~'bicb ."P""imtntS ore rly 1970.. 1be field I>logisls I>ugh the psychoan. lytic studies lended to UIle psychobiographies. thai is. hfe stcries of a perSOll for dlla. later studies re lied upott new social sd mtific techniques. such '" questionnaires. inter_ \Ii",,·s. exper imem s. and simulatior.s. for their research. This rese>reb is ex",uined in depth in chapters 2 and 5 in this I>00I;. as weU. A "",ond wave in the develop!l,ent of polit ica l psychology can,e in the 1940s and 1950.. " ith incre,.. d ilttere" in the ,yu.m",ic uudy of pubtic op in ion and vot ing beh .vior in the
'f" " ..
,h>ra<"'''ti<:
•
INTRODUCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
United StMes. Begiluling in 19~ 2 . researehe,.. . 1 the Un iversity of M ichigan beg." collect_ ing survey data 00 pubUc opiIlioo and voting p refereDC"". In 1960. w ith the pubUcation of TJu: A m~ric,," VOl". by Campbell. Converse. M iller . • " d Stotts. the traditioo of using p<>lit ical psychology to study public . tt itudes 10\>.. ard polit ics tool: off. Thai boo\: presented . nwnl>er of centraUy important findings about the n.ture of politica l attitude. in the United State._ It sparked debate and f Jdelogy h.ve l>epect of bebavior are often u",ware of what those looking at onether ..(lOCI of behavior are doing. and therefore they reil"ent the wheel over ond over again. One of the tcis of thi. 1>001: is to dnw ootulOCIion. be(""",n ic1eas that have emerged in different re.lms oftbe study of polit ical beh.vior. in order 10 lelSen the confusion that arises from so mony similar ic1eas. <:OIl<:epts. ond argumellls with so m,.,y different names. """,II« ou t com~ of the 1w.[bozo.td development of politk , I I"YChology i. that rel. ted but . Iightly d ifferent coocep:s h.ve become popu lar .... p lan.tory lools for d ifferent ~ind< of p<>litical behavior. Attitndes. beliefo. ",hem... images. and m.ny O!het CCflCeptS a wear in the lit, erature. rut are rarely diS<1lssa! in tel1ns of how they overlap 0Ild still diffet. We undertake some cl arificalioo in this regard. bul for the m«llent let us p<""eot our own gener.1 picture of how and why people thull: .lId act polit ica lly. based on the wort that has been generated by political psychologists over the years. To put it mo&t simply. people are driven to oct by inter_ n.1 factors. such .. personatil) . attiludes. and self-idemily: tbe). e",.lu.Ie their e""irornnent and others through oogllit ive processes that produ<:e images of others: """ they docidt how to OCt when these factors are conlbitled. In politics. people often oct os part of a group. and thoi, beh.v ior as part of a group can be very d iffe rent than their behavior when they are alene. Therefore . the politica l psycho.ogy of grouP' is "" essential part of polit ical p'yehology as a fietd. A< the book p"x:.",d• . ea
AN INTfOOD UCTlO N 10 PO u nCAl PSYCHO LOGY
,
(_ Figure Ll ) is described .lId e>Utical universe. At the cc.ce of our Polit ica l Be in! is ""rSOll.til.V. wh ich is a oemra l psychologkal factc.c in_ fkJ <m:ing political behavior. M we_ in chapter 2 . pt1SOII.1lity is urrque to the individual. al_ though cert. in perscmtity tra its a ppear in many people. M any people. for e .ample. have tr. its in common. such as parl i<1l lar degr= of complexity in their thin!.:bg processes .lId desires for power and ach ievemem . but ttoe combinatioo of those tmits differs . • lId therefc.ce each in_ OSitiOllS 00 an ongo ing . CO!1SIan{ basis. Mor"",' er. personfility fiffoc'" bnSid.,.. tho iml"'''' d their persolla lities 00 their political preferen ces. It drives behaviotal predispositioos. with_ oot 0IlI hav ing to give cooscious coosideratioo 10 the source of tOOse preferen=. PersonaUty is. in that sense. a core com pollem of tho engille of politica l thin!.:ing and feeling . Much of the discussion of personality in politi,, 1 psychology concerns tho pelS","lity tra its of polit ica l leaders and the im pact of particul... c ombin.t ions of those tra it. on their leadership styles. Consequent ty. much of our discussioo of per"""", lity in chapter 2 is ixused 00 the leadership dimension. and we have deVOled a full chapter (chapter 5) to leadersllip. w ith .11 entphasis on the American president . Bill Cl intcn. Next. we have , ... Iu •• • nd id. "til.V. OOIIOe~S that involve deeply held beliefs about what is nght .lId wrong (va lues) and a deeply held sen se of who a person is (demity). Values often ind ude a strmg ernotimal COIllpu"",tvo<. tho<e we care .bout. • nd poli, ic, t pri,.., iple<. f'or ""ample. a 1'<'"""" ""'Y mve a strongty held va lue that violence is wrong, wh ich translates w o a politica l pre disposi. tim to "1'1""'" war. to refuse mililary service. and to go 10 jrlsoo. if """'''''''y. to defend tOOse ..... lues. Th.lt pers<:I1's iderJity involves l"""""1.11 self-uld srrongly value the religious group llat is part of their idemity. Values, emotions. and idettities are a lso deeply held and fa irly penn anent aspects of one's psychology, and hence we place tbem deep in tho mind of our Polit ;"al Being . They are d iseussed further in cha~ er 3. Politica l ..... rues. emotions . • nd idemity are.1so important <:OI">Oepts in our case studies d VOI ing. mee am ethnic coofIicts. and n . tiooalism. in ch . pters 6 . 7. and 8. respecti>'ely. Next. our Polit ical Being has atrltud ... As w e see in chapter 3 ••n attitude is defined in diffe,..,,,, WfiY" by d iff""""t ><:1101.... . C e n.,... l1y. they ron b< thought of "" unit. of thc>ught c::>rnpooed of some cognitive com?Of1eIlt (i.e .. mowledge) and an =oI ion. 1 response 10 it (like. d islike. <:Ic .). Rlr ", ,,,nple . f person with an Mtitude on funding fc.c public educat ion 'i.aY thin!.: it is a good thin g. know OOW much their sta te spellda on pl blic educatioo. ",Id feel Slroogly that this particular level of spending is too low. Many im, ooant poUtic . 1 altiludes "'" acqu ired through soeia li>.ation as we see in chapter 6. ~ t the diagr",n of the Political Eeing. they are p laced toward tho TOp of the m illd, because they are a<:<:essible to the thin!.:e r (.".ho can be .. ke<:l wb . tthey!bini; and feel about an issue and woo ' an articulate an .nswer) and because they are subject to chmge through new information. changes in fee ling. c.c per_ ",asioo. Att itudes are the foc us of attent ion in polit ica l psychology when it c omes to VOI ing decisions. political socializat ion. the impact of the me<:li. 00 how an:! wh . t people think . and iOlport. nt political not ions. such as to\er",Jce . all of w hich we ",pk,.e in chapte r 6 . Studies ofvoting b
•
,
AN INTfOOD UCTlO N 10 PO u nCAl PSYCHO LOGY
.11 iruroouction 10 the topic. with a loot at public opinion and wlI ing in the United St.tes and a br ief comparisoo w ith Gre. t Brit.in. Voting is, of course, • cemral component of democratic politics. so it is a logical focus of po litical psychology. We have left .. ootloo> l10aIing in the mind of the Political B e ~. Politics can bt a very e""" ion-evoldng orona of life. Emotions . ffec t .n aspect ... and are d l eded by . 11 aspects of the Political Being 's m ind. Values, idem it ies. ",Id attitudes are emO!ional or have emotional c,mponents. ",Id emO!ions irneract with the next portion of the Political Be ing 's mind: cogni_ tion. Ernotioos permeate politics and the mind of the Polit ic . 1 Beirw Hence. they ore left to fr"" ty move a bout in our p ictu'" c.f the mind of the Political Be in~. We disruss e nlOl ioo in <:Iery topical chapler in this boot. 1be final component of the mirrl of the Politic. l Being is cognllin which are the chonnelo through wh;ch the mbd and the e,... ironment fir'" iru."."",. Th")l io"'olve r"",,;v_ ing.nd interpreting inform>!ion from the outside. They are the m ind 's computer. in that they f.cilitate the individual'•• bility 10 process ink n ll.tion, intelpIetthe eovironment, and decide 00w to 3et t"",-atd it. Cognitive processes help us underSl.nd "" environmetu that is too com _ ptex for ""y ind ividual to interpret. The cognitive system in our bra .... helpr; us organize that eovironmell1 into underst. ndable and recognizable units and to fi lter m onnatioo so th.t we do oot have to cons<:iously assess the ut ility of <:Iety p i""" of in format"'" 3vailable to us in the environment. Tske this following .... mple. Yoo are studem s in "" illltitution of h igher educa _ tion. You know thai the errvironmerJ is div ided into. among other social groups. professors and smdem s. Yoo ~ now. withotJt thin~ ing. who is a professor and who is • student Yoo ~ now what jlOO are suwose!titudes. 3nd assumpt ions about the en_ vironmem in whk h we live. Cognitive processes ",Id organiz>!ioo ",e presetUed in chapler 3. At this point , we roo"", from the internal componells of the m ind and loot at the Political Being in a broader "", ial ",Id political environmelll. Political psychology illllolves not only the ind ividual. but the indivirn.l's int=et ion with their political envirorunent On one side. we hl," e those importm soci . 1unit. , cr gr ollp., thai or. politically relevant 10 the Political Being ",Id to wh ich that Political Being i, strongly >!tached. They conSlitt.1e us in his or her mitld, ""'" Me ~ in te""" of otud i ~> of 00<;91 ;de Political Being g""""_ ally in ter ms of in.groops (those groups people beiong to) ",Id out-groups (tho&<: they do not belong to). 1be creation of soci . l categories can produce many important beh.v ior. l predisrnsitions. induding stereotyping. d iscriminalion. ",Id ethnocentrism. Our social idetuit ies. r.ouch li~e out values and >!titudes. can strongty motivate behavior. We d iscuss social identity and groops in chapters 3 and 4. then provide . DWllbef of illuruatio:15 of their impact 00 behavior in the chapters that follow. People belong to m""y diffettllt groups. and we are iruereste:l in the role pl>yed by a ~.chm ent to politic. lly relevant y oups. Groups themselves have particu lar dyn am ics that inrlu etlCe people', bthavior. "" d tbis is the subj<:<:t of chaptet 4. in "" hich group psychology ;, ;,ltreduced in and of i1<e lf. ",>d in the con text of d ;u inetly pol;t;c, 1 group". Group"
p"""'_'.
"
INTRODUCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
">I,
;n . These topics were chosen for in-OCt of ,\.mencfill h ;",,,,,y ond <:l"""tt poli' ;oo. but it 01"" mms the politic. l systems in other ooumries. Etlm ic conftict rns many oim ilarit ies with m:tremi£ls are of con<:ern not just bevior untit the ru>.lion ;" e ith"" threatened or until an owortun i:y for its advancement ' I'I"'ars. Moroover •• t any point in time. one of these f"" tors may be more import"'u than others. Personality can beoome overwlltlm· ingty import' nt wlltn . president ;' dealing with . major crisis. r.roeptions thai ",Wher c oun· try is an enemy m.y be important during th.t crisis. as well. The president '. social identity with his ettulit group may not [>lay a role during that crisis. but I m,y be impcrtam when lit is pressing for a particular pi= of legislotion. Our conceptu.lization of political psychology .... the polit ical mind as compose<:! of I.yers or levels. Different Llyers Ilke on. more or less important IOIe in d ifferent k inda of behavior. or ot diff= m points in ,he political a<:t ion proces,. C"meque'tly. the following chapters focus on centra l pr;ycholo* . 1 caus .. of different types of politic. l behavior. When it COllIes to small.group behavior and intricate decisions made by tile members of that group. we loo~ . pedfiealty at the pd"", ",Id a' .""tl_gro...p dyruun iu. When ;, oom.,.
"
AN INTfOO DUCTlON 10 PO u nCAl PSYCHO LOGY
to nat ionalism_based """Ilict • . Wt loot a t social idemity. pereeptioll. or images of O!het WOIIpS. and cognitive pr""""8<S. Tht organi>.atioo of this book bleo>1s coneepts and pattet", in political psychology .lId p0litica l behavior with detailed illustrations of too..: concepts .nd patttmS. Chapters 2 . 3. 3nr:I 4 introduce centra l concep:s in political psycbology. w ith e ~ an l p l es from psychology and polit ics for illustmtioo. Theil chapters j through iO e""mille .erne formsof political behavior. using the cooeept. imroduced in chapters 2 through 4 . where appropr-.ate. to explain too..: be_ haviors. We eocourage readers to try 10 anlplify upon OUJ e~pl an. lioDS ... you read the a,=iptions of the types of polit ictl behavior in eath chaptet. Olapce, 5 focuses 00 polit ica l personality tmit. and leaders. Chapter 6 foc-uses OIl the poIitkal psychology of the av""ge cit_ izen in the voting bocl:h and in the n effoos to learn about and respco from ,ho ind iV1du~1 1 ",-et '0 ind iv;du~t.J ond gto<po. in on e~ .. n;llilt;on of rKia l .lId ethnic politic• . Similarly. chap! ... 8 loots at individua l .lId group polit ica l poychol_ ogy and behavior in the COI\t e~1 of n.tiOll. lism and its impact 00 domestic politics and foreign policy behavior. Chapt ... 9 al"" focuses OIl individuals .lId St""[6. in a loot a t political e'tremists-terrorists. those who comm it genocide. members of mi6ti ... 3nr:I O!he",. Finally. chapter iO e~pl or"" individual and StOUp decisioo msking in internaticnal politics. specifi ",lly. in international security .nd tffort. to prevent war. Whtre rele\'ant... we trave l through l"ttetllS of politkal behavior. we cooclude chapters with 3 loot at p<5sible approaches to con_ Dict I"event ioo and/or resolutioo. Each chapter includes. list of key lemts and suggest ioos for hither reading.
CONCLUSION We began this irtroductory chapter with examples of political betl....ior that are both disturbing and diffi cult to explain. Let us "",d ude the chaptet 00 a more persooal note. Tht ps)Icho1cgi_ c,l caus<s of polit ical behavior are interesting to study. Bul for the individuals who live the realiti es that the foliowing chapters d<scribe. polit ical behavior is DOl an .cademic exercise. oot • life-shaping and life-alterillg experience. At the heart of political psy
KEYTERMS A ll l l~ d •• Cog n l l n'~
CO",p I6il)'
Cog nl l n' ~ I' r oc~ .,,, ,
id.."l ll y
Eo,oll .....
s...i~ 1
Groll I"
V:1 hl ..
Sd~nl ific " .. Ih od
V:1ri~bl ..
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING Kre;sel. N. (Ed.) ( 1993). Po/iricd p.ych%gy. C/ilisic a,J conremporar] reading, New York : Paragoo House. Monroe. K. R. (Ed,) (2002). Po/i~,a/ psyclw/ogy. Mahwah. NJ: La... rence ErlbaUlll Associ_ at"". Ine.
CHAPTER
As mcoiiom:d in 'lmpicr 1, .:ernonality is a ce ot ral coooept.in fG!I·choIOKi'. Fo r ibis =800, 1 rpl~ fIi tll.e rose of Ihe F'oIltl aI Being' bntln. l~presenl 19 it roots!Dd. llteli}fore the mat (iD:Iamcotal cbmcnL I'cl1l-Oll3lily net on.ly affccts how pccplc ib ... k. and I:x:have in the p·ol1l:lctll arma.1:U It Is also l\ffeclOO by lhe ilfe expel1eo::es of 1n:Ijl;J.OO~ ,T s, c11llIltei corn:i ~rs some ceni:ral q ueatioo8 about pcmonality adlrcaacd in poi.ilical flI'yebo logy. includ Ing oo:;h ~91 om • How dces peWOOlilily l\ffect pol.1tlc;ll bebilvlol'1 H.ow OOep must we g o in undcrat.anding the de~'Cl tprncnt of II pemon 8 .:erson al.i I;y io ordcT to In:Icratand Ihci.r political . IlniKioos (to Ihe· LUl"anoclollS or to mole su:lface, dJllSC lolIS traIt lII1d motl~'iKion ) ! 'iYhat pe rsoo.~lil;y cb;arackristiclI a.rc rnatt pol.itically relevant? Are people c ompletely un icptc, or do tI . sbare pewootlUty tmIts in various "Ol1]binatJOIlS, making lndlvldLli."llil more or les aimiJ;ar io Ihci.r political b:b;a",ior1 HIm' mould W'C s lndy personality, bee UBC ViIC c annot vel)'
&CfIilIJ(i' is
we] pu.l
(I
po1:ldcal ftgure 00 lite cruel lII1d sk litem quesdootl
The si.o:I)' of pe 1S00aiity aoo politics is Ihe oldest tradition in political psychology (AdOlllO, Frt'.llk.el-Br ;wlck. LeVlnsOi &: nford, 1950; Ulss"'<ell, 1930, 194$; Le1re 1951 _Pers:oo;alily !IS a conccpt h all 'bcIm used to e ...a lu3le a wi.:k ...ari.c ty of pol.it ical I:x:havlor from Ihe psychology of polltlc:allelders to psychopatllologles of peq>1e \1Iho have comm itted polit icaUy motivatc:l alrooit i.clI !lUCfl a. H iticr and ibc Holocaua.t), to Ihe avuage ciii2'#m aOO Ihe role persorrollty focloIS play in mtitocles, tOMlJd mce· aOO etbnlcity. interest. III politi::s, and w Lllir:tgn= to cbcy authority. Hov;leI!"er, matt a.tud iea. emplOY'ing J:ersona.l.it)'based f!;IDlewo!ts focus 00 Ihe imp oct of lite charocler~1 s, of Ie . em OIl ~o r decisions and pol.ic)'-mal.iog isa.ucl> web !IS lcad=-r~",·i a.or I'Clat iona... In (act, the !iu:tics: of political pe OOIIII()o' lII1d polltkallelomWf,l have d\:?llelq>ed conjoJnlly in pol:li1cru p ~O;;]Wlogy, As. result aceldng to acparatc pol.it ical personal.i I;yfrom politiC'al leadership =arch ia. problemtic in (I'L'IY textbook on pollUclil psychology, This chapter discUBae-a. some of the broader ibcolCti:: I rgummts about pemonalit'l and ita. affect on polltkaJ beha~l o • begin wiill some of lhe ceF.Itl:81 t.p!t'dom llbOlli die· role of pers:onal.it'l in political b:b;a~'i or ibcn lorn to the a.tudy of persona.lity ill psycholog)' and loot; at oome of tbe major schohrsand iJR)roac.l. . to .:ersooall . from the h ologlc:al pe~tJve, N!::1d W'C preacnt an ov"Cl'ilicw of some of the waya. in wfli::h peraooal.ity ... politica., aDd particularly 1 rscmJiry foctors releVill1l.to polk:l.Clllleadershlp. 00<e be-en studied. The l:1O.l tlou of Ihe Pol.itieal Bciog ernpllllaized in ibia.cbspll:r ill-, Qf cooTllC, Ihe .:ersooal.i I;y C irclc, toi.}'·oo cao abo ooe the I1nks betweeu persOOlllI()o' aOO cognltloo.. llS \Ve1l the impact of .:ernooalily on lnleractiona. with .:eoPle in the political em "irotlIl1eni.-w and them ... Ihe Pol.it' al .B eing d.iapam. Desp1le1lte celi:ml role persOllall()o' pbys, In psychology, poUtlc J lence, aOO political psychology, oorniog to n accep.al>le dcfinitioo Qf per800alily is problematic, wi ib re.acareh in p;,.')'Choiogy aOO poiltlc:aJ lence each lendlllg. to f. lIS (lWld IDe, the conccpt quite differently. As Ew'Cn (1998) points out, 'Hiib ... thed.iscip l.ine of psydlology "lhc:1'C is 00 QIJC universruly oc~ted definltlOil of pe Olllllltl" (p. ). nor Is, lhere· ny one· recogllized tI . ory of
we
13
INTROD UCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
personality. Greenstein ( 1969) observed thai the psychologist"s ,sage of the tenn pe,,{m4lity is comprehensive. subsumes aD important psychic regul . rit ies. md refers to an inferred ent ity. rather than to a directly otservab le pheoomenon. In (){her "a<&. personality refers to 3 construct that is introducffl to ..,count for the regularities in "" ildividu"l·, behavior os they respond to di'·erse stimuU (HernIOlUl. Prestoo. & Young. 1996). Or. as EWeehavia<:· aspects of which *m.y be observable or unobservable. and cooscious or uncOllSi",,"·· (pp. 3-4). DiRenzo (1 974) offers a rebted definition; Pa sonaliry is *one·s acquirffl. relMively enduring. yet dynamic. un ique. system of predisl""'itions to psycholog ical 3nd sod'i behavior'· (p. 16). At the same t ime. bow",·er. there is tremendous d isagreement within the field of psych oiogy. betwe"n .od.l psychologiot ••nd p.",.ollillity th""""'t>. tegotding "".ctly w!w.t ohould be illOOO"_ pa""""'-'lity to 3 residu"l catega1s of indivim"l differences" to "'plain leadership. leadership style. and poUtical behaviOf.
WHEN DO PERSONALITIES MATTER IN POLITICS? Of coors<:. juot bocause perooruJities may oomelimes mMter with relat ion to poliey outcomes. it would be a mistake to argue that they always matter. In fact. during the 1930s and 1940s. Lewin (1935) argued thai. to un1etSiand behavior. it is ne=s.ary 10 understand bo!h " peroon·s personality .nd the cotUext in ,,·h ich tho behavior is observed ••nd he emphasized that the in_ ter.ction between the person and the situ.t ion was moot important to urnerst. nding beh.viOf. Similarly. Mischtl (1 973) focu.oo "tternion Cfl the degree to whiclt situational fa<:1ors govern behavia<: He reviewed research on the import.nce of personality 1n predicting behavior across a variety of situatioos.m loum that people behave far less consistently th.n had previously been thought. ~"t ea.d. the situaJ on appe"'" to exert I""'·er ful effects on behavior. ~l<Wd . it is gene,ally .ccepted . mong .ch<>l"", who wotk ;n the field< of p,rwnaldy <>< le>denhip that
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conlL
the person witt i1teract with the ir enviroomem, providing both oppcrtunities fle are like (i.e.• G~engt ho "'· _n_ . p""""",lity. e'pe
THEORIESANDAPPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY 1bere are many differern approacbe. or theories regarding per5Oflality. only 5Ofl1e of which have beerI UIle<:I in the study of personalities of political actors. Amor.g the most important are p'ychoall.l lytic, trait_based theories. and moIive-based theories. N was memioned earlier. lI any of the frameworks in political psychology go beyond •• ingl, theoretical orientstioo. Fcllowing. we r.... iew 50flle persom Uty tboories from psychology. then ..plOfe their use in palitical p'ydlOlog)". With each theoret:ical approach. w. diS<1lss SOllie of the research metOOds typicaUy used to study political aclCf •.
Psychoanalytic: Approac hes One of the oldest traditions in peI>O!l.lity in psychology are p.,-ch"" nal) tic or p.,-chod)', ~" " I< thoorl ... l'!>ydlO.nalytic thxlrie, highlight the role of tho uncoosvior. The ffithle to deny the pleasure pdndple. and tho qJences are pathologies such as an<
= _
INTROD UCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
the pleasure principle. The <'go is tho part of the personality that moderates between id . • lId its desire for pleosure. and the , ealiti.. of the social world. 1be ego. therefore. foU",," the I'talIr.¥ printl p!<-. oceording to which the .... wee .1>o u.oo to defend the ego. 'J'hese are uncollscious toc.miques used to distort reality .lId prevent people from feeling amiety. and include .... p ...... i' ·o . wherein someone iINoluntar ily elimin.t"" an unpleas ant ntemory; p"'J« lIoo . which illl'olves M!ribtiting ooe's ,"m objtn;'t., rociety. ;n which people treat on<: atlOlher with resroct and love, Of they could renoonce freOOotn and aocept totalitarian and authoms are symbolic representati",1S of tmughto--------desires. fears. alld thing< that happened. Freud's re... rch was based upon notes ,bout sessions with pat ients taken .fter a ther.peutic session tool: plaee.
Psychoblogrophies Clearly. tilt couch alld oi'eam allalysis are not opt ions in pollical psycholog.,al research using psychoanalytical theories. Acc"". pIoblems. particu l. rly to political leodeIS. pr",,'ent direct person.ta-person psyd wanalysis. Therefore. m allY ",holtrs who.dopt a psychoom. lytic appro,eh to t he analy'" of political figure. u"" the p
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Psychobiographies involve "" e.,.n inat ion of the life h istory of '"' individu. l. but not . 11 psycOOb iogra phies are psy choollllyt ic.' Some of these psych olJiograpbie. focus upon Freudian .""Iysis or notions of egc..defense (e.g., Glad. 1980; Hargrove. 1988; Link & Glad. 1m; R<:n.phy "' the cL:c>sic otudy. Woodrow Wil'M and C%nel Ho",~ (1964). in which Georse ",Id Geors e use a psychoana_ lyt ic awroach 10 e.pl.in Wilson's highly mor. listic. rigid. am uDCOll\[Xomising polit ical sty le " hile in the W hite Hoose. The Georses argue that it was a result of a ch ildhood in . strict Calvinist household. where monlity ",Id distinctions bel:w"",n good ald evil were emphasized ai:><:Yole a U else. and wbere h is mininer father COIIStamly belitt led WOxl"ow am .",erely punished him for any perceived tr"',"gressions. A5 a result. Wilson developed a rigid. driv"" palitica l personality. in wh ich he ootIt/U to accomplish great mo,.,l dettis to compen..ate for h is CM'n feelings of low self-esteem . Given bis d ifficu lt rel. tionsbip w ith bis stern. disciplinari an f. ther. Wilson bridled at authority figu res ",Id itternalized the ir m t icism .. personally di_ r«:too at h im. Not ooly d id he see the world in .bsolute tenns. but Wilron felt that comprom ise 00 moral issuos was immoral. The Georges argue<:! th . t these very patterns, developed throughout hi, childhood and y""og >dult life. fol1ow«l him il1to the White H"".., . lnd.ation) toot: the form of . renev.·oo conflict " ith ",Whet strict authoritarian figure---hi. fathe r. Wiison', politic, l penonality and h is in_ ability to compromise (oot onJy en wh . t be saw as a mologica l disorders. Tho examinatioo of political leaders' behavior "' 3 possible [Xoruct of p'ychopathologies beg"" with l. ..,well", F.ydlOpallw/ogy and Falilia (1960 ). wherein he m:int.ined that the beiln'ior of some people in political roles is affoctoo by the ir psychopathologies. Lasswell attributed modem understatlding of psy_ cOOpothology to Iffud'o i"""""t" ., id""". M OllY politicfil fiV'...., MV~ filoo Moen "ru lyz«! based upon the ident ificatien of p»'cOOpathologies. fur e~.mple, McCrae and Costa (1985) ebility. hostility. depressioo. ar.d impul, ivenes • . In hi, SlUdy of na r d ..;"",. Volkan (1980) argues that n . rcis,ist ic people ""'k leodership roles in a relent less search for power and that the)l use others in their climb to pOI,' er. Further. such in_ cividu.l, oft"" seem charismMic. and r ise to power in times of crisis. whell followers are searching for strong leader. who " ill improve things. Bin'. (1 ~ 3) . naly.is of Joseph St.lin fou nd that descriptions of hi' rer""",lity fit the pattern associMod ." ith parano ia. Paranoid (l'rsonalit ies are qu ite cenlple • . Ri:, argues that they functien . lotlg [WO cootinua: .ggression and narcissi.m, Aggr""'ioo CaJl be m. nifested a t one erueme .. vict.m and a1 the other as the aggressor; ""n::is, ism ronges from feeli ngs of in feriority to superiority. Paranoid people swing from one end of e,ch continuum to the oth",. Bitt ~rgu"" that Stalin', p>t"lOia not only
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INTROD UCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
affected the ilJlernalional poli"''''' of the S"";et Un ion. but Stalc,', e>reer as well. Stalin. he argues. ·'i.lhe cI ...ical e.ample 01. paranoid individual whose paranoia helped bim rise to the top of a highly centralized (>Olit ieal strueture ."d. on<:<: there. tum the bureaucratic inSlitu· t ict\S of the S"";et Union into "xtensions of h is inner ptrsonaldy disorder." (p. 611 ). Bilt', analy.is of ooe time period in Soviet f<xeign poticy----tbe blitzkri.g . 11:o:;k by GemHiII} during the S<:<:OI>d World W..-----I, aggressor/SUpelior phase and did no! beli""e Hitler would a Uat~_ After tho attaI{"" ~" (Bir!. I 'N3, p_6 19)_M time progressed. he moved into the aggressor/in ferior and tllm the victim/infmor modes. tllm climbed 001 of hi, depr ... sioo. bacl< to the .ggre...>
Tra its, Motives, a nd Individu a l Differences A wealth ofpetsona t;ty theories ",Id research lool.:s at ;ndiv;duat characteristics (or traits). motivat ions. am cognitive style v,ri.bl", and how these.hape styles of decision making. ir1erpet5Ofl.l interaction. infcrnt.tioo proces.ing. and m.nagement in office .
Tm it Theories If you were N ed to describe yoor mother. you may s.ay she is ,nl.art. fwmy. loving. tidy. and humble. These are petsooality traits. wh ich we all use to characterize other people and oorselves. lli tt. are persooaHty cr.atrl<:teris!;cs thai are stoble Wet ti:n" and in d;ff=t. situat""" (P"",;n & John. I 'W7). T rait. produce pred;'po<;ti"", to th;'lI:. fo<1. '" aet ;n p>rt;ruL>, pstt"".. tCM'ard people ...... em •. and s~ " a1ioos. Trait theorists also regard traits to be hierarchicaUy
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TABl E 2.1 DSM-IV Di>gnos,k enteri. 10<" Se:ected
~rs o-n. li 'Y
Di.O<"ders
,\ p<,,'a., .. IndkM..:! by o( I'''I ./iv, of (h. roll""'l n ~ : I. Reacu to critkiml with fell y exploit,,;...,: ,"",e, """"'kIg< or OIlIer> to ""bie"" lhe~ (MTI e.m 3. Has . grn>liO"" .. ,.,., of ""n.llJIPC<1:l.oco. ,. ~ . , e"uerates odlieoemeWand !aleW, e.",CIS (Q be IDti<ed .. "'pe<W" wilhool
.ppro::rial< odlieoemerJ 4. Bel""" thai the wproblems are unique :mol COIl be uoo,,". oooj ooIy by other ;pedoi",cpIe ~ . I, p!'«>CCUpiod willi r.rta>b or onlimi ted mc<e .. , power, lxill"nce, tHuty,O< aoi lwe 6. Has ..."", rJf enlii<men" 1IJlre»eru.\ie " p"cIOIi.cn rJf ..p:r, mu>I do so 7. Re'l" o., constanl OItenli.cn and oanirOlion e.g .. beep< fishing for comp!imenlS 8. I,IICk of ompo,thy: ... bility (Q reoognile ande'p:1lence 00w o!I>:r, 1«1, <'£" ~>D« an" >wp ",,;., ... ly ill calle"" • date
9. I, p!'«>CCUpiod willi r«:linp or e""y A p.p'ds, withou t .. ffi cienl huis, to be e" by others 2. Qoestiono. wi1>oo'ja>lifiCOlioo, lhe lo)"'I'y 0< t,utwonh.,.,ss of frle"'" 0< . . oocI .... 3. Re>dil ttid 01 ew",!, e.g., thal. ,.,ighbco" put 00 1tr:clIeorly to:mo.:>y them 4. Bears grudge, or is unforgiving of insults c< sligbs ~ . Is rehct.mt (Q OO1llde in <>liter" bec. u"" ofunWOl1'all!ed 1<", ih>l tho m1conat>en will b< u ",, ~ '~Olnst lbern 6. Is e.. J y slighted and ", k k 10 reac' with :or.!;er 0< 10 OOIDltliool, wi1>ool j ..tilicoUoo. ft delity or 0< ",,,,,aI JX'rtr.:r
'"'P"""
""atllli'
'I""""
No'" Freen DUlgno:r" and s..",,,,,<1/ ,1Il!ic Association. Wo;hingtOll, OC: Aollt0f. %'riilU by Ammo"" PsyclualriC A
"""0(""'0".
crg,"ize d. Trait theories ill psy<:he,logy began wilh lito work of All[lOl1 (1 937. 1%1. 1968). wlto disagreed with Freud>, contortion that person.lity dynam ic. art 8o"emed by lhe UDCOO.dous. He . Iso believed that <:h iltfr.ood experiences ar. I""s importam in lhe MUIt', personal_ it)" than f'reud m.intain"d Allport ,.,gardod p
INTROD UCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
socondary traits. Cud lu" 1 . rall. are crilically impotivation .• tr.it factor we consider I.ter. In recent years. psychologitionaL People who are bigh if. e~traver.ion are sociable. oph",istic. fu n loving and affectionate . wh ile those low in "'traversion are quiet . reserved. m aloof. A per""" h igh in openness is eurioos. cte>!ive. an:l has many itter""ts. wh ile on<: low in operm,.s is convemional and h.s narrow interest • . People high in .greeable_s are tru.t ing. good n.tured. belpful and soft. he>r1ed. while a perSCJl low in agr""ableness tends to be cynical. rude. irritab le and uneooperative . Finally. a person high in OOIlsciemioo.ness is organized. hardworl:ing and reU.ble. while. person low in conscientioosness is aim I"" •. umeliable. negligent and bedon istic (Pervin & Jotul. 1997). Big Five persooality researOcifil rom_ parisoos. 1be .uthors used • new technique (the Roch ester Soci.1 Comp ar ison Re9) argue. *alcng with their greater tendency to experienc, (KlSitive affect . extroverts also might compare doy;nward because of their ten:len cy to be oominant. masterful. and assertiv, . attnrutes that are reflected in stud;'" sbJwing them to h.vea h igh degree of leadership abiUty·· (p. 15(6). This is illustrated later in this chapter and in clu(>ter 5. where we consider 1ea.detili;P in detail. !'tople low in 'Woe.b l"",," tend to toe 'hernrelv"" •••uperiot to OIhen. and ,,",,,.fot. oomparod doo",w""d
"
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In''''' .... Io.
•..
S.... ing
...
(I"""'pectlve. _ rved. _kInI; ""'too.) (F'''''''''! li ~ . <>"p;ri."'2I P'''''ptioo)
...
JodpOjl
' ..
m»i otK'<1 .00 "o.r)
"'".nd
J ,,";~,,"
"""""'L I"o:ept»n)
(F' '''';'\!
Thinkinl (F1
£ ..' '' ....100 (Exp ........ Y"~oo""",) fi!=,",-e
r<
(FavOO~
NIioc_. VlII. ..- or
.n><6oI'I-blI9«I ok
P....,.;.inll (CUri"",. """, .. ~ . k:>I
f IG .2. L MBT I ~ "on.l ity ()' pe •. From 'Pre< !
N....
lIore than tOOse bigh in agreeablew. ... F inally. people h igh in opem= coolpared themsel,' os to superior groops more than tOOse low in opelIlesS and tended not 10 experience a diminutiOll ci positive affect in tilt re<:l in political fOl1Il . Traits conlmonly used in political p"ychology. and 'hut Olher pe ~le . ~aw foltowers. a!Id be an e ~ ce ll etrt politician; appear insin;ere sctling to a propensity to make pocr choices and mate seri_ 00. mi
ada,.
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INTROD UCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
M otive Theori.,,W hat I. Conte n tAnaly.i.! Some r_archers 1001< at the IIIo t;" .. cI eoru ... analym io. "' .. arch "",1hod .>«I individu.ls. There are many mctive theories frequelKly by pcOOcoI poy,hcl.ogW,employin psjIchology .lId m"'l)I defi'itions of the ing a wi<1> _ y cl anal}.. ic>! ~ •. term. In • study done o"er 40 years ago. for ..eluding _ discussed in this chapler and example. Madsen (1%1 ) considered tilt crn.pter 3. Eie< •• ." in petitio>! jl\yct>cl.ogy, worb; of 1O difTert:nt motive thoori",_lrJer· we oflen l ad; dire« ~ to petl::)mal;ers , we took .. tho • • tatemelll and infer frccn est in motivatioo has come and gone and _ sta'""",nts S«Jle 1>p'CIS of a., .. fclil ~ corne """,nd again in persona~{y thocry in <>! poy,hcl.ogicoJ maJ;e"p. This i> <:()fjI.ll<me"', wrilt,n by Ibe offictal you ore 4 86). 1be motiv<s that have [ec.i"ed the enmining, publ., SIlIlemelll wrinen by oIhmo&! . ttention .nd are reg>rtlel as the Big en, in!em.w., se h igh in pOI,' er . lso require . far gre>!er degr"" of personal ccoutol over the policy proce:;s and the attio)S of subordinates than 00 low_poI'o'er persomlit;e.. ~ t tern", of iI1e!pe1son.1 rel atioosh ip!, people h igh in the ~ for pc",' ,,- e!tent ion in Winter', (1 987) study of the appeal of American presidetJs. :-1e argued tho! a leader>s I"l'lliar ~.I (m=red by eledcr.1 success) is 3 funotion of the fit between his ll1
SOME FRAMEWORKS FROM POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY In the sectiOflS that follow, we introduce reader. to political psychological frameworks that employ various combinatioos of persooality psychology just discussed As ment ioned at the ootse( of this chapter. the use of perSOltality theories by polit ical psychology has """n edect ic. The framev.'cds presented here h ave
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polit ica l analyses. (J( they may be presemed in a political man ifestation. The need f(J( JlO'I"er is directly applicable to politic • . Blmoceotrislll h •• been detel1Iline:! to be an important poliIic4ily rei£;'a,r Irail, rut is nor coosidered to be a central personaliry trait in the personality loerature.
The Authoritarian Personality Although research into the autIDril:a ri an person.my h .. a long history. interest in e'pkxing a:!ttoeitarian personality chameteristics increased '" a resu ~ of World War II and the Nazi rosed on psycOOmalyt ic argumer1s. Authorilarian penron.lilies were, they ",gued. the product ci autoonta riat panern< of ch ildhood upbringitg and a resultant weak e~o. The parents of autoonta rians were insensitive to the difficulties ch iloi"en e'perience '" they try 10 learn how 10 CO!ltrol id--der ive<:l impulse. relating to .e,ual wer and tooglm... s. destru<:tivenes< and eynicism. proje<:t ivity (Le.. the proje<:t ion ootw>rtl of Wla=prable impulses). and an ",cessive concern with the sexual activity of other .. Given the era in which the study was 000e, there was • natural interest in the e~le nt 10 wh ich a:l!toeitarian persomlit i... woold be susceptible to fascism of the Nazi Germany variety",uidem<><:-rrlt ic and r ight.wing in political ideology. ",ui.S"mit ic. ethlOCentric. a nd hostile to"aid raci. l and other minorit ies. Tite A.rho, iraria, Personaliry study was <:d to test f (J( a person's propensiry t"",'anj fasc ism . The other scales were the ant i·S emit ism scale. the etinooemrism scale (",hich ind uded Negro. mit>o
INTROD UCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
et al measurement seale. the F seale . Therdore. he a rgued. they apparently tested only for right-wing authoritarianism and oct left-wing .uthoritarianism. and therefore the ir F scale was not a true measure of authoritarianism . Other criticism, OO!ed tlLlt Adorno and hi, colleagues did noI control for educat ion "-><1 income. and that the F seale qJestion wording provoted a tendency to agree (acquiesce). tlereby producing false positi"'" (!l.ss. 1955; Goge. Le .... itt. & Stone. 1957; J ae~",," & Me ss i ,~. 1957). In short . much of the crit icism was methodological and revolved around the question of whe<:her the F seale "",wlly tapped true autoo..itarian ism and wbetber it actually established a rel .t ionship between these dne authorit. ri an person.lity tmit' and fascistic political prillc:ip l.... More r""ent ly. additional criidsms have been mad< arout the work of Adorno and h is col· league ... fur e.ample. Martin (200 1) argIl'" th.t there is a fund'DleIltal f1.w in the theoretical com truct. ;n tllill thoo< h ;gh ;n outOOrit.ri"n;"m ore """,,,led to t.:.,.. Oychologically. right . "1 ng ~ uth .. r ltarian l>m is ,ubnisaion to perceived authorit ies. ptrticularly !hoot in the ""at>. lishment or established syst"", of go,·errHinee (AUemeyer. 19%). That system could be. repressive right_wing system . os in apartheid Sooth Africa. or a OOIl,mlU,ist system. as in the People', Republic of OJi,,", . or • democratic system. as in the Un iced States. Hen<:<:. right.wing authoritari anism can occur in any political system_ Akemeyer has developed. r ight-wing authorit"';anis", (RIVA) seale. too. The seale includes staten""., with wh ich the respondent mu< or diooyoe ruch "" - life ;mpr;"onmem i. jUegoat is respoosible. It foIlO'....s. fI"n. that a seoond patt",,, of thinking a/lleng those high in right-wing authoritari. nism is the accepl.n:;e of contrad ictory ideas and.n ability to compartmentaliu them. thereby igooring the cootra.dictions. Any idea that """ "" frorn "" auth.,..ity fi~ure ;•• ccepted •• """"oct. ""eo, if ;t ;. ;n dO-oct COllt.-.dictkm to
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,.,»!her idea. Third. Altemeyer a 'l}les thal !hose high in riglt_wing auttocitarianism see the " orld "" • very dangeroos plsce. Thy were taught 1hiI; by !heiI parems , !he Iesulting fear drives rouch of theiI aggression. a nd this:nates them vulnerable to predse.y the k ind of ""er:;lated. emotional. and dangerrus """rtm • demagogue woold make (1W61. FOurth. h igh authorita r_ ims are mu:oh mere careful in looI;iog f<x ""idence to d is..-o, .. ideas they a re ..-edisposed 10 Ie j«:t than to d is]YOVe ide" !hey are ..-edi<po&ed to acx:ep!. Finally. Alteneyet argues thal high au_ rh<:ritariall'l are partku larly suscept ble to the ' l"'da.... "t . 1 . u ribtHl)l1 orrorl wherein peq>1e a:trioole!he bellavi<x of others to inIemal d ispooiticm and !heiI OWI\ beh avior to exlemal f..-ces. Purther research into !he aurhoritarian personality is ongoing. Lambert, Burroughs. and Nguyen ( 1999) used Allemeyer 's BWA scale to e~ami "" !he relstioruhip betw""n autOOritari_ ""islll. belief in • just w<xld. and percept i"", of ris~. They found that h igh au lhaita riam peIc oived rCJ.k to be klwe.- if people bel;"" ed ;n 0 juot Wot W (Le .. good thinS" rome to good peo_ ple) . Low authoritarians d id not ha", !he same percept ion, Chspter 7 d isru=s some research reg . rding r"",,-relsled attitudes and Iight -wing aulhaita rian ism . Allemeyer a rgues that several polit ica l atti tudes. such " ant i·Sem itism and hostility to,,;anl foreigners. oorrelste w ith h is three central autOOrita ri:m att itude clm t""". but others. such " Baden (1999). a rgue that !he clusttring of such attitud<s is influeDCr..rut. lIu tua Uy d istinct. typological d iffe:ence . As mentioned a t the beginning of this chspter. studies of personality and le adership in pelitica l psychology are rather e clectic. in that they ~aw not only from psychoklgical person_ a lily concept •. but other a re .. a. we n. As a result. ""hoi. ,. Its, .. built some fram ...'orks th. t a re used to analyze political le aders (but many could be used to examine the average cit izen. too) . Ne.t. w e pr<:Nidt an <:Nerview of some of those fram eworks. wi th some e.amples o f their arrlic . ti"", to political leaders. but polilical leadeIs are di,.;ussed in mucb gre . ter depth in chspter 5.
Leade r Analysis Fra me works 'Thl.. (. uch as an in
INTRODUCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY Because the literature addressing the impact of petsonal v31iables upon political lea.der behav ior developed ",'er a 10f!! process of selecti"e l><:nx:M'ing by polit ical sc ientists from. brood range of psychological literatures (00 personality. oogniion. groups. etc.). ~awi ng crisp. d e" delinoaliort; bel:WMl petsonality and pol itical leaders.l ip in politica l psychology i, practicaUy impossib le. Like the problem often facing surg""'" in separat ing infants bern c0njoined. these two rese"ch !rOOili""" in polit ical psychology share too many common elemem, to easily ""Parale irJo two dist e">Ot bodies, This real ity will becone more apparent as many of the approach<s to the ",udy 01 perscmtity and politics , as weU as polit ical leadersbip. are viel>;ed in this chapler. There are some petsonality.based Sludies thai are applied to both leacj. ers and the average pet"""'. such as autOOritarian petsonality ",udies. Next. we pr<:Nide an o,....-view of several thecrie. am franl""'ods th. t focus 00 irxliv ,jual cbaracteristics and their ;mp"ct on polit;cfi1 b
Trait-Based SbJdies Presidential Character Barber', we ll · ~OOY.·n booI:. The Pm ide,lIial CW4Cter (1971). employs psycmbiography to e"Plain the persooalities. styles. and chatatter of modem president• . Avoiding the psychoana. lytic focus upoo Freudio.n coocep1s (id. ego. and superego). Barber '. psycIDbiographies seek patterrtl in the e"ly lives or political ca"""", of leaders. which cr.,(e. thtrugh a (r'OO"S& of soed by all presider1s. oot in diff~ an!WIlts and combinatims. As a result. the component' of p'esideltial personality (ch,g~ler....orid~. alld 'tyl~) are pal. tenlO(1. fitting together in a "dynamic pac~age UMer:;laMabk: in psychological tenus" (p. 6): Slyle reflects the habitual ""y • JlTesi;n merit. (Le.. his sense of self-<::;leem alld the criteria by which he judges himself. such as by athie''''"ett or .ffection) (Barber. 1972), In order to put these piooes together. Barbet etll· ploys a psychOOiogra[Oical approach to trace the sociological deveJcpmerrt. w ithin lXesiut their sut.;""JII<'lt , ,,,,",,,,, Perhaps one of the m""t farlloo, typologies in polit ical o
"
2, P
TABl E 2.2 !lo rber', Typology o f Presidenti. 1Ch . ... cter
,
[)O,,,.,. grell! pol'!l()l)1] sotisfo«lon
.',.
~,~
Acti",
ioto k
P... i""
and il hii.'>Iy elli>ge
Enjo)" greal persoml .. tisf"" tlon !rom tbt joll. bul pu ts litllt enorgy iJ».) II \ e XlIIlljie s: Madi>on, T.ft, Harding, Reagm, GW. Bosh)
Dori...,. lit:k pa:ooml ",tisfo«ioo )'"1 il hl.!hly eng>ge
HCO'I>'< r. i olnson. Ni:"iw. lit:le pe.-.onal .. tisf"" tion and pub litllt e"",gy IrJo it \exam,.,.: Wa;hinglOtl. CoaIidll'. Ei>emower)
oo..i.. Cf enjoyed their presidentia l duties and responsibilities, as m""b as Bill OiI1Cfl did in office (heSlon. 1001 ). Borber's predictioos flU to achieve results ond direct much of their energy t"",'a rd achi"'~metu, tend to be self_ r...".cting and h.P!')'. are open to """" ideas. O""ible and able to leorr. from mistakes, and tend to llt, 1001 ). In terms of (redicted behsviors arising from this style type. Boriler (1972) desc!ibes passive-posit ives as (rim.rily being after a fftrmatiCfl;nd support or ICNe from their foll"""ef', while sh<M'ing a te,nenc y for policy drift, especially during t imes of crisis. in wh ich you would expoct to see c""fuooo. delfiY. ond imput.Jiv"""", on th";r l"'Uld lake issue w ith eitber the oc
"
INTRODUCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
tedlliques were to provic1e 3 more nn."ced pcrtmit of leaciers (Herm.nll & PreSion. 1m.
1998: Preston 2001: Winter et _I.. 1991). Look ing at o ther traits. Ethtredge (1978), in a study of twenTieth ""'tury U.S . pre;;icktus and foreign I"licy advisers. tIOIertanee of traits sueh a. doml". no•• l"l eep, ... o" al IF... >I •• "" and in trovm;i.. ......," . ro" ~ ... ion. in sbaping p>licymaker vi"",', and policy
t.",t...
domina,..,,,
pre ferences. Americ,"leac1ers lCoring high on measures of tended to fav"," using force to settle d is('.l1es with tl;e Soviet Un;",. over the use of arbitration or dis.rm. mem. Moreover, leader. scoring highon introversion Tended to <>ppOSe oOOf"'ratioo. and e.uovened ones genenlly ,upp
to hold • more benign view of the Soviets and to owose the use or force (Wmter, 2003)_Other significaJt work in applying truits to politkal leac1ers have been done by We intraub (1981. 1986, 1989), in his studies of U.S. presidelUial press oonferenee respornes . •nd by Hennann (1984. 1987, 1988), in her stud,... of the foreign policy oriefJtatimo; of world leader. _
Leaders' Characteristics: Moti ves and Traits A wealth of research also exists surrounding the impact th.1t v>rious individual et....ac:teristics of leac1ers have upon the ir , tyles of doc isioo m>ting, interpenooal i1t eract ion<. inform..· tim proc ... sing. or managemen behav ic.-. in office (ef. Hennann. 1980.., 198Ob, 1983. 1984. l Q~ 7 ; Hennann & Pre.ton, 1\Xl4 . 1\)9f1; (>"o1erstanding of hoYr these measures tend to be thought of in the literature. "The n...... f" r P""'" (or OOr.inance) is • persooaUty characlerutic thot has been e"'ens;"'ely studied and linJ.:ed to spocific tjopes of behavior ",Id interact ional tionshipr;. Sludies hav, also foond thai leaders high in the need for po'I'o'er exhibit more controUing, domineering beh:tvi..- t<;N;.rd subcrdinal... than ICM'-power leaders (B,ov.ning & Jacob, 1964; Fodor & Farrow. 1979; M<:Clellantets is another ind" idual charrleteristic thai has Img been .rgued to ha" e • signllcaol: impact upon the nature of dtcision m.l
"
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TABl E 2-J D e sc r i ~ i o", ~ .. d
of Sele
for PO"'"
lor ... 0( <0"1['(11
Elh"or'"lrl>lll
C""",m witIJ .... b!ishing, rn.irtaining, or "'storing one', power, i~ _, me ', impaCI, coru-oI. "" nftue"", owr odlers Vie'" 0( tbe _ d il which an iOOiYiW ol .<0I"!d in; wa,tber gowIIllJlent can n""""", wlut "'PP<'" .. "" to. ""tm Vie'" 0( tbe _ d il which ""'" own _ OOIds "'n ~r , togo ; ~rong.1Th)(i.)mI tie, (Q oot', own "' lion: empmsi> 00 mli<ml I>Dor and
~ .. d
for .ffillalion
C,,!!llllh-, «>"'pl,_,II,.
pelid " ..
[II,.",,,,
0( oU"..
S.1f·co"W.n«
l,.,k_lnl"I""..,,,. 1 .mph.....
allli'y
C""""m witIJ .... b!ishing, IJt.1irtaining, or "'storing warm and friendly relatiolllhips with od>tt re"""'" or 1::1001" Abtity to dlff.rential< tbe .".,irormtn!: Degree 0( difI.ren!ialioo f" rsoD show, n
a ... or things
Gem>! kel q of doobt, u"",",int ... on:: nn.gi\'inl .rout 0Ibt,,; .,linatrn to su'p"'" and oo"bI odlers' root;"", and aclions Per= '. "''''''' cl ,,,If.irnpor12n<'< or irn .~ cltbe ir . bility to cope w'lI\ tbe ellVirorfl>is, .. n 1
""""ro.
1 9~Q ; T"U""x. 19f15; Vert2b,.. I;mitoo . hility '0 oojilllt their belief. to new infOlm.tiCfl_ C"' ''pluU.Vhas ,Iso benl tin~td to how atternive or stmitive l,aders are to infomlation Ironl (or to nu,nces from with .. ) their surrounding politic,1 01 policy envirOlllllent. (fiermann. 1984; Presion, 1997. 2(QI)_In f.<:t. Hermann (1984) octes th.t the more sens~ iw the individual is to info nnation fmn the decision erNiromnelll. the more receptive tho leader is to info nnatioo regarding tho vi ....s of colleagues 0< const ituelll •. tho vi""," of oufllide , ,"""'. and the value of altern.t ive viewpoint •• nd discrepall1 infOlmation_ h corm ..l. le.ders with • low sensitivity to conte.rual infoffilation will be kess rettptive to infmnation from the outside environment. will operate from a rreviously eSioblished ,nd strongly held set of beliefs. will .. lectively perceive and process iD;oming infonn.tion in o<der to "'JIPOfI or bolster this prio< Iramewo
""""jlt""'"
IN TRODUCTION TO POUTlCAL PSYCH OlOGY
In c"urast. the Int ograrh'. ,oon p,,"_" ry literorure differs alightly from the oognitive ,,;)m· literature ju& discussed, in tho! it focuses upon bo\h dif!"e~ n'!Uion (wbictJ is evalua· t ively dist inct dimension'l of a p-oblem taten ioto attoont by decision maters) >lid iflugrati{m (wh ich is the oo,....,.,ti"", made by dtdsion maters among differentiated charaeteristics), whereas 1he general comp l e~Jy literature focuses principally upon d ifferent iat ion alooo (Tetlock . 1983). For e"ample ••wording to Tetlock .ndTyler (l99t). integrative complexity,.-eSUppo&eS 3 d i:lledical poi,t·-couterpoint style of thinl:ing. in wh ich 1he speaker rerognizes the legit imacy <:f cortradictory poir:t, of view. then integrates tm.e ",aluatively differentiated cog· n ition'l iota a higher order 'jIIUhe to.;:M, much learning must be aeccrnplished OIl the job. the iThentory of beh ovicr. (starnard 'l""ating procedures) possessed, and how coofident 1he leader will be in interactioos with experts. Leaders I>;th a high degree <:f pric.c policy experitllCe are mere likely to i",ist upon persooal involveme.. ot oontrol <:Net policy mating than are these lew in priOf policy e,;peri=. who will tend to be more depen. dent upon til< v;"",'. of exp