Introduction to Education

Introduction to EDUCATION for South African teachers

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Introduction to EDUCATION for South African teachers AN ORIENTATION TO TEACHING PRACTICE

E M LEMMER D C BADENHORST

Juta & Co Ltd

First published 1997

© Juta & Co, Ltd PO Box 14373, Kenwyn 7790

This book is copyright under the Berne Convention. In terms of the copyright Act 98 of 1978, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher.

ISBN 0 7021 3819 3

Subediting: Carola Meyer, Cape Town Book design and typesetting: AN £tp Services, Cape Town Artwork: Colin Daniel; Carol Nelson; Inspiration Sandwich, all of Cape Town Index: Sandie Vahl, Cape Town Cover design: Joy Wrench, Cape Town Printed by Creda Press, Eliot Avenue, Eppindust 2

Table of Contente Abbreviations 1 Teachers and Teaching

ix 1

Dr Thobeka V Mda, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Prof A H MacLarty, Medunsa)

2 A Historical Overview of South African Education Prof Andrew van Zyl, University of South Africa

45

(Critical reader: Prof) S Maphalala, University ofZululand)

3 Philosophical Foundations in Education and their Significance for Teachers

95

Dr Karin Franzsen, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Mr M A Ngoepe, University of the North)

4 Schools in Transition

137

Prof Trudie Steyn, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Dr S M Sebakwane, University of the Witwatersrand)

5 Cultural Diversity and Schooling

187

Dr Eulalie van Heerden, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Dr I Goduka, University of Michigan, USA)

6 Human Development and Learning Dr Nicky Kruger, University of South Africa

215

(Critical reader: Prof T S Mwamwenda, University of the Transkei)

7 Curriculum Perspectives and Issues

257

Prof Waldemar Sohnge, University of South Africa, and Prof R I M Moletsane, University of Lesotho

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

8 Teaching

279

Prof Louis J van Niekerk, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Ms A J Gwynne-Evans, University of London)

9 School Management

327

Prof Dirk Badenhorst, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Prof C Mampuru, Vista University)

10 Education Finance

353

Prof Chris Claassen, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Mr M S Mothata, University of South Africa)

11 Education and the Law

381

Dr Joan Squelch, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Prof I Oosthuizen, Potchefstroomse Universiteit vir Christelike Hoer Onderwys)

12 Education in International Context

421

Prof Eleanor Lemmer, University of South Africa (Critical reader: Mr] Makete, Rhodes University)

Index

vi

451

/MtnetMtoM* ABET ANC ch COTEP DE DET DNE ECD ETQAs FDE FEC GEC HDE HED HEDCOM HET HSRC INSET NAPTOSA NCHE NEPI NGO NP NQF NSBs PRESET PTC QCs SADTU SAIRR SAQA SGBs STD Std UNISA

Adult Basic Education and Training African National Congress chapter (in legislation) Committee on Teacher Education Policy Department of Education Department of Education and Training Department of National Education Early Childhood Development Education and Training Quality Authorities Further Diploma in Education Further Education Certificate General Education Certificate Higher Diploma in Education Higher Education Diploma Heads of Education Departments Committee Higher Education and Training Human Sciences Research Council In-service Education for Teachers National Professional Teachers Organization of South Africa National Commission on Higher Education National Educational Policy Investigation Non-Governmental Organization Nationalist Party National Qualifications Framework National Standards Bodies Preservice Education for Teachers Primary Teachers Certificate Qualification Councils South African Democratic Teachers' Union South African Institute of Race Relations South African Qualifications Authority Standards-Generating Bodies Secondary Teacher's Diploma standard University of South Africa

vii

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CHAPTER

ONE

7eac6en& tutd, *?eaefa»t$> Dr Thobeka V Mda University of South Africa

This chapter looks at the teacher as a professional. The perceptions of the public, the teacher, and the other professions about teaching determine the concept of the teacher as professional. In South Africa, in particular, the very low entry requirements for student teachers, the perception of teaching as an easy route to higher education for those with limited career options, and the past inequities in provision between the various race groups are some of the factors that have hurt teaching as a profession. The section on why people choose to teach challenges the theories about choice as regards teaching. This chapter takes us through the world of how they are prepared, who thegj ^^Mby many remain teachers and why others |fve, where the teaching jobs, the actities in which teachers inoleve, then^l|^^i|||iyhat and how much remtneration thi|l|pi||g|eachers. information fromthe recent policy documents affecting teaching and education is also presented. BecauseBecause South AfrScWII^^^^I^iir stage, because of high expectations from the new government, and because of the pressure from ghjhasfquarters to introduce change, the |itation of proposed reforms sometimes moves very fast for the practitioners. s||achers:

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TEACHERS AND TEACHING

7*^<^$w*fc*fc 1 What Does it Mean to be a Teacher? 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Perceptions of teaching Teachers as professionals Teacher competencies Teachers' organizations: unions and associations 1.4.1 The role of teachers' associations in general 2 Why Do People Choose to Teach? 2.1 The broken dreams 2.2 Teachers as career-seeking travellers-in-transit 2.2.1 Deferred dreams 2.3 Intrinsic rewards of teaching 2.4 Practical benefits of teaching 2.4.1 Salaries 2.4.2 Fringe benefits 2.4.3 Promotion 2.4.4 Professional growth 3 Why Do People Leave Teaching? 4 Who Are South Africa's Teachers Today? 5 Where Are the Teaching Jobs?

6

7 8 9

5.1 Teacher supply and new demands 5.1.1 Projections National supply and demand comparisons 5.1.2 Shortage of natural science teachers 5.1.3 Shortage of multilingual teachers 5.1.4 Some proposals regarding supply and demand How Do People Become Teachers? 6.1 Teacher preparation 6.2 The COTEP guidelines on teacher education 6.3 Student teaching. Evaluation of Teacher Education Programmes Cultural Awareness Proposed Reforms in Teaching and Teacher Education 9.1 Teacher education 9.2 Teachers and teaching practice 9.3 What reform initiatives have been undertaken?

4 4 5 8 9 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 21 23 23 26 28 30 30 31 32 32 33 35 35 35 36 37 37 38

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Summary Terms and ConceptsStudent Activities Bibliography.

40 42

42 43

/ 7V6*t*Doe* ttlttea* U f a * leaded 1.1 Perceptions of teaching While not everyone is or wants to be a teacher, it is an occupation to which all of us have been exposed as learners, in formal and informal situations. Most of us have also been exposed to views about teaching, for example views of close friends when we were learners together, and views of family members. We therefore know great teachers, ideal teachers, and poor teachers. Opinions about, and attitudes to, teachers are often based not on the knowledge base of those teachers but on superficial views of what they do in classes and their role, or lack of it, in the community. Cinema and television may also have influenced perceptions about what constitutes an ideal teacher. An American book, Twenty Teachers (Macrorie, 1984), gives vignettes of outstanding teachers. This aims to provide serious insights into effective teaching. However, messages from films reach a wider audience. Notable films have been Goodbye Mr Chips, To Sir with Love, Stand and Deliver, Dead Poets' Society, Sarafina, and Dangerous Minds. Innovative, even revolutionary, teaching methods are portrayed in these films, and the teachers do not limit themselves to subject content but become involved in students' problems and self-development. In addition to showing different types of teachers, the above films and others, like Blackboard Jungle and Lean on Me, highlight the milieu and the management of schools, which greatly affect teachers' lives. They show political issues being tackled. See also De Villiers's book Walking the Tightrope (1990), about a Soweto school in the 1980s, where political issues were not tackled. Political issues in South Africa include language policy, cultural norms in communities, and the role, powers, and strategies of teachers' unions. In some quarters teachers are regarded as irresponsible radicals who hold their communities (students and parents) hostage in order to get what they want, using unions. Another perception of teaching is that it is traditional and vocational. In some societies and communities, teachers have remained in traditional roles and retained their status and influence. The tradition came from a time when the teachers, along with ministers of religion, were the most highly educated people. Few others had studied for as long as they had, and both roles were vocations. In South Africa the Afrikaans community has had that tradition for many years and has not completely lost it, but undoubtedly various other professions are now considered to have greater status. One has to go to a country like japan to find an example of a society where teaching is considered a prestigious profession, comparing favourably with law or medicine.

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TEACHERS AND TEACHING

The perception of the teaching profession in South Africa cannot be treated simplistically as the variety of schools is very great and the respect for teachers varies considerably between different communities. In the majority of black urban residential areas, the perceived status of the teacher has sunk rather low. Teachers are given little respect either by students or by the communities they serve. The primary reason is easy to identify. The apartheid government policy was to create limited schools for black students. They had a curriculum different from, and insultingly inferior to, that which was prescribed in white schools. Black teachers were trained in great numbers, often by dedicated and experienced people, but their college curriculum was fundamentally flawed. And when those teachers went to teach they were labelled as puppets of the government. There were instances where teachers were humiliated by students or even attacked (Hyslop, 1990). Their work dropped below standard, as did their morale. As a result of the political influences, both teachers and students have taken on other roles and identities in their communities besides those of teacher and student. There have been instigators, activists, reactionaries, rebels, collaborators and comrades while some have been defined as conscientized, relevant, or blank. The use of language further defines people, as people learn who uses which terms for what purpose. Thus the instigator will, in other quarters, be referred to as a comrade or a legitimate leader. This further influences what will be possible to accomplish in a classroom. In conclusion we may say that, to get a clear understanding of teachers and teaching, it is necessary to avoid the common perceptions, seek firm facts, and weigh up arguments.

1.2 Teachers as professionals Traditionally members of professions are not members of unions. As indicated above, teachers have, however, become active union members. This may be perceived as finally breaking the claim that teaching is a profession. Doubts about the status of teaching as a profession have existed in public opinion for some time. Some reasons why the doubts arose are as follows. Apparent differences exist between the legal or medical professions and teaching: the knowledge base required of a teacher is more eclectic than that of other professionals; teachers do not set up their own practice, with a brass plate outside; they do not have an office or a telephone; it is not the norm for teachers to charge fees and collect them; and finally teachers are not perceived to be carrying the same responsibility as the more autonomous lawyers, engineers, psychologists, or medical doctors, and are not rewarded with equivalent recognition or money (Maeroff, 1988). Freire, a Brazilian radical in educational thinking who was well aware of colonial education, described the independence or freedom of the teacher, especially when teaching the peasant or working classes. In this situation, which he called banking education, the teacher knows everything, thinks, talks, acts, disciplines, chooses programme content, and enforces the choice and the learning process. The students

5

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

listen meekly, comply, and are mere objects who have the illusion that they are learning because they recall correctly (Freire, 1970). This power in the classroom contradicts the powerlessness that teachers often report when they consider matters outside the classroom like school policy, governing councils' decisions, and state or regional regulations (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Maeroff, 1988), Fine (1991:147) refers to this powerlessness as arising from being 'underconsulted' and 'underheard', and indicates that it affects teachers' practices and academic expectations negatively while also stifling their imagination. Freire developed an alternative pedagogy from his experience with adult learners and this was tried in Guinea-Bissau, though not entirely successfully. The teacher learns from the students in a classroom with dialogue and then, by means of questioning, showing, and explaining, empowers the students to act in new ways and understand from other perspectives (Grundy, 1987:102). Such teachers have a very responsible, moral task, which also requires considerable skill. The reality for most South African teachers would be that they exercise some power in the classroom, though not the professionalism of Freire's pedagogy. It is worth considering to what extent critiques of the teaching profession in the United States of America apply in South Africa. Maeroff (1988: 20) quotes from an Education Commission in the United States that teachers are seen to occupy the role of underlings, and they are in a position where '[n]obody reports to the teacher, the teacher reports to everyone else'. In a paper with the evocative title The artist is he who dances in chains, Wirsing (1980: 8) describes teachers as 'passive servants of society'. In their perceived role as servants, teachers are assigned duties that they sometimes see as demeaning. The duties mentioned in the American context are hall supervision, enforcing the carrying of ID cards by students, checking that students do not wander around buildings, and being in charge of school parking lots to ensure that students do not park in teachers' spaces. American literature also notes that modern perks taken for granted by other professionals are not available to teachers. These include having business cards, treating business visitors to lunch, and even having a free cup of coffee. Maeroff (1988) describes the behaviour expected of American teachers in the past and identifies examples which also applied to South African teachers, like obeying dress codes, attending church, and not drinking liquor. South African teachers would have lists of modern menial duties similar to those above, such as shepherding students into classes, checking that students are wearing uniforms and not wearing jewellery, and reporting student pregnancies. In addition, if teachers question the assignment of such duties and indicate that participation in them undermines the professional relationship they try to maintain with students, their objections are likely to be overruled. In 1993 the present author conducted a study with teachers from three areas: Lusikisiki (Eastern Cape), Guguletu (Western Cape) and Nelspruit (Mpumalanga). The resulting research report gave feedback from a sample of teachers on how they defined professionalism and what rights and privileges they believed they had as professionals. Some of the teachers' comments around the term 'profession' were:

6

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

Mfana:

I think a professional job needs a specialization,

Zithulele: (T)he teaching profession , , , has been demoralized by the government, Think of the requirements for admission to teaching. If you just manage to pass it doesn't matter how , . . then you can only become a teacher, Mfana:

We will become a full profession when we as teachers see our views (reflected) on the curriculum and how the curriculum is shaped,

Fundile:

On the question of a professional, , , I tend to be very sceptical... I treat it with caution. , , , What do I expect? Full involvement in decision taking, whether it's in the running of the Department, whether it's in the material that I have to use in class, in the syllabus.

Mbutho: So , , . all the time . , , the propaganda of professionalism was being pumped into teachers, You are professional, you cannot do this, you cannot do this, you are professional, a teacher,

Linked to professionalism is the question of power. There is an abundance of literature on the personal need felt by teachers to have power in their field, and power is included among several factors that raise people's commitment to their work and the initiative they use in doing it. 'When individuals doubt their professional competence, social status, and self-worth, an available haven from anxiety is found in ... the mentality of powerlessness and conformity to authority/ observe Ashton and Webb (1986: 51). In a study on commitment, Kuhn and Geis (cited in Duval & Carlson, 1991: 4) list power with autonomy, achievement, esteem, affiliation, educational level, and locus of control as personal factors influencing commitment and dedication. In concluding this section we may ask whether there is an argument supporting the view that teachers are professionals. The argument for teaching being defined as a profession may have to go back to one aspect of the definition of professional (see any dictionary). In one sense, being professional means to have a vocation or calling to a field of work which does something with or for people. People in professions are expected to take a high level of responsibility and, in general, to work alone, taking sole responsibility and continually learning from experience. Ethical behaviour is expected, that is, respecting and working for moral standards and human rights. Tom (1984) describes teaching as a moral craft. Welker (1991) suggests that many professions, including the prestigious medical profession, have become so concerned with specialist expertise that teachers might be a role model for them, rather than the other way around. Teachers can be an example of cooperative experts, who are concerned about social issues (for example, malnutrition) and do not keep their clients (students) in a subservient relationship, unable to see how they can serve their own needs.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Further, teaching models lifelong learning, gained by reflection upon one's actions, one's client's situation and behaviour, and one's colleagues' knowledge. Wirsing (1980:16) says that, besides the skills of a technician, teachers are expected to 'possess the intellectual basis from which to bring interpretation, normative, and critical perspectives to bear on educational phenomena ... Further, the professional has a sophisticated grasp of the large and complex world of human experience which so definitely influences his [/her] schooling universe and the miniworld of his [/her] own classroom.' One may come to a definition of professional people as those who start from a sufficiently broad education to be alert to injustices in society, who are committed to modelling moral behaviour for society (what it is to act fairly, to know right from wrong and choose the right, avoiding vices), and who are trained in specialized knowledge, practical skills, and human problem solving and keep up to date in all three. This seems to make it quite possible for teachers to be considered as professionals. Recognized status and wealth are not the essential criteria, however much the world uses that yardstick.

1.3 Teacher competencies Although Welker (1991) holds the view that emphasis on expertise is mistaken, especially where caring and reflective aspects of the, profession are minimized by that emphasis, education policy documents tend to list the competencies that teachers should have. In South Africa, a publication by the Committee on Teacher Education Policy (COTEP) entitled Norms and Standards and Governance Structures for Teacher Education (COTEP, 1995) presents necessary competencies for teachers in training, arranged under the headings knowledge, skills, and values. These are listed in table 1.1. Table 1.1 General competencies (COTEP, 1996: 15-27) Competencies related to knowledge Nature of the pupil and his/her world of experience Subject content Structure of knowledge Theoretical underpinnings of education Curriculum theory Gender issues National, regional, and school curriculum policies Cross-curricular concerns in curriculum theory Vocational needs of the individual and society Resources for learning from the environment and support systems

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TEACHERS AND TEACHING

Table 1.1 (cont)

Subject didactics Thinking skills such as in technology education Learning process Fundamental values of the community Role of parents in the education process School and its place in regional and national systems of education Organized teaching profession Professionalism Use of language as a basis for learning Role of the arts in learning Religions of the country Cultures of the country Competencies related to (classroom) skills Communication Methodology Classroom management Assessment Values/attitudes/dispositions Values related to the school Attitudes related to professionalism

1.4 Teachers' organizations — unions and associations 1.4.1 The role of teachers' associations in general The history of teachers' associations shows clear links with political developments in a country. In South Africa, one of the first African teachers' associations, the Native Educational Association (NEA), included in its 1879 agenda political issues like the pass laws which affected only the Africans. So the association was both educational and political. For the African teachers' associations a pattern seems to have been set then. The politicization of teachers in the early 1950s followed the ascension to power of the Nationalist Party (NP) and the establishment of Bantu Education. Marks and Trapido (1987:45) report that Transkei teachers as a rural intelligentsia often brought together their opposition to Bantu Education with the villagers' struggles against land rehabilitation and cattle culling, and the imposition of chiefs by the state. At the time

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

of the Cape African Teachers' Association's (CATA) radicalization, when the view of the radical group in the Association prevailed, the preamble of their constitution was rewritten to read: 'Our struggle is inseparable from the general struggle of the African people . . .' and committed the teachers' organization to unite with other bodies to 'co-ordinate their struggles in the fight against common oppression—the fundamental oppression of the Black [people]' (Marks & Trapido, 1987: 272). South African history, and specifically racial divisions, led to teachers' associations being formed along racial and ethnic lines. There were also provincial teachers' associations, for instance the Natal African Teachers' Union (NATU), Cape Teachers' Professional Association (CTPA), Transvaal Teachers' Association (TTA) and Orange Free State Teachers' Association (OFSTA). There is no evidence that the white-teachers-only associations had overt political agendas in their associations. This could be explained thus: as a privileged group they had no political dissent in their daily lives and so they could focus on the professional issues. Also, the white teachers, especially the Afrikaans-speaking ones, had been educated and trained in Christian National Education and later Fundamental Pedagogics, a philosophy that denied the political role in education (Enslin, 1990: 79). (Of course even the 'National' in Christian National Education was somewhat political, though it may not have been perceived as such.) Teachers' associations like the National Education Union of South Africa (NEUSA), that managed to bring together teachers of different races, always had political issues in their agenda. In the 1990s, the South African Democratic Teachers' Union (SADTU), formed in 1990 and mainly black, has emerged not only as the only teachers' union but also as the most visible teachers' group. The Union is perceived to be very militant as it follows the style of labour unions and their radical strategies. A contrast is observed between it and the National Professional Teachers' Organization of South Africa (NAPTOSA), an umbrella body of a number of racial and geographic teachers' associations. The formerly government-recognized associations have merged under NAPTOSA while the formerly unrecognized progressive teachers' organizations have come under SADTU. NAPTOSA was established (in 1991) to address only professional issues. SADTU is an umbrella body based on unitary principles, while the teacher organizations under NAPTOSA have kept their identities under a federal umbrella body. The difference in history and ideologies keeps these two main teacher groups separate.

2 tufa T>* Peaffo &to*4e U 7eM$ Recent research in South Africa has discovered disturbing information about why many teachers chose to teach. Young teachers gave various disturbing reasons for joining the profession, and it became clear that much money is being invested in teacher training without producing committed teachers. In the 1993 study on

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TEACHERS AND TEACHING

teacher perceptions (Mda, 1993) it emerged that in many cases the choice to teach was not a choice at all. Teachers articulated the idea that they were travellers or career-seekers in transit (Mda, 1993: 17). The important 1995 national audit of teacher education (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995) confirms this. The audit (1995: 14) found that many '[trainees have no desire to teach but want a tertiary qualification'. The audit report indicates that about 20 % of students taking preservice teacher education and training (PRESET) will never teach. The reason is basically that '[t]eacher education is often seen as a "back door" route to higher education' for sections of the community with limited alternative options, either because of their school results or because the only funding they can find is a teaching bursary. Entry requirements with respect to school-leaving examination results are lower than those needed to enter other tertiary institutions, particularly universities. Differences were found in different ethnic and provincial education departments in the former government, but basically the automatic bursaries given to students who were accepted in teacher training colleges was a more important attraction than a career in teaching, and the colleges took no steps to limit selection to applicants who had a vocation for teaching, if indeed that can be objectively identified.

2.1 The broken dreams I landed by mistake in the teaching occupation It was not my intention I never thought I would be a teacher one day but now that I am teaching I am enjoying it I do not regret being a teacher So being in the teaching field was emergency landing because of the results the results were not good and also funds I could not afford to proceed to university even if I had an exemption so , . , of course it was a matter of poor results, , , (Khethelwa) Another teacher, Nomthetho, claims teaching was not her first choice of profession or occupation, She went to train as a teacher on the rebound, She lost her father before high school final exams. This disturbed her so much that she did not perform well and got only a school-leaving certificate, so she could not go to law school. Money was also a factor. Fikile got a good pass, a matriculation exemption, but did not have money to go to university.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

A significant and frequent expression heard from these teachers is 'unfortunately'. With the exception of Khethelwa, many teachers express regret and sadness over their destiny. There is also the impression that they do not think much of this career or occupation. It sounds as if they are communicating the idea that they are capable of better choices and/or know what else is out there. There is the feeling of being trapped. The lack of choice started with the school one attended, the type of subjects one took, and the number of subjects one took. In South African education, African students have, from an early age, attended schools wherever they could gain admission, which might not always be the neighbourhood school. In rural areas it was easier at primary school level: everyone was admitted. At secondary school, however, the situation was the same for rural and urban students: the influx from primary schools was greater than they could handle. South African schools across the colour lines often found it difficult to offer all the courses: science, general arts, commerce and technical. Indian schools seem to have fared much better in this area, often being well supplied with science and commerce teachers. Many African schools found it impossible to offer science or technical subjects. With few African teachers being trained as science teachers (see also section 5.1.2), and most of those on a weak foundation from their high schools (and with few role model scientists in their community), the system could not handle the years of backlog from the time when the education of African children was in the hands of voluntary missions. In multilingual areas like the Soweto townships, ethnic segregation has been a problem. One was forced to seek admission in schools designated as Sotho, Tswana, Xhosa, or Zulu schools. Even after the student was admitted, the class with the desired curriculum — (natural) sciences, art, commerce, or technical — could be full and the student would have to take the available curriculum. Even when it was possible to choose from the four courses, the requirements for subject combinations and levels (higher or standard grade) channelled students in the former Department of Education and Training (DET) to take three languages. This situation is an example of prescription, identified by Freire (1970: 31) as a characteristic of the state of being oppressed. Since there is now a national Department of Education (DNE), the policies have changed and are uniform for all public schools. The lack of choice makes education and career choice a matter of fate. For some teachers, their teaching career was a result of their preferred subjects not being available. Mfana:

12

I never planned to do teaching until I got to standard eight. . . . My ideal all the time had been (to do) medicine . . . but unfortunately we boycotted here in 1980, and I had to go to another school in Oudtshoorn (in the Karoo), There, there was no physical science teacher, and no maths teacher— We were doing functional maths, agriculture, and biology, And so basically my life was shaped for me,

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

Mbali:

(W)e really need to address imbalances, in that the people who are actually teaching , , , are not the people who wanted to do teaching, For instance, if you look at the universities, the University of Cape Town, the University of (the) Western Cape, if one looks at most black people who are there they are doing history, Bibs (Biblical studies) and Xhosa, Now, one needs to check out what it is that actually makes these people to do this, In other words, these people were shaped by the environment which they come from — it doesn't give them any alternative, it only shapes them towards that,

Zithulele: (A)s long as you obtain that school leaving (certificate), then you can only become a teacher , , , there is no other profession that can accept you with such symbols,

2.2 Teachers as career-seeking travellers-in-transit 2.2.1 Deferred dreams Having landed in this profession, the above teachers and others have expressed the hope that they will still go on to their desired careers. The broken dreams become deferred dreams. These are some of the ultimate destinations of the teachers spoken to: law, a computer firm, counselling, ministry, speech and drama, chartered accountancy and playing a guitar for a band. One teacher said she would like to do a Bachelor's degree in science or administration, and yet she had just started her Bachelor of Arts studies with UNISA. The issue of lack of choice continues to follow most of the teachers trapped in teaching. For those who decide to upgrade their skills while teaching, there is a limitation regarding subjects they can study part-time. Subjects like physics and geography, for example, cannot be studied on a part-time basis or by distance learning because of practical (laboratory) classes required. So, instead of moving closer to their dreams, teachers continue deferring them by choosing courses that will help them attain degrees in a short time. Teachers opt for easier courses that may have nothing to do with their classroom competence or the subjects they teach, based on their final-year subjects at school. Since these are distance-learning and/or part-time studies, one's choice of courses is influenced not only by the reputation of a particular course for being easy and having manageable requirements, but also by the availability of fellow students to form a study group, and by the Department of Education's (DE) recognition of the course for credit as a teaching subject. Because of this, many teachers are not committed either to the subjects they teach or the ones they study. All over the country many teachers attend classes at the local universities as part-time students and get tutorials and other learning support from learning centres and

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

public libraries. In rural areas, distance learning is the best option for those upgrading and those furthering their studies. As articulated and evidenced by some teachers in the sample, for example Mbali, Nomthetho, and Fikile, some of the above limitations in choice of career are limitations of social class. The lower the class, the harder it is to advance. So the dreams continue to be deferred.

2.3 Intrinsic rewards of teaching For those teachers in South Africa, however, who choose to teach, the reasons are generally the same as those given by teachers all over the world: a sense of mission, love of one's subject and of one's students, and caring. These same reasons apply to the question of why people remain in teaching. Teachers report, in studies, that their personal lives affect their teaching (Burden, 1982; McLean, 1991; Tlale, 1992; Willie & Howey, 1980). The personal aspects cited most frequently as influential are the positive ones. Teachers cite positive attitudes and feelings about themselves, their spouses and families, their activities outside of school commitments, and their personal qualities as affecting their teaching in a positive and supportive manner. Positive feelings about themselves lead to positive attitudes in dealing with children in school (Burden, 1982). Teachers who have positive feelings about their students and place a priority on building positive teacher-student relationships, often bring out the best in students in terms of the latter's success at school (Duval & Carlson, 1991; McLean, 1991). The teachers' positive predisposition towards students is not attributed to teacher training, but to personal qualities already mentioned and to a 'moral imperative which derives from political, humanistic, or spiritual beliefs' (McLean, 1991: 3, 6, 7). Difficulty in separating personal from professional lives is often captured in the phrase, Teaching is a 24-hour job'. Teachers do not stop thinking about their teaching and students after work. Many a teacher spends personal time obtaining material, thinking of new materials and new teaching methods to enrich the class, or marking students' work. Also, the tradition in some schools demands that teachers run sports events and organize cultural events, even on Saturdays. This different kind of interaction with learners gives a different perspective to teaching. For some teachers the interaction between their personal and professional lives is a result of being close friends with a teacher from the same school (Burden, 1982). Duval and Carlsons' study of teaching excellence yielded stories of pain, persistence, pathos, poignancy, love, bitterness, loneliness, ingenuity, great wisdom, stress, poverty, isolation, victory, failure, hunger, physical suffering, mental anguish, selfsacrifice, courage, sometimes a magnificent singular sense of purpose, and, above all, commitment and dedication (Duval & Carlson, 1991: 4). There seems to be an agreement that moral obligation and a sense of service or mission are factors contributing to retention of teachers. Individual teachers report satisfaction, contentment, joy, and a sense of achievement from having been part of something, in this case education of students (Freedman, 1990: 406-20). A teacher

14

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

in Freedman's Small Victories (1990: 420) writes in response to a letter from a former student who is by then herself a teacher, 'I hope someday you get a letter from a student like the one you sent me. It will bring tears to your eyes and gladden your heart. . / For teachers this seems to be reason enough not only to continue teaching but to claim success as teachers. On the question of why teachers continue to teach even under difficult conditions, some teachers from the South African sample are quoted below (Mda, 1993). 'Teaching is still a good choice. We do not have a problem with the profession, but with the department and the government/ (Focus group with males at Site 1). Nomzekelo: It must be hope and wishful thinking that things are going to change , , , We persist because we love it, and that is why we chose it, We hope one day things will revert to what they were before. Nombeko: (W)e have developed a love for teaching, and we remember that it was not always like this... It must be love of the profession . . . Sometimes, as adults, we understand what the students are feeling and the way they are behaving . . . John:

(S)ome of these students travel for miles to get to this school and I want to make the experience of schooling worthwhile for those students.

At one rural school a teacher said they continued teaching because they could see progress — the school was growing in numbers and subjects; the new principal was seen to be hard-working, sincere, and responsible; the school had improved its Std 10 end-of-year results from the last position in the district, with a 7 % pass rate, to a 47 % pass rate the following year. At the time of the interview it claimed to have the best soccer team in the district. In a school that was really dilapidated, teachers said it made them feel good to contribute towards the learning of the students. Teachers were encouraged to see students cooperate and progress. At a rural high school in Lusikisiki, one teacher said the children were innocent and sincere, even if poor. This teacher was encouraged by the occasional smiles; he compared his job to the sad atmosphere in a hospital and commented, 'Here, people are alive/

2.4 Practical benefits of teaching It has been shown that the practical benefit of available teaching bursaries caused many South African teachers to choose this career. Certain practical benefits may cause them to continue teaching.

15

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

2.4.1 Salaries Whether teachers' salary increases are ever ahead of the inflation rate is doubtful. The teaching profession is probably not, at present, becoming better off relative to other professions, but increases are considered and awarded regularly, sometimes because of pressure from teachers' unions and associations and from other public service groups. Table 1.2 shows firstly that, in 1995, the starting salary for the least-qualified teacher was nearly R22 000 per year, while the starting salary for the best-qualified teacher was nearly R41 600 per year. The least-qualified teacher would get an initial increase of R1 854 per year and reach the top of the scale at R38 889; the best-qualified would increase in three stages, by R2 709, R2 964, and R3 318, to an upper limit of R64 899. Secondly, the table shows six categories of qualifications. This means that it pays teachers to study further. It may be noted that 'pay for qualifications' is not the same as 'pay for quality teaching' or 'merit'. Table 1.3 gives 1994 figures that compare the average salaries of the race groups without showing how many teachers were in each category. The low figure in the Indian group 'less than Category C. is probably due to the small number of such teachers. The fact that the highest average was in the Indian group is also likely to be a result of small numbers and of having many teachers in the highest category. The African group had the highest number of teachers.

Table 1.2 Salary scales for beginner teachers: 1995 (GN 1994,

1995)

Category B

21 972 x 1 854 - 27 534 x 2 271 - 38 889

Category C

29 805 x 2 271 - 38 889 x 2 709 - 49 725

Category D

34 347 x 2 271 - 38 889 x 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 - 55 653

Category E

36 618 x 2 271 - 38 889 x 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 - 58 617

Category F

38 889 x 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 - 61 581

Category G

41 598 x 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 - 61 581 x 3 318 - 64 899

Category B:

Matric plus two-year professional qualification e g PTC

Category C:

Matric plus three-year professional qualification or approved degree for teaching purposes e g STD, BA, BSc, BComm

Category D:

Matric plus four-year professional qualification or composite teaching degree e g HDE, BA Ed, B Prim Ed, or degree followed by one-year HDE (postgraduate)

Category E:

Matric plus five-year study eg above plus Honours, BEd or FDE

16

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

Table 1.3 Average teacher salaries by race and qualifications (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995)

African

Coloured

Indian

White

Less than Category C

R28 176,69

R33 460,13

R1 9 721 ,76

R30 698,37

Category C

R36 137,50

R42870.11

R44 523,56

R46 559,86

More than Category C

R41 801,27

R51 525,69

R52783.11

R52510.86

The variation in salaries for the different races is also a result of the previous racially based education departments which had different pass and qualification requirements, standards, and general education conditions. That created a situation where one race (white) had almost TOO % qualified teachers with high educational qualifications and the African group had the most un/underqualified teachers (60 % of un/underqualified teachers are African) (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995: 31). Teachers' salaries are accompanied by medical aid and housing subsidy benefits. There is also a service bonus. These benefits add an average of 37 % to the cost of employing a teacher. Teachers' salary packages take up 85 % of the education budget in South Africa.

2.4.2 Fringe benefits A teacher may work long hours because of the extramural activities and daily marking and lesson preparation after the seven official hours of teaching, but there are excellent holiday benefits. School holidays take up a minimum of 88 days (including holiday weekends). Those days are paid for, and teachers may even earn extra money during the holidays. A number of school teachers are, for example, paid to mark external examination papers during part of the long Christmas holiday. The relatively short official day of contact with students and free periods are not intended to encourage teachers to moonlight by taking on extra jobs in literacy programmes of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or in private sector teaching, for example, though some teachers do so. But it is a fringe benefit that teachers can further their studies through distance education (for example, through UNISA) or part-time study (for example, through VISTA, which was established specifically to upgrade teachers). One of the most valuable benefits is the housing subsidy available to teachers in permanent posts. The DE's contribution has been growing with the inflation rate. One logical reason for this benefit is to enable government to encourage teachers to work in rural areas and small towns. Until recently it has been easy for a teacher to seek employment in a school or area of choice. A teacher, therefore, did not have to relocate and be involved in extra

17

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

accommodation and transport expenses. In many areas this is still a benefit. Teacher oversupply in some provinces has, however, made it difficult for newly qualified teachers to find teaching posts, especially in the urban areas. While this is a problem for newly qualified African teachers, it does not seem to be the case with white teachers. (According to two educators interviewed at a college of education in Pretoria, their students usually found teaching vacancies in the formerly white Department of Education by reading the Government Gazette. At the time of the interview, in January 1996, all their students had already been placed.) As a result of the oversupply in Gauteng province, the ministry and the teachers' unions in that province reached an agreement in 1995 to redeploy teachers to needy areas. This same strategy has been fiercely resisted by teachers in Cape Town.

2.43 Promotion Teachers' promotions are usually based on evaluation by seniors and sometimes on their students' performance in external examinations. The career ladder may be academic or administrative, as shown in figure 1.1 below.

Figure 1.1 The career ladder in teaching

It should be noted, however, that South African teacher education has not been offering a dual career track or giving special training in administration. Skilled classroom teachers are invariably promoted to managerial positions without management or administration training (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995: 33). The rationale

18

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

for this practice, which is based on a British rather than an American model, is presumably that basic management skills are learned in teacher training and used in teaching and extramural activities. Teaching experience is therefore commonly used as a criterion for promotion to managerial positions. In the case of African teachers especially (because many new schools have been opened) the result is that teachers who are underqualified even as classroom teachers, but have been teaching for many years, have been promoted, even to the post of principal. With no clear promotion guidelines, it is not easy for an individual to plan career mobility in the profession. Whether one moves up academically or administratively is usually decided by authorities and not by the individual. 2.4.4 Professional growth Professional growth of teachers is an area that needs attention. In the former DET, the quality of students7 work as shown in school-leaving examinations was poor, often desperately poor. Professional development is currently offered through in-service education and training for teachers (INSET). This includes workshops and courses offered for short periods (from a few hours) to long periods (a year plus). The Department of Education INSET provision often comprises curriculum-based subject courses for primary and secondary school teachers. There is no accreditation or financial incentive for attendance by teachers. In some areas attendance is compulsory and punitive measures are taken to enforce this. NGOs offer both nonaccredited and accredited courses (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995: 57). Some programmes offered by colleges of education are accredited by higher education institutions towards diplomas and degrees and are recognized for salary notches. In an environment where teacher attendance of a course is either compulsory or remunerative, it is not easy to assess whether teachers are attending for professional growth. On the other hand, as the audit report indicates, a number of teachers choose teaching out of a desire for some form of higher education. For those interested in growing in the profession there are many opportunities through the state and private colleges, contact and distance-learning universities and technikons, and NGOs. The course to take would be one of those focused on school competence and usually not formally accredited. The variable nature of INSET offered makes it difficult to assess the effectiveness of such intervention. This has led to some caution regarding provision of INSET (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995: 29).

3 t^V*p€^£e^7e*e^7 Every year a number of individual teachers leave the teaching career. The teacher audit reports resignation, retirement, and death as the three main factors contributing to teacher attrition (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995: 29).

19

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

There is also evidence that some personal factors do affect teaching negatively. For teachers who blame students and see them as stupid, troublesome, hostile, and having no direction, the teaching experience becomes boring and stressful. Some factors in adult development may also affect negatively the professional experience. The changes in people's lives resulting from scheduled and unscheduled events may be traumatic for some teachers. The areas identified include physiological change as one gets old, the search for intimacy, interaction with life's work, the quest for fneaning, development of one's sexuality, and acceptance of termination (Willie & Howey, 1980: 33-4). An example of how these areas of change can affect one's professional life is the reaction to physiological change. As the powers of the musculoskeletal system and central nervous system decrease, the self-concept may be distorted in the teacher who notes his/her deteriorating appearance and the ageing process while facing, year after year, a 'continuing wave of youth' (Willie & Howey, 1980: 36). Among the factors that have contributed to teachers in South Africa leaving the profession have been the strategies used against dissident teachers. These strategies included thwarting opportunities for promotion, transferring one far from home and friends, and direct harassment, which included political detention. This was very common in the predemocratic South Africa. As mentioned in the introductory section, there have also been instances where teachers were humiliated, harassed, or violently attacked for ideological reasons. Sometimes teachers are harassed or assaulted for allegedly fraternizing with students. Male teachers who become sexually involved with female students are likely to find themselves in this situation. The change of government and ideologies also contributes to instability in the profession. When the Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953 was introduced, a number of teachers, black and white, resigned for moral reasons, while others were expelled for their active protests against the Act. In 1996 South Africa was experiencing the same conflict, though to a lesser extent. The conflict in 1954 resulted from the implementation of the segregatory Act following the Nationalist Party's (NP) political victory in 1948; in 1996 it was in response to the implementation of democratic and equal education policies following the African National Congress's (ANC) political victory in 1994. A few schools, their teachers and governing councils resisted the forced integration of all racial groups in their schools. It can be assumed that some teachers must have resigned as a result of this conflict as the education departments enforced the integration laws through the courts and the Constitution. While stress and burnout play an important role, the attractiveness of other careers should not be underestimated. Even with the recent innovations in the salary structure, teaching still remains a low-paid profession. An education graduate's salary package still compares unfavourably with graduate packages in other fields like economics and the natural sciences. At the time of writing, an engineer with a Bachelor's degree, for example, may get a starting salary of R110 000 per year as opposed to the R34 347 per year of an education graduate. Upswings in the economy also encourage teachers, especially those with science or commercial training, to resign and move to other career fields.

20

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

While it is easy for an experienced teacher to move to another field for an improved salary package in recognition of the teacher's experience, the DE does not offer attractive benefits such as matching one's previous salary notch, even within the designated salary scale. Qualified and experienced educators have to take a salary cut if they move to the DE from the private sector or from another institution or organization outside the department.

4 Wfo&e S<Mt6s4iflfaii 7eacAen& 7<w&#? A profile of South Africa's teachers is given in table 1 .4. The figures are taken from three reports: the Department of Education's Report 233 of August 1995, Edusource Data News of October 1 995, and the independent audit report (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1 995), all of them based on the 1 994 end-of-year figures.

Table 1.4 South Africa's teachers (DE, 1995a; Edusource, 1995; Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995)

Number of teachers in South Africa Eastern Cape Free State Gauteng KwaZulu-Natal Mpumalanga Northern Cape Northern Province North West Western Cape Education Number of Number of Number of

Audit

DE

341 903 58438 23684 48407 68356 25 177 7208 50 109 26676 33848

356 080 59346 24137 55799 65960 24066 7490 52672 31 311 35299

sector public school teachers private school teachers special school teachers

Women in the teaching profession Total % (of all teachers) Un/underqualified (of all female teachers) In senior positions (of all female teachers)

336684 141111 5285 64% 40% 13%

21

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Table 1.4 (cont) Audit Age Total Total Total Total Total Total

% younger than 35 years % over 45 years - African % over 45 years - coloured % over 45 years - Indian % over 45 years - white % over 45 in Western Cape and Gauteng

Un/underqualified Total % Of those, over 36 years Of those, under 25 years African African principals African deputy principals African school heads of department Africans in senior positions: secondary schools More than 10 years' teaching experience Northern Cape, Free State, and Eastern Cape, each Experience Total % with less than five years Total % of teachers with five years and less in KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, and Eastern Cape Upgrading Total % 1994-1995 Total % African Total % coloured Total % Indian Total % white

DE

54%

18% 12% 22% 27% 20%

— — — — —

36%

51 % 12% 60% 21% 42% 56% 27% 56%

46-52%

36% 40%

36%

9.2% 5.6% 10.9% 5%

In South Africa there is the problem of unqualified and underqualified teachers. Unqualified teachers are those who do not have a certificate in teacher preparation. They may, for example, have degrees but no teaching qualification. Underqualified teachers are those whose teaching qualifications are not adequate for the positions they hold, for example a primary-school-qualified teacher teaching at secondary

22

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

school or a teacher with an M+2 certificate in a post requiring M+3. (M+2 means having a matriculation certificate and two years of tertiary education. This is underqualification for teaching. The minimum is M+3, which means a matriculation certificate and three years of tertiary education. If this three-year tertiary qualification is one of the teaching diplomas then that is full qualification. M+3 of matriculation and a junior degree is not a qualification for teaching.) There has been pressure on teachers to upgrade to acceptable categories. A number of qualified teachers are also upgrading to higher categories.

5 WAene&etAe leacfau} fofa? 5.1 Teacher supply and new demands In 1994 there were 11 495 364 full-time students in public schools (table 1.5). Of those, approximately 81 % were African, 9 % white, 8 % coloured, and 2 % Indian (Edusource, 1995). Table 1.6 gives the total number of teachers at primary and secondary levels in each province for comparison with the corresponding student numbers. Table 1.5 Pupils by province, race, and level Province

Race

Level of School Primary

Eastern Cape

Free State

Gauteng

African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White Subtotal

1 687 425 95 867 1 101 43698 1 828 09 442301 15520 0

43522 501 343 551 432 49605 27995 245 772 874804

Total

% of Total

Secondary 77% 73% 54% 60% 76% 68% 76% 0% 60% 67% 63% 68% 67% 62% 63%

503934 34723 940

29680 569 277 209542 4787 0

29179 243508 319308 22982 13985 148760 505 035

23% 27% 46% 40% 24% 32% 24% 0% 40% 33% 37% 32% 33% 38% 37%

2 191 359 130590 2041 73378 2 397 368 651 843 20307 0

72701 744851 870 740 72587 41 980 394 532 1 379 83

91% 5% 0% 3%

100% 88% 3% 0% 10%

100% 63% 5% 3% 29%

100%

^n

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Table 1.5 (cont.) Province

Race

Level of School Primary

KwaZulu-Natal

African Coloured Indian White

Subtotal Mpumalanga

African Coloured Indian White

Subtotal Northern Cape

Northern Province

North West

Western Cape

African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White

Subtotal Total

24

African Coloured Indian White TOTAL

1 469 91 1 22 837 145 892 72 635 1 711 275 515160 3366 3232 38092 559 850 38363 83278 0

15 152 136793 1 173 503 972 872

20256 1 195 603 562317 8425 2082 32898 605 722 83312 384 156 2209 88612 558 289 6 523 724 664026 183 383 600637 7 971 770

Total

% of Total

Secondary 72% 68% 64% 61% 71% 68% 76% 67% 63% 68% 68% 76%

0% 59% 71% 64% 77% 71% 62% 64% 70% 75% 67% 61% 69% 69% 73% 62% 59% 69% 70% 73% 64% 61% 69%

558 046 10762 82538 45527 696 873 237 755 1 066 1 560 22 326 262 707 18075 25887 0

10584 54546 664454 297 361

12308 677 420 242983 2857 1 036 21 252 268128 38073 143950 1 350 62727 246 100 2 792 170 247311 101 770 382343 3 523 594

28% 32% 36% 39% 29% 32% 24% 33% 37% 32% 32% 24%

0% 41% 29% 36% 23% 29% 38% 36% 30% 25% 33% 39% 31% 31% 27% 38%

41 % 31 % 30% 27% 36% 39% 31%

2 027 957 33599 228 430 118 162 2 408 148 752915 4432 4 792 60418 822 557 56438 109 165

84%

1% 9% 5%

100% 92%

1% 1% 7%

100% 29% 57%

0

0%

25736 191 339 1 837 957 1 269 1 233 32 564 1 873 023 805 300 11 282 3118 54 150 873 850 121 385 528 106 3 559 151 339 804 389 9315894 911 337 285 153 982 980 11 495 364

13%

100% 98%

0% 0% 2%

100% 92%

1% 0% 6%

100% 15% 66%

0% 19%

100% 81% 8% 2%

9%

100%

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

Table 1.6 Educators by province, race and level Province

Primary Eastern Cape

Free State

Gautenc]

KwaZulu-Natal

Mpumalanga

Northern Cape

Northern Province

North West

African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian While Subtotal African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White

Subtotal

Total

Level of School

Race

30088 3467 28 2060 35643 12575 498 13 2 247 15 333 14758 1 625 887 9390 26660 33961 838 5749 2965 43513 14 158 101 45 1 670 15974 1 064 2892 14 779 4749 29270 27 23 862 30 182 14624 242 21

1 395 16282

%0f Total

Secondary 61% 67% 31% 52% 61% 67% 69% 54% 55% 65% 59% 58% 51% 50% 55% 67% 59% 54% 55% 64% 66% 71% 22% 50% 63% 65% 70% 54% 54% 66% 61% 64% 42%

19101 1 742 62 1 890

39%

49189

84%

33%

22795 6276 223 11 1 841 8 351 10199 1 190 851 9507

39%

5209 90 3950 58438 18851 721 24

21 747 16902 585 4957 2399 24843 7358 42

45% 36%

163 1 640

78% 50% 37%

9% 0% 7% 100% 80% 3% 0% 17% 100% 52% 6% 4% 39% 100% 74% 2% 16% 8% 100% 85% 1% 1% 13% 100% 23% 57%

9203 561 1 217 12 669 2459 19052 15 32

69% 48% 33% 31% 46%

41%

4088 23684 24957

42%

2815

49% 45%

1 738 18897 48407

33% 41%

50863 1 423

46%

10706 5364 68 356 21 516 143 208 3310 25 177 1 625 4 109 26% 1 448 7208 48322 42 55 1 690 50 109 23244

45% 35%

50%

34% 29%

35% 30% 46% 46% 34% 39% 36% 58% 49% 40% 37%

66%

828 19927 8620 122

15%

120

85%

48% 61%

1 532 10394

39%

51% 60% 63%

34% 52%

364 141

2927 26676

0% 20% 100% 96%

0% 0% 3% 100% 87% 1% 1% 11% 100%

25

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS Table 1.6 (cont.) Province

Race

Level of School Primary

Western Cape

TOTAL

African Coloured Indian White Subtotal African Coloured Indian White TOTAL

2037 15161 65

4360 21 623 152535 24851 6845 25728 209959

%of Total

Total

Secondary 69% 67% 24% 54% 64% 63% 67% 52% 52% 61%

923

7352 209

3741 12225 88992 12488 6417 24047 131 944

2960 22513

31% 33% 76% 46% 36% 37% 33% 48% 48% 39%

274 8101

9% 67% 1% 24%

33848

100%

241 527

37339 13262 49775

71% 11% 4% 15%

341 903

100%

Some factors influencing the demand for teachers in South Africa are the size of the school-age population (increased by the free and compulsory education policy, retention and re-entry of students, and repetition of classes by students); attrition rate and re-entry into the profession among teachers; hiring policies; teacher qualification profile; school curricula; the desired learner-teacher ratios; provincial and national budget limitations; and newly qualified teachers who do not enter teaching. There is also the question of oversupply and undersupply geographically, at different school levels, and for particular subjects or subject groups. 5.1.1 Projections According to the audit (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995), student enrolment during the period 1994-2000 is expected to increase annually by 1,4 % on average for primary school and by 6,6% for secondary school and an average of 3,1 % for all students. Between 2000 and 2004, student enrolment at primary school is expected to drop by 1,1 % per year, and at secondary school to rise by 5 %. The audit constructed two possible scenarios of the number of teachers who would be needed in future. Scenario One is based on a learner-teacher ratio of 40:1 for primary schools and 35:1 for secondary schools. Scenario Two is based on a learnerteacher ratio of 35:1 for primary schools and 30:1 for secondary schools. These scenarios are shown in tables 1.7 to 1.10. Table 1.7 Scenario One: Teacher demand 1995-2004 (Hofmeyr & 1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

Hall, 1995) 2001

2002

2003

2004

213712 215326 216467 217029 216856 216227 214 926 212005 209482 207 679 Primary Secondary 129836 131 292 134047 137 691 142 322 147549 157 073 166936 174484 179315 345543 344664 349006 353 538 358 376 363184 371 614 378682 383966 386994 Toy

26

TEACHERS AND TEACHING Table 1.8 Scenario One: New hires (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995) 1995

11 362 Primary Secondary 6941

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

12577 8240

12836 10024

12950 11 410

12 831 12 867

12877 13894

12589 18540

10886 19462

11 098 17753

11 655 15498

Table 1.9 Scenario Two: Teacher demand 1995-2004 (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995) 1995 Primary 218655 Secondary 133869 Total 352524

1996

1997

225171 139121 362197

231298 145696 375333

1998

1999

237003 242161 153331 162258 389001 403497

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

247117 172140 418568

245630 183252 428431

242291 194758 436747

239408 203565 442798

237347 209200 446549

Table 1.10 Scenario Two: New hires (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995) 1995

Primary 16305 Secondary 10974

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

17752 12258

18376 14287

18 995 16081

19365 18101

20 038 19 764

14387 21 630

12441 22706

12683 20712

13320 18081

Certain policy proposals from the government regarding teaching would also influence the projections. The new policies involve improved teacher qualifications with the aim of reducing and ultimately eliminating un/underqualification in the profession, improved efficiency to increase flow and retention of learners, and uniformity in learner-teacher ratios in all provinces. The projections about supply and demand were based on the number of student teachers enrolled in teacher education programmes in 1994. Projections about teacher supply are demonstrated in tables 1.11 to 1.15. Table 1.11 National output of new teachers (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995) 1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Colleges (Primary) 15500 15800 17 800 15000 15000 15000 15000 15000 15000 15000 Colleges (Secondary) 7000 7100 7 900 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 Technikons (Secondary) 300 350 400 400 400 400 450 450 450 450 Universities (Secondary) 7000 7500 8 000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 Universities (Primary) 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 Distance (Secondary) 250 250 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 Distance (Primary) 3 000 3000 3000 Total Primary Total Secondary Total

30450 31 400 37 800 34100 34100 31 100 31 150 31 150 31 150 31 150 15900 16200 21 200 18400 18400 15400 15400 15400 15400 15400 14550 15200 16 600 15700 15 700 15700 15750 15750 15750 15750

27

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

National supply and demand comparisons Tables 1.12 to 1.16 and figures 1.2 to 1.3 below compare the projected supply of new teachers with the teacher demand based on the two scenarios discussed above. Table 1.12 National supply and demand (total) (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995)

Total PRESET graduates Scenario One new hires Scenario Two new hires

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

30425 18303 27279

31 400 20818 30010

37800 22859 32663

34100 24359 35036

34100 25698 37467

31 100 26771

1999

2000

39803

Table 1.13 National primary supply and demand (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995)

Primary PRESET graduates Scenario One new hires Scenario Two new hires

1995

1996

1997

15900 11 362 16305

16200 12577 17752

21 200 12836 18376

1998

18400 12950 18955

18400 12831 19365

15400 12877 20038

•

-

Table 1.14 National secondary supply and demand (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995) 1995

Secondary PRESET graduates Scenario One new hires Scenario Two new hires ;•-•; • -

14525 6941 10974

1996

15200 8240 12258

1997

1998

1999

2000

16600 10024 14287

15700 11 410 16081

15700 12 867 18 101

15 700 13 894 19764

2000

Table 1.15 Scenario One: Teacher surplus per phase (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995) 1995

Primary Secondary

4538 7584

1996

3623 6960

1997

1998

1999

8364 6576

5450 4290

5569 2833

2523 1 806

Table 1.16 Scenario Two: Teacher surplus per phase (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995) 1995

Primary Secondary

28

-405 3 576

1996

-1 552 2942

1997

2824 2313

1998 -555 -381

1999

2000

-965 -2401

-4638 -4064

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

Figure 1.2 Scenario One: Teacher surplus per phase (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995)

Figure 1.3 Scenario Two: Teacher surplus per phase (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995)

29|

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

5.1.2 Shortage of natural science teachers There is a great need for African science teachers in schools, especially in township and rural schools. The problem was caused mainly by a curriculum under the former DET and homeland education departments that did not promote the natural science subjects. There was always a choice between natural sciences and the other subject groups. Sometimes science subjects were not even offered beyond Std 7 or 8. There were a few teachers who were co-opted to teach those subjects though they had limited knowledge or qualifications in that field. Even fewer were the teachers who were fully qualified to teach those subjects; those teachers have always been sparsely scattered. The profile of African teachers of mathematics and the sciences in 1994 is shown in table 1.17. Table 1.17 Limitations of science and mathematics teachers (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995: 33)

Teaching maths and un/underqualified Teaching secondary maths across provinces Teaching secondary maths with 5 years' and less experience Teaching secondary general science with 5 years' and less experience Teaching secondary general science and un/underqualified Teaching secondary general science Teaching secondary physical science and un/underqualified Teaching secondary physical science with 5 years' and less experience Teaching secondary physical science

36%

16,5% 66% 73% 53% 10% 27% 68% 6%

Because of the above problem, student teachers taking the natural sciences curriculum have almost always been assured of being admitted to teacher education institutions. This has been especially true for African colleges of education where the shortage has been keenly felt.

5.13 Shortage of multilingual teachers The bringing together of all education departments and the integration of schools have resulted in a great need for multilingual teachers. The DE has declared language competence testing of learners for admission unlawful. A draft language policy for schools was drawn up and schools were required to implement the new policy by January 1996. The clause in the language policy that will definitely affect teacher employment in the long run recommends

30

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

, . , the planning of teacher recruitment and deployment policies in such a way that multilingual capabilities among teachers in any given institution match as closely as possible the language needs of learners (DE, 1995d; par 10.9,1). As large numbers of African students move to the formerly white, Indian and coloured schools, these schools have to contend with large proportions of students who do not speak English, which is the language of learning in the schools mostly chosen by these learners. It has become obvious, therefore, that the teachers, mostly monolingual or bilingual (speaking English and Afrikaans), have to know at least one African language to cope. Teachers also have to slow the pace of teaching to accommodate those students who have a very limited understanding of the language of learning. African teachers in multilingual settings have also been forced to admit that they too have to adjust their teaching to cater for their multilingual classrooms. This is not such a problem for these teachers because in most cases they are conversant in all the languages spoken in their areas. The multilingualism has just always been suppressed in these classrooms while English and Afrikaans, the European-based languages, were promoted. Teachers now have been enabled by the new language policies to look at multilingualism in their classrooms as an asset. There are no figures indicating how many students in each racial/ethnic group attended schools dominated by different racial/ethnic groups. There are also no figures to indicate how many of the African students had their preprimary education in schools where their home language was not the language of learning. There are, therefore, no figures to indicate the occurrence of language incompetence in the language of learning or the percentage of African students who spoke a language other than their first language at home.

5.1.4

Some proposals regarding supply and demand The COTEP document has created room for unqualified people to enter the profession for posts that cannot be filled from the pool of professionally qualified teachers. These are librarian and school social worker posts, as well as posts for technical subjects and drawing, instrumental music, forms of dance, the hotel and catering industry, television production and maintenance, and the teaching of nursing at schools for special education (COTEP, 1995: Appendix 5). Recommendations and proposals regarding supply and demand include the following (Berkhout, 1993: 116; DE, 1995b; Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995): developing alternative higher education institutions such as community or junior colleges; employing more women and black teachers at the faculties of education of universities and technikons; employing more women and black staff in senior management positions; addressing the problem of oversupply of teachers in certain regions;

31

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

introducing more courses for special education and vocational and technical education; addressing the imbalance between production of primary school and secondary school teachers; addressing quality and quantity of teachers in maths and science; using student quotas at state institutions of distance education; improving teacher efficiency to reduce repetition of classes by learners; redeploying teachers; compressing the number of salary grades, raising the lowest salary, and breaking the automatic link between salary level and qualification-acquisition (this is already being implemented); rationalizing the school and college curricula to avoid repetition and to exclude frills or options; facilitating better quality classroom interventions; introducing alternative teaching technologies; applying equitable norms for resourcing colleges; requiring newly qualified teachers to pay back bursaries through service; making provision for bursary holders to be posted anywhere in the country while completing service repaymentpreventing qualified teachers from studying for higher qualifications before paying back through continuous service; requiring those who do not teach after completing the course to pay back bursaries in fulL

6 *%w *D& People, %eco**te 7eatA0a7 6.1 Teacher preparation At present there are two entry levels to teacher preparation for a student who chooses the teaching profession: after high school education or after a junior degree. After completing high school, one may register at a college of education for a Primary or Secondary Teacher's Diploma, at a technikon for secondary school commerce teaching, or at a university for a Bachelor's degree. After the junior degree, one may register for a diploma in teaching. Those students who apply to go to university for teaching degrees have to satisfy the same university admission requirements as students intending to pursue other degrees. The recognized qualifying pass for university in South Africa is a matriculation exemption (M), awarded with a range of grades. The student teacher then follows a science, arts or commerce programme for four years, after which she/ he may graduate with a Bachelor's degree in education.

32

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

In the former education departments for African students a school-leaving certificate (S) after Std 10 was recognized as a pass even with grades ranging from E to F. A person who obtained such a pass could apply to a college of education, nursing college (in a hospital), technikon, or for clerical positions. Recognition of these low grades as a pass was part of the lowering of standards which, along with other changes, alterations, reforms, and transformations, characterized Bantu Education, the education later administered under the DET. For the most part, then, a student who went through a college of education was the low achiever (based on the Std 10 results), and these were the students, later teachers, responsible for all primary school teaching in African schools. Add to this regrettable situation the issue of poorly planned teacher education programmes and the result is that the majority of the current African teachers are ill-equipped for higher education and for teaching. A few students with matriculation exemptions did attend the colleges because they could not afford university fees (Salmon & Woods, 1991). Until recently, the South African universities have been training mainly secondary school teachers, so that university graduates were not likely to be found at primary school. Some primary school teachers studied part-time through distance learning with the University of South Africa (UNISA); on completion of the degree (three to ten years later), most transferred to secondary school. The second entry level is after the three-year degree. The postgraduate teaching diploma is offered by universities only and takes only a year. Depending on the university, the diploma goes by a variety of names: Higher Education Diploma (HED), Higher Diploma in Education (HDE), or University Education Diploma (UED). For admission to the course, one is required to have in one's university curriculum a minimum of one but preferably two teaching subjects, for example history, the languages, biology, zoology, mathematics or business economics. People who take only social sciences courses such as psychology and anthropology and their ancillaries for their junior degree are required to register for a teaching subject in conjunction with the teaching diploma. Although this system of certification is criticized for being inadequate, it has been retained by universities for the reason that it enables the profession to attract some candidates (especially in natural sciences) who would otherwise be lost to industry. A number of students who opt for this programme are people who could not decide at first-year level what career they wanted to follow. Many others realized, on obtaining their degrees, that they were not qualified for any specific job, and the most likely place for a history major to find employment was in the DE, as a teacher. For others, even though the choice may have been made before registering for the junior degree, a Bachelor of Education did not exist at that time.

6.2 The COTEP guidelines on teacher education In February 1995 COTEP produced the first discussion document on Norms and standards, and governance structures for teacher education in South Africa (see also paragraph 1.3). This was part of an attempt to establish for the first time a national

33

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

policy on teacher education, to produce a national policy that would reflect the letter and spirit of the constitution (COTEP, 1995: Preface). The discussion document was distributed to education departments and teacher education institutions early in 1995. Educators were invited to discuss the document and give input on the teacher education issues and recommendations outlined in it. Revised versions were issued in July 1995 and February 1996. This was a result of consultations among the writers, educators, and the Ministry of Education. After the publication of the July 1995 edition, the Norms and Standards for Teacher Education were declared national policy by the Minister of Education, on 8 September 1995. Teacher education institutions were advised to start implementing the policies at the beginning of the 1996 school year. Concerning admission requirements for aspirant teachers, the COTEP document specifies that a Senior Certificate or equivalent will be recognized as the minimum requirement. Candidates must have passed two of the eleven official languages. One of the two must be the language of learning of the chosen tertiary institution and this must have been passed at least at second-language higher-grade level. Un/ underqualified teachers without a Senior Certificate may be admitted if they have five years' teaching experience and pass a language proficiency test, a numeracy proficiency test, and a test of cognitive development. There are also clear criteria for approval of degrees and diplomas. The following are the qualifications suggested in the COTEP document: (a) a two-year certificate programme for people who leave after completing two years of a three-year training course; (b) a three-year teaching diploma course; (c) a four-year degree on teaching; (d) a one-year education course following an approved three-year education diploma; (e) a one-year postgraduate education diploma following an approved postgraduate education course; (f) a one-year further diploma following approved teacher education of at least three years (COTEP, 1995: 71-124). Preservice teacher education still consists of three main components: the academic, the professional, and teaching practice. The combination of the three always varied from one education department to another (Sieborger & Kenyon, 1992: 148). Below is the suggested curriculum with slight variations for the different levels (see also table 1.1): (a) Education as a subject for credit, including, for example, nature of the young child for preprimary and primary teachers and nature of the adolescent for the secondary teacher (b) Professional studies (c) Major subjects for specific levels, for example early childhood care

34

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

(d) Communication (e) Religious education (no specific doctrine or dogma to be taught) (f) Teaching practice The new guidelines cater for special cases in a way that will improve the profession through the quality of those who enter it and through the competencies expected at the end of the teacher education programmes.

6.3 Student teaching For effective teaching practice it is important for the teacher education institution to have access to enough schools, to provide quality supervision, and to allow student teachers opportunities to take responsibility for their teaching (Sieborger & Kenyon, 1 992: 1 55). The recommended plan is one that involves students in teaching practice for longer continuous periods. How this is implemented is left to each institution.

7 SvdtMOtM* U 7eatkn Sdacatfat PnoanawHet Evaluation and accreditation of teacher education programmes are new concepts in South Africa and are still at formative stages. The newly established South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) is expected to set criteria. The COTEP Norms and Standards guidelines are the first attempt to establish standards for teacher education. In this guide, COTEP outlines in detail aims, competencies (general and specific), criteria to apply to instructional programmes, parameters determining criteria, and criteria for teacher education instructional programmes. It is hoped that these developments will address the problem of proliferation of teacher education providers, lack of advisory bodies for teacher development, and isolation of the teacher education institutions.

% flttttttMit f4w*ne«teM> Now that South Africa finally has a constitution that is a result of the collective efforts of every group, all South Africans are learning to insist on their rights. In the closing paragraphs of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and the schedule of Constitutional Principles, the vision for the new South Africa is expressed as follows: This Constitution provides the historic bridge between the past of a deeply divided society characterised by strife, conflict, untold suffering and injustice, and a future founded on the recognition of human rights, democracy and peaceful co-existence and development opportunities for all South Africans, irrespective of colour, race, class, belief and sex. (The Constitution Act 200 of 1993)

35

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Even with this provision South Africans are still very conscious of the differences among themselves, especially as races, and sensitive to any discriminatory acts or infringement of group rights, because of the effects of the previous apartheid philosophy which are still being felt. It is thus crucial to stress the spirit and principles of the current constitution. In South Africa, multiculturalism is experienced particularly as multilingualism. Multilingualism in South Africa has been discussed briefly under section 5.1, Teacher supply and demand. In the South African Constitution (The Constitution Act 108 of 1996), matters of language and culture matters are discussed under ch I s 6 (official languages); ch 2 s 29(2), 30, 31(1) (the right to use the language and participate in the cultural life of one's choice, the right of language choice in educational institutions and the right to establish educational institutions based on a common culture, religion, or language); and Schedule 4 Part A (functional areas of concurrent national and provincial legislative competence); and Schedule 5 Part A (functional areas of exclusive provincial legislative competence). Through these provisions, education departments and institutions are enabled to create conditions that will promote all the South African official languages and avoid using any language(s) to dominate, exclude, or exploit others. It is in the same spirit that the White Paper on Education and Training and the Norms and Standards document promote multilingualism in the schools (DE, 1995b; DE, 1995d; COTEP, 1996). The schools and teachers need to assume certain responsibilities to make sure the principles and policies are implemented. These extend beyond the admission of all racial, cultural, and ethnic groups. The teachers are required to develop skills to use two languages as languages of learning in a coordinated way. Schools are required to actively promote the use of more than one language of learning and to come up with innovative language policy initiatives.

9 'Pn&foMed, T30lvwt& w, 7eacAto& and 7eacA0i SducatuM Over the years there have been many concerned individuals, groups, and commissions looking into the question of South African education. A significant amount of research has also been carried out in university Education Policy Units, at the Centre for Education Policy Development, and by NGOs like the Urban Foundation. Some notable recommendation reports and documents following the enquiries or research efforts are the De Lange Report from the Human Sciences Research Council Investigation into Education (HSRC, 1981), the Education Renewal Strategy (DNE, 1992), the ANC's A Policy Framework for Education and Training (1994) and the National Education Policy Investigation Report by the National Education Coordinating Committee (NECC, 1992). Some documents resulting from the investigations have become obsolete as they focused solely on challenging or defending the apartheid system.

36

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

Recent policy documents that have made an impact on teacher education are the Norms and Standards document (COTEP, 1995) and the two White Papers on Education (DE,1995b; DE, 1996). The following are some of the issues in teacher education and for INSET that have been identified for attention.

9.1 Teacher education Integration of PRESET and INSET Staff development of teacher educators Decentralization versus centralization: provincial and local control versus national control Linking colleges of education with education faculties in universities Cost-effective financing of teacher education institutions The need for community colleges Establishing various exit points for teacher trainees and considering other models instead of a continuous period of training, for example two years of training at the institution and two years of internship Establishing rigorous selection procedures for teacher trainees Provision of mentors in schools for teacher trainees Rethinking the role of technikons and distance-learning institutions Establishment of a clear national policy framework for teacher education Introduction and implementation of learner-centred teaching approaches Transformation of governance Recognition of the role of the public, private, and independent sectors in teacher education Introduction and implementation of multicultural and multilingual education training in teacher education Development of values, attitudes, and dispositions to achieve smooth transition to a democratic, non-racial, non-sexist, equitable society and to create an awareness of the freedoms and responsibilities discussed in the South African Constitution (COTEP, 1996: 7)

9.2 Teachers and teaching practice Upgrading of teacher qualifications and competencies Improving quality of education and efficiency while reducing inequalities Establishing a balance between unionism and professionalism Setting up support systems for beginning teachers Promotion of teaching of critical and independent thinking Training of school managers

37

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Promotion of INSET on multicultural and multilingual education Empowerment of teachers in the profession by giving them more responsibility in policy making in their profession Accreditation of INSET Introduction of merit pay as opposed to pay by qualifications Establishment of a cooperative framework between all stakeholders Improving parent involvement in teaching matters Transformation of governance (Claassen, 1995; COTEP, 1996; DE; 19956; Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995; Hofmeyr & Jaff, 1992)

9.3 What reform initiatives have been undertaken? With the coming to power of the new government and the new Ministry of Education it has become urgent to transform the whole education system. This is as much a result of the desire to move away as soon as possible from the deplorable apartheid education system as of the need to meet the aspirations of the new nation. Regarding the proposals mentioned above, the first White Paper on Education and Training has made it possible for strides to be made in the area of structural and institutional reforms. Unconstitutional consultative bodies have been dissolved while others, such as the ethnically based ones, have been restructured. The Ministry has established the Heads of Education Departments Committee (HEDCOM). This is one of the structures of advice and consultation responsible for developing and approving national norms and standards in education. Draft legislation has been prepared for the creation of the National Qualification Framework (NQF) as a key element of human resource development strategy and as part of an integrated approach to help link one level of learning to another. The body responsible for developing the NQF on a fully consultative basis is the new South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA), a parastatal body. The White Paper also proposed the formation of a statutory National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE). The proposed new salary structure based on merit was published in the Covernment Gazette of 29 December 1995 (DE,1995c). In table 1.18 the beginning teachers are represented by categories A to G on Post Level 1. MO stands for the regular salary before merit. M1, M2, and M3 stand for the first, second and third merit levels respectively, the third level being the highest. In this structure the criteria, with the approximate weight given to each, are: task orientation (attitude towards the educator's task in all its dimensions) 60%; people orientation (disposition with regard to all people in the exercise of the educator's task) 30%; and personal factors (factors present in the person which must be considered as own unique characteristics, abilities, and realities) 10% (Government Gazette, 1995).

38

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

Table 1.18 Post levels, qualification categories, post level gradings, rank codes, (GN 1994, Government Gazette 16902 of 29 December 1995)

Post Level

Qualification Category

1

A2 A1 (MO) A1 (M1) A1 (M2) A1 (M3) B(MO) B(M1) B(M2) B(M3) C(MO) C(M1) C(M2) C(M3) D(MO) D(M1) D(M2) D(M3) E (MO) E (M1) E(M2) E(M3) F(MO) F{M1) F(M2) F(M3) G (MO) G(M1) G (M2) G(M3) A2 A1

2

B C D E F

Post Level Gradings (R.p.a.) 20 118 (Fixed) 20 118 x 1 854 21 972 x 1 854 23 826 x 1 854 25 680 x 1 854 21 972 x 1 854 23 826 x 1 854 25 680 x 1 854 27 534 x 2 271 29 805 x 2 271 32 076 x 2 271 34 347 x 2 271 36618 x 2271 34 347 x 2 271 36618 x 2271 38 889 x 2 709 41 598 x 2 709 36618 x 2271 38 889 x 2 709 41 598 x 2 709 44 307 x 2 709 38 889 x 2 709 41 598 x 2 709 44 307 x 2 709 47 016 x 2 709 41 598 x 2 709 44 307 x 2 709 47016 x 2709 49 725 x 2 964 23 826 (Fixed) 29 805 x 2 271 36618 x 2271 49 725 x 2 964 55 653 x 2 964 58617 x 296461 581 x 3318 -

27 534 x 27 534 x 27 534 x 27 534 x 27 534 x 27 534 x 27 534 x 38 889 x 38 889 x 38 889 x 38 889 x 38 889 x 38 889 x 38 889 x 49 725 x 49 725 x 38 889 x 49 725 x 49 725 x 49 725 x 49 725 x 49 725 x 49 725 x

49 49 49 49 61

725 725 725 725 581

x x x x x

2 271 - 29 805 2 271 - 32 076 2 271 - 34 347 2 271 - 36 618 2 271 - 38 889 2 271 - 38 889 x 2 709 -41 598 2 271 - 38 889 x 2 709 44307 2 709 - 47 016 2 709 - 49 725 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 -52689 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 - 55653 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 -58617 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 -55653 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 - 58617 2 964 - 61 581 2 964 -61 581 x 3 3 1 8 - 64899 2 709 - 49 725 x 2 964 -58617 2 964 - 61 581 2 964 - 61 581 x 331864899 2 964 -61 581 x 3 3 1 8 - 68217 2 964 - 61 581 2 964 -61 581 x 3318- 64899 2 964 - 61 581 x 331868217 2 964 -61 581 x 3318- 71 535 2 964 -61 581 x 3 3 1 8 - 64899 2 964 -61 581 x 3318- 68217 2 964 -61 581 x 3318 -71 535 3 318 - 74 853

Rank Code 30268 30269 30270 30271 30272 30273 30274 30275 30276 12496 12498 12500 12502 12504 12506 12508 12510 12512 12514 12516 12518 12520 12522 12524 12526 12528 12530 12532 12534 30277

36618 38 889 61 581 61 581 61 581 78 171

x x x x

2 709 3 318 3 318 3 318

- 47 016 -64899 - 71 535 - 74 853

30278 30279 12538 12539 12540 12541

39

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Table 1.18 (cont.) Post Level 3

Qualification Category G A2 A1 B

C D E F G

4

A2 A1

B C D E F

Post Level Gradings (R.p.a.) 64 899 27 534 34 347 41 598 55 653 61 581 64899 68217 71 535 32 076 38 889 47016 61 581 68217 71 535 74 853

x 3 318 (Fixed) x 2 271 x 2 709 x 2 964 x 3318 x 3318 x 3318 x 3318 (Fixed) x 2 709 x 2709 x 3318 x 3318 x 3 318 x 3 318

- 78 171 x 3 444 - 81 615

Rank Code 12542 30280

- 38 889 x 2 709- 49 725 x 2 964 -61 581 x 3318 - 78 171 x 3 444 - 78 171 x 3 444 - 78171 x 3444 - 78 1 71 x 3 444 -

41 598 52 689 78171 x 3 4 4 4 - 81 615 88 503 88 503 88 503 88 503

30281 30282 12545 12546 12547 12548 12549 30283

- 47 01 6 - 49 725 x 2 964 - 78 1 71 x 3 444 - 78 171 x 3 444 -78171 x 3444 - 78 171 x 3 444 -

30284

58 88 95 95 95

617 503 391 391 391

30285 12552 12553 12554 12555

The Ministry has taken the position that teacher education belongs in higher education and has recommended imaginative bridge building between the national and provincial levels (DE, 1995b:29). COTEP as an advisory body has been accepted as a sub-committee of HEDCOM and also charged with the function of coordinating the development of distance education courses. The establishment of the consultative bodies and the new legislative laws on teacher education are seen as steps in the right direction and as strategies that will prove enabling to teacher educators.

S#0*0*#*^ 1 Everybody has a definition of a teacher. 2 There is a question mark over whether teachers are professionals, which emanates from the general definitions of 'professional' and comparisons with the status and work conditions of other professionals. 3 A common understanding of power and empowerment of teachers relates to the need felt by teachers to practise their work with freedom and confidence and to influence policy making.

40

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

4 South African history and its racial divisions led to teachers' associations being formed along racial and ethnic lines. 5 Many teachers see themselves as travellers or career-seekers in transit (Mda, 1993: 173). The 1995 teacher audit findings on national teacher education in South Africa confirm this (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1995). This audit report maintains that about 20% of students involved in preservice teacher education and training (PRESET) will never teach. According to this report '[tjeacher education is often seen as "back door" route to higher education for students who have limited alternative options'. 6 Having entered this profession, the above teachers and others have expressed the hope that they will still move on to other desired careers. The broken dreams become deferred dreams. 7 For those teachers in South Africa who choose to teach, the reasons are generally the same as those given by teachers all over the world: a sense of mission, love of one's subject and of one's students, and caring. 8 The teacher audit reports resignation, retirement, and death as the three main factors contributing to teacher attrition. There are various reasons for resignations and early retirement. 9 In South Africa there is the problem of unqualified and underqualified teachers. 10 Some factors influencing the demand for teachers in South Africa are: the free and compulsory education policy, retention and re-entry of students and repetition of classes by students, attrition rate and re-entry into the profession among teachers, hiring policies, the teacher qualification profile, school curricula and the desired learner-teacher ratios, provincial and national budget limitations, and the number of newly qualified teachers who do not enter teaching. There is also the question of oversupply and undersupply geographically, at different school levels, and for particular subjects or subject groups. 11 There is a great need for African teachers offering science, especially in township and rural schools, and a great need for multilingual teachers. 12 At present there are two entry levels to teacher preparation for a student who chooses the teaching profession: after high school education or after a junior degree. After completing high school, one may register at a college of education for a Primary or Secondary Teacher's Diploma, at a technikon for secondary school commerce teaching, or at a university for a Bachelor's degree. After completing a degree, one may register for a postgraduate diploma in teaching. 13 The Committee on Teacher Education Policy (COTEP) has produced a document on Norms and Standards, and Governance Structures for Teacher Education in South Africa. The new guidelines cater for special cases in a way that will improve the profession through the quality of those who enter it and through the competencies expected at the end of the teacher education programmes. 14 The 1995 and 1996 White Papers on Education paved the way for progress in the area of structural and institutional reforms. Draft legislation has also been prepared for the creation of the National Qualification Framework (NQF) as a key

41

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

element of human resource development strategy and as part of an integrated approach to help link one level of learning to another. 15 The establishment of the consultative bodies and the new legislative laws on teacher education are seen as steps in the right direction and as enabling strategies for teacher educators.

70Mt& totd fltwcefifo accreditation (teacher) attrition (teacher) burnout career mobility centralization COTEP document decentralization exit points for teacher trainees knowledge base of professionals

multilingual schools national teacher audit professionalism (teacher) re-entry redeployment of teachers student and teacher retention teacher empowerment teacher unions versus teacher associations unqualified and underqualified teachers

Studwt detwttoa 'Becoming a professional teacher affords many opportunities for perceiving, valuing, knowing, acting, evaluating, and discovering. These are the steps that lead to sound professional practice' ( McNergney & Herbert, 1995). 1 What factors encourage you to enter the education profession? What worries you most about becoming an educator? 2 What does your province require for you to become certified as a beginning teacher? What period of time will your probation last, and what will be required to make your appointment permanent? If you were certified to teach in a particular subject area or for a particular level (for example primary school), what would be required in order for you to teach a different subject or at another level (for example high school)? Begin your enquiries by asking your teacher education course coordinator or head of department. 3 Reread the section on proposed reforms in teaching and teacher education (section 9). What themes, either explicit or implicit, do you recognize? Which theme or single reform do you think is the most important? Least important? Be prepared to justify your analysis and assessments. 4 Contact the South African Democratic Teachers' Union and the National Professional Teachers' Organization of South Africa at either the national or

42

TEACHERS AND TEACHING

regional level. Request information on membership for certified teachers — costs and benefits. Do the same for one or more of the teachers' associations in your province or region. What do you find appealing/unappealing about joining any of these organizations?

Bibliography African National Congress (ANC). 1994. A Policy Framework for Education and Training. Braamfontein: African National Congress Ashton, P T & R B Webb. 1986. Making a Difference: Teachers' Sense of Efficacy and Student Achievement. New York: Longman Berkhout, S J. 1993. Financing education: Who should pay? In E I Dekker & E M Lemmer (eds) Critical Issues in Modern Education. Durban: Butterworths Burden, P R. 1982. Personal and professional conflict: Stress for teachers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the ATE, Phoenix, AZ Claassen, J C. 1995. The Education System of South Africa. In E Dekker & O J van Schalkwyk (eds) Modem Education Systems, 2 ed. Durban: Butterworths Committee on Teacher Education Policy (COTEP). 1995. Norms and Standards and Governance Structures for Teacher Education, 2 ed. Pretoria: Department of Education Committee on Teacher Education Policy (COTEP). 1996. Norms and Standards for Teacher Education, 3 ed. February 1996. Pretoria: Department of Education. De Lange Report see under Human Sciences Research Council De Villiers, E. 1990. Walking the Tightrope: Recollections of a Schoolteacher in Soweto. Parklands: Jonathan Ball Publishers Duval, J H & R V Carlson. 1991. Dedication/Commitment: A study of their relationship in teaching excellence. In Historical Materials. U S Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement Education, Department of (DE). 1995a. College/School Education according to Province for 1994. Report 233 (95/08), 2 ed. Pretoria. Education, Department of (DE). 1995b. Education White Paper 1. Education and training in a democratic South Africa: First steps to develop a new system. Notice 196, Government Gazette 16312 of 15 March 1995 Education, Department of (DE). 1995c. Post levels, qualification categories, post level gradings, rank codes. Notice 1994, Government Gazette 16902 of 29 December 1995 Education, Department of (DE). 1995d. Towards a Language Policy in Education: A Discussion Document. Pretoria. Education, Department of (DE). 1996. Education White Paper 2. The organisation, governance and funding of schools. Notice 130, Government Gazette 16987 of 14 February 1996 The Education Foundation. 1995. Provincial and national statistics, 1994. Edusource Data News, October 1995,14-18 Edusource: see under The Education Foundation Enslin, P. 1990. Science and doctrine: Theoretical discourse in South African teacher education. In M Nkomo (ed) Pedagogy of Domination: Toward a Democratic Education in South Africa. New Jersey: Africa World Press Fine, M. 1991. Framing Dropouts: Notes on the Politics of an Urban Public School. Albany: State University of New York Press

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS Freedman, S G. 1990. Small Victories. New York: Harper & Row Freire, P. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Herder & Herder Grundy, S. 1987. Curriculum: Product or Praxis? London: Falmer Press Government Notice (GN) 1994, Government Gazette 16902 of 29 December 1995 Hofmeyr,) & G Hall. 1995. The National Teacher Education Audit: Synthesis Report. Pretoria: Department of Education Hofmeyr, J & R Jaff. 1992The Challenge of INSET in the 1990s. In R & A McGregor (eds) Education Alternatives. Cape Town: Juta Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC). 1981. Provision of Education in the RSA (The De Lange Report). Pretoria. Hyslop,). 1990. Teacher resistance in African education from the 1940s to the 1980s. In M Nkomo (ed) Pedagogy of Domination: Toward a Democratic Education in South Africa. New Jersey: Africa World Press Macrorie, K. 1984. Twenty Teachers. Oxford University Press Maeroff, G I. 1988. The Empowerment of Teachers: Overcoming the Crisis of Confidence. New York: Teachers College Press Marks, S & S Trapido (eds). 1987. The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth Century South Africa. New York: Longman McLean, M M. 1991. The plight of the at-risk teacher: perceptions of teaching and learning in an urban high school. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Ohio State University McNergney, R F & J M Herbert. 1995. Foundations of Education: The Challenge of Professional Practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Mda, T V. 1993. Teaching by, and among the dispossessed: South African teachers' perceptions of self and profession. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Ohio State University National Education, Department of (DNE). 1992. Education Renewal Strategy. Pretoria. National Education Co-ordinating Committee (NECC). 1992. Language: Report of the NEPI Language Research Group. Cape Town: Oxford University Press/NECC Salmon, C M R & C A Woods. 1991. Colleges of Education: Challenging the Cliche. Durban: Education Research Unit, University of Natal Sieborger, R & A Kenyon. 1992. Initial teacher education. In R & A McGregor (eds) Education Alternatives. Cape Town: Juta Tlale, C D. 1992. Professional commitment in teaching. Address delivered at the second diploma ceremony of Daveyton College of Education, 5 September 1992 Tom, A R. 1984. Teaching as a Moral Craft. New York: Longman Welker, R. 1991. Expertise and the teacher as expert: Rethinking a questionable metaphor. American Educational Research lournal, 28 (1), 19-35 Willie, R & K R Howey. 1980. Reflections on adult development: Implications for in service teacher education. In W R Houston & R Pankratz (eds) Staff Development and Educational Change. Reston, VA: Association of Teacher Educators White Papers: see Education, Department of. Wirsing, M. 1980. The artist is he who dances in chains. Paper presented at the Foundations of Education Symposium, Education for the 1980s, Cheney, Washington, July 1980

Legislation The Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953 The Constitution Act 200 of 1993 The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 108 of 1996 Education Labour Relations Act, 1993: Extension of Agreement to Include All Employers and Employees As Defined in the Act (see DE, 1995c)

44

CHAPTER

TWO

s4 *3ftetwUc4l Ovenvtew- &£ S(Htt& s4fru&Z*t, Prof Andrew van Zyl Faculty of Education University of South Africa

ScUt&Xt&M,

This chapter considers the origin and evolution of some aspects of South African education which have proved problematic: separate education, the medium of instruction, resistance to apartheid education, and religious issues. The discussion of these issues provides a broad overview of South Africa's colourful and much debated educational past. Any writing of this nature cannot but take note of the role of past hegemonies in shaping education, the friction they caused, and the solutions currently under consideration. This chapter is aimed at providing teachers, irrespective of background, with a brief outline of South Africa's educational history. It is hoped that the overview will tempt the more adventurous to undertake a more detailed investigation.

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A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION

table of contents 1 Introduction . . . . 2 Indigenous Education in South Africa 3 The History of Separate Education 3.1 The role of the Dutch 3.2 The role of the British 3.2.1 Education for African people 3.2.2 Education for Indians 3.3 The role of the Afrikaner 3.4 The end of apartheid education 4 The Issue of Medium of Instruction 4.1 The Cape 4.1.1 Under British rule 4.1.2 The Dutch response 4.2 The Transvaal 4.2.1 The Voortrekkers 4.2.2 Under British rule: 1877-81 4.2.3 Under Dutch rule: 1881-99 4.2.4 The Anglo-Boer War: 1899-1902 4.2.5 The Boer response 4.3 The Orange Free State 4.3.1 The Voortrekkers 4.3.2 Under British rule: 1848-54 4.3.3 The Free State Republic and Grey College 4.3.4 Legislation on medium of instruction 4.3.5 The British response 4.3.6 The Anglo-Boer War: 1899-1902 4.3.7 Under British rule 4.3.8 The Boer response 4.3.9 The outcome 4.4 Natal 4.4.1 The Voortrekkers 4.4.2 Under British rule 4.4.3 The Boer response 4.4.4 After the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 4.5 The establishment of the Union of South Africa: 1910 . 4.5.1 The Cape

49 50 51 51 52 54 54 55 58 58 60 60 61 61 61 62 62 62 62 63 63 63 63 64 65 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 67 67 67 68

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

4.6 4.7

4.8 4.9

4.5.2 The Transvaal 4.5.3 The Orange Free State 4.5.4 Natal A uniform national policy Medium of instruction in black schools 4.7.1 Afrikaans is promoted 4.7.2 Soweto reacts Lessons from the struggle over medium of instruction The current situation

5 Resistance in Education 5.1 Resistance in earlier centuries 5.2 The SANNC and the SARC 5.3 Alternative schools 5.3.1 The first night schools 5.3.2 The American School Movement 5.3.3 The People's Club 5.3.4 The African College and Mayibuye schools 5.4 The ANC 5.5 Student uprisings. 5.5.1 Student organizations 5.5.2 The Soweto uprising: 1976 5.5.3 Resistance is sustained 5.5.4 Government reaction in the seventies 5.5.5 Further unrest: 1980-84 5.5.6 Government reaction in the eighties 5.6 People's education 5.7 The reins are loosened 6 Education and Religious Issues 6.1 Calvinism in the Cape 6.2 The Boer Republics 6.2.1 The Transvaal 6.2.2 The Orange Free State 6.2.3 Natal. . 6.3 The controversy over CNE 6.4 The present status of religious education 7 Landmark Events in Education in South Africa Summary. Student Activities Bibliography

48

68 68 68 68 69 69 70 71 71 72 72 72 73 73 73 73 73 74 76 76 76 79 79 79 80 80 82 83 83 84 84 85 86 86 87 88 90 91 91

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION

1 Introduction The facts in history are like fish swimming about in a vast and sometimes inaccessible ocean; and what the historian catches will depend partly on chance, but mainly on what part of the ocean he chooses to fish in and what tackle he chooses to use — these factors being determined, of course, by the kinds of fish he wants to catch, (Carr, 1990: 23) As you read this chapter, I invite you to join me in the study of history. You may think history is boring. I am certain, however, that you will soon change your mind as we consider the history of education. History does not merely transport us back in time, but also helps us to understand the present much better. Why? History reveals the very roots of contemporary problems with which we are grappling. It also cautions us against repeating past events with their disastrous effects. First, let us consider the metaphor quoted above. Carr points out that, like anglers choosing their fishing spot, historians have to choose their particular space, of field of research. The particular space we have chosen to research in a time perspective is South African education. What we are aiming to hook are the historical facts related to certain major issues which continue to affect our society.

49

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

These issues are: the development of separate education; the languages used as medium of instruction; resistance to apartheid education; Christian National Education. To continue with the metaphor, one would, ask what method (tackle and bait) should be used in our endeavour. The historical-educational method is a suitable one. It is geared towards selecting information relevant to the issues that we have identified and obtaining a clear understanding of the essential events concerning these issues from a historical perspective. Like anglers cleaning their catch to get to the flesh with its distinctive flavour, we must therefore search for the information that is essential to the issues identified. The facts obtained from relevant literature (both historical and contemporary) must be studied, interpreted, and reported.1

2 Indigenous Education in South Africa Education in South Africa did not begin with the arrival of the Dutch at the Cape in 1 652. The Dutch brought with them the legacy of formal education in schools, of which the written word was the main characteristic. However, informal education, which is the basis of all education and a universal human characteristic, was alive and well amongst the indigenous peoples of our country. This is borne out by an investigation of the traditional education of blacks, whom the Dutch encountered in 1 772 when they had moved eastwards towards the Fish River. Indigenous African education was characterized by the inculcation of values. It was geared towards preserving the cultural uniqueness of the various independent tribes. From a very young age, children were taught the morals, taboos, habits, chores, and folklore of their tribe. Great authority was vested in the father, who symbolized the embodiment of tribal law and order, while the mother acted as mediator between the father and children. The mother bore the main responsibility for the early education of children up to the age of about six. In this phase, children of both sexes would help her with the many household chores. Afterwards girls remained with the mother, learning the functions expected of a woman. The young boys spent their time in the veld herding goats, sheep, and cattle, thus imitating the activities of older boys who, in turn, imitated the behaviour of the male adults. Boys fought amongst themselves, using sticks to represent spears. In this way a social hierarchy was established according to age and leadership ability. The complex kinship system of the African people, in which, inter alia, children respected their father's brothers as fathers and their mother's sisters as mothers, ensured that children were constantly supervised by a network of adults. The adult relatives made sure that their behaviour and attitudes were in line with the tribal code. 1

50

For additional information about methodological issues, refer to S P P Mminele. 1995. History of Education: Its Nature, Value and Research. Pretoria: Via Afrika; and I S | Venter. 1979. History of Education. Durban: Butterworths.

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION

When boys approached adulthood, their education took'on a more formal character. They attended a secluded initiation school for periods from a few weeks to three or four months, depending on their tribal affiliation. These schools emphasized respect and obedience to tribal customs. An attitude of respect for and obedience to tribal law was viewed as an imperative prescribed by the spirits of deceased forefathers. These spirits were believed to take a keen interest in the welfare of the tribe and were in a position to inflict punishment on the tribe should it fail to live in accordance with fixed tribal norms.

3 The History of Separate Education From the indigenous education of the African people, we now turn to the development of formal education in South Africa. We begin by looking for information on the origin and development of separate (apartheid) education. In particular, we look at the roles played by the Dutch, the British, and the Afrikaner in turn in establishing and maintaining separate education.

What is meant by apartheid education? Separate, or apartheid, education, also sometimes called segregated education, means that formal education is based on ethnicity, Until the Government of National Unity was established after the first democratic elections in 1994, South African schools did not generally provide for black, Indian, coloured and white children to be educated together,

3.1 The role of the Dutch Soon after their arrival in the Cape in 1652, the Dutch planted a hedge of bitter almond trees to separate themselves from the indigenous people of colour. This action proved to be indicative of the nature of future relations amongst different sectors of the South African population.- Since education does not take place in a societal vacuum, one could have predicted even then that it would come to reflect the separateness which, as we shall see, developed into full-fledged apartheid education during the 1950s. Let us investigate further. The origin of separate education can be traced to the Cape under Dutch rule. They brought the written word (and with it formal education) to the Cape and were convinced that they were superior to the indigenous peoples on the grounds of creed. The first school in the Cape operated from 1658 to 1663. It was intended for young slaves shipped to the Cape after being captured from a Portuguese ship. The slave

51

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

school aimed to inculcate the basic principles of the Calvinistic faith and to teach the rudiments of the Dutch language in order to facilitate communication between the Dutch and their slaves. This was to serve the materialistic aims of the Dutch East India Company, which had been founded to provide a supply station for the ships trading between Europe and the East. When it became evident that the Dutch were to settle at the Cape permanently, a second school was opened in 1663 to teach the Dutch children. Along with twelve white children, it also initially accommodated four slave children and a Khoi child. It is often argued that separate education in these early times at the Cape was not based on racial but rather on religious differences. This is supported by the fact that the school allowed coloured slave children who had been baptized or had Christian (Dutch) fathers. If the social scenario is closely examined, it does seem that race as such was not initially a major issue. For example, Jan van Riebeeck recorded mixed marriages between white males and non-white female slaves. It is also known that nine of the twelve children living in the slave hostel in 1671 had been fathered by Europeans. This number had increased to 58 by 1685. Nevertheless, the seed of educational segregation along lines of colour, albeit based on religious differences, was sown during these early days of formal education in South Africa. In 1676 the first clear signs of separate formal education appeared when the Church Council, which dominated formal education for a long period, requested that a separate school be established for slave children. The Political Board reacted by ordaining that the best slave pupils could still be kept at the Dutch school until a separate school for slaves had been erected. In 1685 the Dutch commissioner Van Rheede visited the Cape and saw to the establishment of a school for slave children, to educate 'these poor and ignorant people who were alienated from God' (translation: Coetzee, 1975: 5). Van Rheede's set of rules stipulated twice that no white children were to be taught at this slave school. He also stated that no slave children could be accommodated in the Dutch school, which was to teach only white pupils. Pupils of mixed blood (eg those who had a white father and coloured slave mother) would henceforth be taught only in the slave school. However, Van Rheede's regulations were not taken too seriously. Just under a century later, a visit by the Scholarchs (religiously oriented directors of education) revealed that all public schools in Cape Town, as well as the schools in the more rural areas of Drakenstein and Stellenbosch, provided education for both white and slave children. Of the 696 pupils in public schools, almost 9 % were slave children. The farmers on the outposts also sometimes allowed slave children to be taught with their own children by peripatetic teachers, the so-called siekentroosters.

3.2 The role of the British The British, too, played a role in establishing separate education. They ruled the Cape from 1795 to 1803, and annexed it again in 1806. Apart from their efforts to anglicize

52

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION

the Cape in terms of the medium of instruction (discussed later) in order to make it a colony worthy of the British empire, they also played a significant role in establishing separate education. Let us explore this development. The British attitude towards the formal education of people of colour was inconsistent. It appears that they genuinely cared, at least at times, about the education of the slaves, but were indifferent to the education of the black and coloured people. The coloured people were descended from Dutch settlers, Khoi [Hottentots], and San [Bushmen], as well as slaves from Angola, Mozambique, Madagascar, Ceylon, and the Malay peninsula. They had emerged as a distinct sector of the South African population by the middle of the nineteenth century. Lord Charles Somerset, British governor at the Cape in 1814 (and twenty years later instrumental in the emancipation of the slaves), sounded a liberal note as far as integrated education was concerned. His free English schools, also called Somerset schools or established government schools, were established mainly to anglicize the Dutch children. They were to cater mainly for the 'children of the Dutch colonists [but also for the] Heathen [slaves] if required' (Theal in Van Schalkwyk, 1977: 12). Somerset's Slave Proclamation of 1823 (C), which, inter alia, prohibited slave labour on Sundays, also displayed this liberal view. In this Proclamation he declared: Christian Slave Proprietors, residing in Cape Town, and other Towns and Villages, and their immediate vicinity, where Free Schools are or may be established, are, after the first day of June next, to send their Slave Children above three years, and under ten years of age, at least three days in each week to the established Free School nearest to their dwelling; and those whose residence will not permit them to afford this consoling advantage to their Slave Children, are anxiously invited to avail themselves of any means which may offer for giving them instruction. (The Cape Town Gazette, Vol XVIII No 897 March 22, 1823: 1) In the following year, however, Somerset suggested that fifteen new schools specifically for slaves be opened. When free education in government schools was discontinued in 1834, the year in which the slaves were granted their freedom, it became almost impossible for coloured children to attend white schools, because of their disadvantaged state. In 1842 the Department of Education, led by James Rose-lnnes, mentioned that It was the express desire of the government that the [newly founded first- and second-class] schools should be not only accessible but available to all classes, without distinction' (Behr in Coetzee, 1975: 433). This view, however, did not really seem to apply to people of colour. Missionaries from abroad had been providing formal education to coloured children since 1737, with a government subsidy from 1841 onwards. The following also illustrates the British stance in favour of segregated education. The subsidized mission schools, besides serving the educational needs of coloured children, also provided tuition for poor white children. In a ploy to draw the white

53

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

children away from these schools, Thomas Muir, then Superintendent of Education at the Cape, decided in 1893 that schools specifically for poor white children would also be subsidized. 1905 saw the first official Act separating education according to colour. The Cape School Board Act 35 of 1905 (C) provided for separate schools for white and coloured people, laying the foundation for a long history of separate education in South Africa.

3.2.1 Education for African people The missionaries began offering formal education for African people in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. The British showed little interest, but lent their support since they benefited from the supply of people trained for industry. Sir George Grey, the British governor at the Cape (1854-61), expressed himself in favour of subsidizing missions for African people as they trained 'Bantu [African] youth in industrial occupation to fit them to act as interpreters, evangelists and school masters among their own people' (Troup, 1976:10). A fund for Aborigines' Development was therefore created to subsidize African education undertaken by the missionaries. Some argue that the British settlers were not really in favour of formal education for African children as it would spoil them and make them aspire to higher positions. Instead, Africans were to be trained informally to serve on the lands and in the homes of whites (Hartshorne, 1992). A special report to Parliament in 1863 by Langham Dale, Superintendent-General of Education, reveals that education for African people was seen in terms of preparing them for service to the white population. Separate education, though not yet legalized, had become embedded in British thought. In 1889 Dale reported that the government had to 'recognise the position of the European colonists as holding the paramount influence, social and political, and to see that the sons and daughters of the colonists... should have at least such an education ... as will fit them to maintain their unquestionable superiority and supremacy in this land' (Troup, 1976: 11). 3.2.2 Education for Indians The educational history of the Indians, who first arrived in Natal in 1860, also demonstrates the British attitude supporting separate education. The Indians were imported as workers in the sugar cane plantations. Due to their socio-economic standing they were not initially concerned about formal education. Nevertheless, it should also be borne in mind that neither the Natal nor the Anglo-Indian government was interested in the education of the Indians. The Natal government expected the Indians to repatriate on completion of their terms of contract. After the arrival of more affluent Indians in Durban in the late 1870s, the educational situation improved. These Indian traders placed a greater value on education. They sent their children to white schools where the standard of education was superior to

54

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION

that in existing Indian schools. This was still legal under Act 20 of 1878 (N), yet that same Act led to the establishment in 1879 of the Indian Immigrant School Board, which paved the way for separate schools for Indians. This separate education became real in 1894, when Natal was granted responsible government and a law was passed stating that Indian children wanting to be admitted to white secondary schools had to complete their primary education at government-subsidized Indian schools. The separation process was accelerated with the dismissal, in 1899, of all Indian boys from secondary schools. In 1905 the same measure was applied to Indian girls, completing the process of separation.

3.3 The role of the Afrikaner The liberation of slaves in the Cape in 1834 was one of the main reasons why many of the Dutch (later to become Afrikaners due to prominent changes in the Dutch language) started leaving the Cape systematically as Voortrekkers in 1834. Although, as we have seen, the Dutch settlers initially favoured separation on the basis of religious conviction, this basis soon shifted to one of racial distinction. The Voortrekkers took this view with them to their Republics and were adamant that people of colour should not be educated together with white people. Consequently, separate education came to a climax in 1953. The Nationalists, who coined the term apartheid, came into power in 1948. The Nationalist Party consisted predominantly of Afrikaners. The Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953 made formal education for black people a state affair; until then it had been provided mainly by mission schools. This education was geared towards meeting the demand for semiskilled labour in the expanding urban factories. Although black people were to serve the economy they were not considered full members of the elite (white) society. The intention of securing hegemony for white people is very clear from the views of the then Nationalist Minister of Native Affairs, Dr H F Verwoerd, who argued as follows during the House of Assembly Debate on the Bantu Education Act of 1953: When I have control of native education I will reform it so that natives will be taught from childhood to realize that equality with Europeans is not fit for them . . . People who believe in equality are not desirable teachers for natives, (Troup, 1976: 22) In June 1954, Verwoerd reiterated: There is no place for him [the black person] in the European community above the level of certain forms of labour... Until now he has been subject to a school system which drew him away from his own community and misled him by showing him the green pastures of European society in which he will not be allowed to graze7 (Troup, 1976: 22). In his speech to Senate, he stated that 'it is sound educational policy to create among the Bantu a sense of responsibility by allowing them to bear sufficient financial responsibility to make them accept that their development is their own concern . . .' (Hartshorne, 1992: 37).

55

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

In retrospect, it would seem that the Afrikaner people, who had themselves been oppressed by and had revolted against the British government, should have known that the oppression of the black people would not go unchallenged. Today Bantu education is condemned as inhumane and brutal. Yet, the 'grossly racist and inegalitarian character of the new system should not obscure the fact that it introduced into South Africa a mass education system which effectively included the black working class' (Hyslop in Bonner et a/, 1993: 401). The Bantu Education Act of 1953, based on the recommendations of the Eiselen Commission of Native Education, was designed to promote apartheid education. The latter, in turn, would promote the goal of establishing an overall apartheid society. The 1953 Act related directly to the medium of education and so more black teachers were appointed at black schools. To further apartheid education, the state took over control of black education from the four provinces (Transvaal, Natal, the Orange Free State, and the Cape) and the missionary organizations. White, coloured, and Indian education remained, for the moment, under provincial control while black education was centralized under the direct control of a division known as Bantu Education in the Department of Native Affairs. In October 1958 this division became an independent state department under a white minister. From 1979 onwards black education was controlled by the Department of Education and Training. Within a few years the policy of centralization was extended to include education for Indians and coloured people. The Coloured Persons Act 47 of 1963 and the Indians Education Act 61 of 1965 made provision to shift the control and administration of education for coloured people and Indians from the provinces to the central government under divisions of the Department of Coloured Affairs and the Department of Indian Affairs respectively. The Bantu Education Act of 1953 was followed by other Acts intended to separate black and white people in the social sphere. Let us review the most important apartheid laws. Some were passed before the Nationalists assumed government in 1948. These laws, while underpinning the process of educational isolation of the various ethnic sectors of the population, also motivated black people to oppose separate formal education. Continued resistance to apartheid education led in 1980 to the establishment of the Human Sciences Research Council Committee of Investigation into Education (commonly known as the De Lange Committee). This was given the task of investigating education in South Africa, and published its findings in the De Lange Report. In spite of criticism, this report can be regarded as a milestone in education reform in South Africa. It proposed a single Ministry of Education that was not ethnically based. Moreover, it objected to Christian National Education, which had become associated with Afrikaner Calvinism and was embodied in the term apartheid. The government's response to the De Lange Report, however, once again emphasized its commitment to the policy of apartheid. Although the general education policy was to be determined by the Minister of National Education, the following four ethnically based subsystems were to provide for the education of whites, coloured people, Indians and black people respectively: the Department of Education and Culture:

56

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION

Figure 2.1 Apartheid laws (Harker, 1994: 54) YEAR PASSED

BRIEF CONTENT OF LAW

REPEALED

1927

Immorality Act 5 of 1927: Prohibits sexual relations between white and black people.

1986

1949

Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act 55 of 1949: Prohibits marriages between white sector of the population and other races.

1986

1950

Immorality Amendment Act 21 of 1950: Prohibits sexual relations between white people and those of other races.

1986

1950

Population Registration Act 30 of 1950: South Africans were classified as White, Native, or Coloured.

1991

1950

Suppression of Communism Act 44 of 1950: Communism was banned. No right to appeal was granted.

1990

1950

Group Areas Act 41 of 1950: Government could segregate the living areas of South Africans on the basis of race.

1991

1952

Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act 67 of 1952: Black people over the age of 16 had to carry pass books which contained information on employment, tax, and influx control.

1986

•lOR-a

^pn^r^tp Ampnitip^s Aft 4Q nf "IQS'V ^pnfirsitp

1QQO

amenities (eg buses, beaches, and toilets) were provided for the white and non-white communities. Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953: Black education was regulated by the Minister of the Department of Native Affairs.

1979

1 QC

Extension of University Education Act 45 of 1959: White universities were to teach white students only

1988

1959

Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act 46 of 1959: The plan to establish self-governing homelands for black people was introduced.

1994

1970

Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act 26 of 1970: Black South Africans were to become citizens of their tribal homelands, irrespective of whether they had lived there or not.

1994

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

House of Assembly, the Department of Education and Culture: House of Representatives, the Department of Education and Culture: House of Delegates, and the Department of Education and Training. At this stage, the coloured, Indian, and white sectors of the South African population could determine what were called their own affairs regarding education, which included the financing of running costs and capital expenditure, salaries and conditions of employment of staff, the professional registration of teachers, norms and standards of syllabuses, and the examination and certification of qualifications. However, black people were not granted the right to establish their own affairs. The House of Assembly, the House of Delegates, and the House of Representatives had ministerial representation in Parliament and a bottom-up approach concerning the regulation of education. Black education, in contrast, was controlled by the central government via the Minister of Development Aid and Education. Figure 2.2 gives more detail.

3.4 The end of apartheid education Apartheid education is presently being eradicated. Authentic change from an autocratic, ethnically based educational structure has been taking place since the Government of National Unity came into power in 1994. Education for all sectors of the South African population is now administered by a single Department of Education. At last South Africa is set for democratic education. The Draft White Paper on Education and Training published on 23 September 1994 states: South Africa now has a democratic government, elected by all the people under a Constitution which guarantees equality and non discrimination, cultural freedom and diversity, the right to basic education for all and equal access to educational institutions. This means that the legacy of the struggle is the common legacy of all South Africans. (DE, 1994: 10) The final Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Constitution Act 1 08 of 1 996) and the South African Schools Act 84 of 1 996, published at the time of writing, are clearly geared towards securing non-racially-based education in South Africa.

4 The Issue of Mediur of Instruction A dominant issue in South African education is the choice of medium of instruction in schooling. Why is the medium of instruction so crucial? Firstly, language is the tool we use to express our thoughts and our most treasured ideas. Language also constitutes a major component of cultural identity. The medium of instruction is therefore a contentious issue in any multilingual society. As we go once again to the troubled waters of our educational past to focus on this particular aspect, we will follow the history in each of the regions up to the establishment of the Union in 1 91 0, then look at the country as a whole with its (then) four provinces.

58

Figure 2.2 The decentralized educational structure of southern Africa including the independent states (TBVC countries) and self-governing national states, 1988. (Behr, 1988:62)

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

4.1 The Cape 4.1.1 Under British rule Let us return to the early days in the Cape. The British annexed the Cape for the second time in 1806 and were determined to apply a rigorous policy of anglicization in their latest colonial asset which was considered very valuable from an economic point of view. The words of Governor Cradock, addressed to a school principal, illustrate this point: (You are) to promote and establish the cultivation of the English language to the greatest extent among your pupils of the highest rank (as the foundation for a successful future),,, a perfect knowledge of the English language (will be) indispensable in the admission of offices. (Coetzee, 1975: 45) Lord Charles Somerset placed the anglicization of schools on a firm footing. In order to have the schools staffed by British teachers, he instructed the Revd George Thorn to select suitable staff. In 1813 six Scottish teachers — whose morality had been ascertained to be impeccable — arrived at the Cape. Amongst them was James RoseInnes, who would become the first Superintendent of Education. Somerset established free schools, arguing that free education would be an incentive for the Dutch to send their children to schools which would promote the British culture and therefore also the English tongue. These schools, as mentioned earlier, were called Somerset schools or established government schools. The results of Somerset's policy of anglicization are interesting. The Dutch, who numbered approximately 60 000 and outnumbered the British by eight to one, were not unwilling to learn English. Yet they were determined that English was not to replace Dutch, the core of their cultural identity. The two free schools in Cape Town where both Dutch and English were used as media of instruction prospered. When, however, it was decided in 1828 that all instruction should be in English only, the pupil numbers at these schools soon dropped from 675 to 300. A few years later, these schools had to amalgamate due to poor pupil enrolment. In 1839 the pupil numbers of the single school were a mere thirty-nine: the Dutch had established private schools to have their children taught in their mother tongue. While the public school system almost came to a standstill between the years 1830 and 1839, the number of private schools increased in this period from thirty-nine to ninety-four. Clearly, the British had to reconsider their policy concerning the medium of instruction. When Rose-lnnes became the first Superintendent of Education in 1839, the policy was relaxed somewhat. Dutch was allowed in the first-class schools (also called principal schools) in cities and big towns, as well as the second-class schools (also called secondary schools) found in smaller towns. Yet, in compliance with RoseInnes's policy of anglicization, Dutch was not really considered a medium of instruction. It was used mainly to familiarize children with the English language. In July 1840 Rose-lnnes imported a group of Scottish teachers to serve the imperialistic

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ideal of anglicizing their colonies. In 1843 the anglicization process was extended through the establishment of third-class schools in the country. These schools would receive a government subsidy on condition that they taught English and used it as the medium of conversation between teacher and pupil for a specific time of the day. The anglicization policy was clarified in the Education Act 13 of 1865 (C) which decreed that English should be the medium of instruction in the first- and second-class schools and should, as far as practically possible, become the medium of instruction in the third-class schools within twelve months. The status of English as the medium of instruction remained in force until 1882 when Dutch was acknowledged as an alternative. This was brought about by the De Villiers Education Commission, appointed in 1879. Proclamation 113 of 1882 (C) recommended that Dutch should also be used as a medium of instruction since it was the home language of the majority of the population. It also stated that it was an injustice to children not to provide education in their mother tongue. Although this Proclamation gave parents the right to determine the medium of instruction, departmental regulations and administrative procedures prevented Dutch parents from exercising that right in practice. 4.1.2 The Dutch response We have seen that the Dutch established private schools in the 1830s. In 1860, the Revd G W A van der Lingen followed a similar course of action when he established the Dutch-medium Paarl Gymnasium. After the founding of the Cenootskap van Regte Afrikaners (Society of True Afrikaners) in 1875 through the efforts of the Revd S J du Toit, free Christian schools were established on a larger scale. At both the Gymnasium and the free Christian schools, English was only taught once Dutch had been mastered properly. Free Christian schools were closed towards the beginning of the twentieth century owing to a lack of funds.

4.2 The Transvaal 4.2.1 The Voortrekkers The Voortrekkers who settled in the Transvaal in 1838 had left the Cape partly because of the onslaught upon their language. As one might expect, they were adamant that Dutch should be the medium of instruction in the Transvaal. This attitude is reflected in the Van der Linden Education Regulation of 1852 (Z) and the Education Regulation of 1859 (Z). However, the Education Act 6 of 1866 (Z) decreed that English should, if possible, also be used as a medium of instruction. This decision—certainly unexpected by many Dutch settlers—reflects the need for fluency in English for commercial interaction with the British, who had been drawn by the work opportunities offered in the Transvaal, then known as the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (South African Republic). Thus many schools became parallel-medium schools.

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This liberal attitude, allowing English to be used as medium of instruction, was also revealed in the Burgers Education Act 4 of 1874 (Z), which allowed parents to choose the medium of instruction. This Act had only been in operation for a year when the British annexed the South African Republic (Transvaal) for the first time in 1877. 4.2.2 Under British rule: 1877-81 The right of parents to choose the medium of instruction was retained after the British annexation. J Vacy Lyle, the Superintendent-General of Education (1877-9), although favouring English as medium of instruction, even went as far as to state that separate schools should be erected for Dutch and British children. It is argued that the British were trying to assimilate the Dutch into the British Empire. 4.23 Under Dutch rule: 1881-99 After the short period of British rule the Dutch were once again fervently resolved to protect and further their cultural heritage. The Du Toit Education Act 1 of 1882 (Z) stated that Dutch was to be the medium of instruction and that no subsidy would be granted to schools in which this was not the case. This insistence on Dutch as the medium of instruction was reiterated in subsequent laws. The situation was to change again with the Anglo-Boer War between the British and the Boers of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. (The Dutch, who had taken to farming as early as the late seventeenth century in the Cape, had become known as Boers.) 4.2.4 The Anglo-Boer War: 1899-1902 In the concentration camps and town schools, all subjects other than religion had to be taught in English. When the South African Republic (the Transvaal) became a British colony after the signing of the Peace of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902, England imposed a strict policy of anglicization. This contravened the Peace of Vereeniging which stated that certain public schools should offer instruction in Dutch if this was the wish of parents and children. Ordinance 7 of 1903 (T) prescribed English as the medium of instruction at all schools; only religious education could be taught in Dutch. Equal time would, however, be allotted to the teaching of English and Dutch as subjects. Hundreds of British teachers were imported to help with the anglicization of the Transvaal. 4.2.5 The Boer response After many pleas for Dutch-medium schools, the Boers established private schools (also called Christian National schools) where Dutch, and Dutch only, would be the medium of instruction. (See section 6: Education and Religious Issues.) The Liberal Party, which came to power in England in 1905, had a more sympathetic attitude towards the Boers. In a memorandum in 1905, Lord Selborne, the British governor of the Transvaal, stated that either English or Afrikaans could be used during the first few

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years of schooling. However, as soon as Dutch children could understand tuition in English, the medium of instruction had to be English. CNE schools continued. When self-government was established in 1906, an Afrikaans political party, Met Volkparty, won the elections in the Transvaal. General Smuts, who advocated a united South African nation, held the education portfolio and gave the assurance that government education would provide everything that the Christian National schools had to offer. This, together with financial considerations, led to the amalgamation of CNE schools and government schools—but delivery fell short of the promises. The Smuts Education Act 25 of 1907 (Z) echoed the principles of the memorandum compiled by Lord Selborne: after Std 3, English had to be the medium of instruction except for religious instruction, Dutch, and two other subjects.

4.3 The Orange Free State 4.3.1 The Voortrekkers Formal education was non-existent in the Free State for a considerable period after the Dutch from the Cape settled there in the 1830s. The medium of instruction was therefore also initially not an issue. Education was still primitive and was conducted mainly by Dutch parents as they had done during the Great Trek: they taught their children the Scriptures and used these to teach them to read. The elementary arithmetic needed for farming was also taught. Little more was needed; education was seen mainly as a tool to prepare children for Church membership. Nevertheless, a few peripatetic Boer schoolmasters did provide education, though not, it seems, of a high standard.

4.3.2 Under British Rule: 1848-54 Formal education was established only after the Cape governor, Sir Harry Smith, annexed the Free State (the land between the Great and Vaal Rivers) in 1848. This region became known as the Orange River Sovereignty. The first school was established in Bloemfontein in 1846. In 1852 the first school commission ruled that teachers should be capable of teaching the three Rs (reading, writing, and arithmetic), geography, English, and Dutch. The language of the conquered—Dutch—was thus recognized and appears to have been the medium of instruction. High costs and trouble with neighbouring African tribes prompted the British to give the Free State back to the Boers in 1854. Education remained rudimentary.

4.3.3 The Free State Republic and Grey College Problems concerning the medium of instruction in the Republic of the Orange Free State became evident after Sir George Grey of the Cape Colony provided £2 000 for the erection of a school in Bloemfontein to provide advanced education for scholars

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who wished to become teachers, fill clerical posts, or even visit European universities. The school was to be controlled by a committee of the Transgariep convocation of the Dutch Reformed Church, which accepted the offer gratefully. The agreement stated that the school had to teach both English and Dutch. Thus <Jrey College, named after Sir George Grey, opened in 1859. There was an initial hiccup when the government, or Volksraad, believing that the agreement demanded equal status for English and Dutch, refused to grant an annual allowance. This was later resolved when it was clarified that Dutch would be the main language. The school proved to be unpopular with many Boers who perceived it to be nourishing British tradition/When the English-speaking Revd Geo Brown took over as principal from the Revd Andrew Murray, Dutch was indeed grossly neglected as medium of instruction at the school. The Volksraad later decided that the one-man state school which had been operating in Bloemfontein should amalgamate with Grey College, that the amalgamated school would receive a fixed subsidy, and that Dutch would be the main medium of instruction. Ironically some Dutch-speaking citizens were opposed to the latter stipulation, arguing that English dominated the business world and that their children should, therefore, be taught in English. 4.3.4 Legislation on medium of instruction In 1864, the first educational law of the Free State Republic prescribed Dutch as the medium of instruction. Nevertheless, it also stated that English should be taught to promote bilingualism (Wetboek, 1892). Following a period of confusion as far as the medium of instruction was concerned, matters were clarified somewhat in 1874 when a School Administration was established. Ordinance Policy 1 of 1874 (O) decreed that Dutch and English be taught at all state schools. It also allowed parents to decide whether their children should learn English (as a subject) or not. In practice many subjects were taught in English due to a lack of Dutch textbooks and Dutch teachers who could read English. The dominant place occupied by English in the Free State made the first Inspector (and later Superintendent) of Education, one Dr John Brebner, as well as President J H Brand, rather unpopular. In 1889 the Volksraad requested that subjects in state schools be taught in Dutch wherever possible, but this request bore little fruit. In 1891 it was decided that all state schools in the rural areas should be Dutch medium. In the towns, parents could choose the medium of instruction up to and including Std 2, after which Dutch had to be used as medium of instruction for at least half of the subjects. A shortage of Dutch textbooks and teachers hampered this ideal. Afrikaans nationalism increased strongly in the Free State after the Jameson Raid of 1896 which tried unsuccessfully to overthrow the Transvaal Boer Republic.

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4.3.5 The British response Although schools relied heavily on British teachers who taught through the medium of English, many British were not content to let their children attend schools controlled by the Boers. During the years of the Free State Republic, the British, who comprised the major sector of the Bloemfontein population, were on their guard to protect their British cultural heritage in the Boer Republic. Not only in Bloemfontem but also in smaller villages, they established private grammar schools with the aid of the churches. Well-known private schools still functioning today are St Andrew's Diocesan College for boys and St Michael's Home for Girls. Dutch was at best treated as a subject in these schools.

43.6 The Anglo-Boer War: 1899-1902 From a Dutch perspective, education during the war years was characterized by concentration camp schools. E B Sargant, the acting Director of Education of British Administration in South Africa, set up schools in the concentration camps holding Boer children from towns and farms taken by the British. English teachers were imported for these schools, thus further promoting anglicization.

4.3.7 Under British rule After Britain conquered the two Republics (the Orange Free State and the Transvaal) the Orange Free State became known as the Orange River Crown Colony. The British used their hegemony in educational affairs to promote non-sectarian English state schools and minimize the use of Dutch as medium of instruction. Sargant's Educational Ordinance of 1903 (which also applied to the Transvaal) decreed that Dutch could be used as medium of instruction for biblical studies for two hours a week and taught as a subject for three hours a week if Dutch parents so wished. The superior status of English at schools was also reflected by the Orange River Colony's Ordinance 7 of 1903 (O). This stated that an additional two hours per week could be used for instruction in the non-compulsory study of Dutch, provided that religious studies, taught by clergy during school hours for two hours a week, was not desired.

43.8 The Boer response The Boers, of course, were far from satisfied. The Dutch language and the Calvinistic faith were the most cherished components of their cultural heritage. They showed their dismay by establishing Christian National schools as in the other regions, to ensure that their children would be taught in Dutch in schools which reflected the Calvinistic spirit. Almost every town in the Free State established a Christian National school by means of private funds. In 1905, at the request of the British government, many CNE schools amalgamated with government schools, an agreement that was forced by a lack of funds. It was decided that English would be the medium of instruction but that equal portions of time would be allocated to the teaching of Dutch and English. This caused great unhappiness. The Revd J S M Rabie wrote: 'As long as Dutch is not legally allowed

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to be the medium of instruction, our educational system contains an element with which no Afrikaner can have peace' (translated from M C Evan Schoor in Coetzee, 1975: 170). Some CNE schools did not give up so easily. In 1906 there were still approximately 1 000 children in a few CNE schools.

43.9 The outcome The outcome was that the Boers and the British agreed on the implementation of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction. Obviously this was not realized overnight. The Orange River Crown Colony received responsible government from the British Government in 1907. The following year saw the promulgation of the Education Act 35 of 1908 (O), known as the Hertzog Act (after General J B M Hertzog, the Minister of justice and Education), which paved the way for mother tongue instruction. Children now had to be educated in their mother tongue up to and including Std 4. Instruction in the second language was optional in this phase but became compulsory from Std 5, when at least three major subjects had to be taught in each of the official languages, namely English and Dutch.

4.4 Natal 4.4.1 The Voortrekkers Like their Transvaal counterparts, the Natal Voortrekkers emphasized the teaching of Dutch, initially in tent schools in their nomadic trekker state which existed till 1839, and later in their laager state, where humble permanent schools appeared.

4.4.2 Under British rule The British annexation of Natal in 1845 prompted two thirds of the trekkers to leave Natal for the Trekker Republics in the Free State and the Transvaal and led to a period of anglicization. The School Commission, which came into being after the establishment of the first state school in 1849, recommended that English be the medium of instruction in state schools and that Dutch (as a subject) only be taught if desired. The Select Committee of 1858 granted subsidies to travelling schools, which consisted of individual peripatetic schoolmasters in the Boer districts of Weenen, Kliprivier, and Umvoti, if English was taught as a subject. Only a few schools agreed to this condition. The offer of a subsidy to Boer schools in exchange for the teaching of the English language was repeated again in 1858 by the newly established Educational Board. The lure of money and clever planning were the primary tools in the attempt to anglicize the Boer schools. Dr Mann, who held the key educational positions of Inspector of Education and Superintendent of Education from 1859 to 1870, offered a grant to peripatetic schoolmasters if they taught English and had at least ten pupils,

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not all from the same family. These measures reduced the number of subsidized itinerant schools from sixteen (in 1870) to ten (in 1875). English teachers were imported in 1864, turning the itinerant schools into ordinary English schools where Dutch played no significant role. In 1875 the Boer districts of Weenen, Kliprivier, and Umvoti requested that Afrikaans be used as the medium of instruction but this plea was refused. The British insistence on anglicizing Natal was reflected in the first educational act of Natal, Act 15 of 1877 (N), which made no mention of Dutch.

4.43 The Boer response Predictably, the Boers refused to accept the anglicization process. In 1882 the Revd j Turnbull and the Boer community of Greyville petitioned the Education Board for Dutch to be taught as a school subject. This was granted in mid-1883, followed by the same concession for Ladysmith later that year. By 1885 Dutch had been introduced as a subject in many rural schools, and the Educational Board decided that it would also be taught in primary state schools (i e in towns) if there were at least six interested pupils. From a Boer viewpoint, conditions became more favourable when it was decided that tuition in Dutch, and even Dutch as a medium of instruction, would be allowed if more than 50 pupils were in favour. This decision was made by the Education Department which replaced the Education Board in 1894, Natal having gained responsible government in 1893.

4.4.4 After the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 Considering the pattern in the other regions, one wonders whether Christian National schools featured in Natal as well. They did indeed, if one goes by the boundaries established after the Anglo-Boer War. There were CNE schools in the districts of Vryheid, Paulpietersburg, and Utrecht, which prior to the war had been parts of the South African Republic. These schools vanished after 1908 when it was clear that Dutch as a subject would not be endangered in Natal. By that time twelve state schools, twenty-two statesubsidized schools, and certain farm schools were teaching Dutch.

4.5 The establishment of the Union of South Africa: 1910 The establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910 was aimed at welding together white people who had made South Africa their home. Article 137 of the Union Constitution stated: Both the English and Dutch languages shall be official languages of the Union, and shall be treated on a footing of equality and possess and enjoy equal freedom, rights and privileges, (Malherbe, 1977: 89) The provinces (the Cape, Transvaal, the Orange Free State, and Natal) were made responsible for the handling of the medium of instruction in accordance with the equality principle of this article.

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4.5.1 The Cape In the Cape, Ordinance 11 of 1912 stated that children were to be taught in their mother tongue up to Std 4, after which parents could opt for instruction in either or both of the official languages. If they did not exercise their choice, the mother tongue would serve as medium of instruction. Parallel classes had to be established for pupils who spoke the minority language group. If small pupil numbers made this difficult, a bilingual teacher had to teach both language groups. In 1925 mother tongue instruction was extended to Std 6. Ordinance 20 of 1956 ordained that Afrikaans or English, depending on which language the pupils knew best, be the medium of instruction up to and including Std 8. 4.5.2 The Transvaal Transvaal's Ordinance 5 of 1911 was similar to the Cape's Ordinance 11 of 1912, providing for mother tongue instruction up to Std 4, after which parents could decide on the medium of instruction. If both languages were chosen, the Department had to determine what subjects were to be presented in each language. Ordinance 13 of 1945 ruled that both official languages were to be used as media of instruction. This was in force for only a few years: the Nationalist Party's victory in the Transvaal Provincial Board elections of 1948 led to the proclamation of Ordinance 19 of 1949, which ruled unequivocally for mother tongue instruction up to and including Std 8. 4.5.3 The Orange Free State Mother tongue instruction had already been introduced here before 1910 and was reinforced by legislation in the following years, eventually being extended to Std 8 by Ordinance 16 of 1954. 4.5.4 Natal In Natal the decision to treat the official languages equally at schools was reflected in a 1916 ordinance which gave parents the right to choose the medium of instruction for their children. The first Afrikaans-medium school, however, opened in Pietermaritzburg only in 1923.

4.6 A uniform national policy The provinces had a great deal of autonomy in the handling of their educational affairs. The National Education Act 39 of 1967 was aimed at enhancing uniformity, at least for the white sector of the population, and included the medium of instruction issue. This Act decreed that the mother tongue should be the medium of instruction. It was later explained that the mother tongue had to be taught up to and including Std 8, after which the parent could choose the medium of instruction. These regulations were implemented from 1970. The National Policy for General Affairs Act 76 of 1984 no longer prescribed mother tongue instruction.

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4.7 Medium of instruction in black schools The teaching of black children was left mainly to the missionaries until the Bantu Education Act of 1953 was promulgated. The missionaries had differing opinions about the medium of instruction. The continental missionaries (eg the Germans and the Swiss) were in favour of teaching in the vernacular (the mother tongue), while the British missionaries took a strong stance in favour of teaching in English. We have already seen that coloured missionary schools in the Cape received subsidies in the 1840s. The condition was that English be taught and, where possible, be made the medium of instruction. An educational ordinance dealing specifically with the black schools reiterated this condition in 1903. By 1910 English had established itself as the usual medium of instruction for black children. A gradual shift towards teaching in the vernacular followed, but English remained dominant. By 1935 the status was as follows: the vernacular was used for instruction for the first six years of school in Natal, the first four years in the Cape and the Free State, and the first two years in the Transvaal. After these initial years of mother tongue instruction, an official language — almost always English — became the medium of instruction. 4.7.1 Afrikaans is promoted The Afrikaner was not particularly interested in black education initially and hence had very little influence, if any, on the medium of instruction policy. However, this lax attitude changed in the 1940s. In the wake of growing Afrikaner nationalism, views were expressed that Afrikaans rather than English should be promoted as a second medium of instruction. The mother tongue was envisaged as the first medium of instruction. Emphasis shifted to mother tongue instruction after the Nationalist Party, with its policy of separate development, came to power in 1948. This can be seen from the recommendation of the Eiselen Commission (1949-51) that education be conducted in the vernacular for the first four years and that this be extended progressively year by year until it covered the full eight years of primary schooling (Grades 1 and 2 and Stds 1 to 6). This recommendation was adopted by the Department of Bantu Education. The Commission also recommended that the most prominent official language of the area be introduced as a subject in the second year of schooling, with the second official language following not later than the fourth year, but the Department of Bantu Education decided to introduce both official languages in the first year of schooling, with Afrikaans becoming a formal subject in the fourth year. Another recommendation of the Eiselen Report was also ignored: instead of allowing secondary school children to choose between English or Afrikaans as a compulsory subject in the secondary school, the Department demanded that both official languages be made compulsory subjects and that both be used for instruction in secondary schools. In fact a trilingual (or triple) medium of instruction was implied: while examination subjects were to be taught on an equal basis through English and Afrikaans, non-examination subjects, like religion and music, were to be presented in the vernacular. This policy met with fierce opposition.

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As there were insufficient teachers to teach the so-called content subjects (history, mathematics, etc) in Afrikaans, permission was granted by the Department of Bantu Education for certain secondary schools to teach all the content subjects in English. In practice, many secondary schools taught only through the medium of English. Official documents revealed that the Nationalist government was tightening its relatively relaxed language policy. The Department of Bantu Education Circular 31 of 1959, addressed to circuit inspectors and regional directors, mentioned that Afrikaans was lagging behind as a medium of instruction. It also gave notice that the use of Afrikaans as a medium of instruction in secondary schools would be more strictly enforced in future. Circular 6 of 1974 repeated that the official languages should be used on a 50/50 basis where possible. The regional directors and inspectors of the southern Transvaal regions displayed an even more rigid stance. In their Circular 2 of 1974 they demanded that schools which had not yet adopted the 50/50 basis do so from 1975.

4.7.2 Soweto reacts The reaction was sharp and clear. Memoranda from the joint school board of Atteridgeville-Saulsville, the school board of Orlando-Diepkloof, the Machnagna School Board of Soweto, and the joint school boards of the South and North Bantu Education regions insisted that English be the medium of instruction. In fact the latter memorandum, directed to the Secretary of Bantu Education in Pretoria, informed him that English had been chosen as the medium of instruction from Stds 3 to 10. The Department of Bantu Education reacted in Circular 6 of 1975, drawing attention to Article 15 of the Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953, which authorized the Minister to prescribe the medium of instruction. This was followed by Circular 7, which demanded the immediate repeal of any school board decisions which were contrary to the policy concerning dual-medium teaching. Recalcitrant school board members and school principals were sacked and school boycotts and resistance against writing examinations occurred. What complicated matters was that the Department of Bantu Education had decided that the dual medium of instruction policy be extended to Std 5 pupils in primary schools from 1975. In addition, it was decided that the eight years of primary schooling for black people (Grades 1 and 2 and Stds 1 to 6) should be reduced to seven years (Grades 1 and 2 and Stds 1 to 5). At Soweto's Morris Isaacson High School, Tsietsi Mashinini, chairperson of the South African Student Movement (see section 5: Resistance in Education), organized an illegal protest march for 16 June 1976. He warned that police action against protesting pupils would lead to schools being burned down. Thirteen-year-old Hector Peterson was the first of many pupils to be killed by police in three days of rioting with a final reported death toll of 97. Further unrest followed, characterized by school boycotts, violence, examination boycotts, and intimidation. This is covered in more detail in the section on resistance.

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A regulation permitting the use of English from Std 3 was issued in 1982. The Soweto riots, as we have seen, were sparked off by the imposition of Afrikaans as medium of instruction. Afrikaans had become a symbol of the then Nationalist government, which had no support from the black society.

4.8 Lessons from the struggle over medium of instruction The following extract, taken from the African National Congress (ANC) discussion document A Policy Framework for Education and Training (ANC, 1994: 61), sums up what we have learnt: , , , Official language policy in South Africa has been interwoven with the politics of domination and separation, resistance and affirmation, Over the past two centuries, South Africa's colonial and white minority governments have used language policy in education as an instrument of cultural and political control, first in the battle for supremacy between the British and the Boers, and subsequently in maintaining white political and cultural supremacy over the black majority , , , Such struggles have been waged by Afrikaners against British cultural and political imperialism, and by blacks against Afrikaner dominated white baasskap.

4.9 The current situation The legislation of the mid-nineties shows that cognizance has been taken of both the importance of the use of the home language in schools as well as the devastating effects of using the medium of instruction as a dominating factor for the furtherance of any particular culture. In his introductory message to White Paper 2 (DE, 1996: 7) the Minister of Education Professor S M E Bengu said: My Ministry does not support language imperialism, We will not promote, under any circumstances, the use of only one of the official languages as the language of learning (medium of instruction) in all public schools. Language policies in education cannot thrive in an atmosphere of coercion. No language community should have reason to fear that the education system will be used to suppress its mother tongue. He provided for multilingualism, the use of two or more languages (one of which should be the mother tongue), in an effort to combat linguistic discrimination in South African education: in the same White Paper, schools were encouraged to offer at least two languages of instruction from Grade 1; again, one of these should be the home language. There was to be no rigid, undemocratic prescription concerning the medium of instruction. Instead, the Minister referred to consultation between the school's governing body, representing the school community, and the provincial education authorities to formulate policies within the constraints of provincial and national legislation.

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However, according to the discussion draft of the South African Schools Bill published on 24 April 1996, Prof Bengu appeared to be in favour of mother tongue instruction. This document includes the following points: A learner in a public school shall have the right to instruction in the language of his/ her choice where this is reasonably practicable. The governing body of a public school may determine the language policy of the school, subject to the national policy determined by the Minister of Education and the provincial policy determined by the Members of the Executive Council, provided that no form of racial discrimination may be practised in exercising its policy (DE, 1996b). The South African Schools Act of 1996 states that pupils have the right to be taught in the official language or languages of their choice if this is reasonably practicable.

5 T^e&tafattce w,Education 5.1 Resistance in earlier centuries Resistance in education goes back to the first slave school established in 1658, which stopped functioning in the early 1660s. The slaves boycotted the first school despite efforts by the teacher, who gave pupils a tot of brandy and a piece of tobacco to keep them in school. In all probability the slaves were not so much reacting to the form of schooling or to the particular political dispensation but simply rejecting formal education itself, as it was not part of their frame of reference. However, clear suggestions of politically based grievances began to surface in 1873. At the Lovedale Institute (a missionary school at Alice) fifteen black students complained about several issues, the most common being the difference in food provided to white and black people. The reaction to their resistance reflected the undemocratic society of that time: they were expelled from school.

5.2 The SANNC and the SARC Shortly after the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910, black students voiced their dissatisfaction with the education they received. The South African Native National Council (SANNC) and the less radical South African Race Congress (SARC) drew attention to the prevailing inequality in standards of black education. They advocated education as a means of upliftment for black people and as the vehicle that could procure political rights. At this stage, however, separation on the basis of race as such was not referred to.

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5.3 Alternative schools 5.3.1 The first night schools In 1915 the International Society League (ISL) denounced the non-existence of black people's rights in South African politics and proposed addressing this issue by means of education. The ISL became the South African Communist Party (SACP) in 1921 and established a night school in Johannesburg with the aim of training black workers to assume political leadership. Eighty students had received training by the late twenties, but the school was eventually closed down in 1946. The Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU), which was established in 1919 as a union for dock-labourers in Cape Town, shared the view of the organizations mentioned earlier that alternative education was part of an active political struggle. Like the ISL, it also established a night school in Johannesburg to educate people to oppose the politically discriminatory dispensation. The night school functioned until the start of the Second World War in 1939. 5.3.2 The American School Movement What was known as the American School Movement began in the Eastern Cape in 1925 due to the aspirations of Elias Wellington Butelezi, who was instrumental in widespread boycotts in the Herschell district in the Eastern Cape in that year. Butelezi shared the view of Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), leader of a black nationalist movement in America, that all institutions serving the established white hegemony had to be eradicated. He believed that African values had to be protected in schools and that the black people and not foreigners (white people) should control education. He established 181 schools which reflected his belief in practice, angering the government and even the missionaries, who carried much of the responsibility for education. The missionaries asked the government to close the American schools, which started to disappear in 1930. 5.3.3 The People's Club A liberal organization called the People's Club established a night school in Cape Town which offered alternative education. It flourished in the late thirties and took on the character of a fully developed night school movement. In 1939 it was closed by the government. 5.3.4 The African College and Mayibuye schools In 1938 students of the University of the Witwatersrand established the African College in Johannesburg. It aimed, inter alia, to offer an understanding of the contemporary cultural environment and to encourage free expression. Students had a say in all the activities through an intermediary pupils' council. Within two years, the success of this college led to the establishment of the Mayibuye schools. (Mayibuye means 'Let it [Africa] return'.) These schools cherished aims similar to those of the African College.

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5.4 The ANC The African National Congress (ANC) was established in 1912 and has since become the vital force in democratizing South Africa. We shall now have a brief look at its reaction to apartheid as it manifested itself within the educational sphere. The ANCs Youth League, which was established in 1944, orchestrated school boycotts in black schools in the East Rand (Benoni, Germiston, Katlehong, Brakpan, and Alexandra) and the Eastern Cape (New Brighton, Korsten, Kirkwood, and Walmer) in April 1955. This was done despite the ANC top management's decision that boycotts should not be implemented before sufficient alternative educational structures had been established. Disruption of schools resulted in the Minister of Native Affairs expelling 7 000 pupils, sacking 116 teachers, and closing many schools. In reaction the African Educational Movement (AEM) set up alternative schools, the so-called 'culture clubs', by means of parental bodies. In these 'clubs', pupils received a basic education and were sensitized politically. Many of these schools activities were focused on collecting money to assist people who had transgressed the law and to pay attorneys' fees and penalties. In 1957 the government decreed that night schools and literacy classes had to apply for official registration and permits from the Group Areas Board to allow them to operate in white areas. This, along with a lack of resources, led to the closure of most alternative schools. On 16 December 1943 the Annual Conference of the ANC at Bloemfontein unanimously adopted Africans' Claims in South Africa, which had been drawn up by a special committee. This document, besides focusing on discriminatory laws, public health, and medical services, spelt out the ANCs educational aims for South Africa. It demanded equal education financing per capita for all sectors of the population, compulsory and free education for all ethnic sectors of the population, and the gradual transfer of full control of black education to black people. One of the ANC's greatest contributions in counteracting apartheid in all its dimensions was a 1953 initiative which led to the founding of the Congress Alliance and the adoption of the Freedom Charter in 1955. The Alliance consisted of the South African Indian Council (SAIC), the South African Congress of Democrats (SACOD) which consisted of white people who were sympathetic to the democratic ideal, the South African Coloured People's Congress, and the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU). As a result the ANC's Youth League divided into two opposing sections: the Africanist sector and a more tolerant sector which was willing to cooperate with white people in democratizing South Africa. The Freedom Charter became the blueprint for freedom in South Africa. Its main headings read as follows: The people shall govern! All national groups shall have equal rights! The people shall share in the country's wealth!

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The land shall be shared among those who work it! All shall be equal before the law! All shall enjoy equal human rights! There shall be work and security! The doors of learning and culture shall be opened! There shall be houses, security and comfort! There shall be peace and friendship! Let us scrutinize the section dealing with education.

THE DOORS OF LEARNING AND CULTURE SHALL BE OPENED!

The government shall discover, develop and encourage national talent for the enhancement of our cultural life; All the cultural treasures of mankind shall be open to all, by free exchange of books, ideas and contact with other lands; The aim of education shall be to teach the youth to love their people and their culture, to honour human brotherhood, liberty and peace; Education shall be free, compulsory, universal and equal for all children; Higher education and technical training shall be opened to ail by means of state allowances and scholarships awarded on the basis of meritAdult illiteracy shall be ended by a mass state education plan; Teachers shall have all the rights of other citizens; The colour bar in cultural life, in sport and in education shall be abolished. (Booyse, 1992: 443-4)

As we have seen, the Bantu Education Act of 1953 (passed in September 1953 and implemented in 1954) was severely criticized by many South Africans, including the ANC. The Eiselen Commission's recommendations, on which the Act was based, were firmly rejected by black teachers, who aired their dissatisfaction through three teachers' organizations: the Cape African Teachers' Association (CATA), the Teachers' League of South Africa (TLSA), and the Transvaal African Teachers' Association (TATA). CATA'S strong political stance against the proposed Bantu Education led to the government withdrawing its recognition of CATA and giving recognition to the more moderate, newly established Cape African Teachers' Union (CATU). Bantu Education was also strongly opposed by the ANC, who saw the mobilizing of parents as a suitable vehicle for resistance. However, the call for a school boycott of government-controlled schools in 1954 was ineffective, as many black parents believed that Bantu Education was preferable to no education. Parents did, however, boycott the government-instituted school boards and committees.

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5.5 Student uprisings The period between 1957 and 1967 was characterized by black student unrest at schools, although these years were relatively quiet in terms of the wider resistance movement. In many cases black students were not clear about the connection between their actions and the overall anti-apartheid struggle. They rebelled mainly over symptomatic issues concerning hostel food, corporal punishment, expulsion from schools, and incompetent teachers. The worried Nationalist government reacted repressively, closing schools temporarily and expelling pupils. The relative calm at grassroots level in schools, which lasted for more than a decade, was a result of the banning of the ANC and the PAC in 1960.

5.5.1 Student organizations The Black Consciousness Movement kept the aspirations of black people alive after the ban on the ANC. Its motive, namely the politicization of the needs of black people, was carried into the schools by means of the South African Students' Organization (SASO). SASO established branches for school-going children in all the main centres of the country. Black secondary school pupils who wanted to further the ideals of the Black Consciousness Movement also formed independent youth clubs. Many club leaders were arrested, but nevertheless a number of the youth clubs attempted to amalgamate into regional, provincial, and national organizations. These attempts were not always successful. One organization which did survive and was to play a pivotal role in the student unrest of 1976 was the independent South African Students' Movement (SASM). 5.5.2 The Soweto uprising: 1976 A major factor in the full-blown student resistance in Soweto in 1976 was the increase of the school student population. Despite its policy of separation, Bantu Education had made provision for an enormous increase in the black student population. Student numbers rose from approximately 25 000 in the 1950s to approximately 318 000 in 1975. A large body of potential protestors against the philosophy of apartheid, or at least its symptoms, had thus been established. Also the secondary school student population — which is regarded as more sensitive to political issues — was dramatically increased by the government's decision in 1975 that black primary schooling, which had previously lasted eight years (up to Std 6) would be reduced to seven years (ending with Std 5). This meant that all black pupils who had completed Std 5 or 6 at the end of 1975 were able to enter a secondary school in 1976. A lower budgetary allocation to black education as a result of the world recession and the oil price crisis of 1974 did nothing to promote peace at black schools. The following diagrams show that black education had a raw deal.

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Figure 2.3 South African population 1991

Source: Development Bank of Southern Africa

Figure 2.5 Pupil-teacher ratio

Source: SAIRR

Figure 2.4 Education spending

Source: RESA, SAIRR

Figure 2.6 University-educated population (excluding 'independent' homelands)

Source: 1991 Population census, Central Statistical Services

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Figure 2.7 African school enrolments

Figure 2.7 School record

Source: Research into Education in South Africa

Source: RESA

Figure 2.8 Exam pass rate

Source: RESA

The explosive scenario of black education merely needed a spark to set the schools of Soweto ablaze. This was provided, as we have seen in section 4.7.2, by the government's insistence on the use of Afrikaans as a partial medium of instruction. Not only did students object to Afrikaans as a symbol of apartheid, they also felt that Afrikaans-

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medium instruction would be a handicap in a predominantly English labour market. (This parallels the situation in the Orange Free State where some Afrikaner parents wanted their children to be taught in English to equip them for a meaningful career.) 5.5.3 Resistance is sustained Student protests spread to many parts of the country. Students were convinced that the very root of Bantu Education, namely the political philosophy of apartheid, had to be eradicated. In reaction to the unrest the government banned many school student organizations, including SASM, in 1977. However, these were replaced by new activist organizations like the Soweto Students' League and the Young Revolutionary Council, which were established in 1977 and 1979 respectively. The Congress of South African Students (COSAS), established at Roodepoort in 1979, also aimed at keeping the democratic ideal in secondary schools aflame. This organization was later affiliated to the United Democratic Front (UDf), which was founded in 1983. The UDF welcomed members regardless of race as long as they subscribed to the Freedom Charter of 1955. Student leadership in tile educational struggle was soon taken over by the UDF and the banned ANC.

5.5.4 Government reaction in the seventies The Nationalist government was forced to react, even though in retrospect it is often considered that too little was given too late. Black teachers were upgraded and more funds were allocated to black education to improve schooling conditions. Having considered the medium of instruction issue which ignited the Soweto riots, the government conceded in section 3(b) of the Education and Training Act 90 of 1979 that the medium of instruction after Std 3 could be chosen by the community. In 1979 the derogatory title of the Department of Bantu Education was changed to the Department of Education and Training. (In 1991 the Education and Training Act 90 of 1979 was amended so that parents could choose the medium of instruction at black schools.)

5.5.5 Further unrest: 1980-84 1980 marked the beginning of yet another decade of unrest in black schools. It started off in Cape Town when pupils of the Fezeka High School in Guguletu delivered a letter containing a set of local grievances to their headmaster. This was rejected. A boycott followed. By April 1980 the unrest had spread to nineteen schools in the Cape Town metropolitan area. In Soweto, sporadic and isolated school boycotts had occurred under the influence of the Congress of South African Students (COSAS) since March, escalating to country-wide school unrest by mid-April. Despite the banning of political meetings, the detention of student leaders, and threatened expulsion of other pupils from schools, the unrest ended only in 1981. The report of the De Lange Committee gave rise to the National Policy for General Affairs Act 76 of 1984. As this Act was a product of a newly established tricameral

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Parliament and reflected differentiation in education according to race, it aggravated the school unrest which had flared up once again at the beginning of 1984. The new unrest had been sparked by the discovery at an Atteridgeville High School that the previous year's matriculation results had been published even though some of the examination papers had not been marked. Bearing this issue in mind, COSAS objected to underqualified teachers, corporal punishment, and sexual harassment at schools. COSAS took a leading role in mobilizing students into a dominant political force which now started cooperating with black workers in a struggle for political power and 'people's power in education'. This led to violent attacks on black teachers who were considered part of the apartheid system.

5.5.6 Government reaction in the eighties After large-scale street demonstrations, stayaways, and unrest at schools, the government declared a partial state of emergency on 21 July 1985. COSAS was banned the following month, yet the slogan 'Liberation first, education later' had become imprinted on the minds of the black youth. By October 1985 the black school system, especially in Soweto, had practically collapsed.

5.6 People's education Many black parents, although in favour of a democratic South Africa, were clearly concerned about the disarray of their children's education. They realized that the prevailing disorder at schools would actually be spoiling the democratic ideal. In October the Soweto Civic Association held a mass meeting to address these fears and established the Soweto Parents' Crisis Committee (SPCC). The latter, well aware of the need for democracy, opted for 'liberation with education' rather than liberation first, education later'. This more rational approach to democratization has become a trade mark of the people's education movement which, in simplistic terms, can be regarded as having been born at this meeting. The idea of using education to liberate was reiterated at a First National Consultative Conference (FNCC) held by the SPCC on 28 and 29 December 1985. This was entitled People's Education for People's Power. During the conference, attended by some 160 different organizations, it was stressed that organized black schools could be instrumental in bringing about a democratic society. Constructive, proactive work within the unequal educational scenario, rather than reactive boycotts and violence, would enable pupils to bring about a non-racial democratic system. This became a key characteristic of the people's education movement. The conference led to the founding of the National Education Crisis Committee (NECC) in Johannesburg in 1986 to advance democratic change in education. The NECC organized the Second National Consultative Conference, held on 28 and 29 March 1986. This conference re-emphasized that the school was a powerful means for social transformation. Its ninth resolution, quoted in the box below, aptly illustrates the educational-political aims of people's education.

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ON PEOPLE'S EDUCATION

This conference notes that Apartheid Education i) is totally unacceptable to the oppressed people ii) divides people into classes and ethnic groups iii) is essentially a means of control to produce subservient, docile people iv) indoctrinates and domesticates v) is intended to entrench apartheid and capitalism, Therefore, we resolve actively to strive for people's education as the new form of education for all sections of our people, declaring that people's education is education that; i) enables the oppressed to understand the evils of apartheid ii) eliminates illiteracy, ignorance and the exploitation of one person by another iii) eliminates capitalist norms of competition, individualism and stunted intellectual development, and replaces it with norms that encourage collective input and active participation by all, as well as stimulating critical thinking and analysis iv) equips and trains all sectors of our people to participate actively and creatively in the struggle to attain people's power in order to establish a non-racial democratic South Africa v) .allows students, parents, teachers and workers to be mobilized into appropriate organizational structures which enable them to participate actively in the initiation and management of people's education in all its forms vi) enables workers to resist exploitation and oppression at their workplace, (Booyse, 1992: 449)

The power of the NECC was demonstrated when, following a decision by the Second Consultative Conference that pupils return to school by 28 January 1986, an actual school attendance figure of 94 % was recorded. Supporters were optimistic that the NECC would establish an alternative educational authority to function in place of the official educational departments, and that Parent-Teacher-Student Associations (PTSAs) and Student Representative Councils (SRCs) would soon start controlling schools. In June 1986, however, the government declared a general state of emergency due to school unrest during the first half of that year. Subsequently, NECC leaders were detained and forced into hiding. An NECC press conference planned for November had to be cancelled and communication within the NECC was hampered.

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In December 1986 the government, determined to stop the school unrest, forbade the media to report on school boycotts and actions concerning alternative school structures. To combat unrest at schools, the Department of Education and Training gave its Director-General additional powers, including the right to ensure that only approved school curricula were taught. The government's stringent measures paid off. Pupils returned to school on 7 January 1987 and seventy-three schools which had been closed towards the end of the previous year were reopened. On 9 January 1987 a prohibition of all the gatherings of, or on behalf of, the NECC came into effect. The supporters of people's education countered the government's actions by establishing other organizations to propagate the NECC's work. One such organization was the National Education Coordinating Committee, which sounded very similar to the hamstrung National Education Crisis Committee and which sported the same abbreviation: the NECC. In April 1988 consensus was reached in Harare, Zimbabwe, between the NECC and many other democratic teachers' organizations to work together in liberating education. Subsequently, the National Teachers' Unity Forum (NTUF) was founded. Early in 1988 the government, noting the wide support for people's education, showed signs of a more sympathetic stance and announced that greater community involvement and more relevant curricula would find their way into black schools. However, the government would not tolerate politically progressive material which attacked the prevailing system of apartheid education. The ANC was not to be discussed in history textbooks as it was an organization that instigated violence and revolution.

5.7 The reins are loosened The government's stringent action imposed a relative calm until a new political dispensation dawned on 2 February 1990 when F W de Klerk, the then State President, made an announcement which would have far-reaching effects on the future of South Africa. The ANC, the PAC, and the SACP were unbanned and the emergency measures on media and education, as well as those on thirty-three non-governmental organizations, were lifted. The sudden realization of drastic political change induced school unrest. The apartheid system was now being dismantled, and teachers who were considered to have been its agents were intimidated. Inspectors, subject advisors, and assistant directors of the Department of Education and Training were advised to stay away from black schools because of the unrest. De Klerk's announcement gave a sure indication that South Africa was indeed on its way to establishing a democracy for all its people. This opened the way for the proponents of people's education to participate actively in establishing a new educational dispensation. In 1994 the ANC won the general elections and Nelson Mandela was sworn in as the new State President.

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6 Eduction and Religious issues 6.1 Calvinism in the Cape Calvinism, a branch of Protestantism, came to South Africa when the Dutch settlers arrived at the Cape. The Dutch, having just fought an eight-year war against Catholic Spain, were zealous in their protection of Calvinism — also in the Cape. This meant that religious training of Dutch children according to the Calvinistic faith was of cardinal importance. The first school for white pupils (discussed under 2.1) was therefore aimed mainly at preparing children for confirmation in thf Church — an aim which remained crucial for the Dutch during the first 150 years at the Cape. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, rationalism — a philosophy which argued that only what could be understood by means of the intellect should be accepted as truth — and naturalism — which emphasized the inherent goodness of people and claimed that everything should be explained in terms of living and non-living nature — had become important philosophical forces in Europe. These philosophies, some claim, also affected education in the Cape. J A U de Mist, a Dutchman, became Commissioner-General of the Cape in 1803. Some suggest that his educational reforms reflected his adherence to the liberal philosophies of rationalism and naturalism. De Mist approved of the teaching of Christian principles, but wanted religious education to be of a general, non-doctrinal nature. He therefore objected to religious education based on the doctrines (dogma) of the Calvinistic faith, although he decreed that religious education should, as far as possible, reflect the principles of the church represented by pupils and their parents. Denominational Christian religious instruction could, therefore, still be taught at school. Dutch parents were nevertheless dissatisfied with De Mist's neutral stance. When the British occupied the Cape for a second time in 1806, they were initially sympathetic towards the Dutch colonists' ardent zeal for doctrinal Calvinistic religious education. For example, John Cradock (1811-14), the first British governor, implemented the recommendations of the School Commission that requested that so-called koster schools be established in the outer districts. Besides teaching the English language, reading, writing, and arithmetic, these schools were to prepare children for confirmation in the Calvinist Church. When Lord Charles Somerset became governor (1814-26), a more neutral attitude towards religious education was displayed. In his free English schools, Dutch children were to be anglicized. Calvinist Christian religion could be taught only for an hour on Saturdays to children whose parents who did not object to it. The free education made the Somerset schools popular at first, but their promotion of th£ English culture and their neutral attitude towards religion soon brought them into disfavour with the Dutch. As a result, Dutch parents established a number of private schools in the 1830s to

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foster the teaching of Calvinistic doctrine and the mother tongue, both close to the hearts of the Dutch settlers. When, as a result, the Somerset schools virtually disappeared from the educational scene, the first- and second-class schools established by James Rose-lnnes in the following decades once again allowed denominational religious instruction, though within limits. It could be taught only by ministers of religion and only to those children whose parents requested it. Neutral Christian religion was taught for an hour a day. The Education Act 13 of 1865 (C) described the aim of education as the moulding of a civilized Englishman and made no provision for dogmatic doctrinal religious education at schools. In fact, neutral Christian education could only be taught on an extracurricular basis if parents were in favour of it. Dissatisfied Dutch parents once again resorted to Dutch Calvinistic private schools. These schools were closed towards the end of the nineteenth century owing to financial problems. Proclamation 80 of 1886 (C) ordained that pupils in Cape schools could be taught general principles of Christian religion on a non-compulsory basis. The pattern for noncompulsory religious education was set, albeit not without a few hitches — as we shall see in the following sections.

6.2 The Boer Republics As we have seen, the Voortrekkers who left the Cape in protest against, inter alia, the onslaught on their language and Calvinistic faith, settled in the Transvaal, Natal, and the Orange Free State. 6.2.1 The Transvaal The first education regulation of the South African Republic, in 1852, stated that education was to prepare youth for church membership and had to be in line with the Calvinist faith. However, the Education Act 6 of 1866 (Z) prescribed non-doctrinal Christian religion at schools. This neutral Christian attitude towards religious education was once again proclaimed in the Education Act 4 of 1874 (Z). It ordered that no denominational religious instruction be given during school hours but that ministers could offer such instruction at schools on an extracurricular basis. Provision was made for the teaching of the Scriptures as well as biblical history during school hours. The status quo continued under British colonial rule after 1877. When the South African Republic (the Transvaal) regained its independence in 1881, the matter of religious education came to the fore once again. The Du Toit Education Act 1 of 1882 (Z) reveals that education had to take place in a Christian spirit and that the school day had to begin and end with prayer and a Bible reading. It also stated that confessional (Calvinistic) religious education had to be in the hands of Calvinist ministers, who apparently taught at schools on an extracurricular basis. The teaching of confessional religion was to induce children to provide a grateful service to the Afrikaner nation. This may indicate that Afrikanership had become the major aim of

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education amongst Boers, overshadowing even that of confessional religious education. One should, however, also bear in mind that the Boers had certainly known the scorn of the British and wanted to protect their Afrikaner identity. Concentration camp schools, founded during the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) to anglicize the Boer children, steered clear of any possible denominational controversy. They can therefore be described as being neutral as far as the teaching of the Christian religion was concerned. After the war, Christian National Education schools (CNE schools) were speedily erected by the Boers. In the Transvaal 250 schools taught through the medium of Dutch and provided Calvinist-based Christian religious instruction. They were shortlived. We have already referred to the fact that financial difficulty, along with the assurance given by General Jan Smuts that education would reflect the Boers' educational desires, resulted in the merging of CNE schools with the state schools. The Smuts Education Act 25 of 1907 (T), however, disclosed that non-sectarian religious education was to be a characteristic feature of these schools. Religious instruction was limited to biblical history. This view was endorsed by the Transvaal Ordinance 29 of 1953 (T) which stated unambiguously that no dogma was to be taught as part of biblical history at schools. 6.2.2 The Orange Free State Religious education was accentuated after Dr John Brebner became Inspector of Education in 1874. Although he was an excellent administrator and did much to expand formal education, the Boers were dissatisfied with his neutral attitude towards religion. The Education Ordinance 1 of 1874 (O) had stipulated that the head teacher open each school day with prayer, that biblical history be taught, and that doctrinal religion be provided to children whose parents allowed it. Dr Brebner persuaded the Volksraad (the Boer government) in 1879 that Christian religion based on church doctrine should not be taught during school hours and that biblical history should be taught only to children whose parents were in favour of it. In 1889 it was, however, decided to provide for Calvinist religious education at schools for half an hour a day. As was the case in the Transvaal during the Anglo-Boer War, camp schools erected by the British were non-doctrinal as far as the teaching of the Christian religion was concerned. After the war Christian National schools were fervently erected. Almost every Free State town sported a CNE school. Owing to financial problems, CNE schools amalgamated with state schools in 1905. When the Orange River Colony obtained responsible government in 1907, General J B M Hertzog became the Minister of Justice and Education. The following year he submitted a law in favour of non-sectarian Christian education. So the Free State, too, was set on a path of non-doctrinal relfgious education. In 1951 the Provincial Board of the Orange Free State adopted a recommendation that education be characterized by a Christian world and life view. As we shall see, this was a key element of the

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National Educational Policy Act 39 of 1967, which became a much debated Act in South Africa's educational history.

6.23 Natal In Natal, too, the main educational aim of the Voortrekkers' schools, established from 1837 onwards, was church confirmation. After the British annexation of the Republic of Natalia in 1845, anglicization became a prime objective and, as in the other South African British colonies, non-dogmatic religious education was also furthered. In 1856 a Select Committee recommended that all religious instruction be nonsectarian. A Board of Education established in 1858 decided that freedom of religion was to be allowed in schools and that all schools would receive governmental aid if their religious classes were non-sectarian and if, of course, English was taught.

6.3 The controversy over CNE The discussion thus far has merely hinted at the controversial nature of Christian National Education. We have seen that the Afrikaners fought — successfully — for their Calvinistic religion and language. However, the following descriptions of two key concepts in Christian National Education, formulated as early as 1906 at a Christian National Educational Congress, hold the key to the controversy: The term Christian education means education according to the Holy Scriptures in accordance with the articles of faith of the three Dutch Churches, National education means that the history of the (Afrikaner) nation and the language and the traditions of the forefathers are to be taught and kept because of God's guidance in the history of the Afrikaner nation. (Translated from Greyling, 1941 b: 49) The above descriptions interpret Christianity exclusively. Moreover, they indicate that the Afrikaners believed that their nation was divinely favoured. Matters later became more complicated. In 1935, in a publication of the Federasie van Calvinistiese Studente-Verenigings (Federation of Calvinistic Students' Associations) (translation, 1935: 60), the Revd E Greyling stated that by the end of the eighteenth century, South African Calvinism, threatened by continued contact with slaves and natives, had come to imply: no equalization; the ordinances of God have to be acknowledged and one should not try to equalize that which God did not equalize. Thus the principle of segregation had become enmeshed with religion. This view had major educational implications in that it endorsed the education of Afrikaner, British, and black children in separate schools. The Christian National Policy compiled by the Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge (Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Associa-

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tions) (1948: 28) stated that the task of white South Africa was to Christianize the native and to help him culturally. This task of trusteeship required segregation and was incompatible with the principle of equalization. Education, the policy stated, had to be based on these principles. Christian National Education seems to have been acknowledged in the National Education Act 39 of 1967 after an extended struggle by its supporters. Although this Act, which provided uniform legislation for the four provinces of the Republic of South Africa, stated that formal education should display a Christian character, it did not mention a specific Calvinistic basis. Opponents objected to the implied affirmation of Christian National Education. They argued that apartheid was an established fact and that the Afrikaner would have the core of his world and life view, namely a particular apartheid-based Calvinism, entrenched in legislation. They also contended that the Act was neither national nor Christian. With regard to the specification of Christianity, they argued that not only did it ignore the religious views of the non-Christian sectors of the population, but it also implied a narrow definition limited to a particular South African type of Calvinism. This exclusivity amounted to a selfishness irreconcilable with true Christianity. With regard to the national aspect, they protested that it catered only for white people and for the Calvinistic Afrikaner in particular. What complicated matters even further was that the Act, despite its insistence on Christian education, also stated that the religious convictions of parents had to be respected as far as religious education and religious ceremonies were concerned. One could therefore say that the Act was contradictory. All reference to Christian education was omitted from the National Policy for General Affairs Act 76 of 1984.

6.4 The present status of religious education On 2 February 1993, the Government published the Government's Proposals on a Charter of Fundamental Rights (Republic of South Africa 1993: 9), which stated that '[e]very pupil who is a citizen shall have the right to religion-oriented education in as far as it is reasonably practicable'. The following excerpt from White Paper 2 (DE, 1996) indicated a determination on the part of the government that no one culture, and therefore no one religion, should be advantaged in the new educational dispensation:

Non-racialism, democracy, the protection of fundamental rights, and redress, do not mean that the idea of cultural identity is denied, or that all cultural distinctiveness is to be obliterated, or that the cultural and linguistic heritage of any of our communities can be disparaged. Our Constitution forbids cultural exploitation and provides for the protection and advancement of all our cultures, and the development of all our languages, A clearly non-dogmatic stance on religion at public schools was echoed in the discussion draft of the South African Schools Bill:

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(1) Every learner and member of staff at a public school shall have the right to freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion, (2) Religious observances may be conducted at a public school under the rules established by the governing body provided that such observances shall be conducted on an equitable basis and attendance at them by learners and members of staff shall be free and voluntary. (DE, 1996b: 78) The final Constitution and the South African Schools Act 84 of 1996, published during the writing of this book, state unequivocally that religious observances may be conducted at public schools on an equitable basis, but that attendance is voluntary.

7 Landmark Events in Education in South Africa 1652 1658-63 1663 1667 1685

The Dutch arrive at the Cape. The first slave school functions. The first white school opens. The Church Council request a separate school for slaves. Commissioner Van Rheede visits the Cape. He ordains separate schools for white people and slaves. 1795-1803 The Cape is under British rule. 1803-6 The Cape is once again under Dutch rule. J A U de Mist is Commissioner-General at the Cape. 1806 The British annex the Cape for the second time. 1811-14 Sir John Cradock is the first British governor at the Cape. 1814-26 Lord Charles Somerset is British governor at the Cape. 1830 The Dutch establish private schools. 1834 The slaves are emancipated. 1830s The Dutch settle in the Orange Free State, the Transvaal, and Natal. 1839-59 James Rose-lnnes is Superintendent of Education at the Cape. 1842 Rose-lnnes establishes first- and second-class schools. 1845 The British annex Natal. 1848 The British annex the Orange Free State. 1854 The British hand back the Free State to the Boers. 1854-61 Sir George Grey is the British governor at the Cape. 1859-92 Langham Dale is the Superintendent of Education at the Cape. 1881 The British annex the Transvaal for the first time. 1892-1915 Thomas Muir is Superintendent of Education. 1875 The Dutch once again establish private schools.

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1881 The British return the Transvaal to the Boers. 1899-1902 War is fought between the British and the Boers of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. 1902 The Peace of Vereeniging is signed. The Boer Republics become British colonies. 1892-1915 Thomas Muir is the Superintendent-General of Education at the Cape. 1905 Separate education for white people and people of colour is declared in the Cape. 1907 The Smuts Education Act 25 of 1907 (Z) is passed in the Transvaal. 1910 The Union of South Africa is established. 1912 The ANC is established. 1914 Afrikaans is acknowledged as a school subject. 1920 Afrikaans is acknowledged as a medium of instruction. 1925 Afrikaans and English are declared the official languages of the Republic. 1948 The Nationalists come into power. 1953 The Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953 is passed. 1955 The Congress Alliance is established. The Freedom Charter is accepted by the Congress Alliance. 1960 The ANC is banned. 1963 The Coloured Persons Act 47 of 1963 is passed. 1965 The Indians Education Act 61 of 1965 is passed. 1976 Hector Peterson is one of 68 pupils killed in the Soweto riots. mid-1980s House of Assembly (white Education Department), House of Delegates (Indian Education Department), House of Representatives (coloured Education Department), and (black) Department of Education and Training are established. 1980 The De Lange Commission starts investigating education in South Africa. 1985 The First National Consultative Conference is held by the Soweto Parents' Crisis Committee. 1992 The ban on the ANC, the PAC, and the SACP is lifted. 1994 First democratic elections in South Africa. The ANCs discussion document A Policy Framework for Education and Training is published. The Government of National Unity is inaugurated. 1995 Education White Paper 1 is published. 1996 Education White Paper 2 is published. 1996 The South African Schools Act 84 of 1996 and the final Constitution of the Republic of South Africa are passed.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Summary 1 Apartheid education was established by the Dutch, the first European settlers at the Cape, the British, who conquered them, as well as the Afrikaners, who were primarily of Dutch extraction and trekked to the hinterland in revolt against British rule. The term apartheid, however, was coined later by the Nationalists. 2 The Dutch and the British left the education of people of colour largely to missionaries from abroad while they themselves engaged in a struggle for hegemony which centred around the medium of instruction and religious education, first at the Cape and later in the Republics established by the Afrikaners. 3 The Afrikaners' determination led to Afrikaans being recognized as a medium of instruction and an official language in South Africa^ 4 Once the Nationalist Party came into power in 1948, social and educational segregation were stressed as never before. This was evidenced by apartheid laws which affected the political, social, and educational spheres. 5 Black students had already started objecting to unequal education in the nineteenth century. In 1955 a congress organized by the ANC adopted the Freedom Charter. This charter promoted equal education and the eradication of the colour bar in cultural life, sport, and education, and was supported by many Indian, black, and coloured people, as well as by white people who supported the democratic ideal. 6 When the Nationalist government insisted on Afrikaans being used alongside English as a medium of instruction, resistance to white, in this case Afrikaner, supremacy exploded into the Soweto riots of 1976, which spread across the country. 7 In response to the ensuing chaos in education, the people's education movement was launched in 1985. It used non-violent means to fight discrimination from within the existing educational structures, despite persecution by the government. 8 The unbanning of the ANC (and also the PAC and the SACP) by State President F W de Klerk in 1992 paved the way for a negotiated transition to democracy which culminated in an ANC victory in the 1994 general elections, with Nelson Mandela becoming the President of the new South Africa. 9 At the time of writing we have just received the new South African Schools Act which, after years of turmoil and strife, will level the educational plain for all South Africans, irrespective of colour, race, gender, and creed.

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A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATION

Student Activities 1 Describe the effects of the following on education in South Africa: the philosophy of apartheid; the establishment of the Government of National Unity; Christian National Education. 2 Write an essay on the topic: The medium of instruction as a factor determining South Africa's educational past. 3 Interview a good friend who was raised in a language different from your own. Discuss the value placed on home language. 4 Identify positive and negative points in South Africa's educational past. Bear in mind that this task requires attentive reading, serious thinking, and a logical preparation of the answer. 5 This chapter shows that South Africa's educational history was characterized, inter alia, by opposing views concerning mother tongue instruction. State whether you are: (a) in favour of mother tongue instruction only during a certain phase/phases of a pupil's education at school; (b) in favour of mother tongue instruction during all phases of formal education at school; (c) in favour of mother tongue instruction during the entire school career and all subsequent education; (d) not in favour of mother tongue instruction. Motivate your choice very clearly. 6 Expand your knowledge of South Africa's educational history by attempting to do the following: Conduct interviews with elderly teachers, principals, and acquaintances from different sectors of South Africa's population. Visit libraries and museums and scrutinize original educational documents and artefacts. Arrange discussions with other students who support different political opinions and collect their views on past and current educational issues.

Bibliography African National Congress (ANC). 1994. A Policy Framework for Education and Training. Braamfontein: African National Congress Behr, A L. 1988. Education in South Africa: Origins, Issues and Trends: 1652-1988. Pretoria: Academica

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS Behr, A L. 1984. New Perspectives in South African Education: A Review of Education in South Africa, 16531984. Durban: Butterworths Berry, A. 1989. Act by Act: 40 Years of Nationalist Rule in South Africa. Johannesburg: Lowry Publishers Bonner, P, P Delius & D Posel (eds). 1993. Apartheid's Genesis 1935-1962. Braamfontein: Wits University Press Booyse, )). 1992. 'n Histories-opvoedkundige beskrywing en evalujsring van die ontstaan, ontwikkeling en grondslae van 'People's Education'. Unpublished DEd thesis. Pretoria: University of South Africa Cameron, T (ed). 1991. A New Illustrated History of South Africa. Johannesburg: Southern Book Publishers The Cape Town Gazette, and African Advertiser. 22 March 1983. Proclamation, 1 Carr, E H. 1990. What is History? London: Penguin Christie, P. 1990. The Right to Learn: The Struggle for Education in South Africa. Braamfontein: Ravan Press Coetzee, J Chr (ed). 1975. Onderwys in Suid-Afrika 1652-1960. Pretoria: J L van Schaik Cross, M. 1986. A historical review of education in South Africa:Towards an assessment. Comparative Education, 22(3), 185-200 Cruse, H P. 1947. Die Opheffing van die Kleurlingbevolking. Deel I: Aanvangsjare 1652-1795. Stellenbosch: Die Christen-Studentevereniging van Suid-Afrika Danziger, C (compiler). 1977. South African History 1910-70. Cartoons. / Suid-Afrikaanse Geskiedenis 1910-70. Spotprente. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Davenport, T R H. 1991. South Africa: A Modern History. London: Macmillan De Lange Report see under Human Sciences Research Council Duminy, P. 1968. African Pupils and Teaching Them. Publication Series No 34. National Council for Social Research: Department of Higher Education. Pretoria: J L van Schaik Education, Department of (DE). 1994. Draft White Paper on Education and Training. Notice 1030, Government Gazette 15974 of 23 September 1994 Education, Department of (DE). 1996a. Education White Paper 2. The organisation, governance and funding of schools. Notice 130, Government Gazette 16987 of 14 February 1996 Education, Department of (DE). 1996b. South African Schools Bill. Notice 503X Government Gazette 17136 of 24 April 1996 Fafunwa, A B & ] U Aisiku (eds). 1982. Education in Africa: A Comparative Study. London: George Allen & Unwin Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge (FAK). 1948. CNO-Beleid. Johannesburg. Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge (FAK). 1939. FAK- en CNO-Kongresse. Bloemfontein: Nasionale Pers Federasie van Calvinistiese Studente-Verenigings (FCSV). 1935. Koers in die Krisis. Stellenbosch: Pro Ecclesia Filander, W J. 1977. The nationalisation of coloured education in the Transvaal. Unpublished MEd dissertation. Pretoria: University of South Africa Filander, W J. 1992. Impediments in the actualization of effective education during the period 1910-1989. Unpublished DEd thesis. Pretoria: University of South Africa Greyling, E. 1941 a. Christelike en Nasionale Onderwys. Deel I. Bloemfontein: Nasionale Pers Greyling, E. 1941b. Christelike en Nasionale Onderwys. Deel II. Bloemfontein: Nasionale Pers Gunn, H. 1910. The Language Question in the Orange River Colony, 1902-1910. Johannesburg: Argus & Publishing Company, Limited Hartshorne, K. 1992. Crisis and Challenge: Black Education 1910-1990. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Harker, J (ed). 1994. The Legacy of Apartheid. London: Guardian Newspapers Limited Horrell, S M. 1968. Bantu Education to 1968. Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations

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Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC). 1981. Provision of Education in the RSA (The De Lange Report). Pretoria. Kallaway, P (ed.) 1984. Apartheid and Education: The Education of Black South Africans. Johannesburg: Ravan Press Karis, T & G M Carter (eds). 1973. From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882-1964. Vol 2: Hope and Challenge, 1935-1952. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press Kruger, Elsa G (ed.) 1986. Education — Past, Present and Future. Pretoria: Euro Publications Lewis, A. 1992. Individual and community needs as aspects of the education crisis in South Africa: A historical educational overview. Unpublished MEd dissertation. Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch Maharaj, R. 1989. The status of teachers in historico-educational perspective with special reference to Indian teachers in South Africa. Unpublished MEd dissertation. Pretoria: University of South Africa Malherbe, E G. 1977. Education in South Africa. Vol. 1: 1652-1922. Johannesburg: Juta McKay, V I. 1990. A sociological study of 'People's Education' in South Africa: A humanistic evaluation. Unpublished DLitt et Phil thesis. Pretoria: University of South Africa Meyer, S H. 1991. Die legitimiteit van die onderwysstelsel vir swartes in die RSA: 'n Studfe in tydsperspektief. Unpublished MEd dissertation. Pretoria: University of South Africa Mminele, S P P. 1995. History of Education: Its Nature, Value and Research. Pretoria: Via Afrika Murphy, E J. 1973. Bantu Education in South Africa: Its compatibility with the contrasting objectives of African self-development or White domination. Published DPhil dissertation, University of Connecticut. Ann Arbor, Michigan: U M I Dissertation Services (1994) National Education Co-ordinating Committee (NECC). 1992. Language: Report of the NEPI Language Research Croup. Cape Town: Oxford University Press/NECC November, M D. 1991. Language policy formulation and implementation in the South African Apartheid State: Mother tongue and Afrikaans as media of instruction in btack primary and secondary schools 19531979. Published PhD dissertation. Ann Arbor, Michigan: U M I Dissertation Information Service (1992) Pinchuck, T. 1994. Mandela for Beginners. Cambridge: Icon Books Pretorius, P. 1982. Cister en Vandag in die Onderwys. Potchefstroom: Pro Rege Reader's Digest. 1992. Illustrated History of South Africa, expanded 3 ed. Cape Town: The Reader's Digest Association Republic of South Africa. 1993. Covernment's Proposals on a Charter of Fundamental Rights. 2 February 1993. Pretoria Schoeman, S. 1989. Die invloed van die Calvinistiese lewensbeskouing op die onderwys in Suid-Afrika: 'n Histories-opvoedkundige ondersoek en evaluering. Unpublished DEd thesis. Pretoria: University of South Africa Schoeman, S. 1995. Die invloed van die Calvinistiese lewensbeskouing op die onderwys in Suid-Afrika: 'n Histories-opvoedkundige ondersoek en evaluering. Tydskrifvir Christelike Wetenskap, 3 & 4 Troup, F. 1976. Forbidden Pastures: Education under Apartheid. London: International Defence & Aid Fund Van Schalkwyk, M J. 1977. Die onderwysstelsel vir kleurlinge in die Republiek van Suid-Afrika. Unpublished MEd dissertation. Bloemfontein: University of the Orange Free State Venter, I S J. 1979. History of Education-Origin, Fundamental Structures, Nature and Being. Durban: Butterworths Venter, I S J & T L Verster. 1986. OpvoedingstemaS in Tydsperspektief. Deel Dm. Pretoria: University of South Africa. Wetboek van den Oranjevrijstaat 1891. 1892. Bloemfontein: C Borckenhagen

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Legislation Law to make better Provision for Primary or Elementary Education in the Colony of Natal Act 15 of 1877 (N) Law to provide for the Promotion of Education among the Children of the Indian Immigrant Population in the Colony of Natal Act 20 of 1878 (N) Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953 Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act 26 of 1970 Education Act 4 of 1874 (Z) (the Burghers Act) Cape School Board Act 35 of 1905 (C) Coloured Persons Act 47 of 1963 Constitution Act 108 of 1996 Education Act 1 of 1882 (Z) Regelende het onderwijs voor de Blanke Bevolking in de ZA Republiek (the DuToitAct) Education Act 4 of 1874 (Z). Education Act 6 of 1866 (Z) Education Act 13 of 1865 (C) Education Act 35 of 1908 (O) (the Hertzog Act) Education and Training Act 90 of 1979 Education Regulation of 1859 (Z) Education Ordinance 1 of 1874 (O) Extension of University Education Act 45 of 1959 Group Areas Act 41 of 1950 Immorality Act 5 of 1927 Immorality Amendment Act 21 of 1950 Indians Education Act 61 of 1965 National Education Act 39 of 1967 National Educational Policy Act 39 of 1967 National Policy for General Affairs Act 76 of 1984 Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act 67 of 1952 Ordinance 7 of 1903 (O) Ordinance 7 of 1903 (T) Ordinance 29 of 1953 CO Ordinance Policy 1 of 1874 (O) Population Registration Act 30 of 1950 Proclamation 80 of 1886 (C) Proclamation 113 of 1882 (C) Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act 55 of 1949 Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act 46 of 1959 Separate Amenities Act 49 of 1953 Smuts Education Act 25 of 1907 (Z) Somerset's Slave Proclamation of 1823 (C) (see The Cape Town Gazette, and African Advertiser) South African Schools Act 84 of 1996 Suppression of Communism Act 44 of 1950 Van der Linden Education Regulation of 1852 (Z) De Wet op het Openbaar Onderwijs voor Blanke Kinderen 1891 (see Wetboek, 1892)

94

CHAPTER

THREE

'Pfalo&ofifacal *?<w*tdatt(MA, fo Sducatten attd, (6e&t StyUfictutcz fat, 7eac6eM> Dr Karin Franzsen Faculty of Education University of South Africa

Philosophy refers to the thoughts, attitudes, opinions, convictions, and beliefs that influence people's behaviour and determine the pattern or rationale of their existence. Philosophy affects a person's day-to-day existence, including his/her professional life. This chapter focuses on how philosophy influences education in general and the professional life of the teacher in particular, by looking at a number of philosophies and their implications for education. Besides a brief look at traditional philosophies, a number of modern philosophies will be viewed, focusing on areas such as schooling, education, teaching, and learning. Philosophical trends in one's own community are often difficult to explain, since one is so subjectively involved in what happens. An attempt will be made to describe current trends that influence South African education and the spirit of our time. Finally, the chapter will suggest how a teacher can go about articulating and developing a personal philosophy of education.

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PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS IN EDUCATION AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR TEACHERS

7*^^$**fc*fc 1 Philosophy and its Significance for Teachers 1 .1 What is philosophy? 1 .2 Philosophy and education in perspective

97 97 102

2 Philosophical Foundations of South African Educational Thought and Practice 2.1 Traditional philosophies that influence Western education 2.1.1 Idealism 2.1 .2 Realism 2.1 .3 Naturalism 2.1 .4 Classicism 2.2 Contemporary-Modern philosophies that influence Western education — an international perspective 2.2.1 Pragmatism 2.2.2 Existentialism 2.2.3 Marxism 2.2.4 Liberalism 2.3 Dominant philosophical trends in South African educational practice

104 105 105 108 110 112

3 The South African Teacher: Development of a Personal Philosophy of Education and Teaching in the South African Context 3.1 Identifying one's own philosophical foundations 3.2 Theoretical knowledge 3.3 Personal life experiences 3.4 Conclusion Summary Terms and Concepts Student Activities Bibliography

113 113 117 119 122 125 129 130 131 131 132 132 133 134 134

/ P&eto4Qfi6q and, (U Styttfccattce io* 7eatA0t& 1.1 What is philosophy? The term philosophy is derived from the Greek philein, meaning to love, and sophia, meaning wisdom. This love or pursuit of wisdom is not founded in dogmatic attitudes, but relies on a penetrating search for truth.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

When reading this typical dictionary definition of philosophy, a number of stereotypical images may come to mind — wise old men strolling around in togas, deep in conversation about esoteric issues of which we understand very little, or absent-minded professors mislaying their car keys and wearing mismatched shoes to work. Philosophy is a word that evokes complexity, and a single definition or a number of dictionary descriptions cannot do justice to this complexity. One can say that philosophy is ideas/thoughts/opinions about different aspects of humans, life in general, and the world around us. It includes ideas about everything that exists — what we call reality. It refers to thoughts about human beings and the meaning of life, about knowledge and values, about what we see as good and bad, or what we consider beautiful or ugly. These and similar thoughts and ideas caused people to ask questions and look for possible answers and explanations. Their questions included: What is reality? What is human nature? How is knowledge possible? What is truth? What are values? Over the ages people have been asking such questions and, whether we realize it or not, we all have a notion of how we would personally answer them. On the basis of how individuals and groups of people attempted to answer philosophical questions through the ages, a number of philosophies, or set frameworks of ideas, developed. Western philosophy as we know it originated in classical times with Greek philosophers who organized their questions systematically into a number of coherent groups for the sake of convenience: All questioning about the character of reality or everything that exists is called metaphysics. This is traditionally divided into two branches, namely ontology, which focuses on being or existence, and cosmology, which is concerned with the origin and the nature of the universe or cosmos. The nature of knowledge or how it is possible for us to know things is called epistemology. There are different theories about how we acquire knowledge, whether it is by relying mostly on our senses, by using intuition or by constructing truth logically from observation. One can build knowledge by establishing a rule and then make deductions by applying and testing the rule. This is called the deductive method. Another possibility is to assemble a set of particular facts which, by their constancy, constitute a principle or a rule. This is called the inductive method. The questions that are asked about what is of value are grouped under a branch of philosophy called axiology. Two aspects can be identified here — ethics, which deals with issues of morality and conduct, and aesthetics, which deals with beauty. Not all the questions people ask are philosophical questions. How does one determine whether a question is philosophical or not? There is a way to determine the scope of philosophy. If one can answer a question by using observable facts or experimental methods, it is not a philosophical question. For instance, if someone asks you the colour of a rose, you can look at it and give the answer, based on what you see. If someone wants to find out at what temperature

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PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS IN EDUCATION AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR TEACHERS

PHILOSOPHY

Metaphysics (reality)

Epistemology (knowledge)

Axiology (values)

* Ontology

* Scientific enquiry

* Ethics

* Cosmology

* Intuition

* Aesthetics

* Senses and feeling * Inductive logic * Deductive logic

Figure 3.1 Branches of philosophy

water boils, he/she need only measure the temperature with a thermometer. If a question cannot be answered by concrete means, or explained by reference to sensory data, it constitutes a philosophical question. From this description of the scope philosophy are mutually exclusive. It proving it scientifically we deal with empirically, but argued, we deal with

of philosophy, it sounds as if science and appears that if we can answer a question by science and if the answer cannot be proved philosophy. It is, however, not so simple.

What is the difference between science and philosophy? There are different opinions about the relationship between science and philosophy, based on traditional lines of thought. Some scholars maintain that philosophy is superscience. They argue that philosophy is the basis of all true knowledge from which different scientific disciplines are developed. The French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650) saw philosophy as a tree of which metaphysics is the root, physics the trunk, and all other sciences branches that grow out of the trunk. According to him, the branches of the tree can be reduced to three principles, namely medicine, mechanics, and ethics. A second opinion is that philosophy is an assistant to science in the fulfilment of its task, which means that philosophy ponders certain questions to help the scientific enterprise, but that, in fact, science makes the great discoveries and contributions. There are those who maintain that science and philosophy are inseparable, that they function interdependent^. Briefly, this means that philosophy makes statements about science, but these statements have a scientific basis in historical, psychological, and sociological factors. These factors represent the spirit of the times, which should

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

be recognized. This implies that philosophy contributes to science and that scientific insights determine the basis of philosophical statements. According to this viewpoint, science and philosophy are on the same level. Other scholars argue that science and philosophy function on different levels. The task of philosophy is perceived to be different from that of science. People who support this view say that philosophy is conceptual (abstract) and not on the same empirical level as the sciences. Philosophy cannot take the place of the empirical discovery of facts, but empirical research also needs to be clarified philosophically. Thus philosophy and science are different dimensions of questioning. Kneller (1964: 4) describes this difference as follows: All scientific statements are factual; their consequences can be verified, either through the senses or through instruments that are extensions of the senses, by anyone who follows the procedures that lead to the conclusions, Philosophy, on the other hand, considers questions that lie beyond the scope of science, since they concern not facts, but what the facts presuppose, This definition reflects the established, standardized conception of science, initiated by Descartes, which has been prevalent for the last three centuries. The notions of certainty and truth are fixed in this definition of science as Capra (1982: 42) explains: The belief in the certainty of scientific knowledge lies in the very basis of Cartesian philosophy and the world view derived from it. Capra quotes Descartes's views as follows: All science is certain, evident knowledge. We reject all knowledge which is merely probable and judge that only those things should be believed which are perfectly known and about which there can be no doubts. (Capra, 1982:42) Our education has been influenced to a great extent by this modernistic or positivistic view of science. Over the last few decades a shift in emphasis has occurred in the views of science. The notions of certainty, general validity, objectivity, and timelessness have been replaced by the recognition of contextuality, interdependence of subject and object, and the fluidity of truth associated with a postmodern theory of science. Postmodernism, however, defies definition as a specific scientific theory or movement but consists, rather, of a spirit that challenges existing concepts, structures, and hierarchies of knowledge. Thinking about science and its functioning is in fact a philosophical exercise. As indicated in the discussion above, different views or theories exist about the nature of science. Such theories are called metascience, or metatheories. Metascience is the study of conceptual and foundational issues in science. It is based on questions such as:

10ff

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS IN EDUCATION AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR TEACHERS

KEY FIGURES

Logical

Critical

empiricism

rationalism

In the Vienna circle: Karl Popper Rudolf Camap Moritz Scnhck

Herbert Feigei

Critical theory

Phenomenology

Max Horkheimer

Edmund Husserl

Theodor Adomo Jiirgen Habermas

Franz Brentano

In Britain: J L Austm D J O'Connor C D Hardie R S Paters KEY CONCEPTS

Also referred to as

Developed from logical empiricism Emphasizes the role of meory, including preconceived ideas with which we approach any clear and free of inquiry. Anticontradiction. dogmatic and antiEmpiricism stresses authoritarian. It the criterion of never presumes to sensory verification. possess absolute truth. There is a distinction between fact and value. Positivism. Based on modern natural science (physics). Logics demands trial all statements should be precise,

VIEW OF SCIENCE

Science is value-

Science should

Originates (ram the German

Hermeneutics Georg Hegel Schleiermacher Oilthey Martin Heidegger Georg Gadamer

Reaction against

Systems theory Ludwig von Bertalanffy

Derived from the name of the Greek philosophical god of tradition and (positivism) to understanding, represents an fathom the meaning Hermes. extension of Marxist o! human existence. It was associated ideas. mainly with an It represents an The cornerstone is effort to rediscover understanding of the concept of free existence itself as the past and of human beings who primary experience. literary texts. Later it can communicate It promotes going was extended to without tear of back to reality as the understanding domination. source of original of reality in general, Humans adapt to experience. also in a their environment contemporary through action context. (work) which is It is anti-positivist. controlled by technical means. Pessimistic about Western society

This approach emerged in recent years (1950s and 1960s), ft emphasizes the commonalities

Concentrates mostly on the human sciences. It attemps to understand how humans perceive/ act in the wold. It uses the concept intentionality, which indicates that human mental endeavour is

Systems are seen in holistic terms, i e they are seen as a whole functioning within a larger system. The relationship between subsystems and their function in the

Does not reduce free, objective. work objectively, knowledge to but the role of the scientific Scientific findings represent a copy of scientist is not knowledge only reality and can be negated. He/she There is no split verified. declares his/her between Ihe worlds of fact and value. propositions for public criticism and Knowledge is scrutiny. Scientific directed by knowledge car be interests that are proved wrong. deeply rooted in human existence. Science must improve human life and ensure human freedom.

the use of natural sciences

directed at the world and closely bound to it.

It maintains that, although science is one of the ways of understanding the meaning of things, it is not the only route to discovery. There is said to be a dynamic vitality between the

between different scientific disciplines. The basic common

feature between different scientific fields is that they each represent a particular system.

This approach Is aimed at understanding systems in order to

analyse, design, and evaluate them.

researcher and the whole is analysed. object/itieme of All componentsresearch. The concepts-objects researcher interprets and integrates the meaning, of the text/ object of study without imposing preconceived attitudes.

of research must be understood in terms of their relationship lo the

whole. Organizational patterns within systems are

differentiated.

Figure 3.2 Metatheories in science

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

What are the criteria for a sound scientific theory? (theory construction); How do scientists proceed to look for the truth? (methodology); What role do values play in a scientist's work and what role should they play? (ethics);

What role does science play in society in general and what should its role be? (pragmatology). A number of contemporary metatheories in science are logical empiricism, critical rationalism, critical theory, phenomenology, hermeneutics, and systems theory. These metatheories play an important role in the debate (discourse) in different scientific fields. Higgs (1996: 3) explains how different metatheoretical frameworks impinge on, for instance, the philosophy of education: Metatheories in philosophy of education are those presupposed theoretical frameworks which guide the research effort of philosophers of education in the sense that these frameworks determine the problems that are to be addressed as well as the adequacy of proposed solutions to these problems,

What is the relevance of all these views on philosophy, science, and scientific theory for education as an everyday practice and for oneself as a teacher?

1.2 Philosophy and education in perspective Philosophy influences educational practice in many ways. Parents may choose or reject schools for their children because they believe schools' philosophies may be translated into desirable or undesirable educational experiences. School principals run schools in accordance with their ideas of how people should be managed, what children are capable of, and what education should be aimed at, while following policy lines prescribed by whoever is in charge of educational policy. Policy makers themselves base their decisions on theoretical principles and frameworks. In fact, ideals have always been the primary tools in creating educational policy. Teachers plan their lessons, interact with students, and judge students' performance according to their views of knowledge and their conceptions of the role of a teacher. Philosophy shapes the writing of curricula and the scoring of tests and is even displayed in the organization and structuring of the learning environment. How people think about life's questions has always determined how they think about the education of their children. In this regard Kneller (1963: 45) makes the following observation about educational policy in the United States:

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Every major proposal for educational reform embodied a comprehensive philosophy of life; and every philosophy incorporated cherished concepts about man and the universe. When one considers that philosophical orientation affects a great number of areas in the field of education, it becomes evident that the potential for conflict is vast. Questions about 'the best way to run education', 'the correct way to teach', and similar issues will be answered in different ways by individuals or groups subscribing to different viewpoints or philosophies. It often happens that a philosophical viewpoint becomes idealized and absolutized in the sense that it becomes an ideology or doctrine. It is difficult to answer the question as to where philosophy ends and where ideology begins. Some people see an ideology as bias, oversimplification, or emotionalism used to legitimize a particular set of ideas. Others see it as a sociopolitical charter and an attempt to win supporters for a specific political orientation. Some claim that all systems of thought are ideological by definition or otherwise maintain that their viewpoint cannot be characterized as ideology, but only represents social philosophy. However one wishes to define it, parties in society who are supporters of an ideology believe they have the absolute truth. In order to maintain a relatively objective stance in this chapter, sets Of Ideas that influence education will be referred to generally as philosophies and not as ideologies or doctrines. It occasionally happens that one particular philosophy, or set of ideas, maintains the upper hand, so to speak, for a period of time. This usually leads to the fixation of education in a pattern which corresponds to the predominant philosophy. Rigid viewpoints on what is best in education, however, do not last very long. People with very rigid viewpoints neglect to re-examine their views in the light of changing circumstances and conditions. Society is dynamic and there are constant changes in the way people think and in the demands of a particular society on the education sector. The study of philosophy is important for teachers and should include philosophies that differ from their own, since it forces them to rethink fixed ideas and throws a new light on practices that might have become habit — and sometimes a bad habit at that. Those who are not aware of the options are left no room to change their minds and broaden their horizons. Philosophy does not broaden one's mind in the field of education only. Hamm (1981: 8) points out that a study of philosophy provides a comprehensive view of the world and of the history of our way of thinking and living: World history is often just a description of events, a catalogue of battles, discoveries and personalities, But behind the facade of description of events lies the struggle of ideas, man's intellectual history, As an alternative to committing oneself to one major philosophy or a particular theory, one can subscribe to several different philosophies. One way of making use of

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different philosophies in education is to work edectically, that is, selecting what one considers best from different viewpoints, methods, and styles of teaching. Another option is the pluralistic problem-centred approach: being guided by different philosophies at different times, depending on the particular educational problem at hand and the particular goals in mind. The technique of focusing on educational problems and using the resources of philosophy to articulate, illuminate, and resolve them is common practice in twentieth-century educational thought. This is preferable to an approach which starts with conclusions of one viewpoint and forces its ideas on a context where they may be foreign. Even so, one's selection of a philosophy or a number of philosophies is influenced by one's preferences, which are rooted in particular viewpoints. In the next section a number of philosophies will be reviewed briefly, with particular emphasis on how they translate into education practice. Understanding the practical implications of different philosophies enables teachers to form their own set of ideas about teaching and learning.

2 Philosophical Foundations of South African Educational

Thought and Practive As the heading indicates, special emphasis is placed on philosophies that have a direct or indirect influence on educational thought in South Africa. Since the tradition of schooling here — as in most of Africa — has been, for historical, political, and social reasons, primarily of a Western character, it is mostly Western philosophical frameworks that shaped educational thought and practice against the background of African ideas. The terms used to identify different philosophies represent broad classifications embracing a variety of philosophical attitudes. It is obvious that the traditional philosophies have not remained unchanged. The basic concepts have been reinterpreted and applied in different contexts through the ages. Different individuals in a philosophical school may have divergent viewpoints on particular issues. Especially in the modern philosophies the viewpoint of one philosopher is seldom representative of a whole school of thought. To get the whole picture a detailed study of individual philosophers is advisable, but, even in a lifetime of reading and studying philosophy, an educational philosopher can only scratch the surface. In this chapter, key ideas associated with particular schools will be presented briefly, with more specific attention being given to four areas in the field of education where these key ideas are displayed, namely, conceptions of schooling (including the role of the school in society), education (including world and life views as represented in an educational aim), teaching (focusing on the role of the teacher), and learning (focusing on the learner, or student). Philosophies in themselves do not always have

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straightforward educational implications and cannot always be applied directly. In some cases educational relevance has to be deduced from the key ideas of the philosophy in question.

2.1 Traditional philosophies that influence Western education 2.1.1 Idealism Traditional idealism is associated with the ideas of the Greek philosopher Plato (427347 BC), who was a citizen of Athens and a student of Socrates. He believed that reality was spiritual in nature and lay in human consciousness. This would mean that, although the world as we see and experience it exists, there is an ultimate spiritual world (world of enduring ideas). A search for knowledge (truth), beauty, and justice constituted the meaning of life for individuals and for the society collectively. The object of philosophy was to learn to think more clearly about these ideas and to govern oneself and others wisely. Plato explained his philosophy through imaginary dialogues between his mentor, Socrates, and his students. In these dialogues Socrates would ask his students questions to force them to think critically and formulate clearly their ideas about truth, justice, and beauty. In the conversation he would point out errors in their thinking, forcing them to strive for the ideal of perfection in their thoughts. Perfect knowledge of the ideal, according to Plato, resided outside humans as an absolute, or as God. These dialogues or discussions, written as poetry, science, and philosophy, have guided Western thought and action ever since. The type of binary logic on which Plato's reasoning is based is represented by the typically modernistic notion that a statement cannot be both true and false at the same time, or that something cannot exist and not exist simultaneously. There were other philosophers in ancient times who supported the basic ideas of idealism, among them Saint Augustine and the Bishop of Hippo. The work of Rene Descartes influenced the development of idealism in the early modern times. Other prominent names associated with the history of idealism are those of Spinoza, Leibniz, Berkeley, and Kant. The paradoxical ideas of Hegel are supposed by many to be the culmination of the idealist movement in the early nineteenth century. The Platonic assumption that a corpus of knowledge consists of truths that are consistent and unambiguous still prevails in scientific thinking and popular opinion. This idealistic view of knowledge formed the basis of a philosophy which became known as essentialism, which proposed that a search for knowledge was a search for everlasting essential truths.

Idealism and schooling In Plato's time schooling was not formalized. The dialogues took place as group discussions and an exchange and testing of ideas. Although Plato maintained that both men and women should be given the opportunity to learn, he believed that few

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people would achieve the wisdom and goodness required to govern others. He imagined a society where people functioned on different levels or belonged to different classes, and where education would be the means of social mobility. The rulers would be the talented ones who could rise from any class in society by means of education to display the ideal virtues. In idealistic terms, the need for schooling can be described as a spiritual need and not a natural one. The idealist movement, particularly in the nineteenth century, glorified human culture and human institutions as the expressions of human spirituality. Education is an institution made necessary by humanity's need for culture in a broad sense. More particularly, some idealists have also included the notion that God speaks through human culture. The function of the school, from this perspective, is not only to introduce the child to the richness of culture but to provide the basis for development into the person he or she is divinely intended to become. The social aspect of human nature is seen as another basis for the necessity of the school. Although each person is an individual in his/her own right, becoming a person takes place in a social context and the school environment represents unique social values which the individual must acquire. Idealism and education Plato saw education as the key to creating and perpetuating the ideal society. The aim would be to teach people to think about life's questions and to discover and clarify knowledge, ultimately attaining wisdom and goodness. In his well-known work, The Republic, Plato described the ideal society. He realized that this ideal was unattainable in practice but, for himself and his followers, visions of the ideal were to serve as goals for humans to strive towards. The aim of education is, to a great extent, focused on self-realization of the individual, which is to the benefit of society as a whole. In talking about the idealistic aim of education, it is important to remember that idealistic education is primarily ideal-centred and not wholly child-centred or subjectmatter-centred. The idealist is primarily a spiritual idealist, for what is ultimately real is Spirit (God). Education is one of the important agencies that make it possible to link the individual mind to the spiritual environment surrounding him/her. In fulfilling this task, education must bring the individual to seek the truth and avoid error, to feel beauty and transcend ugliness, to achieve good and overcome evil. In contemporary idealistic philosophy, self-realization in the sense of spiritual becoming is regarded as the ultimate aim of education. A fully realized self, if it is attainable, is not only the ultimate value in education but, moreover, the ultimate value in life, because it reflects the ultimate real Spirit of which the individual self is part. Education, however, does not only have objectives conceived for the individual, but also objectives for society. In a general sense it must aim for efficiency, character, and citizenship. Herman Home's (1927: 285) definition of education summarizes the idealist objectives:

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Education is the eternal process of the superior adjustment of the physically and mentally developed, free, conscious, human being to God, as manifested in the intellectual, emotional and volitional environment of man, Idealism and teaching Plato believed that people were born with knowledge and that the task of the teacher was to extract this knowledge by making scholars aware of their own ideas. The dialogues were the teaching tools to compel people to consider these ideas in relation to one another and, ultimately, to the world of ideas. In idealistic educational practices of more recent times it can be said that the focus is more on teaching than on learning. The teacher is seen as the key to the educative process. He/she is in a position to determine what the opportunities of growing and learning in the classroom will be. The teacher is responsible for choosing and organizing the subject material and determining the teaching objectives; in fact he/ she is the mouthpiece through which reality in its ideal form comes to the learner. Idealism and learning The curriculum Plato envisaged for the ideal society was rigorous and in most cases lifelong. He was in favour of physical education in the early years, followed by a study of music. He also advocated a type of moral education that would help citizens to recognize their responsibility to one another. In one of his dialogues — the Meno dialogue — he raises a number of central issues in philosophy of education. Among these issues are the following: Can virtue be taught? How is it possible for a person who has been taught to distinguish right from wrong to act contrary to this principle? What is the ideal method of teaching? The Meno dialogue concludes with Socrates defending the opinion that virtue cannot be taught and is therefore not knowledge. This was, however, not the opinion of Plato, who argued in one of his other dialogues — the Protagoras dialogue — that virtue could be taught. In contemporary idealistic educational practice, each pupil is regarded as important, as making a difference and counting for something. The child's personality is seen as the unique expression of an individual will. The pupil is not body alone but a spiritual reality which must be nurtured. It is further maintained that individuals determine their environment as much as, if not more than, their environment determines them. Idealistic education often has a marked moral orientation. Recognizing the pupil as an individual with a soul does not mean that the teacher will fuss over the pupils with sentimentality. The idealistic view of the child does not negate the evil in the world — in fact, it is acknowledged that both teacher and child are affected by the evils that exist. Idealists do not see the child at birth as either 'good' or 'bad'. He/she is potential and can become either good or bad, depending on the environment, surrounding influences, and, of course, his/her own free will. Because succumbing to evil is mostly perceived as an easier option/the role of education in the fortification of the child is underscored.

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2.1.2 Realism Realism as a distinctive philosophy is of recent origin. There are so many brands of realism that it is again hardly possible to explain it as a single philosophy. One can probably say with safety that the different forms of realism are similar in their theory of knowledge, in the sense that all forms of realism revolt against the conceptions of idealism. Realists insist that qualities of our experience (knowledge, facts) exist as independent realities of the external world; they are not abstract ideals. It would be difficult to point a finger at particular figures in philosophical history and identify them as 'the realists'. One can at best study the ideas of some of the great philosophers that show evidence of realist leanings. The realist spirit in philosophy can be found as early as the physics of Aristotle. Although he was a student of Plato, much of his philosophy was a reaction against Plato's thinking. Aristotle was fascinated by things and collected raw material, such as botanical specimens, for observation. Accepting nature as a self-evident reality, he attempted an analytical description of different aspects of the natural order and so made a very valuable contribution to the natural sciences. Reality to him was only what was real to the senses. To the realist, knowledge existed independently of human knowing. Education had the function of teaching students about the world in which they lived. Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) was the first to define realism as a scientific philosophy. The central, specific focus of realism is science — empirical, objective, and experimental. Although its roots were Greek, realist philosophy reached its zenith during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Among the most important names associated with this way of thinking were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and David Hume. Educational theorists of this period were John Comenius, Johann Pestalozzi, and Johann Herbart.

Realism and schooling Like Plato, Aristotle also believed that talented people should govern. In keeping with this view, an education system should be government-run to equip people to work in society and show loyalty and responsibility to the state. The importance of formal schooling is stressed by numerous scholars supporting the realist train of thought. Culture is not inherited and its transfer remains a social obligation which needs to take place in an organized and professional manner. Formal education is seen as a basic need and a basic human right. It is, therefore, the essential duty of any society to see that its children are properly educated.

Realism and education Aristotle saw happiness as the ultimate goal of human life. Happiness was achieved by stretching one's mind to its utmost capability. The aim of realist education is to teach the child to understand the real world around him/her. It is important for human beings to function in society, and education is resi//t-oriented. Education is thus seen

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as transmitting a body of knowledge that has stood the test of time, the body of knowledge being the traditional subject fields. In more contemporary versions of realism, there is much emphasis on selfdetermination, self-realization, and self-integration as the means of creating a constructive relationship with society and contributing to the common good.

Realism and teaching Teaching is based on standard prescribed procedures and is mostly strictly disciplined. The teacher is not a guide but an instructor who is in complete charge of the classroom. John Wild (1955: 44) describes the role of the teacher as follows: (The teacher's) duty is to convey as rationally and as persuasively as possible a knowledge of the necessary tools of learning and an outline of the truths and probable truths which are already accepted as a result of the use of these tools. Teaching aims at the formation of desirable habits. This does not refer to a form of conditioning but to the acquisition of flexible, dynamic skills by means of the subject matter. Contemporary realists such as Harry Broudy place much emphasis on motivation. Teaching must link up with the interests of learners to encourage them to take part in the quest for knowledge.

Realism and learning The realist view of the human mind and its particular interest in determinism are two important aspects of the realist philosophy from which inferences with regard to human nature and the learner can be made. Some realists see the human mind as a kind of relation between 'objects' — one being the objective reality, the other being the highly developed human brain. Realists who support this view look at learners as organisms engaged in the age-old task of bringing about appropriate relationships in the world of space and time. Another position held by some realists defines the human mind as 'the inside of the brain' and attributes some degree of privacy to individual minds — this is almost a spiritual conception of the human mind. Those in favour of this view will regard learners as individuals who can grasp the meaning of their experiences and understand the purpose of their activities. A teacher who holds a completely deterministic view sees children as products of heredity and environment. Since this view implies that the children's actions are determined for them and they have little control, such a teacher will not deal with his/ her pupils as free persons. As a teacher, his/her task will be to make the learner aware of the irresistible nature of physical forces in the world and to encourage the child to accept these and resign her-/himself to them.

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Alternatively, the teacher could work in terms of a modified form of determinism — a type of self-determinism. In this case he/she would not only make the learner aware of the irresistibility of the natural forces and their inevitable effects, but also expose the individual child to experiences through which he/she can achieve the ability to control. Achieving control requires not only ability but also effective motivation and appropriate action. In the later works by realist educators the view of the learner is spelt out more clearly and images of the learner need no longer be deduced from the philosophy of realism. Broudy (1954) maintains that when the learner is adequately motivated, there will at some point be a launching out and an action taken. The point is that learning must be active — mentally active in the sense of reaching out to the object of study. The role of the individual learner in achieving the ability to choose and act is clearly displayed in Broudy's affirmation of self-realization, self-determination and selfintegration.

2.1.3 Naturalism Naturalism is considered by many to be the oldest philosophy in the history of Western philosophy. The common attitude on which naturalism builds its ideas is that there is order in nature and that this order can be depended upon. It is expressed unphilosophically in the common saying, 'Let nature take its course'. Ralph Perry (1912: 634) distinguishes two types of naturalism. What he calls naive naturalism represents attempts to designate one single substance as the be-all and endall of nature. In the view of naturalists in ancient times, this substance was inert matter moving in space. Other naturalists saw it as energy rather than solid matter. The other type of naturalism that Perry refers to is critical naturalism. Some naturalists were not satisfied with the attempt to explain all things in terms of substance and preferred to include structure as well as process in an explanation of nature. The modern versions of naturalism no longer subscribe to this simplified version of reality, but the idea lingers on that the scientific method remains the only dependable way to acquire knowledge. Both the realist and the pragmatist variations of the use of the scientific method rest on the naturalist epistemology or view of knowledge (cf the sections on realism and pragmatism). According to the naturalist view, the order to be found in nature possesses its own ultimate value. Humanity and society are perceived to be secondary to and dependent upon the natural order. Naturalism and schooling Considered as an education philosophy, naturalism might appear to offer no rationale for the existence of a school; one might think that education as an institution would involve little more than leaving children to nature. Though this attitude was true of earlier naturalist thinkers and a few modern strains of naturalism, it is not the general

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attitude adopted by naturalists such as Herbert Spencer towards formalized schooling. The school has a basis for existence in nature. This is true because learning is a natural event and the need for it consequently evokes teaching activities from adults, which are also perceived to be natural. The primary rationale for the existence of the school is the prolonged infancy of humans in comparison with other animals. Human beings require almost lifelong sustained protection and guidance. Naturalism and education In response to the question as to what education strives to accomplish, Herbert Spencer (1861) answers that a knowledge and understanding of science are of paramount importance. He sums up the general aim of education as 'complete living' (Butler, 1968: 93). This seems to indicate that education should produce a citizen who is educated and can 'make his/her way in the world'. These generalizations seem to suggest that moral responsibility coupled with practical sufficiency are virtues of the educated man. Spencer mentions the following as specific objectives of education: self-preservation, securing the necessities of life, raising children, maintenance of social and political relations, and enjoyment of leisure. Naturalism and teaching Spencer conceives of a distinct process which characterizes naturalist teaching. Teaching must conform with the natural processes of growth and mental development; this requires an understanding of the nature and abilities of the child. Children, according to this view, have a good time if they can do things that they are physically and mentally capable of doing. Education must consequently be pleasurable. Teaching should promote the spontaneous self-activity of pupils. The role of the teacher involves telling children as little as possible and allowing them to discover for themselves as much as they are able to. The acquisition of knowledge, however, is a very important part of education and teaching should include the disciplines of science as well as the arts. Education of the body as well as the mind is stressed, and physical fitness is included in the curriculum. Teaching must neither be conducted in a hurried fashion nor must it be artificially retarded. It must follow 'the natural rhythms of development'. An interesting aspect of the naturalist philosophy is its conception of punishment. As children should be taught in accordance with the rhythms of nature, so we should punish as nature punishes — letting children experience the natural consequences of their actions and attitudes, without displaying anger. Spencer uses the example of a child who puts his finger in the flame of a candle and is burnt. This happens every time he does it — there is no yelling, no harsh words, but whenever he does it, he receives a burn in proportion to the size of the flame and the duration of his/her contact with it. This teaches the child very quickly about the dangers of fire. Spencer concedes that there are a few instances when the child must be saved from dangerous situations where the consequences could cause serious harm or be life threatening.

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Naturalism and learning As in every philosophy presented so far, the view of the learner corresponds with the view of human beings associated with the particular philosophy. The naturalist sees the child as a little animal', primarily from a physical perspective. The development and sustenance of a healthy body are of utmost importance. Compared with other animals, the human child is initially handicapped by its prolonged physical dependence, but the extended immaturity allows it the opportunity to learn richer and more complicated values than those accessible to animals, which learn only to develop their instincts. The child is dependent on the adult to guide him/her to mental, physical, and emotional maturity. Naturalists maintain that children educate themselves to a great measure, by using their senses. This natural tendency to self-education must be incorporated in education and opportunity allowed and created for self-discovery. According to the naturalist view, the child is neither naturally good nor bad — he/she is a little bit of both. Education can strive to make the child good, but success cannot be guaranteed since naturally bad impulses cannot be obliterated. Furthermore, the adult responsible for education is also human and, consequently, not infallibly 'good'. 2.1.4 Classicism The term classicism is used to refer to a philosophical orientation which is also known by a number of other names, with a slight variation of emphasis. Classicism is preferred by some scholars because this school of thought emphasizes the perennial value of classical Greek and Roman literary works and philosophical ideas. Because of the emphasis on everlasting principles, it is often also referred to as perennialism. Those in favour of the designation perennialism base their choice on the grounds that since human beings are rational, they are in most ways the same. If this is so, it is argued, there must be constancy in the way humans are educated. Despite the changes in society, a basic education is needed that would include a fundamental knowledge of language, history, mathematics, literature, and the humanities. This view is held by most of the secular supporters of classicism. Another frequently used name for this school of thought is Thomism or neo-Thomismf which is described by many as the religious form of realism. This name is derived from the name of St Thomas Aquinas, the supreme formulator of the philosophical ideas of this school. St Thomas Aquinas bases his ideas on the belief that there is a knowable independent reality which is the creation of God. To get to the truth, people must combine reason with faith. Knowledge comes directly or indirectly from revelation or from the authority of the Church. Thomism is the historical and philosophical foundation of Roman Catholic education, although these principles are no longer adhered to very strictly in contemporary Catholic schools.

Classicism and schooling Attendance at a private or parochial school accentuates 'isolation' from the larger

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society. Schooling is arranged so that children 'can stick to their own kind'. The essential association in classical education is ideally between persons of the same social class, religion, ethnic background, and gender. There is also a tendency to make a clear distinction between academic and non-academic schooling.

Classicism and education In the religious schools of classicist orientation, the aim is first and foremost to inculcate religious truths which are necessary for spiritual salvation. Secondary aims would be to develop the intellect as well as social and physical skills to enable student to be functional in and make a contribution to society.

Classicism and teaching The learner-teacher relationship in classicist education is primarily rational (cognitive). The child's motivation and interest are mostly ignored and the teaching is predominantly teacher-centred. The teacher's duty is to know his/her subject; the student's duty is to learn it. The styles and methods of teaching are also teacherdirected and include drilling, questioning, recitation, and structured discussions. Th authority of the teacher is not questioned. In the religious version of classicism this authority is derived from the Church and from God as Absolute Authority. Discipline is important in classicist schools and children are expected to obey. The study of great classical books is considered necessary for mental discipline, and the study of foreign languages, especially Greek and Latin, is encouraged. In secular classicist schools the view is held that technical and vocational aspects of life constitute 'training' and have no place in higher education.

Classicism and learning Clear boundaries are drawn between the adult world and the world of the child. The child is seen as a small adult who must first conquer the protected world of childhood before venturing into the adult world. Children must, by hard effort and strict discipline, become familiar with the knowledge and absolute values required to fulfil their role in society. Learning by activity is considered a waste of time because children can be taught in a few moments what could take them hours to discover.

2.2 Contemporary-Modern philosophies that influence Western education — an international perspective 2.2.1 Pragmatism Pragmatism is a philosophy that defines truth and meaning of ideas according to their physical consequences and their practical value. Pragmatism originated with the ideas of the English philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), although popular opinion has it that it is an indigenous American philosophy, probably because it

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displays the typical 'common-sense' attitude to life often associated with American society. Well-known American philosophers such as William James and John Dewey, and more recently Richard Rorty, are exponents of pragmatism, although they differ considerably in their methods and conclusions. Pragmatism, more than any of the other philosophies mentioned so far, has been influenced and shaped by contemporary events in society, such as, for instance, the financial depression in the 1930s. The following are some of the main themes of this philosophy: the the the the the

reality of change rather than permanence; relativity of values; social and biological nature of man; importance of democracy as a way of life; and value of critical intelligence in all human conduct.

Pragmatists agree with realists that the physical world exists in its own right. What makes pragmatism distinctive, however, is that it avers that objective reality has meaning only in so far as humans ascribe meaning to it and that this ascribed meaning is based on the consequence of the object. In lay terms this means that if something works, it is good and we believe in it. Scholars like Peirce and Dewey qualified this simple adage by saying that something is true if it has favourable consequences when scientifically tested. A variety of other terms have also been used to denote the ideas of pragmatism, ranging from pragmaticism (as initially used by Peirce), to instrumentalism, functionalism, and experimentalism. Many describe pragmatism as a methodology rather than a philosophy. The educational theory based on pragmatic principles is often referred to as progressivism, which is based on the following principles: Education must be active and related to the interests of the child. Life experience must be broken down to specific problems. Education must be preparation for life. The teacher should be a guide rather than an instructor. A spirit of cooperation rather than competition should be fostered. Since education and democracy are seen as one and the same thing, education must be run democratically.

Pragmatism and schooling Dewey was one of few leading philosophers actually involved in educating children and also one of the few to make direct links between philosophy and education, as can be observed in his well-known work, Democracy and Education. According to the pragmatic viewpoint, the school is a very important institution in society, in order to fulfil its designed role, it must represent society to the child in a less complex manner, reinforcing the positive rather than the negative aspects of society. As Donald Butler (1968: 407-8) aptly puts it:

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(The school) has the responsibility of giving the child a balanced and genuinely representative acquaintance with society at the same time that it simplifies and purifies this acquaintance, It must not become the agent of some segment of society as over against another, From a pragmatic point of view, schooling is a cooperative venture involving teachers, pupils, parents, and the larger community. The involvement is not only in the teaching process, but also in the administration and decision making in schools. School administration serves to improve instruction in the classroom or in extramural activities. It would be impossible to identify a 'standard pragmatic school'. Schools are part of the community and communities differ. The school is created to reflect the needs and purposes of the community it serves. Pragmatism and education In the spirit of constancy of change, what is right today in a particular set of circumstances may be wrong tomorrow in a different set of circumstances. The formulation of a general aim of education in pragmatic terms is decidedly difficult. Pragmatists see life as being fluid in character, being lived in a world that is also fluid. Consequently learning, both formal (in the school) and informal, consists of a number of learning episodes. Each episode has particular objectives which relate to the desired outcome of that episode. In terms of this episodic character of the learning experience, pragmatists often say that the purpose of education is more education. Another possible generalization of the aim of education which supports the idea of consecutive experiences is that it gives the learner experience in experiencing. However repetitive this may sound, it means that every new experience teaches the learner to get more meaning/value out of the next experience. Dewey's philosophy upholds the general objective of connectedness in growth. This implies that wherever growth may lead, it is vital that there is continuity in the objectives that are reached. In many of the traditional philosophies, education was seen as a means of preparing children for the future. But the future is an unknown entity and any preparation for it is limited to what is of value in the present. Pragmatists feel that the best way to prepare a child is to draw fully from the present experience all the value that the learner possibly can. From a social point of view, the general objective of education could be described as a better-organized environment or world in which the value of experience is displayed. From Dewey's point of view, a pragmatist education is a preparation for life, specifically life in a democracy. Pragmatism and teaching The pragmatic teaching style is not rigid, as George Kneller (1964: 48) indicates: Rather than teaching traditional subjects directly, the teacher tends to draw on them only as they contribute to the solution of the problem at hand,

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A pragmatist has often been described as a supreme problem solver. Problem solving as teaching strategy does not mean that a specific or standard procedure is used every time. The approach varies along with the problems. The degree of help from the teacher depends on the student's ability and on whether he/she is dealing with an individual, a group, or a class. In a class discussion a teacher will guide, clarify, and summarize, rather than instruct, tell, or show. This requires careful preparation on the teacher's part. Much of the students' time in the classroom will be taken up with independent study and group work. In terms of discipline, pragmatists favour preventive rather than corrective measures. The teacher will establish, by means of discussion and agreement, what type of behaviour is acceptable and what unacceptable. The positive is accentuated and the negative played down. Group identity and acceptance by the group are stressed when behaviour is an issue. Pragmatism and learning In trying to understand how pragmatism sees the pupil in the education environment, it is perhaps good to see how it views human beings in general in the context of living. The image of a flowing river can be best used to convey this concept The biological, psychological, and sociological forces that make up human existence are comparable to a huge river. In this river are swirling currents and waves and ripples in every direction, constituting a variety of movements. The individual people are the white caps of foam which surge to the top on the crests of the waves. They are part of the river of flux and change, and not separate from it. They rise to the surface briefly and become distinct for a brief period of time, only to merge back into the stream and become indistinct. Generally speaking, pupils in a classroom are like this — for the relatively brief duration of their schooling, they present themselves in the classrooms and must be guided to flow reasonably well with the stream of life. They are, however, part of the continuing stream, and any private aspect of their person or mind or the individuality displayed will merge again with the process of life. This metaphor of the human being as part of the river does not mean, however, that individuality is neglected. For the period of the person's distinctness, individuality is a characteristic of life. In the flow of the experience of life, there are individual events, experiences, relations, and situations. Pupils are concrete individuals and must be dealt with as unique beings in the education process. The fact that the child is a unique biological, psychological, and sociological entity explains the variety of personalities and behaviour patterns. A rigid, formalized education environment does not allow for individual differences or prepare the child for a dynamic world. From a pragmatic perspective it is believed that many forms of misbehaviour in schools are the consequence of foisting a static and formalized education upon active organisms which really were designed for passive waxen tablets waiting to be written upon, (Butler, 1968:409)

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The child is a distinctive individual who must be encouraged and supported to develop his/her selfhood in the dynamic context of society. 2.2.2 Existentialism Existentialism can almost be described as a form of personal idealism. The forerunners of this philosophical movement are the Danish philosopher Sren Kierkegaard (181355) and the German Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). They both revolted against the Christianity of their time and against traditional philosophy, represented mainly by the ideas of Hegel. Kierkegaard wanted to revitalize Christianity, whemas Nietzsche was an atheist and wanted to replace it with a type of Superman morality. Some of the more recent philosophers associated with existential philosophy are Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Karl faspers, Gabriel Marcel, and Paul THNch. Again it must be borne in mind that there are as many views as philosophers and a single philosopher does not adequately represent a particular philosophical school. Existentialism has not really taken root outside Western Europe, but some of the ideas, especially as represented in a variant sometimes referred to as existential phenomenology, gained ground in South African educationaf discourse for a while. Existential phenomenology, a modified form of phenomenology, is the scientific method most commonly employed in fundamental pedagogks. Fundamental pedagogics is a particular field in and approach to educational philosophy applied by some South African educationists. Existentialism perceives the feeling, thinking individual as the centre of all philosophy. Only concepts that originate with the personal lives of human beings are of value. According to existentialists, the flaw with traditional philosophy was that it moved too much on the level of abstraction and speculation and did not deal with real qualities of human existence, such as love, passion, ecstasy, decision, pain, fear, sickness, and death. The philosopher must plunge into the joy and suffering of the human condition. Existentialists reject the scientific approach to human beings that treats them like objects, determined by physical, sociological, psychological, economic, or any other outside forces. The fundamental characteristic of human existence is a total freedom to choose which should not be compromised by any doctrine, regime, religion, or other person. According to the existentialist view, humans determine themselves, since they are born free subjects. It becomes clear that existentialism is not a philosophy in the traditional sense of logically constructed ideas. Reality is what it is from an individual perspective and truth is what is true for a particular person — a notion that contains the seeds of postmodern thought. This does not mean that truth is a collection of subjective impressions — existential truth represents what is unique in one particular person's life. Existentialism as a philosophy has not paid much attention to education and, consequently, implications for education must be mostly inferred. Existentialism, however, had a major influence on Western cultural development and, as such, is of

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interest to educators and still contributes to the ongoing educational debate. Because individualism and selfhood are so important from this viewpoint, many of the inferences made about existentialism and education pertain to the development of the self, which obviously has certain implications for the role of the teacher.

Existentialism and schooling An educational theory based on existentialism may turn the tide in the continuing struggle of some educationists against the conformity associated with contemporary schools. The school is not seen as a very effective and adequate educational agency because, by nature, it implies group instruction and mass interaction. Existentialism disapproves of parents' tendency to surrender more and more educative responsibility to the school, since the home is far better suited to cherishing the child as an individual. The central ideas embodied in a school based on existentialism would be individual freedom and responsibility, with features such as the following: no compulsory subjects, no testing or exams, equal status given to all courses or pursuits, and the absence of hierarchical, authoritarian structures. The school would be governed and administered along democratic lines with community participation. It remains to be established, however, if any school can be a prototype of an existential education, since prototypes as such are contrary to the very essence of existential thought and practice.

Existentialism and education For existentialists, life is compounded by conflicting elements such as growth and collapse, joy and pain, which are in constant tension. Life is a continuing risk. Adages such as 'education for happiness' or 'education for adjustment' are meaningless for the existentialist, because they do not prepare humans for the complex reality of life where conflicting aspects or conditions coexist. Education must help children to become responsible for themselves, to make their own decisions, regardless of public pressure. Self-fulfilment is regarded as far more important than social adjustment. Individuals must be prepared to face up to the consequences of their actions and decisions. Knowledge is important as it makes a person self-reliant and thus supports individual freedom. It could be said that existentialism warns educators not to be too inclined to set objectives for the pupil, imagining what kind of person he/she should be as a result of education.

Existentialism and teaching It can be inferred that the primary function of the teacher would be to assist the child in attaining his/her selfhood and individuality. Since this is so much an inwardly directed movement, there could be little involvement on the teacher's part in vocational guidance and the social adaptation of the pupil.

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Contrary to the pragmatist view, knowledge is never purely objective, and is valuable only to the extent to which it engages personal feelings. Knowledge properly conceived brings freedom and allows a person to see what and who he/she really is. The teacher cannot impose his/her own values on the child, but could present his/her principles and allow the child to choose to accept them or not, emphasizing that every person must accept the full consequences of his/her actions and the choices he/ she makes.

Existentialism and learning Many contemporary philosophies hold the view that the 'well-adjusted pupil7 in school leads to the 'organization man' in adult life. The prime responsibility of our contemporary executive is to 'get along' with his associates and to maintain the 'corporate image' popular with the man in the street. In stark contrast to this popular conception, the existentialist protests that the individual does not realize her-/himself, but loses her/his identity, or true self, in the anonymous group. Learning must lead to the growth of free, creative persons and not to conformity. The individual is often unable to express him-/herself in the group situation and feels intimidated by dominant others in a group. Learning as such is an individualized activity aimed at personal fulfilment. The Nietzschean view advocates that equality of educational opportunity must not be made an excuse to educate all children in the same way, but should permit a greater variety of methods and organizations in order to accommodate the infinite variety of human nature. Subject matter should not be seen as an end in itself or as preparation for a future career, but as a means of self-cultivation. The learner should be urged to involve her-/himself intellectually and emotionally in whatever he/she studies. The focus of the curriculum is thus shifted from the world to the individual person.

2.23 Marxism The history of Marxism, or communism, as it is also known, begins with the work of the German-born Karl Marx (1818-83). During Marx's formative academic years the dominant philosophical influence in Germany was that of Georg Hegel (1770-1831), a renowned idealist who wrote of the dialectical process of unfolding or progress that takes place in the natural world and in the human mind. The dialectical process is a never-ending sequence of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, changing from less to more perfect modes of existence and affecting the physical world, government, and social life. Marx and his followers were greatly influenced by this rational theory, but did not share Hegel's belief that God was one with the world. Ignoring the spiritual aspect of Hegel's philosophy, they were left with a materialistic version of the rational theory, which developed into what was called dialectic materialism. According to Marx, true reality is also rationality and the only true form of reality is material itself. The material order of the world is characterized by certain elements that have to do with production. These include the skill of the workers, as well as the

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tools and the raw materials. In the right relationship, these elements result in products which humans need to sustain their own existence. More important than the elements involved in the process of production are the relationships of the people. Marx considered history as the unfolding of nature, humans, and society, ever advancing towards perfection. He saw Western history as falling into five major divisions: primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and eventually socialism, or communism. During the slave period of human history, certain people owned the raw material, the tools, and even the slaves themselves. In the feudal system the servant, or serf, was socially above the slave and may have had some degree of control over the tools, but the feudal lord owned all the raw materials. Under capitalism, the worker is said to be free, but he still does not own the tools or the raw materials and has to exchange his product (skills) for money to sustain life. The capitalist alone has enough money to buy and sell the results of labour. Marx predicted that history would culminate in the fall of capitalism and the rise of communism, implying a classless society. At this point the conflict and class struggle would cease and people would be truly free. The conditions in society that motivated change would no longer exist, and the interests and concerns of people would have arrived at a point of perfect equilibrium. The basic tenets of Marxism are atheism, man as basic reality, the struggle of mankind for a better life, and the application of the theory to society and government. The first public announcement of the principles of Marxism appeared in 1848 with the publication of The Manifesto of the Communist Party. Since that time, many variations have been made in the structure of the philosophy and even more in the associated educational practices. So much so that, before the recent decline of communism, the leaders of the two largest avowed communist countries in the world, the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the People's Republic of China, did not agree about the nature and practice of this philosophy. Apart from the terms Marxism and communism, there are also other titles and references to this philosophy. One reads of economic determinism which deals with one particular aspect of the theory. Some people refer to philosophical atheism or use the title dialectical materialism, mentioned above. References to the communal man and the class struggle explain other directions of communist thought, particularly its socialistic aspect. The term socialism is often used in close association with Marxism and communism. Socialism as a sociopolitical and economic philosophy is in essence an*antithesis of Western capitalism and is most visibly reflected in later variations of the communist philosophy as developed by political leaders in the USSR. Vilakazi (in Conference Papers, 1988: 66) describes his conception of socialism in contemporary South Africa as follows: In its most general and ageless conception, we have in mind a society of equals, in which there is neither rich nor poor, oppressor nor oppressed, and neither better-fed nor under-fed — in a nutshell, a society without social classes,

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The term Neo-Marxism is used for a philosophy that builds on the basic ideas of Marxism but has been developed in accordance with events in history after the inception of Marxist ideas. It represents a form of critique against the determinism of formalized Marxism and is supported by philosophers such as Horkheimer, Adorno, and Habermas. Neo-Marxism is associated with so-called left-wing organizations worldwide, including some student and political organizations in South Africa which are in favour of revolutionary change of the social order, including the education system. Although Karl Marx himself and his associates of the time had little to say about education as such, there are remarks scattered in their writings and current communistic educational practices from which one can infer a partial idea of the educational implications of the philosophy. Marxism and schooling The heart of Marxist philosophy is its belief in radical revolution that would alter the structure of society socially and economically, to uphold the basic tenets of communism. Since the school can be described as an extension of society, it should be primarily in the service of that society. The close relationship of government, society, and education determines the function of the school. Children indoctrinated with the belief in communist philosophy would be expected to assume an active and even violent part in the struggle towards the worldwide acceptance of communism. In addition to formal instruction, schoolchildren would be expected to render productive labour at home or in society. Marxism and education The primary aim of Marxist education is to train learners in skills and attitudes that will make them efficient and suitable workers for the new economic order. These workers must of necessity be supporters of the communist philosophy and help to extend this philosophy to the workers of the world who still struggle for a better life under capitalistic systems. Marx was a fervent supporter of universal education (education for all) during a period in educational history when it was still an unusual concept. In a classless society educational opportunities should be equal and free for all. Marxist education combines all types of learning and does not encourage a distinction between intellectual versus physical, or scholarly versus manual activities. Marxism and teaching In an ideal situation the teacher in the classroom would be wholly assured of the Tightness of communist philosophy. This would require that he/she be an atheist and concern him-/herself only with material reality. It would also imply that the dictatorial right of the government is placed above the rights of individuals. Howick (1980:135) states that

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the patriotic communist instructor, in both precept and practice, would be an example of conformity and cooperation with the will of his national leaders, Discipline and hard work are, according to Marxist philosophy, a necessary prerequisite for a good society and, by implication, amount to an efficient teaching situation. Religion has no place in Marxist education. Instead, pupils should be not only educated but indoctrinated in the principles of communism, because education is seen as an important means of spreading the communist conviction. Marxism and learning The Marxist school offers no variety of subjects or different courses to choose from; all subjects are predetermined and fixed. The curriculum is dominated by vocational and scientific education, though it is considered more important to be politically conscious than vocationally strong. No provision is made for individual interest and aptitude. The individual is obligated to the group and personal interests are subjected to group interests. Adherence to duty, loyalty, and hard work are expected. The Marxist aim of creating a human society under collective control implies a rejection of a static, or fixed, perception of the learner — whether as 'good' or 'bad'. Humans are shaped by, and are shaping, both the human and the non-human environment in a continuing dialectic. 2.2.4

Liberalism One of the unique achievements of Western society has been the gradual emancipation of the individual person from the bonds of traditional custom, dictatorial law, and absolute authority. Liberalism as a philosophy is said to extend back to Hebrew prophets, Greek philosophers, and Jesus's Sermon on the Mount, although Western society showed signs of emancipation only after the Middle Ages. Liberalism in a broad sense is the philosophy of a free society* The terms liberal or Hberalist are often used in contrast to traditional or conservative, indicating one of the basic features of liberalism, namely its focus on constant change and progress. Some liberal scholars overemphasize the constancy of change to the extent that no fixed values or permanence in reality are recognised. The most prominent names associated with liberalism are those of John Locke (1632-1704), Adam Smith (1723-90), Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), and John Stuart Mill (1806-73). Economic emancipation dates back to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and is most clearly displayed in the works of Adam Smith, who advocated the economic doctrine of the sovereignty of the market and the Natural harmony'of self-interest. Liberal economics emphasizes the right to private property and governmental protection of this right. It bases its philosophy on a view of the person as a rational economic animal engaging in making as much profit as possible, based on free enterprise and on division of labour which is seen to be to the benefit of the whole society.

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The political principles of liberalism include an insistence on representation by means of democratic elections and on limiting the power of government by means of segregating different governmental functions. These political principles are commonly found in contemporary models such as the Westminster System and the new South African Constitution. Liberalism is renowned for insistence on human rights such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and freedom of the press, characteristics generally associated with a modern democracy. Liberal convictions about the nature of man are based on the principle that all people share in a common humanity, and humans are optimistically seen as naturally good and capable of shaping their own destiny. The world-view reflected by liberalism is basically a humanistic one in which humans are accorded equal dignity and entitled to the same basic human rights (Kneifel in Leatt, Kneifel, & Nurnberger, 1986). The freedom of the individual is closely related to the nature and conditions of the society he/she lives in. A person cannot be free in a society in which conditions of freedom are not upheld. Liberalism is often seen as a philosophy that propagates animosity between ruler and subject, since it emphasizes individual freedom which can and may not be inhibited by any authority in society. Society must provide rights and opportunities, as well as equip people with the ability to make decisions. This societal responsibility has definite implications for education.

Liberalism and schooling All people should receive the benefit of education (provided by the government) and equal opportunities in different educational spheres. It is seen as the moral duty of the collective adult community to provide an education for young people that enables them to become as rationally autonomous and free-choosing as possible. Public education is regarded by Butts (in Phenix, 1965: 124) as a 'fourth branch of the government', which is as essential for the preservation of a free society as the legislative, judicial, and executive branches of government. Liberal philosophy would also imply the availability of private schooling for those groups and individuals who have ideological or particularized interests at heart, though this need not be funded by government. Bailey (in Kimball, 1986: 33) strongly criticizes the use of schooling to satisfy the needs of commerce and industry and maintains that establishing the link with wealth creation breeds a restricting sense of competition amongst individuals.

Liberalism and education In the general sense, a liberal education is aimed at inculcating those values that would ensure a free society as it is portrayed in the principles of liberal philosophy discussed above. In an individual sense, education is aimed at equipping individuals to make desirable decisions for themselves and to ensure their personal happiness. Bentham, particularly, stresses the happiness of the individual as a natural right and as such also as a norm for education. According to both Bentham and Mill, freedom is a precondition for happiness. Butts (in Phenix, 1965) distinguishes three types of

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freedom as necessary components of a liberal aim of education. Firstly, he emphasizes knowledge as a requirement for true freedom. This would include knowledge represented by the humanities and arts, social sciences, natural sciences, and mathematics. Knowledge is necessary in order to achieve intellectual freedom. In order to sustain a free society, Butts points out, it is necessary, secondly, to educate children for citizenship and the social responsibilities they will have to fulfil in society. Thirdly, he underscores the need for education in personal freedom to assist individuals to develop their particular talents. Another important aspect of liberal education would be to equip the person to accept and cope with change and innovation.

Liberalism and teaching Teaching in the liberalistic context is essentially child-centred. The teacher acts as facilitator and guide, but does not in any way inhibit the child's choices and progress. The teacher has to help the child become autonomous in a society of restrictions and inhibiting circumstances that threaten that autonomy. Teaching should be of a general nature and not determined by vocational considerations or by the teaching tools and methods used. Bailey (in Kimball, 1986: 40) uses the following example to illustrate the potential negative effects of specialized as opposed to general education:

(T)eachers who succeed in convincing pupils that certain kinds of mathematical knowledge are necessary for most jobs, and who use this argument to generate motivation, generate difficulties for other teachers who seek to interest pupils in art, history, poetry or morality, even though most teachers would intuitively agree on the worthwhileness of these activities and understandings,

Liberalism and learning In liberalistic terms the individual is of supreme importance and his/her interests should not be overridden by those of the community. Individual initiative is encouraged in preference to standardized group interest or activity. Many of the critics of liberalism have spoken out against its emphasis on individual autonomy that amounts to individualism and neglects the relationship of the individual to the group. The concept of learning raises the question as to what the liberally educated person is liberated for. Contrary to the criticism sometimes levelled at it, liberal education does not advocate unrestrained licentiousness. The object is to allow the child to become a free chooser of actions and beliefs — in other words, a free moral agent. Bailey (in Kimball, 1986: 3) points out that the restrictions from which the child needs to be freed are those of the present and the particular. This refers to immediate reactive and responsive behaviour within which he/she would be trapped without the benefit of such an education.

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The idea is one of self-government, not romantic anarchy, The supposition is that by knowledge and understanding, by the use of reason, one can come increasingly to understand the forces acting upon one both inside the psyche and outside in the social framework and thereby make oneself independent of them.

2.3 Dominant philosophical trends in South African educational practice Having seen how the different traditional and modern philosophies view education and determine educational practice, you have probably recognized a number of familiar features you encountered in your own experience of schooling and teaching in the South African context. You must have noticed, too, that many of the philosophies have points in common, and for that reason it is often very difficult, if not impossible, to characterize any particular education practice as being 'typically idealistic' or 'typically pragmatistic'. Apart from these general philosophies that underlie the education practice we know in this country, there are a number of philosophical trends that are unique to South Africa and the history of South African education. Let us call them philosophical trends, since they are not philosophies in the formal and traditional sense of the word, nor are they always clearly defined and structured. A historical overview as presented in chapter two renders valuable information about the way people thought about education and how these thoughts determined policies, practices, and major events in educational history. Some of the identifiable trends are clearly ideologically or politically based, but we will attempt merely to present the main thrust of these trends without becoming entangled in the web of politics and ideology. Afrikaner nationalism was a significant and determining influence on the South African education scene for the last forty-odd years, although as a philosophical trend it dates back almost two centuries. Not only in policy making and administration on a macro level, but also on the micro level in teacher training, school policies, and classroom practices, the principles of Christian National Education were predominant. As with the philosophies discussed above, some of the principles were not implemented in their 'pure' form. South African educational practice could not escape the spirit of the time, that is, of modernism. A definition of Afrikaner nationalism as the underlying philosophy for the practice of Christian National Education has been attempted from different angles. According to Leatt et al (1986), these attempts at definition can be grouped into four basic perspectives. The first perspective focuses on the religious quality of Afrikaner nationalism. It explains Afrikaner nationalism as a form of neo-Calvinism which developed in South Africa in isolation from its European origins and is based on orthodox Protestant-Calvinist principles. This version of neo-Calvinism contributed to the vision Afrikaners had of themselves, which was analogous to the Old Testament vision of a 'chosen people', with a destiny that included the preservation and

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spreading of their religious culture. This view often included a perception of the black indigenous people of Africa as heathen in relation to Christianity. Another perspective focuses on the rise of a political movement built on a chauvinistic ideology of white supremacy which centred in the Nationalist Party and its policy of racial segregation which had major implications for the education system in South Africa. Leatt et al (1986) distinguish institutionalized racism as another key category in the description of Afrikaner nationalism. The fourth perspective focuses mainly on what Adam and Giliomee (1979) call ethnic mobilization, which refers to the process whereby a particular group, in this case the Afrikaners, was mobilized to stick together, act together, and sacrifice for a better future, bound by common ideals, culture, and language. The Afrikaans language was to be used as a mobilising force to overcome the psychological alienation and economic disadvantage felt by Afrikaners — an outward and visible sign of their identity, (Leatt et al, 1986: 71) This can be described as a form of social engineering, including a view shared, for instance, by Marxists, that the school can be used as a tool to restructure society. The reasons for the development of this philosophical trend are many and varied, as are the reasons for the changes which started occurring in the seventies and culminated in the vast political and ideological changes of the nineties. The traditional, exclusively Christian, character of education (although it was at best a particular view of Christianity) has changed to a more inclusive type of religious education and the overemphasis on ethnic nationality with its divisive effects appears have been replaced with a multicultural form of nationalism. These particulars, however, do not fall within the scope of this chapter. Apart from the implications Afrikaner nationalism had for the segregated education system in general, Christian National Education embodied a particular type of education practice of which some principles are still commonplace in many schools. The teacher is seen as a figure of authority, taking the place of the parent in the school environment and representing the norms of divine authority. Rigid, indisputable discipline is maintained by most teachers and teaching is mostly formal and teachercentred. Conformity in behaviour and appearance, and the importance of group identity, are greatly emphasized. The traditions of Christian religion are strictly adhered to in school routine. The segregated system effected qualitative differences in educational means and objectives, which were linked to ethnic nationality. Christian National Education was, however, structured as if the religious and patriotic values of the community it served were homogeneous. The liberal tradition in education in South Africa was associated mainly with English private schooling and a few tertiary education institutions, although it would be misleading to confine it only to the preserve of the English-speaking white population. As a philosophical trend, Leatt et al (1986: 51) typify it as follows:

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This tradition is not easy to describe because of its elusive and somewhat non-dogmatic character, and because it encompasses complex elements that include, for example, capitalism and constitutional democracy, the merits of which even liberals hotly dispute. But historically it is the tradition which has expressed an individual ethic as opposed to the corporate ethic of Afrikaner nationalism, and has sought to uphold individual liberty against alternatives of socialism or racial nationalism. The type of education embodied by this particular form of liberalism is primarily childcentred and often pragmatic in character. It does not adhere to the divine-normbased prescriptiveness of Christian National Education, and traditionally represented the primary contrasting trend in formal South African education. The rise of African nationalism represents another important philosophical trend in South African educational history, though for political and social reasons the effects of this trend were not visible in the governance of education, nor did it translate into formalized or structured classroom practices, until the more recently developed concept of people's education was established (Van der Walt & Postma, 1987). African nationalism was displayed most dramatically in the educational turmoil and crisis associated with the uprising of black pupils in 1976 and the years that followed. The students' display of discontent and militant behaviour formed an integral part of the liberation struggle of black South Africans for democratic rights and equal opportunities for all citizens (Alexander in Conference Papers,1988). The roots of African nationalism can be traced back to the early nineteenth century when the first signs of organized rejection by Africans of white domination appeared (Leatt et al, 1986). In 1944 Anton M Lembede gave voice to the ideological principles of an exclusive Africanism in his speeches at the time of the inauguration of the ANC Youth League (Conference Papers, 1988). This exclusive form of Africanism later formed the basis of the PAC breakaway from the inclusive policies of the ANC. The principles of Africanism derived from a variety of sources and included the following basic assumptions (Leatt et al, 1986: 94): (a) Philosophically Africanism rejected a materialist view of man as an economic animal, as well as the Nazi view of man as a beast of prey. Instead it adopted a holistic view of man as body, mind and spirit. History is a record of humanity's strivings for complete self-realization. (b) Darwin's law of variation offered a scientific basis for Africanism. Each nation has its own peculiar character and make-up, each its own divine mission. (c) Paul Kruger's aphorism, one who wants to create the future must not forget the past, provided a historical basis for Africanism, Africans must recall the glorious achievements of our great heroes of the past, Shaka, Moshoeshoe, Hintsa. . . . (d) The economic basis for Africanism was socialism. The fundamental structure of Bantu society is socialistic. The task of Africanism was to

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develop this socialism by the infusion of new and modern socialistic ideas. (e) Africanism was democratic, In Bantu society, the work of a man was not assessed by wealth . , , In our Councils or Khotlas any citizen could take part in discussions, (f) Finally there was the ethical basis, In the past, fear of ancestors provided ethical sanctions, In the present time the immortality of ancestors is still upheld but the ethical system had to be based on Christian morals since there is nothing better, In 1955 a Congress of the People joined formal organizations and races in the liberation struggle and adopted the Freedom Charter, which was based on liberal democratic principles. In fact, the principles it proposed are not unlike those contained in the Interim Constitution of 1993, which can be called a 'mixture of classical liberalism and African socialism' (Leatt et al, 1986:101). The adoption in 1955 of the Freedom Charter which stated, amongst other principles, that the doors of learning should be open to all citizens, lies at the heart of the struggle for liberation in the education sector. Black Consciousness as a philosophical trend is closely linked to and associated with the ideals of African nationalism and Africanism. As a political movement its aim was to develop a sense of solidarity among black people in order to play a positive role in the liberation struggle. It implied a 'black renaissance' which would lead to black people becoming aware of their dignity as human beings, and to a rejection of the value systems that made them strangers in their own country. This meant that possible feelings of inferiority needed to be eradicated on a psychological level. Black Consciousness conceived of the liberation struggle in holistic terms which affected all areas and aspects of black society (Leatt et al, 1986). It engages in cultural activities and involves a reassessment of music, drama and literature and a reinterpretation of black history. The rediscovery of black people's cultural roots could be facilitated most effectively in expanded formal and informal educational programmes and community self-development projects. This trend is likely to have a great impact on new scKool curricula in the democratic education dispensation. The spiritual idea of ubuntu has direct relevance for education practice. Although it is difficult to translate into a single English word, it emphasizes a number of human values such as dignity, respect for authority, honesty, and courtesy. The idea of ubuntu would represent a type of etho-specific education. According to Claassen (in Dekker & Van Schalkwyk, 1995: 466) the educational implications of ubuntu include an acceptance of the reality of cultural differences and a 'guarded view of integration at school level'. This section has been just a cursory unravelling of a number of philosophical strands that are woven into the fabric of South African educational thought. It should be reiterated that these major trends in educational philosophy are only partially representative of the picture on the macro level, that is, of the education system. An individual teacher can and should develop a personalized philosophy of education

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within the framework of the system, determined by personal convictions, life-view, and experience.

3 76e Soti&rtfac** leacAen: *E>evebfMte«t of a PeM&ial PfaktofiAif *j Sdutttio* axtl 'JetAwy tot, t6e 5**#£ rtbic** (fatext The well-known Brazilian educator and champion of adult literacy Paulo Freire said the following about understanding the times we live in, and it still applies (Freire, 1973:7): If men (sic) are unable to perceive critically the themes of their time, and thus to intervene actively in reality, they are carried along in the wake of change, They see that the times are changing, but they are submerged in that change and so cannot discern its dramatic significance, And a society moving from one epoch to another requires the development of an especially flexible, critical spirit, Lacking such a spirit, men cannot perceive that marked contradictions which occur in society as emerging values in search of affirmation and fulfilment clash with earlier values seeking selfpreservation. We are currently going through a time of change in our country. Although change has always been a feature of life and societal structures, the changes that we are now experiencing are more radical and accelerated than any before. Whether we consider the changes in the education arena good or bad or whether we agree with every detail — depends on our own values and perceptions — in other words, our own preconceived ideas. Beard and Morrow (1 981 ) justly warn that there is nothing more dangerous in times of rapid social change than to allow one's thinking to be trapped in dogma. Perhaps the present moment is a good opportunity to question and reconsider our own ideas and the convictions we hold. Trying to identify and define philosophical frameworks in the making is an almost impossible task— trends in thinking are more easily recognized and understood when one is looking back at them with some knowledge of their consequences and implications. It is therefore very difficult to define a general philosophy of education that reflects current and new policies and practices in South Africa. Objectives of education defined in policy statements and official documents are often rather vague and tend to be guided by an intention to make them politically acceptable rather than by a desire to reflect a well-thought-out educational philosophy in the formal and traditional sense of the word. Given a possible uncertainty about objectives on the macro level and how they could translate into classroom practice, it is very important at all times to be aware of and in touch with one's own thoughts and

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beliefs in order to continue with one's task as educator. Adam Small (in Maher & Shepherd, 1995: v) stresses the importance of being aware of philosophical bases in order to be a good teacher: The , , , consciousness of philosophical bases in and during the actual event of teaching and learning, at whatever level is a hallmark of the good teacher; which means also that good teaching is teaching that cultures people themselves to consciousness of philosophical bases from the very beginning of the teacher-pupil relationship, The question then is: How does one go about building a personal philosophy of education to guide one's assessment of policies and one's teaching practice? One can draw on different resources for this purpose. Firstly, it would be good to start by identifying and testing one's own set of ideas and their philosophical frameworks. Secondly, one can draw upon one's theoretical knowledge of education to substantiate a particular opinion. Last but not least, one can rely on one's own life experience and practical knowledge of education.

3.1 Identifying one's own philosophical foundations Each one of us has certain 'core values' we believe in and around which we build our whole lives. In the teaching profession these values are our directives in how, for example, we see the purpose of our career, the professional relations we maintain, the techniques and teaching methods we employ, and the way we value our pupils as people. One way to get a clearer picture of your basic convictions is to draw up a check list consisting of questions representing philosophical assumptions about, for instance, human nature, the nature of the world, Cod and faith, freedom, morality, justice, equality, social responsibility and human relationships. It would be wise to include questions that would reflect views of education and teaching, for instance: What is education all about? What do I hope to achieve with my pupils collectively and individually? What are my views of knowledge and objectivity? In order to answer these questions, you can look at some of the formal philosophies and philosophical trends that are represented in this chapter, and work eclecticallyf that is, choosing from the different philosophies what you want to adopt or adapt. Before we pick and choose, so to speak, it is important to judge the coherence and logic of one's choices. Many philosophers of education maintain that a philosophy of education should be built by taking specific educational problems as a point of departure and allowing the problem to determine the most appropriate philosophical framework. This approach was referred to (in section 3.1.2) as the pluralistic problemcentred approach. George Counts (1929), a prominent figure in American philosophy and education, proposed a number of criteria one might use to judge the adequacy of a philosophy. You should not combine incompatible or contradicting assumptions in a single

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viewpoint. For instance, your view of man should not be incompatible with your view of the world or your view of faith. The philosophy that one builds must be comprehensive, which means that it must be relevant to all major areas of life and relate to all the major activities and problems of education. There must be consistency between assumption and facts. This implies that a workable philosophy of education must be related to a specific context of time and place, as well as of people for whom it is developed. It needs to relate to the social structures and problems of the day, suggesting that non-philosophical factors must also be taken into account when building a philosophy of education. Herbert Vilakazi (in Conference Papers, 1988) supports the view that education cannot and should not be discussed in abstraction. In his opinion any discussion of education should have, as a constant reference point, the particular institutional structure of the society under consideration, including the intellectual and spiritual orientation of that society as defined by those in power, and the particular organizational and power structures within which education is provided to members of that society. This would also imply that whichever suppositions are elected, they must satisfy those who adhere to them.

3.2 Theoretical knowledge In becoming professional educators, we study different theories, philosophies, concepts and techniques through which we hope to we arrive at a clearer appreciation of what our own views and values are. Furthermore we can refine, modify, and substantiate these views and values that we hold dear through theoretical knowledge. Adam Small (in Maher & Shepherd, 1995: v) verbalizes this idea in a striking manner: In short, education of substance is education that is built around this centre of "the notion of value" and which, in relation to it, is conscious of and honestly declares its value-choices — needless to say — in a spirit of critique and selfcritique. It is "open" education: education under the auspices of freedom. Concerning the shadow-side of what is called education, it is astounding how often in "educational circles" at every level — in our primary and secondary schools, in our universities no less, and with our educational planners — there is an obliviousness to the philosophical presuppositions of what is taught and learned. "Education" turns out to be an intellectually blind wading through "knowledge". This is the real ground of "rote learning", amazingly held — held fast, and often arrogantly — by teachers, or rather would-be teachers, who are the very ones to denounce rote learning most loudly!

33 Personal life experiences We all have some sort of image in our minds of what we consider to be 'the ideal teacher'. This image, more often than not, is influenced by a particular teacher or instructor whom we admired and with whom we identified in our formative years. It is

r

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often these idols who inspire people to become teachers themselves and whose examples are followed when building an own philosophy of education. Personal experience in life can contribute to one's particular philosophy and style of teaching. For example, a person who grew up with some sort of physical or emotional handicap or disability will be influenced by his/her experiences to be particularly sensitive to the problems of handicapped children or the rights of disabled people. A frequently used adage says 'practice makes perfect'. There is nothing like hands-on experience of teaching to change and develop one's personal philosophy of education.

3.4 Conclusion Kneller (1964) is adamant that each person, in whatever walk of life, needs a philosophy of his/her own to know where he/she is going. This surely applies to education and teaching as well. In order to build an adequate philosophy of education, a teacher will have to integrate philosophical assumptions and theoretical knowledge with personal life and classroom experience. An appropriate conclusion to this chapter would be the plea Kneller (1964: 128) makes for the philosophical grounding of education: Philosophy frees the teacher's imagination and at the same time controls his intellect, By tracing the problems of education to their roots in philosophy, the teacher sees these problems in ampler perspective,

SutHtHtVUt 1 Philosophy is a framework of ideas about the nature of reality and of human life, including what is valuable in life. 2 Traditionally, the different branches of philosophy are (a) metaphysics; (b) epistemology; and (c) axiology. 3 Educational thought and practice are influenced by traditional, as well as modern and contemporary, philosophies or trends. 4 Idealists maintain that ideas are spiritual norms people can use to judge themselves and their civilization in order to determine whether there is progress and development. They see education as a means of social mobility that allows the most capable and talented persons in society to rise to the top. 5 Realists believe that truth is found in the real world around us that exists independently. Knowledge depends on what can be observed and verified by direct scientific investigation.

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6 Naturalism is based on the belief that truth consists in what can be scientifically proved by means of sensory observation or experimentation. All human activity, including education, must follow the natural rhythms and course of nature. 7 Classicism refers to various beliefs that consider God and nature as one. Truth is attained by using both reason and faith. The study of classical literary works and languages is emphasized in education since these contain everlasting truths. 8 Pragmatism represents the 'common-sense' approach to life. Truth is relative and its validity determined by its consequences or functions. In education the focus is on problem solving and functional living. 9 Existentialists see human beings as free individuals who can determine their own lives by choice. Education is aimed at developing the individual mind and its ability to choose. 10 Ideas of Marxism include a vision of a classless society where each individual contributes equally to the 'common good' of society. Education is aimed at integrating children into the structure of society and indoctrinating them in the principles of communism. 11 Liberalism emphasizes individual freedom in a dynamic, competitive society. The aim of liberal education is to free the individual's mind to enable her/him to take a personal stance in a democracy. 12 Different philosophical trends contributed to educational thought and practice in South Africa. Historically prominent trends were Afrikaner nationalism, to a lesser degree liberalism, and, more recently, African nationalism. 13 A personal philosophy of education is necessary to direct a teacher's classroom practices and facilitate critical assessment of educational policies and structures. 14 A personal philosophy of education can be developed by drawing on a study of major philosophical positions and integrating this with personal life and professional experience.

%fr»4 tutet (fatcefiU axiology deductive determinism dialectic eclecticism empiricism epistemology ideology

inductive metaphysics metatheories modernism philosophy pluralism science

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Stud&tt dttMfoa 1 List the features of the education practice you are most familiar with, either looking back at your own schooling or reflecting on any teaching experience that you may have. Focus on areas such as the type of knowledge that was included in the curriculum, the methods of teaching that were used, the teacher's attitude towards you as students and towards the subjects, the discipline in the school and the atmosphere that prevailed. Do any of the features you listed seem to belong to the philosophical bases discussed in this chapter? Make a note opposite each of these features describing the philosophy or philosophies with which they can possibly be associated. 2 Compile a check list as suggested in this chapter (section 3.1) and try to articulate your own values and opinions on different areas of life and your views on education and teaching. What do you think contributed most to the views you hold — personal convictions, life experience or professional experience, or perhaps something else? Considering your answers to this check list, do you think that teaching is the right career for you? 3 Become aware of the underlying philosophies in education policy documents and publications about our education system. Choose any contentious or critical issue in the field of education and study the different arguments and propositions on this issue. Also discuss this issue with your fellow students and friends. Can you identify the philosophies underpinning the different arguments?

^tfttoanafiAy Adam, H & H Giliomee. 1979. The Rise and Crisis of Afrikaner Power. Cape Town: David Philip Beard, P N G & W Morrow. 1981. Problems of Pedagogics: Pedagogics and the Study of Education in South Africa. Durban: Butterworths Brent, A. 1983. Philosophy and Educational Foundations. London: George Allen & Unwin Brezinka, W. 1992. Philosophy of Educational Knowledge. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers Broudy, H. 1954. Building a Philosophy of Education. New York: Prentice Hall Butler,) D. 1968. Four Philosophies and their Practice in Education and Religion. New York: Harper & Row Publishers Inc Capra, F. 1982. The Turning Point: Science, Society and the Rising Culture. London: Wildwood House Chu, D. 1971. Philosophical Foundations of American Education. Pennsylvania: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company Conference Papers. 1988. Education for Affirmation: An Appraisal of USDI. Conference held at Alpha Training Centre, Broederstroom 17-29 August 1986. Johannesburg: Skotaville Publishers Counts, G S. 1929. Criteria for judging a philosophy of education. School and Society, XXX (761) Degenaar,). 1978. Afrikaner Nationalism. Cape Town: Centre for Intergroup Studies, University of Cape Town

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PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS IN EDUCATION AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR TEACHERS Dekker, E & O J van Schalkwyk (eds). 1995. Modern Education Systems, 2 ed. Durban: Butterworths Freire, P. 1973. Education for Critical Consciousness. London: Sheed & Ward Gibson, R (ed). 1986. Liberal Education Today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Hamm, R L. 1981. Philosophy and Education. Alternatives in Theory and Practice. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers & Publishers Higgs, P (ed). 1996. Metatheories in Philosophy of Education. Heinemann Philosophy of Education Series. Johannesburg: Heinemann Home, H H. 1927. The Philosophy of Education. New York: Macmillan Howick, W H. 1980. Philosophies of Education. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers & Publishers Kimball, B. 1986. Orators and Philosophers: A History of the Idea of Liberal Education. New York: Teachers College Press Kneller, G F. 1963. Foundations of Education. New York: John Wiley & Sons Kneller, G F. 1964. Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. New York: John Wiley & Sons Kohli, W (ed). 1995. Critical Conversations in Philosophy of Education. New York: Routledge Landman, W A & C J G Kilian. 1972. Leesboek vir die Opvoedkundestudent en Onderwyser. Cape Town: Juta Leatt, J, T Kneifel & K Nurnberger (eds). 1986. Contending Ideologies in South Africa. Cape Town: David Philip Lucas, C J. 1976. Challenge and Choice in Contemporary Education. New York: Macmillan Maher, S & R Shepherd (eds). 1995. Standing on the Brink: An Education for the 21st Century. Cape Town: Novalis Press Mandela, N R. 1994. Long Walk to Freedom. London: Little, Brown & Co Marler, C D. 1975. Philosophy and Schooling. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc Perry, R B. 1912. Present Philosophical Tendencies. New York: Longmans, Green & Co Phenix, P H (ed). 1965. Philosophies of Education. New York: John Wiley & Sons Price, R F. 1977. Marx and Education in Russia and China. London: Croom Helm Usher, R & R Edwards. 1994. Postmodernism and Education. London: Routledge Van der Walt, J L & W Postma. 1987. Strominge in die Opvoedingsteorie. Hillcrest: Owen Burgess Publishers Weinberg C (ed). 1972. Humanistic Foundations of Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc Wild, J. 1955. Education and human society: A realistic view. In Modern Philosophies and Education, Part I, 54th Yearbook of the NSSE, 1756. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Woods, R G. 1972. Education and its Disciplines. London: University of London Press

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CHAPTER

FOUR

Scfaofo fa *7na*t44tiMt Prof Trudie Steyn Faculty of Education University of South Africa

With the wide media coverage South Africa enjoys, you are aware that our education system is in transition. A few changes were implemented at the dawn of the new democratic era, for example the change to a single, national Department of Education with nine provincial departments of education. Other major reforms await approval by Parliament. These include the different lypes of schools, levels of schooling, and structures to monitor access to and control the quality of education. In this chapter I describe the current education system, paying attention to the existing structures, as well as new initiatives to restructure the system. In addition, this chapter presents recent research on school effectiveness and innovative strategies for the creation of effective schools. Note: The information for this chapter was collected primarily at the end of 1995 and in the first two months of 1996. Some data will undoubtedly have changed since the field research was conducted.

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SCHOOLS IN TRANSITION

7aMe
141 141 142

2 The Structure of the Schooling System 2.1 State schools 2.2 Community schools 2.3 Farm schools 2.4 Model C schools 2.5 Private schools 2.6 Special educational needs

143 144 144 144 145 46 147

3 Levels of Formal Education 3.1 Early childhood education (preprimary education) 3.2 The general pattern of the primary and secondary school system 3.3 The junior and senior primary phase 3.4 The junior and senior secondary phases 3.5 Tertiary education 3.5.1 Universities 3.5.2 Technikons 3.5.3 Technical colleges 3.5.4 Teachers' training colleges 3.5.5 Non-formal education

149 149 51 52 53 54 154 54 154 154 155

4 Initiatives to Help Disadvantaged Students 4.1 The Gauteng Youth College 4.2 Newspapers-in-education 4.3 The PowerMatric programme

155 155 156 156

5 School Reform Initiatives 5.1 The values and principles of the education and training policy

157 157

6 The National Qualifications Framework 6.1 Motivation 6.2 Structure 6.3 Functions and structures associated with the NQF 6.3.1 The South African Qualifications Authority 6.3.2 National standards bodies 6.3.3 Qualifications councils 6.3.4 Education and training quality authorities

158 159 159 161 62 162 162 163

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7 Organization of Teaching and Learning 7.1 General education and training band: Preschool and compulsory schooling phase 7.1 .1 Early childhood development and foundation phases (birth to Grade 3) 7.1 .2 Intermediate phase (Grades 4-6) 7.1 .3 Senior phase (Grades 7-9) 7.2 The general education and training band: Adult basic education and training (ABET levels 1-4) 7.3 Further education and training band (Grades 1 0-1 2, out-of-school youth, and adult learners 7.4 Education and training for learners with special educational needs (General and further education and training bands) 7.5 Higher education and training band 7.5.1 Higher education and training and the NQF 7.5.2 Higher education and training and the National Commission on Higher Education 8 Organization of Schools 8.1 The public schools category 8.2 The independent schools category 8.3 Schedule of events 9 School Ownership 9.1 Model C schools 9.2 Farm schools 9.3 Community schools 10 Open Learning and Distance Education (FET and HET Bands)

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1 1 Curriculum Development and the NQF 1 1 .1 Outcomes-based curricula 1 1 .2 Designing a curriculum 1 2 Why Some Schools are more Effective than Other 1 2.1 A common mission 1 2.1 .1 Clear goals 12.1 .2 Instructional leadership 1 2.1 .3 Shared values and beliefs 1 2.2 Emphasis on learning 1 2.2.1 Frequent monitoring of student behaviour 1 2.2.2 High expectations of students 12.2.3 Teacher development and collegiality 1 2.2.4 Focus on instruction and curriculum

174 174 175

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163 163 164 164 164 165 166 166 166 167 168 169 171 171 172 172 172 172 173

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12.3 A climate conducive to learning 12.3.1 Student involvement 12.3.2 Physical environment 12.3.3 Recognition and rewards 12.3.4 Positive student behaviour 12.3.5 Parent and community involvement

1 79 1 79 179 1 79 179 179

1 3 Approaches to Developing Effective Schools 1 3.1 Central philosophy 1 3.2 Overall strategy 1 3.3 Community involvement 1 3.4 Empowerment 1 3.5 Active learning 1 3.6 Focus 1 3.7 Teacher expectations 1 3.8 Funding and resources

180 180 180 180 181 181 181 181 181

Summary

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Terms and Concepts

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Student Activities

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Bibliography

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/ Itt&lMtuttUM 1.1 A brief history of the South African education system As has been shown in chapter two, the historic pattern of organization in the South African education system has changed many times during this century. However, it has always been the case that schools and colleges were ethnically segregated and ultimate control of funds and policy was retained by the central government. From 1983 education was organized through the three separate 'own affairs' sectors of the tricameral Parliament catering for white people (House of Assembly: HOA), coloured people (House of Representatives: HOR), and Indians (House of Delegates: HOD) respectively. The House of Assembly was organized into four semiautonomous provincial departments. In this predemocratic era South Africa had fifteen different Ministries of Education: four in the 'independent' homelands, six in the self-governing territories, one responsible for the Department of Education and Training (catering for Africans outside the homelands), one in each of the three houses of the tricameral Parliament, and one for the Department of National

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Education (ONE). The DNE controlled policy and budgetary allocations on behalf of the central government and was responsible for coordinating and establishing country-wide norms and standards (DE, 1995b). Each of the old education ministries which controlled schools had its own configuration of models of school ownership, governance, and funding. Until recently, all these departments functioned more or less in isolation from each other, except at the top management level (DE, 1995a). In 1995 the predemocratic ethnic departments started to be absorbed into new non-racial national and provincial departments. The new education and training policies, designed to address the legacies of underdevelopment and inequitable development and the provision of learning opportunities for all, are based on the constitutional guarantees of nondiscrimination and equal rights for all persons. As you already know, the South African education system is currently in a process of transformation. For the first time in South Africa's history, the government has the mandate to plan the development of the education and training system of the country as a whole and for all its people. The government is adamant that the transition to a new education system should not lead to further destabilization or disruption of education (Marais, 1994).

1.2 The transition to new education departments In terms of the 1993 Constitution, the former ethnically based education departments, responsible for the provision of education under the previous Constitution, are dissolved and their staff and functions are rationalized into nine non-racial provincial departments (DE, 1995a). The nine provinces are depicted in figure 4.1. Provinces have greater responsibility in some portfolios, while there are limitations in others. Provincial departments are competent, or entitled, to make laws governing inter alia the following areas: agriculture; cultural affairs, education at all levels (excluding university and technikons); health services; welfare services; and urban and rural development. Each provincial education department is be a completely new structure (DE,1995a). At the national level, the former Department of National Education has been redesigned into the new Department of Education. This department has been instituted to make it more suited to meeting the national need for a reconstructed education system. The new Department of Education has three branches: Education and Training Systems and Resources, Education and Training Programmes, and Education and Training Support (DE, 1995a). A single, national Ministry of Education and Training and provincial education and training authorities are responsible for the development and implementation of all aspects of education and training policy (ANC, 1995).

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Figure 4.1 Provinces in the Republic of South Africa

2 76e Sfatttwte ol tAe ScAoofaa SvtfetK Different types of schools existed in the predemocratic era. However, types of institutions at the time of writing this chapter may differ completely from the new system of schooling envisaged. This is discussed in the section on school initiatives. The following types of educational institutions were found in the South African education system, prior to the implementation of the Education White Paper 2 (DE, 1996a).

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2.1 State schools An examination of former models of school ownership in South Africa shows that, although the state provided the bulk of money for schooling, most schools were not state (or public) schools (DE, 1995b). 'State schools' were those schools that were owned and financed by the state; they often charged school fees, but these were not legally enforceable and the schools did not depend on them for teacher salaries, maintenance of school grounds and buildings, stationery, textbooks, or library and laboratory facilities. In South Africa the number of state schools was approximately one third of the total number of primary and secondary schools in the country. About 40 % of the state schools are in the former Transkei and the overwhelming majority of these were former community schools whose designation was changed but whose conditions remained similar to those of community rather than state schools.

2.2 Community schools These schools were the dominant type in the former homelands (DE, 1995b). In rural areas these schools were built and maintained by communities. The community raigfit have received a subsidy on completion of the building, depending on the availability of funds, and schools were built by some of the poorest communities with no state subsidy at all. In urban areas, or townships, community schools were generally built by the state. The government paid only for teachers' salaries, textbooks, and stationery. All other expenses (those of building maintenance, equipment, educational resources, etc) had to be covered by the school community. Community schools had statutory governance composed of partners and generally known as school committees. These had no real power to influence school policy but did play a role in mobilizing community funding in order to pay for new buildings, maintenance costs, and other running expenses. Some rural communities employed privately paid teachers to make up for inadequate provision by education departments. These teachers were often unqualified. Traditional leaders had an important influence in the governance of many rural community schools. They were responsible for allocating the land on which the schools were built and generally controlled the collection of community funds for the building of classrooms.

23 Farm schools Farm schools on private farms catered for the children of black farm workers and were under the jurisdiction of the former Department of Education and Training (DE, 1995b). The Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953 originally envisaged that farm schools would be established and maintained for the purpose of educating the children of

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workers on that particular farm. Until as late as 1994 other children could attend a farm school only with the assent of the Director-General of the Department of Education and Training. Farm schools belonged to the farmers on whose farms they are established, but the farmers received a subsidy amounting to 100 % of building costs and 50 % of maintenance costs. The cost of school furniture, teachers' salaries, and current expenses were carried by the state. The whole farm school system depended on the willingness of private farmers to maintain schools on their farms. Some farmers were generous in their contributions, providing transport, water, and other facilities. Nonetheless, the system resulted in massive underprovision of schooling. It is estimated that approximately 50 % of children who lived on white-owned farms did not attend schools. Only about one farm in ten had a school and approximately 95 % of these schools were primary schools. According to NEPI (1993b) Innovative strategies will be required to overcome the disadvantages of remote farm schools'. As regards governance, the governing body of a farm school could either be the owner or manager of a farm, or a governing body consisting of the owner or manager and/or elected parents. While some farmers did establish governing bodies including parents, they were not obliged to do so. The farmer had wide-ranging powers over management and professional matters. Among these were the powers to control the admission of learners, to advise the department on the appointment, control, and discharge of teachers, to close the school (subject to his registration contract with the department), to control the subsidization of the school, and to control school funds.

2.4 Model C schools Three different models were introduced into former white schools in the predemocratic era (NEPI, 1992). * Model A — a private school which was established after the closing of an ordinary public school and which was subsidized with 45 % of the operating costs; * Model B — an ordinary public school which could determine its own admission policy within the provisions of the Constitution. This model had no further financial implications for the parent/school community; * Model C— an ordinary public school which was declared a state-aided school and where the state paid staff salaries. After a joint media statement it was announced that all status quo and Model B schools would be classified as Model C schools from 1 April 1992, except where management councils could determine by means of an opinion poll according to prescribed procedures that a minimum of two thirds of the parent community was in favour of the present management model of the particular school (Marais & Pienaar, 1992).

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The rationale for the introduction of these models was to cut down on state expenditure on white education and to narrow the gap between racial groups (Claassen, 1995). Prior to April 1992, schools which wanted to become Model C schools in order to enrol pupils from other ethnic groups in terms of their own admission policy required a very high percentage parent vote (more than 90 % in favour out of a minimum 80 % voter turnout). In Model C schools the state paid for teachers' salaries according to a fixed learnerteacher ratio. In practice this amounted to 75-85 % of operating costs. All other expenses had to be paid by the governing body elected by parents of the school. The governing body had a number of responsibilities (DE, 1995b): * It determined the general thrust of the school policy. * It set financial policy and managed the funds of the school. * It determined tuition fees and could sue defaulting parents, but would not expe children or deny them the opportunity to learn simply on account of non-payment of fees by parents. * It generated its own funds and resources. * It appointed, promoted and dismissed staff members, subject to applicable labour laws. * It could appoint staff members in addition to those paid by the state, and pay their salaries from school fees. * It decided on additional curriculum programmes as desired by parents. * It took responsibility for maintaining the school's facilities and could undertake additional capital expenditure. * It determined the school's admission policy. The introduction of the Model C system appeared to have increased parental involvement in school affairs, in some cases unleashing the creative development and planning initiatives of school communities and mobilizing substantial additional funds for use by the school (DE, 1995b). At some of these schools the school fees were used to provide bursaries for learners who could otherwise not afford to attend the school.

What is your view on Model C (state-aided) schools? How do you feel about their being abolished in the democratic South Africa? Will parents continue to pay school fees in state-aided schools?

2.5 Private schools There is a relatively small number of private schools in South Africa (DE, 1995b). These schools include a very diverse range of institutions established by a variety of

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sponsors (including religious bodies) to serve both affluent and poor communities (ANC, 1995). A distinction is made between secular and religious schools. An umbrella body, the Independent Schools Association (ISA), links many of the private schools. The number of private schools increased from 93 in 1993 to 550 in 1996, totalling more than 160 000 learners (Finansies en Tegniek, 1996). Until recently curricula (the term used in the past to describe programmes of learning, including the broad, core, and subject curricula) were content based (DE, 1996b). (For a discussio of types of curricula, see chapter seven.) Private schools range from well-funded schools, charging fees of over R15 000 a year and catering largely (but not exclusively) for an affluent elite, to poorly resourced inner-city schools catering for refugees from the predemocratic schooling situation in townships and informal settlements. Between these is a whole range of schools, with a variety of fees, which attempt to meet the religious, cultural, methodological, or other needs of various groups in society. Private schools must register with a state education department and must comply with certain minimum requirements for registration (DE, 1995b). These requirements include, inter alia, a school calendar, minimum qualifications requirements for teaching staff, approved school buildings and grounds, and a minimum number of learners to be enrolled at the school at all times. The education department should also be satisfied that the private school will make a contribution to the provision of education in the particular area and will not prejudice existing public schools. Private schools must also submit prescribed reports (eg an audited financial statement) and be open to inspection by the education department. Private schools are subsidized by the state education department and are divided into three categories for this purpose by the minister responsible: a 50 % category, a 25 % category, and a 0 % category (DE, 1995b). These subsidies are based on an estimate of the recurring costs and expenditure for the renewal and replacement of fixed assets. Private schools raise most of their funding through fees. Governance of private schools is in the hands of their owners, who could be private individuals, companies, trusts, or churches.

Do you regard private schools as elitist? What role do they play in the provision of education in South Africa?

2.6 Special educational needs Specialized education is provided for children who are handicapped, mentally retarded, or pedagogically neglected. However, the education services available for special education needs in South Africa do not fulfil the estimated needs of learners (DE, 1995b). Provision for learners with special education needs has been racially

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fragmented, which has resulted in inequalities in provision across the system. In some of the former departments low priority has been accorded to the education of these children. Unfortunately not all children in South Africa with special education needs are in school. According to 1985 statistics, only 0,1 % of the total black school-going population was enrolled in special education facilities in that year. Mainstreaming by default rather than intent has been the norm in black education, as no other facilities have been available. The moderately to mildly handicapped are frequently found in the mainstream classroom. Their needs are often not recognized and such children receive no support. Large classes, especially in rural areas, are often the reason for this oversight. In urban and semi-urban areas, schools and training institutions are segregated by category of disability, for example the specifically learning disabled, the intellectually handicapped, the physically handicapped, the neurologically handicapped (cerebral palsied and epileptic), the visually handicapped, and the aurally impaired (DE, 1995b; Behr, 1988). There are, however, many children, especially those who are socially disadvantaged and those in rural areas, whose special education needs remain unmet.

Figure 4.2 Schools by category (DE, 1995b)

Most schools have boards of management or management committees. In state and state-aided schools, criteria for membership of these bodies are laid down by the national Department of Education. Many schools also have sponsoring bodies. Members of these sponsoring bodies are in the majority on governing bodies; representatives of the relevant education department comprise the remainder of the membership, with the principal as ex officio member.

14ff

SCHOOLS IN TRANSITION

Figure 4.2 depicts the percentages of the different types of schools, as well as the percentages of enrolments in each type.

3 £e#efa at ^0wta£ Sdxtatew The levels at which the various types of institutions operate are indicated in table 4.1. (The shaded parts indicate the levels at which the particular sector operates.) Table 4.1 Relationship between formal education sectors and level of education in South Africa in 1993 (ONE, 1993) LEVEL OF EDUCATION

SECTOR

Prepnmary education

Primary education

Secondary education

Postsecondary education

Tertiary education

Public ordinary school education Private ordinary school education Special school education Technical college education Teacher training Technikons Universities

3.1 Early childhood education (preprimary education) Early childhood education was regarded as an essential ingredient of the total process of schooling during the predemocratic era, although it was never a properly developed education system (Claassen, 1995). Only an estimated 16 % of white children, the sector with the best-developed early childhood education, received some form of early childhood education before the age of 6 years. Attendance at a preprimary school or class is not compulsory, but a child can be admitted at the age of 3, provided accommodation is available. Preprimary education facilities fall into several categories: * classes attached to schools; * schools that are run by private individuals, religious bodies, or welfare organizations; * classes established for handicapped children (Behr, 1988: 118).

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Creches, or care centres, function under the administration of the Department of Health and Welfare and are mainly concerned with providing for the physical wellbeing of the children of working mothers (Behr, 1988). Some creches, however, include early childhood education as part of their programme. The early childhood programme provides for a regular routine, including moral and religious education, as well as creative activities designed to develop an aesthetic sense and an interest in language and music (Behr, 1988). No formal teaching is allowed. Informal activities in which children participate individually or in groups stimulate intellectual and social development. The deteriorating situation for young children in South Africa since 1986 is reflected in worsening mortality rates for all races, increased rates of malnutrition, hepatitis, AIDS, and tuberculosis, and increases in child abuse and child labour, especially on farms (NEPI, 1993a). Combining health, nutrition, and education services for young children in poor communities is a way of addressing the needs of children in these communities. Reconstruction and development programmes which address the basic needs of families are vital; their successful implementation will improve the life chances of young children and enable families and communities to care for them more adequately. Early childhood development depends on and contributes to community development, and the education of parents should go hand in hand with the education of their children. This implies a close link between adult basic education and early childhood development. Early childhood development (ECD) is an umbrella term referring to the processes which help children from birth to nine years grow and thrive physically, mentally, emotionally, morally, and socially (DE, 1995a). ECD programmes include a variety of strategies and a wide range of services aimed at assisting families and communities to meet the needs of children within this age group. These programmes are crucial in the present context of reconstruction and development, as impoverished families are not able to meet the developmental needs of their children without assistance (DE, 1995a). There are currently several different forms of preschool provision, and new programmes are continually being developed. The most common forms of provision serve children directly, either in the conventional school-type model or in homebased child-minding arrangements (NEPI, 1993a). One important difference between preschool provision and later schooling is the need for both care and education of the young child (NEPI, 1993a). This leads to programmes of different duration — from two hours to all day (eight to twelve hours) for the children of working mothers. There are different sources that provide for the care and education of young children: * The state has played a very limited role in providing early childhood services (NEPI 1993a). Nevertheless there has been a substantial increase in provision for black children, mainly because of the need for full-day care for the children of mothers working outside their homes. Among the previous education departments

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responsible for black children, only two, namely Lebowa and Bophuthatswana, provided support for substantial numbers of preschool children. State-supported provision increased steadily in these two former homelands, whereas KwaZulu ha been withdrawing support from preprimary schools since 1992. In all communities, parents and community organizations, especially churches, have played a significant role in providing and financing preschool services (NEPI, 1993a). The majority of children (65 %) attend centres which receive no support from education departments. Parent and community committees are also responsible for managing the majority of centres which are not subsidized by the state. An increasing number of individuals are setting up centres on a profitmaking basis. The support offered by NGOs to early childhood centres is mainly of a technical nature, with the aim of promoting the development of community-based provision. A number of welfare agencies assist in initiating and managing early childhood and home-based centres (NEPI, 1993a). The private sector and trade unions are beginning to play a role in supporting early childhood centres for the children of employees. In the larger urban areas, work-based facilities are problematic because of difficulties with transport. On farms there are an estimated 950 facilities offering various kinds of early childhood programmes for 14 250 children (NEPI, 1993a). The private sector also provides a limited amount of financial assistance to community early childhood projects as part of social responsibility programmes. Trade unions have negotiated improved maternity benefits and parental rights within some sectors and child-care support on an ad hoc basis, but more needs to be done. Because there has been so little government control in the preschool field, several educational foundations and international agencies have supported the development of early childhood programmes. The main contribution has been supportive, innovative work through experimental projects.

Do you think that early childhood education should play a more prominent role in the schooling system of South Africa? With limited resources, who do you think should fund these institutions?

3.2 The general pattern of the primary and secondary school system The education ladder consists of four phases: junior and senior primary, and junior and senior secondary (Urch, 1992). Table 4.2 depicts the school structure at the start of the democratic era.

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Table 4.2 The school structure (Behr, 1988) Year of Schooling Designation Phase

Age

1

2

Grade Grade A B

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Std 1

Std 2

Std 3

Std 4

Std 5

Std 6

Std 7

Std

Std 9

Std 10

Junior Primary

6+

7

8

Senior Primary

9

10

11

Junior Secondary

12

13

14

Junior Secondary

15

16

17

The four-phase system of differentiated education aims at providing a balanced education for the individual needs, talents, and abilities of students (Behr, 1988). This is accomplished throughout the four phases by different subjects in the curriculum, directions of study, and extracurricular activities.

33 The junior and senior primary phase The junior primary phase includes the first three years of formal schooling and the senior primary phase the next three. The seventh level (grade 7) is accommodated in the primary school, although it is regarded as the first year of the junior secondary phase (Behr, 1988). The primary phase aims at developing the basic skills of literacy and numeracy. Students are introduced to the arts of oral communication, reading, and writing. With a view to uniformity, the instructional programme since the beginning of 1995 comprises two core and a number of general education subjects, as well as a limited number of electives. The core subjects include mathematics and language(s) (DE, 1994). Mathematics is compulsory for Grades 1, 2 and 3. The language used as the medium of instruction (preferably the mother tongue) is a compulsory subject for Grades 1 and 2. Two languages, the language of instruction and another language (preferably the learners' mother tongue if this is not the language of instruction), are compulsory subjects in Grade 3. The subject writing must be dealt with as part of the overall language programme. The general education subjects are compulsory for Grades 1, 2 and 3, but will not be taken into account for promotability. These subjects include environmental studies, a religious subject, an art subject, class music, and physical education. The electives for Grade 1 and Grade 2 include, inter alia, a further language, family guidance, handicrafts, health education, information skills, media guidance, and youth preparedness. Electives for Grade 3 include family guidance, handicrafts, needlework, gardening, health education, information skills, media guidance, and youth preparedness. Education in the senior primary phase is broadly based and generally formative, comprising a compulsory common core and compulsory fields of study (DE, 1994). Table 4.3 depicts a weekly recommended time allocation for each subject. This is necessary in order to prioritize the subjects that comprise the formal curriculum. It

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allows for sufficient flexibility of application to permit some adaptation according to the varying needs of learners, resources available, and approaches applied at a given school. Table 4.3 Recommended weekly time albcation (general guide) (DE, 1994) Hours

Periods

10

20

Mathematics

5

10

General science

1

2

Geography

1

2

History

1

2

Compulsory fields of study

1*

3

1*

3

Compulsory common core

Language* Language*

Physical and health education Arts education Religious education

1

2

Social education**

1

2

General ***

1*

Optional time ****

1

3 1

* Equal time has been allocated in principle to the two core languages. In practice it win depend on specific local needs. ** Guidance subjects *** e g third language, book education, and writing. **** A flexible approach allows for additional time to be spent where necessary.

3.4 The junior and senior secondary phases The junior secondary phase (seventh to ninth school year) is the bridging phase from primary to secondary education (Behr, 1988). The first year of the junior secondary phase (Grade 7) is usually provided in the primary school. The curriculum is broadly based and includes such subjects as English and Afrikaans, mathematics, history, and geography. A few electives, such as accounting, business economics, typing, a European language (French, Latin, German) and technical subjects, are also offered. The senior secondary phase (tenth to twelfth school year) prepares the learner for the senior certificate or matriculation certificate examination which allows entry into tertiary institutions. A number of fields of study are offered: arts, agriculture, economic sciences, humanities, home economics, natural sciences, and technical.

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3.5 Tertiary education Tertiary education in South Africa includes universities, technikons, teachers' colleges and technical colleges (Claassen, 1995). The 1993 Constitution planned for universities and technikons to be a national function, while teachers', technical, and other colleges, were to be located under the provincial governments (DE, 1995a). 3.5.1 Universities Universities are academic institutions of higher learning with three basic tasks: tuition, research, and community service. South Africa has twenty-one universities, two of which offer distance education. A large number of degrees are offered at universities in South Africa: 144 Bachelor's degrees, 72 Honours degrees, 202 Master's degrees and 127 Doctoral degrees (Claassen, 1995). 3.5.2 Technikons Technikons provide tertiary education for middle- and high-level human resources in technology (Claassen, 1995). Fields of study and types of schools found at technikons include applied sciences (pharmacy, food technology), arts (journalism, public relations), design (fashion, photography), commerce (accounting, computer science), engineering (engineering, architecture), and life sciences (dentistry, medical technology). 3.5.3 Technical colleges In 1992 there were 129 technical colleges in South Africa, one of which offered distance education (Claassen, 1995). Technical colleges specialize in vocational education, preparing learners for work situations. Various extended certified programmes, as well as short practical courses, are offered in vocational fields such as engineering, business, agriculture, and social services. 3.5.4 Teachers' training colleges There are 104 state colleges of education: 93 are involved in preservice training on campus and 14 of these also offer diploma programmes for in-service training. Eleven colleges offer only in-service training of teachers (Hofmeyr & Hall, 1996). With the moratorium placed on teacher training it is envisaged that many of these colleges may amalgamate or close down. Two formerly racially segregated colleges, the College for Continuing Education and the College of Education of South Africa, closed in January 1996 and were replaced by a single integrated college (Pretoria News, 1995b). Teachers' training colleges educate teachers by means of three- or four-year diploma courses in primary or secondary school teaching (Claassen, 1995). A few colleges have

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entered into agreements with universities, enabling joint endorsement of the certification of teachers (Claassen, 1995). As a result/students may obtain credits towards a university degree in respect of courses followed at the teachers' training college.

Do you think tertiary institutions are elitist in a developing country such as South Africa? What role can they play in boosting the economy and developing human resources?

3.5.5 Non-formal education In the predemocratic dispensation, little accreditation was given to qualifications obtained outside the formal education system (Claassen, 1995). Non-formal education was offered primarily by non-governmental organizations (NGOs), which flourished during the last decade of the predemocratic era. Local and foreign donors supported the NGOs because NGOs, with their non-formal education programmes, were perceived to be geared to the needs of the communities in which they operated. In the new educational dispensation many such donations to NGOs have been redirected to the formal education system. Examples of educational NGOs include (Claassen, 1995): READ (Read, educate, and develop): The functions of this organization include literacy training and the provision of books and libraries to schools in needy communities. NEST (New Era Schools Trust): A number of multiracial schools with multicultural curricula were established by this organization. The racial composition of staff and learners reflect that of the country.

4 Iinitiatues to help Disadavantaged Students A number of projects have been launched to assist students and adults from disadvantaged backgrounds to pass matric. A few projects are briefly discussed.

4.1 The Gauteng Youth College The Gauteng Youth College is a new education centre run by the Gauteng Education Department (Pretoria News, 1995a). It provides a second chance for young people who want to complete their Grade 12. Specific admission requirements are set, inter alia that students should have attempted and failed Grade 12 examinations between 1991 and 1994. The programme entails a carefully designed two-year distanceeducation programme for learners who are no longer in a regular school. Courses offered at the College are indicated in table 4.4.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS Table 4.4 Courses offered at the Gauteng Youth College FIRST YEAR Communication in English

SECOND YEAR Childhood development

Integrated social studies

Integrated social studies

Mathematics

Bricklaying and plastering

Integrated science

Business studies Travel and tourism Plumbing theory Building science Mathematics Integrated science Care Technology Computer studies Building drawing

4.2 Newspapers-in-education Since Monday 29 January 1996 the Pretoria News has included Student, a regular educational supplement designed by experts to help Grade 11 and matric students through their toughest years (Pretoria News, 1996:2). The supplement includes material in mathematics, science, business economics, and accountancy. It is based on the current syllabuses and is a project of the Gauteng division of Independent Newspapers. The subjects were requested by education authorities in Gauteng and chosen in consultation with them.

43 The PowerMatric programm The Sunday Times has joined a national campaign to help South African students of all ages to acquire a matric through a revolutionary, televised 'matric of the air* (Sunday Times, 1996:1). Matric lessons have been transmitted to hundreds of television sets in learning centres throughout the country via satellite since 26 February 1996. The students use guides, tapes, and lessons broadcast after working hours to complete a twoyear course. They write examinations certified by the Independent Examinations Boar The PowerMatric offers English (second language), Afrikaans (second language), and business economics as matric courses, as well as science and mathematics foundation courses which are not of matric standard but equip students to write matric the followin year. As from 1997 PowerMatric is also offering mathematics, science, accounting, geography, Zulu (first language), and Northern Sptho (first language) as matric subjects. Non-compulsory courses in business management and vocational skills are broadcast. PowerMatric is available to people who have failed matric, who have completed Std

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10 but did not write examinations, who are one or two subjects short of matric, or who have passed Std 8 or 9 and have work experience. Do the above-mentioned projects address the needs of disadvantaged students? Would you not equate these projects with coaching rather than effective education and training? Are they not merely "Band-Aids' where intensive care is needed?

5 School Reform Initiatives In order to understand the new initiatives in education it is important to have a clear understanding of the values and principles underlying them.

5.1 The values and principles of the education and training policy The first White Paper on Education (DE, 1995a) identifies the following values and principles: * Education and training should be regarded as human rights and the state has the obligation to protect and advance these rights. * The education of children is the primary responsibility of parents and guardians and they have the right to be consulted by the state with regard to the form of education. They also have a crucial role to play in the governance of schools. * The state has an obligation to provide parents with advice and counselling on education services and to render appropriate care and educational services to young children in the community. * The goal of policy should be to enable all individuals to value, have access to, and succeed in lifelong education and training of good quality. * Open access to education and training opportunities of good quality for all children, youth, and adults must be promoted. Learners should be able to move easily from one learning context to another. * Because of the inequalities of the past there should be an emphasis on redress for those people who are disadvantaged or who are vulnerable. * The principle of equity should be adhered to to ensure that all citizens receive the same quality of learning opportunities. * Quality of education and training must be addressed and is required of all institutions or organizations involved in education and training. * The rehabilitation of educational institutions is linked to the restoration of ownership of these institutions to their communities by establishing and empowering governance bodies.

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Democratic governance should be reflected in every level of the system and should take place by means of consultation and appropriate forms of decision making. To establish a culture of teaching, learning, and management, a culture of accountability should be created. Independent and critical thought should be encouraged through the curricula, teaching methods, and textbooks at all levels and in all programmes of education and training. To equip large and increasing numbers of youth and adults with the education and skills required by the economy, curriculum choice must be diversified, especially in the postcompulsory phase. In order to justify the cost of the system, to secure more funds for development when and where they are needed, and to raise the quality of performance, it is necessary to improve efficiency and productivity. It is true that values and principles underpinning changes provide direction, but aren't the values and principles of many education systems merely noble declarations of intent? Do they put their money where their mouth is? Don't these values and principles create more expectations that are difficult to meet in a developing country? Although some people question the feasibility of these values and principles, you will agree that they are sound and accountable, A few more questions can be posed: Do you think that it is easy to change to a new culture of learning? What do you think is necessary to attain it? How would the active participation of communities in the goverance of educational institutions affect the education offered? How do you think the people advantaged by the previous dispensation will react to the above-mentioned values and principles? If you consider the different educational institutions discussed earlier and the values and principles outlined above, what changes do you expect?

6 7^ %&»^ 20*1^ The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) plays a vital role in the organization of teaching and learning. It is a framework for providing access to lifelong learning by means of nationally recognized levels on which all learning standards and qualifications will be registered (DE, 1 996d). The NQF is based on a system of credits for learning outcomes achieved (National Training Board, 1 994). Qualifications may be achieved by full-time, part-time, or distance learning, by work-based learning, or by a combination of these together with an assessment of prior learning and experience.

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SCHOOLS IN TRANSITION

6.1 Motivation The following reasons are given for instituting the NQF (DE, 1996d; Saunders, 1995): * South Africa needs uniform standards for the provision of quality education and training. * The NQF will enable access to education, training and qualifications to be extended to large sections of the population which were excluded from formal education in the past. Greater flexibility of access is foreseen with the NQF. * A growing number of other countries are moving towards implementing national frameworks to improve quality management in education and training. * Learners studying within the NQF know what is expected of them and what the can expect. * Credits can be transferred and prior learning is recognized. The NQF is envisaged as being developed and implemented on an interdepartmental basis. All concerned government departments, education and training providers, and major stakeholders in education and training will participate in fully consultative processes of decision making (DE, 1995a). The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA), which will have responsibility for developing the NQF on a fully consultative basis, was brought into existence through legislation as a parastatal body (South African Qualifications Authority Act 58 of 1995).

6.2 Structure The structure of the NQF comprises eight qualification levels and is illustrated in figure . 4.3. Level 1: General Education Certificate (GEC), to be achieved by the acquisition of the required credits * by the end of the compulsory schooling phase: reception year (preschool) plus nine years to Grade 9 (present Std 7); * through adult basic education and training (ABET) programmes, which may be divided into three sublevels. Levels 2-4: Further Education Certificate (FEC), to be achieved by the acquisition of the required credits for any acceptable combination of core units and optional units undertaken in a variety of modes, including * senior secondary school programmes up to Grade 12 (previous Std 10); * general and career-specific programmes offered in the college sector, including thos offered in the current technical colleges, community colleges, intermediate tertiary colleges, other private vocational or academic colleges, and by educational NGOs; * programmes offered in the regional training centres, through workplace training, etc.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Levels 5-8: Higher Education and Training (MET) certificates, diplomas and degrees, to be achieved by the acquisition of the required credits in programmes offered by * * * * NQF level

professional colleges; professional institutes; technikons; universities.

Learning Bank

8

Types of Qualifications and Certificates Doctorates Further Research Degrees

Higher 7

Education

Higher Degrees Professional Qualifications

and 6

Training

First Degrees Higher Diplomas

Band 5

Diplomas Occupational Certificates

Locations of Learning for Units and Qualifications Technikons/Universities Tertiary/Research/Professional institutions Technikons/Universities Tertiary/Research/Professional institutions U n i versities/Techn i kons/Co lieges/ Private/Professional institutions/ Workplaces, etc Universities/Techni kons/Co lieges/ Private/Professi onal institutions/ Workplaces, etc

FURTHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING CERTIFICATE 4

Further Education

3

and

Training 2

Band

School/College/Training Certificates Mix of unit credits from all

School/College/Training Certificates

Formal high schools/ Private/ Public schools

Mix of unit credits from all School/College/Training Certificates Mix of unit credits from all

Technical/ RDP and Community/ labour market schemes/ Police/ Industry Training Nursing/ 3 rivate colleges, etc Boards/Unions/ Workplace centres, etc

GENERAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING CERTIFICATE (end of compulsory school ing/ABET 4)

1

General Education and

Training Band

Senior Phase Grades 7-9

ABET level 4

Intermedicate phase Grades 4-6

ABET level 3

Foundation phase Grades 1-3

ABET level 2

Preschool

ABET leveM

Years

Formal schools (urban /rural/fami/ special/ early childhood development centres

Work- based NGOs/ training/ Churches/ Occupational Adult centres/ training/ Private providers/ RDP/Labour market Industry schemes/ training Upliftment boards/ programmes/ Unions/ Community Workplace training, programmes/ etc. Development schemes

Figure 4.3 The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) (Human Sciences Research Council, 1995)

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SCHOOLS IN TRANSITION

6.3 Functions and structures associated with the NQF The South African Qualifications Authority Act 58 of 1995 provides for functions that will need to be performed by identified structures in order to put the framework into operation. The planned NQF has several structural elements. Their functioning is depicted in figure 4.4.

1

2

Roleplayers/Stakeholders in education and training establish SGBs which generate standards subject to SAQA guidelines

NSBs registered by SAQA evaluate proposed standards in terms of qualifications, consult with QCs, and submit standards to SAQA

Standards forwarded

Standards and qualifications recommended

3 SAQA • approves and registers standards and qualifications on the NQF

Interface

• publishes registered standards and qualifications on a monthly basis

4 Providers draw standards, develop their own learning programmes, and offer education and training

Monitoring on basis of accreditation

SGBs: NSBs:

Standards-Generating Bodies National Standards Bodies

QCs: SAQA:

Qualifications Councils South African Qualifications Authority

ETQAs:

Education and Training Quality Authorities

Interface

5 ETQAs accredited by SAQA monitor the provision of education and training

Figure 4.4 The NQF in action (HSRC, 1995)

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

63.1 The South African Qualifications Authority The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) will be established in terms of the South African Qualifications Act (HSRC, 1995). SAQA has two essential functions in terms of the Act: developing the rules for the NQF and overseeing the implementation of the new system. Other functions of SAQA include * defining the 8 levels of the NQF and the sublevels of the general education and training band; * defining the format in which the unit standard has to be presented in order to be registered on the NQF (a unit standard being a document listing the outcomes that are to be achieved by the individual in order to obtain credit for the unit and providing identification and administrative information); * defining the requirements for the registration of a qualification at the various levels on the NQF (where qualification refers to the formal recognition by SAQA of the required number and range of credits and other possible requirements at a specific level on the NQF, as determined by the relevant bodies for such purpose); * developing policies and procedures for registration of standards and qualifications, defining requirements for qualifications, and accreditation of education and training qualifications authorities; * developing procedures to ensure that all the above continue to serve the needs of society. SAQA will be responsible for ensuring that the above policies, procedures and standards, once established, are implemented through the national standards bodies, the qualifications councils, and the education and training qualifications authorities. 63.2 National standards bodies National standards bodies (NSBs), established by SAQA, oversee the setting of standards in the various fields of learning (DE, 1996b). NSBs work in cooperation with the national Department of Education, national institutes for lifelong learning development (NILLD), and other relevant departments. They consist of the main stakeholders in the field. Unit standards are forwarded to NSBs from standardsgenerating bodies (SGBs), which generate standards according to SAQA guidelines. The NSBs then evaluate the unit standards and recommend them to SAQA for approval and registration on the NQF. 63.3 Qualifications councils Qualifications councils (QCs) deal with qualifications (DE, 1996b). The Act proposes four groupings to recommend qualifications standards: one each for the higher and further education and training bands, and two for the general education and training band (one for compulsory schooling and one for adult basic education and training) (HSRC, 1995).

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SCHOOLS IN TRANSITION

6.3.4 Education and training quality authorities While the national standards bodies have the task of setting standards, the education and training quality authorities (ETQAs) have the task of implementing and monitoring standards (HSRC, 1 995). They are thus responsible for quality assurance of SAQA-accredited programmes, including their delivery. ETQAs will support providers of education and training in improving the quality of their courses and in developing skills where shortcomings are detected, until the criteria can be met.

7 Oiqaufyatfat o£ *}eacAi*t$ and, .de&utfafy Having established this background on the functioning of the NQF, we can now pay attention to the organization of teaching and learning as proposed by the NQF. School and adult basic education and training (ABET) are divided into two bands: * general education and training, and * further education and training. The general education and training band is intended to provide a broad and exploratory base enabling learners to make informed choices between the different options in the further education and training band (Curriculum Framework, 1 995). The general education and training band is divided into three school phases, according to the developmental levels of children, and into four levels for ABET.

7.1 General education and training band: preschool and compulsory schooling phase The general education and training band has a number of distinct phases, discussed below.

7.1.1 Early childhood development and foundation phases (birth to Grade 3) The early childhood development (ECD) sector theoretically covers the education of learners from birth to nine years of age and falls under the Department of Education (Curriculum Framework, 1995), but the first four years of We are not addressed in the Curriculum Framework. It is the joint responsibility of the Department of Education and other departments such as Health and Welfare to develop learning programmes for this phase. Representatives of the preschool, foundation, and intermediate phases will work together to ensure continuity in the progression through the whole ECD sector. Initial learning and teaching will be wholly integrated with very little need to distinguish one area of learning from another. However, areas or fields of learning characteristic of the general and further education and training bands will also inform teaching and learning in this phase.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

7.1.2 Intermediate phase (Grades 4-6) In the intermediate phase, teaching and learning begin to move in the direction of those areas of learning informing general and further education and training, but remain contextualized and integrated (Curriculum Framework , 1995). In this phase learners are capable of understanding relationships between materials, incidents, circumstances and people, and are able to deduce the consequences of such relationships. This has implications for the selection of learning content and of teaching and learning activities. As peer acceptance plays a prominent role in this phase, group work and peer assessment feature prominently.

7.13 Senior phase (Grades 7-9) This is the last phase of the general education and training band before the General Education and Training Certificate (Curriculum framework, 1995), and also the last phase of compulsory schooling. Because the senior phase culminates in a national assessment, there is a distinct danger that the focus on attaining the necessary unit standards could lead to a neglect of holistic teaching and learning in general, and integration of education and training, theory and practice in particular. The learning content in this phase is less contextualized, more abstract, and more area-specific than in the previous phases because learners are increasingly capable of reasoning independently of concrete materials and experience (Curriculum Framework, 1995).

7.2 The general education and training band: adult basic education and training (ABET levels 1-4) Owing to the historic inadequacy of school education, especially in black communities, most adults have inadequate or no schooling (DE, 1995a). It is estimated that about fifteen million black people (over 33 % of the population) are illiterate and have had little or no education. Adult basic education and training (ABET) is viewed as a means to educate and train these people and is regarded as a force for social participation and economic development (ANC, 1995). Stakeholders and roleplayers (national and provincial education departments, other state departments, employers, labour providers, and NGOs) agreed nationally on the vision, provision, and assessment at the four ABET levels for adult and out-of-school learners (Curriculum Framework, 1995). The aims and broad objectives for the provision of ABET include, inter aliaf the development of communication skills in one or more language(s), the development of numeracy skills, and the development of technical and practical skills, knowledge, and understanding (Curriculum Framework, 1995). To facilitate recognition of targets attained in the course of ABET, there are three certified attainment levels prior to the General Education and Training Certificate (GEC). A single, national qualification and accreditation for ABET leads to the General

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Education Certificate (ANC, 1995). This is intended to ensure horizontal and vertical mobility between ABET and the formal education system. The rules for the issuing of certificates for ABET levels 1 to 3 and the General Education and Training Certificate (ABET level 4) include the following (Curriculum Framework, 1995): * There will be units of learning (unit standards) which are defined in terms of outcome statements. * The units of learning will be clustered into three broad categories: - The fundamental category includes two compulsory fields of learning: language communications and mathematics/numeracy. - The core/contextual category includes learning outcomes to prepare people for active social, political and economic participation. The fields of learning covered in this category include social studies, industry studies, development studies, community studies, human rights, history, and political economy studies. - The technical/specialization category covers a range of areas relating to an occupation or a specialized interest, for example health care, welding, or law. (Note that ABET 4 is at the end of the senior phase of compulsory schooling and also leads to the GETC, the first qualification on the NQF.) The ABET division of the Ministry of Education and Training will be responsible for the development of a national framework of provision of ABET (ANC, 1995). Provincial and local authorities will be responsible for the provision, implementation and delivery of ABET in partnership with employers, the organized labour community, NGOs, higher education institutions and provincial training centres to ensure optimal and efficient utilization of resources. State facilities, schools and community centres will be made available to ABET classes (ANC, 1995).

7.3 Further education and training band (Grades 10-12, out-of-school youth, and adult learners) The integrated approach to education and training comes fully into its own in this phase (Curriculum Framework, 1995). The content needs to be diversified to allow for specific learning or career pathways and means of provision, such as distance education, part-time studies, etc. A number of NGOs, private, industry and statefunded providers operate in this band (DE, 1996b). This band comprises levels 2, 3, and 4 of the NQF and involves two types of state institutions: * high schools (current Stds 8, 9, and 10), and * technical schools (trimester N1, N2, and N3 courses). New institutional forms for provision of learning in this band should be developed to promote career paths and lifelong learning through the NQF, and to ensure mobility

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and access in the further education and training band (Curriculum Framework, 1995). One such new institutional form is the South African Community College Model (DE, 1996b), which provides for existing technical colleges and some other providers to be transformed into community colleges. Another possibility is to adapt provision at secondary schools to allow students to do courses of their choice at accredited institutions/organizations.

7.4 Education and training for learners with special educational needs (general and further education and training bands) Learning outcomes are the same for all learners, including those who are disabled (Curriculum Framework, 1995). Outcomes may be reached by different means, for example Braille for the visually impaired. The ideal is that learners should be accommodated in mainstream learning institutions as far as possible except where specialized support is needed for a learner to cope with disabilities.

7.5 Higher education and training band The higher education and training band comprises levels 5, 6, 7 and 8, and includes tertiary institutions (universities, technikons, and colleges), private and professional institutions, and the workplace (DE, 1996b). Although the first White Paper on Education and Training (DE, 1995a) recognizes higher education and training systems as a major resource in national development, the structure of higher education and training programmes is the inverse of what is required by the society and economy. Addressing this problem requires the involvement of two structures in the transformation of higher education: the NQF and the National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE).

7.5.1 Higher education and training and the NQF Among the benefits of the NQF for higher education and training (MET) are the following (DE, 1996b). The NQF will promote awareness of career opportunities; increase the emphasis on improved performance for providers, learners and stakeholders; develop mechanisms to encourage linkages between education, research, and commercial interests; enhance access to and flexibility of options for learners; and facilitate achievement of both quality and relevance across the education and training system. Although entry of MET into the NQF is advocated it has institutional as well as sector implications (DE, 1996b). Two questions highlighting institutional implications are: * How would institutional or faculty qualifications in an outcomes-based format be described? (What will the learner with such a qualification know and be able to do?) and * How will assessment criteria for achievement in various phases be described?

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In the case of sector implications it will be necessary to agree on the definitions of protected terms, for example: * What is a university? * What is a technikon? * What is meant by - a first degree; - a postgraduate diploma; - an undergraduate diploma? Furthermore, the SAQA Act of 1995 gives SAQA and its relevant bodies authority to approve new qualifications (DE, 1996b). It implies that some sort of higher education and training qualifications council should be established and procedures laid down to ensure that new qualifications meet agreed standards. Apart from these implications, a number of concerns were also raised about the impact of the NQF on higher education (Saunders, 1995): * The NQF could lead to overbureaucratization because higher education will involve a complex range of structures across subject fields and qualification levels. * There may be an expectation of guaranteed admission to the next level once a person has achieved a credit for a registered course. * Recognition of prior learning and the notion of credit transfer will lead to pressure towards uniformity in national qualifications and a national degree curriculum.

7.5.2 Higher education and training and the National Commission on Higher Education No official enquiry into the whole of the postsecondary sector has ever been undertaken in South Africa. The new democracy needs to have confidence in higher education and training institutions, especially given the massive influence which they have on the cultural, social, scientific, technological and professional formation of the country's leadership (NCHE, 1995). Following government approval of a proposal by the Minster of Education to appoint the National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE), the President issued a proclamation providing for the establishment of that Commission (NCHE, 1995). The NCHE proposes that higher education and training consist of all the learning programmes leading to qualifications that represent a level of learning higher than the present matriculation, or higher than the Further Education Certificate in the National Qualifications Framework. The aim is to investigate all aspects of higher education and training and to make appropriate recommendations (NCHE, 1995). The Commission also aims to produce new policies for the entire higher education and training sector in a manner that will herald the beginning of a new cooperative and participative relationship between all stakeholders in higher education and training.

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The NCHE operates as a unified commission which receives and assesses submissions, undertakes site visits, establishes task groups and technical committees, commissions research, synthesizes findings, formulates proposals, debates interim reports from stakeholders, and makes recommendations to the Minister and stakeholder bodies. Clearly, the NQF and the NCHE have a difficult task because the more specialized a band is, the more difficult it becomes to set standards at different levels in particular fields of learning.

To prove this point, if you had to distinguish between the outcomes or standards of a first teaching degree and a professional teaching diploma, what would you identify in each?

8 Organization of Schools According to the first White Paper on Education and Training, educating and training the people in South Africa is regarded as a priority of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). This document states: Appropriate education and training can empower people to participate effectively in all processes of democratic society, economic activity, cultural expression, and community life, and help citizens to build a nation free of race, gender and every other form of discrimination. (DE, 1995a) This statement recognizes the primary function of educational institutions, namely to move people into the mainstream of society and to equip them with the necessary skills and knowledge to assist in developing themselves and the society. The new structure of school governance intends to create conditions for developing a national education system which advances redress, the equitable use of public resources, an improvement in educational quality across the system, democratic governance, and school-provincial decision making within provincial guidelines (DE, 1996a). The transformation of the South African public school system is taking place within the context of the transition era in South African politics. It is indisputable that the change to the future system of school governance must be negotiated, although its new direction and moral basis are already decided, both in the Constitution and in the government's policy (DE, 1996a). The policy of the Minister of Education is that there shall be only two categories of schools in future: public schools and independent schools. Once the necessary negotiations in terms of section 247 of the Constitution had taken place, the Ministry

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of Education was to table an Act during the 1996 session of Parliament which would place the various state and state-aided schools within a single category of public schools (DE, 1996a). The public schools category will comprise all schools currently known as community schools, farm schools, state schools, or state-aided schools (including church schools, Model C schools, mine schools, and others). The independent schools category will cover all schools currently known as private or independent schools.

8.1 The public schools category The proposal to bring all present public sector schools into one single category of public schools marks the start of a process of orderly change which is intended to maintain the positive characteristics of all existing school models and promote a spirit of partnership between the provincial education authorities and local communities (DE, 1996a). Provincial education authorities are to integrate the present public school types into a coherent system of public schools after negotiations with school governing bodies in terms of section 247 of the Constitution. According to the proposal, public schools would have the following characteristics in common (DE, 1996a): * Each public school would represent a partnership between the provincial education department and the local community. * Public schools would be funded totally or largely from public resources, that is, provincial education department budgets. * Their admission policies would support the national and provincial governments' responsibilities for the provision of education. * The policy of each public school would be determined within the national and provincial frameworks by a governing body comprising elected representatives of the main stakeholders of the school. The Ministry of Education proposes the empowerment of governing bodies to assume the responsibility within the national and provincial policy frameworks. * The salaries of teachers in each public school would be paid by the provincial educational department according to a staff provision scale, and these teachers would be appointed in each public school by the provincial education department on the recommendation of the schools' governing body. As the public schools category is so broad, room would be made for variety within it (DE, 1996a): * All public schools would have governing bodies with significant responsibilities, but some would take on wider responsibilities from the province than others, especially financial responsibilities, depending on their capacities and inclinations. * Farm schools, schools on tribally owned land, schools for learners with special education needs, and technical schools would be governed in basically the same

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way as the other public schools, but the distinctive needs of such schools would be accommodated. * All state and state-aided schools for learners with special education needs would become public special schools. * Some schools which are owned by religious organizations or industries could be taken into the public school system subject to certain conditions, on the basis of partnership agreements negotiated between the owners and the provincial education department concerned. Core values of democracy form the basis of governance policy for public schools (DE, 1996a). The establishment of governing bodies in all public schools will follow the negotiations prescribed by the Constitution and the enactment of the South African Schools Act 27 of 1996. Ministry of Education proposes that public school governing bodies consist of elected representatives of * * * * * *

parents or guardians of learners currently enrolled at the school; teachers; learners (in secondary schools only); non-teaching staff; the principal (ex officio); members of the community, elected by the governing body.

Governing bodies will have authority in the following areas (DE, 1996a): Broad policy * Determine the school's mission, aims, and objectives. * Develop, implement, and review governing body policies. * Promote the best interests of the school community. Personnel * Recommend and negotiate teachers' temporary and permanent appointments (in consultation with the provincial department). * Recommend administrative staff appointments (in consultation with the provincial department). Admissions * Determine the admission policy (in consultation with the provincial department). Curriculum * * * &

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Determine school times and timetable. Determine the language policy. Determine the school-level curriculum choices. Determine extracurricular activities.

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financial * * * <j>

Raise voluntary contributions. Purchase textbooks and equipment. Pay light and water accounts. Determine school budget priorities.

Maintenance * Maintain school buildings. Communication & Report to parents and the school community. Community services * Provide local services for children and youth. * Participate in community social, health, recreational, and nutritional programmes.

If you compare the responsibilities of governing bodies in the public schools with those in Model C schools, what similarities are there?

8.2 The independent schools category The policy of the Ministry of Education is that schools previously known as private schools will be known as independent schools (DE, 1996a). Independent schools should be registered legally with the provincial department and comply with the conditions of registration laid down by the province. Home schools are a specific case of independent schools. Home schooling may be a reasonable option in various cases. The Department of Education is examining the relevant laws of other countries to determine the most suitable framework for the recognition of home schooling (DE, 1996a).

8.3 Schedule of events At the time of writing, three linked processes were awaiting the approval of Education White Paper 2 by Cabinet: the Ministry's school finance policy, the draft South African Schools Bill, and the Ministry's negotiating position (DE,T996a). The Ministry of Education intended to tabfe the South African Schools Bill in Parliament during the 1996 session. Since the processes are linked, this sets the pace. The Ministry of Education intended to seek the Cabinet's approval of all three documents before March 1996 or as soon as possible thereafter. The publication of the three documents

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in early April 1996 would set in motion the process of formal negotiations on school governance, as contemplated in section 247 of the Constitution.

9 School Ownership The issue of school ownership is the most complex of the legacies of the previous education system (DE, 1996a).

9.1 Model C schools It is the policy of the Ministry of Education to ensure that the property which was transferred in the past from the state to the legal personae of these schools is transferred back to the state (DE, 1996a). This will amount to expropriation and will need to be undertaken in terms of the law governing expropriation. The question of property which may have been donated or bequeathed to former Model C schools or received in trust by them subject to specific conditions will need to be considered on a case by case basis (DE, 1996a).

9.2 Farm schools A review committee advised that the farm school system had outlived its usefulness. The high dropout rate, the critically limited provision at secondary school level and the lack of resources in the system to implement an appropriate curriculum cannot meet the demands for an internationally competitive agricultural production (DE, 1996a). Provision of education in rural areps must be integrated and rationalized at district level in order to optimize resources. The committee was of the opinion that the land and assets of farm schools should be transferred to the state in order to guarantee control, access, and their use for educational purposes. Although the Ministry of Education agrees with the committee's proposal, the owners of the land on which the schools have been erected should retain ownership for the time being. The acquisition of farm schools must be negotiated, and provision was to be made for these matters in the South African Schools Bill (DE, 1996c).

9.3 Community schools The review committee found community schools to be a very complex matter (DE, 1996a). The land and assets were already in public hands. The Ministry was advised that it would be necessary to expropriate the land on which community schools were conducted (DE, 1996a). The South African Schools Bill would order that control over community schools be vested in the provincial education department, that access to schools by interested parties may not be reasonably denied, and that no such schools may be closed without the approval of

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the provincial department of education. These matters would also be included in the agenda for negotiation.

In the light of the proposed changes to the school system discussed earlier, how do you think the communities/owners of the above-mentioned schools will react?

10 Ofie* Jletvwwy a*td *DtitA*tce Sdutdtfat (JS1 <wt'%g7 %**uU) The reconstruction and development of the education and training system in line with lifelong learning requires a transformation in the delivery of education and training (ANC, 1 995). To meet these requirements it is necessary to reorganize the delivery of education and training within an open-learning framework. Open learning is an approach to education and training which seeks to remove barriers to learning, thus increasing access to, and allowing people to benefit from, learning opportunities throughout their life (ANC, 1995). Open learning focuses on the learner and on the outcomes of learning. Learning takes place in many contexts, at a number of sites, by a variety of mechanisms, and is available to all people of all ages. Open learning strives to recognize and accredit types of learning other than formal learning.

Do you foresee difficulties in determining the learning outcomes and the level of education in contexts outside formal educational institutions?

Distance education has significance for open-learning approaches because it has shown great potential for opening learning opportunities (ANC, 1995). Distance education is a structured learning process where learner and teacher are separated by time and space. It is designed to provide a learning environment using a variety of media, tutorial support, peer group discussion, and practical sessions. Although distance education is a cost-effective method of providing education when used in mass educational programmes, it is not a cheap and easy alternative to conventional education (ANC, 1995). A number of criteria should be met for distance education to be effective: well-designed courses, learner support, efficient administrative processes, and appropriate organizational structures and evaluation procedures

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To facilitate the development of an open-learning approach to education and training, including distance education, a National Open Learning Agency (NOLA) will be established as a statutory body (ANC, 1995). The functions of NOLA will be * to facilitate the development of educational programmes based on the principles of open learning; * to facilitate the development and establishment of the institutional infrastructure necessary for the successful implementation of distance education and training programmes; * to facilitate and coordinate the development of learning material and courses; * to ensure that open learning and distance education and training institutions operate within the NQF; * to advocate the principles of open learning.

// (fanteduwVe^^ The proposed structure of the NQF has necessitated an overhaul of the learning programmes in the nation's schools and colleges (DE,1995a), and forty-one national curriculum committees have been created to address this need. These committees include representatives of the national and provincial departments of education, as well as the other roleplayers, and are coordinated by a representative Coordinating Committee for the School Curriculum.

11.1 Outcomes-based curricula The identification and definition of knowledge areas is an important element of curriculum development, including outcomes-based curriculum development (Curriculum Framework, 1 995). It is important to note that until recently curricula (the term used in the past to describe learning programmes, including the br0ad, core, and subject curricula) were content-based (DE, 1996b). The shift to an outcomes-based education and training system makes good sense in terms of mobility from one learning context to another, integrating education and training, opening access to learning, and recognizing prior learning. In outcomes-based education and training, the focus is on what learners know and can do at the end of a course of learning and teaching (Curriculum Framework, 1 995). Outcomes-based curriculum development processes have as their point of departure the intended results (outputs) of learning and teaching rather than the selection of prescribed input (knowledge areas/content). Jt does not mean that learning outcomes should replace knowledge areas, but that the definition of learning outcomes should be the first step in the curriculum development process (Curriculum Framework, 1 995). It is with this in mind that the Curriculum Framework includes a number of areas of learning appropriate to the South African context. The term areas of learning, rather

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than subjects or field, is chosen because of the tentative boundaries of each of the knowledge areas. The following areas of learning are proposed for the general and further education and training bands (Curriculum Framework, 1995): * Communication, literacy, and languages; * Numeracy and mathematics; * Human and social studies; * Physical and natural sciences; * Physical education and health; * Culture, arts, and artistic crafts; * Technology education and training; * Occupational learning/Learning for life; * Economic science; * Spiritual development.

11.2 Designing a curriculum Curriculum design is informed by a number of principles (Curriculum Framework, 1995): * Human resource development: It is the role of education and training to prepare learners with a strong foundation of general education and with a desire to continue to learn, to apply, and to develop knowledge. & Learner-centredness: Curriculum development should put learners first by recognizing their skills, experiences, and abilities and responding to their individual needs. * Relevance: Learning programmes should be relevant to meet both the current and anticipated needs of the person and the country. * Integration: An integrated approach to education and training removes the rigid division between academic and applied knowledge. * Differentiation, redress, and learner support: The learning programme should create opportunities for all learners, including those with disabilities and those who were disadvantaged by the previous dispensation. Provision should be made for learners with special needs or other disabilities in mainstream education. * Nation building and non-discrimination: Education and training promote the development of national unity and national identity. The curriculum should also protect human rights. * Critical and creative thinking: The learning programmes should enhance learners' ability to think critically and creatively. * Flexibility: Learning programmes should provide an increasing range of learning possibilities by offering learners choices of what, where, when, how, and at what pace they want to learn.

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* Progression: It should be possible for learners to move ahead on the basis of achieving particular learning outcomes and not as determined by age or fellow participants in a course. * Credibility: Education and training must have standards comparable to those in the rest of the world. This means that learning programmes should have both internal and international credibility. * Quality assurance: The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA), through criteria it applies in the appointment of national standards bodies and accredited educational and training authorities and in determining registered unit standards and qualifications, will assure the quality of education and training. In some sectors and countries which have used this approach, the emphasis on outcomes-based learning has raised concern because of its narrow, prescriptive, and behaviouristic nature.

What is your view on the outcomes-based approach of the NQF?

12 t(j6u S<wte ScJaolb *ne WMC SUeetive tAa* Otfant School effectiveness leaders argue that schools make a difference and that they do so for reasons that can be traced back to alterable organizational characteristics of the school (Richards, 1991). In other words, the variation in student performance outcomes is attributable to organizational variables and not to differences in student ability, family background, or social class. Certain characteristics of effective schools have evolved through the years of research. In other words, certain given characteristics have been identified as being conducive to teaching and learning (Stoll, 1991). These given characteristics, however, only contribute to effectiveness and do not by themselves assure it. The personal characteristics of the principal and teachers are vital. Three areas and twelve key characteristics of effective schools can be identified. These are depicted in figure 4.5 and discussed in the paragraphs below (Stoll, 1991; Brookover, Beamer, Efthim, Douglas, Lezotte, Miller, Passalacqua & Tornatzky, 1 982; Lockheed & Levin, 1 993; Bliss, 1991).

12.1 A common mission The school's mission reflects the shared vision of teachers, parents and students, and may be defined as a view of a realistic, credible future which is better in some important ways than what exists now.

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Clear goals Shared values and beliefs

Instructional leadership

Frequent monitoring of student behaviour

High expectations

A common mission

Emphasis

A cllmate

«*'* "'

Cohducation to

Upwl^i ;

Student involvement

Physical environment

ii/iH^^Mn/K Recognition and rewards

Teacher development and collegiality Instructional and curriculum focus

Parent and community involvement

Positive student behaviour

Figure 4.5 The characteristics of effective schools (Stoll, 1991)

12.1.1 Clear goals School goals, the first priority of which is for all students to attain mastery of identified learning objectives, are clearly stated. Clearly stated and agreed goals provide purpose and a sense of direction. They also enhance planning and implementation.

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12.1.2 Instructional leadership With so many important decisions being made at the school level, principals have a crucial role in school effectiveness. Principals of effective schools are actively involved in student achievement, monitoring, curriculum planning, staff development, and all instructional issues. Furthermore, strong leadership is positively related to staff morale, teachers' professional performance, and student learning. 12.13 Shared values and beliefs Effective schools are characterized by a culture of cooperation and collaboration in which all stakeholders within the school share a commitment to work together to develop the school's learning climate.

12.2 Emphasis on learning Learning is the primary purpose of schools and is demonstrated in various ways in effective schools, as outlined below. 12.2.1 Frequent monitoring of student behaviour Regular and systematic monitoring of students' progress helps to determine the strengths and weaknesses in teaching and learning. This is achieved by means of a variety of formal and informal assessments. 12.2.2 High expectations of students Principals and teachers in effective schools believe in the potential of their students. They set high but attainable standards. 12.23 Teacher development and collegiality In effective schools, teachers are typically decision makers and play important roles in shaping the school. Students benefit academically when teachers share ideas on teaching methods, cooperate in activities, and assist one another in their professional growth. In effective schools the emphasis is on enabling teachers as well as students to learn. 12.2.4 Focus on instruction and curriculum Intellectually challenging teaching is characterized by an appropriate curriculum, planning, problem solving, enough time allowed for engaging in academic tasks, frequently monitored homework, maximum communication, and the use of a variety of instructional skills and strategies.

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12.3 A climate conducive to learning If students are treated in ways that emphasize their success and positive potential, they behave better and achieve more than when teachers focus on their failings and shortcomings. In a positive school climate students see themselves as able, valuable and responsible, and are treated accordingly. 12.3.1 Student involvement In effective schools many students hold positions of responsibility. They are also encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning. Through involvement they learn to organize, to plan, to participate in decision making and discussion, and to acquire leadership skills. 12.3.2 Physical environment Schools as places for learning and teaching need to be perceived as safe and orderly by both students and teachers (Lezotte, 1992). The physical environment should convey a message of care, comfort and safety. For teachers, the first test of school leadership is the creation of a disciplinary climate that is conducive to teaching and learning. 12.3.3 Recognition and rewards All forms of praise, appreciation and incentives have a positive impact on students. Effective schools create multiple opportunities for recognition. Schools that make a point of publicly honouring academic achievement and stressing its importance encourage students to perform well. 12.3.4 Positive student behaviour In more effective schools less emphasis is placed on punishment and behaviour management. Both teachers and students are involved in problem solving, which focuses on causes rather than symptoms. 12.3.5 Parent and community involvement A few studies find parental involvement and support to be a major factor in student achievement (Purkey & Smith, 1983). In more effective schools there is regular communication between the school and the home as to how parents can support their children's performance as well as the school's goals. Parents and community members have to be supportive of the vision, mission, goals and procedures of the school if the school is to be effective. The chances of successful student performance and staff effectiveness will probably diminish if parents and community leaders and organizations are not supportive.

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Creating effective schools is significantly more difficult in developing countries such as South Africa than in developed countries like the United States, because schools in developing countries lack even the basic minimum inputs necessary for them to function as schools at all (Lockheed & Levin, 1993).

13 s4fipuMtc6e& fo Vetxbfi^ Bf^ectwe From the earliest reviews on effective schooling, it is clear that recognizing an effective school is not the same as creating an effective school (Purkey & Smith, 1 983). Efforts to create effective schools by implementing a set of unrelated changes — the so-called check-list approach — have generally been unsuccessful (Lockheed & Levin, 1 993). This section concludes with an overview of areas to be considered when developing generic approaches to enhancing the effectiveness of schools (Lockheed & Levin, 1993).

13.1 Central philosophy Effective schools are characterized by a central philosophy or spirit that guides the design and implementation of a strategy. The central philosophy creates a sense of uniqueness and identity which also serves as a platform for action (see WestBurnham, 1992). The philosophy of effective schools is cohesive, overarching and holistic, and not merely a collection of piecemeal, incremental changes or add-ons to existing schools. Effective schools have explicit values which are shared by all stakeholders in the school community, explained to all who come into contact with the school, and used as a basis for all aspects of the school's policy and activities (West-Burnham, 1992).

13.2 Overall strategy The overall strategy is to use the central philosophy to design an ideal school. This ideal is used as a basis for a comprehensive and uniform approach to school change at macro level. At the same time flexibility, variations and adaptations are encouraged to meet local educational needs.

13.3 Community involvement According to Lockheed and Levin (1 993), community involvement is vital in attaining the ideal of the effective school. The community is expected to contribute local resources and voluntary participation in school activities. The school, in turn, is expected to contribute resources to the community by addressing community needs in its programmes and getting students to work on community problems and projects.

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13.4 Empowerment A prime emphasis is placed on empowering all stakeholders (i e teachers, students, parents and the community) to take responsibility for making educational decisions and to be accountable for those decisions. A meaningful education requires active participation among all who are involved in education rather than employing a formula set out by higher levels.

13.5 Active learning Student learning shifts from a more traditional, passive approach, in which all knowledge is imparted from textbooks and teachers are regarded as masters, to an active approach where students are responsible for their own learning. Effective school approaches emphasize self-instruction and evaluation, problem solving and meaningful applications. When students are excited by what they are doing in school they are active participants in their own learning rather than the teacher's passive audience. The primary evidence of effective teaching is demonstrated student learning (Lezotte, 1992).

13.6 Focus Effective schools tend to limit the scope of programmes by focusing on accomplishing a narrow set of objectives rather than addressing a much larger set of goals. The Coalition for Effective Schools in the United States stresses that less is more. This perspective is also found in their accelerated schools where acceleration often means covering fewer topics and activities in depth, rather than more topics and activities in rapid profusion.

13.7 Teacher expectations Effective approaches to learning are premised on high teacher expectations. This means that students can succeed if the right conditions and support are provided to ensure their success.

13.8 Funding and resources In most developing countries, where levels of available resources are below the threshold required to sustain schooling programmes, additional resources must be found. These can come from the community, from parental efforts, and from national or provincial budgets. Effective school reforms must address this problem by freeing resources that can be reallocated to meet more pressing needs. For example, the Impact project in the United States was premised on raising student-teacher ratios through increased self-instruction, low-cost educational technologies, and community participation. It is important to address the shortage of resources to make schools more effective.

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If you consider the new school initiatives, do you think schools will become more effective? Why?

SuWKWlty 1 The establishment of an egalitarian education system in South Africa with equal provision for all students can only take place in a unitary system of administration and management. Such a structure is necessary because fifteen separate administrative structures do not provide equal education for all. 2 Schools in the predemocratic era differed in structure and their student populations were quite diverse in terms of socio-economic status and racial/ ethnic composition. 3 Early childhood education programmes are crucial in the present reconstruction and development programmes as impoverished families are not able to meet the needs of their children without assistance. This calls for a close link between adult basic education and training (ABET) and early childhood development (ECD). 4 The education ladder in the primary and secondary school system has four steps or phases: junior and senior primary, and junior and senior secondary. The primary phase aims at developing literacy and numeracy skills. The junior secondary phase is a bridging phase from primary to secondary, while the senior secondary phase offers many fields of study to prepare students for entry to tertiary institutions. Different fields of study are offered in the senior phase. 5 Tertiary institutions, such as universities, technikons, technical colleges and teacher training colleges, offer vocational education and prepare students for work situations. 6 There are a number of reform initiatives to prepare students for the democratic era, provide quality education for all students, and address illiteracy in South Africa. Structures such as.the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) provide access to lifelong learning by means of recognized levels on which all learning standards and qualifications will be registered. These levels comprise the general education and training band, the further education and training band, and the higher education and training band. 7 The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) is responsible for developing the rules of the NQF and overseeing the implementation of the new education system. 8 To address the needs of South Africa in accordance with the values and principle underlying the education system, there will be a change in the organization of schools. The policy of the Minister of Education is that there shall be only two categories of schools in future: public schools and independent schools.

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9 The proposed structure of the NQF has necessitated an overhaul of the learning programmes offered in educational institutions. The focus has shifted to outcomes-based learning. Outcomes-based curriculum development processes will have as their point of departure the intended results (outputs) of learning and teaching rather than the selection of prescribed input (knowledge areas/content). 10 Schools can make a difference in the quality of schooling. Effective schools have certain characteristics that create an environment conducive to teaching and learning. Developing more effective schools demands a concerted approach rather than independent strategies.

7en^ 4*ttt (fatcefiU adult basic education and training (ABET) curriculum development distance education early childhood education effective schools further education and training general education and training higher education and training independent schools

levels of schooling National Qualifications Framework (NQF) open learning primary and secondary schools public schools South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) tertiary education types of schools (predemocratic)

Student rt€tMtfe& 1

Describe the transition to new education departments. Evaluate the transition in the light of South Africa's needs. 2 What types of schools existed in the predemocratic era? Why could they not address the needs of the democratic era? 3 Poll a group of people involved in education (parents, teachers, students) and establish their views on the following: - the reasons why the predemocratic schooling system was unacceptable to a large number of people; -the proposed new schooling system, comprising public and independent schools; - the role of governing bodies in public schools. 4 Briefly discuss the role and function of the NQF for a new dispensation. 5 What is the major difference between the previous school curriculum and the learning programme proposed by the Curriculum Framework?

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7 8

How do effective schools differ from other schools? Use the characteristics of effective schools to write a case study on the current situation in your (or any other) school. 9 Design a plan of action to optimize the effectiveness of the school described above.

Ottcoawfetut Ainscow, M (ed). 1991. Effective Schools for All. London: David Fulton Publishers African National Congress (ANC). 1995. A Policy Framework for Education and Training. Manzini, Swaziland: Macmillan Behr, A L 1988. Education in South Africa: Origins, Issues and Trends: 1652-1988. Pretoria: Academica Bliss, J R. 1991. Strategic and holistic images of effective schools. In J R Bliss, W A Firestone & C E Richards (eds) Rethinking Effective Schools: Research and Practice, 43-57. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc Bliss, ] R; W A Firestone & C E Richards (eds). 1991. Rethinking Effective Schools: Research and Practice. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc Brookover, W, L Beamer, H Efthim, H Douglas, L Lezotte, S Miller, J Passalacqua & L Tornatzky. 1982. Creating Effective Schools: An Inservice Program for Enhancing School Learning Climate and Achievement Holmes Beach, Florida: Learning Publications, Inc Claassen, J C. 1995. The education system of South Africa. In E I Dekker & E M Lemmer (eds) Modern Education Systems, 2 ed. Durban: Butterworths Curriculum Framework for General and Further Education and Training. 1995. Discussion document developed by the Consultative Forum on Curriculum. Pretoria: Department of Education Education, Department of (DE). 1994. Interim Core Syllabi. Pretoria Education, Department of (DE). 1995a. Education White Paper 1. Educatipn and training in a democratic South Africa: First steps to develop a new system. Notice 196, Government Gazette 16312 of 15 March 1995 Education, Department of (DE). 1995b. Report of the Committee to Review the Organisation, Governance and Funding of Schools. Pretoria. Education, Department of (DE). 1996a. Education White Paper 2. The organisation, governance and funding of schools. Notice 130, Government Gazette 169-87 of 14 February 1996 Education, Department of (DE). 1996b. Lifelong Learning Through a National Qualifications Framework. Report of the Ministerial Committee for the development work on the NQF. February 1996. Pretoria. Education, Department of (DE). 1996c. South African Schools Bill. Notice 503, Government Gazette 17136 of 24 April 1996 Education, Department of (DE). 1996d. Towards a National Qualifications Framework (NQF). Pamphlet on the proposed NQF. Pretoria. Education and Culture, Department of (DEC). Additional Models for the Provision of Schooling. Pretoria. Finansies en Tegniek. 1996. Private onderwys al meer die oplossing. 9 February 1996, 10-11 Hofmeyr, J & G Hall. 1996. The National Teacher Education Audit: Synthesis Report. Pretoria: Department of Education Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC). 1995. Ways of Seeing the National Qualifications Framework. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council

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SCHOOLS IN TRANSITION Lezotte, L W. 1992. Creating the Total Quality Effective School. Okemos, Ml: Effective Schools Products, Ltd Lindsay, B & R C Zath. 1994. South African Education: A system in need of structural transformation. lournal of Black Studies, 24 (4), 462-83 Lockheed, M E & H M Levin. 1993. Creating effective schools. In H M Levin & M E Lockheed (eds) Effective Schools in Developing Countries, 119. London: The Palmer Press Marais, P G & L A Pienaar. 17 February 1992. Joint media statement by the Minister of Education and Culture, Administration: House of Assembly and the Minister of National Education Marais, P. 1994. Present and future scenarios for an education system in South Africa, taking into account the move towards democracy in the country. Journal of Educational Finance, 19 (Spring), 103-8 National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE). 1995. Brochure National Education, Department of (ONE). 1993. New Realities in South Africa. Pretoria. National Educational Policy Investigation (NEPI).1992. Governance and Administration. Cape Town: Oxford University Press National Educational Policy Investigation (NEPI). 1993a. Early Childhood Educare. Report of the NEPI Educare Research Group 1992. Cape Town: Oxford University Press National Educational Policy Investigation (NEPI). 1993b. Education, Planning, Systems, & Structure. Cape Town: Oxford University Press National Training Board. 1994. A Discussion Document on a National Training Strategy Initiative. Pretoria Pigford, A B & R P Ngcongo. 1995. South African education: A system primed for restructuring. Educational Horizons, 73 (Spring), 110-12 Pretoria News. 31 August 1995a, 10. Advertisement. Pretoria News. 8 November 1995b, 3. Old colleges will close to make place for new one. Pretoria News. 26 January 1996, 2. Get set to learn with news. Purkey, S C & M S Smith. 1983. Effective schools: A review. The Elementary School Journal, 83 (4): 427-52 Richards, J R. 1991. The meaning and measure of the effective school movement. In J R Bliss, W A Firestone & C E Richards (eds) Rethinking Effective Schools: Research and Practice, 28-42. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc Saunders, S J. 1995. The Reconstruction and Development of Higher Education in South Africa: A Systematic Approach. A submission to the National Commission on Higher Education. Stoll, I L. 1991. School effectiveness in action: Supporting growth in schools and classrooms. In M Ainscow (ed) Effective Schools for All, 68-91. London: David Fulton Publishers Strauss, J P, S J Plekker & J W W Strauss. 1994. Education and Manpower Development, 14. Bloemfontein: Universiteitsdrukkery, UOVS Sunday Times. 21 January 1996, 1 Urch, E F. 1992. Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc West-Burnham, J. 1992. Managing Quality in Schools. A TQM Approach. London: Longman

Legislation The Bantu Education Act 47 of 1953 South African Qualifications Authority Act 58 of 1995 South African Schools Act 84 of 1996

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CHAPTER

FIVE

(Zuttevuzl ^iwenaitty
In this chapter we deal with some concepts referring to factors that underlie cultural diversity and its manifestation in South Africa. We can safely assume that cultural diversity permeates all spheres of life, including education. Here we specifically pay attention to the implications of cultural diversity for schooling. Many changes have been suggested by policy makers and other interested parties and these changes are being introduced in South African education in order to benefit students and the nation at large. It seems, however, that one of the basic ideas regarding successful educational reform should be the accommodation in the school context of similarities and differences between people. Thus in this chapter we also explore ways in which to affirm unity and diversity in the best interests of all students. Our general aim is to sensitize you to the norms and values, and the sociocultural complexities in general, that should be considered in classroom interaction.

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CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND SCHOOLING

Table Of Contents 1 Introduction

189

2 Factors Underlying Diversity 2.1 Race 2.2 Culture 2.2.1 The meaning of culture 2.2.2 Culture in complex societies 2.2.3 Culture and schooling 2.3 Ethnicity 2.4 Social class 2.5 Minority status 2.6 Sex and gender 2.7 Age

190 190 191 191 193 197 199 200 201 202 202

3 Implications of and Reactions to Diversity

203

4 Affirming Unity and Diversity in South Africa 4.1 Ubuntu 4.2 Africanization 4.3 Multicultural education

205 206 207 209

5 Diversity and Educational Reform in South Africa

210

Summary

211

Terms and Concepts

212

Student Activities

212

Bibliography

212

/ 7«2fe*&#&« South Africa has been called the 'rainbow' nation and rightly so. Cultural diversity is characteristic of South African society and impacts on all spheres of life, including education. This diversity was largely regulated by law during the era of apartheid. This is no longer the case and in the new, open, South African society, cultural diversity directly influences the context within which all schooling takes place and the manner in which it is offered as well as the content of syllabi. Thus for teaching and learning t be effective, educators should consider cultural diversity and, moreover, utilize it in order to give every individual the best possible opportunity to develop his/her full potential.

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2 Factors Underlying Diversity To be an effective teacher of a multicultural class, you will need to understand the factors underlying diversity. Human diversity is usually dealt with in terms of key concepts such as race, culture, ethnicity, social class, sex and gender, and age. Although these concepts are widely used, definitions, and hence meanings, vary in accordance with the perceptions and ideologies of the users and with the purpose and the context of their use. Superficially it would seem as though the concepts of race, sex, and age apply to biological rather than cultural phenomena. However, these concepts are heavily laden with social and cultural meanings, and are thus essential in a discussion on cultural diversity. Since all the concepts regarding diversity are closely related to culture, culture is discussed later in greater depth than the other concepts. The categories of people implied by these concepts are sociocultural constructions, although some concepts may have a biological basis. In other words, the categories as such are not phenomena which are objectively perceived, nor are they mere descriptions, but are interpretations and representations of reality (Sharp, 1988: 1). They do not have fixed boundaries, nor do people identify themselves, or others, according to these categories only. Furthermore, self-identification as well as identification by others may, and often does, vary with time and according to the situation in which people find themselves. However, this categorization impacts on daily life, and people consciously or unconsciously, voluntarily or by coercion, live within at least the atmosphere if not the perimeters implied by the categories. In spite of their debatable meanings there are general guidelines by which these concepts may be approached. Below we use such guidelines as well as other indicators to look at human diversity in the South African society.

2.1 Race Race is a highly controversial issue that has been hotly debated and discussed in various publications, especially in South Africa with its history of racial discrimination. On the one hand, there are people who have caused irreparable Harm to fellow human beings through their perceptions and practices regarding race. On the other hand, there are those who tend to avoid using the term or even to deny the existence of racial differences between people. However, the phenomenon of physical differences is a reality. The crucial point is: How do we deal with it? Race is usually taken to refer to inherited physical traits such as skin colour, stature, facial formation, hair texture, etc. As regards racial categories in South Africa specifically based on skin colour, the term 'black' refers to persons of African origin, 'white' to persons of European origin, 'coloured' to persons of mixed race, and 'Asian' to persons of Asian origin. Although the latter does not refer to skin colour as such, it nevertheless has a racial connotation.

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Classification based on race is problematic because the boundaries of racial groups are obscure. Although people are identified as belonging to a particular race on the basis of shared physical features, they may and indeed often do differ in physical appearance from other members of the same race. Similarly, people belonging to different races may share certain common physical features. To complicate the matter, a single racial category usually includes people from diverse cultural backgrounds. For example, Afrikaners and English-speaking people of European origin in South Africa belong to the 'white' race, but they differ in culture. The Venda and the Zulu are 'black', but they have dissimilar lifestyles. Inherited physical features alone do not account for human diversity. Instead people perceive others as different as a result of, for instance, their skin colour, and then attribute certain non-physical characteristics to them. This means that categorization based on race entails more than the consideration of biological factors; it has a strong non-biological, sociocultural basis. Berreman (1982: 507), like many other writers, states that systems of racial stratification are social phenomena based on social rather than biological factors. Similarly, with reference to the classification of 'white' versus 'black' in different societies, McNergney and Herbert (1995: 248) mention that '[o]ne's racial classification is not typically chosen but instead assigned by others'. A South African example in this regard is the former classification of Chinese persons in South Africa as 'non-white', while Japanese persons with similar physical appearance were regarded as 'white'. In the United States of America a person of African ancestry is referred to as African American or Afro-American rather than black. A similar tendency is developing in South Africa where the term 'African' is preferred to 'black'. This preference, some African intellectuals explained,1 is not a denial of physical appearance, but instead reveals a desire for categorization, if at all necessary, in terms of ancestry, (one's) roots, and in a wider context than merely with reference to skin colour. Given the foregoing, we should refrain from making assumptions regarding people's abilities, potential, behaviour, etc on the basis of physical appearance. People may loo different but that does not imply that they are differently abled. In the school situation, in particular, teachers should not judge students on the basis of assumed characteristics linked to race but should, rather, value each individual in her/his own right.

2.2 Culture 2.2.1 The meaning of culture Social scientists define culture according to their particular perspectives and the manner in which they use the concept. However, no matter what definition is used, culture does not only refer to material goods or to the obviously observable aspects of people's lives, nor merely to a particular group's lifestyle. Furthermore, culture is also 1

Goduka, I, P Kunutu & J M Lenake. August 1995. Personal communication.

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not 'possessed' only by those who are refined, sophisticated, or highly educated, or who visit libraries and museums or listen to classical music. Every human being has culture, regardless of the type of society in which he or she lives. All human beings need and use culture to adapt to and survive in their natural environment and in their society (Miller, 1979: 37; Kottak, 1987: 22). The concept of culture has different levels of meaning: * It is a comprehensive concept that includes ways of thinking and acting as well a material objects, and hence indicates a holistic approach to the study of the way of life of human beings. In this sense culture is used to refer in general to a universal phenomenon applicable to the whole of humanity. * It is defined as the way of life of a particular human group, for example Afrikaner culture and Venda culture. * Culture is used in the sense of a comprehensive cultural type by which is meant that cultures of various but similar societies who share certain characteristics are grouped together, such as Nguni culture (including Xhosa, Zulu, and Swazi culture) or, in a still wider context, African culture and Western culture. * Culture is used to refer to sets of features of identifiable groups of people within the larger society. These 'cultures within cultures' are called subcultures or microcultures. Examples of these are rural and urban cultures, the culture of the youth, of gangs, and even of poverty. * Culture is also used to refer to phenomena which extend across group and national boundaries and are thus regarded as international cultural systems (Rollwagen, 1986: 105-6, 109). Consider, for instance, the culture of capitalism, the culture of Islam, of Christianity, etc. * Culture may also be defined as ideas underlying behaviour. In relation to culture as a universal human phenomenon, and culture as referring to the way of life of a particular human group, we note that the culture of every society includes a number of systems, or comprehensive sets of connected phenomena, namely kinship, language, economy, religion, education, a legal system, a political system, health care, art, and play. Although these systems are universal to all cultures, the content of the systems varies between cultures. For example, both the Jewish culture and the Sotho culture have a system of religion, but within the Jewish culture the belief in one God predominates, while within the traditional Sotho culture the focus is on beliefs in ancestral spirits manifest in an ancestor cult. Differences in content, however, do not render one culture superior or inferior to another, since each culture is created and adapted to satisfy the needs of a particular society in particular circumstances. The above-mentioned systems of culture are regarded as interrelated, which implies that change in one will produce change in the others as well. For instance, the influence of Christianity on indigenous African cultures has had implications for marriage within the kinship system, the way illness is viewed within the health-care system, the content of what children are taught within the education system, and so on.

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The third level of meaning of culture, that is, as a comprehensive cultural type, and the fifth level, the extension of phenomena across group and national boundaries, relate to the way of life of groups larger than a particular society and are used, for example, when broad comparisons are made. The meaning of culture in the sense of subcultures or microcultures (the fourth level), international cultural systems (the fifth level), and as ideas (the sixth level) will become clearer as the discussion proceeds.

2.2.2 Culture in complex societies Numerous publications deal with the nature and functioning of culture in general or with reference to particular societies, more often largely homogeneous or nonspecialized, non-complex societies. However, although culture is approached as a comprehensive concept in such discussions, they frequently focus mainly on behaviour and material objects, and on people in apparently closed systems. They often pay little or no attention to culture in complex, culturally diverse societies. An alternative approach to culture, which does not merely document but also explains phenomena, and which is especially useful when dealing with cultural diversity in a complex society such as South Africa, is the following. Culture refers to ideas, to the knowledge that people use to interact with other people and to interpret experience, generate social behaviour, and produce artefacts (Spradley & McCurdy, 1975: 5, 17; Thornton, 1988: 24). Note that culture goes beyond mere ideas: ideas are expressed in behaviour and material goods, but behaviour and material goods in turn stimulate new ideas or change in ideas (Van Heerden, 1995: 52). Thus culture refers to cognitive phenomena consisting of shared and learnt ideas that influence behaviour. In this sense culture provides guidelines for behaviour; it is a 'sort of cognitive map which provides the individual with appropriate rules for behaviour in various situational contexts' (Goodenough in Woods, 1975: xii). Some rules are interpreted on an individual basis, others are shared by certain members of a particular group, and still others by most members of the group. This means that culture is shared, but not all of culture is shared by all members of society. Furthermore, the existence of such rules does not necessarily ensure that people comply with expected behaviour. All cultures have norms, or standards, which prescribe appropriate behaviour. In other words, there are rules generally accepted by the people in a society as regards ideal behaviour, that which 'ought to be done'. This does not mean, however, that people's actual behaviour corresponds with the ideal behaviour. Thus, apart from cultural diversity between groups, there is also diversity within a particular group. How is culture acquired? It is not genetically transmitted but acquired through the process of enculturation within a social context (Kottak, 1987: 22-5). Enculturation includes formal and informal learning and continues throughout an individual's life. Each individual continually acquires new knowledge, adds it to existing knowledge, and rearranges and adapts the entire 'package'. An individual's knowledge is more than that learnt from previous generations, thus cultural knowledge is cumulative.

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People may also disregard certain sections of the body of cultural knowledge. Equally, they may be forced by situations to act according to guidelines that differ from those learnt through enculturation. Significantly, therefore, cultural ideas are influenced by the experiences of individuals. Linked to the above is the process of acculturation, meaning comprehensive culture change as a result of ongoing contact between groups of people with different cultures. People confronted with the consequences of acculturation must acquire the 'new' culture. This occurs through the process of re-enculturation. All South Africans, including teachers and students, are confronted by a complex sociocultural context comprising a myriad of subcontexts, each of which consists of interlocking systems of ideas and actions. If we intend to understand cultural diversity in education against the background of these multiple contexts, we must start with the individual and from there work through to the group. To explore the complex sociocultural contexts of South Africans it may be useful to think of individuals as each having a number of fields of activity. By 'field of activity' is meant a sociocultural field of interaction between certain persons (participants) in connection with a specific type of activity or activities in which a particular set or network of relationships between persons occurs and in which activities are guided by ideas. Each field of activity, to a greater or lesser extent, involves usage of particular artefacts or material goods (Van Heerden, 1995: 53). Let us illustrate this by an example. People usually have a domestic field of activity. This field is linked to marriage, the family, and the household in which they live. The participants in this field are, for example, a married couple, their children, and possibly other family members such as a grandparent, the husband or wife's sibling(s), and/or the latter's child or children. There are sets of relationships respectively between husband and wife, parents and children, and between members of the nuclear family and other possible members in the household. These participants interact with one another in connection with child rearing, caring for the family, earning income to support the household, fulfilling daily tasks and other needs in the household, etc. These activities are guided by certain ideas which are regarded as proper and necessary, for example ideas about how to care for the family, how children and parents should behave towards each other, and so on. People usually also have a field of the neighbourhood (related to the area where they live among other people), a field of kinship (related to their relatives), a field of occupation (if they earn a living), a field of religion (related to their church or to those who share their religious beliefs), a field of politics, and a field of the school (if they are still young) or of the university. (Obviously teachers' field of occupation includes the school.) The field of the school or university includes teachers/lecturers, students, the administrative staff, and the education authorities as participants involved in activities relating to teaching and learning according to ideas about formal education. Depending on a particular individual's circumstances, he or she may have many other fields which may either be separate from or linked to the above-mentioned fields, for

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CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND SCHOOLING

example a field of friendship or of sport and recreation. Some of the fields of activity that a person may have are shown in the diagram below.

DOMESTIC FIELD

NEIGHBOURHOOD

POLITICS

•M5^s' »»»^»^gg;^^!aai^»^«5^^aaa^«!;gisssms!:g!i'g;a«S'i; i^s^^^li^^^N^H^^^jf^PB^w^H^H^^

KINSHIP

RELIGION

OCCUPATION

SCHOOL OR UNIVERSITY

Figure 5.1 Fields of activity

Some of these fields may constitute a microculture or a subculture. For instance, as regards the field of the school in South Africa, events such as teaching and attending classes, participating in school assemblies, concerts and sporting competitions, and particular styles of dressing, speaking and behaving make it possible to refer to life in a school as a subculture. Although individuals may have the same types of fields, there are differences for each person with regard to the interaction, participants, relationships and ideas constituting the fields. Each individual's exposure to various fields of activity, each with different participants and ways of interaction, leads her/him to differ not only from other members of his/her kin-group, but in particular from members of her/his town, city or cultural group. In addition, individuals make choices regarding their participation, what they wish to share, and with whom (Van Heerden, 1995: 54).

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Although the various fields in which an individual participates are linked, this does not necessarily imply that all the fields or components in each field form a well coordinated whole. In other words, people may behave in a certain manner and according to certain ideas in one context, such as the school or university, but their behaviour changes in a different context, for instance at home. Many people in South Africa live in situations where Western as well as indigenous African ideas apply, and they choose how to behave according to the situation in which they find themselves. People have models in their mind of what is perceived as, for instance, 'English middle class' or 'traditional Zulu' culture, and these models may vary depending on factors such as age, sex, geographic region, education, socioeconomic standing, and so forth. Moreover, people operate selectively according to a particular situation, for instance a model of 'traditional' Zulu culture would be appropriate for some aspects of a wedding but not in a classroom (De Haas, 1988: 27). In addition, in some fields of activity where people with similar backgrounds are involved, there is greater homogeneity regarding the components constituting the particular field than in other fields where people with different sociocultural backgrounds interact. Fields of activity may, on the one hand, function mainly on a local level, for example the field of the neighbourhood, although factors from the broader society impact on them. On the other hand, some fields may cross societal or national boundaries and link numerous individuals worldwide, as in the case of a field of religion based on the Roman Catholic faith. A single field of activity may thus extend from the local to the international level. The field of the school or university includes ideas, participants, interactions and relationships on the local and national level, while international ideas about education are also evident. The fields of activity in which individuals participate create, on the one hand, elements for a common culture ('sameness'), but on the other hand also diversity ('otherness'). There are, for example, shared or common aims in teachers' and students' involvement with school education, but their expectations, values, perceptions, and the way in which they operate to reach their goals may differ greatly and are related to the 'cultural baggage' of each individual. Stated differently, the way in which people function in the field of the school depends to a large extent on other sociocultural factors, which means that the field of the school is influenced by the other fields of activity in which the individual participates, as well as by his/her background. In summary, regardless of the definition of or approach to culture, culture has a number of general characteristics which are important for the processes of learning and teaching. These include the following: Culture is created by humans worldwide in their adaptation to their environment and in fulfilment of their needs, which accounts for the differences between cultures. Culture results from human social interaction. Culture is acquired through learning and is shared. Culture implies a degree of standardization but also of variation.

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Culture consists of different components which are interrelated, thus giving it an integrated nature. Culture includes a body of knowledge, behaviour and material goods. Each culture has its own system of norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, and ways of communication. Culture occurs with reference to individuals, a particular group, or a larger society, as well as across societal or national boundaries. Culture is dynamic and continuously subject to change. Culture influences, and is in turn influenced by, the way people perceive, think, feel and behave. Not all cultural norms are consistently heeded by all members of a society, which gives rise to both ideal and actual cultural behaviour.

2.23 Culture and schooling Why is culture important with regard to schooling? We now know that culture is socially constructed, learnt, shared, and dynamic. It shapes people's perceptions and behaviour, and influences their identity and even their personality. To a large extent it thus makes people what they are. The entire process of education, learning as well as teaching, is influenced and shaped by cutture, but in turn culture is transmitted and preserved by education. There is, therefore, a mutual relationship between culture and education (Lemmer & Squelch, 1993: 12). The process of enculturation starts soon after birth — some people say even before birth — and, from their exposure to the culture of their home environment and community, children begin to accumulate 'cultural baggage' in which fundamental ways of thinking, perceptions, values and behaviour are firmly entrenched. These may or may not correspond to those propagated by schools and/or the teachers, who also have their respective cultural backgrounds. The presence of such 'cultural discontinuity' between students and the school/teachers can lead to learning and behavioural problems, misunderstandings and conflict. To minimize cultural discontinuity and to work towards effective teaching and learning, teachers should know or at least be aware of and try to understand their students' sociocultural backgrounds and also consider their own background and the impact of these various backgrounds on the education process. Diverse cultural factors and processes influenced by culture impact on the teaching process, on the teachers' response to their students, and on the manner in which the students learn and behave in school. Some of these factors are the following (Lemmer & Squelch, 1993: 13-14). Enculturation: This is the process through which an individual acquires the necessary knowledge, values, language, social skills and roles to function as a member of her/his society. This process is important for schooling because it translates into the way in which a child is brought up in a particular cultural context. Since children's backgrounds can hinder or help their achievement in

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school, teachers should use their knowledge about children's enculturation to accommodate them in the school context and, in particular, to minimize cultural discontinuity. Communication: In a culturally diverse classroom students do not merely have different home languages but also different sociocultural frames of reference linked to the various languages. In addition, there is also non-verbal communication which is culturally based. Teachers should be aware of and sensitive to these phenomena since effective communication is a basic ingredient for successful teaching and learning. Learning styles: The way in which an individual learns is linked to culture, therefore children from different cultural backgrounds have different learning styles. (See section 4.3 of chapter six.) Teachers should make allowance for this and create opportunities for each student with his/her particular learning style to learn successfully. Social values: Individuals bring to school particular values regarding what ought to be done, and how. Such values are socioculturally based and thus may differ according to the individuals' backgrounds. Ignorance of and disregard for the values of others lead to conflict which, in turn, jeopardizes the process of teaching and learning. World-view: This refers to people's outlook on life — their conception of reality as a whole. A person's world-view is closely associated with culture since it is through the process of enculturation that one absorbs the specific system of values, attitudes and beliefs that influence the way one thinks, what one does and regards as important and hence how one perceives the world. Although personal experiences impact on world-view, people who share a culture have a similar world-view. In a culturally diverse classroom different world-views are at work, which implies diverse views of reality. If these are not considered, misunderstanding, breakdown in communication and, eventually, ineffective teaching and learning may result. In considering the influence of culture on schooling, teachers should take cognizance of two approaches in dealing with cultural diversity. The first is ethnocentrism, that is, the tendency to regard one's own culture as superior and thus as the criterion for evaluating other cultural phenomena. The second, which stands in contrast to ethnocentrism, is cultural relativism. The underlying principle of cultural relativism is to refrain from judging the behaviour of others according to one's own cultural standards, and to understand and interpret phenomena of another culture in terms of that particular culture and its circumstances. Cultural relativism has been criticized for prescribing that all cultural phenomena are valid and should be respected, and hence for ruling out any value judgements, preferences, or distinctions between good and bad, acceptable and unacceptable, etc. However, although it is important, when operating across cultures, to strive towards sensitivity in dealing with others, this does not mean that general standards of justice and morality should be ignored. Until recently the tendency in many complex societies has been to conduct

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educational research on the culture of the dominant group and then to apply the findings of such research to all students. This is to a large extent still the case in South Africa, where Western educational material and programmes are used. However, cross-cultural research, the differences between people from diverse sociocultural backgrounds, and the increasing recognition of the relationship between culture and education have led to the realization that the application of a single model is not in the best interests of all individuals in a society. At present in the United States of America and various other countries, educators and, for instance, anthropologists, who focus on people and culture, work closely together to investigate cultural differences and how these influence teaching and learning, in order to improve the provision of education. Consequently educational anthropology has become an important subdiscipline in some overseas countries. Sadly this is not yet the case in South Africa.

23 Ethnicity Seymour-Smith (1986: sv ethnicity) has the following to say: The key features of this concept are the identification and labelling of any grouping or any category of people, and the explicit or implicit contrasts made between the identified groups and another group or category. . . The features of labelling and contrast are dynamic, subject to contextual reinterpretation, and exist variously at different levels, , . Ethnicity may be objective or subjective, implicit or explicit, manifest or latent, acceptable or unacceptable to a given grouping or category of people. The grouping or category of people mentioned above, that is, the ethnic group, usually refers to a group of people who distinguish themselves, and are also distinguished by others, on the basis of mainly sociocultural features but also race. Thus members of an ethnic group may have a common ancestry, real or fictitious, and their own language or dialect, religion, norms, values and customs (Berreman, 1982: 504; McNergney & Herbert, 1995: 248). However, 'ethnic group' is a broad term which has been used for social classes, for racial or national minority groups in urban and industrialized societies, and for various sociocultural groups among indigenous populations (Seymour-Smith, 1986: sv ethnic group). Ethnic groups coexist and interact with other groups in a society, in other words they function as subgroups within the larger society. However, each ethnic group has its own identity which comes to the fore especially when the group's position is at stake. Consider, for example, the ethnic resurgence in Central and Eastern Europe, or the reinforcement of ethnic identity and affiliation when historical events are commemorated, for instance, among the Afrikaners on the Day of the Vow (16 December). Apart from sharing common cultural features, ethnic groups also often claim their own territory.

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Individuals may end their membership of a particular ethnic group and identify with another group. They may, for instance, change their language, religion, or cultural features (McNtrgney & Herbert, 1995: 248). Ethnic groups in South Africa include, for example, the Afrikaners and the Zulu. This does not, however, imply that all Afrikaans or Zulu-speaking people closely identify with such an ethnic group and particularly not when they regard such identification as having unacceptable political implications. Although ethnicity is closely related to the political system of a state, there is a tendency in South Africa to view ethnicity predominantly as a political issue and thus in a negative light. But ethnicity entails other dimensions as well. Consider the expression of ethnic identity through music, art, dress, and certain customs which may be totally apolitical. In the school context teachers should avoid stereotyping students on the basis of their apparent ethnic identity. Equally, ethnic identity should not be ignored either, because, as an important aspect of individuals' identity, it has significant implications for their behaviour.

2.4 Social class The concept of social class may be variously defined, although it often refers to the categorization of people on the basis of economic factors. In identifying social class, attention is, however, also paid to power, status, and social position (Seymour-Smith, 1986: sv class, social; status; stratification). Membership of a social class is governed by criteria such as behaviour, income, occupation, education, and lifestyle. A person can move from one social class to another and thus change her/his status through, for example, fortune, misfortune, or individual or family efforts (Berreman, 1982: 515, 516). Social class is largely linked to acquired status. For example, individuals may occupy their position in an 'upper class' through economic endeavours, or they may be officially elevated by royal ordinance to a position in an upper class by virtue of their personal achievements. However, in certain societies membership of a social class is associated with birth-ascribed status. There is thus a distinction between specifically recognized social classes, or categories thereof, and social class distinctions which are natural manifestations of differences in a society but not recognized at any official level. A social class is associated with particular norms and values, patterns of behaviour, a particular outlook on life — thus, a specific lifestyle. Compare, for instance, the rich (the upper class) and the poor (the lower class). The difference lies not merely in what they possess or lack in terms of material goods, but also in their perceptions and expectations, and in how they deal with life in general. In South Africa there are also social distinctions in terms of the rich and the poor, the economically and occupationally privileged and the underprivileged, the powerwielding and those with little or no power. These distinctions cut across racial and ethnic boundaries.

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Membership of a particular social class has important implications for students. To a large extent it influences what they are exposed to in terms of the acquisition of knowledge, what they experience, their expectations, and how long they can afford to stay in school, etc. In other words, stratification based on social class contributes to cultural diversity because students have diverse lifestyles based on the social class to which they belong.

2.5 Minority status According to Seymour-Smith (1986: sv minority) the term 'minority' refers, in its most general sense, to 'a subordinate or marginal group, which may be defined in racial or ethnic terms or in terms of some special characteristic or stigma'. From this it is clear that the term can refer to various types of groups. It may, for example, be used in a quantitative or statistical sense (McNergney & Herbert, 1995: 249). On the basis of actual numbers a certain group within a society may be said to be a minority. For instance, within the South African population in general, people of Asian origin constitute a minority group but within certain areas of KwaZulu-Natal this may not be the case because of localized settlement patterns. 'Minority' is also used in a sociopolitical sense with reference to the power and influence that one group exerts in relation to another in a society (McNergney & Herbert, 1995:249). For example, in South Africa women constitute just over 50 % of the population but they do not reveal a similar presence in positions in management, government, and public office in general. Apart from being subordinate, a minority group may further be defined in terms of discrimination — separation from the rest of society on the basis of physical or cultural traits of which the dominant group disapproves, sharing a collective identity and particular burdens, a socially invented rule of descent, and marriage within the group (Wagley & Harris in Cushner, McClelland, & Safford, 1992: 21). Not all these criteria apply to all minority groups, but many such groups conform to at least two of them. Consider, for example, minority groups such as homosexuals, the physically disabled, and the Jews in South Africa. Minority groups can also be distinguished on the basis of language. The Portuguese are one such minority group in the South African context. Being a member of a minority group may have far-reaching implications for education, especially where the latter is focused on the ideas, behaviour and needs of the majority or mainstream groups. Members of minority groups may experience feelings of alienation which may hinder full participation in the education system and thus full development of individual potential. On the other hand, the characteristics of particular groups and the particular circumstances in which they live may result in such a group being overrepresented in some spheres of societal life, for example the jews, Portuguese and Greeks in business.

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2.6 Sex and gender Men and women are distinguished from each other on the basis of sexual differences, in other words, biologically determined characteristics. This distinction leads to a further distinction regarding gender roles and relationships which are socially constructed and learnt, reinforced and modified by the economic, political and cultural environment in which men and women live (Ramphele & Boonzaier, 1988: 154;cf Kottak, 1987:256). Our primary concern regarding diversity is not with biological differences between people, but with sociocultural differences resulting from learning and conditioning. As regards the two sexes these are manifest in division of labour; differences regarding participation in various spheres of public life; status, roles, and positions in society; and even alleged personality differences. Various theories have been proposed to explain these differences (Ember & Ember, 1981: 146-59; Seymour-Smith, 1986: sv women and anthropology), but they are beyond the scope of this chapter. In addition, the status, roles and behaviour of men and women differ between cultures. However, there is a general assumption that women are universally subordinate to men, although one should not make such a generalization without carefully considering various sociocultural contexts in which men and women live. Regarding women in Third World countries and minority or underprivileged women in industrialized societies, their position in terms of equality and development appears to leave much to be desired, as numerous publications and media reports have indicated (cf Lindsay, 1983; Afshar, 1985). The differences regarding gender also apply to South Africa. In spite of statements proclaiming equality between men and women, in practice women are generally subordinate to men. This is even more profound in the case of African women, as indicated by Ramphele and Boonzaier (1988) amongst others. With regard to curriculum content, resource material, and career guidance, research shows that boys are favoured in schooling (Lemmer, 1993). This calls for teachers' awareness of and sensitivity towards gender Issues in their handling of students, their needs, and preparation for the future.

2.7 Age Age, like race and sex, has a biological basis, but sociocultural factors have an influence on how age is viewed and dealt with. In all societies people are differentiated on the basis of age, with each individual passing through various stages. Accordingly, positions, roles and types of behaviour attached to the processes of growing up, maturing, and progressing to old age become part of 'cultural baggage'. Certain societies are characterized by clearly demarcated age categories. Movement from one category to the next, either on an individual or group basis, is usually accompanied by some form of ceremony or rite of passage. Progression towards

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adulthood is, for example, heralded by initiation in many African societies. Other societies lack precisely defined categories, but particular criteria, including age, are taken into consideration in differentiating between stages of life (Miller, 1979:165-7). Age is, however, relative. For instance, at the age of 18 individuals may obtain a driver's licence, vote in an election, and be confirmed as full members of their church, but this does not necessarily mean that they are adults. In terms of the law, for example, persons must be 21 years of age to be regarded as independent adults. Generally, the ideal is to treat old people with due respect for the wisdom they are assumed to have accumulated through life experience. In many societies the elderly have the highest status. However, because of technology, the explosion of knowledge, and their often advanced education, young people may know more than the elderly and thus have equal or higher status. Also, young people may have gained premature life experience due to hardship and sociopolitical circumstances which have matured them beyond their biological age. In many cases, therefore, actual behaviour and attitudes towards the elderly do not correspond with the ideal. Within a particular sociocultural context, persons in certain stages of life are encouraged to behave in specific ways. People from other cultural backgrounds may be unaware of this and, consequently, misunderstandings in dealing with others may occur. For example, in one cultural group children who have not yet reached puberty are encouraged to follow set examples and, as it were, to be seen and not heard. In another cultural group children are encouraged to show initiative and to express their own ideas. In the school situation this may lead to the students of the former group being wrongfully labelled as passive learners, and it can impact on their academic performance.

3 *J«ttfifaatuM6 of, awi TQ&uttottt fo VweMify According to McNergney & Herbert (1995: 250-1), three main points emerge from the examination of concepts such as race, culture, and ethnicity. The first is that these classifications are arbitrary and that there are many other criteria for classifying people, for example knowledge or income. Such other classifications do not necessarily coincide with the classifications based on race, culture, and ethnicity. However, if we look at South Africa it appears as though other classifications, including those based on ability, personal history, and circumstances, are often tied up with race, culture, social class, ethnicity, and status. The differences between people in South Africa are to a considerable degree emphasized by sociopolitical factors. A second point is that of variation within a group, which may equal or even exceed the variation between groups. Thirdly, while people classify or label themselves in one way, outsiders may do so in another way. Different perspectives are thus in operation, which could eventually lead to problematic interaction between insiders and outsiders.

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It is important to pay attention to the way in which people identify themselves. Although they may logically be categorized as members of a particular group, this does not imply that they wish to be so identified. In fact they may resent such labelling because of stigmatization. Furthermore, people may tend to stereotype other individuals once they have placed them in a specific category and may expect certain behaviour from them regardless of their experience, personality, or unique circumstances. Identity is often situational and people simultaneously have different as well as overlapping identities. Consider, for example, the various fields of activity and participation at local, national, and even international levels which were dealt with earlier. Also, after the South African rugby team, popularly known as the Amabokoboko, won the 1995 Rugby World Cup, and the South African soccer team, popularly known as the Bafana Bafana, won the Africa Cup of Nations, many South Africans experienced a sense of common identity, but this did not mean that they cast aside other identities or that this sense of 'oneness' would necessarily persist. The variety of factors contributing to the diversity among people results in numerous areas where uncertainty, misunderstanding, and conflict can occur. Therefore various strategies (summarized by De Villiers, 1994: 43-9) have been used in different societies to deal with cultural diversity. One of these, also applicable to South Africa, is structural pluralism. It entails little or no social contact between the different groups constituting the society. This principle of separatism was called apartheid in South Africa prior to the democratic elections in 1994. De Villiers illustrates it as follows: A + B - f C * A + B +C Structural pluralism is manifest in two forms in multicultural societies. Both of these were relevant to the South African situation. Firstly, there may be division at a macro level where groups are associated with specific geographical areas, making contact between them difficult. Consider for instance the Venda, Xhosa, Zulu, and Sotho groups with regard to the former 'homelands', and the Afrikaans and English-speaking communities. Total separation between them has never been possible. Further, Afrikaans and English-speaking communities are often found in the same geographical area, although there is often a concentration of a particular group in certain areas. Secondly, divisions occur on a local level where metropolitan areas have, for example, white, Indian, and coloured suburbs and black townships. Here contact takes place on a larger scale than in geographically segregated areas. Originally these divisions were upheld not only by law but also by many individuals who applied the principle of separatism in various spheres of their lives. Consequently, they dealt with cultural diversity by means of separatism. Others did the opposite and fought against the separation of groups.

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The new political dispensation in South Africa has abolished structural pluralism; consequently the country appears to be moving towards the same type of multiculturalism as propagated in the United States of America. In the latter we find the so-called salad bowl version of multiculturalism, that is, people in all their diversity tossed together while retaining their unique identities and essential differences. In fact this represents movement away from a former policy of assimilation (McNergney & Herbert, 1995: 254). The term 'rainbow nation' has been coined to refer to the type of multiculturalism envisaged for South Africa. Peaceful coexistence between the various components of the rainbow nation will, however, not be achieved overnight. Government policies may prepare the way for an open society, but South Africans themselves, including teachers and students, must make peaceful coexistence a reality. The implications of diversity for teaching and learning are immense. While categorization may have advantages in terms of organizing people and identifying those who need special attention as a result of, for example, unsatisfactory education in the past, it can also have negative effects. In particular, some students may feel that, because of the labels they bear, it is neither possible nor worthwhile to escape the categorization and to try to break through the ceiling placed on their particular category. Thus meek acceptance of 'I cannot do better than the label says' may result, inhibiting whatever initiative could have been used. In the new South African school system, teachers and students from diverse backgrounds and with different lifestyles, sets of beliefs, circumstances and values will increasingly come into contact with each other. These differences will impact on their attitudes, perceptions, and expectations of each other and of schooling in general, and will determine the efficiency of teaching and learning. Furthermore, membership of a certain category in terms of race, culture, ethnicity, class, age, sex and gender may positively or negatively influence students' achievements, regardless of their academic ability. Diversity cannot be ignored since a colour- and culture-blind approach will imply ignoring the very identity of a person (Lemmer & Squelch, 1993: 16). There should be a balance between avoiding labelling and respecting and affirming diversity.

4 /fjji^H^'l{^^<^^7)i^i^^S<Md/fi^ The foregoing sections focus mainly on diversity, but there are also aspects of unity in South Africa. The basis of such unity lies primarily in acknowledging the characteristics of a common humanity. People function and fulfil needs within the same perimeters although the content, that is, the methods they use, may differ. Also, in their daily lives individuals from diverse sociocultural backgrounds are in contact, for example in the workplace, at sports events, in teaching institutions, in religious activities, etc. Reread the section on culture and note the discussion on fields of activity which explains human interaction with regard to certain activities. The

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phenomenon of diversity does not imply living in isolation. Thus in South Africa we find commonalities as well as differences, 'sameness' as well as 'otherness'. To meet the demands of the future a balance should be struck between these apparent opposites. This implies that unity should be affirmed without disregarding differences; diversity should be affirmed without overemphasizing differences. How can this be achieved? Prinsloo (1996: 121) states: The attempt to operate with the slogan "don't look for differences, but look for similarities and accommodate differences" is easier said than done.' Still, let us look at some concepts or themes which are currently enjoying much attention.

4.1 Ubuntu Ubuntu is a concept widely used and debated in South Africa at present. Ubuntu, in essence humanism (Vilikazi quoted in Broodryk, 1996: 31; Chikanda and Makhudu quoted in Prinsloo, 1996: 113), refers to a traditional African philosophy which represents the ideals of African culture and has guided African life for centuries. Ubuntu is a Nguni word meaning 'the quality of being human'. This quality is embodied in the African proverb Umuntu ngumtu ngabanye abantu ('A person is a person through other people'). This means that people owe their selfhood to others, that every individual is connected to others in the community, working together for the well-being of all (Mbiti, 1969: 108-9). It entails willing participation, unquestioning cooperation, warmth, openness, and personal dignity. It translates into a trusting, interdependent, reciprocal relationship which is balanced with individual needs for autonomy and self-expression (Louw, 1995: 158-9). The key values of ubuntu can be summarized as group solidarity, conformity, compassion, respect, human dignity, and collective unity (Mbigi & Maree, 1995: 2). Historical developments and modern urban living, however, have largely contributed to the destruction of the spirit of ubuntu in South Africa (De Villiers, 1994:48). In fact, there are people who say they do not experience ubuntu in their everyday lives. It appears as though ubuntu is largely a theoretical concept referring to the ideal, and the ideal and practical reality do not always coincide (Vilikazi quoted in Broodryk, 1996: 31). Be that as it may, in an attempt to recreate South African society the concept of ubuntu and its underlying philosophy are apparently being resurrected. Philosophies with similar characteristics exist elsewhere in the world (Broodryk, 1996: 31-3). However, given the demands and milieux of modern living, it is not easy to implement such philosophies in practice. Moreover, such philosophies also have negative implications for development. In spite of the positive elements of ubuntu, in the broader context it may not be conducive to successful study and development for participation in the wider academic arena, where individualism is regarded as important. Nevertheless, in the multicultural situation in South Africa there are currently increasing calls for the spirit of ubuntu to be woven into people's thoughts and actions. The present awareness of ubuntu cuts across various terrains ranging from

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business to education, as is evident from, for example, conference contributions.2 In applying the ubuntu concept to business management, Mbigi and Maree (1995: 9) state that ubuntu, with its emphasis on working together and respecting human dignity, has the possibility of helping South Africans create a new identity which will transcend ethnic divisions. In this way, unity can be affirmed while diversity is respected.

4.2 Africanization With increasing sociopolitical changes in South Africa the term 'africanization' is often used, especially in connection with educational reform and in the sense of bringing African culture into formal schooling. Although there are different opinions concerning the meaning and also the implementation and consequences of africanization (Vorster, 1995: 6), it is nevertheless an important concept closely linked to affirming unity and diversity and it has implications for all South Africans. Africanization was originally a reaction against Eurocentrism and the marginalization of Africanness, which had their roots in the colonial era. In general terms, formal or school education of African people was initiated by European missionaries in their endeavours to Christianize Africans. The initial aim was to teach Africans to read and write so that they could read the Bible and, as members of the Church, promulgate the Gospel. In the process Africans were largely alienated from their indigenous culture (Mbiti, 1969: 234) because Christian education was Western education and there was little attempt to accommodate traditional African values and customs in the schooling. Although recommendations were later made to adapt curricula to the African environment and needs, these recommendations were not implemented. Among other reasons, Africans themselves preferred a more academic education and they regarded the adapted curricula as inferior. However, attitudes changed with the emergence of independent African states, African nationalism, and the desire for education more appropriate to the African identity, society, and circumstances. Furthermore, education had to assist the social, political, and economic development of African communities (Badenhorst, 1975: 45-67). In spite of this, no meaningful change was evident by the mid-1970s (Badenhorst, 1975: 70) and, although some progress regarding the use of African languages in schools and adaptations in curricula has occurred elsewhere in Africa (Brock-Utne, 1996: 17, 20-23), formal education in South Africa remains largely Eurocentric. In broad terms, what is africanization? Vorster (1995: 9) states: 'Africanization is, primarily, an appeal to Africans to uphold the African cultural tradition and, secondarily, an appeal to Europeans [and non-Africans] in Africa to respect and accommodate endeavours to that effect/ In spite of interpretations of the concept as focusing on African culture, africanization does not have relevance only for Africans

2

One such conference was held by the Ubuntu School of Philosophy in Pretoria in 1995.

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but for all South Africans and for affirming unity and diversity. Vorster (1995: 9) interprets africanization in the South African context and states: Africanisation calls upon all South Africans to: regard Africa, specifically South Africa, as a basis from which to escalate and aspire take pride in being South Africans appreciate and cherish the South African cultural heritage assert their own ideas, rights, interests, and ideals anticipate healthy self-concepts hold their own rationally in the South African and worldwide intercultural context, This implies a rootedness and commonality in, from, and through Africa and South Africa, and drawing strength from and being 'plugged into' Africanness. However, this does not translate into a narrowness that excludes the outside world. Since the boundaries of our lives extend beyond this country and continent, our being should not be too content and context specific. While upholding our Africanness we should still be able, and be educated, to operate in a broader world context. Furthermore, africanization should be a broad framework, a mode of thinking, rather than, for example, merely an attempt to modify the school curriculum to include African phenomena or to develop or encourage Afrocentredness. As Teffo (1996: 144-5) states: Africanisation is a process of inseminating African value systems, concepts and moral ethics into all our human activities , , , The true search for an African identity, the recognition of the environment in which that identity is sought, becomes a concept that enables us, Blacks and Whites alike, to conceptualize and articulate Africa as our motherland, This ought to be done in our endeavour to affirm our being, personhood and nationhood. Some core ideas regarding africanization and education (Vorster, 1995: 9-11) are: acquaintance with South Africa in the African context as regards natural, human, and technological resources, and their interrelatedness in everyday life; discovery and knowledge of the cultural heritage of fellow South Africans in order to appreciate the totality of the South African cultural heritage; knowledge of self in order to know others; understanding the multicultural nature of South Africa and Africa: that cultures cannot be evaluated by some objective norm, and that cultures have the potential to be complementary. In summary, the knowledge and awareness of sociocultural diversity and interdependence should be built into teaching and learning to reflect the South African and African reality, its people, phenomena, and problems. Thus the content of teaching and learning should serve the people of South Africa and Africa.

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4.3 Multicultural education In various countries, including South Africa, the focus at present is on multiculturalism in education, which has developed out of the broad framework of multiculturalism. Multiculturalism, in short, refers to the existence, recognition and acceptance of cultural diversity in a society. Embedded in the concept is a balance between social conformity (sameness) and social diversity (otherness). While individuals need certain values, knowledge, and skills to operate effectively within the broad society, they do so without necessarily discarding their cultural baggage. Thus people operate in the mainstream macroculture as well as in their own microcultures (Lemmer & Squelch, 1993:2). Multicultural education has been variously defined, interpreted and practised, and has unleashed much debate, confusion and criticism (Atmore, 1994:154-5; Lemmer & Squelch, 1993: 3; McNergney & Herbert, 1995: 268, 274-7). Nevertheless, it has become an important approach to teaching and learning in culturally diverse societies. With the need for educational equity and for the development of the full potential of all students in South Africa regardless of race, culture, ethnicity, class and sex, multicultural education is gaining prominence here as well. The general features of multicultural education are summarized as follows by Lemmer and Squelch (1993: 4-5): Multicultural education recognises and accepts the rightful existence of different cultural groups encourages acculturation (culture change) and cultural preservation encourages mutual interaction and cooperation views cultural diversity as an asset rather than a handicap acknowledges the equal rights of all cultural groups in a society advocates equal educational opportunities encompasses many dimensions of human differences requires the reform of the total school environment is an approach to education and should therefore permeate the entire teaching and learning process is synonymous with effective teaching, According to Lemmer and Squelch (1993: 5): Multicultural education aims at, inter alia: developing positive attitudes towards other cultural groups increasing one's awareness of one's own cultural identity and cultural heritage understanding and appreciating the valuable contribution made to society by other cultural groups reducing cultural prejudice and stereotyping developing a variety of competencies to enable one to participate meaningfully in a culturally diverse society

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helping people explore ways to expand their contact with other cultural groups developing cross-cultural communication skills strengthening the social action skills that will enable students to become effective agents of change increasing intercultural competence, including empathy, acceptance, and trust of those from other cultural groups, and the ability to interpret customs and non-verbal behaviour in differing cultural styles, Multicultural education does not merely imply desegregating schools to include various cultures, or adding optional extras into the school programme. It should be purposefully planned and requires, amongst other things, positive teacher expectations of all students, regardless of their race and culture; a learning environment that supports positive interracial contact; a pluralistic curriculum that reflects the culturally diverse nature of society and includes various perspectives, and a reform of the entire school environment (Lemmer & Squelch, 1993: 5-6). Particularly in South Africa Ravitch's warning (1990 in McNergney & Herbert, 1995: 277) should be heeded: If educators see multi-culturalism as a way to teach victim's history, then it will become a tool to stir racial hatred, In victim's history, children are taught to identify psychologically with their ancestors and to hate those who are the descendants of their oppressors, Before multicultural education can be successfully implemented on a large scale, much more research must be done and various problematic issues ironed out. Even then the success of the multicultural approach to education will not necessarily be guaranteed (Davey, 1994:144-5). However, given the history of education in South Africa, educators and authorities will have to seriously consider multicultural education. Educational changes are important not only for teaching and learning per se, but also with regard to students who, as the next generation, carry ideas, attitudes, and behaviour into the future and into society at large.

5 Vwen&ttu avtd, SjUuatu^ Refrvwt fo SwtArffaca The preceding section has already dealt with broad suggestions as regards diversity and educational reform in South Africa. Acknowledgement of cultural diversity can unleash many and powerful forces to bring about reform, but it can also repress positive change. It seems as though reform, in terms of creating equal opportunities for all to realize and develop their potential, will to a large extent be determined by the manner in which cultural diversity is approached. Successful reform hinges on more than directing a larger budget to the educational

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infrastructure or merely giving more children the opportunity to attend school. In Davey's (1994: 137) words, 'Educators began to realize that many factors such as social class, learning styles, motivation, and a sense of alienation from the mainstream culture of the school were important variables that influenced the academic achievement of these children [of various ethnic groups]/ This underlines the need for a multifaceted approach to reform which should be rooted in accommodating cultural diversity. To deconstruct and reconstruct the education system in South Africa and to allow and prepare students to move back and forth comfortably between the worlds of home and school, family and society, it is of utmost importance to take cultural diversity into account. This poses a tremendous challenge to teachers. Educational reform cannot be left to laws and authorities alone. Change begins in people's hearts and minds. The seeds that teachers sow in their action and interaction in the multicultural classroom will eventually help to determine what fruits will be reaped.

S
2

3 4

5

Diversity includes attributes of race, culture, ethnicity, social class, minority status, sex and gender, and age. The categories implied by these concepts are arbitrary and there may be as much variation within a category as between categories. Nonetheless, any categorization impacts on the individual's daily life and largely determines that individual's position in society. Cultural diversity in South Africa was previously dealt with in terms of separation. At present there are fewer formal or legal divisions; there is, rather, a recognition of multiculturalism in an open society. This has many implications for teaching and learning, since culturally diverse people will increasingly be locked in interaction. Apart from differences there are also similarities between the peoples of South Africa. This poses particular challenges to the education system as regards the simultaneous accommodation of sameness and otherness. Key concepts to be considered in affirming unity and diversity include ubuntu, africanization, and multicultural education. Ubuntu and africanization could create an atmosphere for valuing similarities and differences in which multicultural education could consequently thrive. Multicultural education, focusing on the recognition and accommodation of cultural diversity in the classroom and creating educational equity, seems to hold great promise for the successful implementation of educational reform in South Africa. It does, however, necessitate more research, careful planning, and the input of all involved in education.

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%&o4 and (fatcefiU acculturation africanization cultural relativism

culture enculturation ethnicity ethnocentrism gender

multicultural education race re-enculturation sex social class subculture (microculture) ubuntu

Stoderf/tctMtoa 1 How do you define yourself in terms of the categories of diversity in this chapter? 2 What have you learnt about yourself from the foregoing discussion on cultural diversity? 3 What factors are involved in categorizing people? How may such categorization influence students' performance in school? 4 How would you apply information in this chapter in designing ways and means of making your students aware of and sensitive to cultural differences? 5 Do you think your teacher training equips you to teach in a multicultural school? In what ways can you expand your knowledge to be better able to cope with cultural diversity in the school?

^Miupafifaf Afshar, H (ed). 1985. Women, Work and Ideology in the Third World. London: Tavistock Atmore, E. 1994. Multicultural education, antiracist practice and early childhood education in the South African context. In J le Roux (ed) The Black Child in Crisis: A Socio-educational Perspective, vol II. Pretoria: J L van Schaik Badenhorst, D C. 1975. Die opleiding van onderwysers vir 'n ontwikkelende gemeenskap. Unpublished MEd dissertation. University of South Africa Berreman, C D. 1982. Race, caste and other invidious distinctions in social stratification. In J B Cole (ed) Anthropology for the Eighties, New York: The Free Press Brock-Utne, B. 1996. Forces for decolonizing the African mind: What could South Africa learn from the failures of other countries in sub-Saharan Africa? In Research Unit for African Philosophy Decolonizing the Mind. Proceedings of the Second Colloquium on African Philosophy held at the University of South Africa, Pretoria October 1995. Pretoria: University of South Africa

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CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND SCHOOLING Broodryk, j. 1996. Is ubuntuism unique? In Research Unit for African Philosophy Decolonizing the Mind. Proceedings of the Second Colloquium on African Philosophy held at the University of South Africa, Pretoria October 1995. Pretoria: University of South Africa Cushner, K, A McClelland, & P L Safford. 1992 Human Diversity in Education: An Integrative Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill Davey, C R. 1994. Understanding the multicultural classroom. In J le Roux (ed) The Black Child in Crisis: A Sodo-educational Perspectivet vol II. Pretoria: J L van Schaik De Haas, M E. 1988. Whose reality? Fundamental issues in mediation and negotiation in South Africa today. Reality, 20 (283), 26-30 De Villiers, S L. 1994. Guidelines for the development of a curriculum for a multicultural society in South Africa. Unpublished MEd dissertation. University of South Africa Ember, C R & M Ember. 1981. Cultural Anthropology, 3 ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Kottak, C P. 1987. Cultural Anthropology, 4 ed. New York: Random House Lemmer, E M. 1993. Gender issues in education. In E I Dekker & E M Lemmer (eds) Critical Issues in Modern Education. Durban: Butterworths Lemmer, E & J Squelch. 1993. Multicultural Education. A Teachers'Manual. Halfway House: Southern Book Publishers Lindsay, B (ed). 1983. Comparative Perspectives on Third World Women. The Impact of Race, Sex, and Class. New York: Praeger Louw, L L. 1995. Ubuntu: Applying African philosophy to diversity training. In L B Griggs & L L Louw (eds) Valuing Diversity: New Tools for a New Reality. New York: McGraw-Hill Mbigi, L & J Maree. 1995. Ubuntu: The Spirit of African Transformation Management. Randburg: Knowledge Resources Mbiti, J S. 1969. African Religions & Philosophy. London: Heineman McNergney, R F & J M Herbert. 1995. Foundations of Education. The Challenge of Professional Practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Miller, E S. 1979. Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Prinsloo, E D. 1996. The ubuntu style of participatory management. In Research Unit for African Philosophy Decolonizing the Mind. Proceedings of the Second Colloquium on African Philosophy held at the University of South Africa, Pretoria October 1995. Pretoria: University of South Africa Ramphele, M & E Boonzaier. 1988. The position of African women: Race and gender in South Africa. In E Boonzaier & J Sharp (eds) South African Keywords: The Uses & Abuses of Political Concepts. Cape Town: David Philip Rollwagen, J R. 1986. Reconsidering basic assumptions: A call for a reassessment of the general concept of culture in anthropology. Urban Anthropology, 15 (1-2), 97-133 Seymour-Smith, C. 1986. Macmillan Dictionary of Anthropology. London: Macmillan Sharp, J. 1988. Introduction: Constructing social reality. In E Boonzaier & j Sharp (eds) South African Keywords: The Uses & Abuses of Political Concepts. Cape Town: David Philip Spradley, J P & D W McCurdy. 1975. Anthropology: The Cultural Perspective. New York: John Wiley Teffo, J. 1996. Kingship and democracy in South Africa. In Research Unit for African Philosophy Decolonizing the Mind. Proceedings of the Second Colloquium on African Philosophy held at the University of South Africa, Pretoria October 1995. Pretoria: University of South Africa Thornton, R. 1988. Culture: A contemporary definition. In E Boonzaier & J Sharp (eds) South African Keywords: The Uses & Abuses of Political Concepts. Cape Town: David Philip Van Heerden, M E. 1995. Black university students in South Africa: The influence of sociocultural factors on study and performance. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 26 (1), 50-80 Vorster, P J. 1995. Africanization: An explanation and some educational implications. South African Journal of Education, 15 (1), 6-12 Woods, C M. 1975. Culture Change. Dubuque: Wm C Brown

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CHAPTER

SIX

t

i¥uwta*t *Devetofi*Me*tt Dr Nicky Kruger Faculty of Education University of South Africa

We all know that some teachers have more success than others. They convey difficult concepts to learners with ease, they maintain good relations with learners, and they find teaching enjoyable. Others, even some highly qualified teachers who are exceptionally well versed in their specializations, find it difficult to make themselves understood by learners. They have difficulty in understanding learners' behaviour and struggle to adapt teaching material to learners' development levels. What accounts for the difference between successful and less successful teachers? Certainly not only the difference in their knowledge of the subjects they teach. To be effective in the classroom, teachers need much more than mere knowledge of their subject. They must know and understand the individuals in their classes, their abilities, the stages of development through which they are passing, and how the environment shapes their personalities and interests. Effective classroom teaching therefore requires understanding and knowledge of human development in the domains that influence learning, as well as knowledge of the learner in totality, in other words of all his or her facets. This chapter concentrates on human development in the domains that usually exert the greatest influence on learning, namely the physical, cognitive, psychosocial, moral, and volitional domains. We also consider the implications for teachers of development in these domains and the influence of learner exceptionality on teaching and learning in South African schools.

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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

7d^fey #**&*& 1 The Role of the Teacher

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2 Teaching of Learners in Totality

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3 How does Learners' Physical Development Influence Learning and Teaching?. . . . . . 3.1 Physical changes 3.2 Physical problems and psychological well-being

220 220 221

4 Approaches to Cognitive Development and their Influence on Teaching and Learning 4.1 The psychometric approach 4.1.1 Intelligence: a single ability or more than one? 4.1.2 The danger of the psychometric approach 4.2 The cognitive-developmental approach 4.2.1 The work of Jean Piaget 4.2.1.1 The sensorimotor phase 4.2.1.2 The preoperational phase 4.2.1.3 The concrete-operational phase 4.2.1.4 The formal-operational phase 4.2.2 Does everybody experience Piaget's phases of development in the same way? 4.2.3 Piaget's influence on education 4.3 The contextual approach 4.3.1 The work of Lev Vygotsky 4.3.2 Vygotsky's influence on education 4.4 The information-processing approach 4.4.1 The work of Robert Sternberg 4.4.1.1 The contextual subtheory 4.4.1.2 The componential subtheory 4.4.1.3 The experiential subtheory 4.4.2 Sternberg's influence on education

224 224 226 227 228 228 228 229 229 229 230 230 231 232 232 233 233 233 233 233 234

5 How does Development in the Psychosocial Domain Influence Learning and Teaching? 234 5.1 Erikson's work . 234 235 5.1.1 Trust versus mistrust 5.1.2 Autonomy versus shame and doubt 235 5.1.3 Initiative versus guilt 235 5.1.4 Industry versus inferiority. 235 5.1.5 Identity versus role confusion 236 5.2 Erikson's influence on education 236

r

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

6 The 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

Development of Altruism and Morality Are girls more altruistic than boys? Cultural influences How does moral development influence reasoning? . . . Criticism of Kohlberg's theory Eisenberg's work on moral development The role of the teacher in moral development

237 238 238 239 239 240 240

7 How Does Learners' Volitional Development Influence Learning and Teaching? . . . .

241

8 The Influence of Learner Exceptionality on Teaching and Learning 8.1 Giftedness 8.2 Intellectual disability 8.3 Physical disabilities and severe or multiple disabilities 8.4 Severe or chronic illness 8.5 Auditory disability 8.6 Visual disability 8.7 Language and speech impairments 8.8 Emotional and behavioural disorders 8.9 Hyperactivity and attention disorders. 8.10 Learning disabilities 8.11 Environmentally deprived learners 8.12 Didactically neglected learners

242 243 244 244 245 245 246 246 246 247 247 248 248

9 South African Policy with Respect to LSEN 9.1 Teaching learners with exceptionalities

250 251

Summary

252

Terms and Concepts

254

Student Activities

254

Bibliography

255

/ 74e T&te, o£ ttte 7eacAvi The role of the teacher has changed dramatically through the ages. The days when teachers were seen as mere transmitters of ready-made knowledge to passive, uninvolved learners are long gone. Today teachers are expected to make information available to learners in an interactive and creative way. To this end, teachers not only have to possess specialized knowledge of their subject, but also have to be abreast of a variety of instructional methods and the ways in which these methods can be

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adapted to the developmental level of the individual learner. In addition, teachers must approach learners in totality, that is, as physical, cognitive, social, moral, and volitional beings. Teachers can no longer concern themselves exclusively with learners' intellectual development. Today the emphasis in classrooms is on the development of learners in totality. As a teacher you will therefore be expected to be a mediator and facilitator of the learner's acquisition of knowledge, as well as a therapist, social change agent, confidant, and sometimes even surrogate parent.

2 lecufaty ol £e<M«0a tot lotaUty Because the development of the learner in totality is such a wide-ranging field of study, it is usually divided into different facets or domains. Development in these domains exerts a definite influence on learning and has implications that the teacher must keep in mind. The following domains, among others, are distinguishable: Development in the physical domain concerns development of the body, biological growth, or maturation. It includes changes in the body (in the brain, senses, muscles, bones, and so on), as well as the way in which a person uses his or her body (e g motor skills and sexual development). Development in the cognitive domain relates to development in reasoning and thought, language acquisition, and how individuals collect and store knowledge from their environment. Thus cognitive development consists in changes in perception, thought, language, memory, intelligence, problem solving, academic progress, and learning. The terms cognitive and intellectual are usually used as synonyms. Development in the psychosocial domain refers to personality, emotional, and social development. It includes all aspects of identity and self-concept development and includes the relationships people contract with themselves and others. Development in the moral domain concerns another key aspect of people's overall development. It encompasses moral and religious development, which implies values, attitudes, and norms. Development in the volitional domain relates to the learner's expression of her or his will in such issues as motivation, decision making, aspirations, objectives, and needs. We will consider these domains separately for study purposes, but bear in mind that the domains influence each other all the time. Consider the boxed example overleaf. As a teacher you should always be on the lookout for changes in learners' lives that may influence their learning, motivation, and academic performance. Remember that events and changes that ostensibly have no bearing whatsoever on a learner's school work may nevertheless impinge on it to a drastic extent. Problems or changes in one domain of development, as in Jessie's case, may influence development in other domains.

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Jessie has just entered high school, She has done well at school to date and has been popular with her school-fellows, Just recently, however, she has put on weight and is struggling with acne that has left her once smooth skin red and swollen (physical domain), with the result that nowadays she is cringing with embarrassment at her appearance, This makes her shy and withdrawn and reluctant to make new friends (psychosocial domain). She often broods about her lot and feels so unhappy that her school work begins to suffer. She performs more and more badly in her tests and is afraid that she will fail some of her subjects (cognitive domain). Recently she has been catching herself trying to sneak a look at her classmates' work in an effort to improve her marks (moral domain). Can you think of other examples where development in one domain positively or negatively influences development in other domains?

3 *%w doe& JLewwea' P&qticat ^evebfint&tt Ittfjbt&tce JLewwwa and, 7e#^W ? The ancient Greeks began to emphasize the symbiotic relationship between people's minds (psyche) and their bodies (soma) at an early stage — hence the saying that a sound body houses a sound mind. Teachers are often able to observe the consequences of physical problems and change, undernourishment, serious and/or chronic illnesses, and a negative body image in learners' cognitive and psychosocial development and academic performance. Naturally every learner is unique in the way he or she handles physical problems or changes. For some this constitutes a challenge to do well in other development domains, while the lives and thinking of others are dominated by physical problems to the extent that development in all the other domains suffers.

3.1 Physical changes The first two years of a baby's life are a period of very rapid development. The most rapid growth after birth takes place during this period (Mwamwenda, 1995). Then the rate of growth in body length and mass gradually slows down while other abilities, such as muscle control and coordination, improve. Gross and fine motor control of the muscles develops considerably between the ages of two and five years. To promote muscle control, teachers must engage the young children in their charge in activities that improve their strength, endurance, and sense of balance, as well as their speed and sense of rhythm. Activities aimed at improving fine motor control, such as stringing beads, painting, playing with sand, manipulating clay, building

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puzzles, and playing with blocks must also be encouraged during this period. By the end of the preschool phase the nervous system approaches maturity. This is an important physiological change that is essential for the teaching-learning experiences to follow at school. The junior primary school years are a period of slow but steady growth. Children tend to be particularly active during this period. They enjoy their bodily strength, vitality, and physical abilities. The junior primary school teacher should therefore not expect them to sit still for long, uninterrupted periods. It must be remembered that physical activities and restlessness are not necessarily signs of naughtiness and disobedience, but are merely characteristic of the development phase through which the child is passing. Quiet periods during which children are expected to srt still should be alternated with periods during which they can discharge excess energy. The preadolescent growth spurt usually sets in during the senior primary school years and is characteristic of the onset of puberty. For girls it begins between the ages of nine and 14 years, while the corresponding age for boys ranges between 10 and 16 years. The phenomenon takes place over a period of approximately two years and is characterized by a variety of changes in the body of the child. For example, as a result of hormonal changes, height and mass increase rapidly while body proportions also begin to change. Girls reach their adult height approximately two years before boys, and between the ages of 11 and 13 years are usually taller, heavier, and even stronger than boys. Boys catch up, however, and after a more intense growth spurt than that of girls they end up taller and heavier than their female counterparts. Most boys reach their adult height at the approximate age of 21 years, while for girls the corresponding age is 17 years. The adolescent growth spurt is accompanied by other bodily changes. Pronounced accretion of subcutaneous fatty tissue is particularly noticeable among girls, while muscular development is more evident among boys. Consequently, motor skills and coordination keep on improving among adolescent boys, but not generally among girls above 13 years of age (Rice, 1984). Sexual maturation accounts for an important part of the adolescent's physical development. Whereas physical development is generally not particularly pronounced during adolescence, sexual development is dramatic and demands a major adaptive effort from the adolescent. Such things as the appearance of primary and secondary sexual characteristics, the breaking of the voice, acne, menstruation, and nocturnal emission of semen can be traumatic experiences for adolescents who are not well prepared for them.

3.2 Physical problems and psychological well-being Various physical problems can influence the learner's psychologicalwell-being. One of the most vexing problems is that of illness and incapacity associated with

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hospitalization, pain, indisposition, extensive and harrowing medical examinations, surgery, strict dietary regimens, and medication. Illness and incapacity can also restrict the learner's participation in physical activity and cause absence from school, which could lower academic achievement. About one out of ten learners contracts some chronic disease by the age of 15 years (©'Dougherty & Brown, 1990). Learners suffering from chronic disease run a greater risk of experiencing psychological adjustment problems (Breslau, 1985; Cadman, Boyle, Szatmari & Offord, 1987). And yet research indicates that people differ significantly in their methods of adjusting to different diseases and chronic conditions, and that different learners react differently to illness (Tavormina, Kastner, Slater & Watt, 1976). Factors that influence the impact of disease include the age at which the learner's illness commences; the gravity, duration, symptoms, and visibility of the disease; the type and extent of medical intervention; the degree to which it disrupts family life; and the extent of the financial burden the disease represents. The personality of the sick or incapacitated learner and his/her parents and their ability to cope with the impact of the disease also play a significant part in the psychic health of the victim (O'Dougherty & Brown, 1990). You must be alert to the influence of serious or chronic disease and incapacity on the learner's overall development and, in particular, on h§r/his cognitive development and learning. In some instances these learners are anxious, dependent, and depressive. They fear social stigmatization, rejection, and discrimination. One of your main tasks is therefore to help these learners to socialize successfully and to handle physical problems so that they can lead autonomous, independent lives and optimally actualize their abilities. Another physical problem that may lead to unhappiness and depression in learners is a negative body image. Attractive and athletic adolescents usually have a positive body image and are generally happier, better adjusted, more extrovert, and more successful than their less attractive peers (Monteith, postma & Scott, 1988). As may be expected, therefore, a negative body image caused by dissatisfaction with personal appearance and achievement damages the learner's self-concept, undermines his/her self-confidence, makes him/her self-conscious and retiring, and prevents his/her venturing into life with daring and enthusiasm. In addition, it often makes learners reluctant to participate in class projects and to ask or answer questions. Very early, or late, development may also cause a negative body image. For example, boys who develop very late have to contend with a backlog in physical strength and skill, with the result that they may feel inadequate and dependent. They also tend to be less active, less popular, more restless, and inclined to suffer from low self-esteem. Girls who develop very late may feel inferior and marginalized by their peers. They usually become involved in heterosexual relationships at a much later stage than their peers and therefore normally experience a loss of status with that group. Boys and girls who develop at a very early age, ort the other hand, often feel shy, embarrassed, and self-conscious about their changed bodies (Mwamwenda, 1995).

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It therefore seems that both early and late development may be disadvantageous to the learner and could lead to a negative body image and a resultant poor selfconcept. Another physical problem that influences learners' psychological well-being and learning is the effect of malnutrition and severe undernourishment. Between 25 % and 30 % of South African children below the age of five years suffer from chronic malnutrition and resultant stunted growth. Of four million children under five years of age, 480 000 are underweight, 800 000 are stunted, and 800 000 are anaemic (Business Day, 1994). These undernourished children are not only more susceptible to illness, but also suffer from long-term effects, such as impaired cognitive development, short stature, and a lower work capacity. In addition, their selfconcept suffers, their powers of concentration and their problem-solving ability are deficient, and they are listless and lethargic. Another form of malnutrition is the consequence of such illnesses as anor&tjQ nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia entails a drastic reduction in food intake and unhealthy or pathological weight loss. Although it does occur among boys it is much more common among girls. Individuals with anorexia have a distorted self-image in that they perceive themselves as overweight even if their actual appearance is skeletal. The whole syndrome starts with a desire to lose a few kilograms, but once this objective is achieved the person keeps on dieting obsessively. Whereas the anorexic refuses to eat, the individual suffering from bulimia nervosa overeats compulsively, only to get rid of the food by vomiting or by using laxatives in large doses. This eating disorder is not readily identifiable, because the learner tends to maintain normal weight in the initial phases. The consequences of this condition are severe, however, in that they include severe dental caries, irritation of the stomach and intestinal linings, and hair loss. Both anorexics and bulimics tend to suffer from depression, shame, and self-disgust. Attempted and actual suicides also occur frequently among these individuals. In serious cases these eating disorders may even cause the death of the sufferer. Obesity is another physical problem that can cause a negative body image. The Medical Research Council of South Africa reports that South Africa has one of the highest rates of obesity in the world, with over 40 % of the population classified as obese (Cape Times, 1995). Although obesity is viewed in some cultures as a status symbol, or symbol of prosperity, children in different cultures tend to absorb Western standards when it comes to fashion, and thinness is still showcased everywhere as the bottom line for beauty, success, and acceptability (Goodman, 1992). In a society where slenderness is therefore accepted by most people as the norm, many overweight learners regard themselves as unattractive and socially less acceptable than their thinner peers. This influences their self-concept negatively and can lead to social maladjustment and poor interpersonal relations. The perception that overweight people are friendly and happy is largely unfounded. This is attested by the large amounts of time and money people spend on crash diets. If these diets, and other aids such as slimming tablets, do not produce the desired results in short order,

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they lose heart and overeat again in an effort to assuage their sense of failure. Thus a vicious cycle is set up. Accordingly, in order to identify emotional problems at the emergent stage, you should be sensitive to any self-criticism expressed, or self-critical comments made, by learners. You should also be well-informed about the characteristic symptoms of eating disorders such as malnutrition, anorexia, bulimia, and obesity, so that you can offer assistance or refer the learner to a professional person for assistance. Since learners often slavishly endeavour to emulate the body image held up as ideal by the mass media, teachers must try to help them to cultivate a balanced perspective by constantly emphasizing every person's uniqueness, inner beauty, values, and character.

4 tff*fMMLcAe& fo (facputwe *Devdofi*H&tt a*tct tfafo &t t7eac6i*t$ awl Jlecvwwq

1n(fiue#tce

Cognitive development involves all the higher-order mental processes through which we try to understand and fit in with our surrounding world — such processes as thought, reasoning, learning, and problem solving. By its nature, development in this domain exerts a radical influence on learners' learning and therefore has important implications for education. Our cognitive or intellectual development can be studied from a variety of perspectives: the psychometric approach that is also known as the intelligence-test or quantitative approach, the development or qualitative approach, the contextual approach, and the information-processing approach. Your specific perception of intellectual development will influence your teaching and expectations of learners. It is therefore important to be knowledgeable about the different approaches that are currently endorsed by educationists throughout the world, in order to apply in the classroom what you consider to be the plus points of each approach.

4.1 The psychometric approach The notion that there is a difference between different people's skills and abilities, and that these differences can be expressed in quantitative terms, originated in the late nineteenth century in the work of Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911), who contended that people differed in their ability to discriminate between different physical stimuli and in the time they took to respond to such stimuli. In his view, these differences were largely due to inborn qualities, and to measure them he developed a series of tests that measured reaction time and sensory acuity in people. James McKean Cattell expanded on Gallon's ideas by developing a series of fifty psychophysical tests to test people's ability to sense physical stimuli and to perform certain motor actions. It was Cattell, too, who first coined the term 'mental test' (Bukatko & Daehler, 1992). Little

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correspondence could be found, however, between the performance of learners in Cattell's mental tests and their levels of achievement in college. The idea that intelligence equalled psychophysical skills, as held by Gallon and Cattell, was temporarily shelved, but the idea that people could be tested in order to compare their levels of performance went from strength to strength. The first formal intelligence test was developed in 1905 by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon. This test was specially designed to identify children in France who could not cope with the normal curriculum in state schools as a result of reduced mental capacity. Test items determined learners' verbal reasoning powers and comprehension, logical thought, and ability to solve simple problems. Later this test was taken to the United States where it was revised for use with American children and adults. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was developed in 1916 by Lewis Terman of Stanford University from the original Stanford-Binet test. Since then the test has been revised several times. The latest edition of the Stanford-Binet test is designed by educationists to measure four general skills: verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, abstract/ visual reasoning, and short-term memory (Vasta, Haith & Miller, 1995). The test measures the intelligence of children of all ages except infancy. It is a global measure of intelligence that has been developed to give a single intelligence quotient, or IQ, that sums up the child's abilities in a single score. The IQ is calculated by applying the following formula:

IQ=

MA x 100 CA

**&ere; y& « mental tg& , CA * cfimftotoffell &je 1Ctt*9sco»ttta • Thus IQ tests compare an individual's mental abilities with the average mental abilities of other individuals of the same age. A variety of other IQ tests have been developed over the years. The best-known IQ tests that have been standardized for use in South Africa are the following: the OSAIS — Old South African Individual Scale the JSAIS — Junior South African Individual Scale (for children between the ages of 3 years and 7 years and 11 months) the SSAIS-R — Revised edition of the Senior South African Individual Scale (for learners 7 to 16 years old and older) the Wechsler-Bellevue (for adults) Individual Intelligence Scale for Zulu-speaking learners

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Individual Intelligence Scale for Xhosa speaking learners Individual Intelligence Scale for Northern Sotho speaking learners

4.1.1 Intelligence: a single ability or more than one? Over the years theoreticians, who worked largely within the psychometric framework, adopted two contrasting viewpoints about the exact nature of intelligence. Some argued that intelligence was a basic ability that affected the performance of all cognitively oriented tasks. An intelligent learner would therefore do well at mathematics, science, languages, and the like. Others held that there were various primary mental abilities rather than only one basic ability. A learner could therefore be brilliant at languages, for example, but at the same time have serious difficulty with mathematics and arithmetical tasks. Charles Spearman (1927), a proponent of intelligence as one basic ability, maintained that one factor or mental attribute was used to do any mental test. This ability he called g or general intelligence. He also maintained, however, that in addition to general intelligence, every test required the exercise of specific abilities which he called s. Thus performance in a verbal memory test was reliant on both g and a specific ability, such as the ability to recall words that have just been read. In contradistinction, J P Guilford (1988) and H Gardner (1983) maintain that intelligence comprises multiple cognitive abilities. Guilford developed a particularly complex model of intelligence that can be represented as 150 small cubes forming a larger cube of intelligence (see figure 6.1). Guilford contends that there are three basic categories, or faces, of intellect, namely mental operations (thought processes), content (that about which the person thinks), and products (end products of thought). Each of these categories is divided into subcategories (see figure 6.1). One of the advantages of Guilford's model is that it makes provision for the role of social knowledge, such as understanding or 'reading' another person's body language or facial expression (Bukatko & Daehler, 1992). Before Guilford's model very few intelligence tests included items that measured skills in the social realm. His model is too complex, however, to be used as a guideline for the prediction of performance in actual situations or to serve as a basis for the comparison of people's behaviour. Gardner (1983) adopts the position that there are at least seven different kinds of intelligence, namely linguistic or verbal, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, and bodily intelligence, as well as self-knowledge and knowledge of others. This proposition hinges on the observation that brain damage often only causes a malfunction in one particular area. For example, the victim's language or motor abilities may be affected while other abilities are left intact. He also points out that individuals often excel in one of the above areas without displaying any ability worth mentioning in the other six categories.

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Figure 6.1 Guilford's model of intelligence (Guilford, 1988)

4.1.2 The danger of the psychometric approach The danger of the psychometric approach is that the learner may be labelled unintelligent, average, or brilliant merely on the strength of his/her IQ. Parents and teachers react to this information without considering factors such as motivation, personality, diligence, steady application, the will to achieve, and so on. Unrealistically low demands are often made on learners with a low IQ, to which the learners then react by regarding themselves as intellectually underendowed, with the result that they lose self-confidence and perform below par. Where teachers demand the same performance from these learners as they do from others with higher IQs, those with lower IQs tend to rise to the occasion and surprise their teachers with the standard of their work. You should therefore always adopt a holistic approach to learners by assessing their abilities globally. Such factors as the learner's health and general state of well-being while undergoing the test, as well as stress, anxiety, and other emotional factors, should always be taken into account. Be particularly alert to the influence of environmental factors and culture on the learner's ability to answer certain questions. Cultural settings, characterized by different degrees of technological sophistication, can have a marked influence on IQ scores.

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On the other hand, unrealistically high demands are often made on learners with high IQs. They are expected to be achievers at all times and in all areas, and by being spurred on to ever higher goals and further horizons they are sometimes deprived of a carefree childhood/This induces unnecessary tension in the learner as it forces her/ him headlong into a millrace of achievement, with the result that she/he is sometimes goaded into rebellion.

4.2 The cognitive-developmental approach 4.2.1 The work of Jean Piaget The famous Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is known as the most important representative of the developmental approach to intelligence and cognitive development. In contrast to the psychometric approach, which hinges on the number of test items a learner can answer correctly in relation to his/her chronological age, Piaget is mainly interested in the type of test item that a learner can answer correctly at a particular age (McCandless & Coop, 1979) and the type of thinking on which a particular line of reasoning is based. Thus Piaget focuses on the qualitative aspects of intelligence, that is, the cognitive processes on which intelligence is based. Unlike earlier educationists, who maintained that intelligence was determined before birth and remained fixed, and who labelled children (quantitative), Piaget believed that children are born with the potential to develop intellectually. He also laid particular emphasis on the child's ability to acquire knowledge and understanding of the world on his/her own initiative. According to Piaget, cognitive development is based on two pivotal assumptions about intelligence, namely that intelligence is a kind of biological adaptation and that it becomes organized in different ways as the individual develops and interacts with the world around him/her (Piaget, 1971). To explain the development of cognitive skills, he divided children's cognitive development into four phases, namely the the the the

sensorimotor phase; preoperational phase; concrete-operational phase; formal-operational phase.

4.2.7.1 The sensorimotor phase The sensorimotor phase extends from birth to approximately two years of age. During this phase children learn mainly through their senses and by performing motor activities. They are strongly influenced by environmental factors. Infants' most important development task is to begin to understand the permanence of objects and to become aware that they exist even when hidden from them. They will keep on looking for an object even if someone covers it so that they cannot see it. Initially infants' cognitive activities are characterized by reflex actions, but in due course they begin to perform more voluntary actions (Du Toit & Kruger, 1991).

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4.2.1.2 The preoperational phase During the preoperational phase, which extends from approximately the second to the seventh year of life, children become increasingly capable of using language. They can use words or symbols in play to represent objects that are not really present. For example, a child may simulate the gait of a galloping horse while running with a stick and thus represent a real horse symbolically, or will simply mime the real situation in the absence of the toys. Children also ascribe living attributes to non-living objects. In this phase, thought consists in transductive reasoning, that is, a kind of logic that proceeds by association from one particular to another. For example, a child who takes a nap every afternoon and then skips one could believe that there was no afternoon on that day because the habitual napping pattern conditions him/her to identify the afternoon with taking a nap. Children in the preoperational phase of cognitive development can only understand one relation at a time and cannot see a problem in its entirety. If they are shown two balls of clay that are equal in size and one of these is flattened in front of them, for example, they will say that the flat disc (the flattened ball of clay) contains more or less clay than the ball that is left intact, merely because one of the pieces of clay now looks smaller than the other. Their thinking is also one-dimensional, therefore, in that it focuses on only one perceptual aspect. For example, they only take account of the height of the ball of clay and fail to realise that the flattened ball is broader and must therefore contain the same amount of clay as the other one. 4.2.1.3 The concrete-operational phase The concrete-operational phase extends from approximately seven to eleven years and is called the phase of 'hands-on thinking' (Woolfolk, 1993). During this phase operations (or actions that are carried out and reversed mentally rather than physically) are used in thought, but only if objects are concretely present. Thus the child's thought is still not based on verbal or abstract hypotheses, but relates exclusively to concrete and actual things. Children's thinking in this phase is typified by their realization, for example, that the amount of clay in the two balls in the example used above remains the same even if one is flattened (conservation). They can also understand that the situation can be reversed by rolling the flattened ball into a spherical shape again (reversibility), and they are capable of classifying objects according to colour, shape, size, and so on (classification). They also understand relations between objects, for example that A < B < C (seriation). Thus they are already capable of thinking logically about reality and about things that exist concretely, but they cannot reason abstractly about possibilities. 4.2.1.4 The formal-operational phase According to Piaget the formal-operational phase is the final stage of cognitive development. This phase starts at approximately 11-12 years. At the formaloperational stage, the adolescent reasons much like a scientist searching for solutions in the laboratory. Adolescents can

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think in the abstract; formulate hypotheses and problems; recognize imperfect assumptions; verify the results of their reasoning; review their own reasoning process; distinguish the real from the impossible; devise solutions to problems; reason hypothetically-deductively; handle many possibilities simultaneously; conceive of what might be; detect logical inconsistencies (Van den Aardweg & Van den Aardweg, 1988). This stage therefore includes all of the higher level abstract operations that do not depend on the presence of concrete objects or materials, which means that learners in this phase can think scientifically, that is, they can draw inferences, represent interpretations, and develop hypotheses. They evaluate their own thinking as well as that of others. Formal-operational thought is therefore metacognitive because it includes thought concerning thought, hypotheses, statements, and possible solutions. 4.2.2 Does everybody experience Piaget's phases of development in the same way? The answer to this question is both yes and no: yes, because people generally pass through the different phases in the sequence described by Piaget; no, because people pass through the different phases at different rates. Recent research findings indicate that learners can perform certain cognitive functions at much earlier ages than those asserted by Piaget (Du Toit & Kruger, 1991). The age limits given by Piaget are therefore relative and every person's rate of cognitive development is unique. Further, although Piaget contends that cognitive development culminates in the formal-operational phase, some adults never even reach this phase, while others make use of formaloperational thinking in certain situations but fall back on concrete-operational thinking in others. Piaget (1970) himself suggested that most adults are only capable of formaloperational thought in areas where they have the greatest experience or interest. 4.2.3 Piaget's influence on education Although Piaget's work has been the target of much criticism over the years, teachers and learners have benefited considerably from his research on cognitive development. He has taught us to listen carefully to learners and to observe them keenly in order to learn as much as possible about their thinking. When we understand how they think we are in a much better position to adjust our teaching to their abilities and needs. As a teacher you should therefore endeavour to determine the development level of every learner in your class. You should also establish what kind of thinking results in repeated mistakes or learning problems.

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Effective learning is based on existing knowledge, Probably one of the most critical aspects of Piaget's theory is his view that learning is based on existing knowledge. New knowledge must be assimilated into existing knowledge by means of experimentation and experience. Existing knowledge that has been incorrectly or inadequately organized makes it virtually impossible for the learner to comprehend new information. For example, learners who have no conception of chemicar structures will learn to give correct answers to problems in chemistry like parrots without really understanding what they are doing. The answers they give will also fade from their memories fairly quickly! It is therefore important that you first establish what prior knowledge learners should have and what knowledge they actually possess before you present new information to them (Glover & Bruning, 1990). Another important implication of Piaget's theory is that learners should never be bored with work that they find too simple, or with work that is too difficult for them. The disequilibrium between what they know and what they still have to learn must be judged to a nicety in order to promote learning (Hunt, 1961). When learners are confronted with problems that induce mistakes, they are forced to review their thinking. This results in disequilibrium that leads to the development of new knowledge. On the other hand, if learners never achieve success they lose interest. Learners are not empty vessels/containers to be filled with knowledge, Piaget encourages teachers to draw learners into active engagement in the learning process. Always bear in mind that, according to Piaget, learners are not empty containers that have to be filled with knowledge, but that they investigate the world and try to understand by actively constructing their own knowledge. Accordingly, teachers should act as facilitators rather than directors. Learners should experience reality by interacting with new knowledge. This active experience of that which is learnt must not be confined to the physical manipulation of objects, however, but must also include the mental manipulation of ideas. Finally, Piaget emphasizes the importance of the learner's interaction with her/his peer group in order to develop the ability to perceive matters from a different perspective. It is during interaction with other people that learners get the opportunity to evaluate their own thinking, to consider alternatives, and to reorganize their own views and conclusions (Bell-Gredler, 1986).

4.3 The contextual approach The cognitive-developmental approach places special emphasis on the development of cognitive skills and the role played by learners in their own development. The

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contextual approach re-emphasizes the influence exerted on the learner's cognitive development by other persons and by culture. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (18961934), a Russian psychologist, was one of the great proponents of this approach.

43.1 The work of Lev Vygotsky Vygotsky contends that every learner has a zone of proximal development that represents the difference between what the learner can do on his/her own and what he/she is capable of doing with the assistance of others (Vygotsky, 1978). He further maintains that what the learner can do on his/her own is the learner's level of actual performance and also the level of cognitive development measured by the IQ tests. Learners' cognitive abilities comprise much more, however, than their actual level of development. Learners can achieve much more with assistance. This level of achievement with assistance is referred to as their level of potential development. For example, two learners may have attained the same level of actual development in that they can do exactly the same number of sums correctly without assistance. After receiving assistance from a parent, a teacher, or even a more competent classmate, however, one learner can do significantly more sums correctly than her/his peer. In other words, the learners' zones of proximal development (the differences between their levels of actual and potential development) differ. Vygotsky and the adherents of the contextual approach maintain that learners imbibe much of what they learn from the cultural environment in which they live, and they develop problem-solving skills with the assistance of adults. Thus, knowledge and the tools of intellectual adaptation are acquired by social interaction with other people. Today, the contextual approach has become one of the most influential movements in education.

4.3.2 Vygotsky's influence on education One of the main implications of Vygotsky's zone of proximal development is that learners should be continually placed in situations where their cognitive skills are challenged, but where the assistance and guidance of the teacher or of other learners are available. In some instances the best teacher is another learner who has just mastered the problem concerned (Woolfolk, 1993). Vygotsky also encourages teachers to do more than merely organize the environment and situations so that learners can discover answers on their own. Teachers must use creative explanations, demonstrations and questioning to create opportunities for creative learning. It is particularly important to use a type of teaching known as scaffolding, whereby teachers continuously adapt their level of assistance to the level of learners' performance. Scaffolding means, among other things, that teachers make use of more direct, explicit forms of teaching when learners have difficulty in understanding something, and of more indirect, more demanding forms of teaching as learners approach independent mastery of tasks.

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4.4 The information-processing approach The information-processing approach is a relatively new development in perceptions of how cognitive development and learning proceed in human beings. This approach focuses on how information is received, analysed, stored, and used, that is to say, on how people think rather than what they think. The human intellect is seen as a complex information processing system in that it actively processes, stores, and later recalls information for use. This approach to learning entails two important elements, namely the investigation of processes whereby information is received and stored in the memory, and research into problem-solving strategies (Bell-Gredler, 1986).

4.4.1 The work of Robert Sternberg Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed an important new theory of intelligence based on the principles of the information-processing approach. His triarchic theory of intelligence derives its name from three major subtheories that describe intellectual ability, namely the contextual subtheory, the componential subtheory, and the experiential (two-facet) subtheory. 4.4.1.1 The contextual subtheory The principal idea of the contextual subtheory is that intelligence must be seen as the ability to adapt to the unique environment in which the individual lives. According to Sternberg (1985: 45) intelligence consists of 'purposive adaptation to, and selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one's life', which means, for example, that we cannot use an intelligence test devised for a particular cultural group for learners who belong to other cultural groups. 4.4.1.2 The componential subtheory The purpose of the componential subtheory is to specify the internal mental processes involved in intelligent functioning. This includes the ability to encode, combine, and compare stimuli, as well as the ability to relate new information to what is already known. Metacognitive activities such as the learners' ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own behaviour and performance also form part of intelligent functioning. Thus Sternberg regards how individuals acquire their knowledge, rather than what they know, as an indication of intelligence. 4.4.1.3 The experiential subtheory The two-facet or experiential subtheory focuses on the person's ability to deal with novelty and to automate cognitive processes. Finding a new and creative solution to a problem, or adapting to unfamiliar circumstances, is a sign of the ability to deal with novelty, while automation of cognitive processes requires the ability to learn formerly unknown routines and activities so well that hardly any conscious effort is required to accomplish them. Learning to write and read are good examples of this process.

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4.4.2 Sternberg's influence on education Steinberg's theory reawakened teachers7 awareness of the enormous range and complexity of the concept of intelligence. According to him, trying to encapsulate people's qualities in a single score is futile since this negates the other, extremely different, patterns of abilities. One learner may display exceptional componential skills, but may find it difficult to adapt to her/his environment, while another learner may act very creatively on encountering novel problems but may display poor componentiaj skills. Probably the most important aspect of Sternberg's theory is his conviction that intelligent behaviour can be learnt (Sternberg, 1985) and that teachers have a major role to play in this regard.

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5.1 Erikson's work After studying a variety of child-rearing practices in several countries, Erik Erikson (1902-94) came to the conclusion that people in all cultures have the same basic needs and that the community somehow has to satisfy these needs (Erikson, 1980). He therefore places considerable emphasis on the influence exerted by other people on the psychosocial and personality development of the individual. Like Piaget, Erikson sees development as a passage through a series of stages which he calls the 'eight stages of man'. Each phase is characterized by a development crisis entailing a conflict between a positive pole and a negative or potentially dangerous pole. How each individual resolves the various crises determines not only his/her self-image, but also how he/she sees and experiences society. An unhealthy or negative experience of a crisis can lead to psychosocial problems that may exert a lifelong influence on development in other domains. Let us take a brief look at Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.

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5.1.1 Trust versus mistrust The first phase extends from birth up to approximately 18 months of age and is characterized by children's development of feelings of trust versus mistrust. Trust is engendered when the physical and emotional needs of infants are satisfied. In this way they experience the security that enables them to reach out to the world with confidence. If infants' needs are not satisfied they experience mistrust, which harms their daring and the development of their personalities (Erikson, 1980). 5.1.2 Autonomy versus shame and doubt The second phase of psychosocial development is characterized by feelings of autonomy versus shame and doubt During this phase, which extends from 18 months up to approximately three years of age, children become increasingly capable of doing things on their own. For example, they want to eat, dress, and go to the toilet unaided. They want to act independently and autonomously, but at the same time they still rely considerably on the support of their parents. In order to promote confidence and independence in small children, their parents must give them the opportunity to dare and make choices. Parents must therefore be on their guard against being overprotective. Children who are restricted too much and not allowed to experiment, experience feelings of shame and doubt their own abilities (Miller, 1983). 5.1.3 Initiative versus guilt The third phase extends from approximately the third year to the sixth year of life and is characterized by children's increasing ability to be independent and take the initiative in situations. Together with initiative, however, comes the realization that certain actions and activities are forbidden. Sometimes children who are passing through this phase feel torn between what they would like to do and what they may do. They require confirmation from adults that their initiative is acceptable and that their contributions or activities, however slight, are appreciated and esteemed. If children are not allowed to do things on their own and are reprimanded too severely and without sufficient reason, they may experience guilt feelings and their initiative may be inhibited (Erikson, 1980). They may always feel that their efforts are not good enough or 'wrong'. 5.1.4 Industry versus inferiority Erikson maintains that from the sixth year of life, children develop feelings of industriousness versus inferiority. The school, peer group, and neighbourhood present new challenges to children in this phase. This change in social environment offers children new roles and expectations that they usually try to live up to. In the peer group learners must learn to cooperate, to share, and in general to get along with peers. In school they have to master new skills, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Learners who solved the previous crises with reasonable ease tend to

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adjust smoothly to changes in role and status and to move into school and the peer group without much difficulty. Success leads to further success and greater motivation. In contrast, learners who cannot live up to their own or other people's expectations develop a sense of inferiority and a poor self-concept. 5.1.5 Identity versus role confusion During adolescence the learner passes through the fifth phase of psychosocial development. Although learners begin to develop a sense of identity from birth, it forms the central issue of the adolescent years. Acquiring a sense of identity entails three main components, namely the adolescent's Ctrtainty about her/his own qualities (i e the answer to the question Who 0m /?), Ctrtainty about her/his social identity (i e the answer to the question What gmup cfo i belong to?), and certainty about personal values and ideals (i e the answer to the question Whgt do I want to achieve?). In their quest for answers to these questions/ t^otescents experiment with various divergent roles. According to Erikson (1980), identity confusion arises when opportunities to experiment with a variety of social roles are insufficient This is when the adolescent experiences doubt about his/her ability to meet his/lw own and others' demands and expectations. Because of these feelings of uncertainty and inadequacy the adolescent learner often chooses a role diametrically opposed to the one others expect from him/her. Rather than existing as a nonentity, he/she chooses rebelliousness and a negative identity. This tendency often develops into a type of cult or subculture (eg youth gangs). In this way adolescents with negative identities close ranks to form a united front against the sense of threat emanating from the community (Erikson, 1980; Maier, 1969). The ideal solution to the identity crisis is a synthesis or reconciliation between the two poles of identity and identity confusion. This means that adolescents must have certainty about their identities, but at the same time need to be conscious in an accepting way of other identity choices that they could have made and of other possibilities lying dormant within themselves.

5.2 Erikson's influence on education Although Erikson's phase theory is widely endorsed, it is also frequently criticized. Meyer (1990) maintains that this theory is a beautiful, almost poetic, description of a typical human life, rather than a theory that isolates the determinants of the development process with scientific rigour. However that may be, Erikson's theory succeeded over the years in making teachers aware of the major sources of conflict that learners experience in different phases. Children in the primary school years usually struggle with a solution to the crisis of attaining feelings of initiative versus guilt, and industriousness versus inferiority. You should therefore help inhibited and guilt-ridden learners by encouraging them to

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investigate, satisfy their curiosity, ask questions, make proposals, and take the initiative (Good & Brophy, 1990). Furthermore, you can encourage learners who experience failures by giving them the assurance that it is natural to fail and make mistakes, and that it is to be expected at times. Mistakes and failures are part of the learning process and should not give rise to feelings of shame and guilt. As a teacher, you will often have to deal with learners who feel inferior about themselves and their achievements. It is thus important that you are able to help learners to develop a positive but realistic self-concept. Learners know how their performance compares with that of their peer group. It is therefore senseless to deny reality or to gloss it over. Underachievement should be addressed in a supportive but realistic way. If the learner is responsible for her/his own failure, for example because she/he has been negligent or lazy, it should be pointed out to her/him sympathetically but firmly. However, if the problem is one of relative incapacity, the teacher can point out the learner's progress to her/him by comparing her/his latest achievement with earlier achievements. Not all researchers endorse the perception of an identity crisis or major shifts in selfconcepts in the adolescent years (Clarke-Stewart, Perlmutter & Friedman, 1988). But although not all adolescents experience an identity crisis, most social scientists and educationists agree that an identity search and new self-discoveries characterize adolescent learners' psychosocial development (Freiberg, 1987; Schickedanz, Hansen & Forsyth, 1990). This is why teachers are often confronted with learners who have difficulty in acquiring an identity of their own and in developing a positive and, more particularly, a realistic self-concept. To support them they need to be given sufficient freedom to experiment with a variety of roles, to make independent choices, and to participate in life events without guilt feelings (Gouws & Kruger, 1994).

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Teachers also spend a considerable amount of their time and energy on communicating the rules and regulations that learners have to obey, and they monitor learners' behaviour carefully to ensure that the moral codes and rules of conduct espoused by the school and the community are upheld. When children are small, appropriate moral behaviour is encouraged by reinforcing praiseworthy conduct and punishing inappropriate behaviour, while explaining why certain behaviour is unacceptable and should be restrained. The ultimate goal of moral socializing, however, is to help learners to develop a set of personal values or moral principles that will enable them to monitor their own behaviour and to distinguish between right and wrong, even when there is no-one to witness the transgression or to judge it. Finally, teachers try to inculcate a sense of altruism in learners, in other words, a sincere interest in and concern for the well-being of other people. Learners are therefore often encouraged, directly as well as indirectly, to share and cooperate with, or to support and assist one another.

6.1 Are girls more altruistic than boys? It is widely assumed that girls are relatively tractable, helpful, and compassionate (or will be), while boys, who are expected to be more independent and self-reliant, tend to (or will) be relatively selfish, unsympathetic, and aggressive (Zarbatany, Hartman, Gelfand & Vinciguerra, 1985). However, some researchers (Radke-Yarrow, ZahnWaxler & Chapman, 1983) reject the notion that girls and women are more altruistic than men and boys, contending instead that there is little or no difference between the sexes where altruistic tendencies are concerned.

6.2 Cultural influences There are indications, however, of minor cultural differences in the encouragement and approval of altruism (Whiting & Whiting, 1975). Children living in less industrialized communities, where large families tend to be the norm and everybody contributes to the well-being of the family, are more likely to display altruistic behaviour than children in typical Western households. The reason for this may be that those in the former group learn from an early age to look after others in the family. In South Africa, many children look after their younger brothers and sisters in the absence of their parents, who often work far from home and get infrequent opportunities to return home* These learners typically display a strong sense of group solidarity. As a result, they have each other's interests at heart In families and schools where this is not the case, however, more emphasis is sometimes placed on competition than on cooperation, and the achievement of individual goals is rated higher than group objectives.

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6.3 How does moral development influence reasoning? Probably the best-known theory of moral development is that of Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-87), who based his phase theory of moral development largely on the work of Jean Piaget. He divides moral development into three levels, namely the preconventional level, where moral judgement is based solely on the person's own needs and desires; the conventional level, where the expectations of society and the law are taken into account; and the postconventional level, where judgements are based on abstract, more personal principles and not necessarily prescribed by the laws of society (Kohlberg, 1981). Every level is subdivided into different stages (see table 6.1). Table 6.1

Kohlberg's stages of moral development (Kohlberg, 1981)

Level 1: Preconventional moral reasoning Stage 1: Obedience and punishment. Learners are concerned about obedience to rules. Obedience is valued both for its own sake and as a way of avoiding punishment. Stage 2: Self-interest and fair exchange. Learners follow rules because it is in their interest to do so. You do something for other people so that they will do something for you. Level 2: Conventional moral reasoning Stage 3: Approval and conformity. Learners try to live up to the expectation of others; they want to be considered 'good'. Stage 4: Law and order. Breaking rules is bad because 'What if everybody did it?' Level 3: Postconventional moral reasoning Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights. Laws are designed to protect society and should be generally upheld, but some values are more important than upholding the law. Stage 6: Universal ethical principles. Self-chosen ethical principles, based on concepts such as justice and equality, are thought out and followed consistently.

6.4 Criticism of Kohlberg's theory Although Kohlberg's theory contains useful insights, proposes interesting evaluation methods and has important potential applications, it has been subjected to considerable criticism. Among the most important criticisms are the following: Kohlberg's claim that the above-mentioned stages of moral development are universal is based on insufficient information concerning other cultures and their moral values (Snarey, 1985), and Kohlberg's theory overemphasizes a 'justice' orientation, which is especially common among boys, while negating a 'care' orientation, which is more typical of girls (Gilligan, 1982).

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6.5 Eisenberg's work on moral development Nancy Eisenberg (1989) also maintains that children's moral reasoning is much less predictable than Kohlberg would have it, and, although she does hold with the notion of different levels of moral reasoning (see table 6.2), in her view people are capable of moving freely to and fro between the levels, making use of one level in one situation and of another in another situation. She contends that the levels do not represent a strict order of development — a person may use any one, or even all three kinds of reasoning at the same time. Table 6.2 Eisenberg's six levels of moral reasoning (Eisenberg, 1989)

Self-centred reasoning. Individuals are mainly preoccupied with the influence their decisions will have on themselves. They are not materially concerned about moral issues. This kind of reasoning mainly obtains among preschool children and among children in their early school years. Needs-oriented reasoning. Individuals are concerned about the needs of others, even if this militates against their own interests. This kind of reasoning is often prevalent among preschool and school-going children. Stereotyped and/or approval-oriented reasoning. Individuals hold stereotyped ideas about good or bad behaviour and these are usually predicated on the need to win the approval of others. This level of moral reasoning is particularly evident among primary school children, but is also fairly common among adolescents and adults. Empathic reasoning. Individuals show signs of role taking, empathy, and recognition of the other's humanness. There is usually a consciousness of the emotional consequences of rendering assistance (feels good) or of withholding assistance (feels guilty). This is particularly evident among adolescents. Partly internalized principles. Justifications for behaviour involve internalized values such as concern for the rights of others and/or feelings of responsibility. These feelings are not clearly recognized or expressed, however. A small group of adolescents and adults display this kind of moral reasoning. Strongly internalized principles. Justification for behaviour is based on strongly internalized values, such as the need to improve social conditions or a belief in the dignity and equality of all people. This kind of moral reasoning is less common, even among adults.

6.6 The role of the teacher in moral development Teachers should be aware that they serve as role models and should therefore seek to act appropriately rather than just sermonize about moral behaviour. They can provide sufficient opportunities for learners to experiment with the solution of moral problems by encouraging informal discussions about such problems (Mwamwenda, 1995). Teachers who would like to develop learners' powers of moral reasoning are advised to use the plus-one matching principle, by confronting learners with moral reasoning that is one level above their own (Good & Brophy, 1990). The discrepancy between the plus-one level and learners' existing level of moral reasoning is bound to cause cognitive conflict within them. As a result, they will effectively be forced to

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ponder the problem more deeply and by this means attain to a higher level of moral reasoning. Special emphasis should be placed on such issues as equality, acceptance, tolerance, cooperation, concern for others, human rights, privacy, sensitivity, responsibility, and so on. Irrespective of the subject you teach, you should try to incorporate these issues into the ordinary teaching programme.

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concentrate intensively on learners' volitional development by helping them to set challenging but realistic goals for themselves and to pursue their individual goals with perseverance, diligence and determination. To help them make appropriate career choices, they must be informed about the entire spectrum of careers available. A positive classroom atmosphere and good interpersonal relations between learners and the teacher are essential if learners are to be motivated to pursue higher ideals. According to Kolesnik (1978: 174) the ideal classroom atmosphere is 'one in which pupils can and will develop healthy self-concepts, learn responsibility and feel free to make and execute their own plans without fear of criticism if they should fail'. There should also be ample opportunity for learners to experience success and to develop a sense of personal and worthwhile achievement.

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Table 6.3 Common exceptionalities

Ability differences * Giftedness * Intellectual disabilities Physical challenges * Physical disabilities and severe or multiple disabilities * Chronic illness Sensory disabilities * Auditory disability: Deafness or impaired hearing * Visual disability: Blindness or impaired sight Communication disorders * Language and speech impairments Emotional and behavioural disorders * Emotional/behavioural disorders * Hyperactivity and attention disorders Learning difficulties Environmental disadvantage Didactic neglect

8.1 Giftedness Like other types of exceptionality, giftedness is difficult to define. At present, however, it is accepted both here and abroad that giftedness is a multifaceted concept which refers to more than a single type of potential or ability. The following categories of giftedness are identifiable: * * * * * *

superior general intellectual potential; exceptional aptitude and interest in a specific academic field; exceptional creative ability or potential; exceptional leadership potential; exceptional aptitude for and command of language; exceptional talent for the performing arts, including singing, music, ballet, and drama; * exceptional artistic talent in fields such as graphic art, ceramic art, painting, sculpture, design, etc; * exceptional psychomotor abilities (Kokot, 1992).

As indicated, gifted learners are included among LSEN, not necessarily on the grounds of intrinsic or extrinsic inhibiting factors, but as a result of special educational needs. A report of a committee of the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) that investigated the educational possibilities for gifted learners (Haasbroek, 1988)

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recommends that there should be a special stream of education at all schools to meet the educational needs of gifted learners. However, where this is not possible owing to the small number of gifted pupils and/or the non-availability of teachers and funds, other forms of educational provision should be considered. Possible options include extracurricular centres, pull-out systems (where learners are temporarily taken from regular classes and provided for in special-interest groups), enriched education, advance placement, and the use of mentors. All these could, however, also be used to complement the regular curriculum.

8.2 Intellectual disability In the past an intellectual disability was merely defined as a point lower than a particular cut-off score achieved in an intelligence test. Currently the official definition of the American Association on Mental Deficiency is generally accepted throughout the world, including South Africa. According to this definition, mental disability is 'significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning resulting in or associated with concurrent impairments in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the development period' (Du Toit, 1991 a). In view of this definition three criteria for the identification of a mental disability can be distinguished: * Intellectual functioning must be significantly below average. * Adaptive behaviour must deviate to the extent that the persons concerned cannot maintain the standards of personal independence and responsibility expected of persons of their age and specific cultural group. * The deficiencies of intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour must have manifested before the age of 18 years. Problems that emerge at a later stage in people's lives are assumed to be attributable to other factors, such as brain damage, senility or emotional disturbance. As a teacher in an ordinary school you may have limited contact with learners suffering from severe mental disability. As years go by, and considering the current education policy of inclusion of LSEN in regular classes, it may well happen that you will have to deal with learners who have to contend with severe mental disabilities.

83 Physical disabilities and severe or multiple disabilities Physical factors posing a challenge to learners include physical disabilities caused by neurological conditions, disabilities of the skeletal and muscular systems, and congenital deformities. Physical disabilities caused by neurological conditions include epilepsy (recurrent seizures), spina bifida (incomplete formation of vertebrae of the spinal column), traumatic paraplegia and quadriplegia, postpoliomyelitis, and disabilities caused by neurological malfunctions, such as multiple sclerosis. Physical disabilities of the skeletal and muscular systems include amputations, deformed limbs, arthritis, muscular dystrophy, and burn lesions. Congenital malforma-

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tions include any deformity or problem affecting any part of the body, or any organ, from birth. In lay language, multiple disability can be seen as more than one disability, regardless of its nature or severity. In recent literature on this subject, however, references to multiple disability are used to describe disabled learners of a certain category, namely those with severe, comprehensive, and manifold handicaps. Learners with multiple disability are therefore the most severely handicapped of all learners with disabilities. You will find that, although physical disabilities are normally disabling, not all learners suffering from them will necessarily have learning problems. These learners can therefore be absorbed into mainstream education without difficulty. However, they usually have to resort to the use of orthopaedic devices, such as crutches, wheelchairs, special or surgical shoes, and so on, to get along. To enable learners with multiple disabilities to become integrated into ordinary schools, therefore, schools should have the necessary structural features, such as ramps, wide corridors, and the like. In view of the serious nature of their disabilities, though, this kind of provision is currently usually made only in special schools.

8.4 Severe or chronic illness Approximately 40 % of all children have to contend with health problems ranging in intensity from hardly noticeable to potentially life-threatening (O'Dougherty & Brown, 1990). Some of the best-known among these are infectious and parasitic illnesses, such as tuberculosis, malaria, and bilharzia; nutritional, endocrinal, and metabolic illnesses; diseases of the circulatory, respiratory, or genitourinary systems; and cancer. Although in most instances learners with health problems do not experience learning problems as well, serious health problems and chronic illnesses influence such domains of learners' development as the physical, the cognitive, and the psychosocial, and it is therefore to be expected that this influence will extend to the teaching-learning situation. Some learners are exhausted physically and emotionally by chronic illnesses that are continually present or that occur repeatedly, and by terminal illness. This exhaustion impairs their powers of concentration. Such learners are also often absent from school for extended periods, with the result that they struggle to keep up with the formal syllabus.

8.5 Auditory disability Loss of hearing can be attributable to genetic factors, maternal infections such as rubella during pregnancy, early childhood diseases such as measles and mumps, or birth complications. Fortunately many learners are inoculated against the abovementioned infections at present, and this protects them against loss of hearing. In South Africa a distinction is made between partially hearing, hard of hearing, and deaf children. Partially hearing learners can be accommodated in ordinary classes with the assistance of hearing aids and suitable seating arrangements. Learners with severe

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hearing problems, such as the deaf, usually require specialized assistance in special schools or special classes under the care of teachers who are specially trained to assist them.

8.6 Visual disability A distinction is made between partially sighted and blind learners (Mwamwenda, 1995). Blind learners' visual disability is such that they cannot be taught by way of a visual medium and therefore have to rely on Braille. Partially sighted learners can receive tuition by means of a visual medium, but special teaching methods and aids are required for the purpose. In most instances, however, visual impairment in learners can be remedied by the use of corrective lenses and they can also be assisted by allowing them to sit near the front of the class or near demonstration tables and the like.

8.7 Language and speech impairments Language impairments can be caused by a wide variety of factors. Learners with hearing problems have difficulty in acquiring language; learners who hear inadequate language at home will learn inadequate language, and those with emotional problems will reflect these in their language development (Woolfolk, 1993). Since language and cognition are so closely interwoven, learners with problems in their cognitive functioning will also experience problems with their language development. Learners with language impairments tend to have expression, comprehension, receptive, or language-processing problems. Their language is characterized by deficiencies relating to one or more of these problems. Learners with speech impairments are unable to speak fluently (stammer), to produce sounds correctly (articulation disorders), or to control their voices. Learners who have difficulty in controlling their voices speak at an inappropriate pitch or with an inappropriate tonal quality or degree of loudness. Language and speech impairments are often dismissed as minor problems that do not merit serious attention, and yet they can have a very negative influence on learners' self-concept and can undermine their self-confidence.

8.8 Emotional and behavioural disorders Learners with emotional and behavioural disorders display a wide range of characteristics, and it is difficult to find a definition in the literature that draws parameters encompassing all of them. According to Bower (in HaHahan & Kaufman, 1986: 149-51), emotional and behavioural disorders consist in a condition with the following characteristics that affect educational performance adversely over a prolonged period and to a marked degree: * inability to learn, which cannot be explained in terms of intellectual, sensory or health factors;

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* inability to establish and maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and adults; * inappropriate types of behaviour or feelings under normal circumstances; * the presence of a general, pervasive mood of unhappiness and depression; * a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. Learners with emotional and behavioural disorders are therefore inclined to display one or more of the following problems: aggression, depression, withdrawal, regression, negativism, and juvenile delinquency. Crime, gangsterism, teenage pregnancies, misconduct or deviant behaviour such as theft, burglary, assault, vandalism, sexual promiscuity, the use and distribution of drugs, truancy, and so on are often expressions of the emotionally disturbed learner's inner conflict. All teachers are confronted with these learners at some stage of their careers and must therefore possess the knowledge and skills required to understand and support them.

8.9 Hyperactivity and attention disorders Hyperactivity and attention disorders have acquired particular prominence over the past decade. According to O'Leary (1980: 195), hyperactivity is not a particular, unitary condition, but is 'a set of behaviors — such as excessive restlessness and a short attention span — that are quantitatively and qualitatively different from those of children of the same sex, mental age, and SES (socioeconomic status)'. A new category, namely attention deficit-hyperactive disorder, has been established by the American Psychiatric Association to identify learners with these problems. In the past this behaviour of these learners was suppressed by means of medication, but psychologists and educationists are agreed that it is more important to help these learners to direct and maintain their attention than to control their restlessness and physical activities (Woolfolk, 1993).

8.10 Learning disabilities You will often have to deal in class with learners who are not mentally disabled, emotionally disturbed, or didactically neglected, who have normal vision, hearing, and language ability, but who nevertheless cannot learn to read, write, or reckon. Despite adequate intellectual potential these learners' learning and development do not proceed satisfactorily. Often there are considerable differences in performance in different subjects, and their performance might even be inconsistent in the same subject. In the past, the concept of minimal brain disfunction was used as a label to describe the behaviour of these learners. Because this concept is confusing and ambiguous and overemphasizes the aetiology of the syndrome (Robinson, 1986), it was displaced over time by such concepts as psychoneurological dysfunction, specific learning problems, and learning disabilities. Although the use of the concept learning disabilities is widely criticized, it is still in fairly common use in South Africa at present to describe learners who:

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* display deficiencies in the development and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, comprehension and mathematical skills, and * manifest a discrepancy between their given potential and their actual level of functioning (Derbyshire, 1988: 39). The causes of learning disabilities include damage to the central nervous system before, during, and after birth, as well as hereditary, metabolic and biochemical factors. Note that one cannot speak of learning disabilities if all the functional systems are involved. Disorders in all areas of cognitive functioning manifest as a general intellectual disability, whereas a learning disability is limited to certain cognitive disabilities or learning skills only. Learning disability does not refer to general disability, but affects specific abilities or skills.

8.11 Environmentally deprived learners Many learners in South Africa grow up in deprived environments that present obstacles to the full realization of their latent, unique potential and, therefore, to their achievement of commensurate performance. According to Pretorius (1987: 21), these learners are typically hampered by * geographical and physical inadequacy, especially concerning their physical environment, residential area, residence, material possessions, and the like; * deficiencies in their communication with others that impede the actualization of their personal potential; * the maintenance of an attenuated cultural level. Environmentally deprived learners are usually recognized by certain typical characteristics, such as a poor self-image, lack of motivation, perceptual deficiencies, and language deficits. These learners usually look shabby, neglected, and ungroomed. You need to be sensitive to these signs so that you can distinguish these learners from those with other problems.

8.12 Didactically neglected learners Didactically neglected learners are those whose learning and intellectual development suffers because * their parents and teachers lack the motivation or ability to educate them properly; * what they are taught is uninteresting, irrelevant, foreign to their way of life, or even too difficult; * they lack involvement or interest in education; * they are affected by environmental factors beyond their control. Didactically neglected learners lack the knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes which they should have acquired at home or at school. This lack or deficiency is not the

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result of their intellectual endowment or of any disabilities but of factors inherent in the learning situation. First of all, teachers' knowledge and understanding, as well as their attitude towards and relationships with learners, can play a major role in learners' learning. Incompetent, unmotivated, and negative teachers may exert a negative influence on learners. It is therefore important for you to be not only well trained and knowledgeable about the subject you teach, but also to be motivated, enthusiastic, and, most of all, dedicated. Remember, what you teach and how you teach, as well as how you behave, will have a direct influence on learners and on their academic performance. Similarly, parents should take cognizance of the important role they, as primary educators, have to play in their children's learning. Both the lesson material and the didactic situation can cause didactic neglect of learners. If, for example, the quality and level of lesson material are far above the capacity of learners, they tend to lose interest in and motivation for learning. Learning programmes which are uninteresting, foreign to the learners' culture and environment, irrelevant to their daily lives or in conflict with their values and norms, may also cause learners to react negatively to a subject or to school in general. Learners themselves may contribute to their own didactic neglect by participating in group activities that foster a negative learning culture. They may be disloyal, unmotivated, negative, disruptive, and difficult to control. They may conform to negative peer patterns in classroom activities, with the result that they could become a group of underachievers. They may also have a contemptuous attitude towards teachers and the school in general. It will therefore be your responsibility to convince them that you have their interests at heart and that they have much to gain from what the education system can offer them. Finally, the learning situation is influenced by special cognitive, physical, psychosocial and financial factors over which learners have little or no control. For example, some learners have to work long hours after school and over weekends to supplement the family income (Unicef, 1993a). These learners not only have little time for school work, but are usually exhausted, listless, and uninterested in the classroom. Other factors leading to didactic neglect in South Africa include poor and/or inadequate training of teachers; violence and political protest action resulting in poor school attendance; disciplinary problems; inadequate provision of school buildings, apparatus, and textbooks; overcrowding; a high noise level, and the like. These problems are receiving considerable attention at present. In the meantime, teachers can provide remedial and compensatory education in an effort to deal with didactic neglect of learners. Prevention of didactic neglect and the provision of high-quality instruction that meets the needs of the widely divergent population of this country must, however, be the main goal pursued by all teachers.

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I South African African Policy with Respect to LSEN In the past, South Africa's approach to special education provision was mainly clinical and medical. Learners were usually placed in separate schools for specific kinds of disability in accordance with medical guidelines. In addition, racial discrimination was practised against certain learners, and the principle of compulsory education was applied only with respect to certain groups of learners. As a result of the apartheid educational system, the services which exist are heavily biased towards white people — 62 % of services for disabled learners help white learners only, while 28 % are for Asian and coloured learners and only 8 % for black learners (Unicef, 1993b). This is the case even though the majority of learners with special needs are either black, coloured, or Indian (Unicef, 1993a). However, current education policy with respect to LSEN is considerably influenced by international trends. Important South African investigations and changes to the Constitution have also resulted in many positive and significant developments. The following points emerged from the revised Constitution: * All people have equal rights, in other words, no discrimination, whether direct or indirect, may be practised against any person on the grounds of race, sex, ethnic or social provenance, colour, sexual orientation, age, handicaps, religion, faith, culture, or language. * All people are entitled to respect and to the protection of their human dignity. * All people are entitled to basic education and equal access to education. In view of these rights, therefore, no discrimination whatsoever may be practised against people with disabilities of any kind, nor may they be refused access to education. The February 1995 White Paper on Education and Training (DE, 1995) provides the framework within which education must be provided in South Africa. In this paper the following specifications, among others, are given with respect to education of LSEN: * The education of LSEN and the educational support services must be integral to education and may not be treated as a separate category. * Realization of the importance of integrated assistance to LSEN within the context of ordinary education must increase, because this can contribute to the prevention of learning problems. * An inclusive and integrated approach to the provision of services to LSEN must be adopted. This means that the state departments concerned with LSEN, namely Education, Welfare, Health, and Labour, will have to collaborate much more closely. In concert with leading countries, South Africa is moving away from a clinical to a social and ecological approach that prioritizes the interests and needs of learners. Emphasis is also placed on quality teaching and optimal development of all learners.

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Mainstream teaching for all, in other words, teaching that accommodates LSEN in the ordinary educational context, is being adopted as a long-term goal. This policy of integrated education, or mainstreaming, is based on the principles of inclusion, normalization, and integration, which are considered throughout the world to be to the benefit of LSEN. However, since the implementation of this policy may be difficult in the short to medium term owing to a lack of sufficiently specialized personnel and support services, a policy of 'progressive mainstreaming' is currently being adopted in South Africa. Although mainstreaming and inclusion are usually used as synonyms, Burden (1995) indicates subtle differences between the two concepts. Traditional mainstreaming implies that teachers must help learners who for some reason do not fit in the regular classroom to adjust to the conditions and arrangements in the class. In other words, the learner must be changed, by the use of certain techniques or strategies, to conform to certain criteria. Inclusion, on the other hand, expects society and the school to facilitate the acceptance of exceptional learners by accepting them just as they are. It implies that the school and the classroom should adjust in order to accommodate LSEN. Inclusion in its purest form can therefore be described as 'a warm and embracing attitude, accepting and accommodating the other unconditionally (without preconditions)' (Burden, 1995: 48). The new political dispensation in South Africa has opened the way for the inclusive approach to be implemented. Since South African policy concerning the education of LSEN has not yet been finalized, a special National Committee on the Education of LSEN has been appointed to refine it. Although the most important element of the policy, namely mainstreaming, has already been adopted as firm policy, it seems that a paradigm shift towards inclusion might ultimately be the goal to strive for.

9.1 Teaching learners with exceptionalities The teacher's task where LSEN are concerned has changed dramatically over the past few years. Whereas formerly teachers were only expected to identify exceptional learners as soon as possible with a view to rating them on a scale for special education, they now have to accommodate these learners in ordinary classes for as long as possible, in conformity with the principles of normalization, inclusion, and mainstreaming. This change in policy has major implications for teachers. Whereas they used to adhere to a standard curriculum, teach learners in a class as a whole, and place a high premium on the orderly progress of classroom routine, they are now expected to make provision for conspicuous individual differences, for example in learning styles or achievements (Haring & McCormick, 1986). In addition to merely identifying LSEN, therefore, teachers are now also expected to render assistance at a certain level. Teachers therefore have to set individual goals and adapt the content, teaching methods, teaching aids, and pace of their classes to individual learners. This could even mean that they have to pay attention to these learners on a one-to-one basis.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

If you are to integrate LSEN successfully into your ordinary classes, you need knowledge of the abilities and disabilities that could give rise to special educational needs. You must be aware of the necessity of early identification and must be informed about the causes and manifestations of learning and behaviour problems. You should also be familiar with the basic principles of assisting these learners. Furthermore, you must be able to identify LSEN by making use of informal assessment procedures and screening tests. You should be able to compile a comprehensive profile of learners, for example by means of observation, so that you can discuss the learners and their problems with the principal, the remedial teacher, their parents, the learners themselves, and so on. You should also be able to apply basic aid techniques on your own and to evaluate learners' progress. It is clear that all this cannot be covered in this chapter. Therefore you will have to inform yourself by reading extensively on this subject. Another important requirement is that you must show a positive attitude towards LSEN. In addition to accepting them unconditionally, you will also have to become personally involved with these learners and make time to attend to their problems and cooperate tactfully and at a professional level with parents, teachers, and others. Finally, you must vigilantly resist the temptation to label LSEN and must protect them against stigmatization by fellow-learners. The uniqueness of every learner must be acknowledged because, although a group of learners may share the same ability or disability, each one remains a unique individual who realizes his or her potential in a special way.

SuwtttViy 1 There are different domains of human development that exert an influence on learning and teaching. Probably the most important of these are the physical, cognitive, psychosocial, and moral domains. 2 The development of a positive self-concept depends critically on physical development. Factors such as chronic and serious diseases, early or late development, malnutrition and undernourishment, and obesity can be detrimental to the psychological well-being as well as the cognitive functioning of learners. 3 The cognitive development of learners can be studied from a variety of perspectives, namely the psychometric, the qualitative, the contextual, and the information-processing approaches. 4 The psychometric approach is also known as the intelligence-test or quantitative approach. Pioneers of this approach were Sir Francis Galton, James McLean Cattell, Alfred Binet, and Theodore Simon. In due course two contrasting viewpoints developed. Some theoreticians, such as Charles Spearman, regarded

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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

5

6

7

8

9

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11 12

intelligence as a single basic ability, while others, such as J P Guilford and H Gardner, hold that intelligence is the product of a variety of skills. Jean Piaget is probably the best known and foremost proponent of the cognitivedevelopment approach. He takes the view that cognitive development proceeds in phases, namely the sensorimotor, the preoperational, the concrete-operational, and the formal-operational phases. Whereas the cognitive-development approach emphasizes the learner's role in his/her own cognitive development, the contextual approach stresses the role of other people and of culture in learners' cognitive development. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, a prominent adherent of this approach, advocates the idea of levels of actual and potential performance, as well as a zone of proximal development (the difference between the levels of actual and potential development). Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence is based on the principles of the information-processing approach. He differentiates three major subtheories that describe intellectual ability, namely the contextual subtheory, the componential subtheory, and the two-facet, or experiential, subtheory. Just as physical and cognitive development influence learners' psychosocial development, so learners' psychosocial development influences their mental wellbeing and their ability to concentrate on their school work. According to Erik Erikson, other people (such as parents and teachers) play a major role in the psychosocial and personality development of learners. He distinguishes eight phases in human psychosocial development and asserts that an individual first has to resolve a crisis in each of the phases before he or she can proceed successfully to the next phase. Both Lawrence Kohlberg and Nancy Eisenberg distinguish different levels of moral development. Kohlberg bases his phase theory largely on the work of Jean Piaget and maintains that all people pass through the same range of phases. Eisenberg, however, contends that moral reasoning is less predictable and that people move freely between the different levels, making use of one level in one situation and of another in another situation. Although most learners follow approximately the same development pattern and have more or less the same needs, interests, and ways of knowing, there are individuals who display special abilities or disabilities that set them apart from other children. These 'exceptional' children have attributes that necessitate special educational attention and tuition. These children are referred to as learners with special educational needs — LSEN. Although gifted children are not necessarily inhibited by intrinsic or extrinsic factors, they are included with LSEN in view of their special educational needs. Most LSEN used to be taken out of mainstream education for clinical and medical reasons and instead were placed in special schools that were often far from their homes. Like those countries that are leaders in this field, South Africa is currently moving away from a clinical approach to a social and ecological approach, which entails that LSEN are accommodated in mainstream education wherever possible and for as long as possible.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

13 Teaching LSEN is a much more exacting exercise for teachers than it used to be. Whereas their principal task used to be that of identifying and referring LSEN, they now have to endeavour to integrate these learners into their classes and to meet their special needs. The most important requirement for the inclusion of LSEN in ordinary classes is unconditional acceptance of these learners and their special needs.

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altruism anorexia nervosa body image bulimia nervosa congenital ecological approach exceptional learners facilitator

holistic approach human development identity confusion intelligence obese plus-one matching principle stigmatization

StucUritft^^ 1 2 3 4 5 6

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Besides intelligence and intellectual development, what other factors play a role in learners' performance at school? In view of your experience in the classroom or with children in general, would you specify particular factors, values, attributes, or skills that are generally associated with academic success? Or do such factors differ from one child to the next? As a teacher, what should you know about the cognitive, psychosocial, and moral development of your learners before you include subjects such as justice, freedom, equality, honesty, and the like in your teaching programme? How does knowledge of the overall development of learners, including LSEN, influence your communication with and behaviour and attitude towards them? Think for a moment about a particularly difficult person/learner you have had to deal with. In retrospect, what developmental factors/problems could have led to personality or academic problems in this case? In your opinion, are you and your colleagues paying enough attention to the learner in totality, or are learners currently seen as exclusively cognitive beings? How do you think the new policy with respect to LSEN is going to influence your teaching practice?

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

gafe?^^ Bell-Gredler, M E. 1986. Learning and Instruction: Theory into Practice. New York: Mdcrriillan Breslau W. 1985. Psychiatric disorder in children with physical disability, journal of American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 87-94 Bukatko, D & M W Daehler. 1992. Child Development: A Topical Approach. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company Burden, A. 1995. Inclusion as an educational approach in assisting people with disabilities. Educare,

24(2), 44-56 Business Day. 28 March 1994, 4. Quarter of SA children are stunted. Cadman, D, M Boyle, P Szatmari & D R Offord. 1987. Chronic illness, disability, and mental health and social well-being: Findings of the Ontario Child Health Study. Pediatrics, 79, 805-13 Cape Times. 12 April 1995, 3. More than 40% of South Africans obese. Clarke-Stewart, A, M Perlmutter & S Friedman. 1988. Lifelong Human Development. New York: Wiley Derbyshire, E J. 1988. Die sosiale lewe van die leergestremde adolessente seun. Unpublished MEd dissertation. Pretoria: University of South Africa Du Toit, L 1991. The mentally handicapped. In j A Kapp (ed) Children with Problems: An Orthopedagogical Perspective. Pretoria: J L van Schaik Du Toit, S J & N Kruger. 1991. The Child: An Educational Perspective. Durban: Butterworths Education, Department of (DE). 1995. Education White Paper 1. Education and training in a democratic South Africa: First steps to develop a new system. Notice 196, Government Gazette 16312 of 15 March 1995 Eisenberg, N. 1989. Empathy and sympathy. In W Damon (ed) Child Development Today and Tomorrow. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Erikson, E H. 1980. Identity and the Life Cycle, 2 ed. New York: Norton Freiberg, K W. 1987. Human Development: A Life-span Approach, 3 ed. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Publishers Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books Gilligan, C. 1982. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Glover, J A & R H Bruning. 1990. Educational Psychology: Principles and Applications, 3 ed. London: Scott, Foresman & Company Good, T L & J E Brophy. 1990. Educational Psychology: A Realistic Approach, 4 ed. New York: Longman Goodman, L. 1992. From starving to stuffing: Profile on Anorexics and Bulimics Anon. Agenda, 15, 2832 Gouws, E & N Kruger. 1994. The Adolescent: An Educational Perspective. Durban: Butterworths Guilford, J P. 1988. Some changes in the Structure of Intellect Model. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48, 1-4 Haasbroek, J B. 1988. Report of the Work Committee: Education for Gifted Pupils. Pretoria: Human Science Research Council Hallahan, D P & J M Kaufman.1986. Exceptional Children: Introduction to Special Education, 3 ed. New York: Prentice-Hall Inc Haring, N G & L McCormick. 1986. Exceptional Children and Youth, 4 ed. Columbus: Charles E Merrill Hunt, j McV. 1961. Intelligence and Experience. New York: Ronald Press Kohlberg, L.I 981. The Philosophy of Moral Development. New York: Harper & Row Kokot, S J. 1992. Understanding Giftedness: A South African Perspective. Durban: Butterworths Kolesnik, W B. 1978. Motivation: Understanding and Influencing Human Behavior. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Kruss, G. 1988. People's Education: An Examination of the Concept. University of the Western Cape: ACAE

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS Maier, H W. 1969. Three Theories of Child Development: The Contributions of Erik H Erikson, jean Piaget and Robert R Sears, and their Applications. New York: Harper & Row McCandless, B R & R H Coop. 1979. Adolescents: Behavior and Development, 2 ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston Meyer, W F. 1990. Ontwikkelingsteoriee. In D A Louw, L C Gerdes & W F Meyer (eds) Menslike Ontwikkeling. Pretoria: HAUM Opvoedkundige Uitgewery Miller, P H. 1983. Theories of Developmental Psychology. San Francisco: Freeman Monteith, J V de K, F Postma & M Scott. 1988. Die Opvoeding en Ontwikkeling van die Adolessent. Pretoria: Academica Mwamwenda, T S. 1995. Educational Psychology: An African Perspective. Durban: Butterworths O'Dougherty, M & R T Brown. 1990. The stress of childhood illness. In L E Arnold (ed) Childhood Stress. New York: Wiley O'Leary, K D. 1980. Pills or skills for hyperactive children? lournal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 191204 Piaget,). 1954. The Construction of Reality in the Child. New York: Basic Books Piaget, J. 1970. Piaget's theory. In P H Mussen (ed) Carmichaers Manual of Child Psychology, 3 ed. vol 1. New York: Wiley Piaget,). 1971. Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child. New York: Viking Pretorius, J W M. 1987. Die konsep milieu-gestremdheid en die implikasies daarvan vir die RSA. J Chris Coetzee Paper delivered in the Senate Hall of the PU vir CHO Radke-Yarrow, M, C Zahn-Waxler & M Chapman. 1983. Children's prosocial dispositions and behaviour. In E M Hetherington (ed) Handbook of Child Psychology, vol 4. New York: Wiley Rice, F P. 1984. The Adolescent: Development, Relationships and Culture. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc Robinson, M. 1986. '/? Ondersoek na die waarde van die ISAIS as diagnostiese hulpmiddel vir leergestremde kinders met leesprobleme. Unpublished MEd dissertation. University of Pretoria Schickedanz,) A, K Hansen & P D Forsyth. 1990. Understanding Children. London: Mayfield Publishing Co Snarey, J R. 1985. Cross-cultural universality of social-moral development: A critical review of Kohlbergian research. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 202-32 Spearman, C. 1927. The Abilities of Man: Their Nature and Measurements. New York: Macmillan Squelch, J. 1993. Towards a multi-cultural approach in South-Africa. In J le Roux (ed) The Black Child in Crisis: A Socio-educational Perspective. Pretoria: J L van Schaik Sternberg, R. 1985. Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press Tavormina, J B, L S Kastner, P M Slater & S Watt. 1976. Chronically ill children: A psychologically and emotionally deviant population, lournal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 4, 99-110 Unicef. 1993a. Children and Women in South Africa: A Situation Analysis. Johannesburg: Unicef/NCRC Unicef. 1993b. State of South Africa's Children: An Agenda for Action. Johannesburg: Unicef/UNHCR Van den Aardweg E M & E D van den Aardweg. 1988. Dictionary of Empirical Education/ Educational Psychology. Pretoria: E & E Enterprises Vasta, R, M M Haith & S A Miller. 1995. Child Psychology: The Modem Science. New York: Wiley Vygotsky, L S. 1978. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Mental Process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Whiting, B B, & ) W M Whiting. 1975. Children of Six Cultures: A Psychocultural Analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Woolfolk, A E. 1993. Educational Psychology, 5 ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Zarbatany, L, D P Hartman, D M Gelfand & P Vinciguerra. 1985. Gender differences in altruistic reputation: Are they artifactual? Developmental Psychology, 21, 97-101

KJ+1^1

CHAPTER

SEVEN

@wtn a*td, ^^bctei Prof Waldemar Sohnge Faculty of Education University of South Africa

and

Prof R I M Moletsane Faculty of Education University of Lesotho

Curriculum is generally thought of as all the subjects taught in a specific school. However, the concept includes many other ideas. This chapter introduces the curriculum from the perspective of curriculum design. Two major approaches to curriculum design are discussed, namely the transmission perspective and the transformation perspective. The chapter presents the objectives model and outcomes-based education, two models of curriculum design based on the transmission and transformation perspectives respectively.

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CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES AND ISSUES

7atite ojf (fatfatU 1 Introduction

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2 Information, Knowledge, and Power 2.1 Organizing knowledge

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3 Perspectives

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4 Curriculum Models

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5 Objectives Model 5.1 Tyler's rationale 5.2 Stages/phases of curriculum development 5.2.1 Situation analysis 5.2.2 Goals, objectives, and taxonomies 5.2.3 Selection of study material 5.2.4 Methods and media 5.2.5 Evaluation 5.2.6 Concluding remarks

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6 Outcomes Model 6.1 Features of a transformational approach 6.2 Learning outcomes 6.2.1 Definition and characteristics of learning outcomes 6.3 Concluding remarks

271 271 272 273 274

Summary

275

Terms and Concepts

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Student Activities Bibliography

276 276

/ Itttn&ktttiMi The word curriculum has many possibilities of meaning. The term is of Latin origin and refers to a race, track, or racetrack (cursus a running; currere to run), hence its association with the educational track on which learners move. In this sense it suggests a period needed for a process of learning to be completed. To many teachers, a curriculum refers to all school subjects presented by a school or phase of schooling such as the secondary school, or to a specific subject taught over a number of school years. 'Curriculum' may encompass more than this rather narrow meaning. It may be used more broadly to identify, among other things, the school subjects

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

selected and their content, as well as problems and learners' needs related to this choice of subjects. As a document used in schools, a curriculum traditionally includes different sections such as: * * * *

aims, goals, and objectives of learning content; content or learning experiences; teaching methods and media; methods of evaluation.

In addition to the above-mentioned components, the curriculum may include a section called a situational analysis, that is, a description of the context in which the learners are being taught and the particular needs of the learners. Curriculum design refers to the organization of all these components into a coherent document which can be used by the teacher. Contemporary curriculum designs (Print, 1993) direct the process of curriculum development in different ways. An approach based primarily on the division of knowledge into school subjects is known as subjectcentred design. Problem-centred design is closely linked to problems of society, the environment, and individuals. Core-centred design is based on the premise that there is a core of subject knowledge which should be compulsory for all learners. Finally, learner-centred design is based mainly on learners' needs, interests, and expectations. By integrating these different design approaches, the curriculum designer may widen learners' perspective on a range of dimensions and issues. In some contrast to curriculum design, curriculum development concerns the detailed planning of goals and objectives, learning matter, and opportunities, and the choice of methods, evaluation, etc which precede curriculum design. A term which many teachers commonly use synonymously with curriculum is syllabus. A syllabus lists broad aims and content for a particular school subject which will be taught over a period of one year's schooling. A programme specifies lesson planning on a weekly or even a daily basis. In addition to the official curriculum of the school, we can also distinguish the hidden curriculum. This refers to the usually unintended experiences or influences which occur in the classroom as a result of way the official curriculum is implemented by teachers or educational authorities. The hidden curriculum is not necessarily negative, but often does refer to influences deliberately intended to limit the learner's development. In any case it deals with implicit influences of the curriculum of which the learner is unaware.

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2 ItdwHOtoM, TZftMvtedqe, gad Puv&i In spite of the range of ideas encompassed by the concept curriculum, it is clear in all instances that the curriculum comprises a very important and useful medium for the transfer of information and the construction of knowledge. As the twentieth century draws to a close, access to information has become as essential to daily life as oxygen. To live effectively is to live with adequate information. The current need for information sprang from certain revolutionary developments in the technology of communication in the forties and fifties, such as the development of the computer. So far-reaching has been the demand for information that it has been called the Third Revolution or the Information Revolution (Kumar, 1995). People have become dependent on the continual flow of information to enable them to make important decisions in their personal daily lives, at work, and in the interests of society. According to Moser (1994: 49), a further consequence of this pressing need for information is that 'we must become in reality, and not in name only, a learning society, a society in which life-long learning replaces our traditional . . . pattern'. Lifelong learning expresses the idea that learning is a continuous process which takes place throughout life and which is necessitated by the fact that information is steadily growing and changing throughout one's lifetime. Lifelong learning is also related to the empowerment of people by means of knowledge. Knowledge provides an individual or groups of people, such as political parties, state authorities, and other organizations, with the ability to acquire power as a result of the possession and application of knowledge. This knowledge can be used to improve the human condition or it can be used negatively. For instance, those in power may withhold information, or even dessiminate misinformation, in order to discredit or undermine others.

2.1 Organizing knowledge Knowledge develops into systems which may attain ideological status as a result of the influence of basic ideas and perspectives which are, in turn, directed by particular paradigms. In this way certain ideologies, such as conservatism, liberalism, and socialism, come into being. The social scientist should always question whether an ideology presents a full picture of reality or merely a dimension of reality. This type of questioning raises the issue of false ideologies. Because false ideologies reflect warped perspectives, it is each person's right to accept or refute an ideology. To do this one should be aware of misinformation or misrepresentation of facts and ideas. There are various types of knowledge, each concerned with specific fields or domains of knowing. This can be illustrated as a set of ever-widening concentric circles representing the different domains of the individual's knowledge (see figure 7.1). At the core is personal knowledge. In order to exist, one depends on knowledge about one's own being, health, and personal needs. These are starting points for the

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acquisition of other basic knowledge such as literacy and numeracy. As the circle expands, one acquires knowledge about the immediate environment, family, community, and school. Further widening would represent broader knowledge about one's society, one's own country, and the world at large. This would include knowledge about religion, politics, economics, languages, law, and more specialized scientific fields, for example psychology, the natural sciences, and mathematics. Knowledge about jobs and professions would also be included in this area.

Figure 7.1

Domains of knowledge

Traditionally these domains of knowledge were dealt with in the following way. Knowledge was divided and categorized into different fields of interest or academic disciplines. Factual knowledge was selected according to what educationists and society deemed it necessary for developing learners to know, and was grouped into the different disciplines of the physical and human sciences. These disciplines were compartmentalized and presented as the different school subjects. This brought about a fragmentation of knowledge. Current thinking about knowledge and the curriculum, however, recommends the organization of knowledge into broad learning areas rather than disparate and isolated school subjects. These learning

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areas reflect the interrelatedness between different fields of knowledge, such as the various disciplines of science.

3

PeMfiectivet The term perspective refers to a broad mental view on an issue such as the currfpilum. The curriculum does not flow from a vacuum but is the result of certatftpersp^ives held by curriculum developers. Curriculum theorizing since the 1950s has produced various perspectives on and approaches to the issue of the curriculum and its design and development. Particular philosophies, such as pragmatism, humanism, or socialism, are sometimes explicitly chosen by curriculum developers as foundations for this theorizing. Approaches to the curriculum vary according to what people regard as the aim of education and schaoling, the way they beliwe these aims should be attained, and what the study material should consist of. Although a curriculum seldom fits neatly into any one of the broad approaches, the differing perspectives illustrate how the curriculum can be related to the goals of education. Some of the main perspectives on curriculum are outlined in the discussion below. A technological perspective on curriculum is concerned with the effeetiveriess of the instructional programmes and their application to attain a predetermined goal. A pragmatist perspective concentrates or* what works best in the classroom and in life. The conceptual-empiricist perspective stresses scientific knowledge, while an academic perspective seeks to impart culture through traditional academic subjects. The humanist perspective concentrates on the self-actualization of the individual. In contrast, the social-reconstructionist perspective focuses on the society as it ought to be and aims to equip learners with the skills needed to bring about effective social change. Miller and Seller (1985) have formulated more recent perspectives on the curriculum that are particularly interesting. These scholars distinguish between the concepts transmission, transaction, and transformation. Transmission, as the term indicates, is the passing on of knowledge to the pupil by the teacher. The teacher and the curriculum are regarded as the main sources of information about school subjects, values, and skills. According to this perspective, the teacher plays the active role in the teaching-learning process; the learner's role is predominantly a receptive and passive one. The learner is seen as the end product of the learning process and predetermined goals are imposed on him/her. The transmission perspective typifies the traditional interpretation of teaching. A transactional perspective endorses a dialogue between the learner and the curriculum as presented by the teacher. According to this perspective, the pupil interacts with the sources of knowledge by way of problem solving and the discovery of skills and thus reconstructs knowledge for her-/himself. Finally, transformation focuses on change. Schooling concerns the unfolding of possibilities for personal, social, and transpersonal change. In the light of the principle of lifelong learning, schooling is not only concerned with the time-span

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covered by curricula, syllabi, and school years, but opens up the possibility of various outcomes of learning and allows for the learner's future development. Consequently, schooling concerns processes which allow for creativity and spontaneity. Teaching and learning should not focus only on specific fixed outcomes in terms of the delivery of end products.

4 &MJculuwtTn&^ Having established the aims of education and the goals of the curriculum as shaped by his/her chosen perspectives, the curriculum designer has a choice of curriculum models and theories at his/her disposal. Examples of curriculum models are Tyler's model, Taba's interactive model and the models of Johnson and Macdonald (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993: 190-5). This introduction to curriculum design focuses on the objectives model and the outcomes model. These are based on the transmission and transformation perspectives respectively.

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Ot^jed^WM, The work of Tyler (1949) is an example of a step-by-step, or linear, model which is related to the transmission perspective. Early in this century the idea of establishing a link between human needs and industrial needs was proposed in the USA by Bobbitt (1918). Technical and scientific principles were accepted as a frame of reference for curriculum design and development. As a result of the educational crisis in the USA in the 1950s following the explosion of knowledge in the Western world, Tyler formulated a rationale, still based on Bobbitt's approach, which became the example, or model, for curriculum design and development. This model prioritized the need for effectiveness and efficiency, which tended to obscure the general aim of education as the development of the human being.

5.1 Tyler's rationale Tyler (1949) based his approach to curriculum design and development on four main questions: * What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? * What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? * How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? * How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? Answering these questions takes one through four steps or stages of curriculum design in a logical order. These stages are:

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* * * *

formulation of goals and objectives; selection of learning experiences; organization of learning experiences; evaluation.

The linear product concept is clear from these stages: Formulate objectives -» Select learning experiences -> Organize learning experiences —» Evaluate Nicholls (1978: 14) conceptualized Tyler's approach in the following process diagram.

Figure 7.2 Steps in curriculum design (Nicholls, 1978: 14

The Tyler rationale became a recipe for curriculum design and development. It relied on general goals and more specific objectives being predetermined and later used in evaluation. Learning outcomes were decided on beforehand and content, study material, and teaching methods were specified. This became a highly technical approach that kept control in the hands of the hierarchy. It prescribed particular methods of attaining the aims of education, the curriculum and schooling, with a

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view to delivering end products in a process comparable to a factory set-up. Tyler's rationale gained wide acceptance and attained model status as the so-called objectives model. Of importance to this model is a basic distinction between aims, goals, and objectives. Aims are broad, very general and abstract formulations of what education is intended to achieve. Coals are more specific and concrete formulations of what is intended and may include reference to subject material or learning experiences. Objectives are detailed and highly specific formulations of intent, usually in the scope of a lesson or even part of a lesson.

5.2 Stages/phases of curriculum development 5.2.1 Situation analysis Tyler's first question was: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? In order to answer this, one should find out what society, the education system, the school, the teacher, and the learner expect of the curriculum. This may include an evaluation of existing curricula. (See below for a brief discussion of each of these areas in turn.) Situation analysis may be used, for example, to clarify and expose the influence of power structures and groups in society, because hidden influences or philosophies should not be allowed to be embedded in a curriculum. Such a curriculum would serve the interests of, for instance, a political party or ideology. A curriculum should disclose such biases and interests instead of furthering the hidden influence of power structures. The situation analysis should also indicate problems and themes; learners' needs, interests, and expectations; a basic core of knowledge; and the needs with regard to knowledge organized as school subjects. (a) Society The analysis should address the type of society, its philosophies, and its expectations for the future. Political as well as economical aims and structures are influential factors to be taken into account. (b) Education system, school, and teacher The following questions will be helpful in obtaining the necessary information about the expectations held by the education system, the school, and the teacher: * * * * *

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What is the broad aim of the education authorities? What schooling is allowed and catered for by the system? What degree of sophistication is catered for? What infrastructure exists in present schools? For what type(s) of school is the curriculum being developed?

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* What are the teachers' strengths and weaknesses? * To what degree would teachers require different training if new curricula were to be introduced and implemented? (c) Learner Situation analysis should also consider the short-term and long-term needs, interests, and potential of those who are to be educated in the school. When children enter schools for the first item, they arrive with a substantial amount of unsorttd knowledge and skills from their environment and homes. However, after a certain period they will be more inclined to accept what is offered to them. Similarly, at certain stages of development learners show increased curiosity and develop enquiring minds. Clearly curriculum development must take these changing needs of learners into account. (d) Existing curricula An analysis of existing curricula provides valuable information about both the shortcomings and the strong points of these documents and their content. Such an analysis should be undertaken from the perspective of current trends of thought in both public and private sectors. Since the objectives model of curriculum development requires that aims, goals and objectives be formulated at the start, the situation analysis should provide the information needed by decision makers so that the interests of all stakeholders are addressed. 5.2.2 Goals, objectives and taxonomies Essential to this model is the formulation of statements regarding broad aims, more specific goals, and detailed objectives. Various types of objectives can be distinguished. Originally there were only behavioural objectives. Later, instructional and performance objectives were added. The formulation, or stating, of these objectives is based on specific criteria. These criteria are: * the precise description of the behaviour expected after teaching; * the precise specification of the conditions under which the behaviour should be executed; * the precise statement of the standard that must be achieved for the behaviour to be considered acceptable. Further development in the use of objectives meant that an objective no longer needed to be stated in behavioural terms. Instead, the main criterion was that an objective should not allow for ambiguity, that is, an objective should clearly express the expected outcome. The possibility of formulating objectives on a very large scale created the need to organize and classify these objectives into related groups. This focused the attention of curriculum developers on the issue of taxonomies.

r

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A brief overview of the original taxonomies by Bloom (1956), Krathwohl (1964), and Simpson (1967) according to their hierarchical order will give you an idea of how objectives can be classified and how they relate to different domains. The section that follows names each of the different areas, summarizes its content, and gives an example of a question or task dealing with that particular area.

(a) The cognitive domain * Knowledge (recall of facts, principles, etc) Name two provinces in South Africa. * Comprehension (restating knowledge in own words) Translate a Zulu poem into English. * Application (using abstract knowledge in specific situations) Classify objectives according to the cognitive domain. * Analysis (breaking material down into elements and detecting relationships) Analyse the rhyme scheme of a sonnet. * Synthesis (combining parts into a whole) Draw a map of South Africa to show the new provinces. * Evaluation (judging value of material according to definite criteria) Evaluate a musical composition according to the rules of harmony.

(b) The affective domain * Receiving (awareness, willingness, controlled attention) Listen to the introductory speech of a new school student council member. * Responding (acquiescence, willingness, satisfaction) Practise newly introduced school rules. * Valuing (acceptance, preference, commitment) Debate the necessity for art education at school. * Organization (conceptualization, organization of values) Discuss the plurality of values in South Africa. * Characterization (generalized set, characterization) Display a new philosophy of life.

(c) The psychomotor domain * Perception (sensory, selective, translation) Develop a sensitivity to the use of herbs in food. * Readiness (mental, physical, emotional) Take up the correct position to hit a golf ball. * Guided response (imitation, trial and error) Perform a dance step as demonstrated. * Mechanism Type a letter on a computer.

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* Complex overt response (confidence, automation) Play a piece of music on the piano. This overview shows that specific verbs are used to state the intention of the outcome. The following list gives examples of unambiguous verbs: write, solve, identify, compare, measure, name, list, distinguish, interpret, apply, demonstrate, order, and describe.

5.23 Selection of study material According to the Tyler rationale, the selection of study material (both content and learning experiences) should be guided by the stated goals and objectives.

(a) Sources In a subject-centred approach to curriculum design, content material for school subjects is traditionally sourced from the scientific disciplines. In the transmission model the emphasis is on hard facts as provided by the natural sciences in particular. A proper situation analysis would expand this core of sources by indicating the need to investigate societal problems and other fields of interest to learners. (b) Criteria As the name of the objectives model implies, goals and objectives are the traditional criteria for choice of learning content. Brady (1992) and Edwards (1977) give us examples of such criteria for the selection of content: * * * * * *

validity and significance of content; consistency with social realities; balance of breadth and depth; provision for a wide range of objectives; learnability and adaptability to the experiences of learners; appropriateness to the needs and interests of learners.

(c) Classification Originally the basic classification of learning content corresponded to the divisions of scientific disciplines; this is why school subjects are named after the various sciences. Because of the emphasis on effectiveness and control in the objectives-based approach, human sciences, which are more difficult to reduce to clear, hard facts, tend to be relegated to a lesser place in the curriculum unless they can prove their effectiveness in measurable terms. For example, according to this model, aesthetic knowledge is not considered as important as mathematical knowledge, because aesthetic knowledge deals with interpretation and meaning, which are difficult to evaluate objectively.

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(id) Organization This activity concerns the way in which study material is finally presented in the curriculum document. One has to decide on the scope (breadth and depth) of a school subject and its content. Such decisions would have to take into account learnability and time constraints. Of equal importance is the sequence, or order, in which the material is organized and presented. Various ways of organizing material are possible, for example * from the simple to the complex; * from the concrete to the abstract; or * from the whole to the parts. Material can also be organized chronologically. Sometimes it is possible to make use of spiral sequencing whereby concepts are re-presented repeatedly, but at steadily increasing levels of sophistication and abstraction, according to the learners' development.

5.2.4 Methods and media Methods and media for teaching and learning are chosen according to their effectiveness in achieving the objectives. The basic function of a method or a medium is to align the learner with a learning objective and then to provide content in order for transmission to take place. There should be a variety of appropriate methods and media to allow for the wide scope of objectives. Brady (1992: 130) suggests the application of the following criteria in the selection of methods: variety, scope, validity, appropriateness, and relevance.

5.2.5 Evaluation Evaluation is a broader concept than measurement and assessment. It includes judgement of large processes, whereas assessment refers to a smaller-scale process, and measurement to specific quantitative procedures such as standardized tests. In the first place, one needs to evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching process in terms of the stated objectives. In the second place, one also has to scrutinize the curriculum document in order to establish its success as a finished product. Two types of evaluation are conventionally distinguished. Formative evaluation is an ongoing process of judgement, for example as applied throughout a teaching period. Summative evaluation takes place at the end of an extended time, for example a yearly assessment of what is taught and the manner in which it is presented. Procedures for evaluation may include tests set by the teacher and calling for essays, short answers, paragraphs, or sentences; multiple-choice tests; questionnaires; etc.

5.2.6 Concluding remarks The basic features of the objectives model became the standard guidelines for curriculum design, though not necessarily in the same order. An interactive model

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proposed by Taba (1962), for instance, seeks to open up the strict linear process by allowing for the possibility of starting curriculum development at any stage of the process. However, any model striving for product development by transmission in schooling can be regarded as being deeply influenced by the Tyler rationale, and consequently falls within the broad category of a transmission orientation. With reference to the four approaches to curriculum design (section 1), subject-centred and core-centred design could be used in close conjunction with the transmission model because of the reliance of these two approaches on transmitted knowledge. Problemcentred design is better suited to a transactional approach in which various fields of knowledge and more specific subject knowledge are related to different problems and themes. Learner-centred design points towards personal development and thus change. Since change is very difficult to handle within the rigid constraints of the transmission approach, the transformational approach is a more helpful alternative.

6 OOutcomes Model 6.1 Features of a transformational approach Technological, social and individual change resulting from the knowledge explosion has created a need for new educational principles and aims. Important curricular issues in this regard are the principles of lifelong learning and open learning, as well as the aim of personal change assisted by education within and beyond the school situation. In this context a person should be able to reflect on what he/she can do both intellectually and practically. Human capability should be taken into account. Moreover, the learner should be assisted in * becoming a person through change on her/his own terms; * establishing meaning through discourse and personal choice; * being creative, including exploring alternative ways of solving problems. A transformational approach is based on the following premises about the role of the learner, the role of the teacher, and the aims and content of teaching. As the learner grows and develops, his/her participation in the educational and schooling activities increases along with the capacity to accept responsibility for his/her own actions, investigations, beliefs and thought. The learner moves towards becoming a student. Education and schooling are regarded as a process of dialogue and discourse. Classroom practice is based on the acceptance that both the teacher and the learner/ student are striving towards the same aim. Thus the role of the teacher shifts from one of transmitting of information to that of a catalytic guide (Sawada & Caley, 1985). The teacher actively assists the learner not only in her/his endeavour to find knowledge, but in creating sense or meaning out of the vast scope of facts and narratives. This new role enhances the teacher's responsibility and increases the challenges she/he faces. It creates new scope for inventive and innovative actions and

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requires that the teacher to become critically self-reflective about her/his interventions and guidance. Basic knowledge and skills are a prerequisite for a learner to become investigative. The initial transmission of such information is therefore part of transformation, serving to introduce the learner to him-/herself, the environment, society, and the universe. This enables the learner to move forward not only to become involved in the transaction with individual, societal and political problems, but to transform on his/her own. Thus the learner is able to establish relationships with all aspects and dimensions of life. According to the transformational approach, curriculum design and development may draw in various approaches to help and guide the activities as long as they do not control the learning process. There is a need for knowledge (subjects, problems, core knowledge, and personal interests), classification and organization in view of learner development, with an emphasis on a holistic approach to curriculum design and development. Such a curriculum will not rely on predetermined objectives but, rather, point towards various learning outcomes. Such outcomes can only be evaluated in a holistic way, recognizing the learner's individuality and her/his reflection on schooling activities and experiences. Spady and Marshall (1991: 70) confirm this in their assertion that contemporary schools must 'equip all students with the knowledge, competence and ordinations needed for success after they leave school. Hence the guiding vision for the graduate is that of competent future citizen/ However, they argue that 'our prevailing, century old Industrial Age curriculum structure and delivery model lacks credibility and the capacity to generate these results'. A more suitable approach to curriculum design and development is called for. In particular, there is increasing community pressure for accountability in education. Current thinking among decision makers in various countries, including South Africa, suggests that this need could be met by another model of curriculum design, namely outcomes-based education (OBE). While this model may also be classified as a linear model, it differs considerably from the objectives model in that uses a transformational approach. Outcomes-based education encourages teachers and learners to focus on outcomes that have real-life applications.

6.2 Learning outcomes In contrast to the objectives approach, where the emphasis in curriculum development is on predetermined objectives, the OBE model is concerned with the result or outcome of a curriculum from the learner's point of view. Such a result may either be observable or refer to internal change in the learner. Thus this model represents a shift from a content-based (objectives) approach towards a learner-based approach. According to this approach, the process of curriculum design generally begins by establishing what competencies are needed to enable the learner to be successful in life. In contrast to the objectives model, which started by studying existing curricula in

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order to determine objectives, this approach examines and defines various areas of learning. While such areas may include school subjects, they should also have an interdisciplinary perspective. Print (1993: 138) explains that 'a set of curriculum outcome statements should cover not only the knowledge and skills domains of a subject syllabus but also the attitudes and values domain as well'. The QBE model is thus linear in reverse, beginning with outcomes and using a kind of 'backward planning' to plan instruction. 6.2.1 Definition and characteristics of learning outcomes QBE is based on three basic premises (Spady & Marshall, 1991): * All learners can learn and succeed (albeit not in the same way or the same time). * Success in learning breeds further success. * Schools and teachers control the conditions that determine whether or not learners succeed. Mamary (1991) adds the following characteristics of QBE to the above list: * * * * * * * *

All learners have talent and schools are obliged to develop it. The role of schools is to help learners succeed rather than fail. Mutual trust drives all effective OBE schools. Excellence is for every child and not just a few. By preparing children for success the need for correctives will be reduced. Children should collaborate in learning rather than compete. As far as possible no child should be excluded from any activity in a school. A positive attitude on the part of the teacher about a learner's abilities is essential.

An outcome itself relates to what the learner should be able to do (demonstrate) and to the content area, or scope, of learning involved in developing the ability. Outcomes may cover a wide scope. According to Spady (1994), outcomes could vary from simple content-based tasks on a traditional level, to the application of integration and synthesis in completing functions on a transitional level. The latter should eventually lead to real-life performances on a transformational level as they are required by life in society. To illustrate, here are a few examples of outcomes provided by Spady (1994: 20) which indicate the range of complexity: * All learners will correctly identify local government procedures for initiating new laws, * All learners will conduct a research project on methods of initiating new laws at the local level and present their findings to the class and/or to their parents, * All learners will design and carry out a project on a major issue or problem that uses data to heighten community awareness and proposes feasible ways to address it by initiating new laws,

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With regard to the gifted learner, Smith (1991: 54) provides the following examples: * The learner will chart the scope of a difficult problem over time and predict the factors likely to impede the resolution of the problem, * The learner will investigate community and/or global issues and develop a plan which uses art, music, theatre, and/or dance to address issues and promote desired changes, Spady (1994: 18) adds that 'outcomes are high-quality, culminating in demonstrations of significant learning in context. Demonstration is the key word; an outcome is not a score or a grade, but the end product of a clearly defined process that learners carry out/ In line with this explanation, he suggests the following four criteria which may be used when defining outcomes: * demonstrations must be of high quality, that is, thorough and complete; «fr demonstrations refer to the end of a process: the culminating point of learners' learning; * demonstrations must be the result of significant learning based on significant content; * demonstrations take place in a relevant context. The advantages of QBE are not clear cut. QBE is currently being hotly debated by educationists in many countries. In South Africa the successful implementation of OBE will depend on the adequate preparation of teachers in the principles that guide design, delivery, documentation and implementation of OBE. Moreover, both teachers and learners need to adopt a new approach to learning: that there is no such thing as failure, only feedback and results which may contribute to future success in learning.

63 Concluding remarks In a complex society, one of the important outcomes is the understanding and use of information technology in order to obtain, classify and organize information. This should help the learner to progress from linear to multidimensional ways of thinking and empower her/him in decision making, enabling her/him to engage intellectually and practically, not only in a local community but also in a powerful global community. In order to help the learner relate to the community and the universe, the curriculum should include scientific, technological, and academic knowledge, but not merely for professional purposes or for the sake of knowledge itself. Issues that could be dealt with in the curriculum include any aspect of contemporary life that impinges on learners or the world community, Although specific issues vary from locality to locality, examples

of the more universal issues include: career choice and the criterion of social value; war and peace in a nuclear age; toxic waste and public

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policy; ethics and the sexual revolution; stereotyping and its consequences; varieties of violence; migrant farm labour and social justice; hunger and mass starvation; ethics and life-support technology; free speech and censorship; and the deceptions of corporate advertising. (Zais, 1986: 21) These types of knowledge should lead towards exploration, new relationships and new interpretations. The availability of new information via electronic media means that learners will increasingly be equipped to select and combine curricular material.

4fcH0rM^^wvirv4^^v|4w' 1 A curriculum is usually about what is taught in school. The development of curricula is driven by a variety of perspectives which influence the aims, content and organization of education. 2 Curriculum development must keep abreast of the need for knowledge which has resulted from the technological revolution. The emphasis is no longer on the organization of knowledge within isolated academic disciplines but on the interrelatedness of knowledge. This calls for a more interdisciplinary approach. 3 The curriculum traditionally contains aims, goals, and objectives; content and learning experiences; methods and media; and evaluation. 4 Various perspectives on curriculum design are discussed. The transmission perspective represents the traditional teaching point of view, namely that the teacher presents the knowledge. A model closely related to this perspective is the objectives model. 5 The transformation perspective emphasizes the need for personal change by means of broad education and schooling, and also the learner's role in determining his/her process of change by establishing relations and meaning, assisted by critical self-reflection. A learner should be able to reflect demonstrable competences. Outcomes-based learning is linked to this perspective. 6 The close attention being given to QBE in South Africa reflects the desire for transformation and development not only on an individual but also on a national level.

'Jentut tutct (fatcefiU curriculum curriculum design curriculum development hidden curriculum objectives

outcomes-based education outcomes syllabus transmission perspective transformation perspective

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Stude^/Icti^tie^ 1 Consider the curriculum for the subject and grade (school standard) that you teach. Who compiled this curriculum? What beliefs and values about the aims of education does your curriculum reflect? How is the content organized? What guidelines are given for teacher behaviour, outcomes of learning, the role of the learner, and assessment? 2 A colleague has approached you about the difference between behavioural objectives and learning outcomes. Using this chapter as a basis, write notes on the two concepts and share them with your colleagues in a small group discussion. 3 Reflect on both the stated and the implied aims of education embodied in the curriculum you have experienced as a teacher. How do you think these aims affect learners' learning and career choices? 4 Parents and learners should also be involved in determining the relative importance given to different curriculum options. Conduct a survey of parent and learner opinions in your class by asking their views of the desirability of the following: * environmental education * citizenship skills * study skills * multicultural education * conflict resolution skills * sex education * computer science * ethics * education in the arts * religious education

asfe^**^y Bloom, B S, M D Engelhardt, E J Furst, W H Hill & D R Krathwohl. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook 1. New York: McKay Bobbitt, F. 1918. The Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Brady, L 1992. Curriculum Development. New York: Prentice-Hall Edwards, C H. 1977. Readings in Curriculum: A Process Approach. Champaign, IL: Stipes Krathwohl, D R, B S Bloom & B B Masia. 1964. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 2. New York: McKay Kumar, K. 1995. From Post-industrial to Post-modern Society: New Theories of the Contemporary World. Oxford: Blackwell.

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CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES AND ISSUES Mamary, A. 1991. Fourteen principles of quality outcomes based education. Quality Outcomes-driven Education, Conference on QBE, Perth, October 21-8, 1991 Miller,) P & W Seller. 1985. Curriculum, Perspectives and Practice. New York: Longman Moser, C. 1994. Ends and means of curriculum reform. In The Curriculum Redefined: Schooling for the 21st Century. OECD Report. Paris: OECD Ornstein, A C & F P Hunkins. 1993. Curriculum Foundations, Principles and Issues. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Print, M. 1993. Curriculum Development and Design. St Leonards: Allen & Unwin Sawada, D & M T Caley. 1985. Dissipative structures: New metaphors for becoming in education. Educational Researcher, 14 (3) Simpson, E. 1967. Educational objectives in the psychomotor domain. In C J Cotrell & E F Hauck (eds) Educational Media in Vocational and Technical Education: A Report of a National Seminar. Center for Research and Leadership Development in Vocational and Technical Education, Ohio State University Smith, S J. 1991. Theory, practice, and challenges. The Gifted Child Today, 14 (1), 221-3 Spady, W G. 1994. Choosing outcomes of significance. Educational Leadership, 51 (6) Spady, W G & K J Marshall. 1991. Beyond traditional outcome-based education. Educational Leadership,

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Taba, H. 1962. Curriculum Development Theory and Practice. USA: Harcourt Brace & World Tyler, R W. 1949. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University of Chiciago Press Zais, R S. 1976. Curriculum: Principles and Foundations. New York: Crowell Zais, R S. 1986. Confronting encapsulation as a theme in curriculum design. Theory Into Practice, 25 (1), 94-101

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CHAPTER

EIGHT

/e&cJutt^ Prof Louis van Niekerk Faculty of Education University of South Africa

In this chapter we consider the role of teaching in education. Initially the reader will be invited to explore popular notions of teaching as a concept in order to come to a new understanding of what teaching means. It should become clear that teaching is complex and that there is no single definition. The reader will be introduced to different views of teaching in what is called a pluralist approach. The part played by the teacher in bringing about change will also be examined. Theory and practice will be united in a section that will provide guidelines to establish sound teaching practice.

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TEACHING

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Introduction The Power of Teaching Redefining Teaching Teaching: A Pluralist Approach 4.1 Teaching behaviour 4.2 Teaching thinking 4.3 Teaching meaning 4.4 Teaching consciousness 4.5 Teaching as management 4.6 Teaching for social change (democracy) 4.7 Conclusion On Being a Teacher 5.1 Teachers' entry into practice 5.2 Teachers' role 5.3 Teacher educators' role Planning for Teaching 6.1 Who is responsible for planning and what does it entail? 6.2 What is the relationship between planning and objectives? 6.3 Some examples of learning outcomes 6.4 Aims and objectives 6.5 Team planning 6.6 Resources for planning 6.7 Compiling a scheme of work 6.8 Planning a lesson unit 6.9 Lesson planning The Lesson 7.1 The lesson format 7.2 Teaching strategies and lesson presentation 7.3 The relationship: knowledge, information, learning content 7.4 The interrelationship between learning content and educational technology Teaching Skills 8.1 Questioning 8.2 Reacting 8.3 Introducing and concluding a lesson Evaluating Teaching and Learning 9.1 Why evaluate at all? 9.2 Criteria for evaluation 9.3 Evaluation methods 9.4 Self-evaluation techniques

282 282 284 287 287 288 289 289 291 292 293 294 299 299 300 301 301 302 302 303 303 304 304 304 304 305 306 306 308 311 311 312 313 313 314 315 316 318 318

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9.5 Essays and short-answer tests 9.6 Compiling a class test 9.7 Marks and report cards 9.8 Reporting to parents 10 Conclusion Summary Terms and Concepts Student Activities Bibliography

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I Introduction Every one of us is both a student and a teacher. We are at our best when we each teach ourselves what we need to learn. (Johnson & Johnson, 1986: 14) The problem with teaching is that it is such a familiar concept and is used so widely that it has virtually lost all meaning. In this chapter the focus will initially be on discovering what is meant by 'teaching'. The reader will not be provided with a ready-made definition of teaching, but is invited to explore different notions that people have about it and to participate in a discussion that will encourage him/her to contemplate the many meanings of teaching as an abstract concept. It should become clear that there is no single definition for teaching and even less so a single teaching practice. You will be made aware that 'there is no best method of teaching, nor is there any method that will suit all occasions' (Clark & Starr, 1996: 5). You will be introduced, though, to some possibilities for establishing a sound practice. Another aspect that you will have to consider is the problematic relationship between teaching and learning. Is it at all possible to think of teaching without referring to learning, or should one define teaching simply in terms of the learning process?

2 The Power oi Teaching The following slogan was used in an advertisement in the United States to recruit young people to the teaching profession: Reach for the power. Teach. No other profession has this power. The power to wake up young minds.

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The power to wake up the world. Teachers have that power, Reach for it. Teach. (From American Teacher, 73 (8): 3) The response to the advertisement was overwhelming. One could ask whether this view does not represent a rather idealized and romanticized notion of teaching. Prospective students are lured to the profession by the promise of power. The central notion is power and how to obtain it. Are teachers really that powerful and, if so, why? Elliot (1988: 207) makes the following statement: (T)raditionally, the power of the teacher was legitimised by the authority invested in his or her role. It was because he/she was perceived as a legitimate authority on the subject matter he/she taught that he/she was obeyed and that when he/she was disobeyed the resulting punishment was accepted as the exercise of legitimate power. The biggest fear for beginner teachers is that they will not be able to maintain discipline in their classrooms and that they will be made to look foolish. Experienced teachers are also obsessed with maintaining discipline in the classroom. It seems some teachers are preoccupied with good behaviour. Why? It appears as if order and discipline are confused. Order enables the teacher to maintain control and somehow it is very important, for some teachers, to maintain control at all times. Principals in general aggravate the matter by judging teachers on how 'well behaved' their classes are. Consider the stereotype teacher in advertisements on television. They are seen as unsympathetic, stern taskmasters, rigid in their thinking, and without any sense of humour. Lawyers and doctors are romanticized while teachers are more likely to be satirized. Teachers, it seems, are still caught up in a 'we-them' mindset. They tend to see themselves as pitted against their own students in the old subject-object relationship instead of a subject-subject stance, or what is referred to as intersubjectivity, which that can be translated for classroom purposes as 'we together'. It is described in the saying 'Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu', which means that one can only be a person through other people. This is also referred to as the principle of ubuntu. In our further discussion on power and power shifts in the classroom I would like to analyse a paragraph by Elliot (1988: 206): In the early part of my teaching career the contemplative-man in me could not cope with the discrepancy between his educational ideals and classroom reality. He gave control to pupils and lost control over himself. So I had tended in practice to rely on the action-man part of me to exercise the kind of disciplinary power which enabled me to take control of the situation and thereby stay in control within it.

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In the situation described by Elliot, discipline and punishment become important. Teaching is teacher-centred and the students become teacher-dependent as the teacher has to disempower them in order to maintain control. The image of the teacher as a stern-faced taskmaster is all too familiar. Such teachers very often accept a simplistic, autocratic view of knowledge and in turn pass on the same limited and limiting viewpoint to their own students. What is the alternative? Is it possible to be in control of a situation without taking control? Through his innovative approach to curriculum development, which was based on classroom research, Elliot learnt how to be in control in the situation without taking control of the students. He came to a tacit understanding of the way in which educational ideals and aims link to practice. They provide criteria for assessing the educational quality of the learning environment rather than states of the students, Since this environment is mediated and often constituted by educational aims, teachers focus their reflection on their own action and conduct. By selfmonitoring the educational quality of their action, teachers take control of the learning environment, and (by implication) of themselves rather than their students. This can be described as reflective teaching. This is the kind of power that teachers should reach for. Elliot calls it educative power, which is an enabling rather than constraining power. Through educational action (classroom) research and qualitative enquiry, teachers transform the learning environment (curricula, teaching methods, and school ethos) into one which enables and empowers students to discover and develop their powers and capacities themselves. In creating educative power, action research not only professionally empowers teachers, it empowers students. Elliot provides us with an example of reflective teaching where being a teacher means being conscious of one's responsibility. Teachers focus their reflection on their own action and conduct.

3 Redefining Teaching It is often said that the whole is more than the sum of the parts. This certainly applies when discussing teaching and the role of the teacher. At present teaching as an activity is usually analysed in terms of tasks, duties, activities, skills and techniques. But can one really explain teaching only in terms of doing? Is teaching an art or a skill or a combination of both? Those who define teaching as an art often do so because they are at a loss to explain the qualities of good teaching. What one should realize, though, is that producing good art requires some technique, which is usually an acquired skill. Mere mastery of a skill is not a guarantee, though, that good art will be

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produced. It is also often said that good teachers are born and not made. It could be true that some people are born with the potential to become good teachers, but I do believe that this so-called inborn capacity should still be developed. It must be made clear as well that most people have at one stage or another had to 'teach7 someone. One need only think of parents teaching their children simple tasks such as how to tie shoelaces or how to make tea. More important is the teaching of values. Parents yearn for their children to do the 'right thing', to be able to distinguish between 'good and evil'. We are all aware of the power of television as a teacher. It is argued that the most effective teaching takes place among peers. Committing crimes such as wiring and stealing a car requires considerable expertise. For this reason jails are said to be excellent crime colleges. In the health care sector the emphasis is now on prevention of disease through education. Health care workers have to become teachers. If one considers the numerous AIDS awareness programmes and the sensitivity of the topics they have to deal with, one realizes that considerable training is needed. Health care workers have to develop teaching skills appropriate to their task. All those involved in the social sciences, from priests to social workers, have a teaching task. Preaching, counselling, therapy sessions, and consultation all have a teaching element. One might also ask, What is the difference between a teacher and a good teacher? Because most people have been to school for at least a number of years one can expect many and varied responses to this question. It seems that the response is determined by when and where the question is asked, in other words, the context within which the question is asked. An aphorism that is often quoted is that 'a good teacher teaches but a great teacher inspires'. One could argue that it actually diminishes what it sets out to praise. Good teaching should also inspire. Another favourite expression often used in a sports context is 'to teach someone a lesson that he will never forget' — once again an abuse of teaching as a concept. In this sense it denotes beating an opponent to such an extent that he will never forget who was the better. It refers to domination of other persons involving power. Scientists often try to define teaching from one perspective only. There are those who try to explain teaching only in terms of behavioural change, management, communication or psychology. It could be that these were areas where these people experienced most difficulty. I will deal with a number of these views individually. I am are not going to provide you with a single definition of teaching. Instead we will analyse a number of critical attributes identified by Anderson and Burns (1989: 7-15). These attributes emerged from a meta-analysis of some popular definitions of teaching. * In the first instance, they view teaching as an activity or process. A behaviourist approach would infer it from learning, that is, if learning is taking place, there must be teaching. Anderson and Burns, though, make it clear that this need not be the

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case. Although teaching may be aimed at changing behaviour or the ways other persons will think, these authors do not necessarily see a causal relationship between teaching and learning. Secondly, it is seen as an interpersonal activity or process. It is interpersonal in the sense that it 'involves interaction' between people. Anderson and Burns refer to the interaction between a teacher and students, which is mostly verbal. If one considers the role of printed text and other communications technologies such as one would find in distance teaching, it is clear that direct verbal communication is not necessarily a precondition for teaching. New technologies require a redefinition of teaching or at least a widening of our concept of what teaching is. While the role of language in teaching has long been a field of study, the debate on language as medium of instruction rages on. Language makes it possible to talk about reality and to attribute meaning. Meaningful existence is dependent on language and one's ability to express inner experiences. Language forms the basis of thinking and it is through language that a person experiences reality. Knowledge in this sense is the ability to describe what is observed in terms of language. Because information is coded in language, language not only represents but also creates reality. Through language we create the world in which we live. Anderson and Burns (1989: 7) further describe teaching as intentional. Although we might disagree on the aims of teaching, there is the understanding that teaching is purposeful. Those who suggest the existence of a direct relationship between teaching and learning would naturally claim that teaching is directed towards learning. Behaviourists would regard the outcome as changing the way a person behaves. The notion that teaching is a purposeful activity has in recent years led to teachers having to specify exactly what they expect learning outcomes to be. It was argued that if a teacher knew what to expect he/she could select learning activities that would facilitate the achievement of the set objectives. Objectives therefore had to be formulated in clear language and had to state unambiguously what the learner had to achieve. This practice eventually required formulating learning tasks for each and every objective with the focus on doing. Bloom (in Anderson & Burns, 1989: 8) asserts 'It is the teaching, not the teacher, that is the key to the learning of students. That is, it is not what teachers are like but what they do in interacting with their students that determines what students learn and how they feel about the learning and about themselves.' According to this statement, teaching can be reduced to a list of instructions carried out by almost anyone. The teacher becomes an instructor or operator. Students are also seen as ignorant, learning only what they are taught. In apparent contradiction of the above statement, there is the view of Clark and Starr (1996: 5) that teaching is primarily about decision making. The teacher has to decide which teaching method would be the most successful, what objectives to strive for, what content to select, what procedures to use, how best to evaluate what has been achieved, and how to correct errors.

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In conclusion, one could state that teaching is an interpersonal, purposeful, interactive activity involving communication in order to help another person to learn or change the way in which they can or want to behave. The argument put forth in this chapter is that while teaching does not imply that learning is taking place, it is a purposeful activity.

£ Teaching: A Piuralist Approach Although I have attempted to identify some universal aspects of teaching, it is indeed not possible to put forward a definition that will serve all purposes. Teaching presents itself in such varied forms under so many different circumstances and settings that one will have to understand a specific context in order to form an idea of what teaching is meant to be. In the following section we will attempt to gain an understanding of some of the situations in which teaching has a function.

4.1 Teaching behaviour Over the past three or four decades, the emphasis with regard to teaching has been on the outcome of teaching (product approach). The dominant view was that a direct causal relationship existed between teaching and learning: effective teaching would result in effective learning. If successful learning were defined merely in terms of examination results, one could not dispute the fact that 'good' teachers obtained good results. The main task of the teacher would be to intervene in the learning process and to create conditions suitable for learning. There has been a preoccupation with learning processes and the psychology of learning. The aim here is to change the way a person behaves. In its simplest form this approach, called behaviourism, expects teaching to provide the stimuli that would result in particular conditioned responses. Consider the mother who constantly reminds her child to put on a jersey when it is cold. She tries to transfer her conditioned response onto her child. The stimulus brings about a change in behaviour. The learner has to be taught what the correct behaviour would be under particular circumstances and also has to learn to anticipate the results of certain behaviour. The learner eventually associates stimuli with stimuli previously experienced under similar conditions. Behaviour is therefore often based on the expectation of particular consequences through association with previous experiences and the appropriate response for similar conditions. Behaviour of this nature is called a conditioned response. Basically it means that similar stimuli will elicit similar responses. According to this view, teaching is about relating the desired responses to particular stimuli. The teacher has to create experiences that will require particular responses. Correct responses must be rewarded, as a positive connotation will result in the behaviour being repeated. Once the correct response has been acquired it has to be

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practised. A popular example to explain simple behavioursim is the experiment that Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, conducted with dogs at the turn of the century: every time the dogs were fed, he would ring a bell. This practice continued for some time. After a while, if the bell was rung without any food being provided, the dogs would produce saliva as if they were going to receive food. They had come to associate the bell with food. The ringing of the bell provided the stimulus for saliva production. Although critics would argue that human behaviour cannot be equated with animal behaviour, the principle illustrated by Pavlov is widely applied in the advertising industry. One need only consider the mouth-watering advertisements for fast-food restaurants. The difference between humans and animals is that humans can be made aware of how their basic needs are being manipulated by external forces. In later developments it was argued that the learner did not necessarily respond to a single stimulus but that stimuli were experienced in their totality in a particular situation. The phrase 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts' represents the essence of this approach. A melody is recognized because of its recognizable pattern and is 'more' than a number of notes. Experiences are said to be made up of patterns, forms and structures that are observed as an integrated whole. Insight is said to emerge when the learner suddenly becomes aware of the relevance of his behaviour to some objective and this realization brings about a reorganization of his field of experience. According to this approach 'teachers should consider the advisability of providing for students continued opportunities for the observation of novel patterns and relationships' (Curzon, 1985: 52). This approach, which focused on perception as basis for learning, became known as the 'Gestalt theory', Cestalt meaning 'totality'.

4.2 Teaching thinking In the cognitive school the emphasis is more on changing the way people think. The cognitive psychologists acknowledged the responsibility of the learner. In contrast to the behaviourists, who emphasized sensory experience, another group of theorists emerged who were more concerned with the learner's 'internal processes' in knowing and perceiving. The learner became an active participant in the learning situation. The formation and use of concepts, knowledge of the environment as the result of interactions by the learner and his surroundings, the organisation of knowledge, are of basic interest to the cognitive school' (Curzon, 1985: 53). Bruner, who played an important role in this movement, believed that students should be taught to develop their capacities to the full. Learning is more than the mere acquisition of knowledge. The outcome of learning is the creation of 'a better or happier or more courageous or more sensitive or more honest man [sic]9 (Bruner in Curzon, 1985: 57). Curzon summarizes it like this: 'Learning is a cognitive process involving the learner's acquiring new information, transforming his state of existing knowledge and checking the adequacy of that state of knowledge against the demands of new situations.'

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According to Carl Popper, 'Knowledge is always a modification of earlier knowledge . . . [it] goes back, ultimately, to inborn knowledge'. The best learning is achieved not by committing facts to memory, but by 'participating in the process that makes possible the establishment of knowledge' (Popper in Curzon, 1985: 58). An important statement is that knowledge is a process, not a product. According to Bruner, teaching is based on discovery learning.

4.3 Teaching meaning Ausubel was another theorist who proposed that meaningful learning was the result of the learner's ability to organize subject matter in order to acquire new meanings. For him teaching is about presenting content in a way that allows the learner to relate to it. The notion of 'advance organizers' was developed by Ausubel. The role of the advance organizer is to prepare the learner and 'to bridge the gap between what the learner knows and what he needs to know before he can successfully learn the task at hand' (Curzon, 1985: 64). Teaching is about providing an appropriate context against which new knowledge can be interpreted. An advance organizer can take the form of recall of preknowledge at the start of a lesson or even an entire lesson preceding a series devoted to a particular theme or topic. In this manner each context can be used as precursor for subsequent learning situations. The aim is to make the learner aware of the inadequacy of existing knowledge. The curriculum could be represented as a continual upward spiral of ever-increasing horizons of meaning. Although Ausubel focused primarily on the learner, his theory has much relevance for preparing and using texts in teaching. He differentiates between reception and discovery learning. Traditional textbooks, which present the entire content of what has to be learnt in a final form to the student, promote reception learning. It only becomes meaningful once the student has succeeded in reproducing it with understanding at some stage in future. Discovery learning is where the learner has to discover the basic or essential content before it is integrated into the already existing cognitive structure. Meaningful learning results when the learner acquires meanings that will allow him to relate new ideas to existing cognitive structures, that is, to past experience that provides a frame of reference. Writers, and especially writers of textbooks, have become conscious of the needs of their prospective readers. The textbook is no longer regarded as a mere source of information but should also present the information in such a way that the reader can attribute new meanings. In other words, the textbook becomes the teacher.

4.4 Teaching consciousness Teaching can be said to form part of human existence. Understanding the role of teaching in human existence led to the study of teaching as a phenomenon. For a phenomenon to be described, it has to be seen out there in the real world and be described without reference to theoretical explanations. Its essential features have to

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be discovered and represented by means of language. Finally, there has to be agreement on what constitutes a phenomenon such as teaching. The problem, though, is that when people study a phenomenon such as teaching, they are often unaware that their views are tainted by preconceived notions of what teaching ought to be. Through our own past experiences of school we have formed our own ideas of what teaching should be. Is it at all possible to form a new concept of what teaching is? According to Freire (in Higgs, 1996), The decolonisation of the mind involves ridding it of carefully nurtured illusions . . . The change from a colonised to a decolonised mind is the foundational act in transformation.' The above statement is supported by Bollnow (in Higgs, 1996), who refers to Freire's pedagogy which is consciousness-raising and has to wake one up from the oppressed consciousness. Freire states: 'Conscientization is viable only because men's [sic] consciousness although conditioned, can recognize that is conditioned' (Higgs, 1996). Society, and especially teachers, should realize that they have become used to seeing teaching in one particular way only. The traditional picture of a teacher standing before a class in front of a chalk board, talking, still defines teaching for many people. This illusion of what it means to teach is so imprinted on the minds of student teachers that even after qualifying as teachers they revert to the mode of 'chalk and talk'. They teach as they have been taught. This is one of the biggest problems that teacher educators have to deal with. Society must be made aware that not only the notion of teaching but reality itself can be illusory. Since all information comes to us as sensory experience, sense data is important, as the mind sees what it knows. Flynn (in Higgs, 1996) says: The world of a human being is created, by seeing reality through a complex system of thought and intention.' The teacher, through teaching, has to make his/her students aware of the fallibility of knowledge. The teacher and students have to find out how knowledge is constructed. This can be achieved by involving students in examining alternatives and correcting misunderstanding. The method by which phenomena are studied is known as phenomenology. A phenomenological approach in teaching would involve the following steps (Bollnow in Higgs, 1996). To get hold of a phenomenon in the lived world, one should first discuss it in ordinary language. After it has been discussed and isolated by means of language, 'one should describe the phenomenon within the context of conscious existence'. This can be achieved either by providing real-life experiences for students, allowing them to draw on their own past experiences, or by presenting case studies and introducing them to methods of phenomenological enquiry. After the students have described its essential features, the phenomenon should be set into the context of the whole of education and human existence. Using experience for learning is a field of study that has emerged only recently and is called experiential learning.

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4.5 Teaching as management Communication and control are regarded as the essence of the teaching process by Curzon (1985). According to Clark and Starr (1996) communication is made difficult by the complexity of both the learning process and the relationships between teacher and learners. The teacher's task is to manipulate these relationships so that the learners might achieve the set objectives. Manipulation of the teaching environment in relation to the objectives is in effect a type of control. For Clark and Starr (1996), teaching is more than communicating a message to a class of students. For effective learning to take place, classes have to be managed skilfully. Teaching has to be productive and be free of distractions. An orderly environment is required, the overriding concern being that of effectiveness. Once again the attention is focused on teacher activity where good teaching is equated to executing a list of instructions, doing the right things right, and being efficient and effective. Treml (in Higgs, 1996) states: Education (teaching) is defined as intentionally modifying the environment of a learning system for the purpose of initiating and encouraging learning processes. . . Therefore, education (teaching) does not mean intentionally changing an individuald), but systematically changing the environment... with the intention of initiating the learning processes. Teaching is regarded as a system. By analysing teaching one should be able to find out what elements constitute teaching as an activity. The next step is to ascertain the influence of each of those elements on the functioning of the system, and how they can be managed in order to obtain optimal results. This can be seen as a decisionmaking process that will provide the teacher with the means to manipulate events in the classroom in order to achieve successful learning. The process became known as instructional design. Its essential components were listed as follows by Gagne and Briggs(1979): * analysis of the learning task; defining performance objectives; designing instructional sequences; selecting events of instruction; selecting and using media; designing the individual lesson; assessing student performance. Each of the above-mentioned tasks could in turn be analysed in terms of a subset of activities. The purpose was to enable the teacher to control every aspect of the teaching-learning process. The problem was that no matter how hard a teacher tried, the smallest change to the carefully planned process could upset everything. It was

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soon realized that teaching was such a complex activity that it was impossible to control all the available alternatives. Although there is a relationship between teaching and learning, there is no clearly detectable, single direct causal relationship. Two teachers using exactly the same lesson plan in exact replication could achieve different results. The same could be said of a single teacher teaching the same lesson in precisely the same way to two different but statistically comparable groups. A minor adjustment to the plan, however negligible statistically, could lead to different and often unexpected learning outcomes. It is simply not possible to predict what kind of learning would result. The systems theory gave rise to the complexity theory. This theory recognizes the holistic unity, totality and interdependence among constituent parts of a system (teaching) that is characterized by dynamic interaction. Complexity theory sees the potential for a higher level of order (and learning) emerging within complex, seemingly chaotic, situations, while it also recognizes possibilities of chaos in what appears to be an orderly situation (Letseka in Higgs, 1996). Chapter nine includes a further exploration of the complexity and chaos theory. Complexity theory does not suggest that the teacher is helpless and caught up in a situation over which he/she has no control. The teacher's task becomes more exciting as he/she no longer teaches 'through and by prescription' but through 'invention'. According to Clark and Starr (1996), teachers should be able to improvise. Teaching is once again seen as an art, as classes do not fall into set patterns. The teacher becomes the decision maker, deciding what objectives to strive for, what content to include and exclude, what procedures to follow, how to evaluate the teacher's and the students' performance, and how to correct any errors. Clark and Starr (1996) list the following factors to be considered: * * * * * * * *

the goal, aims and objectives of the curriculum; the nature of the subject; the strategies and techniques available; the materials and equipment available; the students; how students learn; the nature of the group; the teacher's skills and inclinations.

Teaching is seen as an open system where the teacher has freedom to manage the classroom. It is clear that Clark and Starr focus much more on the initial conditions that are required for teaching than on specified learning outcomes.

4,6 Teaching for social change (democracy) Education has long been regarded as a means to effect change in society. The problem, though, is that existing value systems and vested interests very often work

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to prevent change from taking place. People must be made aware of how these accepted norms hinder change and are in fact oppressive. It is necessary to become aware of how knowledge about society is formed, before we can understand our own circumstances. This awareness is the result of critically reflecting on society, its history, and traditions. True understanding is also based on discussion (dialogue). This selfknowledge will then enable us to change our circumstances by becoming actively involved in writing our own history. Popkewitz (in Higgs, 1996) quotes Pinar, who says that debates on what children should be taught are 'debates about who we perceive ourselves to be and how we will present that identity. . .'. Popkewitz further states that 'teaching and teacher education ... is to ask questions about how we reason about our selves and others'. The ways in which we talk about teaching 'are not merely ideas but social practices that are the effects of power'. Teachers should become aware that they are agents of change with the mandate to effect social transformation. According to Nel (in Higgs, 1996), This can be achieved through education which does not concentrate on schooling of skills to satisfy economic demands, but by developing an education for democracy.' Nel refers to Giroux who provides us with the following notion of democracy: '[Democracy includes the acceptance of pluralism and a recognition of differences between groups which should not be seen as "deficits".' The implications of critical pedagogy, as it is known, for teaching practice is that schools and dasses should be regarded as democratic public spaces where teachers as 'transformative intellectuals' help students to acquire knowledge of societal structures and to be able to reflect critically on these issues. The teacher should endeavour to promote a culture of tolerance and some form of solidarity in order to keep the dialogue open. Teachers also have to reflect on established teaching practices as social practices.

4.7 Conclusion None of the approaches to teaching that we discussed are rejected. It should be clear that many of these theories share common ground. Although some of them are discredited they still served an important purpose, even if only to open the way for other theorists. In this sense one could refer to the clear relationship between the Gestalt theory and Ausubel's theory for meaningful learning. The point is that teaching should not be limited to any one of these theories. Those who still claim that teaching is mere intervention in the learning process present a distorted view of what teaching means. Eisner (1994: 125) indicates that education, and therefore also teaching,

is not a field that will yield to simple prescriptions or recipes. Each situation in which educational decisions are made is significantly unique, not simply unique in the sense of time and place — all situations are unique in that sense — but unique in the sense that the goals, methods, people, and context differ from each other in important ways and must be treated with respect to those differences if decision making is to be effective,

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This view requires a knowledge of different possibilities and the ability to think differentially. Clark and Starr (1996: 2) refer to the different notions of teaching as 'challenges'. By studying these you will become aware of what it means to be a teacher. There is no denying that it is a very challenging but also a very satisfying task.

5 0* %efaa a 7eacAen, The teacher is a responsible, trained professional. Just as the whole child goes to school, so does the whole teacher. The teacher's acceptance of the challenge of teaching is an acceptance of a tremendous responsibility. The teacher has to initiate, guide, control, lead and, in the end, also evaluate all teaching and learning activities for each student as well as for the group of students as a whole. There are two sides to the background knowledge of the teacher: & subject knowledge and * professional knowledge. It is vital that both aspects be included in teacher education. A teacher dares not enter the classroom without knowing the subject; all teachers should therefore continually keep abreast of new trends and developments in their subjects. There are some who maintain that a teacher needs only a university degree and no professional training, but this makes nonsense of pedagogy. Teaching is an art and a science, and the very fact that it is a science means that there must be a scientific theory, structure and development of ideas, skills, and values. Hence the need to develop both facets of a teacher. The following aspects of teaching should be kept in mind: & The teacher should create a communicative ambience in the classroom where there are no barriers between teacher and student. * The student should feel wanted, accepted and safe in the classroom. * Teaching media should be used to assist students to participate in learning activities. * The teacher is a role model. * The teacher should have a sound knowledge of the students' way of life and acknowledge the child as a person. * The teacher should be aware of each student's participation in the learning situation. The above six points stress the 'art' side of teaching. The personality of the teacher and warmth towards the students are vital. Cohen and Manion (1977), on the other hand, tend to lay greater stress on the learning material and the encounter, and ignore the people in the encounter. They set out six goals for students to achieve, and maintain that students gain when the teachers

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* * * * * *

are businesslike; are flexible; are organized; present material clearly; structure material; offer richness and variety.

Education in South Africa is in the process of being reconstructed. New departments have been established and new curricula developed. Apart from all these developments, there is also a move towards a more learner-centred approach in teaching. Amidst all these changes, the traditional role of the teacher is being challenged. The teacher is no longer seen as a 'transmitter of knowledge', but as a 'facilitator of learning'. All of this requires of teachers to reflect on the role they have to play in society and possibly redefine the notion of what it means to be a teacher. Creating new structures might create the impression that education is being reformed, while in the classroom the same tired teaching practices are applied by teachers who might feel that they now have been legitimized by a new system. This would mean that, although the education system has been democratized, the same power relations of old are kept intact inside the classroom by teachers who feel that their authority needs to be reasserted. Documents such as the National Education Policy Investigation report (NEPI report) have appeared in recent years, addressing educational issues at a macro level and setting out proposals for transforming education. The question that we have to ask is how policy documents will affect what goes on inside the classroom. How can we prepare teachers for a new dispensation? We speak of trust and assume that a teacher is able to establish a relationship of trust with students. We speak of democratization of education — how can it be translated into teaching practice? According to the NEPI report (quoting a decision taken at the National Education Conference), policy as well as practice shall be governed by the principle of democracy, ensuring the active participation of various interest groups, in particular teachers, parents, workers and students (NECC, 1992: 42). Let us engage in critical self-reflection. Can teachers expect their students to democratize if they themselves continue with a practice that favours knowledge reproduction, if they continue to wield the power of the red pen? Teacher educators need to consider whether they really enable their students to interpret syllabi in a way that encourages them to ask the following questions: * Why am I teaching? * Why am I teaching this? & Why am I teaching like this? How can teachers be accountable if they are not able or wilting to ask these questions? Gray (1991) once remarked that the single most important characteristic of good teachers is that they want to be good teachers. There should not be any

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doubt that education students want to become good teachers. Will the mere acquisition of skills and techniques 'produce' good teachers? Teachers are often dissatisfied and they often have reason to be. Their frustration is usually directed at a system in which they have become objects. On questioning them one often learns to one's dismay that they want more structures, rules, and regulations. Arguments that they should become involved and take responsibility are viewed with scepticism. It remains either the government's or the department's task to solve problems. Teachers regard themselves as victims of an unjust system. Berkhout and Bergh (1993) recount how their students, during discussions, came up mainly with Utopian cause-effect ideas of how a new unitary education system would eliminate all inequalities. Even though South Africa now has political democracy, the question arises whether we are not merely replacing one hegemony with another. Whose culture will dominate the curriculum? We are all aware of the effects that an unjust political system had on education. Countless articles and books have been published on the subject. Flanagan (1993: 1) summarizes it quite succinctly: After decades of apartheid the capacity of South Africa's teaching corps is limited in several respects, The vast majority of teachers have been trained in an authoritarian conception of education in which the student/child must be moulded and inculcated into an attitude of obedience and submission towards the instruments and figures of authority. During their training these teachers have experienced a recitation pattern of learning, and teaching guides supplied to them have docility embedded in the directions and suggested questioning techniques. The fundamental question, according to Apple (1990: vii), was not 'What knowledge is of most worth?' but 'Whose knowledge is of most worth?' According to Apple: Educators have witnessed a massive attempt — one that has been more than a little successful — at exporting the crisis in the economy and in authority relations from the practices and policies of dominant groups onto the schools. If teachers and curricula were more tightly controlled, more closely linked to the needs of business and industry, more technically oriented, with more stress on traditional values and workplace norms and dispositions (such as productivity and efficiency) then the problems of achievement, of unemployment, of international economic competitiveness would largely disappear, or so goes the accepted litany. That is the case for the United States. In South Africa we are all too aware of the expectations regarding education as a cure-all for society. There are constant calls for vocational education, the development of skills, and technical training in order to promote the production of commodities that will in turn provide economic power. The purpose is not to debate once again the values of capitalism, but to illustrate the

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hegemony of ideology and how it controls meaning. Young and Bernstein (in Apple, 1990: 156) describe it as follows: 'While there has been some awareness of the ideological character of aspects of education, there has been little or no awareness until quite recently that the very form and content of classroom messages, of day to day school life, embody ideological transmissions/ Bradbury (1993:1) refers to this as the 'meta-language of cognition7. She expands on this concept as referring to 'the inherently social nature of cognition (and hence the relation between language and cognition). . .'. Many teachers are still unaware, as Apple (1990) puts it, 'of the ways power, knowledge, and interest are interrelated and made manifest [through language], about how hegemony is economically and culturally maintained'. This unawareness, false consciousness, and uncritical belief in technology is the result of a naive confidence in science that characterizes modern society. There is an overriding concern for what is practicable and saleable. Segal (1993), in a paper titled 'The apathy and ecstasy of theory', states that many students and teachers are resistant and apathetic as regards theory. It seems, according to Segal, that the importance of theory in particular is evaluated in terms of the use to which it can be put, and, in the context of power-growth, in terms of its efficiency. There are those who even go so far as to make the distinction between teaching and effective teaching. In her paper 'Conceptual change in teacher education: a qualitative exploration of the construction of instructional theory', Henning (1993: 100) comes to the conclusion that, although some prospective teachers were taught contemporary teaching theories, they did not experience any conceptual changes. She states that, although teacher educators speak of contemporary theories of learning and teaching, many still practise the principles of reproduction, memorization, and transmission. She cites a number of theorists who state that educational change starts with the way people are taught and the way they learn. Ohlsson (in Henning, 1993: 100) states that teacher educators focus too much on techniques and skills and 'not on knowledge of skills, strategies, principles and concepts'. This is what is presently commonly known as metacognition. Exciting research has been done in this regard. But more than this, according to Segal (1993:16), students need to be encouraged in the process of theorizing rather than learning theory itself. He states that 'students need to have the opportunity to feel and sense the importance of the issues that are being raised in a theory'. An apathy towards theory will remain if the questions raised in theory are not experienced existentially. This, according to Segal (1993: 17), 'can be achieved through the process of destruction, dialectic or deconstruction which is rooted in insecurity at a [personal] existential level but which reflects itself in questioning at the epistemological level'. It is at this level that meaning is created and where the search starts. This may explain why students are not conceptually changed by the theories they study and

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why so many teachers speak of the irrelevance of theory. Segal (1993: 16) refers to '[t]eachers abandoned in practice by theory'. Teachers are confronted daily with the need to interpret and to explain the situations in which they find themselves. Their inability to make sense of the situation is threatening. A lack of understanding is threatening and creates a feeling of being powerless. These teachers become victims of the system. Student teachers should be led to self-discovery in order to come to self-knowledge. Once a student has come to self-knowledge he/she will be able to distinguish between belief and theory. It is through self-knowledge that a person comes to know his/her darker side. Through reflection one will become aware of conflicting beliefs and assumptions which inform one's practices. Here, according to Segal, one can learn about the grand theories or narratives by learning about one's own assumptions. It is often the case that one learns more from one's adversaries than from one's allies. In a recent publication by Gerald Graff, titled Beyond the Culture Wars: How Teaching the Conflicts Can Revitalise American Education, he writes 'as a moderator between false extremes' (Wright, 1993: 28). Graff admits that there are 'those who disregard the norms of democratic debate and seek to turn the entire curriculum into an extension of a radical social agenda'. He is also convinced that although current issues such as 'feminism, multiculturalism and other new theories may not have the final word about culture, they deserve to be taken seriously' (Wright, 1993: 28). Graff does not feel the need for an overarching consensus on values. He advocates an approach he calls 'teaching the conflicts', which calls on teachers to make a constructive dialogue of their differences. He presses for a more interactive form of curriculum planning. According to Graff, teaching the conflicts has nothing to do with relativism or denying the existence of truth. The best way to make relativists of students is to expose them to an endless series of different positions which are not debated before their eyes. It is through discourse and inner conversation that a personal point of view evolves and that a perspective is gained. Teachers need a perspective on what they are doing. Segal (1993: 16) writes as follows: (S)he needs to refine the art of interpreting and reading the situation in which she finds herself, She needs to have an understanding of the assumptions and beliefs which underlie the practice in which she is involved, It is the aim of existential dialectics , , , It allows her an understanding of her own ways of thinking in and about practices, This view on the relationship between teacher and theory presents a socioconstructivist approach towards educational theory and represents the paradigm shift that has taken place in society (Spector, 1993: 9-19). But how can the teacher understand and where should he/she start looking? De Beer (1993) suggests gaining a better understanding by clarifying one's views regarding culture, knowledge, thought, and education. He analyses the dimensional character of culture and identifies one outstanding aspect of culture, which he calls the convivial being together. In science, which produces knowledge, the emphasis should be on

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conscience. Real knowledge is shared knowledge. Thought should be contemplative rather than calculating. Education should create an awareness in students of the relationship between language and meaning. We should have students that are conversant — not education as/for reproduction, but as/for inventiveness. Barbara Spector, in an article titled 'Order out of chaos: Restructuring schooling to reflect society's paradigm shift', states: In a knowledge-powered society, developments in science and technology will continue to increase possibilities which, in turn, will change the kinds of questions people ask, their perceptions of themselves and the world, their expectations, the way they assess their values, and the way they apply their values to make decisions; in other words, their world view. Spector (1993) lists a number of characteristics which she sees as creating a framework that can be used to guide the restructuring of schools. She distinguishes between a 'dominant' paradigm and a 'new' paradigm, thus sidestepping the controversy surrounding the modernist-postmodernist discourse. She lists seventeen categories, each with its concomitant characteristics. An analysis of some of these categories illustrates the application of differential thinking (see below).

5.1 Teachers' entry into practice Dominant paradigm: * *

State legislatures and state education agencies determine criteria for entry. School boards determine standards for professional conduct and administrators monitor conduct.

New paradigm: * *

Teachers determine criteria for entry through professional associations. Teachers both determine standards for professional conduct and monitor conduct.

5.2 Teachers' role Dominant paradigm: * * * * * *

hired hand mechanic posture of victim (impotent) accept and implement policies and regulations made by those above the teacher in the hierarchy responsible for cultivating one form of intelligence 'fountain of knowledge' posture

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New paradigm: ** professional ** decision maker ** posture of potency ~ collaborate with each other and other interested parties to make policies and regulations and implement them * responsible for cultivating the capacities of students' multiple intelligences: empowering students to think with all their senses * co-learner and model of lifelong learning

5.3 Teacher educators7 role Dominant paradigm: * * & * * * * * * *

view students as uninformed and naive know and transmit best practice isolated from teachers and other school personnel housed exclusively on university campuses conduct research individually, frequently isolated from schools work in colleges (faculties) of education, frequently separate from faculty in other colleges individuated working within own college (faculty), focusing on teaching methods courses teach discipline-specific methods separate from teaching discipline content 'do as I say, not as I do' is common teaching strategy add to student teachers' collection of segregated facts

New paradigm: ~ ~ ** «* * *

view students as equal partners collaborate with practising teachers as equals to determine options for practice integrally involved with practitioners in schools housed full- or part-time in schools conduct research in schools collaboratively with teams of teachers serve as change facilitators designing and implementing strategies for improvement in university and teacher education * serve as linking agents and interpreters among national and other professional associations; establish networks of teacher education centres * advocate for professionalization of teaching * teach discipline-specific methods integrated into discipline content by modelling, reflection, and analysis, while teaching discipline content * offer teaching congruent with the way people learn the subject

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* enable teachers to reflect on acquired collection of facts to create multiple linkages among concepts and develop and select umbrella concepts These characteristics present the extremes of two views that do not necessarily exclude each other. That it is reductionist cannot be denied. De Beer (1993) refers to the dramatic epistemological transformation of the past decades. This transformation meant a break with binary opposites that always consisted of two poles such as good and evil, knowledge and ignorance, accepting that they are dialectically connected but that they are not always positive and negative. These poles are complementary — not opposing, but differential. It is time teachers searched for an alternative to prescriptive teaching. One suggestion is that we speak of heuristics — the science of discovery and invention. To echo De Beer (1993), let teachers create a learning culture that will foster students who are convivial, conscientious, contemplative, conversant, and willing to confront problems.

6 Pfatwixa lot 7eacfa*ta One often tends to think of teaching purely in terms of presentation and to forget about the important role played by planning. The presentation of a lesson is merely the visible end product of a number of actions which a teacher has to carry out in advance. Disciplinary problems in the classroom can often be traced to poor planning — here teachers have no one to blame but themselves. Even situations that are learner-centred and problem-based, and where the teacher wants to take a back-seat approach, require careful planning. The following sections show very briefly how teaching can be planned. The critical reader will no doubt very soon become aware that the sections on planning for teaching as well as evaluating teaching tend to reflect a particular view of teaching in terms of the pluralist approach.

6.1 Who is responsible for planning and what does it entail? Note that planning for teaching, just like curriculum development, occurs on many different levels. On the macro level, one could refer to the planning done by the Department of Education. It is the Department's task to ensure the availability of an educational infrastructure. Planning on an intermediate level is done by the school management. However, in this study unit we shall concentrate on planning on the micro level, which the teacher does. Planning by the teacher represents her/his involvement in the development of the curriculum. Planning fulfils a function of educational management on each of the various levels referred to above and forms an integral part of the curriculum. Before we can say why

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planning is so important, it is vital to find out what planning entails, generally speaking. This section discusses matters important to planning.

6.2 What is the relationship between planning and objectives? As we have already indicated, all teaching should be purposeful; after all, teachers are trying to achieve something with all this teaching! Therefore, it is essential to formulate in advance what one is trying to achieve and then to direct all activities towards realizing this objective. Killen (1996:1) makes the following statement in this regard: (T)he real issue is that statements of goals, aims or objectives describe the intent of some educational process, If these intentions are realized, the end product of the educational process can be referred to as an educational outcome, It is this link between intentions and results that is at the heart of outcomes-based education. Statements of intent or statements of desired educational outcomes focus attention on the purpose of instruction, rather than on the content or learning experiences that are vehicles of instruction,

6.3 Some examples of learning outcomes History: 'After this lesson, the students should be able to name and discuss the causes of the French Revolution in a 1200-word essay/ Mathematics (in a lesson for Grade 7 students on the calculation of volume): In this lesson you will learn how to calculate the volume of a given shape in cubic units/ Accountancy: 'The students are given ten accounts. By the end of the period they must be able to write down the classification of the given accounts without consulting the handbook/ Physics and chemistry (in a lesson for Grade 11 on hydrogen compounds): 'By the end of this lesson the students will be able to * make a graphic representation of the unexpectedly high boiling point of water; * explain the high boiling point of water in terms of hydrogen compounds; * give examples of the importance of hydrogen compounds in everyday life/ Environmental education: 'After this lesson, the students should * show respect for all living organisms within an ecosystem and * be able to describe the concept "ecosystem"/ It should be clear that some of these objectives are more specific and exact than others.

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6.4 Aims and objectives So far we have concentrated on the teacher's objectives (teaching objectives). However, these objectives can also be called learning outcomes, since they are formulated in terms of a student's learning achievements. Naturally, it is important that the students know what the teacher expects of them on conclusion of the lesson. The teaching objectives must therefore be introduced to the students as learning objectives. There is little point in the teacher's striving after certain teaching objectives which do not result in any learning. The students must internalize the objectives. In terms of the new paradigm, students should be involved in determining objectives. Through cooperation and participation the students can become involved in drawing up their own agenda for learning. Learning will become more meaningful. A teacher can direct the students' attention and stimulate student involvement in a number of ways: * The easiest is to introduce the teaching objective clearly as a learning objective. Example: 'After this lesson you must be able to name the causes of the French Revolution and to discuss its importance today.' * Another method is to pose the objective as a question. Example: 'What do you think were the most important causes of the French Revolution and how are we affected by the French Revolution today?' *The students can even formulate the learning objectives themselves. Here the teacher will announce the theme and by skilful questioning get the students to formulate an objective themselves. Example: 'Do you think it is important for us in South Africa to take note of the French Revolution?' Even a negative answer to such a question may stimulate quite an interesting discussion and still lead to the attainment of the objective set beforehand. The teacher will, however, have to plan for the possibility of a negative answer.

6.5 Team planning We need to pay further attention to team planning, in which a number of teachers are involved in teaching the same subject. Firstly, there is cooperation on the horizontal plane: here a team of two or more teachers is responsible for teaching the same subject at the same level. If schools follow a uniform educational policy, it should be possible for teachers from different schools to cooperate in this way. Cooperation may be limited to planning or may even include the preparation and presentation of lessons. There should also be subject cooperation between teachers who are responsible for the same subject but who teach different grades. Such vertical cooperation should assist teachers with their interpretation of the syllabus. Here the emphasis is on coordinating teaching so that a teacher can determine students' developmental level and eliminate unnecessary duplication.

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One matter that is under constant scrutiny these days is the 'empowerment' of students. This means, simply, that students are enabled to take responsibility for their own learning. Johnson and Johnson call this 'teaching a student to teach himself (1986: 14). Teacher-student planning is a way of establishing student participation and student involvement. It can also be seen as a democratization of the classroom.

6.6 Resources for planning Normally a subject's syllabus gives the teacher a point of departure for planning. Based on the syllabus, a scheme of work is created on which lesson planning is then based. One also makes use of handbooks, departmental study material, commercially available study guides, technical journals, and one's students. Almost every school subject has an association which a teacher can join. Most of these associations organize regular congresses and seminars where papers and workshops on the presentation of the subject in question are offered. Most of these associations also publish their own journals; these contain research about the teaching of the given subject. Any teacher with a claim to professional status ought to belong to the relevant subject association(s).

6.7 Compiling a scheme of work In South Africa it is generally accepted that it is the teacher's task to create a scheme of work. The scheme of work represents the teacher's planning for the entire year. The weekly, fortnightly, or quarterly planning is indicated in accordance with the school's teaching policy.

6.8 Planning a lesson unit Each syllabus covers a number of themes and subjects and a series of lessons will have to be prepared for each. Such a series may be called a lesson unit. 'Lesson unit' means a series of lessons that deal with the same theme or, alternatively, a lesson that stretches over two school periods. Here we distinguish the seven phases of planning: * * * * * * *

Select the theme/topic. Formulate objectives. Demarcate the contents. Specify learning activities. Arrange the activities in a lesson series. Plan for material and equipment required. Plan the evaluation and compile tests.

6.9 Lesson planning The importance of lesson planning can hardly be overemphasized. Before one can

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build a house, a plan must be drawn. Any builder who tries to build by rule of thumb will quickly find out that the final product in no way resembles what was envisaged at the outset. Similarly, teachers cannot claim to do their planning entirely mentally. Their planning, after all, is to be the basis of the preparation that is to follow. When planning, the following aspects should be borne in mind: * * * * * * *

lesson objectives; learning content (its selection and development); learning activities; teaching media (why, what, how); types of lesson (patterns of interaction); teaching strategies (methods and skills); lesson format (lesson phases).

It is useless to plan your lessons carefully and then deviate from your plan for little or no reason. Sometimes, however, something happens that forces a teacher to diverge from the plan. Perhaps the majority of the students are found to lack the required background knowledge; in that case there would be no point in continuing with the lesson as it was originally planned. It can also happen that the school programme is thrown into confusion on a given day and that periods have to be shortened. One must provide for any such contingencies in planning. Lesson planning and lesson preparation are never entirely separate. In a certain sense, planning is preparation. However, preparation without proper planning usually makes a lot of extra work.

7 76e£eAMM Few authors attempt a formal definition of a lesson. Clark and Starr (1996:130) state: 'Lessons are the atoms that make up units, courses and curricula. They usually last for a single period, although sometimes they may be continued for several days/ Our definition of a lesson is that it can be of any duration, provided it is continuous. If a lesson is planned over two or more days it forms a unit of work, and each daily period must consist of a well-rounded lesson; in other words, the two lessons form a unit of work on the topic and each is regarded as a full, separate lesson, requiring preparation, instruction, attaining objectives, and rounding off. The lesson is the occasion on which theory becomes practice, so everything that can be said about teaching strategies and methods, types of interaction, teaching skills, types of lesson, teaching media, and approaches must be realized in the course of the lesson.

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7.1 The lesson format In any lesson one can distinguish different phases. Gagne and Briggs (1979) call them lesson events; others refer to a lesson structure. Knowledge of how activities in a lesson can be arranged in a sequence will facilitate planning and presentation. The traditional structure of 'introduction', 'middle phase', and 'conclusion' does not really serve any useful purpose. It is important, though, that the lesson phases do not develop into fixed patterns of lesson presentation. Two examples of how a lesson can be structured will be presented. The following example is based on the events identified by Gagne and Briggs (1979) and represents a very systematic approach based on behaviourist principles: * Gain the learner's attention. * Inform the learner of the objective. * Stimulate recall of prerequisite learning. * Present the stimulus material. * Provide learner guidance. * Elicit performance. * Provide feedback about performance. * Assess performance. * Enhance retention and transfer. Another approach to lesson presentation based on phenomenological enquiry reveals the following phases: * Establish an environment and atmosphere that is conducive to learning and will promote student participation (a friendly greeting is a good start). * Recall relevant preknowledge to provide a context for learning. * Formulate a problem that will make students aware of the inadequacy of existing knowledge. * Present/discover new content through direct expository approaches, group and discussion methods, or thinking and enquiry. * Create opportunities for students to test their new-found skills/insights. * Evaluate whether the student is ready to proceed. These lesson phases are not necessarily consecutive and should not be used as a formula for lesson presentation. They do focus the teacher's attention on important aspects, though.

7.2 Teaching strategies and lesson presentation Clark and Starr (1996) distinguish three main categories of teaching strategies, namely the direct expository approaches, group and discussion methods, and thinking and enquiry.

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The direct expository approach is more teacher-centred and associated with traditional teaching methods. As we have already indicated, there is a move to more learner-centred approaches. That does not mean that the direct expository approaches should be discredited. The only problem with this approach is that teachers tend to 'get stuck' in it. Not only that, but they also revert to what is commonly known as 'chalk and talk'. The students are reduced to passive listeners who have to reproduce whatever the teacher transmitted. Clark and Starr recognize that the need exists to use a direct expository approach at times. Here are some possibilities: * narrative, where the teacher talks and lectures; * demonstration; * questioning; * practice through repetition and drill. Group and discussion methods are particularly useful when a teacher wants to start with cooperative learning. It also presents interesting possibilities with which to manage big classes. Teachers should really be less concerned with the so-called noisy classes. Some teachers apparently think that if their classes are not absolutely quiet they have failed as teachers. Teachers making use of groupwork and discussion as a method must accept that they will not be in a position to exert direct control over the class. Maybe they should ask themselves why it is really necessary to maintain control. On the other hand, proper application of groupwork and discussion leaves no opportunity to leave students on their own. The following examples of groupwork and discussion are provided (Clark & Starr, 1996): * panels and debates; * cooperative learning teams; * buzz groups; * project teams, etc. Much emphasis is put on critical thinking at present, yet there is very little information on how this ability can be developed. Clark and Starr list a number of exciting possibilities that any teacher should try. One must accept that in order to become lifelong learners all of us will have to acquire the skills necessary for thinking and enquiry. Some of the possibilities listed by Clark and Starr (1996: 231-60) are: * problem solving; * case studies; * the Socratic method (questioning); * community projects; * role-play and simulation.

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73 The relationship: knowledge, information, learning content In the teaching and learning situation in the school, there are certain relationships between teacher, student, and learning content. Whereas teaching strategies are mainly concerned with the 'how' of teaching, the learning content is about 'what' the teacher teaches. The learning content in a curriculum refers to the subject matter to be studied. The subjects (biology, history, mathematics, etc) represent aspects of reality and their inclusion in the curriculum depends on what 'society considers to be worthwhile knowledge, desirable attitudes and relevant skills' (Gatawa, 1990: 9). The learning content can be regarded as a means for teaching learners in order to achieve the aims of the curriculum. In order to gain an understanding of the origin of learning content and its function in the curriculum it is necessary to ask a few questions about the nature of knowledge and its social functions. It has become necessary to redefine the role of learning content in the curriculum, especially since teaching is no longer regarded as the transfer of knowledge. So what do we teach our students? Gatawa (1990: 10) states that '[t]he process of selecting from culture what children shall learn is not as simple as it reads. It is caught up in the controversy about what constitutes knowledge, who makes decisions about what shall be taught and learnt, and what criteria are used in the selection.' According to Gatawa, decisions about the content of the curriculum are based on the following three variables: * prevailing theories of knowledge; * identifiable needs of society; * interests and experiences of learners. In recent years there have been moves to democratize curriculum construction by involving all those who have an interest in the curriculum. This means teachers, parents and students alike. This approach is titled the socioconstructivist perspective, where a curriculum is the result of negotiation. It is hoped that curricula that are developed in this way will serve the needs and aspirations of particular communities. Curricula will have to be contextualized in order to address the problems, topics, and issues that face a society. A curriculum that is built on a constructivist approach to learning will, according to Spector (1993), reveal the following characteristics: * It will reduce the amount of content information and not merely add more facts annually as research produces new information. * The focus will be on processes to develop connections forming conceptual frameworks into which new information may be integrated, rather than to teach content loaded with detail. The emphasis will be on holistic concepts. * Disciplinary boundaries will be blurred as it will be more transdisciplinary.

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* Instead of the content being selected and organized around the structure of the discipline, it will be organized around themes, current issues, and real-life problems. The curriculum will in fact be problem-based rather than disciplinebased. * Science is portrayed as a dynamic discipline challenging established /truths' — science as doing — rather than as a set of abstract rules defining reality. * Learning is seen as scientific enquiry where new meanings are constructed. Scientific activity is regarded as human and responsive to human perceptions and interpretation, contrary to the established view of science as impersonal, objective, and mechanistic. The scientist is regarded as someone who is empowered to look for answers and solutions to societal problems. In teaching a socioconstructivist curriculum, the teacher will, according to Spector (1993): * be guided by his/her students7 questions and their need to know; * assume that students have preknowledge and a frame of reference based on experience; * be sensitive to the values of multiple cultures, races, and both females and males; * incorporate different ways of knowing, and allow for different learning styles and expression; * focus on enquiry and communication, rather than drill and practice; * exemplify lines of reason to build theories, rather than focus on the rhetoric of conclusions; * will respond to questions not with closed-ended answers but with questions developing lines of questioning (patterns of reasoning); * support open-ended activities, active learning, and inductive reasoning; * break free from a textbook and worksheet approach to a hands-on/minds-on experience; * create learning experiences, rather than present learning content; * devise cooperative learning strategies, foster a collaborative environment and discourage a teacher-dependent attitude. The socioconstructivist curriculum will empower learners to become lifelong learners, with the emphasis on learning to learn7. The teacher's task is to create the conditions for learning and to be instrumental in establishing a learning culture. This approach represents a shift from a so-called prodi/cf-oriented curriculum to a process-oriented curriculum. In the product curriculum the learning content was presented to learners as the result of research carried out by specialists elsewhere. The learners had to study the content and make it their own, regardless of their context or situation. Very often students had great difficulty understanding the content simply because it did not make sense to them. They consequently resorted to merely memorizing the 'facts7, which would then be reproduced in an examination. Cognitive activities such as understanding,

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application and critical evaluation in most instances merely reflected the teacher's conceptualization. In the process curriculum the learning activities constitute the learning content. The emphasis is on the skills required to produce knowledge. Although there is no clear definition of a skill, one can accept that the concept refers to the ability to do something. The focus on skill would include concepts such as method and methodology, technique and technology. In the current education debate in South Africa much emphasis is laid on 'teaching for skills'. Example: In a subject such as biology, the ability to observe would be described as a skill. In the study of the grasshopper as an insect, the grasshopper would represent a specimen or example of the insect group. The teacher will demonstrate certain features that all insects have in common and indicate what learners should look for when they come across insects. Acquiring the skill to observe could eventually lead to a heightened awareness of the role of insect life in our environment. Without this skill, people might perceive all insects as bugs that harm humans and that should be exterminated. The disposition that insects should be exterminated could be termed a presupposition, probably based on previous experience and other people's interpretation of reality, which clearly represents a false notion. Acquiring the skill of observation could be the first step in freeing the student from ignorance and setting her/him on the path toward ecological enlightenment. It is also clear that in order to develop the skill of observation one has to look at something in a certain way. A skill cannot be practised on its own but is always related to a particular context. If thinking is regarded as a skill, one will have to think about something. Thinking can therefore not be 'content-free'. A recent document by the Committee on Teacher Education Policy (COTEP, 1995) distinguishes between skills and knowledge. This document illustrates the interrelatedness of knowledge and skills. Applying a skill without proper understanding of its context will result in meaningless activities. In order to be effective, teachers require knowledge of the child, educational theories, appropriate methodologies, the education system, etc. Baine and Mwamwenda (1994:116), in their criticism of secondary school curricula, demonstrate quite succinctly that skills form part of a holistic approach to curriculum construction when they state: (T)he most common criticism of secondary schools is that they fail to prepare young people for the world of work, and that the students fail to develop essential values, attitudes, respect for self and others, social skills, and life skills, Addressing any of these problems will require intellectual activity that would enable the student to understand past causes, to evaluate the present situation, and to plan

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how to act in future. This will require more of the teacher than merely presenting the students with content as facts or values that they have to acquire and repeat at some time in the future. The teacher will have to plan and prepare for intellectual activity. By working inductively, that is, applying the problem-solving approach, the teacher will formulate problems that relate to the students' field of experience and cognitive development. The teacher will initially be involved in raising the students' level of awareness.

7.4 The interrelationship between learning content and educational technology Content can only be presented to someone in a given form. The challenge is to find the most suitable way to do this. Similarly, the most suitable teaching medium or media (audiovisual aid/s) are used to ensure the lesson's success. Note that certain questions need to be answered before one can assume that the use of a given medium is meaningful in the teaching and learning situation. * * * *

Is the chosen audiovisual medium really useful in this particular teaching and learning situation? Would learning not have occurred just as effectively without this medium? Is the selected medium the most appropriate? Is the teacher sufficiently skilled in the use of the medium? Have media not perhaps been overutilized in this particular teaching situation? Remember that overuse of media draws the students' attention away from the essence of the learning content.

It is clear from the above questions that you should be familiar with the following matters: * * * * *

uses of teaching media; selection of teaching media; educational media and lesson planning; the various types of teaching media; most of all, the relationship between educational media, teaching methods, and learning objectives

? 7e*du*aS6MU The preceding sections of this chapter dealt with theoretical aspects of the teachinglearning action. These unique characteristics of the teaching-learning event provide guidelines for determining the practical component of teacher education courses. One of the main problems in structuring such a course is the gap between theory and

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practice. Analysis of the teaching-learning event shows that knowledge of the subject matter is not the only requirement for successful teaching and that familiarity with certain teaching skills should be seen as a further prerequisite. By acquiring these skills the prospective teacher is better equipped to deal with the complexities of the teaching-learning situation. Effectiveness does not involve an instructor's personality. It is not concerned with the quality of the instructional strategies or the novelty of the experiences. Effectiveness is a function of what instructors and students do. The teacher is able to 'do the right thing' in front of the class by acquiring certain teaching skills. These skills also give teachers and training institutions a criterion for effectiveness which can be acquired and monitored. Effective teaching entails far more than good planning. Once the teacher has selected the subject matter, formulated objectives, and chosen suitable methods and media, he/she has to carry out this plan. The purpose and control with which the teacher applies a teaching skill in the teaching-learning activity implies a certain proficiency which is the result of training in that skill. Teaching skills must be acquired. The question immediately arises: What are teaching skills?

8.1 Questioning This skill relates to the teacher's ability to use questions in the lesson in such a way that they will not merely elicit the recall of ready knowledge, but will guide the student to a higher level of cognitive thought. Questions are asked in a lesson for the following reasons: * * * *

to motivate students by drawing their attention to something; to promote intellectual activity; to involve students as partners in the teaching-learning situation; to obtain feedback about the students' ability to recall, understand, and apply what they have learned.

Questioning falls into three clearly identifiable groups, namely questions that require students * merely to recall ready knowledge; * to apply existing knowledge to new situations; * to apply their intellectual abilities to analyse and evaluate. A common teaching strategy involves the teacher having to ask questions that will direct students' thinking. These form part of questioning skills and may be categorized as follows: * Prompting questions: The teacher changes a question by breaking it up into simpler parts, giving clues, or rephrasing it. * Probing questions: Here students are asked to phrase an answer more clearly, to amplify it, or to substantiate their answers with arguments and/or facts.

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* Redirected questions: The teacher passes a student's response on to another student or to the class as a whole for comment or discussion. This analysis of questioning might be an oversimplification of a complex skill, but it focuses on aspects of which teachers should be aware.

8.2 Reacting It is extremely important that the teacher should react to a student's contribution to the teaching-learning situation in such a way as to encourage the student. The teacher's reaction can help to establish a healthy teaching atmosphere in the class. Reacting encourages students to answer questions, make suggestions, and participate in class discussions. This skill is divided into the following components: * Acceptance: The teacher gives some indication that the student's contribution is acceptable or that he/she is at least listening to it. * Establishing relationships: The student's idea or suggestion is conveyed to the class and a discussion is initiated. The teacher may formulate the idea more clearly or ask the student to explain; the student may be asked to summarize the idea, give examples, or relate it to other ideas or facts. * Recognition: A contribution from one of the students is used to stimulate discussion. The teacher may set a question based on the contribution, thus using the student's idea to solve a problem. * Praise: The teacher encourages, praises, or makes positive remarks about the student's contribution.

8.3 Introducing and concluding a lesson The introduction of a lesson is characterized by certain actions which the teacher performs to draw a student's attention to the work about to be taught. These actions should encourage or motivate the student to find out more about the work. The nature of the subject matter will determine how this skill is applied. Davies (1981: 5960) puts it in a nutshell: 'Gain the attention of the learners.' They should not only be informed of what is expected and of the course of action to be taken, but be invited to participate in setting the course of events. The introduction to the lesson has two components: *

Capturing the student's attention: The opening of a lesson demands the student's undivided attention. * Orientation: Choose an event, object, process, or apparatus which relates to the objective of the lesson to attract the student's attention. A traditional teaching principle is to link new information to a student's field of experience. The conclusion to a lesson rounds off the teaching-learning action which begins with the introduction. The introduction and conclusion of a lesson are very closely related and should complement each other. There must be a very clear connection between the two. The conclusion of a lesson also consists of two components:

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Cognitive conclusion: This involves consolidating what the students have learnt and focusing their attention on the main points of the lesson. * Concluding the teaching: This is the social and administrative conclusion to a lesson. Students must be made to feel that they have achieved something. A lesson must be neatly rounded off and consolidated. The conclusion includes a form of evaluation. The following quotation emphasizes the point: There is nothing worse than a lesson which just fades away' (Davies, 1981: 73). *

Although most teaching skills have long been known and used, research at Stanford University and elsewhere has contributed much to our knowledge about various teaching skills and their acquisition. General teaching skills fall into the following broad categories: * Motivational skills: The teacher uses these skills to guide the student to active learning. These skills should develop such a passion for learning in students that they will wish to learn even in the most adverse circumstances. * Organizational skills: The teacher applies these skills in planning lessons and organizing teaching activities. * Evaluation skills: The teacher applies these skills in the course of teaching and afterwards to determine the degree of success achieved. We should like to emphasize here that evaluation occurs throughout the lesson, not only at the end. This enables the teacher to perceive incorrect thinking and comprehension by students in good time and to rectify these within the context of the lesson. & Listening as a skill: Teachers often have much to occupy their minds and can easily appear absent-minded when a student is asking something. One must either make a conscious effort to listen carefully to what is being said or make an appointment with the student to discuss whatever he/she wants when it is more convenient. The notion of teaching skills does require critical reflection. One must accept that the emphasis on teaching skills is the result of a behaviourist approach to learning. If one can specify and manipulate learner behaviour it should also be possible to identify teacher behaviour that will elicit the desired results. Teaching can therefore easily be reduced to a list of instructions that require very little thinking on the part of the teacher. On the other hand, the evidence gathered by the researchers, albeit behaviouristic in nature, identifies teaching activities that teachers need to be made aware of. Teachers who do not engage in critical self-reflection can easily become caught up in practices that alienate students. They are the ones who may be overheard whining in the staff room about lazy students.

9 SvAiuafatq 7eacAw4 a«tcl£ewwi#tfy Evaluation is the cause of many problems in education and should not be treated as unproblematic. The first problem is whether it is justifiable to discuss evaluation and

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teaching separately. Teachers and students are constantly assessing attitude, performance, progress, success, participation, and each other's involvement in the teaching and learning process. Another dilemma for teachers is the involvement of learners in evaluation itself. Somehow a learner-centred approach seems to be at odds with current evaluation practices. Students are expected to participate actively in the construction of knowledge, only to be subjected in the end to an examination where the teacher alone decides who has or has not achieved the standard set by the teacher. The question of standards is another problem in evaluation. One hears of concerns being expressed about the so-called lowering of standards. The question here is what standards or, rather, whose standards? Who will determine the criteria against which to measure performance and is it indeed possible to measure performance? These are some of the issues that the reader will have to contemplate when reading this section. In this section we will first present the traditional concepts of evaluation. Where necessary, we will try to reinterpret and revise some popular notions of evaluation. Evaluation is more than measurement, but it includes measurement. It is possible to measure things such as length, volume, mass, and even certain quantitative aspects of people, such as intelligence (even if not very accurately). When we measure anything, we test it against a standard (or criterion), rule, scale, or 'test', which may or may not be standardized. We use standardized tests to measure intelligence, determine aptitude, and give vocational guidance. In the teaching situation, however, we make far greater use of tests that are not standardized. Teachers are constantly setting tests in class which they construct for a variety of purposes, but mainly to measure achievement or progress. The information obtained by testing should constitute only a part of the teacher's evaluation of the student. So many factors affect a student in school that the task of evaluation is very difficult, complicated, and somewhat unreliable. The teacher should assess the readiness of students to participate in the lesson, the amount of time spent on homework, their ability to answer questions orally in class, their attitude to the subject, and as many other aspects as possible that will contribute to a total evaluation. Evaluation is thus measurement plus a value judgment and is made in the light of the student's home circumstances, application, perseverance, attitude, and any other factors that may influence progress.

9.1 Why evaluate at all? We test to enlighten the teacher, the student, and the parent. The teaching situation is a triad of teacher, student, and subject matter, and hence information on progress in the teaching situation is important. Receiving information or feedback should lead to change. If objectives are not being achieved the teacher has to rethink the approach, adapt methods, and reteach sections where necessary. Testing can reveal deficiencies in the teaching, but it also leads to learning. There may be deficiencies in the student's

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knowledge, which testing will reveal. Students who are not achieving have to assess where they have gone wrong, whether they really understand the work, if their method of learning is effective, if sufficient time is being spent on the work, or whether their attitude is wrong or motivation is lacking. Parents ought to be informed about the student's progress. The family and school are intertwined and the parent has a part to play in the school. Close cooperation between parents and teacher leads to a better understanding of the student and is facilitated by informing the parents of the student's progress. Constant testing helps the teacher to assess the student's progress and the parent should be informed of the test results as regularly as possible. Each type of test has its place, value, advantages, and disadvantages, and all types play a part in the teaching situation. Diagnostic testing means that errors, faults, or deficiencies in the teaching situation may be detected or diagnosed from the test results. The diagnosis may reveal that the student has not paid attention in class or has not prepared for the test, does not understand the work or is having some problem which prevents mastery of the subject matter. It is also possible that the diagnosis may reveal that the material has not been well taught — in other words, that the fault lies with the teacher. This diagnostic aspect which leads to 'feedback' is an essential feature of teaching. Feedback is an important two-way process. The students receive feedback to enable them to assess their own progress. Teachers receive feedback to enable them to assess their teaching and its effectiveness. It is very common for teachers to blame a whole class for a poor result, but honest teachers will realize that they must do some soul searching.

9.2 Criteria for evaluation A test is valid if it evaluates what it is supposed to evaluate. This implies setting objectives and then constructing a test that reveals whether or not they have been achieved. Establishing the validity of a test empirically is very complicated and virtually impossible in a norm-referenced test. In the classroom situation teachers do not establish validity empirically, but constant thought should be given to this, and the teacher should ask the following two questions: * What am I testing? * Am I achieving my objectives with the test? It is easier to test the achievement of objectives in the cognitive domain, especially if the objectives are merely to test reproductive knowledge. Thus short-answer tests are used to test factual recall in history, geography and related subjects, and valid results may be obtained. Essay-type tests, which test synthesis or critical evaluation, tend to be less valid, since subjectivity is involved in the student's answer and also in the marking. Reliability refers to the consistency of a student's achievement in a test. If a student does the same or a similar test more than once and receives the same mark, the test

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may be reliable. If a larger sample of students repeat a test, and the rank order assigned by the marker is consistent, the test is reliable. Reliability may be achieved if a test is well planned, the marking memorandum carefully drawn up, and the marking done objectively. Reliability is more easily achieved in criterion-referenced tests in which the objectives lie in the cognitive or psychomotor domain. Validity and reliability are linked. A test that is valid must, of necessity, be reliable, but the reverse is not always true because a test may be reliable in that students' achievement is consistent throughout, but it may at the same time be invalid in that it measures the wrong thing. Clark and Starr (1996) make the following suggestions for improving reliability: * Revise the test as objectively as possible. * Make questions and tasks as clear and unambiguous as possible (avoid misunderstanding and matters that are not relevant). * Present the test as carefully as possible. Subjectivity is a major problem for teachers. Every person is an individual with preferences, likes, dislikes, and prejudices, but it is the duty of each teacher to try to be as objective as possible and to avoid subjective marking. Standardized tests are usually objective because they have a very detailed memorandum and are marked by persons not necessarily emotionally involved in the outcome of the test. Short-answer tests usually have detailed memorandums and are set in such a way that answers are either right or wrong. Such tests are often referred to as objective tests or new-type tests. Essay tests tend to be less objective, and, as soon as the essay test is aimed at testing achievement in the affective domain, subjectivity increases. No test can be marked without a memorandum. The fuller, more comprehensive and detailed the memorandum, the more likely it is that objectivity will be maintained. Essay tests in history and geography and similar subjects, which assess the achievement of cognitive objectives, lend themselves to fuller memorandums than do tests of creative writing, art, or music. One could also involve the students in drawing up a memorandum. Cooperation and participation by students in the evaluation of their own work will turn it into a meaningful learning experience. Testing can be objective if teachers approach it in the correct way: * * * *

Test regularly. Vary test types. Always use a memorandum. Mark the test, not the person.

Evaluation can never be objective because it includes a value judgement, and value judgements are made subjectively. Evaluation is, however, very important in teaching, since we are forming individuals. Thus evaluation places a great responsibility on the teacher. Forming a total picture of the individual demands

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that the teacher evaluates regularly. Assigning a mark to a student once a term for a task performed is grossly unfair to the student. If only one test is set, the reliability of the mark diminishes to the detriment of the student. So many personal factors are present on any particular occasion that any student could be having an 'off day' on the day of the test. Regular testing ensures that the measurement of progress is more accurate. Set small, well-planned tests often rather than one big test that covers a great deal of work and yields little more than 'a mark'.

9.3 Evaluation methods Here we are concerned with ways of evaluating a student's progress and performance. The following means can be distinguished: * observation; * consideration of parts of the student's work; * rating scales; * check lists. At one time teachers were simply expected to mark all students' written work with a red pen. The task was so great that there was little real evaluation, especially in the teaching of languages. Luckily, this is no longer current practice. The teacher still exercises control, but evaluation is done less often and more intensely and is more focused on remedial action. Consider the symbolism and meaning of the red pen. Is it really necessary to mark tests with a red pen? Most teachers set more written tests than oral tests for a variety of reasons, the main one being that written tests can be marked during the afternoon or evening, whereas oral testing means on-the-spot marking. Oral testing is essential in language teaching, though. Oral testing is often done in front of the class but this means that the rest of the class may be inactive, restless, lacking control, and even a distraction for the testee. Teachers should be wary of letting this situation develop. Dramatization and role-play could be used to test a student's language proficiency. Written tests are far more widely used than oral tests, the following are some advantages of a written test: Students have time to think about their answers before writing. It is possibly more objective than oral testing. It may be marked by the teacher outside of teaching time. It leads to a more academic approach to the subject.

9.4 Self-evaluation techniques Self-evaluation is a matter of much interest today. Even when it is not done formally, students evaluate themselves — consciously or unconsciously. Unfortunately, the evaluation system causes students to compare themselves with their classmates.

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While this is understandable, it often leads to low self-esteem, which in turn causes a further drop in performance. If students could be trained to evaluate themselves, they might approach the results more objectively and not feel that they have failed personally.

9.5 Essays and short-answer tests There are of two types of essay question — closed and open-ended. Closed essays are set when the emphasis is on reproductive knowledge. Students are, for instance, required to recount events or describe a process. Open-ended essays are found more commonly in language teaching and may be thought of as creative writing. What is important is that they provide students with an opportunity to interpret, deconstruct, reconstruct and to narrate, using their own words. Essays are more difficult to assess than short answers, but the essay-type test has the following advantages: * It allows the teacher to expect the students to interpret, evaluate and organize information; draw conclusions; infer and interpolate; and express themselves clearly in their own language. * It promotes whole-mind thinking, as the student has to address the topic in its totality and be able to relate, compare, and understand the relationships between the parts and the whole. * It leads to a more academic study method and discourages parrot-type learning. Students are encouraged to make summaries and distinguish between major and minor sections of the work. Some disadvantages of essay questions are that they can lead to subjective and unreliable marking. They are also very time-consuming. Students who can write neatly, quickly, and effectively start with an advantage. Any teacher setting an essay must word the question carefully, clearly and concisely so that there is no ambiguity. Although short-answer tests can be marked easily, quickly and objectively, they may lead to parrot-type memorizing of isolated facts. Short-answer tests are also referred to as objective tests, on the basis that they present only one possible correct answer. This assumption has of late been challenged, as the questions themselves may be biased. The following types of short-answer tests are distinguished: * Multiple-choice: The student is presented with a well-thought-out and wellconstructed statement or proposition and is then confronted with three or more alternative answers. Multiple-choice questions are most useful, but can lead to guessing. This type of test is very difficult to set and very easy to mark. The questions must be challenging and thought provoking, and may be used for achieving affective and cognitive objectives. The questions should be worded to include as much information as possible and should confront the students with reasonable options, without providing clues to the answer.

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* True-false: The value of a test consisting of this type of question is rated very low because each student has a fifty-fifty chance of scoring well. However, true-false questions can be used in the classroom to diagnose whether cognitive objectives have been achieved. This kind of test may also be useful as a speed test to cover a wide area of subject matter quickly. When constructing questions of this type, the teacher must ensure that the answer is either true or false, and that the language is clear. Avoid using terms such as 'generally' and 'usually'. The answer should not depend on obscure or insignificant aspects of the question. Avoid using double negatives. * Matching items: A test where students must match items is easily constructed and, if well planned, can cover the subject matter satisfactorily. In history one could list names, battles, and so on in one column and dates in the other. Biology is another subject which lends itself to this type of test; labels can also be matched to diagrams. When constructing matching items, keep the list of items to be matched short. There should be more answers than questions, and students should be allowed to match the same answer with more than one question — this diminishes guessing. The list of answers should be arranged in a logical order, for example alphabetically or chronologically. * Completion items: In tests of this nature, the student is required to complete a statement or 'fill in' a word or phrase. In this way low-level cognitive skills or simply the ability to recall factual knowledge may be tested. When constructing items for completion, ensure that the correct response comprises only one word or phrase and that the completed sentence is grammatically correct. The missing word(s) should be near the end of the sentence so that the student is led to the right answer. Omit only one section of text per item and ensure that the answers are of the same length to avoid giving clues.

9.6 Compiling a class test When a teacher compiles a class test it is usually with a specific aim in mind. Indeed, every test may have a different aim. To compile a good class test is one of the teacher's greatest responsibilities. As subject content and, therefore, teaching objectives differ from one subject to another, it is impossible to give prescriptive guidelines for the compilation of class tests in specific subjects. There are, however, general guidelines that should be borne in mind when compiling a class test. The minimum three steps to which a class test may be reduced are the following: * Identify the purpose of the test. The result of any test should correlate directly with the purpose for which it has been set, in other words, it should answer questions such as: How much does the student know? What can the student do? Can the student be promoted? * Make a list of the objectives of the lessons on which the test is based. Ascertain whether these aims are formulated in such a manner that it is clear what students were meant to have learned during the presentation of the lessons. This will prevent students from being tested on work which they have not learned.

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* Prepare test items which will determine whether the objectives which were set in teaching have been achieved. This implies that the teacher has to decide at the outset whether the test should contain essay-type or short-answer questions. A class test should preferably be a combination of the two. Once this choice has been made, the following should be kept in mind while compiling and writing the test to make it as valid as possible: — The test must be balanced; all the objectives should be represented in the test in proportion to their relative importance. — The questions must be appropriate; their answers should indicate the extent to which the objectives have been achieved. — Make sure that each question is formulated unambiguously and concisely. Students are not tested on whether or not they understand the questions but on whether they have reached a certain level of knowledge. — Be aware that sometimes a question has more than one correct answer. The student should not be restricted. Questions should not be set so that they can be answered by mere memorization of the work. — The questions should be difficult enough for the poorly prepared student to be unable to answer them, but easy enough for the well-prepared student to answer them without difficulty. Avoid questions on content that has not been covered. — Try to use terms which have the same meaning for everyone writing the test. — If the structure of the test is complicated, give clear instructions on how to complete it. Do not waste the students' time by making them decipher obscure instructions. — A memorandum should be compiled when the test is set. This serves as a double check for the teacher for it shows clearly whether or not the question has an answer! — There should be strict supervision when students are writing a test. This should not be done in such way that it implies that the teacher expects dishonesty, but the students should not be placed in a situation where they are tempted to copy from one another. — Answers should be returned to the students as soon as possible after the tests have been corrected, so that they may be discussed with them. The students should have the right to appeal if they feel they have not been given their due. This teaches the students the techniques involved in writing tests and examinations.

9.7 Marks and report cards We have already pointed out that evaluation should be done for a certain purpose. Evaluation is not completed when the test has been marked and the marks entered on a list: the marks must then be interpreted and communicated to the class.

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The manner in which students are informed of their marks is a matter requiring careful consideration. Some teachers still continue to arrange results from best to worst or vice versa; some will then even read marks out loud in front of the entire class! There was even a case where a teacher put the best and worst results up on the school's notice board! No professional teacher should ever make use of such practices. Unfortunately, evaluation opportunities such as tests and examinations are often used to scare students. This only causes unnecessary fear and tension. Above all, an evaluation should be seen as an opportunity for further teaching.

9.8 Reporting to parents Communication between teachers and parents has long been grossly neglected. Changes in the field of education will bring about far greater parental involvement in the education of their children. Teachers will also increasingly be expected to justify their teaching practices. This will be an opportunity for recognition of the professional teacher. In South African society the issue of passing or failing students has become controversial. This is because the low pass rate in some schools has been the result of various factors that have influenced events in the classroom. Such matters as insufficiently trained teachers, unprofessional activities by teachers, a shortage of textbooks, insufficient physical facilities, and a highly politicized youth have resulted in scholastic performance that is below par. The issue of standards is problematical in itself, and no unanimity has been found about the standards to be aspired to. Nevertheless, it is the teacher's task to formulate objectives and to set minimum requirements in her/his subject. It is up to teachers to decide whether or not students are ready to move to another standard, so teachers must be able to justify their decisions.

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(fatduti&t Professional recognition means that teachers are going to be increasingly accountable in the future. This makes it all the more important to keep looking back on your teaching activities with a view to finding ways of improving your teaching practice. The insights gained from this looking back and critical reflection can be particularly helpful during planning sessions. A useful practice for any teacher is to maintain a journal in which to document matters and experiences related to his/her professional life. Sometimes a seemingly inconsequential event can have a marked influence on a person's awareness of his/her task.

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SttMWWUf, 1 Teaching as an activity requires reconceptualization. The teacher is no longer regarded as a mere transmitter of knowledge but has become a facilitator of learning. 2 The needs of the learner and the community, and the nature of the learning task, content, and circumstances all contribute to create a unique context. 3 Through critical reflection the teacher should become aware of her/his responsibility and enquire as to what kinds of learning experiences are required. 4 A knowledge of different approaches will make it possible to engage the students in learning processes that will achieve an expected learning outcome. 5 Meaningful learning experiences demand careful planning. Clear objectives can help to give direction and purpose to teaching and learning activities. 6 Evaluation of students' activities and learning outcomes should provide information about how successful one's activities as a teacher have been.

*7en*H& &U fifitteefifo advance organizer cognitive complexity theory conceptual change conversant convivial conscience/conscientization constructivist approach contemplative context critical pedagogy direct causal relationship

direct expository approach differential thinking epistemological heuristic interactive paradigm phenomenon/phenomenological enquiry pluralist approach. power shift reductionist reflective teaching self-monitoring

Student ^tctwtUe^ 1 In this activity I want you to use your imagination. Sit back, relax, and close your eyes. Now visualize yourself as the ideal teacher interacting with students. What do you see? What are they doing and what is their attitude? Would you like to change the situation? Say or do something that would require some activity on their part. How do they respond?

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2

Use the following somewhat controversial statements to initiate a discussion with a friend or colleague: * Teaching does not have to be formal. * Teaching does not require a trained teacher. * Teaching oneself is the best way of learning. * Teaching someone to teach hinrv/herself is the best teaching. * Examinations do not provide a true picture of a student's ability. 3 Draw up your own check list that can be used to evaluate lesson presentation 4 List and discuss six approaches to teaching. 5 List and discuss the attributes of the constructivist approach to teaching. 6 Distinguish between product-oriented and process-oriented curricula. 7 We should teach students to be convivial, conversant, and contemplative, and to have a conscience. How?

gatotf**^ Anderson, L W & R B Burns. 1989. Research in Classrooms. Oxford: Pergamon Press Apple, M W. 1990. Ideology and Curriculum, 2 ed. New York: Routledge Aspin, D N. 1994. Knowledge and the curriculum: A pragmatic approach. A paper for the Faculty of Education Research Seminar, University of the Witwatersrand, September 1994 Baine, D & T Mwamwenda. 1994. Education in Southern Africa: Current conditions and future directions. International Review of Education, 40 (2), 113-34 Bensusan, D & Y Shalem. 1993. The crooked path of pedagogy. Unpublished paper delivered at the Kenton Olwandle Conference, October 1993 Berkhout, S ) & A Bergh. 1993. Die verborge kurrikulum: Verwaarloosde dimensie in die Suid-Afrikaanse onderwyshervormingsdebat. Unpublished paper delivered at the Kenton Olwandle Conference, October 1993 Bradbury,). 1993. The meta-language of cognition. Unpublished paper delivered at the Kenton Olwandle Conference, October 1993. Clark, L H & I S Starr. 1996. Secondary and Middle School Teaching Methods, 7 ed. New Jersey: PrenticeHall Cohen, L & L Manion. 1977. A Guide to Teaching Practice. London: Methuen Committee on Teacher Education Policy (COTEP). 1995. Norms and Standards and Governance Structures for Teacher Education, 2 ed. Pretoria: Department of Education Curzon, L B. 1985. Teaching in Further Education: An Outline of Principles and Practice, 3 ed. London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston Davies, I K. 1981. Instructional Technique. New York: McGraw-Hill De Beer, C S. 1993. Denke of vaardighede: 'n Keuse vir kwaliteit in hoer onderwys. Unpublished paper delivered at the SAVNOHO Congress, Bloemfontein, September 1992 De Beer, C S. 1994. Epistemology of knowledge utilisation. Paper delivered at the conference: Research at Unisa: An Interfaculty Deliberation. Pretoria, 16 March 1994 Dewey,). 1943. The School and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

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TEACHING Eisner, E W. 1994. The Educational Imagination, 3 ed. New York: Macmillan Elliot, S N. 1988. Handbook of Behavior Therapy in Education. New York: Plenum Flanagan, W. 1993. Teachers as Makers: Considerations for distance education programmes for teachers at a distance. Unpublished paper delivered at the Kenton Olwandle Conference, October 1993. Fourie, H P. 1994. Effective communication of knowledge. Paper delivered at the conference: Research at Unisa: An Interfaculty Deliberation. Pretoria, 16 March 1994 Gagne, R M & L J Briggs. 1979. Principles of Instructional Design, 2 ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston Gatawa, B S M. 1990. The Politics of the School Curriculum: An Introduction. Harare: The College Press Goodson, I F. 1990. Studying curriculum: towards a social constructionist perspective, lournal of Curriculum Studies, 22 (4), 299-312 Graff, G. 1993. Beyond the Culture Wars: How Teaching the Conflicts Can Revitalise American Education. New York: Norton Gray, H. 1991. Personal interview at Unisa, 16 January 1991 Gultig,). 1992. Educating teachers for a 'new' South Africa: What role can distance education play? Paper presented at the South African Institute of Distance Education Launch Conference. Johannesburg, 7 September 1992. Henning, E. 1993. Ethnography as classroom research methodology. South African lournal of Education, 13(3),112-18 Higgs, P (ed). 1996. Metatheories in Philosophy of Education. Heinemann Philosophy of Education Series. Johannesburg: Heinemann Holmberg, B. 1988. Guided didactic conversation in distance education. In D Sewart (ed) Distance Education: International Perspectives. London: Routledge Kegan Paul. Johnson, S & C]ohnson. 1986. The One Minute Teacher: How to Teach Others to Teach Themselves. New York: Morrow. Keegan, D & B Holmberg. 1988. Distance Education: International Perspectives. London: Routledge Moore, M G. 1993. Theory of transactional distance. In D Keegan (ed) Theoretical Principles of Distance Education. London: Routledge Morton, D & M Zvarzadeh. 1991. Texts for Change: Theory/Pedagogics/Politics. Chicago: University of Illinois Press National Education Co-ordinating Committee (NECC). 1992. The National Education Policy Investigation: The framework report and final report summaries. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Ozmon, H A & S M Craver. 1986. Philosophical Foundations of Education, 3 ed. Columbus: Merrill Segal, S. 1993. The apathy and ecstasy of theory. Unpublished paper delivered at the Kenton Olwandle Conference, October 1993 Spector, B S. 1993. Order out of chaos: Restructuring schooling to reflect society's paradigm shift. School Science and Mathematics, 93 (1), 9-19 Sharan, Y & H Sharan. 1992. Expanding Cooperative Learning through Croup Investigation. New York: Teachers College Press Taylor, N (ed). 1993. Inventing Knowledge: Contests in Curriculum Construction. Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman Torr, C. 1994. Assessing scientific work. Paper delivered at the conference: Research at Unisa: An Interfaculty Deliberation. Pretoria, 16 March 1994 Wheatley, M J. 1992. Leadership and the New Science. San Francisco: Berret-Koehler Wright, P. 1993. Creative conflict in the classroom. Cuardian Weekly, 13 June 1993 Young, R. 1992. Critical Theory and Classroom Talk. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd

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CHAPTER

NINE

0

School Wfa*t<%ye*Ke*tt Prof Dirk Badenhorst Professor Emeritus Faculty of Education University of Soutft Africa

This chapter discusses the management of formal education by referring to the basic (modern) tenets on which schools are based. It also proposes an alternative theory of school management derived from complexity theory. The management of education in the restructured education system of South Africa is described. The roles of the central and provincial governments are explained according to the most recent documents available. In a discussion of the local management of schools, attention is given to both the orderly and chaotic aspects of management. Finally, the issue of the management of change in education is addressed.

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SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

7*^^/?Wefc*fc 1 Introduction 330 2 The School as a Product of Modernism 330 3 Towards a New Theory of the School 332 3.1 The school as a complex structure 332 3.1.1 Mechanical and complex structures 332 3.1.2 Chaos/complexity theory 333 3.1.3 Scientific chaos in contrast with randomness 333 3.1.4 Natural chaos 333 3.1.5 Emerging order 333 3.1.6 The dynamic nature of complex structures 334 3.1.7 Self-similar patterning as a characteristic of complex structures 335 3.1.8 The role of the past in codetermining the functioning of a complex system 335 4 Other Theories of Management 335 4.1 Two factor theory 336 4.2 Total quality management (TQM) 336 5 Management, Administration, and Leadership 337 5.1 Authority and power 338 5.1.1 Reward power 338 5.1.2 Coercive power 338 5.1.3 Group power 338 5.1.4 Expert power 338 6 The Management of Formal Education in South Africa 339 6.1 The role of central government 339 6.2 Provincial administration of schools 340 7 Local Management of Schools 340 7.1 Major principles 341 7.2 School governing bodies 341 7.3 Basic powers of school governing bodies 341 7.4 Negotiated powers of governing bodies 342 7.5 The role of the school principal 343 8 The 'Chaotic' Aspects of School Management 343 8.1 The climate and culture of a school 344 8.2 Describing school climate 346 9 Management of Change in Schools 347 10 Conclusion 349 Summary 349 Terms and Concepts 351 Student Activities 351 Bibliography 351

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/ yttfaMUtCtfoK Schools are managed or administered by educational managers or, as some prefer, educational leaders. These leaders — members of school governing bodies, principals, heads of departments as well as classroom teachers — are responsible for managing schools: planning, organizing, leading and controlling the activities of the school. They do this within the system of departments of education, both provincial and national, who have the task of ensuring that educational laws and policies are implemented and who have delegated power to the school leaders to make sure that schools function. In order to understand the management of a school, one needs to understand the basic tenets on which the contemporary school is founded. The historical foundations of South African education and the philosophical foundations of education have been discussed in chapter? two and three respectively. These foundations are of utmost importance with regard to the management of the school and should continuously be kept in mind. A view of the school which is often taken for granted and consequently ignored is that the school is a product of modernism. Although schools have been in existence since antiquity, the school developed its present character only since the advent of the modern era. This applies virtually worldwide.

2 76e Scfool a& a 'PweUtct &L THM/awton The modern or, as it is sometimes known, the industrial era, is the result of a number of factors. The most important of these is the development of Western science. Badenhorst (1 993) has summarized the outstanding features of Western science, especially in its positivistic guise. These characteristics are outlined in the following section and their implications for school management are indicated. Western science is characterized by * * * *

objectivity; hyperrationalism; an atomistic view of reality; linear causality.

Objectivity Objectivity implies that a scientist can look dispassionately at reality and glean truths from it. This idea is based on a two-value logic system (cf chapter three). In this system of logic a statement cannot be true and not true at the same time. Such truths are supposed to be the same for everybody. Although it is accepted that truth will only be the same for those who hold to a particular theory, the idea of scientific truth lives very powerfully in the modern era. This idea of objectivity led to the school's

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focus on the teaching of facts. Moreover, it gave rise to the idea that there was a correct or best way to manage a school.

Hyperrationalism This refers to the use of reason to the exclusion of the other aspects of a person's being, such as the emotions or intuition. This feature of Western science led to the idea that the primary task of the school was the education of the child's intellect, in spite of rhetoric that the school should educate the 'whole' child. School management is thus influenced by the idea that students consjs|; primarily of intellects that must be taught, or worse still, trained. Similarly, the vjtw arises that teachers should always act rationally.

An atomistic view of reality The French philosopher Descartes introduced the idea th
Linear causality Isaac Newton's theory of cause and effect stimulated interest in the study of the laws of nature. This interest led directly to the Industrial Revolution. During this period, the idea of the machine became paramount. The concept of the efficient machine was transplanted into the arena of school management. A popular view is that efficient schools should be run like factories. These characteristics of Western science and the concomitant ideas mentioned above gave rise to a particular view of formal education with strong mechanistic overtones. Certain examples from the history of South African education illustrate the influence of a mechanistic rather than an organic view of education. During the apartheid period the Nationalist government took unilateral decisions about education for the black community. Consequently, education of black students was not able to develop or grow organically according to community values and wishes. Instead it was controlled in a mechanical fashion and was subsequently rejected by students and teachers as an illegitimate system. Furthermore, during the time of the liberation struggle, black students boycotted classes for long periods in the expectation that they could be given, in a very short period, the education they had missed over several months. Poor examination results were ascribed to the quality of education received. Without examining the major role played by education in the liberation struggle, the view that virtually a year's work could be caught up in a matter of a few weeks suggests a mechanistic view of education. In both cases a mechanistic view of education has had devastating results.

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3 *?ow4MU a, Ttew *76e0tu oi the ScAwt Against this background, it is interesting to note that Herbert Simon, an eminent organizational theorist, cautioned as early as 1947 against the danger of viewing organizations as perfect, machinelike systems (Maxcy, 1995: 34). In the light of this, the present chapter suggests an alternative theory of the school as an organization (Badenhorst, 1993: 7-8). This theory is based on the principles of chaos or complexity theory, a theory which has been developed primarily in the practice of the natural sciences. Stavenga (1993) states that three major scientific revolutions have taken place in the present century. The first two of these were based on the theory of relativity and quantum theory and are well known, although the insights they generated are rarely reflected in educational practice. The third revolution was based on chaos theory. This theory, although still novel, has been applied to a variety of social sciences including management science and education (Stavenga, 1993: 66). Maxcy (1995: 42) maintains that '[c]haos thinking has become a full-blown theory of education in a few short years'.

3.1 The school as a complex structure According to the tenets of chaos theory, the school may be seen as a complex structure. The difference between simple (mechanical) and complex structures is explained below. 3.1.1 Mechanical and complex structures Functioning structures can be divided into two groups, namely mechanical structures and complex structures. Mechanical structures are man-made and function according to identifiable mechanical laws. Mechanical structures contain a high degree of order. A motor car is an example of such a structure. For a car to function properly, it has to be designed in such a way that physical and chemical laws are obeyed. If these laws are kept, the car will function daily in the same way. Complex structures, in contrast to mechanical structures, are life forms of varying complexity. People can be seen as the most complex life forms. They are able to establish groups with other people who share a common purpose. The family is one such structure which has existed since time immemorial. The modern school is one of the newer, more formally established complex structures. A major difference between a mechanical and a complex structure lies in the functioning of their respective parts. 'Whereas a machine is a collection of parts with the whole being defined by the predetermined integration of the parts, a living system is the structure of the whole wherein the whole determines the,operations of the parts, and where the whole maintains structural stability even while the parts fluctuate'(Doll, 1983:25).

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3.1.2 Chaos/complexity theory According to chaos theory, a complex structure contains both orderly and chaotic aspects. The term chaos is problematic because of its negative connotations. Its use is, however, gaining acceptance due to the development of chaos theory. Because of its negative connotations the term chaos is sometimes replaced by disorder. Both these terms, viewed superficially, fail to convey the scientific meaning which emerges from chaos theory. Thus school management will include both orderly and disorderly elements. 3.1.3 Scientific chaos in contrast with randomness There is a difference between true randomness, in which no order of any kind exists, and the chaos one deals with in the scientific theory. 'At the centre of chaos theory is the discovery that hidden within the unpredictability of chaotic (complex-DCB) systems are deep structures of order' (Hayles, 1991: 1). Because of our limited understanding, we often fail to see this hidden order. This implies that a chaotic situation, whether in the life of an individual or of a school, should be approached with caution. The key question is: Is there not perhaps some hidden order lurking in the chaos? 3.1.4 Natural chaos Chaos theory does not advocate the creation of chaos, but it recognizes that chaos is a natural part of life. We are all aware of the tantrums children throw while growing up. While these moments of chaos are unpleasant for a parent, they are part of the child's maturation process. True learning, which is characterized by the gaining of insight, is also accompanied by a measure of chaos. In our struggle to understand a new concept, we go through a period of uncertainty, doubt, and confusion. These are manifestations of the chaos in our minds. When we finally understand a new concept, we experience certainty and clarity, which are manifestations of the new order in our minds. While teaching, teachers may sometimes find it necessary to introduce a measure of chaos. If we want to introduce new concepts to our students, it is often beneficial to ask the students questions which initially confuse them, that is, create chaos in their minds, in order to lead them to a higher level of understanding (a higher order) and cause them think in a new way. Moreover, all change is accompanied by chaos. If a person moves house, he/she proceeds from order through chaos to a new order. (Such chaos may not have any order lurking in it, but it has the potential of a new order.) Such natural chaos is also to be expected in a school, in particular when a school is subjected to change. 3.1.5 Emerging order Newton's discovery of natural laws and their successful application in technological development (cf the reference above to mechanical structures) created the illusion that people could control virtually everything. Likewise, the idea arose that schools

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could be controlled in the same way as machines. Influenced by Newtonian thinking, Western science led the way in establishing order in what was perceived as a chaotic world. However, what was not understood is the fact that order can emerge spontaneously. Three terms need to be explained with regard to emerging order, namely initial conditions, feedback, and self-organization. Scientists have come to understand that small differences at the beginning of a complex structure's evolution can result in major differences later (Wheatley, 1992: 126). When information is fed into a complex system (eg an organization), this information undergoes changes because of the identity of the particular system. This altered information is fed back into the system, creating a cycle of feedback. If this process continues, even a small piece of initial information can lead to big changes and a new order. This happens because the information that is fed back into the system is amplified each time it is fed back. In such a case, the system may reorganize itself by a process called self-organization. The important point to remember here is that this reorganization does not take place as a result of force from an outside source, but emerges spontaneously from within. Such order may be 'had for free'. Such self-organization is possible when a complex system, a person or an organization is free to interact with its environment. One of the best examples of self-organization is the way a child learns to speak its mother tongue. The child is continuously exposed to the language, but is not given any rules. However, over time the child learns to speak the language according to those rules. The order emerges spontaneously. Because schools are run in such an orderly fashion, opportunities for self-organization in the school as such, are limited. Let us consider a hypothetical example. A school receives notice from a department of education that, because of a shortage of funds, the staff of the school has to be reduced without any reduction in student numbers. The department can try to issue detailed prescriptions as to how the reorganization should be done or it can leave it to individual schools to sort out how they wish to go about it. If the school is free to reorganize itself, it will most probably find the solution that best suits its circumstances. One point that should be kept in mind is that mistakes will be made during the process of self-organization. To return to our previous example, a child learning its mother tongue does not speak the language faultlessly from the beginning but makes mistakes. 3.1.6 The dynamic nature of complex structures Complex structures are living structures and are therefore dynamic. They can adapt to changing circumstances. In order to understand a complex structure, it should be examined holistically. One cannot understand the functioning of such a system by looking only at its parts. In order to understand a phenomenon, traditional science broke it up into smaller parts and studied each part separately. The combined understanding of these separate 'understandings' was then supposed to give an understanding of the whole. While this method might work in the case of simple structures, it does not yield an understanding of complex structures. If, therefore, we

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want to understand the management of a school, we have to endeavour to look at the school as a whole. 3.1.7 Self-similar patterning as a characteristic of complex structures A study of complex structures shows patterns that repeat themselves. For instance, the leaves of a plant all look more or less the same, although they all also differ from each other. These self-similar patterns are encoded in the genes of such organisms. People, however, do not act the way they do because of their genetic make-up only; they have the ability to create culture. The various cultures also exhibit self-similar patterns. For instance, if we look at the diet of a community, we will notice that most families eat the same kind of food prepared in roughly the same way. This does not mean that no exceptions will occur, but that an overall pattern will be noticeable. In structures less complex than human beings, genes play a very important role in determining the shape and life of the structure; in the case of humans, the values that underlie their various cultures play an equally important role. Because the education of a community is part of its culture, the community's educational development is also based on and shaped by its values. However, values alone do not determine the culture of a community. Other external factors, such as the geography of the region in which a community lives, also play a role. 3.1.8 The role of the past in codetermining the functioning of a complex system Every complex structure has a specific identity. We have seen that this identity is codetermined by its genes, or in the case of a culture, by its values. However, the history of such a structure also codetermines its functioning because of the presence of self-similar patterns. A complex structure therefore cannot change its identity completely. This has significant implications for educational reform. As we will see in the section on the role of the central and provincial governments in reforming South African education, the legacy of the past plays an important role. The above discussion, based on the principles of chaos theory, suggests an alternative theory of school management in which the complex nature of the school, its orderly and its chaotic aspects, and their continuous mutual influence should be kept in mind.

4 OtAet 76twue& ol THaMA&enteitt New ideas emanating from the effective management of business and industry are finding their way into the management of schools. Although schools have their own 'technologies', are not profit making, and therefore should not be run like businesses, certain theories of business management, adapted as necessary, may be beneficially applied to the school and can help explain school practices.

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4.1 Two factor theory The two factor theory of Douglas McGregor (1960) is relevant to school management. McGregor put forward two theories: 'X' and T. The assumptions held by Theory X about workers in organizations may be summarized as follows: * The average person dislikes work and avoids it if possible. * Because people dislike work, they can be coerced, controlled, and punished to exert the effort needed to accomplish organizational goals. * People would rather be directed than take responsibility for their actions. They are lazy and want security. A bureaucratic view, or Theory X view, of school management has resulted in practices that are evident in varying degrees in schools. Jobs are organized to divide responsibilities among people. Authority is organized so that workers realize who is above, below, and beside them. Salaries are standardized and are not linked to the worker's productivity. Individual interests are subordinated to group interest. Another view of management, including school management, has emerged to challenge the bureaucratic Theory X outlook. This view places a high value on people in organizations and is similar to McGregor's Theory Y. Theory Y assumes that people in organizations are motivated to perform and to be subjects, not objects, in the organization. The assumptions of Theory Y can be summarized as follows: * The average person does not dislike work and, when conditions are right, derives satisfaction from it. * Workers will direct and control themselves when they are committed to organizational goals. * Workers are committed to goals when they are rewarded for the attainment of these goals. * People seek and accept responsibility when conditions encourage them to do so. * Many people possess the abilities to be creative workers. * Most organizations fail to tap the potential of the average worker. A school manager who subscribes to Theory Y will regard his/her staff as motivated to perform and will treat them as subjects within the organization.

4.2 Total quality management (TQM) Another influential theory in education today is that of Total Quality Management (TQM). TQM has been around in business circles for over 40 years. The father of TQM is Dr Edwards Deming, who devised the principles of TQM in order to address the problems of a war-devastated Japan. TQM is regarded as the management strategy responsible for the economic recovery and transformation of Japan, tn this chapter it is only possible to introduce the key principles of TQM. TQM refers to a management process and a set of core principles that are coordinated to ensure that the organization consistently meets and exceeds customer requirements. TQM involves all divi-

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sions, departments and levels of the organization, in this case the school. The principal and her/his management team organize their strategy and operations round the customer's needs and develop a culture of optimal employee participation. The goal is to deliver the highest value for the customer at the lowest cost. The leadership must commit to a vision and align and train its employees toward a common mission. To do this, teams work on continuous improvements that respond to customer requirements. The area of customer satisfaction is the cornerstone of TQM. You may find it hard to relate the term 'customer' to an educational context. There is, after all, no cash transaction, education is a statutory requirement, and in most parts of the country there is little or no choice of different schools. The TQM definition of the customer is simple: the customer is anyone to whom a product or service is provided. The most important and obvious customer in the school is the student. For example, if you teach Std 6 mathematics, the Std 6 maths students are your customers and you are the supplier. But the student is also a supplier and you are also a customer. Your students owe you respect and the willingness to learn and to produce their best efforts. Schools have multiple customers and suppliers. In the above example, the Std 7 maths teacher is also considered your customer. So is the school secretary to whom you send class lists, your weekly register, and other documents. TQM distinguishes between two kinds of customers: external and internal. The student is an internal customer. Parents, the community, the secondary school, higher education and, ultimately, the future employers of your students are external customers. So is the education department and, ultimately, the general public. Administration is also a supplier to you, as is the management team of the school, which should supply an orderly and well-managed environment.

5TKa*ta&e*H&tt, /tdtitutiafoatuw, a*tct JLeadentfafi Management, administration, and leadership are terms that are used to describe the work done by the senior people in the school — the principal, deputy principal, and heads of department — in order for teaching to take place. The terms management and administration are often used interchangeably. In Great Britain and South Africa the term management is preferred; in the United States, the term administration is commonly used, though governance is preferred. The latter term also features in the most recent White Papers on Education, released in 1995 and 1996. In addition, some authors concentrate on one aspect of management, such as decision making as if it encompasses the whole. Because 'management' has very specific connotations in the private sector and 'administration' in the public sector, the term leadership has become fashionable. This term is, however, surrounded by some debate because the idea prevails in certain quarters that leaders are born and cannot be trained. In this regard, one cannot have an 'either or' view of leadership. A person may perform as a leader in certain circumstances but not in others. Because educational leadership has its own peculiar

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requirements, an educational leader is not required to share the characteristics of a political leader or a business leader.

5.1 Authority and power Leadership is closely concerned with matters such as power, authority, and responsibility. A principal is charged with the responsibility of running a school. In order to do so she/he needs to have the authority to make certain decisions. This authority gives the principal the power to act. The difference between these two concepts, power and authority, can be explained as follows. Firstly, power means potential influence. A person has power if she/he can cause others to do what she/he wants them to do. Authority, on the other hand, refers to legitimate power and is the socially accepted right of a manager to influence the behaviour of others and even prescribe to them what they should do (Tronc, 1977: 138). Because power plays such an important role in schools, as in everyday life, we need to give some attention to the sources of power. Several sources of power have been identified:

5.1.1 Reward power This means that a person has the power to dispense rewards. A teacher may, for instance, praise (reward) a student for good work. Likewise, a provincial department may reward a school for executing its policies. On the other hand, rewards may be withheld. This amounts to coercive power.

5.1.2 Coercive power This is the negative version of reward power. A teacher may, for instance, punish a student for a transgression.

5.1.3 Group power This implies that an individual acknowledges or fears the power of a group to which he/she belongs. A teacher or a student may, for instance, participate in a certain action even against his/her will because of group power.

5.1.4 Expert power This power is exercised by a person who has superior knowledge or skills. This is of special importance to a teacher, because students will usually cooperate more willingly with a teacher who has mastered the content and presentation of a subject than with one who is lacking this regard. Related to the question of power and authority is freedom. The question of a teacher's professional freedom has been discussed in chapter one. Power and freedom lie on a spectrum and neither is absolute. The Bill of Rights in the South African Constitution limits the power of school management as well as of teachers.

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6 7fa*Mfa*tM^^ The term formal education is used because it is the author's view that education is erroneously equated with schools. Formal education can also be obtained outside schools as we know them today. This section discusses the orderly aspects of educational management according to the alternative theory of school management expounded above. Due to political change in South Africa during 1994, the present education system is in a state of flux. Certain crucial documents indicate the expected direction of the educational restructuring. The documents with a direct bearing on education and its management are the following: * the South African Constitution, adopted on 10 December 1996; * the Bill of Rights; * Education White Paper 1. Education and training in a democratic South Africa: First steps to develop a new system (DE, 1995). * Education White Paper 2. The organisation, governance and funding of schools (DE, 1996). Educational restructuring is located within the national Reconstruction and Development Programme (DE, 1995). Furthermore, the government of the country and thus the governance of education is guided by the Charter of Fundamental Rights (see chapter eleven). Article 32 of the Constitution is directly concerned with education and states: Every person shall have the right — (a) to basic education and to equal access to educational institutions; (b) to instruction in the language of his/her choice where this is reasonably practicable; and (c) to establish, where practicable, educational institutions based on a •common culture, language or religion, provided that there shall be no discrimination on the ground of race.

6.1 The role of central government According to the Constitution, formal education in South Africa falls under a central Department of Education concerned with the task of macro policy making. The Ministry of Education comprises the Minister of Education, the Deputy Minister of Education, advisors, and administrative staff. The Department of Education is part of the organizational structure of the public service, which is constitutionally required to 'loyally execute the policies of the government of the day in the performance of its administrative functions'. An overarching goal of the new Department of Education is to transform the legacy of the apartheid past. White Paper 1 (DE, 1995: 17) states that '[t]he challenge the government faces is to create a system that will fulfil the vision to open the doors of

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learning and culture to air. It continues, quoting from the Interim Constitution, to advocate as the aim of reconstruction '. . . a future founded on the recognition of human rights, democracy, and peaceful coexistence and development opportunities for all South Africans, irrespective of colour, race, class, belief or sex'. The matters mentioned here, namely human rights, democracy, peaceful coexistence, development, and equality (see DE, 1995: 21-3), are the values the new democratic government of South Africa would like to foster in and through the new educational dispensation. As mentioned in the discussion of complex structures, values lie at the root of cultural development, including education. Therefore, while the practical organization of the new education system in South African is yet emerging, these values, if fostered and maintained, will codetermine the development of education in South Africa. Other factors, of which the economic and historic ones are most important, also play a role. White Paper 1 (DE, 1995: 17) acknowledges the importance of the historical legacy: 'When all South Africans won equal citizenship, their past was not erased.' White Paper 1 continues to emphasize the disparity that exists between education in the more prosperous and the less prosperous sections of the South African nation. The quoted White Paper (DE, 1995: 22) emphasizes the 'restoration of a culture of teaching, learning and management...' in a section of the school system. Keeping in mind the influence of the history of a complex system, such restoration of a management culture will not be an easy task. The overarching value for schools which took part in the struggle for liberation was political liberation. Learning and teaching were often of secondary importance. Slogans such as 'Pass one, pass all' and 'Liberation before education' epitomized attitudes which resulted from the value attached to liberation before education.

6.2 Provincial administration of schools The execution of national policy is delegated to the nine provincial departments of education. School education in the provinces is controlled by the department acting in accordance with the policy determined by the Member of the Executive Council. A province may be further subdivided into educational regions, and each such region into educational districts for administrative purposes. At the time of writing, provincial departments of education were in the process of introducing and passing school education bills in the provincial governments in order to provide a legislative framework for the provision and management of compulsory education in schools.

7 ^tcat WfauiaetK&tt oA Scfoofo During 1995, the Ministry of Education appointed a committee chaired by Professor A P Hunter to review the organization, governance, and funding of schools. The report of this committee, known as the Hunter Report, was tabled on 31 August

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1995. The Ministry of Education reacted to this report in White Paper 2, tabled in November 1995. In this White Paper the Ministry spells out its views on the management, or governance, and funding of schools.

7.1 Major principles The major principles, which can be seen as the values the Ministry deems important for the new educational dispensation, can be summarized as follows: * The focus will be on the poverty and injustice of the inherited system and on unifying the system through a managed process of change based on redress, equity, and improved quality. * The new system of education will be professionally planned and carried out, democratically governed, and effectively managed. It must be clear that the national system is being effectively integrated. * Parental rights are recognized but these rights are not absolute or unlimited. They must be exercised within the framework of equity and the rights of others. * While the Ministry views the governance of schools as a partnership between the stakeholders, in other words the parents, community members, teachers, and students, the relative importance of each of these is not clear. Public school governance is seen as a partnership between a local community and the provincial education department. * The constitutional and statutory rights of teachers must be borne in mind: the Labour Relations Bill 66 of 1995 gives serving teachers and applicants a new and accessible avenue to challenge decisions by an employer. A teacher's constitutional rights are seen to be more important than the ethos of a school.

7.2 School governing bodies Because public school governing bodies will play such an important role in the future management of South African public schools, the functions of these bodies are given below. The 1996 White Paper distinguishes between basic and negotiable powers of these bodies. It also stresses that these powers should be subject to further scrutiny and, if necessary, amendment after discussions with provincial education departments, in the light of advice from stakeholder bodies (DE, 1996).

7.3 Basic powers of school governing bodies Public school governing bodies have the following basic powers.

Broad policy * defining the school's mission, goals, and objectives; * development, implementation, and review of governing body policies; * promoting the best interests of the school community.

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Personnel * recommendation of teachers for appointment by the provincial authority; * selection of temporary teachers for appointment by the governing body; * appointment of administrative staff.

Curriculum * setting school times and timetables; * determining school-level curriculum choices (within provincial and national frameworks); * planning extramural curricula; * establishing codes of behaviour for staff and learners.

Financial * fund raising and the control of finances; * setting school budget priorities.

Communication * setting up methods of reporting to parents; * developing school-community communication strategies.

Community services * developing local services for children and youth; * participating in services and community partnerships related to social, health, recreational, and nutritional programmes.

7.4 Negotiated powers of governing bodies In addition to the basic powers, White Paper 2 (DE, 1996) recommends that governing bodies should have access to a basket of 'negotiated powers'. These will be assigned by a provincial department if it satisfied that the applicant governing body has the capacity, and its community the will, to undertake the additional functions competently. These powers could relate to matters such as * * * *

maintenance of buildings; purchase of text books and materials; purchase of equipment; responsibility for electricity and water accounts.

While these aspects of educational management are important, they do not give a complete description of the living, complex education system. I could compare these aspects to the skeleton of an animal which provides the framework for the vital

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organs. The vital aspects of management are, in terms of the above exposition of complexity theory, the chaotic aspects. These are considered in section 8 below.

7.5 The role of the school principal The role and task of the school principal are not referred to specifically in the White Papers mentioned above. However, the principal plays a cardinal rote in the management of any school. The principal is the most important and influential individual in the school. This decisive position encompasses a wide spectrum of complex functions pertaining to management and leadership. In this capacity the principal sets the tone of the school, the climate for learning, the level of professionalism and morale of teachers, and the degree of concern for what students may or may not become. As manager, the principal is responsible for the practical operation of the school; as a leader he/she evokes newness and change, encourages, and inspires. The successful principal will have strong leadership and management qualities.

f 74e '@uMfa ' Aspects of School Management Although a school is formally organized and structured, it is people, that is, the staff and students, who make it a structure with life. Because people are complex structures having both orderly and chaotic aspects, a school will also have chaotic aspects. In more conventional terms these aspects form the informal organizational structure of the school (Hoy & Forsyth, 1986: 114). The feelings, aspirations and motives of the staff form the basis of this informal structure. Apart from the formal groups that exist within a school, informal groups develop spontaneously from the interaction of staff members who share the same responsibilities, problems, interests, and beliefs (Gorton, 1976: 112). Two aspects can be distinguished in such an informal structure: the informal groups, which may have no official standing but have a great influence on the day-to-day activities of the school, and the organizational culture of the school (Hoy & Forsyth, 1986: 98-9). The following types of informal groups can be distinguished: informal task groups comprised of individuals who work together on formal tasks and who develop an informal style as a result of their interpersonal relationships; informal communication groups consisting of individuals who voluntarily interact with the aim of exchanging information; informal friendship groups which develop spontaneously as a result of mutual attraction, common interests, values, etc (Kruger & Badenhorst, 1993: 78). These informal groups play an important role in the success or failure of a school.

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8.1 The climate and culture of a school Although these two terms are difficult to define and even to distinguish, anyone concerned with schools can fairly easily identify a school with a positive climate and culture conducive to success. In describing school climate, Kelley (1980: 1) states the following: (S)ome schools are cheerful and hum with excitement and purpose. Others seem to lack enthusiasm, Some classrooms are alive with expectancy, Others appear moribund, Some people who work and study in schools see each new day and each new person as opportunities for improving their understanding of the world around them, Others fear that today will be worse than yesterday, These feelings of satisfaction and productivity constitute school climate. The term school culture, on the other hand, is generally described as a particular dimension of an organization whose interaction with the other aspects contributes to the uniqueness and excellence of that organization (Kruger & Badenhorst, 1993: 79). The orderly and chaotic aspects of the school as organization cannot be separated into watertight compartments. This is illustrated by the cultural characteristics given by Pettigrew (1979: 574-7): * symbols * language (legends, tales etc) * ideologies * beliefs * rituals * myths * values * heroes * ceremonies. The symbols and ceremonies may be quite fixed or standardized, whereas the legends and tales may continuously be adjusted and given new meaning. Values may also change over time. These changes may not appear drastic In the short term, but in the long term they may result in significant changes. Because a school is a living organization it is continuously changing. On the other hand, a school retains its identity. It is, therefore, not possible to change a school radically. (Note that if we use binary logic, we will try to choose between change and stability, but if we use fuzzy logic, these two concepts are but the extremes of a spectrum of possibilities.) Summarizing the work of various authors, Kruger and Badenhorst (1993: 80-81) state that organizational culture manifests itself on three levels.

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3 2 1

Cultural manifestations * * * *

Behavioural Symbolic and visual Conceptual and verbal Technology

—> Visible manifestations based on symbolism

Norms & values * * * *

School policy Credo Mission statement Guide for actions

—>> Conscious criteria for action

Philosophical foundation * * * *

Beliefs Assumptions Philosophy Ideologies

—> Invisible, seated in subconscious

Figure 9.1 Levels of organizational culture in the school

The first, or basic, level represents the essence of organizational culture. It includes the assumptions, philosophies, ideologies and beliefs based on the collective philosophy of life supported by the people in the organization. The organizational culture of a particular school will be based on the beliefs and assumptions of the principal and staff which will be expressed in the teaching practice. This basic view of the place and task of a school in a particular community gives rise to the second level of organizational culture, namely those norms and values which are revered in a school. These norms and values are usually included in the school's policy, credo, and mission statement. The third level, cultural manifestations, comprises the visible aspects of school culture, which can be grouped in the following categories: behavioural manifestations — including aspects such as rituals, ceremonies, teaching, and learning; symbolic and visible manifestations — including aspects such as colours, motto, and school uniform; conceptual and verbal manifestations — including aspects such as school legends, heroes, and organizational structures. The organizational culture of the school is one dimension of the school environment which contributes to the teachers' and pupils' experience and their impressions of the nature of the school (Kruger & Badenhorst, 1993).

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8.2 Describing school climate Various models have been used to describe school climate. In the research done by Halpin and Croft on the effects of the behavioural interaction of the teachers with one another as well as with the principal (Kruger & Badenhorst, 1993), organizational climate is depicted on a continuum ranging from an open to a closed climate. In an open climate an attitude of openness prevails between the principal and the members of staff, as well as between teachers and students. In an autonomous climate, on the other hand, teachers and students enjoy a high degree of autonomy, which is an indication of a more human as opposed to a task-oriented management style. A controlled climate is marked by a highly task-oriented management style, but the morale of the staff remains high. A familiar climate is characterized by jovial and friendly interaction between the staff and the principal. There is very little task-oriented direction, with motivation and job satisfaction only average. A paternal climate is characterized by a closeness due to the passivity of the principal which leads to a lack of cooperation, lack of involvement, and a low morale among the teachers. Finally, a closed climate is characterized by a high degree of uninvolvement of teachers as well as students, very little job satisfaction, and a high degree of staff turnover. Keeping in mind that a school's culture is part of a community's culture, the perception of what a healthy school climate is will be codetermined by the community's culture. For instance, the school climate of Afrikaans-language schools (especially those in the rural areas) differs markedly from that of English-language schools. A possible reason is that Afrikaner culture is more paternalistic, and the community expects students to be disciplined more strictly. In many schools in South Africa the student population is becoming more multicultural. It is to be expected that differences of opinion on the running of schools will surface. Creating or fostering an acceptable climate will become a more important aspect of the management of South African schools. Because schools, being complex structures, are continuously growing, and growth always takes place from below, the first or basic level of organizational culture is of major importance. The accepted beliefs, assumptions, philosophies and ideologies should be scrutinized by the management team, together with the staff and the parents. As students will be represented on the management councils of high schools, they should also be consulted on these matters. In this regard, the two concepts of feedback and self-organization should be kept in mind. The basic beliefs should be continuously fed into the management of the school through symbolic acts, legends and rituals. As this is done over a period, a process of self-organization will take place and a new school culture will emerge. This will not take place in a mechanical fashion or, to put it differently/the resultant culture cannot be predicted, at least not in the short term. This, however, is no reason for a laissez-faire attitude to the management of a school.

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9 TKtotaqent&tt ol ffluzttae U SckwU This aspect of the management of schools is very topical. Worldwide dissatisfaction with the quality of education is reported in the press, literature, and educational research. McNergney and Herbert (1995: 441) state that 'schools are complicated, subtle organizations thalt do not always operate rationally. Many work extremely well under difficult conditions with incredible success. But others that function less effectively may also be resistant to change/ The life of schools becomes institutionalized. This applies to weak and -unsuccessful schools, as well as to effective ones. McNergney and Herbert (1995:442-3) propose a set of five principles that govern institutionalized organization of schools. 7 As society has grown more elaborate and complex, schools have taken on more work. Because schools have in the past been associated with the (economic) success of societies, it has been taken for granted that schools can also be utilized for rectifying all manner of ills in society. If, for instance, road accidents are a problem, then schools may be expected to introduce road safety programmes. The problem of teenage pregnancies may lead to the establishment of programmes of sex education. Once such programmes are established it is very difficult to ascertain or measure their success. The fact that programmes are taught does not automatically guarantee their success. School managers may document the number of hours taught and the number of students who followed a programme, but avoid examining success or failure in terms of statistics. Pressures to succeed from inside and outside the school are so great that it is quite natural for school leaders to want to appear successful. 2 Schools that incorporate acceptable ideas are viewed as healthy organizations. Schools need to innovate to be healthy organizations, but if their leaders get too far ahead of the pack — look too different, behave too radically — they risk losing legitimacy and support. If a school implements an intensive sex education programme as part of its family life curriculum, the school may jeopardize its own place in the system even though sex education may be needed very much. Survival of the school's leaders and the school itself depends not only on being productive but on fitting in or looking like the rest of the schools in the system in which the school is imbedded. Thus, schools are so closely linked to their communities that it is very difficult for them to act radically differently even if their leaders are convinced of the necessity of doing so. Innovation in education therefore often happens outside the formal school system. The question is raised: How do established schools manage to survive and prosper? They do two things: (a) they 'decouple' their organizational structure from their

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

activities, and (b) they use the logic of confidence to justify their positions in society.

3 Because coordination in school systems can lead to conflicts, units are 'decoupled' from activities and from each other. 'Decoupling' happens in several ways. Firstly, schools let 'professionals' handle activities. There is an elaborate structure in place for certifying teachers to perform instructional tasks and administrators to perform management tasks. By definition, professionals are trained to do their jobs, so these trained professionals are encouraged to do their jobs with little or no supervision. In the South African context, although structures have been put into place to supervise and control the work of teachers, either these structures have been perceived as illegitimate and are therefore ignored, or the nature of teaching is such that direct objective assessment happens only at the end of the school career, in the form of the matriculation exams. Secondly, goals of schools are set in general terms. Process is emphasized over products. For example, teachers offer opportunities for students to learn about healthy family life by reading, participating in discussions, or watching films, but teachers do not guarantee effective learning. We may ask: Is it at all possible to guarantee learning in any way? Students, being human beings, can act in unpredictable ways. A teacher may teach one thing but the students may learn something quite different. Thirdly, classrooms, standard levels, and other organizational units in schools are separated from each other. There is often little or no communication across units. Thus the evaluation that occurs is largely a formality — it does little to improve or condemn inefficient or unproductive teaching and programme units. Finally, a premium is placed on people getting along with each other. Coordination among people and between the structure of the school and its products (school leavers) is minimal. People are left to coordinate their activities on an informal basis. Decoupling can protect a school from internal conflict by obscuring differences between people, and inconsistencies between goals and results. If people inside and outside the school are unaware of the problems, or choose not to confront them, school managers find it easier to win support for their school. People put their faith and confidence in the idea that the school works.

4 The more schools rely on illusions, the more they display confidence, satisfaction, and good faith. Admitting weakness in the management of a school or its performance can be difficult and painful. Sometimes, people overcompensate and try to put the best face on a bad situation.

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5 Established educational organizations try to minimize inspection from inside and evaluation from outside. Despite the best intentions, principals or other school leaders intent on enhancing productivity can create problems for themselves and for others. By seeking opinions from staff and from the community, by getting involved in instruction, curriculum development, and evaluation, and by seeking information upon which to base school improvement initiatives, leaders create tension in the system. In some cases such tension is long overdue. People have become complacent, inefficient, and unproductive. But it is also possible that evaluative activities can damage a strong school. The mere act of looking for problems may actually create more problems than already exist. The maxim that there is always room for improvement has dampened more than one person's enthusiasm for his/her work. These five principles endorse my original argument that schools are complex structures which do not behave in a mechanical fashion. In the same way that a person can and will often develop survival strategies in order to cope with external pressure, schools will also do so. No amount of external control can force a school to comply exactly with prescriptions of higher authorities. Teachers, like other workers, may, however, respond positively if the right conditions are created for them to work in.

10 &wdk4M* South African schooling, including its governance and management, is undergoing major changes at present. Yet educational change is not unique to this country. Change is the one constant in the world as a whole. As McNergney and Herbert (1995) point out, there is nothing so stable as the constancy of change, unless perhaps it is the inevitability that whatever happens, teachers will teach and students will learn. School managers and leaders will help to define how teaching and learning will occur in the schools of the future by their participation in the system. The more teachers know about how schools are organized, governed, and administered, the better prepared they will be to influence that system.

S<**K*H4nu 1 The contemporary school is a product of modernism. 2 Western science, which underlies much of Western thought, and the school share the following characteristics: objectivity, hyperrationalism, an atomistic view of reality, and linear causality. 3 The school is a complex structure and can thus be distinguished from a mechanical structure.

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

4 Chaos/complexity theory is relevant to the understanding of the school as an organization. The following components of this theory can be applied to the management of the school: scientific chaos in contrast with randomness, natural chaos, emerging order, the dynamic nature of complex structures, self-similar patterning in complex structures, and the role of the past in codetermining the functioning of a complex system. 5 The terms management, administration, and leadership are sometimes used interchangeably. In South Africa the term management is often preferred. 6 Leadership is closely concerned with matters like power, authority, and responsibility. 7 The change in the administration of South African schooling hinges on the following documents: — the Bill of Rights; — Education White Paper 1. Education and training in a democratic South Africa: First steps to develop a new system (DE, 1995); — Education White Paper 2. The organisation, governance and funding of schools (DE, 1996); — the South African Constitution, adopted on 10 December 1996. 8 Underlying values of the new educational dispensation are: human rights, democracy, peaceful coexistence, development, and equality. 9 The restoration of a culture of teaching and learning will not be easy in the light of the influence that the history of a complex system exerts on its functioning. 10 In the local management of schools, parental and teachers' rights are recognized. 11 The public school governing bodies will have basic powers and negotiated powers with regard to the broad policy to be followed in their schools. 12 The informal organization of the school can also be seen as its chaotic aspects, such as school climate and culture. 13 The organizational culture of a school manifests itself on three levels, namely the basic (philosophical foundation), the second (values and norms), and the third (cultural manifestations). 14 A school's culture forms part of a community's culture. 15 The management of change in education is very topical; however, it remains difficult to determine whether changes that are effected are successful. 16 Five principles can be identified which govern the institutionalization of schools; they apply both to effective and to weak schools. 17 Current management theories, such as the two factor theory and the tenets of Total Quality Management, can be usefully applied to schools, provided schools have the freedom to evolve and to foster the values which are in line with the satisfaction of their customers and true human nature. 18 Change in education is constant. The more teachers know about how schools are organized, governed, and administered, the better prepared they will be to influence that system.

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70Mt& 4*td, (fatcefiU administration atomistic chaos theory hyperrationalism leadership linear causality

management modernism school culture school climate total quality management (TQM) two factor theory

Stod&tt tfctwttoa 1 Make two lists, of mechanical and complex structures respectively. In what way do these structures differ from each other? 2 Discuss the changes that are taking place in a school of your choice with the parents and teachers. Try to ascertain to what extent the history of the school is codetermining these changes. 3 In discussions with parents and teachers you know, ascertain which values each group would like to see fostered in the schools. Do these sets of values agree or diverge? 4 Obtain the policy document of your local school (it may not be called a 'policy document' but something else, for instance the 'school rules'). Evaluate this document in terms of the principles set out in White Paper 2 or the relevant clauses of the South African Schools Act 27 of 1996. 5 In discussions with members of the various stakeholder groups in a school, determine whether these groups agree on the symbols, heroes, and ceremonies of the school. 6 In a discussion with local principals, determine whether they appear to follow Theory X or Theory Y ideas about staff management. 7 'Schools are complex structures and cannot be controlled mechanically.' Discuss this statement by referring, inter alia, to the history of the struggle against apartheid education.

&6faM*fiAu Badenhorst, D C. 1993. The task and function of the high school principal in the changing educational dispensation in South Africa. Paper delivered at the University of Zululand on 28 April 1993 (Unpublished)

351

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS Doll, W E. 1983. Curriculum and change: Piaget's organismic origins. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 5(2) Education, Department of (DE). 1995. Education White Paper 1. Education and training in a democratic South Africa: First steps to develop a new system. Notice 196, Covernment Gazette] 6312 of 15 March 1995 Education, Department of (DE). 1996. Education White Paper 2. The organisation, governance and funding of schools. Notice 130, Government Gazette 16987 of 14 February 1996 Gorton, R A. 1976. School Administration: Challenge and Opportunity for Leadership. Dubuque: Wm C Brown Hayles, N K. 1991. Chaos Bound: Orderly Disorder in Contemporary Literature and Science. New York: Cornell University Press Hoy, W K & P B Forsyth. 1986. Effective Supervision: Theory into Practice. New York: Random House Hunter, 1.1994. Rethinking the School: Subjectivity, Bureaucracy and Criticism. New York: St Martin's Press Kelley, E A. 1980. Improving School Climate: Leadership Techniques for Principals. Restor, VA: Creswell Kruger, A G & D C Badenhorst. 1993. School management. In D C Badenhorst (ed) School Management: The Task and Role of the Teacher. Pretoria: Kagiso Tertiary Maxcy, S J. 1995. Democracy, Chaos and the New School Order. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press McGregor, D. 1960. The Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill McNergney, R F & J M Herbert. 1995. Foundations of Education: The Challenge of Professional Practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Pettigrew, A M. 1979. On studying organizational cultures. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24 (3), 61 Stavenga, G J. 1993. Ter inleiding: Chaos is mooi en spannend. Wijsgerig Perspectieft 34 (3),

250-

73-6

Tronc, K E. 1977. Educational Administration: Challenge and Change. Melbourne: Australia International Press Wheatley, M J. 1992. Leadership and the New Science: Learning about Organization from the Orderly Universe. San Francisco: Berret-Koehler Publishers

Legislation Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 200 of 1993 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 108 of 1996 Labour Relations Bill 66 of 1995 South African Schools Act 84 of 1996

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CHAPTER

TEN

£cUcca&0*t> 'ptoattce Prof Chris Claassen faculty of Education University of South Africa

This chapter gives an overview of education finance. It sets out to explain who pays for education and why, and outlines the history of education financing. This discussion includes cost concepts and free education. Certain cost-saving measures and alternative methods of financing education are suggested. Finally, the chapter examines education finance in South Africa. Debates on contentious issues in education finance, such as the hidden agenda of government spending, the unsustainability of free education, and why people question state involvement in education spending, are covered.

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EDUCATION FINANCE

7*^ oA &Mte*tto 1 Why Pay for Education?

355

2 How Much Does One Gain from Investing in Education?

357

3 Who Pays for Education?

359

4 Government (Public) Financing vs Private Financing at Various Levels

360

5 Why Are Governments Involved in Financing Education? The Consensus View vs the Conflict View

361

6 Historical Overview of the Funding of Education

362

7 How Much Do Governments Spend on Education? 7.1 National budget and GNP

364 364

8 Some Costs Concepts in Education

366

9 The Issue of Free Education

367

10 The Unsustainability of Free Education

368

1 1 Why is the Role of the Nation-state on the Decline?

369

1 2 Cost-saving Measures and Alternatives for Funding Education

370

1 3 Education Financing in South Africa

372

14 Current Financial Challenges in South Africa

373

1 5 Proposed Model of Education Financing

374

1 6 Financing of Schools

375

1 7 Post-compulsory Education Financing

376

Summary

376

Terms and Concepts

377

Student Activities

378

Bibliography

378

f tVfy p*q fc* SducatuM? People pay for something perceived as having value. Money is invested in education because it is perceived to have value. In other words, education is financed or funded. The benefits of education can broadly be categorized as: individual benefits and social benefits.

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An example of an individual benefit is that education empowers an individual, both by developing the person's personality and critical insight and by giving her/him skills to earn a living. An example of a social benefit is that a literate, educated populace leads to stability in a country. Moreover, the economy benefits from the contributions of skilled, educated people. However, you should not assume that everyone automatically considers formal education valuable. Some people perceive public education and schooling to be seriously flawed, irrelevant, and a waste of money. They actually suggest that society should be deschooled (Illich, 1971). Some of their arguments are: Education systems are inordinately expensive to maintain. Schooling perpetuates the interests of a dominant class. It serves to maintain the social order and to advance the ideology of the ruling class or party. The poor quality and content of teaching do not justify its public funding. Instead of a government-sponsored curriculum, individuals, families and groups should select their own knowledge. However, most people perceive education to have sufficient value to make it worth the investment. For this reason, national education systems exist in all countries. A note on numbers I have limited references to financial figures and have interpreted finance in ordinary language instead. Nevertheless, the inclusion of some figures is unavoidable in a discussion of this topic. You may, however, be deterred by the prospect of financial figures. Please try to grasp them. A useful hint is to reduce big figures to small understandable units. For example, if the South African national budget in 1996/1997 amounts to R157 billion and the education budget is R35 billion, you make the following conversion: Consider the budget as an amount of R157 of which R35 is allocated to education. Or you may prefer to think that 20c of each tax rand is allocated to education (R35 as a fraction of R157 is roughly one fifth or 20 %). Please note that a billion refers to a thousand million. Thus, the education budget mentioned above could be written as 35 thousand million rand. Written in numbers, it reads 35 000 000 000! Don't let the noughts confuse you! If this figure is written in full, it reminds us how vast a portion of our national wealth is spent on education.

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2 *%<w TUttcd, *Doe& 0«te fata fawn IweMvta w Sducatiwl Rate of return Governments and individuals do not need to guess what return or dividend they get from education spending. Economists have developed a rate of r&ttotb analysis of the cost effectiveness of education. The basic assumption is that individuals with higher levels of education generally earn higher incomes, In other words, they have benefited from an investment in education. A distinction is made between private and social rates of return (Berkhout, 1993; Thomas, 1992): The private rate of return is the return on the investment in education by the individual and the benefits that accrue to the individual. The social rate of return is the return on investment by the government, that is, how much society profits from investments in education.

Table 10.1 gives a comparative analysis of the rates of return of a few countries. Certain conclusions can be drawn from this table: The private rate of return on all levels of education is extremely high. For example, in Botswana it is 99 % at primary school level and 76 % at secondary school level. The reason is obvious: where education is free or highly subsidized, the individual pays relatively little for education but still receives considerable benefits. This explains the high private demand for education and the political pressures for statefunded education. Similarly, the social rate of return on all levels of education is consistently lower than the corresponding private return. In Botswana, for example, the social return is 42 % for primary education, while the private return for primary education is 99 %. Even though the social return is lower than the private one, social returns are often higher than average returns on fixed capital investments. For example, the 16 % social return on higher education in Ghana outranks any investment the government could have made by investing in buildings or roads, on which a dividend lower than 16 % could well have been expected. This rate of return analysis was developed in the human capital theory in the early 1960s. This kind of education investment analysis makes it possible to view education as an investment rather than as a form of consumption: 'Human capital theory thus gave neoclassical economists a rationale for involving governments in educational investments and some tools for measuring their yield' (Easton & Klees, 1990: 416).

r

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

Table 10.1 Rates of return to education, by countries (%) (Psacharopoulos, 1985: 598-600) Country

Social

Year

Private

Primary

Secondary

Higher

Primary

Secondary

Higher

Africa Botswana Ghana Kenya Lesotho Malawi Nigeria

1 983 1967 1971 1980 1982 1966

42,0 18,0 21,7 10,7 14,7 23,0

41,0 13,0 19,2 18,6 15,2 12,8

15,0 16,5 8,8 10,2 11,5 17,0

99,0 24,5 28,0 15,5 15,7 30,0

76,0 17,0 33,0 26,7 16,8 14,0

38,0 37,0 31,0 36,5 46,6 34,0

Asia India Singapore Taiwan

1978 1966 1972

29,3 6,6 27,0

15,7 17,6 12,3

10,8 14,1 17,7

33,4 50,0

19,8 20,0 12,7

13,2 25,4 15,8

Latin America Mexico Puerto Rico

1 963 1 959

25,0 24,0

17,0 34,1

23,0 15,5

32,0 68,2

23,0 52,1

29,0 29,0

Intermediate countries Greece 1977 Israel 1958 Spain 1971

16,5 16,5 17,2

5,5 6,9 8,6

4,5

20,0 27,0

6.0

5,5

6,6

6,9

8,0

12,8

31,6

10,2

15,5

11,7 8,6 9,0

14,0

9,6

13,4

16,3 10,4 11,0

5,2

5,5

19,7 8,8 23,0 10,4

Developed countries Canada Japan Great Britain Netherlands

1961 1976 1978 1965

6,9 7,0

8,5

Human capital theory has been severely criticized in recent times. In the first place, it fits in with a consensus view of society and of education spending. This is embodied in the popular saying: 'Spend more on education and society will definitely gain' (see section 5). This linear conclusion is not so obvious. At an individual level, it is highly questionable to what extent education or other forms of human investments are directly related to improvements in occupation or income. Does an individual earn more simply because of his/her education? What is the role of structural factors such as the economic and political system and the way it favours or discriminates against

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an individual or a group? What is the role of family background and innate ability, such as entrepreneurial skill? Do these factors not contribute considerably to occupational success and income, the end measurements of human capital theory? In fact, it has been shown that raising the level of education in a society (by spending more on education) can actually increase the inequalities in income distribution (Fagerlind & Saha, 1989).

3 TVfo pou* 6>* £«fa4#*#? A distinction is made between private (individual) funding and public funding. An individual spends her/his money on those goods and services, such as education, that he/she deems necessary. Some examples of such private spending in education are: school fees contributed by parents at a state school and opportunity costs borne by the student and his/her parents, for example the cost of transport, textbooks, and school uniforms. However, an individual is not simply left to her/his own devices to pay for education. Public schooling is driven by the idea that a child's future should not be limited by his/ her parents7 wealth and influence. Public funds are used to establish a public education system (national education system) that provides access to education for all children. In an elitist society, such as the aristocracies of the Middle Ages, the emphasis would be on privately funded education. However, virtually all modern nation-states are committed to the principle of egalitarianism, namely that all citizens should enjoy equal rights and opportunities, irrespective of their backgrounds (see section 6 for a discussion of the history of education financing). Plainly speaking, public funding works as follows. In all societies, citizens pool a proportion of their income and collectively spend the money on goods and services which are deemed necessary for all the citizens in the society. In other words, government collects the money (revenue) from the citizenry in the form of taxes, and redistributes it according to priorities. The pattern of spending differs from country to country, for example: A capitalist country generally collects low taxes, which makes relatively little money available for spending on public services. In such a country, education users (students or their parents) are expected to pay a portion of their study fees themselves. People are left with more money in their pockets. The reasoning is that private persons spend their own money more wisely and carefully than an outside agent, such as government. Ultimately, this leads to better economic growth, as government does not unproductively consume a large part of the country's wealth. A socialist country usually collects high taxes, which enables it to spend relatively more money on public services. In such a country, education is largely free. The reasoning is that society is morally obliged to look after the poor and helpless. In

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other words, those that have must care for those that do not have. Government is the agent which redistributes wealth. Public services differ from country to country. In South Africa, the state is involved in running airline companies and providing telephone services. In the United States of America, these two services are entirely privatized. Thus, the South African government assumes more duties than is the case in the United States. However, in all the countries of the world education is seen as a public, collective endeavour. The level of state funding of education differs from country to country. For example, a developing country which sees a direct correlation between education and development may spend a large part of its budget and its Gross National Product (GNP) on education. On the other hand, a developed country that has an adequate, established education infrastructure in place and wants to lessen the role of the state may spend less on education. For example, compare education funding in Lesotho and Italy (see table 10.2 below). To summarize: In all countries of the world, education is publicly funded. In section 6 this is shown to be a relatively recent development. Education is universally seen as a collective endeavour, and the state must assume the major responsibility for providing education. In section 11 you will see that this uncritical assumption has recently been challenged.

4 ^M^n^H^tt (police) ^wAMCMfy o4 Pnurtte ?i*t
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Figure 10.1 Level of government vs private funding

independent schools are completely privately funded. In South Africa, most independent schools received a subsidy amounting to 45 % of their operating costs in the apartheid era. Since this chapter deals primarily with public funding, the funding of independent schools will not be discussed. Similarly, since government is mostly involved in funding the primary and secondary school sectors, the limited public funding of tertiary education will be dealt with only briefly.

5 TtMtf s4ne fam«twe*tfo Iwofoed in ?wa*ttfa$ Sdueattoa? 7
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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

However, there is a more critical view of society, namely a conflict view (Christie, 1989). According to this view, society is not unified. Everybody does not share the same interests, and social institutions do not operate in harmony. There are privileged groups in society who benefit, and oppressed groups who do not benefit equally. Some groups dominate others. Thus, society is in continual conflict. There are always power struggles in society. Similarly, government spending on education perpetuates the interests of the dominant class, that is, the group that voted it into power. Schools perpetuate race differences and class differences in the following ways: There are separate racially based and class-based schools. Different schools offer distinctly higher or lower quality education. The curriculum perpetuates the interests of the dominant class. It prepares the privileged to become managers and the underprivileged (oppressed) to become workers. This conflict is evident in all societies where differences are often based on class, in other words, socio-economic differences (distinguishing 'haves' from 'have nots'). In South Africa these differences have been exacerbated by race and ethnic differences. The apartheid history of South Africa would seem to bear out the conflict view of society. In the apartheid era, education spending favoured the power-holding group of that era (white people and those black people who supported the apartheid social order, such as elite groups in the so-called homelands). Refer to section 13 for a discussion of the historical inequality in education financing in South Africa. Conflict thinkers maintain that society must change radically. Their argument is, however, flawed in that they tacitly assume that once society has changed fundamentally, the conflict will be over. If they are true to their conviction, they will admit that society has perpetual power tensions and that it never reaches equilibrium or harmony. Again South Africa is a case in point. Society has been radically transformed, including spending patterns in education. Already new tensions are emerging. Possibly education financing may soon favour a new dominant group. For example, parents at previously advantaged schools complain that they are doubly taxed in the new dispensation. Not only do they pay more general taxes, but they also have to pay extra for their children's schooling, costs from which many other parents are exempt (see section 13).

6 ^titotical Ovenvtew ol tAe Juvtdwa ol £d#catte*t It is only since the seventeenth century that education has been regarded as the primary responsibility of the state. Thus, state funding of mass education is only about three hundred years old (Van Niekerk, 1994). Before that time, education was primarily paid for by individuals and the church. Before the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, it was tradition, social status, and family background that determined

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a person's standing in society. In this elitist form of society only the privileged (the rich and the noble) could afford education. The lower classes were deprived of educational opportunities and were trapped in a life of hard labour from an early age. You have probably read novels or seen movies about the appalling conditions in which lower-class children lived during these centuries and, conversely, the wealth and private tutoring which the children of the upper class enjoyed. The historical changes during the Renaissance, the Enlightenment and the Reformation in the 1600s and 1700s brought about a new view of humankind. The elitist view of humankind gave way to a more egalitarian view, namely that all people are born equal. A liberal-humanist view of humankind was introduced, namely that all individuals have inalienable rights, such as education, and that these rights are not only the reserve of the upper classes. This changed view of humankind also paved the way for state involvement in education. Prussia (forerunner of modern-day Germany) was probably the first country with a rudimentary state-funded national education system, as early as the 1600s. Similarly, after the French Revolution, it was decreed in 1791 that 'there shall be created and organized a system of public instruction common to all citizens and gratuitous in respect to those subjects of instruction' (Brubacher, 1966: 514). Although these ideals had already been proclaimed in the 1700s, they were only fully implemented after almost 150 years. For example, education in England was still largely the privilege of the upper classes towards the end of the 1800s. Consider the conditions in Victorian England, depicted in the novels of Charles Dickens. The institutionalization of state-driven mass education, which started in Western Europe, gradually spread across the globe so that now, at end of the twentieth century, statefunded education is universal. In addition to the egalitarian view of society, other factors which contributed to the expansion of state funding of education are as follows: Industrialization and technological advancement: Expanding industries and technological improvements increased the importance of science and technological expertise in the labour market, which necessitated the expansion of formal education. Nationalism: Private education was seen as divisive and elitist in the upcoming nation-states. Nations wanted to mould their youth according to national principles. For this purpose, a standardized national state-funded education system was needed. Societal development and change. The positivist view of the world and of science espoused a linear view of development Education automatically leads to development and is a powerful force for societal and economic development. State funding of education was seen as a positive investment in development. Development of human capital theory. This theory, developed in the 1950s, viewed education as an investment rather than as consumption. People were seen as a form of capital, a quantifiable production factor, and were analysed in economic terms. Human capital economists work out a rate-of-return analysis (see section 2).

jCitjC]

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

The influence of the two world wars: These wars had a dramatic impact on the collective philosophy of humankind. It was felt that more resources should be poured into education so as to prevent a recurrence of global warfare. However, there are indications that the role of the state is declining at the present moment. This tendency is analysed in section 11.

7 5?W THucA, *Do> (fowenwwerffo

Sfiend, <M, SduMtuwl

7.1 National budget and CNP Probably the most common indicator of the level of education finance is public expenditure (government spending) on education as a percentage of the total budget and the gross national product. The total budget: The government spends money in accordance with an annual national budget, which it derives from various sources, such as personal tax. Thus, if a country has a budget of R100 billion, and it spends R15 billion on education, education spending forms 15 % of the total budget. The gross national product (CNP): The GNP is a measurement of literally everything (products and services) that is produced in a country, in other words, all the economic activity. Thus, while the national budget of South Africa was R155 billion in 1995, the GNP was just over R480 billion. Education spending (R32 billion) was 21 % of the budget and 6 % of the GNP. Table 10.2 reflects the education expenditure as a percentage of the total budget and as a percentage of the GNP of a few countries for 1988. Table 10.2 Education expenditure as a percentage of total budget and of CNP (ONE, 1992: 57)

Country Zaire Malawi India Tanzania Lesotho Switzerland Japan Britain Italy RSA

36f

Country

% of total % of GNP budget 6,4 9,9 8,5 8,5 14,8 18,9 16,9 11,3 8,3 19,1

1,4 3,2 3,3 3,7 4,0 4,8 4,9 5,0 5,0 5,4

Australia Zambia New Zealand Egypt

USA

Canada Kenya Morocco Zimbabwe Botswana

% of total % of GNP budget 12,5 16,3 20,9 9,4 21,0 15,6 22,7 25,5 16,0 15,9

5,5 5,5 5,7 5,9 6,8 7,1 7,1 7,3 8,9 9,3

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Some conclusions that can be drawn from table 10.2 are as follows: South Africa spends a relatively large percentage of its national wealth on education. Education budgets differ quite dramatically between various countries — for example, compare the 8 % of the budget spent in Italy to the 25 % spent in Morocco. These percentages only give an internal indication of the money assigned to education. The budget of a wealthy country is obviously much higher than that of a poor country. For example, the South African figure of 19 % appears to compare favourably with that of the USA (21 %). However, the USA had a budget of $900 billion in 1988, so that 21 % of that figure amounts to $180 billion or about R700 billion, which far exceeded the South African allocation of R20 billion. Even though the USA has five times more school students (fifty million to South Africa's eleven million), it still spends six times more per child on education than South Africa does. This does not indicate that South Africa does not value education, but rather that the USA has more money available. Education has to compete with other social services and public duties (police, defence, welfare, pensions, transport, etc) for funds. In South Africa, education usually takes up about 20 % of the budget, leaving 80% of the budget to be distributed among some eighteen other government departments. Critics can justifiably complain that education is simply taking too large a slice of the national cake — or, phrased in a different way, if education takes up such a huge portion, it should be effective. The populace should see evidence that education spending delivers positive benefits, such as quality teaching, well-run schools, well-balanced pupils, a relevant curriculum and matriculation passes. Increasingly, questions are being asked about the effectiveness of education spending in South Africa. An important reason for the relatively large proportion of the budget spent on education is found in education departments^themselves. No department has ever admitted to having enough funds. On the contrary, a universal complaint of authorities is that they receive too little. The second White Paper on Education in South Africa (DE, 1996: 30) states: 'Since the current budgetary trend represents virtually no real year-on-year growth in education spending, the committee's conclusion emphasizes the extremely difficult funding choices which the national and provincial departments of education must confront. Given the imperative necessity to redress past educational neglect, to make provision for the annually increasing growth of student numbers ... the Ministry of Education regards the current trend in budgetary allocations with dismay.' To be fair, the Ministry also admits to an obligation to spend public money wisely (DE, 1995: 22): 'The expansion of the education and training system must meet the test of sustainability. The education and training system has not been given an open cheque book by the government . . . The system has developed many areas of inefficiency where funds are wasted and staff are not well employed. The productivity of the system is very low in much of the system. Improving efficiency and productivity is essential in order to justify the cost of the system to the public ...'

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% Some @MU (fatcefifo fa Sducatitot The misunderstanding exists that the government bears virtually all the costs of education. However, the costs of education are varied. Figure 10.2 gives an indication of the way in which the costs of education are distributed. It is clear from this figure that not all costs are borne by the state. For example, household costs, which are divided into indirect costs and direct costs, are borne by the users of education, namely students and their parents or guardians.

Costs of education

Sources: Public, private (foreign aid)

Household costs

Institutional costs

Recurrent costs

Capital costs Buildings and furniture Equipment Land Others

Direct costs Tuition Other school fees Uniforms Transportation Books and other supplies Other

Indirect costs Opportunity costs (farm work/foregone earnings)

Factors

Function (or programmes)

Personnel: Teachers Administrative staff Other staff

Instruction Administration Food and dormitories Health care General maintenance

Adjuncts: Textbooks Other teaching aids Supplies Utilities Scholarships Student welfare Maintenance and repairs

Figure 10.2 A classification of costs of education (Adapted from Tsang, 1988: 191)

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Indirect costs: A student who attends school or university foregoes earnings during the time spent in school. Thus there is a 'cost' involved for the student in attending school. Direct costs include tuition fees, school fees, uniforms, transport, books, and other supplies. However, the figure shows clearly that the bulk of the costs are state-funded institutional costs, which are divided into recurrent costs and capital costs. Recurrent costs are the various items listed in the column titled Factors in the figure. Personnel factors refer to costs such as the salaries of teachers, administrative staff, head office staff, and cleaning staff. Personnel factors consume by far the largest part of a school budget. For example, of the typical expenditure to maintain a South African school, 75 % goes towards teachers' salaries. Of course, this pattern differs from country to country. For example, in Finland only 47 % of the budget is spent on teachers' salaries, leaving ample funds for capital projects, teaching aids, textbooks and supplies (ONE, 1993). Another feature of education expenditure peculiar to South Africa is the huge amount spent on the administration of education. It has been estimated that as much as 29 % of the South African education budget is spent 'outside' the school, that is, on head office personnel (staff such as directors-general, directors, and subject advisors) and personnel in support services such as guidance, psychological, and library services (Fokus, 1990). In Japan, the comparable figure is only about 6 %. The question can justifiably be asked whether bureaucracy in education should not be curtailed in order to channel the savings to classroom interventions, such as the provision of textbooks. Empirical research has shown such spending to be cost effective. Capital costs include buildings and furniture, equipment and land. If an education budget is already limited and, additionally, if salaries for teachers and other personnel take up a disproportionately large slice of the budget, then little money remains for capital funding. The situation arises where there are many teachers but they teach in run-down buildings and have limited physical resources to teach with. Thus, the education system merely maintains many teachers and other personnel in unproductive jobs.

9 7fey44W<^?^£tfa€0^ Does free education exist? Virtually all countries are committed to free education, at least in the primary school phase. Free education is often linked with compulsory education, as it is difficult to enforce compulsory education if it is not provided free of charge by government. Similarly, the democratic government in South Africa is committed to providing free and compulsory education for all up to the ninth school year.

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However, the discussion above (see section 8) has shown that there is no 'free' education. Education costs something and somebody has to pay for it. Even if the government pays for it, education is still not free and, in any case, government merely derives its funds from the people. Bray (1 990: 246) maintains that 'there is no such thing as free education in the sense that education does not have to be paid for by somebody. However, it is common to use the phrase free education to describe education that is free of charge.' Education that is free of charge for the user (albeit not free education) is defined differently in various countries (Berkhout, 1993). In one country a government may pay for things such as textbooks and transport, while these may be excluded in another country. However, both countries would officially proclaim that they provide 'free education'.

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Lately, so-called compassion fatigue has set in and loans for developing countries are much harder to obtain than in the past. — local factors, such as mismanagement in some African states and the cost of maintaining apartheid in South Africa. Factors such as these have diminished governments' revenue. These external factors, as well as doubts about the internal efficiency and productivity of education systems, have made cost-saving measures and alternative sources of education funding imperative.

// ^% & tAe Rote ot tfo%*M*-tf*te o* t6eT>edUie7 Clearly education financing needs to be reformed. Questions are raised about state involvement in particular. Some arguments for reduced state involvement in education and for alternative methods of funding education are set out below. Nationalism and the role of the nation-state are dwindling. Previously the state directed the life of the nation; now groups and individuals are asserting themselves within nations. Thus nations do not have the monolithic dominance which they used to have. Similarly, diversity within the education system is encouraged, whereas it used to be frowned upon. Naisbitt (1994) identifies a so-called global paradox. On the one hand, the world is becoming like a global village through technology which makes instant communication possible and through global economic cooperation. On the other hand, paradoxically, groups within the nation-state are finding a sense of identity and security within their own groups. Both these tendencies detract from the importance of the nation-state. Three philosophical theories which support this trend are postmodernism, complexity theory, and chaos theory (Badenhorst, 1995; Claasen, 1995). Watson (1994: 1) summarizes this trend as follows: At the beginning of the 20th century we saw the development of the nation-state as the natural focal point for government and the control of peoples , , , Indeed many would argue that the 20th century has been "the age of the nation-state", Now, as we come to the end of the 20th and approach the 21st century/ the concept of the nation-state is coming under threat from a variety of sources, These changes have major implications for the provision of public education systems, since these have hitherto developed with one major purpose being to develop a sense of national identity and mass allegiance to the concept of the nation-state, Sources of knowledge are freely available in a postindustrial era. In the past, knowledge resided with an elite few (the teachers, literally called 'masters' in the past). Nowadays, knowledge can be obtained from many available sources, for

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example via the internet on the computer (Toffler, 1990). A learner does not have to attend a state-funded school in order to obtain knowledge. Home schooling is rapidly expanding in Western countries as a result of this availability of knowledge. Development is being reappraised. Education is not seen as automatically leading to development. In fact, the investment potential of expensive, often irrelevant, state-driven education is increasingly being questioned. Critics maintain that since education spending consumes a large part of the national wealth, it is a major contributor to inflation, which hampers economic growth. Consequently, many states are reducing their spending on education and privatizing aspects of the education system which have hitherto always been state-controlled — for example, some school districts in the USA have contracted out school administration to private companies.

12 @Mt- Mwttfy TtteaMtMt a»ut tftfawrttiveA {01 ^tutcU^ SdttcatuM, Although the following cost-saving measures pertain primarily to South Africa, they can readily be applied universally. The first White Paper (DE, 1995) proposes certain cost-saving measures: reducing the repetition of grades to educationally acceptable levels; eliminating overage students and shifting them into more cost-effective learning environments; phasing in guided self-study and distance-education programmes where appropriate, which will replace labour-intensive traditional teaching formats; rationalizing the education administration, which consumes as much as 29 % of the education budget (see section 8). restructuring teachers' remuneration, which will slow down the built-in rate of increase of the salary bill. In the present salary structure there is a 1 : 8 ratio from the lowest to the highest post/salary level. If this widely diversified structure is not modified, the country will not be able to afford the expected increase of 230 000 additional teachers over the decade from 1992 to 2002. Computer modelling estimates that a 1 : 5 ratio from the lowest to the highest level, which is in line with international norms, would probably be affordable (Hofmeyr, 1994). Apart from the above, additional alternative funding measures include the following: User or household charges: There are various arguments in favour of fee-paying education. Privatized or semiprivatized education (i e when user charges are levied for public schooling) is more responsive to the needs of clients (parents and students). It is more directly accountable and it generates and utilizes resources more efficiently (Lieberman, 1986). On the other hand, user charges are viewed as

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elitist, as encapsulated by the saying: The poor cannot pay/ This argument, in turn, is countered by the fact that user charges benefit the poor. Charging the user leaves more money for government to spend on schools in needy communities. Voucher system: Public subsidies are commonly channelled through schools and education departments. Alternatively, education subsidies could be given directly to students and their families in the form of education vouchers with a monetary value which can only be exchanged for schooling. (A parent cannot use them for gambling!) Voucher recipients could then attend the school of their choice. This approach increases parental choice and school accountability by encouraging schools to compete for students. This, in turn, improves efficiency in the education system. This system is employed in a few states of the United States. However, in a developing country a voucher scheme may not be feasible, because, apart from other considerations, its administrative costs would probably be high (Pillay, 1988). Block grants: When government allocates a subsidy without placing any restrictions on the allocation of these funds, such a subsidy can be classified as a block grant. For example, a school receives R2 million, which must cover all the costs of running the school, including salaries. A school may opt to employ fewer teachers (ie by grouping classes together and by dropping 'frills' from the curriculum), and to use the savings to build a long-awaited soccer field instead. Block grants are proposed by economists who favour a decentralized or 'free market' approach to education. The advantages of such a system are obvious (Pillay, 1988): — It allows decisions regarding the allocation of resources to be made by those who are closer to the ultimate users of education and better informed of local priorities. — The resulting autonomy enhances both academic freedom and efficiency. — This decentralized system will reduce the high cost of bureaucratic decision making. There is often so-called 'bureaucratic failure' when an education department vacillates endlessly about the allocation of funds. However, the question of whether a school community can handle a budget running into millions of rands remains. Will it not lead to conflict at school level, such as charges of corruption? Does a school community (principal, senior teachers, governing body) have the managerial and administrative capability to administer such a sum of money? Traditionally, public school funding in South Africa has been highly centralized. Tuition tax credit: Expenses paid towards a child's education are tax deductible. Curriculum change: The curriculum can be rationalized by excluding expensive 'frills' and options (eg music, arts, physical training) and by discontinuing subjects and programmes followed by few students (Berkhout, 1993). These subjects are then merged at selected institutions. An obvious objection is that such a costoriented approach may detract from the true aim of education. Is schooling not compelled to cultivate an appreciation for aesthetics, which may be regarded as

r

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

an expensive 'frill? On the other hand, should the parent and other community bodies (the theatre company, for instance) not take greater responsibility for developing such skills and interests? A broad curriculum change is the introduction of vocational education. The manpower approach to educational planning (searching for the perfect match between manpower needs and education provision) originated the promotion of vocational education' (Berkhout, 1993: 116; Berkhout, 1989). Alternative classroom interventions: Relatively simple classroom interventions, such as the provision of textbooks, have been shown to be much more cost-effective in terms of improving the quality of education than grandiose spending plans at macro level.

13 SdttcaMw ^fatutcfaf w So*tt6> dfaca In this section, particular attention is paid to education finance in South Africa. It should be noted that this aspect has already been touched on in other sections of this chapter, which should also be consulted. Education financing in South Africa cannot be divorced from the political context. In the predemocratic (apartheid) era, education financing was especially renowned for its racial imbalance, which was often used as an indicator of the inequity of apartheid. The per capita expenditure according to the categories of racial groups in 1992 was as follows (ONE, 1993): Black pupils (DET): R1 775 White pupils: R4 694 Coloured pupils: R3 231 Indian pupils: R3 959 Thus, the ratio for spending on white education in relation to black education was roughly 3 : 1 . However, these imbalances were not as severely skewed as suggested by this ratio. Several factors have to be taken into account before comparisons of the per capita expenditure can be made (DNE, 1993). More than 70 % of school costs go towards teachers' salaries. In the case of education for black pupils, in 1992 only about 44% of teachers had three years' appropriate training after Std 10, compared to virtually all teachers in the other departments. Since the salary structure of teachers is based on the level of qualifications, this factor contributed significantly to the disparities in the per capita expenditure. Primary education is considerably cheaper than secondary education. In 1992, 71 % of black pupils were in primary schools, compared to 59 % of white pupils, a fact which also contributed to the disparities. In the reformist period following the Soweto uprising (1976 to 1994), government

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expenditure on black education increased dramatically. For example, the education budget rose from R5 billion in 1 985 to R20 billion in 1 992. Also, more than a hundred colleges of education for black students were founded during this period to make up for the backlog of teacher training. The vast education infrastructure which had been established by the time of the democratic transition in 1 994 is described in the first White Paper as follows (DE, 1995: 62): There were in 1994 nearly twelve million students, at 27 500 educational institutions, including 330 000 students at the 21 universities and 137 000 students at the 15 technikons, These learners were served by a staff complement of about 470 000 of whom 370 000 are educators,

14 Current financial challenges in South Africa Despite the extenuating circumstances described in the previous section, unequal spending has long been a particularly vexing aspect of apartheid. The democratic government faces various factors which require vast financial resources. Government is constitutionally obligated to principles such as equality, redress, and reconstruction and development, which have extensive financing implications. Government's educational policy is committed to values and principles which require vast financial outlays. The values and principles of education in a democratic South Africa include the following: — education as a basic human right, to be advanced by the state; — lifelong education and training of good quality; — redress of educational inequalities; — the equitable deployment of resources; — access to educational opportunities of good quality for all children, youth, and adults; — the improvement of the quality of education; — the rehabilitation of schools and colleges and the restoration of a culture of teaching and learning. Economic growth in recent years has been much lower than the 'education inflation factors', such as the growth in student numbers and the improvement in teacher qualifications. Urbanization and unemployment lead to students remaining in the formal system longer, which in turn creates ever-growing backlogs in the capacity of school buildings. Learning resources are undersupplied. Investments have to be made in educational productivity, such as the upgrading of teachers and managerial skills at school level.

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Educational programmes need to be diversified to attend to early childhood learning needs^ special education needs, adult basic education and training, and vocational education and training. Free, compulsory education up to the ninth school year (Grade 9; Std 7) has been introduced. In fact, almost every single aspect spelt out in the two recent White Papers on education have expenditure and financing implications. In many newly independent African countries similar lofty goals were formulated. In practice, however, budgetary constraints prevented these states from meeting all their worthy goals. Consequently, they have had to prioritize educational aims and to finance education accordingly.

15 Proposed Model of Education financing Exactly how education financing is to be implemented is not clear at the time of writing. The Constitution determines that education at all levels, excluding university and technikon education, is the responsibility of provincial legislatures. Thus, provinces will have the executive responsibility to finance their schools out of allocations from the central government and subject to national guidelines, such as those contained in the White Papers on education. In the second White Paper the financing of schools was referred to a specialist committee. However, the outline of education financing is known. At national level government raises the education budget. Two significant guiding norms for establishing the national budget have been specified. — Equal funding for all race groups: In order to achieve this the level of funding will be well below that of previously white schools (House of Assembly schools), but above that of former Department of Education and Training (DET) schools. Those schools which want to retain previous levels of funding will have to raise their own funds. — Equitable teacher-pupil and class size norms: Learner-teacher ratios are pegged at 40 : 1 in primary schools and 35 : 1 in secondary schools. Thus former white schools will have to cope with substantially fewer teachers, while traditionally black schools will have more teachers. The income that is raised is distributed to the provinces. This distribution will not be according to an exact per capita ratio. For example, even if the Northern Province and the Western Cape have the same number of learners, the Northern Province may have a bigger allocation from central government for two reasons: — Redress: Educational backlogs are much bigger in the largely rural Northern Province, and thus require greater expenditure. Thus, the principle of equity (not equality) applies in budgetary allocations to provinces. — Provincial preference: A province receives a global budget from central

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government, which the province distributes according to guidelines supplied by central government A province may emphasize one particular service (e g transport), downscaling its education budget without contravening the national guidelines on providing free, compulsory education.

16 Ji«**tc*M% ot Sdoofo At school level significant changes in funding are to be introduced. There will be two categories of schools, namely public schools and independent schools. The system of state-aided schools has been abolished. Of former white schools, 93 % were run as so-called Model C or state-aided schools. Three options for school financing are considered in the second White Paper, namely a minimalist-gradualist approach, the equitable school-based formula approach, and the partnership funding approach. Partnership funding has provisionally been adopted by government and the finalization of the matter has been referred to a task group. What is to be understood by partnership funding? It is based on a recognition that the provisHW of quality education for all at no direct cost to parents and communities is not affordable in terms of budgetary allocations to education. The provincial budget for schools would go towards redressing inequalities in capital, core and operating costs, and salaries. However, in respect of operating costs, parents who can afford it will have to pay legally obligatory fees (DE, 1996: 32): Parents would be required to disclose the income bracket within which their income fell, Fees would be payable on an income-related sliding scale, with those at the lower end paying nothing, The provincial department's contribution to operating costs would be in inverse relation to the assessed fee income from parents, All schools would have the right to raise additional funds through voluntary contributions or other means, In an interim memorandum the task group dealing with this issue has given some detail on how partnership funding will work. A formula based on school attendance, results, and the redress of inequalities will be used. It would seem that school-based budgeting will become a possibility in the new dispensation, which has hitherto not been the case. A menu of responsibilities of public school governing bodies will be available (DE, 1996). Those schools that have the capacity may opt to assume some or all of these responsibilities. Financing responsibilities include setting school budget priorities and raising and controlling additional funds. The partnership funding approach contains elements of Model C schools in that partnership funding is continued. However, various objections are raised against this approach. Wealthy parents are doubly taxed by both high personal taxes and additional school levies. This is tantamount to discrimination against them. A disclosure of income can give rise to corruption, and it invades the right to privacy protected by the Constitution. According to the sliding scale, each parent will pay an

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individual fee, making administration difficult and leading to further charges of discrimination. The second White Paper (DE, 1996: 34) warns that this may have the effect that 'the independent sector grows in attraction and through the adherence of the middle class parents. This tendency would result in depriving the school sector of the better-educated and better-off segment of the population, regardless of race/ In 1994, parents at Model C schools contributed about R700 million towards the schooling of their children, which left government with the equivalent amount extra to spend on needier schools. Independent schools will continue to receive subsidies, as government acknowledges that many independent schools make an important contribution to the provision of education in South Africa. However, only schools which maintain satisfactory standards will be subsidized, as many 'unscrupulous and exploitative private school operators' (DE, 1996: 38) have lately opened private institutions.

17 Po4tcomfoui^^ Sdttcattw ^wtutCMa In the postcompulsory sector (final three years of secondary school), government will subsidize learners from disadvantaged backgrounds in part. However, the overall per capita expenditure in this phase will be substantially less than the corresponding subsidy in the compulsory phase. The funding of the tertiary sector is not yet clear, as the newly established National Commission on Higher Education is yet to report. However, it can be expected that a closer link between tertiary education and the needs of society and the economy will be encouraged. The structure of higher education programmes is the inverse of what is required by the society and economy, with a small technikon sector, a relatively large university sector, and a poorly developed and fragmented post-secondary college system' (DE, 1995: 32). Thus, funding priorities can be expected to correct these imbalances. For example, technikons may be more generously funded.

Sxwtaty 1 Education has individual and social benefits. Individuals and governments pay for

2

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education because they perceive it as having value. Economists gauge the dividends of education spending by means of a rate-of-return analysis. A private rate of return and a social rate of return are measured. Both individuals and governments pay for education. In an egalitarian society, which virtually all modern states strive to be, governments are primarily responsible for providing and paying for education. In an elitist society it is largely individuals who would pay for education, limiting access to the privileged. The pattern of spending differs from country to country.

EDUCATION FINANCE

3 Government is mostly involved in funding primary education (basic education), while its financing responsibility decreases towards the secondary and tertiary levels. Governments finance education heavily. In many countries, education is the single biggest item of the budget. 4 The consensus view holds that society is in harmony and that government spending ought to benefit everybody equally. The conflict view holds that social institutions do not operate in harmony and that there are power struggles in society. Government financing of education serves the interests of the dominating class. 5 Government funding of mass education is a relatively recent phenomenon. It is only since about the seventeenth century that education has been the responsibility of the state. 6 There are various costs in education, such as household costs and institutional costs. 7 Free education does not exist in essence. In all cases, someone has to pay for education. We can say, rather, that education is free of charge if users do not have to pay for it. Even so, education is hardly ever free of charge. Free education has become unsustainable in most countries. 8 Various cost-saving measures and alternatives for funding education exist. Many believe that the state's involvement in financing education should be decreased. Other methods of augmenting funding are user charges, a voucher system, tuition tax credits, block grants, curriculum change, and focusing on costeffective classroom interventions. 9 Education financing has been transformed in the democratic era. The unequal spending of the past is being replaced by an equitable provision and funding of education. Government has to make huge financial outlays to meet all its educational commitments. The separate category of state-aided schools is being abolished. However, in the partnership funding approach favoured by government, parents at state schools will still have to contribute according to their incomes.

%0»4 attd (fatcefiU block grant budget capital costs conflict view consensus view egalitarian elitist free education Gross National Product household costs

human capital theory partnership funding private rate of return public spending recurrent costs revenue social rate of return user charges voucher scheme

r

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Stafatt rtctMtoa 1 Imagine that you are the principal of a secondary school with 600 students and 25 teachers. The education department awards a block grant of R1,7 million to the school, which must cover all the annual expenses, including teachers' salaries. You have to submit a budget to the governing body. Draw up a detailed budget, indicating how you would spend the money. 2 Hold a class debate on the topic, Egalitarianism vs elitism: Which philosophy should guide a nation? Relate it to education funding as well. (In this chapter overwhelming credence is given to the egalitarian view, but research shows that the world is asking questions about the feasibility of egalitarianism. Are people inherently equal? Do differences in background, intelligence, interests, aptitudes, and attitudes not make them inherently unequal? This does not mean that some groups or individuals should be discriminated against, but rather that differences between individuals should be appreciated and accommodated.) 3 Imagine that you are the Minister of Education in South Africa. The President advises you that a dramatic cut in education expenditure is needed. The education budget must be slashed from R35 billion to R29 billion. Work out an overall cost-saving plan. How will you save public money in the education system? Some questions that may arise are: Should teachers be retrenched? Will you relate their salaries to their individual performances? Will you cut on head office spending? Which alternative methods of financing education will you consider?

&4tu>qn*fify Badenhorst, D C. 1995. Implications of the 'new science' for educational planning. South African Journal of Education, 15(1X13-15 Berkhout, S J. 1989. Manpower approach to the provision of education: A new educational route to Utopia? South African lournal of Education, 9 (1 ),13-21 Berkhout, S J. 1993. Financing education: who should pay? In E I Dekker & E M Lemmer (eds) Critical Issues in Modem Education. Durban: Butterworths Bray, M. 1990. Free education. In N T Postlethwaite & T Husen (eds) The International Encyclopedia of Education Research and Studies. London: Pergamon Press Brubacher,) S. 1966. A History of the Problems of Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Christie, P. 1989. The Right to Learn: The Struggle for Education in South Africa. Braamfontein: Ravan Press Claassen, J C. 1992. Economic perspectives on a new education dispensation. Educaref 21 (1&2), 10613 Claassen, J C. 1995a. The education system of South Africa. In E I Dekker & O J van Schalkwyk Modem Education Systems. Durban: Butterworths Claassen,) C. 1995b. Farewell to statism: towards the education system of the twenty-first century. South African journal of Education, 15 (4), 203-6

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EDUCATION FINANCE DNE: see National Education, Department of. Easton, P & S Klees. 1990. Education and the economy: Considering alternative perspectives. Prospects, XX (4), 413-28 Education, Department of (DE). 1995. Education White Paper 1. Education and training in a democratic South Africa: First steps to develop a new system. Notice 196, Government Gazette 16312 of 15 March 1995 Education, Department of (DE). 1996. Education White Paper 2. The organisation, governance and funding of schools. Notice 130, Government Gazette 16987 of 14 February 1996 Fagerlind, I & L Saha. 1989. Education and National Development: A Comparative Perspective. Oxford: Pergamon Fokus 46, 5. June 1990. Onderwysfinansiering in Suid-Afrika. Hofmeyr, J. 1994. There's light at the end of the education crisis tunnel. Weekly Mail, 6-12 May 1994,46 Illich, I. 1971. Deschooling society. New York: Harper & Row Lieberman, M. 1986. Privatization and public education. Phi Delta Kappanf 67 (5), 373-9 Naisbitt, J. 1994. Global Paradox. New York: Morrow National Education, Department of (DNE). 1992. Education Renewal Strategy. Pretoria National Education, Department of (DNE). 1993. Education Realities in South Africa 1993. Pretoria Pillay, P. 1988. Austerity and growth: Financing education in developing countries. Financing of Education. Proceedings of a workshop held by the EPU at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Psacharopoulos, G. 1985. Returns to education: A further international update and implications. Journal of Human Resources, 20 (4), 583-604 Thomas, R M (ed). 1992. Education's Role in National Development Plans: Ten country cases. New York: Praeger Toffler, A. 1990. Powersoft. New York: Morrow Tsang, M C. 1988. Cost analysis for policymaking: A review of cost studies in education in developing countries. Review of Educational Research, 58 (2), 181-230 Van Niekerk, E J. 1994. The rise of mass popular education: A brief analysis of key factors. South African Journal of Education, 14 (4),199-203 Watson, K. 1994. Educational provision for the 21 st century: Who or what is shaping the agenda? Paper read at the SACHES Conference, Gaborone, 25-27 October

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CHAPTER

ELEVEN

Sdu&xtixM, attd, t6e *&uvDr Joan Squelch Faculty of Education University of South Africa

A student is suspended from school for bullying other students. Three high school students are expelled for bringing alcohol to school. A principal is fired for misappropriating school funds. A teacher is sued by parents for divulging confidential information about their child at a school function. A parent sues a school for racial discrimination. In yet another incident, a primary school files a suit in the Supreme Court in an attempt to determine its own admission policy and to restrict admission on the grounds of language competence. These examples show that education law is becoming an increasingly important part of a teacher's school life. Teachers in South Africa need some knowledge of the law and how it affects their work. In this chapter, you will learn about laws that affect your day-to-day activities in the school and classroom. You will have an opportunity to reflect on situations you may be faced with one day. By becoming more aware of the legal dimension of teaching, you will be able to avoid tricky situations and unnecessary court cases.

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EDUCATION AND THE LAW

7*^V0***"** 1

Introduction The Relationship between Education and the Law 2.1 Education within the South African legal system

384 385 386

Nature and Sources of Law 3.1 The Constitution 3.1 .1 Bill of Rights 3.1 .2 Limitation of rights 3.2 Legislation 3.3 Common law 3.4 Case law

387 387 388 389 389 391 391

The Legal Context of Teaching 5 Classroom Instruction 5.1 Curriculum issues 5.2 Freedom of expression 5.3 Student records 5.4 Recommendations for practice

392 394 394 396 397 398

2 3

4

6

The Diligent Supervisor 6.1 Negligence 6.1 .1 Duty of care 6.1 .2 Breach of duty 6.1 .3 Causal relationship 6.1 .4 Damages 6.1 .5 Common sources of negligence 6.2 Supervision 6.2.1 Areas of supervision 6.3 Recommendations for practice

398 399 399 399 401 401 402 402 404 408

7

Students and Discipline 7.1 The principles of reasonableness and fairness 7.2 The rules of natural justice 7.3 Forms of punishment 7.3.1 Corporal punishment 7.3.2 Exclusion from school 7.3.3 Detention 7.4 Search and seizure 7.5 School and classroom rules 7.6 Recommendations for practice

409 409 410 411 411 412 413 414 416 417

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Student Activities

41 7 418 418

Bibliography.

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Summary Terms and Concepts

/ IttfauUtfaM Ms Dent is a primary school teacher. She teaches religious instruction, science, and physical education to the Std 4 and S classes. What follows is an account of a typical day for Ms Dent.

Ms Dent arrives at school at 07:15 and supervises scholar patrol. During homeroom period she collects money and parental permission notes for a Std 5 school trip to a nature reserve, The first lesson of the day is religious instruction. Some students who are exempt from this class are given permission to work in the media centre during this period. Ms Dent does playground duty during first recess. She attends fo a junior who has fallen and cut her knee. During the science class Ms Dent teaches a lesson on heat. The Std 4 students are doing an experiment on expansion and contraction. They are required to heat different solids and liquids. At the beginning of the lesson, Ms Dent reminds the students about the safety rules for working in the science laboratory and, in particular, about the dangers related to using heat. In the physical education class, Std 5 students are using the pommel horse. Ms Dent first explains the safety aspects and demonstrates how to use it. Billy, who is not allowed to take part in strenuous activities, is put in charge of making sure all the equipment that is used is put back in the proper place. At 14:15 Ms Dent attends a brief staff meeting at which the staff are given information on the new regulations concerning school discipline, especially in respect of corporal punishment. From 15:00 to 16:00 Ms Dent coaches the under-12 netball team. At 17:30 she has an appointment with parents who are concerned about their child's performance and progress at school. They specifically wish to discuss the education psychologist's report on their child with her.

This account illustrates a typical day in the life of a teacher. On first reading, there is really nothing unusual about the activities which are mentioned here. The activities include instruction, supervision, meeting with parents, coaching sport, organizing

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outings and attending staff meetings. These are just some of the many educational and managerial activities that fill a teacher's hectic and varied day. But what else is significant about these activities? Besides their educational nature, they all take place within a legal context. Have you ever stopped to think about the legal implications of everything that takes place in a school? For example, when dealing with student reports, teachers have a legal duty to ensure that the information is accurate and unbiased. Teachers also need to be aware of the student's right to privacy and confidentiality, especially when dealing with sensitive personal information about the child (such as an educational psychologist's report). When coaching sport or teaching physical education, teachers have a particular duty to provide the necessary supervision and care so as to prevent accidents. Likewise, playground duty is essential for supervising students. You can imagine what could happen if children, especially young children, were left unattended to do as they pleased. The playground is a place where many injuries can occur. If you think about it, everything a teacher does has legal implications. Teachers today must concern themselves with a diverse set of legal issues that inform the teaching environment. It is this legal dimension of the school environment that will be explored in this chapter. The intention is not to try and make lawyers out of teachers. Instead, the aim is to help teachers become more aware of some of the basic legal principles and issues relating to teaching. In this chapter we will therefore focus on the following: the relationship between education and the law; the nature and sources of law; the legal context of teaching, with reference to instruction, supervision, and discipline.

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2.1 Education within the South African legal system The South African legal system is divided into private law and public law. Briefly, private law regulates the relationship between persons or legal subjects. This legal relationship is equal and therefore is described as a horizontal relationship. Public law regulates relations between different organs of state and between the state and its subjects. The public-law relationship is unequal, with the state in an authoritative position, and is thus described as a vertical relationship (Kleyn & Viljoen, 1996). Private law and public law consist of a number of divisions, for example constitutional law, administrative law, criminal law, law of persons, law of patrimony, indigenous law, and commercial law. In education, we are concerned mainly with public law and public-law relationships, for example the relationship between the education department (state organ) and teachers (legal subjects), or between the principal (state functionary) and students (legal subjects). One does, of course, also find private law relationships in education, for example when a parent institutes a civil action against a teacher for negligence. In private schools the employment relationship between the governing body and teacher is based mainly on private law. All aspects of education are determined and governed by a complex system of legal rules and principles. The legal rules and regulations that make up education law come from different parts of our law; the field is therefore multidimensional. A few examples are described below. Constitutional law. This determines the nature of the state and state organs. The Constitution forms the basis of constitutional law. Example: Chapter two of the Constitution contains the Bill of Rights that applies to all citizens and binds all state organs. Administrative law. This is a vast body of law which controls the day-to-day administration of the state and its organs, including education structures. Example: Administrative law determines powers, capacities, and duties of school principals and school governing bodies. Criminal law. This deals with criminal offences, that is, acts which are against the law. Example: Teachers who administer corporal punishment may be charged with a criminal offence because this form of punishment is against the law.

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EDUCATION AND THE LAW

Law of contract. This encompasses laws governing contracts and their legal requirements. Example: A teacher enters into a contract of employment with the education department. The contract, to be valid, must meet certain legal requirements. Law of delict. This deals with civil wrongs that cause the injured party to seek compensation from the wrongdoer for damages incurred. Example: If a teacher fails to exercise the proper duty of care in the classroom and a child is injured, the teacher can be sued for compensation by the child's parents.

3 *HatttM4^ Sources of law In order to understand how the law affects teachers, it is helpful to know where the law comes from. South African law is derived from several sources, namely, constitutional law, statutory law, common law, and case law. The combination of the Constitution, statutes, common law, and case law forms the basic legal foundation on which the school system is based. A short explanation of the sources is given below.

3.1 The Constitution A constitution is a body of precepts that provides a framework of law within which orderly governing processes can operate (Alexander & Alexander, 1992). In 1993, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 200 of 1993 was adopted as an interim Constitution. The 1993 Constitution marked a significant departure from the previous constitution insofar as it brought an end to parliamentary sovereignty in South Africa and signalled a democracy in which the Constitution (rather than Parliament) is the ultimate source of legal power. The final Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 108 of 1996 has replaced the interim Constitution, and was formally adopted in December 1996. The 1996 Constitution is the supreme law of the country (section 2). It provides the framework for the making of all laws at the national and provincial levels. Any law or act which is inconsistent with it shall, unless otherwise provided, be without any force or effect to the extent of the inconsistency. The Constitution specifies the structures and organization of government (eg state president, legislature, executive, and judiciary) and outlines the powers and duties of its organs and principal officials. The Constitution also sets limitations on governmental power. In terms of section 8, all legislative, executive, and judicial organs of state at all levels of government shall be bound to the Constitution. This is important since it means that the state and its organs are no longer above the law.

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3.1.1 Bill of Rights Chapter two of the Constitution deals with fundamental human rights. In essence, the Bill of Rights represents the undertaking of the state (and its organs) to protect the basic human rights of all citizens. Rights which are embodied in this chapter include the rights to equality, dignity, privacy, and education, as well as freedom of association, expression, religion, and beliefs. The Bill of Rights applies to all citizens and binds all legislative and executive organs of state at all levels of government (section 8). Some of the provisions of the Constitution which have a direct influence on teachers in the school are described below. Equality Section 9 of the Constitution protects citizens against discrimination. Given the history of South Africa, this is one of the most preciously guarded rights. In the school context, it means that children may not be discriminated against. Children may not, for example, be excluded from schools or any school activity on grounds such as race, language, or religion. Human dignity This provision (section 10) recognizes the right of people to be treated with respect and dignity. In the school, actions that could violate this right include corporal punishment, body searches, sexual harassment, and verbal abuse. This is all the more reason why teachers should not resort to using sarcasm in the classroom or employ disciplinary tactics that are humiliating and degrading, for example. Freedom and security of the person Section 12(1) states that '[e]veryone has the right to freedom and security of person, which includes the right . . . (d) not to be tortured in any way; and (e) not to be treated or punished in a cruel, inhuman or degrading way'. Obviously teachers need to take heed of this provision when they are disciplining students. We will learn more about this in the section on discipline. Privacy Section 14 protects citizens' personal property from arbitrary invasion or interference. In the school context, teachers need to respect students' right of privacy when dealing with personal information and conducting student searches. Religion, belief and opinion Section 15 protects students from being compelled to participate in religious instruction and other religious activities. It also requires schools to recognize religious

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EDUCATION AND THE LAW

diversity and prohibits school officials from preventing children from exercising their religious freedom, unless for very necessary and justifiable reasons.

Freedom of expression Section 16 provides that every citizen shall have the right to free speech and expression. Teachers and students do not give up this right when they enter the school. They are entitled to hold divergent opinions. This aspect will be discussed in more detail later in the chapter and we will look at how this freedom may be limited.

Just administrative action Section 33 provides for the right to be treated in a fair and just manner. This has particular relevance for school discipline and disciplinary procedures.

Language and culture Every person has the right to use a language and participate in the culture of his or her choice (section 30). This provision has implications for teachers who are required to teach multilingual and multicultural groups of students. Schools need to recognize and respect students7 language and culture.

Education Section 29 is one of the most important provisions in the Bill of Rights. It guarantees the right of every person to basic education and access to an educational institution.

3.1.2 Limitation of rights The above rights and freedoms are protected, and guaranteed to every citizen of the country, including children! Teachers have a legal duty to uphold these rights in the school context, and failure to do so could lead to legal action. However, it is also important to remember that rights are not absolute. Under section 36 of the Constitution, rights may be limited by law, provided that the reasons for imposing a limitation are reasonable, justifiable and necessary in a democratic society. Therefore, principals and teachers may impose a restriction on students' rights while they are at school, provided it is for sound reasons. We will learn more about the limitations of rights in the school context later in the chapter.

3.2 Legislation Statutes are made by an organ of the state vested with legislative authority. The word 'statute' is derived from the Latin statuere meaning 'to decree'. In terms of the 1996 Constitution, Parliament is the highest legislative authority. Parliament will pass legislation of a national nature (eg on defence, the national

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budget, etc) and on other specific matters where national legislation would be more suitable (e g national education policy, norms and standards).

GAUTENG SCHOOL EDUCATION ACT 6 OF 1995 To provide for the provision and control of education in schools, and matters connected therewith Important provisions of the Act Basic principles of the education policy section 5 Functions of the executive of education sections 6-10 Schooling sections 11-25 Language policy section 18 Religious policy section 21 Powers of governing bodies section 28 Registration of private schools section 66 Funding of private schools sections 69 and 70 Rights and responsibilities of educators sections 84-7

Figure 11.1 Example of a provincial statute on education

Other legislative authorities include the legislatures of the provinces and local governments. Although Parliament is the highest (national) law-making body, the provinces also have original and comprehensive powers to pass laws on matters of a provincial nature (e g provincial education — primary and secondary schools, provincial health and welfare, tourism, road traffic, etc). In certain instances, provincial laws may even prevail over national laws that deal with such topics. South African schools are therefore governed by statutes enacted by the central legislature (ie the national Parliament) and provincial legislatures. Although the

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EDUCATION AND THE LAW

provincial statutes on education may vary from one province to the next, they are essentially the same (figure 11.1). In general, they provide a legal framework and basic legal principles for the provision, governance, and functioning of education. Rules and regulations are an important source of law. They form a comprehensive body of subordinate legislation which must be expressly authorized by the enabling statute. Local governments usually have subordinate legislative powers, which means that they derive their law-making power from an enabling statute (empowering them to make laws), which is usually a parliamentary or provincial statute. Each education department is responsible for drafting rules and regulations, which are essentially an extension of the main statute.

3.3 Common law According to Kleyn and Viljoen (1996), when a matter is not governed by legislation, common law applies. Common law covers many of the general legal principles that we live by, such as for example, the fact that a buyer is obliged to pay an agreed amount when taking possession of something. This principle derives from Roman law and not modern legislation. Common law is thus that part of the law that is not enacted by Parliament, that is, non-statutory law. It is essentially an accumulation of legal precepts that have developed over time and are found in the works of legal writers and case law. South African common law developed from Roman-Dutch law and English law and for this reason, it is often described as a hybrid system.

EXAMPLE: IN LOCO PARENTIS

In loco parentis, which means xin place of a parent7 is a common-law principle derived from English law, Teachers are In loco parenffe, which means they act on behalf of the parents while children are at school and they are expected to be responsible for children in the same way a sensible parent would.

3.4 Case law Case law is a further important source of law. Once an Act of Parliament has been passed it has to be interpreted. The role of the courts is mainly to interpret and apply the law in order to obtain clarity on a wide variety of issues with a view to settling disputes or controversial issues. In the process of interpreting and applying the law, judges also create law. Case law is therefore made up of legally binding decisions of the courts. In South Africa, case law is characterized by the stare decisis doctrine ('let the decision stand7). According to this doctrine, previous judgments create precedents (authoritative decisions) which must be followed. The basic principle is that the law which was applied to a specific factual situation should be applied to all similar

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

situations (Kleyn & Viljoen, 1996). Decisions of a superior court are also binding on lower courts. The Constitutional Court, which consists of a president and ten judges, is the highest court in South Africa and deals with constitutional matters. It has its seat in Johannesburg and has jurisdiction over the whole of South Africa. A judgment of the Constitutional Court binds all courts in South Africa, including the Appellate Division of the High Court. It also binds all organs of state (Kleyn & Viljoen, 1996). Our system of courts is therefore a hierarchical one. The hierarchy of South African courts is illustrated in figure 11.2. CONSTITUTIONAL COURT (Constitutional matters) APPELLATE DIVISION OF THE HIGH COURT (court of appeal on non-constitutional matters) PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL DIVISIONS OF THE HIGH COURT (higher courts) LOWER COURT (courts of limited jurisdiction; regional and district courts e g magistrates' courts) Figure 11.2 The hierarchy of South African courts

In education, as in other fields, we often encounter tribunals. Strictly speaking, tribunals are not courts, but in practice they act in a similar way by hearing disciplinary matters for a professional group. Tribunals perform an important internal control function. Where possible, disputes are settled internally by the education administration concerned before they reach the courts. For this reason, we find that courts are generally reluctant to interfere in educational issues, which are best dealt with by educational authorities.

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A discussion on religious freedom is taking place in the staffroom of a public primary school between the principal and two teachers during a break, Sue (to the principal): Fatima is wearing her long dress and trousers again, I have repeatedly asked her not to do so, but she insists that it's expected of her because of her religion, What shall I do about it? Mrs Goodey (the principal): Well, we agreed at the last staff meeting that children are not allowed to wear items of clothing other than the prescribed school uniform. I will write a letter to her parents informing them that their child could face suspension if she continues to wear her long dress and trousers. Nomsa: Do you think that's a good idea? It seems important to her to wear these clothes. In fact, she is a very quiet, well-behaved child. The other children do not seem to mind. Sue: We can't have children wearing what they like just because it's 'their religion'! School rules are school rules. This child knew our school was a Christian school when she chose to come here, so 'when in Rome, do as the Romans do'! Nomsa: You forget that the school is here to serve the community. It is not 'our' school. What's more, the community and school have changed. We are a multicultural and multifaith school and community, Surely this needs to be reflected in our policy and ethos? We must be more open and sensitive to religious diversity in this school, Mrs Goodey. Sue, I agree. Nomsa has a valid point, This matter needs far more serious discussion before any action is taken against students. Sue: But I know the chairman of the governing body agrees with me! Perhaps she should have a say in this, After all, the Gauteng Education Act does state that the religious policy shall be made by the governing body, and if they decide children may not wear religious clothing, so be it! Nomsa: But it also states that the religious policy must be approved by the MEC for Education and that it should be developed within the framework of certain principles which include respect for our country's cultural and religious traditions and freedom of speech. This is in keeping with the Constitution's Bill of Rights which protects religious freedom. Sue: But what then constitutes 'religious freedom'? What about the rights of the school to protect its religious ethos and tradition, which in our case is Christian? Surely schools should be able to decide what is acceptable and what's not? Mrs Goodey: This is obviously a sensitive and controversial issue which needs our immediate attention. I will arrange for a special staff meeting at which the legal ramifications can be discussed, In the meantime, Sue, do not pursue this any further with Fatima.

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changing context in which teachers now operate. What might have been a relatively simple, clear-cut matter a few years ago is now a complex matter involving important legal questions. The new Constitution, with its Bill of Rights, and subsequent education legislation have created a new legal context for schools. In the everchanging school environment, principals and teachers face many a situation which presents a legal challenge, whether it be students wearing items of clothing with religious significance, obligatory admission tests, promotion requirements, record keeping, or disciplining students. In the dialogue above, our teachers Sue and Nomsa both referred to the 1996 Constitution and the Gauteng School Education Act 6 of 1995. Teachers need to be familiar with such legislation and with fundamental legal principles that influence how we respond to situations on a daily basis. In this chapter we focus selectively on three areas — classroom instruction, supervision, and discipline — which are the primary tasks of a teacher. In each section a number of related aspects are explored using scenarios (or case studies) that represent typical situations or are based on actual events. These are useful in identifying basic legal principles which must guide teachers' actions.

5 @t<M&WMt Ivt&foMfoM The teacher's primary task is to provide instruction. Although general matters relating to instruction are dealt with in education legislation, rules and regulations, and departmental guidelines, instruction is not regulated by law to any great extent. The courts also recognize the authority of education departments to determine requirements relating to mandatory subjects, curriculum content, methods of instruction, textbook selection, examination and testing procedures, and promotion requirements. Teachers are given great latitude in the way they teach and manage their classrooms. The courts are therefore generally reluctant to interfere in instructional matters. This does not mean that parents and students will not challenge teachers' actions, or that the courts will not intervene if there is evidence that students' basic human rights are being violated in the classroom. Thus, even though teachers do have the most say over what happens in the classroom and what is taught, they need to be mindful of students' rights. In this section, we considers few legal issues relating to aspects of instruction.

5.1 Curriculum issues A group of parents is dissatisfied with a section of the history syllabus that portrays black South Africans in a very negative and stereotypical way. They ask the principal to have the offensive section removed from the syllabus or changed.

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The choice of curriculum content has generally been seen as the exclusive domain of schools and teachers in accordance with the curriculum framework provided by the education authorities. Within this context, teachers select what content they will teach and how to teach it. In this regard, teachers have a professional responsibility to ensure that what they choose to teach is relevant, appropriate, accurate, and nondiscriminatory. Although parents cannot interfere with the teacher's work, they have a right to know what the curriculum consists of, to be informed of curriculum change, and to question what is taught and why. For instance, parents have a say when it comes to religious instruction. The law recognizes the religious rights of parents and allows parents to withdraw their children from religious instruction and other acts of worship. With regard to sex education programmes, parents are also entitled to be informed about the nature and content of the programme before they permit their children to attend. Even if sex education is made a compulsory part of the curriculum in future, teachers need to exercise sensitivity and prudence when dealing with curriculum matters which have such deep-seated cultural, moral, and social implications. It is not uncommon for parents to challenge curriculum requirements and demand a say in what their children learn. Usually concerns raised by parents can be resolved amicably by the principal and teachers. However, in some cases parents may take the matter to court if they feel that their rights are being ignored or that the school has responded in an unsatisfactory or unjust way. An interesting US case which illustrates the kinds of issues parents might contest is that of Mozert v Hawkins County Board of Education 484 US 1066 (1987). This case involved a group of parents who objected to a set of reading books which they claimed violated their religious rights. In 1983 the Hawkins County Board of Education adopted the basic reading series published by Holt, Rinehart and Winston for use in elementary public schools. One parent who described herself as 'a born-again Christian' objected to the content of the readers. The School Board agreed to allow her children (and other students) to use an alternative reading programme. This decision was, however, later changed and all students were required to attend classes using the Holt reading series. The mother refused to allow her children to attend the classes. She, along with several other families, then filed a court action in which they asserted that they had sincere religious beliefs that were contrary to the values incorporated in the textbooks. They argued that this was a violation of their religious rights. Following lengthy deliberations, the court held that the plaintiffs (parents) failed to show that the School Board's insistence on students using the Holt reading series was unconstitutional and a violation of religious beliefs (Alexander & Alexander, 1992). In similar cases, the courts have indicated that school authorities cannot be compelled to change curriculum requirements merely because parents do not approve of something. However, this does not mean to say schools can discount or ignore parents' interests and rights in their children's education. No cases of this nature have occurred in South Africa. Educators must be aware of their professional duties with respect to instruction.

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5.2 Freedom of expression Thandi, a Std 8 student, was instructed by her geography teacher to rewrite an essay on labour in the mining industry because he did not agree with her views on labour, even though they were well substantiated. She would receive nil for her essay if she did not rewrite it, The English teacher instructed one of her Std 10 students to tone down the language in his speech before he presented it in class, as it contained unnecessarily vulgar language,

Freedom of expression is one of the basic rights in a democratic society. According to section 16(1) of the South African Bill of Rights: Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes (a) freedom of the press and other media; (b) freedom to receive or impart information or ideas; (c) freedom of artistic creativity; (d) academic freedom and freedom of scientific research. To what extent does this provision affect classroom instruction? Freedom of expression is manifested in the school environment by the freedom to speak, to write, to wear symbolic items, and through personal appearance. Students do not give up their right to freedom of expression when they enter the classroom. However, as with all rights, the right to freedom of expression is limited. Therefore, teachers may restrict students' freedom of expression, provided they have valid educational reasons for believing that it is necessary and justifiable to do so. A teacher, therefore, may forbid students to use vulgar language in a class speech if it is not appropriate for the topic or situation and is offensive to other students. In an interesting US case, a student was suspended from school for using vulgar and offensive language in a speech which he delivered to the student body during an assembly. The student had been warned beforehand to change his speech because it was inappropriate. He ignored the advice and chose to exercise his freedom of speech. When he was suspended his parents took legal action against the school. On appeal, the Supreme Court held that there was significant interest in protecting students from indecent, vulgar language, and that such language was inconsistent with the school's values. The court therefore upheld the school's decision to suspend the student (Bethel School District No 403 v Froser 478 US 675 (1986)). Another noteworthy US case is that of Hazelwood School District v Kuhlmeier 484 US 260 (1988). This case deals with the extent to which educators may exercise control over the content of a high school newspaper which is published by students as part of the school curriculum. In this instance, the principal censored the newspaper by removing pages from two articles. One article described students' experiences with

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pregnancy and the second discussed the impact of divorce on students at the school. The principal felt that the content of the articles was inappropriate for the younger students, and that the privacy of individuals in the articles was not adequately protected, even though false names had been used. The court held that the principal's concerns were legitimate and reasonable, and upheld the principal's decision to censor the paper. In this case, an important distinction was made between independent student speech (speech not related to the school curriculum) and school-sponsored speech — that is, speech directly related to school curriculum, for example school speeches, essays, and articles for the school newspaper. It is accepted that school officials have more control over students' speech when it is school-sponsored and that school officials are permitted to censor articles on the basis of the content as long as such censorship is based on sound pedagogical concerns. Would one expect a similar decision if a teacher refused to mark a history essay or awarded a student a poor mark simply because the teacher held a different point of view about a particular event? In this instance, the courts would probably regard this as an infringement of the child's right to freedom of expression. The student has every right to hold a different view to that of the teacher. The student is not being offensive or undermining teaching. He/she is actually doing what most teachers seek to encourage — thinking critically and independently.

5.3 Student records A parent whose child has a learning disability is concerned about his progress and the way in which he is being treated by some of the teachers, and asks to see his school record and all his test scores. Schools are required to keep records of students which contain personal details and general information about their home background and behaviour, performance and progress at school. These records are confidential and must be accurate and current. In the past, student records were a well-kept secret and parents did not have access to them. However, secrecy implies that parents cannot challenge incorrect or prejudicial information. The right to information in section 32 of the Bill of Rights gives parents the right to demand access to their children's school records. Although most provincial education acts include a section on parents' rights to information, it is not clear what information will be made available or what procedures should be followed to manage the process. It does, however, mean that teachers need to be aware of students' and parents' rights to information, privacy and confidentiality when dealing with personal and often sensitive information. Teachers have a legal obligation to ensure that all information that is recorded about a student's behaviour, performance and progress at school is reliable, accurate and relevant. Information that is false, misleading, biased, and unsubstantiated can lead to legal action against the school.

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5.4 Recommendations for practice * Select curriculum content that is relevant and appropriate for multicultural classes. * Develop criteria for selecting and evaluating textbooks and instructional material. * Keep parents informed about curriculum developments. It is a good idea to invite parents to talks and workshops on matters relating to the curriculum. * Make sure that student records are up to date and accurate, and maintain confidentiality of such records. * Students have a right to be excused from religious education and acts of worship. Avoid inflexible policies that might infringe a student's right to religious freedom. * Avoid actions that may be a violation of students' rights.

6 The Diligent Supervisor A key responsibility of a principal and of teachers is the supervision and care of students at school. It is accepted that students are exposed to various dangers at school, which means that principals and teachers have to take extra care to ensure that students are provided with safe facilities and adequate supervision and, wherever possible, protected from danger. The following two contrasting British cases illustrate the kinds of accidents that can easily happen in a school and for which teachers could be held liable (Leighton, 1992). The different outcomes highlight two important questions concerning teacher liability: * When is a teacher liable? * What constitutes negligence? Barnes v Hampshire County Council (1969) 67 LCR 60S At an infant school in Hampshire, it was the custom that children were met by their parents at 15h30 after being taken to the school gate by teachers. There was a busy main road not far from the school. Children were instructed to return to school if their parent was not there. A five-year-old student left the school one afternoon, wandered into the main road and was hit by a car. A call for assistance was registered at 15h30. The inference was clear: on the day in question, children had been let out early. The Local Education Authority (LEA) was held responsible for the conduct of the teachers at the school and was required to pay compensation to the victim. Good v Inner London Education Authority (1980) 10 Family Law 213 A six-year-old schoolboy was injured in a school playground shortly after school finished when another boy threw sand at him which contained a sharp object. The incident happened at a time when students who could not be collected from school immediately were moved to a play centre. The two boys in question escaped unnoticed when they were being ushered to the centre. The Court of Appeal held that this was not a case of negligence.

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6.1 Negligence Negligence can be defined as the failure to exercise an acceptable degree of care for the safety and well-being of others. Negligence may occur as a result of failure to act when there is a duty to act, or as a result of acting in an improper manner. Proving negligence is not a straightforward matter (Imber & Van Geel, 1993). A number of aspects need to be considered to establish the existence of negligence. To prove negligence: * * * *

there must be a duty of care; there must be a failure to exercise a standard of care; there must be a causal link between the action and injury; actual loss must result.

6.1.1 Duty of care To establish whether an individual has been negligent it must be proved that a duty of care existed between the student and the school, and that the duty was not fulfilled. In the school context it is not difficult to show that teachers have a duty to provide a safe and healthy environment. The law recognizes the fact that teachers have a duty of care when children are placed in their care, and that they are responsible for their well-being. This duty of care is linked to the fact that the teacher is acting in loco parentis and is therefore expected to act like a diligent and sensible parent. In terms of this common-law principle, a teacher has delegated power (eg the parent and principal delegate certain authority) and original power (i e by virtue of the teacher's position and status) over children on school grounds, both during the normal school session and during official school activities after school hours. The meaning of duty of care is aptly summarized in the case Rusere v The Jesuit Fathers 1970 (4) SA 537 (RSC), in which the court stated: The duty of care owed to children by school authorities has been said to be to take such care of them as a careful father would take of his children , , . This means no more than that schoolmasters, like parents, must observe towards their charges the standard of care that a reasonably prudent man (sic) would observe in the particular circumstances,

6.1.2 Breach of duty A breach of duty of care amounts to a failure of one party to conform to the standard required towards another (Camp, Underwood & Connelly, 1989). A breach of duty can occur from either an act or an omission. Failure to supervise, for example, alleges that the teacher omitted, or failed, to be reasonable under the circumstances. Thus there is no breach of duty if the teacher acted as a reasonable person. If a person fails in the duty of care, he or she may be guilty of negligence.

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The test for negligence is based on the principle of the 'reasonable person'. The concept of reasonableness is expressed in the principle of diligens paterfamilias. This means a person (in this case the teacher) is expected to do what any reasonable person might be expected to do in similar circumstances. Two important criteria for determining whether the person acted like a reasonable person are reasonable foreseeability and reasonable preventability.

Reasonable foreseeability Part of a teacher's responsibility and duty of care is to foresee potential dangers and risks that might cause harm to children. When testing for negligence, it must therefore be decided whether it was possible to foresee that injury could occur if a particular course of action were followed or if one refrained from taking action. The onus is on the individual teacher to decide what action should be taken or avoided to ensure the safety of students in relation to known or foreseeable risks and dangers. The principle of foreseeability is illustrated in the case of Knouwds v Administrates, Kaap 1981 (1) SA 544 (C). The facts of this case are that eight-year-old Ester and her friend were running races on the lawns between the school buildings. Ester's friend suddenly bumped into her and Ester stumbled against the school's lawnmower which a labourer was using to mow the lawn. One of Ester's fingers was seriously injured and had to be amputated. In this case, the plaintiff claimed that the labourer, the caretaker, and the principal had been negligent. The judge held all three negligent on the grounds that a reasonable person could have foreseen the danger of mowing the lawn at that time, and that the principal had not taken the necessary precautionary steps. Although the court does not expect principals and teachers to anticipate every single situation in which a child might be injured, or to prevent an unforeseen injury that could happen quickly and without warning, in this case it was asserted that it had been possible to foresee the danger and to prevent injury. While the law does not expect teachers to anticipate every accident, it does expect the teacher to behave as a reasonable person. It is easy to anticipate that an accident might occur if a group of children is badly supervised, if a minibus which transports children is not maintained, or if dangerous equipment is not properly stored. Only if a situation is truly unexpected can one claim that it was not reasonable to foresee harm (Leighton, 1992). The extent to which a teacher can be reasonably expected to foresee dangers and anticipate risks will depend on the facts of the case and the circumstances (eg the nature of the school activity, the location of the school, the age of the students, etc). Thus preprimary teachers have a greater responsibility in this respect than teachers who are involved with older groups.

Reasonable preventability If it is foreseeable that someone might be harmed, the responsible person is expected to take whatever steps a reasonable person would take to avoid or minimize injury.

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Therefore, to establish whether negligence exists, it is necessary to determine whether the individual acted in a reasonable manner and took all the necessary steps to prevent accidents or injury. The Rusere case was decided as follows: On all the evidence it has not been shown to me that the school staff negligently failed to guard against the occurrence of misfortune such that befell the plaintiff, On the contrary, I hold the persons responsible for the care of the plaintiff in fact exhibited towards him the standard of care which a reasonable man, similarly placed, would have observed, How was this principle applied in the Knouwds case? In the Knouwds case the court took a different view, finding the labourer, the caretaker, and the principal guilty of negligence. The court held that the possibility that young children would collide with a lawnmower, if it was used at that particular time and place, and that they would be injured as a result, should have been foreseen by the principal, . . . further, that in the circumstances a reasonable person would have taken precautions in order to avoid or prevent the occurrence of the damaging consequences. , , . further, that the . . , risk was indeed of such a nature that it required effective steps on the part of the school staff to ensure that the safety of the children was guaranteed. . . , further, that no such steps had been taken. Thus the court decided that the school personnel did not take reasonable care and were therefore guilty of negligence. What do you think the principal should have done in this situation? The gardener could have cut the grass later in the afternoon or even on the weekend. If, however, that was the only convenient time, the principal and caretaker should have ensured that that particular area of the school was out of bounds, and placed a teacher on duty to make sure children were kept away.

6.1.3 Causal relationship In general, it should be demonstrated that the person's injury did result from the actions of the person charged with negligence. In other words, there must be a clear causal relationship between the act and the injury.

6.1.4 Damages To receive an award of damages, a plaintiff must have suffered an injury (physical or mental) due to the negligent conduct of the defendant. The plaintiff must prove that some damage occurred. Although the injury or damage does not need to be substantial for an award to be ordered, the injury must be real and not imagined. The courts are generally reluctant to award damages where there is no actual injury.

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6.1.5

Common sources of negligence According to Shoop and Dunklee (1992), the possibility exists that teachers may be found guilty of negligence in the following instances: * * * * * * * *

failure to provide proper supervision; failure to aid the injured or sick; permitting students to play unsafe games; failing to provide adequate instruction; taking unreasonable risks; improperly organized field trips; allowing students to use unsafe equipment; failure to enforce safety rules.

6.2 Supervision A teacher, accompanied by two parents, takes a group of primary school students on a weekend camping trip to a nature reserve, While the students are engaged in their own activities around the campsite, one of the students climbs a tree and falls, breaking a leg. A primary responsibility of teachers is to provide adequate supervision. What constitutes reasonable supervision? No easy answer exists. It has already been emphasized that teachers have a duty to safeguard children from danger. Supervision thus requires teachers to be aware of the students' activities and the conditions surrounding the activities. Teachers are also expected to warn students of potential dangers and to take steps to prevent harm and injury. Failure to do so can constitute negligence. However, the courts do recognize that it is not possible for teachers to keep students under constant supervision and surveillance. The discussion which follows will illustrate the need for and degree of supervision. In the Rusere case, in which a boy was injured in the eye while playing 'cowboys and Indians', the court stated that: the duty to keep children of this age under constant supervision depends essentially upon the risks to which they are exposed in their particular surroundings, No doubt a reasonable man (sic) who is in charge of a number of young children at the seaside would be guilty of negligence if he were not to keep them under constant supervision, To contend, however, that children of this age should never be more than momentarily out of sight of a reasonable person even when they are in normal and familiar surroundings which are devoid of features that could sensibly be regarded as hazardous is, I think, to exact too high a duty of care,

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This is in keeping with international trends. For example, in a US case, the court concluded that a preschool teacher did not breach her duty of supervision simply because she was attending to other children during recess when a child fell while attempting to swing on a jungle gym. The court concluded that the teacher was not required to have each child in sight at all times. In contrast, a school administration was found guilty of negligence resulting in the injury of a six-year-old child because of its failure to supervise a construction site near the school's entrance. The school officials warned children daily about the dangerous site but had not provided supervision (McCarthy & Cambron-McCabe, 1992). The degree of supervision will depend on the location, age, and maturity of the children, and the nature of the activity. For instance, the junior primary teacher's duty of care in relation to her students is obviously more onerous than that of a secondary school teacher. Tronc (1995), for example, states that the younger the children under the teacher's care, the more vigilant the teacher must be, and the closer and more continuous the supervision must be. Six-year-olds therefore require a far higher standard of care and supervision than 17-year-olds. In other words, a preschool teacher or junior primary teacher has to bear a much heavier load of responsibility as regards care and precautions than a teacher of a high school class. This is further illustrated in the Rusere case, in which the actions of the staff, the age of the boys, the nature of the game played by the boys and the circumstances under which the game was played were considered. It was contended that (i)n the absence of any particular circumstances giving rise to a measure of risk beyond that which is normal in the daily routine of life, it is not the law that the schoolmaster must keep his students under supervision for every moment of their school lives. The law thus recognizes that teachers cannot take care of students every minute of the day nor protect them against every possible hazard. In this regard the age and maturity level of the students are significant. However, this does not mean that teachers are not required to provide constant supervision in certain situations, such as during field trips, or during physical education classes. The main legal principles can be summarized as follows: * Teachers owe a duty of care to students. * Teachers can be held liable if they fail in their duty to care for and protect students. * The duty of care is breached when a teacher fails to exercise reasonable care, in other words, to act like a responsible, prudent parent. * In order to fulfil their duty of care, teachers must provide careful, adequate, and reasonable supervision before, during, and after school.

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6.2.1 Areas of supervision The nature and degree of supervision depend on the situation, type of activity, and age of students. In the school context many different circumstances exist under which children need to be supervised. The next section discusses particular areas that require more supervision than others. Teachers must provide reasonable and adequate supervision: * * * * *

in the classroom; on the playground; during physical education and sport; during school journeys; before and after school hours.

Supervision in the classroom Classroom supervision is an important part of a teacher's professional duties. When students are engaged in specialist activities the amount of supervision is greater. Extra care must be taken in subjects such as home economics and technical subjects in which students use potentially dangerous equipment. Teachers should be present all the time, and clear rules and safety measures on the use of equipment must be put in place by the school's management. Science laboratories are dangerous places. They contain substances and equipment which are potentially dangerous. Special care should be exercised in the supervision of students in these rooms. Lessons should be conducted by trained science teachers wherever possible. Care must be taken when storing dangerous substances. Teachers who are in control of dangerous objects, apparatus or substances must know what they are doing and take the necessary precautionary measures to prevent harm or injury. If a student is injured while a teacher is out of the classroom, the question of liability arises. The principles of negligence summarized above still apply. It is not unusual for a teacher to leave a classroom if the students are working quietly and are disciplined, provided it is for a valid reason. However, if a teacher leaves a class unattended when students are unruly and have no work, it can be argued that the teacher acted unreasonably. Therefore, when a particular class is known to be difficult, particular care should be taken over supervision. It is always important for teachers to assess the situation carefully before leaving a class unattended. One should consider such factors as the nature of the activity, the age of the class and their general behaviour. For example, it would be negligent to leave a Grade 1 class alone in the library for a period, but not a Grade 10 class. The size of the class also affects safety and supervision. Larger classes obviously need closer supervision and more organization. This means that the teacher needs to be particularly well organized to exercise good classroom management.

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Playgrounds Considering all aspects of the school grounds, especially the playground, it is not surprising that most injuries occur during playtime and before and after school. The sources of these dangers may be temporary (eg building renovations) or permanent (e g playground equipment). One potential source of danger that is often overlooked is poisonous plants. For example, the oleander, which is often planted as a decorative shrub, is poisonous. Potentially dangerous areas or objects which might be highly attractive to a student require a higher degree of care and supervision. For example, if the school has a swimming pool, this needs to be made secure and watched carefully by teachers on duty. Although the school grounds might be safe, the games children play may be dangerous. All schools are, therefore, required to provide the necessary supervision, which usually takes the form of teachers doing playground duty and gate duty on a roster system. The degree of supervision depends on the circumstances, the number of students and the size of the school grounds. The courts recognize that children cannot be kept under constant supervision, but in some situations this may be necessary. For example, there must always be a teacher on duty when young children are playing on potentially dangerous equipment.

Physical education and school sport Physical education and school sport are of critical importance because the possibility of personal injury is so very high. By taking part in physical activities, especially contact sports, students expose themselves to possible injuries. Although participation in sport is usually voluntary, the school is responsible for the safety of the participants and spectators. School personnel must therefore take the necessary steps to ensure the safety of students. In this regard, proper attention should be given to supervision, conducting the activity, and equipment and facilities. During sports events and activities students must be properly supervised. The general legal principles of reasonableness and foreseeability apply. Factors to be considered when planning supervision are the age and maturity of the students, the nature of the activity, the physical setting, and the ratio of teachers to students. Teachers assigned to supervise students must be competent. Incompetence may lead to liability on the part of the school principal. For example, it would be negligent to assign a teacher to swimming duty if that teacher cannot swim. Students should also know how to conduct themselves. Teachers need to ensure that the rules of the game are clear, and that they are followed. Students should be aware of the consequences of infringing rules and regulations. Care must also be taken to ensure that all sports equipment is safe and that students wear suitable clothing, including protective clothing where applicable. The school has a duty to supply proper equipment. Students must be given proper instruction in the correct use of the equipment. Equipment should be inspected regularly. The use of defective equipment may lead to liability on the part of the teacher and principal.

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School journeys School excursions form a valuable part of the school programme. At some stage every teacher will be involved in arranging educational outings, which may range from one-day outings to excursions lasting a number of days or weeks. When teachers plan a school excursion, whether it involves a day visit to a local museum or a week-long hiking trip, they must consider the safety and security factors. Whether participation in a school outing is obligatory or voluntary, the teacher or teachers in charge of the trip is/are ultimately responsible for the students' safety. Teachers have a duty of care and the principles of reasonable foresight and reasonable preventability are applicable. If a student is injured while on a school trip, teachers will need to prove that reasonable care was taken prior to and during the trip to ensure the safety of students. To avoid liability, teachers must therefore make sure that they plan trips thoroughly. If students are going on a trip that involves an element of danger, such as mountain climbing or canoeing, students and parents must be warned beforehand and a clear set of safety rules must be provided. During the trip proper supervision must be provided. The degree of supervision will depend on the ages of the students, the size of the group, the location, and the nature of the activity. For example, if young children are taken to the seaside, they should be under constant supervision while on the beach. Parents should be provided with details of the trip and parental permission should be obtained for the trip and participation in certain activities. The importance of this is demonstrated in the US case Powell v Orleans Parish School Board 354 2d 229 (La Ct App 1978). A high school student drowned in a hotel swimming pool while on trip with the school band. The student dived into the pool and, minutes later, was found at the bottom of the pool. Two chaperons who were supervising the pool activity gave immediate mouth-to-mouth resuscitation until an ambulance arrived. The parents of the student claimed that the school had been negligent in failing to provide adequate supervision for their son, who was unable to swim. The court ruled in favour of the school because of the age of the student and the fact that supervision had been provided, and found the father, who had given written permission for his son to use the pool but had not informed anyone that his son could not swim, negligent (Shoop & Dunklee, 1992). This does not mean that by obtaining parental permission the school can abrogate its duty of care and avoid liability. If teachers are negligent and do not provide proper supervision they can be held liable. For example, in the US case Morris v Douglas County School District 430 P 2d 775 (Ore 1965), the court cited foreseeability and a breach of duty to properly supervise and found in favour of the parents (Shoop & Dunklee, 1992). In this case, a teacher and six other adults took a group of primary school children to the beach. Four of the children climbed onto a log and posed for the teacher to take a picture. With her back to the ocean, the teacher did not see that a large wave had surged onto the beach. The wave caused the log to lift. The children fell off and, when the water receded, the log settled on top of one child and crushed him. These examples illustrate how easily accidents can happen and why extra special care and additional supervision are necessary when students are taken on school outings.

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Supervision before and after school hours The school is responsible for providing a certain amount of supervision before and after school. The nature and degree of supervision will depend on the circumstances. For example, special care must be taken when students board buses after school and when junior primary children are waiting for the rest of the school to finish. Supervision obviously has to be provided when students are engaged in official school activities in the afternoon after school. The principal is responsible for laying down a safe and adequate system of supervision for before and after schbol. Even if education regulations do not provide for school supervision before school, once the students are at school they are in the care of the school and not of the parents. It is therefore incumbent on the school principal to develop a clear policy. A decision should be made as to what is a reasonable time for staff to be on duty before and after school hours. It is important to indicate when supervision will not be provided. In some cases, principals have informed parents that they should not drop children off too early, and that supervision will only be provided 15 minutes before the start of school. After-school hours will vary. If students are engaged in extracurricular activities, appropriate supervision must be provided. The Knouwds case, cited earlier, and that of Transvaal Provincial Administration v Coley 1925 AD 24, below, illustrate some aspects of the school's responsibility for supervision outside of school hours.

SUPERVISION AFTER SCHOOL HOURS Transvaal Provincial Administration v Coley 1925 AD 24 Six-year-old Enid Coley came out of school earlier than her sister and waited for her on the school playground. She was playing on a heap of ground next to the site where two years earlier the education administration had planted trees which were supported by means of long wooden stakes with sharp points at the top. The stakes had not been removed and Enid fell onto one of them, seriously injuring one eye. The parents sued the education department for negligently leaving the stakes in the ground. The court found in favour of the plaintiff (Coley). The education administration appealed against the decision. The court upheld the decision and the appeal was dismissed. The reasons given for the decision were: * The court argued that the authorities had acted negligently since they had not acted like a reasonable person. The court noted that it was reasonable to foresee that a child playing on the heap of ground might fall on the incline and fall on the stakes next to the heap. * The court also argued that even though Enid had already finished school, she was still on the playground and in the care and control of the staff.

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Indemnity An issue closely associated with supervision and duty of care is the question of indemnity. Often schools ask parents to sign indemnity statements before children can take part in certain activities. A parental waiver does not prevent parents or students from suing school officials in the event of an injury which occurs as a result of negligence. If a school requires parents to sign a waiver, indemnity form, or permission slip before allowing their children to participate in certain school activities, such as field trips, this does not absolve teachers or schools of liability for negligence. For example, in the case of Minister of Education and Culture (House of Delegates) vAzel and Another 1995 (1) SA 30 (AD) (see box) the court ruled that the indemnity that the child's guardian had signed did not prevent the parent from taking legal action.

INDEMNITY AGAINST LIABILITY

Minister of Education and Culture (House of Delegates) v Azel and Another 1995 (1) SA 30 (AD) A secondary school student was seriously injured in a motor vehicle accident while on a school biology excursion. A teacher was driving the car. The student sued the education authorities for damages. The court found the teacher negligent and ordered the department to pay damages. The education department appealed against the decision on the grounds that the student's legal guardian had signed an indemnity. The court set aside the appeal and ordered the department to pay R765 252 in damages. The reasons given for the decision were: * The indemnity cannot be used by the applicant as a defence. * Where there is negligence, an indemnity does not protect a person from liability.

6.3 Recommendations for practice Teachers and schools can take steps to avoid liability. * The school should have a definite policy on supervision during, before and after school hours. * Only suitably qualified teachers should teach physical education. * All teachers should have some knowledge of basic first aid. * All sporting events should be carefully controlled, with clear plans for supervision. * School journeys must be planned thoroughly. * Familiarize yourself with the school's safety policy. * Draw up a safety policy for your classroom, or at the very least include basic safety rules in your classroom rules and display them clearly.

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* Make sure that you carry out your supervisory duties diligently and vigilantly. If you are on playground duty, do not be tempted to sit in the staffroom for the first 10 or 15 minutes drinking tea before you begin your rounds of the school and playground. * Do not hesitate to punish students who transgress necessary safety rules. * If you are planning a school excursion, make sure all the safety factors and requirements have been considered, and contingencies planned for. * Develop check lists for inspecting equipment and dangerous material on a regular basis. This is particularly important for science teachers, for instance. * Remember, you can only be held liable if you act negligently. So be alert and professional.

7 Sfade^ AKdVitoUiltee An important task of teachers is to create and maintain an orderly learning environment. Good discipline is synonymous with effective learning. The law recognizes that discipline is essential for maintaining order and harmony in a school, and for providing a climate in which students can learn, free from disruption and chaos. Therefore, the law recognizes teachers' authority to discipline and punish students. The law makes provision for schools to draft and implement codes of conduct and to administer different forms of punishment when students transgress the rules. In addition to general school rules, teachers are entitled to draw up classroom rules, provided they do not conflict with the general school rules. Teachers' authority to discipline and punish students is not unlimited. The law defines the legal parameters within which punishment may be administered. Provincial legislation and departmental regulations, for example, usually prescribe certain regulations concerning corporal punishment, suspension, and student expulsion. Common law further requires punishment to be fair and reasonable.

7.1 The principles of reasonableness and fairness Basic fairness is the common-law principle underpinning all disciplinary action. For punishment to be fair and reasonable, the following factors should be kept in mind: * The nature of the offence: It is important to determine the offence committed by the student. * The type of punishment: The method of punishment must be reasonable and appropriate for the offence. Locking a student out of the classroom for the duraton of a lesson because he/she is five minutes late or has left a book at home is not appropriate. Punishment must not be cruel or excessive. * The age and physical condition of the child: All too often, children are punished for

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

not being able to do work when, in fact, their inability is the result of a learning problem. * The reason for the punishment: Punishment must be given in good faith. In other words, the motive for the punishment must be justifiable and the punishment must be administered for the right reasons. Punishment inflicted in order to satisfy anger or frustration is bound to be viewed as unreasonable. Punishment should be administered for the purpose of correction and not out of malice.

7.2 The rules of natural justice The rules of natural justice are common-law principles which must be observed when certain administrative decisions are taken. For example, natural justice must be observed when a principal suspends a student from school. The main aim of natural justice is to ensure that justice and fairness prevail. Section 33 of the Constitution guarantees every person lawful administrative action. The rules of natural justice consist of the audl alteram partem rule and the nemo iudex in sua causa principle. (Wiechers, 1985) *

*

The audi alteram partem rule: Translated, this means 'to hear the other side'. — Anyone whose rights, privileges, and freedoms have been affected by an administrative action must be given an opportunity to be heard on the matter. — Any information which might count against a party must be made available to that party to enable him/her to prepare a case. — A person or administrative body exercising a discretion (decision) must give reasons for the decision. The nemo judex in sua causa rule: This means that the person or administrative body conducting the investigation must be impartial and fair. Included in this rule is the principle that no one may be a judge in his/her own cause. Thus a person or party with a personal interest in a matter in which a discretion must be exercised is regarded as being biased.

You will understand these rules better if we apply them to an actual situation. Let us take, for example, the issue of expulsion. When a principal expels a student from the school, he or she is performing an action (administrative act) which affects the rights of the student. Expulsion is obviously a very serious punishment and has grave consequences for a student. The principal is required to fulfil certain requirements to make her/his action legally valid. Thus, in such a situation, the student has a right to natural justice (due process). This is intended to avoid unfair or arbitrary decisions. In the first place, the student is entitled to be heard. The student and the parents are entitled to an opportunity to put their side of the story. Secondly, the student must be provided with all the information relating to the expulsion. The student must also be given reasons for the decision against him/her, so that he/she can defend him-/herself properly. If the student feels that he/she has been treated unfairly — he/she might

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even admit to the offence but believe that expulsion is too harsh a punishment — he/ she can ask for the matter to be reviewed. If this happens the school would have to have the matter reviewed by an independent person or committee who can deal with it impartially. The principal should not be the person to do this as he/she is personally involved in the matter and cannot be impartial.

7.3 Forms of punishment There are a wide variety of disciplinary strategies teachers can use to maintain order in the classroom. Not all forms of punishment have serious legal implications. The main types of punishment that are governed by statutes and regulations, and which can (and often do) lead to court cases, are corporal punishment, student suspension, and expulsion from school. What follows is a brief outline of some of the legal principles relating to these forms of punishment. Forms of punishment with specific legal implications are the following: * Corporal punishment * Suspension and expulsion * Detention 7.3.1 Corporal punishment You are teaching a particularly difficult Std 3 class, One student is really annoying you with his incessant talking, After several warnings and interruptions you grab the child by the arm, pull him roughly out of his chair, and hit him several times on the leg. You then shove him towards the door and tell him to stand outside until you have finished the lesson and can deal with him, Would you say this action is (a) appropriate and well deserved (after all, he has pushed you to your limits) or (b) unlawful and demeaning? This situation is familiar to teachers. You may empathize with a teacher teaching a large class who is at his/her wits' end. However, while not condoning misbehaviour in the classroom, consider the legal implications of the above situation. Besides humiliating the child and evicting him from the classroom, which is inappropriate, consider the use of corporal punishment and physical force. Most court cases concerning discipline and punishment are the result of the use of corporal punishment. As a form of punishment it has certainly generated a great deal of controversy. Until recently, South African law permitted the use of corporal punishment in schools, subject to strict regulations governing its use. But corporal punishment was used excessively in many schools, often for minor offences. New provincial legislation prohibits the use of corporal punishment in schools. For instance, section 23(1) of the Gauteng School Education Act of 1995 states that 'no person shall administer corporal punishment to a learner at any public or private

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school'. This gives positive effect to section 12 of the 1996 Constitution which protects people from cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment, and section 10 of the South African Schools Act 84 of 1996. A noteworthy case dealing with this section of the Constitution is the case of S v Williams and Others 1995 (3) SA 632 (CC), in which the Constitutional Court ruled juvenile whipping to be unconstitutional. The facts of this case are that five juveniles were sentenced to juvenile whipping in terms of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977. The defence raised the constitutionality of the punishment in terms of sections 8 and 11(2) of the 1993 Constitution. The Constitutional Court found that juvenile whipping was a violation of section 11(2) of the 1993 Constitution and that it was indeed an inhumane and unjustifiable form of punishment. Although the Constitutional Court did not specifically rule on the use of corporal punishment in schools, it did refer to it extensively, and indicated that it could not be justified. Returning to the vignette at the beginning of this section, it is probable that if the parents of the child took the teacher to court for using excessive physical force, the court might find the teacher guilty of violating the child's right to be protected against physical punishment. Some teachers may feel that this places them in an invidious situation and makes it impossible to control and discipline a class. This is not necessarily so. Most teachers manage their classes very well without having to resort to physical punishment. However, teachers must have a range of alternative punishments that can be used without infringing children's rights. Remember that rights are limited and the courts do recognize the need for teachers to mete out punishment in order to maintain an orderly learning environment. But the punishment must be fair, reasonable, and lawful. 7.3.2 Exclusion from school This can take two forms: suspension and expulsion. Do you think suspension and expulsion are justified in the following situations? A group of students takes part in an illegal school boycott, When the students return to school they are suspended, pending an inquiry into their conduct, A group of boys is expelled for being under the influence of alcohol at a school dance, A student is expelled for being in possession of drugs. The exclusion of students is a regularly contested issue. It is a basic principle of education law that school authorities may exclude from school students whose conduct interferes with or disrupts the function of the school, who habitually defy school rules, who pose a threat to other students or teachers, and/or whose conduct is wilfully insubordinate. Their exclusion may be of a temporary or permanent nature. Suspension and expulsion are, however, provided for serious offences and for

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misdemeanours where persistence and wilfulness in pursuing the offending behaviour can be demonstrated. These measures should be used judiciously. Since these sanctions are the ultimate form of punishment they should not be used lightly, considering the consequences for the student's future (see section 9 of the Schools Act of 1996). The technical procedures for dealing with suspension and expulsion are contained in departmental regulations concerning the control of students. Although the requirements may vary slightly from one education department to another, the following rules are generally accepted: * Students should know in advance what behaviour is expected from them. * There must be a clear disciplinary policy (code of conduct). * The rules and the consequences (the disciplinary actions and sanctions) of breaking the rules should be made known to students and parents at the beginning of each year and on a regular basis throughout the year. * When a principal considers suspending a student, he/she may only do so after consultation with the head of department (ie a provincial department of education). Once the decision is made, the principal should inform the student and the parents in writing, and a report must be submitted to the head of department. * It is very important to give the student an opportunity to present her/his side of the story and to appeal against the decision if necessary (i e the rules of natural justice must be applied). * If the student is residing in a hostel, the principal should see to it that he/she leaves. * A student will only be expelled in very serious cases. Only the head of department may expel a student.

733 Detention Detention is a widely used form of punishment. It is important for teachers to apply the principles of reasonableness and fairness when detaining children (Partington, 1984). The following aspects should be borne in mind: * Detention should not be too long (45-60 minutes). This will also depend on the age of the students. * Parents must be given at least a day's warning that their child has a detention. * Parents must know exactly when their children will be leaving school. * Consideration must be given to the availability of transport and the distance students have to travel home. If students are detained and are left to find their own way home, a teacher can be held liable if the student is involved in an accident.

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7.4 Search and seizure Don, a secondary school teacher, suspects a few boys are carrying knives to school. He discusses the matter with the principal, who gives him permission to search the boys individually in the privacy of his office. The teacher questions four boys individually; all deny they own or have knives in their possession. On searching the boys, one is found with a knife, which the teacher confiscates. Principals and teachers are often faced with the problem of searching students and their property. In certain circumstances it might be necessary for school personnel to search persons or property, for example when searching for illegal drugs, alcohol, or dangerous weapons. Such searches could infringe on students' personal dignity and privacy. When conducting searches and seizures, it is important to take cognizance of the Bill of Rights, specifically the child's right to privacy (section 14) and the right of respect for, and protection of her/his dignity (section 10). How these constitutional principles might be applied in the school setting remains to be seen. Nevertheless, from the literature on this subject and case law that has developed in other countries, some useful assumptions can be made to guide teachers in conducting searches and seizures. The purpose of the search is of the utmost importance. Before a search is carried out, there must be reasonable grounds to believe that a crime has been committed or is about to be committed. There must be enough reliable information to justify a search and to indicate that it is necessary for the maintenance of discipline. It is important to consider the place being searched: one has to be careful not to infringe a person's right to privacy and dignity. The closer the search comes to the person, the higher the risk of invasion of privacy. The highest degree of invasion would be a strip-search and this should-be avoided, while searching a school desk is less intrusive. This also means that the greater the invasion of privacy, the greater must be the evidence that the search is necessary. The person doing the search must have the authority to do so. Boys and girls should be searched separately and by a person of their own gender. A search of a student's personal effects such as a suitcase or purse requires greater caution than a desk search, because it involves personal belongings about which the student has a higher expectation of privacy. While desks are the property of the school, personal belongings are the property of the student. If a school employee actually touches a student's clothing while engaged in a search, the search should be regarded as potentially intrusive. Thus searching pockets or doing a pat-down might encroach on the student's dignity, which is protected by section 10 of the Constitution. The most controversial search of students is the strip-search and in general it is considered impermissible. A body cavity search is the most serious and intrusive and should never be conducted by school employees. In deciding whether or not a search of students' property is lawful, the courts generally apply the principle of reasonableness. Since there is no suitable South

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African case to refer to, it is useful to consider comparable foreign cases to gain some idea about the direction courts will take in this area. In the Canadian case R v JMG (1986) OR (2d) 705 CA, the courts found that a principal's search of a 14-year-old student did not violate section 8 of the Canadian Charter which states that 'everyone has the right to security against unreasonable search and seizure'. A fellow student who witnessed the accused placing drugs in his socks informed a teacher, who in turn informed the principal. The principal phoned a policeman and another principal to seek advice on how to handle the situation and then, in the presence of the vice principal, informed the student of his suspicion and asked him to remove his shoes and socks, which produced the drugs. In this case, the principal had valid reason to conduct the search and he did it in an appropriate manner and the court found that he had acted in a reasonable manner. In a similar case, a student was searched by the principal and several teachers and subsequently charged with the unlawful possession of a narcotic. The court found that the search had been reasonable (Hurlbert & Hurlbert, 1989). The 'reasonable' test was also applied in the landmark US case New Jersey v TLO 489 US 325 (1985). In this case TLO, a high school student, was found smoking in the school rest room. The teacher took the student to the principal's office whereupon he asked to see her purse. On opening the students' purse, the principal found a pack of cigarettes and what looked like drug-related items and evidence of drug dealing. TLO was arrested and found guilty on delinquency charges. The student appealed on the grounds that the search was illegal and that the evidence should not be used. The court, however, concluded that a school official may conduct a search if the official 'has reasonable suspicion that a crime has been or is in the process of being committed, or reasonable cause to believe that the search is necessary to maintain school discipline or enforce school policies' (Shoop & Dunklee, 1992: 145). To sum up then, Canadian and US courts have ruled that school officials can conduct searches, provided there is 'reasonable suspicion' for doing so. This seems a sensible position and one that could be adopted by South African courts. Consequently, the following principles relating to student searches can be determined: * School officials can be held liable if a student can show that the person conducting the search acted with malice and was unfair. * Prior to undertaking a search, the principal must have grounds for believing that one or more students have engaged in a wrongful act. * Searches should be authorized by the principal. * Schools should have a clear set of rules and regulations dealing with searches and seizures. * The physical search of a student would be an example of a highly intrusive search. * Strip-searches should be avoided. * If the police are conducting the search, the school authorities should ensure that a search warrant has been obtained.

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* Parents and students should be informed of the school's procedures for conducting searches.

7.5 School and classroom rules Schools need rules so that they can operate in an orderly and proper manner. School and classroom rules form an integral part of subordinate legislation, which means they are subject to higher education legislation and departmental rules and regulations. Figure 11.3 illustrates this hierarchy.

Education legislation

Departmental rules and regulations School policy and rules Classroom rules

Figure 11.3 The status of school and classroom rules

School and classroom rules, therefore, cannot be in conflict with higher legislation. For example, section 23(1) of the Gauteng Education Act (1995) states that 'no person shall administer corporal punishment to a learner at any public school or private school'. Additional departmental regulations can be drawn up to enforce this provision, for instance by stating the consequences of violating this law. Similarly, principals and teachers cannot draft school or classroom rules that allow corporal punishment, even if they think it is the best way to control students' behaviour. Such a rule would be unlawful. Therefore, for general school and classroom rules to be lawful, the following principles apply: * * * * * * *

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Rules must be drafted by authorized persons. Statutory requirements and common law principles must be taken into account. Classroom rules must not conflict with the school policy. Rules must not inflict an injustice. The meaning of rules must be clear and unambiguous. Rules must be announced on a regular basis. All students and parents should have a list of school rules and be aware of the consequences of violating those rules.

EDUCATION AND THE LAW

* Rules must be applied and enforced in a fair, consistent, and non-discriminatory manner. * Rules must not prescribe the impossible (e g 'Students may not talk in class'). * Rules must have a rational purpose.

7.6 Recommendations for practice * Be familiar with the school disciplinarary policy. Make sure you know the procedures for dealing with serious offences, such as the possession of drugs. * Provide students with a set of classroom rules that are workable and enforceable. * Send a letter to the parents of your students telling them about your classroom disciplinary policy and explain what you expect from their children and how they can help and support you in this endeavour. * Avoid using disciplinary strategies that violate students' rights. * Continue to develop sound classroom management skills. Beginner teachers should not hesitate to ask for assistance in this regard. * Keep up with the latest legislation, rules and regulations relating to school discipline.

SU*K*MVIU 1 Teaching takes place in a legal context. All aspects of teaching are influenced in one way or another by the law. 2 The law of education comes from various sources such as the Constitution, statutes, common law, and case law. 3 Teachers should know how the law affects their teaching activities and relationships with others in the school context. This does not mean that teachers have to be legal experts. They do, however, need to keep abreast of developments in education, including legal developments. Teachers cannot plead ignorance of the law if they become involved in a law suit. If teachers keep informed and perform their tasks and duties in a reasonable, professional and lawful manner, and they do not infringe the protected rights of others, they should not find themselves involved in unnecessary and often costly legal disputes with parents, students or the education authorities. 4 Teachers should be familiar with the law and its impact on classroom instruction, safety and supervision, and discipline. Although classroom instruction is not regulated by the law to any great extent, teachers should be mindful of their own rights and duties as well as those of students and parents with regard to education. 5 Teachers should ensure the safety of students placed in their care. Teachers need to be aware of their responsibilities and to avoid actions that could be viewed as negligent and which might lead to court cases.

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6 Although teachers have latitude to discipline and punish students, they should be familiar with proper legal procedures and should be mindful of aspects such as the child's right to dignity, privacy, and fairness.

%*«4 Attd,

(fatcefifo

appeal audl alteram pattern Bill of Rights common law damages defendant diligens paterfamilias discretion in loco parentis

indemnity judicial review liability natural justice negligence plaintiff precedent stare decisis statute

StocUrf A<XMtie* 1 Give examples of the sources of law. 2 Outline the limits of students' freedom of expression. 3 A teacher refuses to excuse one of her students from her religious class even though the parent has submitted a written request. Discuss the legality of the teacher's action in light of section 15 of the 1993 Constitution. 4 What legal factors should you keep in mind when disciplining students? 5 Explain the meaning of the concept 'duty of care'. 6 Principal to teachers: 'Never leave your classrooms unattended because if a student is injured you will be liable for any injuries that occur.' Critically discuss this statement in the light of the principle of reasonableness. 7 What factors should be kept in mind when conducting student searches? 8 Construct an argument which might be used in a legal action: (a) by the parents of a boy struck in the eye with a piece of metal in the woodwork class; (b) as a defence by the teacher, who was not in the classroom at the time. 9 Mr Grimbly was instructed to do playground duty during the second break because Mrs Naidoo was absent. He was not too pleased about this because he had planned to prepare his maths lesson for his class immediately after the break. He therefore spent the first five minutes walking around the playground, and then

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spent the remaining 15 minutes sitting in his classroom, working. During that time two boys were involved in a fight which no one attempted to stop. One of the boys was seriously injured and had to be taken to hospital. The parents sued the teacher for compensation. (a) Did the teacher have a duty of care in this case? (b) Do you think the teacher was negligent? Substantiate your response.

Blliography Alexander, K & M Alexander. 1992. American Public School Law. St. Paul: West Publishing Camp, W, J Underwood & M Connelly. 1989. Current Issues in School Law. USA: National Organisation on Legal Problems of Education Hurlbert, EL & M A Hurlbert. 1989. School Law under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Alberta: University of Calgary Press Imber, M & T van Geel. 1993. Education Law. New York: McGraw-Hill Kleyn, D & F Viljoen. 1996. Beginner's Guide for Law Students. Durban: Juta Leighton, P. 1992. Schools and Employment Law. London: Cassell McCarthy, M & N Cambron-McCabe. 1992. Public School Law: Teachers' and Students' Rights. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Partington, J. 1984. Law and the New Teacher. London; Holt, Rinehart & Winston Shoop, R & D Dunklee. 1992. School Law for the Principal. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Tronc, K. 1995. Schools and the law. The Practising Administrator, 1, 8-9 Wiechers, M. 1985. Administrative Law. Durban: Butterworths

Legislation Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 200 of 1993 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 108 of 1996 Gauteng School Education Act 6 of 1995 Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 South African Schools Act 84 of 1996

Cases South African cases Rusere v The Jesuit fathers 1970 (4) SA 537 (RSC) Knouwds v Administrates, Kaap 1981 (1) SA 544 (C) Minister of Education and Culture (House of Delegates) v Azel and Another 1995 (1) SA 30 (AD) 5 v Williams and Others 1995 (3) SA 632 (CC) Transvaal Provincial Administration v Coley 1925 AD 24 American cases Bethel School District No 403 v Fraser 478 US 675 (1986)

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INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS Hazelwood School District v Kuhlmeier 484 US 260 (1988) Morris v Douglas County School District 430 P 2d 775 (Ore 1965) Mozert v Hawkins County Board of Education 484 US 1066 (1987) Newlersey v TLO 489 US 325 (1985) Powell v Orleans Parish School Board 354 2d 229 (La Ct App 1978) Canadian case R v]MC (1986) OR (2d) 705 CA British cases Barnes v Hampshire County Council (1969) 67 LGR 605 Good v Inner London Education Authority (1980) 10 Family Law 213

42
CHAPTER

TWELVE

SctueatitM, fa t6e Itttew&tfott&t (fattext Prof Eleanor Lemmer Faculty of Education University of South Africa

This chapter points out the importance and the value of learning about education in other parts of the world. Comparative education is a field of study that focuses on national education systems in their natural and cultural context, as well as on educational issues studied thematically in international context. A brief historical overview of the development of comparative education is given and the key features of certain periods are identified. The uses of comparative education are described. To illustrate the practice of comparative education, the education systems of six countries are briefly described. Finally, a selection of three key issues in education worldwide are discussed. In this way, the chapter introduces the teacher to the field of comparative education and its potential.

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EDUCATION IN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT

7
Introduction The Development of Comparative Education 2.1 The early twentieth century 2.2 Contemporary trends in comparative education 2.3 Towards the twenty-first century 3 What can we Learn from Studying Education in Other Countries? 4 Education Near and Far 4.1 Education in the United States 4.2 Education in Japan 4.3 Education in Malaysia 4.4 Education in India 4.5 Education in Chile 4.6 Education in Zimbabwe 5 Some Trends in Education Worldwide 5.1 Achieving equality in women's education 5.2 Coping with cultural diversity 5.3 Literacy education 6 Conclusion Summary

423 424 425 426 426 427 428 429 432 434 436 438 440 442 442 444 445 446 447

Terms and Concepts Student Activities Bibliography

448 448 448

1 ItftoMktctbM, Bernice Scott, senior English teacher, has just returned from a semester spent teaching English in a secondary school in Japan. She formed part of a teacher exchange programme. Her colleagues at the high school in Johannesburg where she is Head of Department, English, are keen to hear about her experiences in Tokyo. They are amazed to hear that Japanese schoolchildren work a 240-day year, as compared to approximately 180 days in Britian and the United States, and 220 days in South Africa. They are struck by her tales of the high educational standards of Japanese schools. In fact, a place in senior high school is dependent on passing entrance examinations taken at age fourteen. Sandy is in the matric class at a high school in Cape Town. She is wearing a school uniform for the first time in her life. Sandy has been impressed by the seriousness with

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which her classmates are studying for the coming matriculation exams. However, she misses the wide range of electives she was previously able to choose from in the high school curriculum. Sandy is a very special student. She hails from San Antonio, Texas and will return to her own senior class in a huge comprehensive school when her visit on a student exchange programme is completed. She is often peppered with questions by her South African classmates about her school experience in her home country. Like Bernice's colleagues and Sandy's classmates, most of us are curious about the way people in other parts of the world raise their children at home and teach them at school. Technological advances have made the study of education in other counties even more fascinating and viable. Television brings visuals of schools, universities, and educational events in other regions into our living rooms. Internet, the electronic linkup, makes it possible for students in one country to obtain the latest information from and even to make personal link-ups with students and educators in far-flung parts of the world. Modern travel makes international conferences and scholarly contact among academics a reality. Moreover, economic interdependence among nations has made the world a global village, in which the fostering of international understanding and global awareness is considered essential for contemporary life.

2 *7%e *Devd&jMte*tt ol flwtfawdwe Educates This lively interest in the education systems of the world is not new. Throughout the ages, travellers have brought back impressions and data gathered in other parts of the globe to their own homeland. Indeed, from the sixteenth century onwards, educators have made attempts to study foreign education systems and to implement the education ideas of other cultures. In the eighteenth century, educators became fascinated with the ideas of prominent foreign philosophers and educationists about education. During the nineteenth century, the national state became more involved in education. State control of education increased and educational reform became the watchword in many countries. Consequently, the interest in foreign systems grew. The first systematic approach to the description of a national education system was undertaken by the Frenchman Marc-Antoine Jullien de Paris in 1 81 7. Jullien de Paris believed that a study of several education systems would result in useful data which could be used to improve education elsewhere. He developed a comprehensive scheme for the study of foreign education systems. He even proposed the establishment of an international education committee consisting of permanent members from different countries. Jullien de Paris was convinced that a comparative study of national education systems should demonstrate principles or components of education that could be used fruitfully to improve education elsewhere. Other American and British scholars followed suit, making detailed studies of European systems to bring back to the United States or to the United Kingdom.

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Horace Mann, first secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, reported on education systems of the English, Scottish, Irish, French, German, and Dutch in 1843. The Common School Revival in America is the direct outflow of the ideas generated in Europe. Matthew Arnold, an inspector of Her Majesty's schools in the United Kingdom, made a meticulous study of French, Prussian, Italian and Swiss educational practices in an attempt t% identify aspects that were superior to practices in English education. Arnold wanted to establish what could be borrowed from these countries in order to improve English education (Vos & Brits, 1987). The contributions of these early comparativists may be criticized in two areas. Firstly, they were not always systematic in their study of foreign systems. Moreover, they were most interested in learning ideas that could be transplanted without adjustment in their own countries. Fortunately, educators soon began to realize that mere transplantation was not always feasible and began to do a more profound analysis of education systems.

2.1 The early twentieth century At the beginning of the twentieth century, comparative studies of education systems showed a greater awareness of the relationship between education and the character of a people. Educators began to take note of the social, political, economic, and cultural factors which made up the context in which an education system developed. Thus comparative studies became more explanatory and analytical. Scholars, such as Sir Michael Sadler, an Englishman, and Charles H Thurber, an American, tried to analyse education systems in terms of the national character. In this regard, Sadler, former director of the London Board of Education, made his famous statement in 1900: In studying foreign systems of education we should not forget that the things outside the schools matter even more than the things inside the schools' (in Vos & Brits, 1987:4). Sadler regarded education as being embedded in the national life, national character, history, and traditions of a people. For this reason it is not possible to detach part or the whole of an education system from the society in which it originates and transplant it to another culture. Sadler's insights remain important to this day for the study of education in the international context. Thurber also proposed a scientific approach to the study of national systems and stressed the need to pay attention to the background of each national system. Other early twentieth century comparativists also produced key insights. Nicholas Hans (1929) made a close study of the principles underlying educational legislation. He concluded that national education systems as well as national constitutions or national literature are the external expression of national character. Another important contribution to the field was made by the American Isaac Kandel (1933), who studied the relationship between cultural forces in a country and its national character and education system. As a result of these new insights, natural factors, such as a country's demography and geography, and cultural forces, such as values, religion, and social, economic, and political situations, were recognized as the shapers of national education systems.

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2.2 Contemporary trends in comparative education During the second half of the twentieth century, comparative educationists, among others, were concerned mainly with a search for a generally accepted methodology for this field. Vernon Mallinson, an English comparative educationist, re-emphasized the importance of national character. He regarded it as a crucial source of explanation for the differences between education systems. George Bereday, formerly of the University of Colombia, USA, pioneered a more analytic approach to comparative education. He saw the main aim of comparative education as the identification of similarities and differences between education systems. He suggested a four-stage method of comparison. Brian Holmes (1965), formerly of London University, pointed out the usefulness of comparative education in the planning of education reforms. Edmund King, formerly of King's College, London, recognized the role of comparative education in producing reliable data on which decisions about education could be based. Harold Noah and Max Eckstein, two American scholars, published two works in 1969 (Noah & Eckstein, 1969; Eckstein & Noah, 1969) in which they suggested that comparative education adopt the empirical-quantitative methods of the social sciences. This, they believed, would bring academic respectability to comparative education, which lacked a rigorous methodology. Consequently, the sixties were marked by the use of empirically based methodology, and structural functionalism was the most prevalent theoretical approach. During this period comparative educationists were influenced by modernism and its confidence in science and technology as a solution to educational problems.

2.3 Towards the twenty-first century Comparative education has changed significantly since the fierce methodological debate of the sixties and seventies. In the last decade, comparative educationists have been more comfortable in accommodating a variety of methods of study and a range of approaches in the field. This has allowed for a more eclectic approach and a wider debate. A call was made for the recognition of alternative perspectives on schooling, such as Marxist and neo-Marxist ideas, and qualitative research methodologies which challenge the predominantly statistical analyses that shaped the field in the late 1960s. Feminist scholarship has placed gender issues among research priorities in comparative education along with issues of multiculturalism (Maseman, 1990). In general terms, the role of conflict in society and in schools has become important in understanding education and as a theme for research. The focus has shifted from the dominant concern with school-society relations and overall educational policy issues to a greater consideration of in-school factors. For example, a practice of comparative education which is based on classroom reality and not only on the macro study of an education system has been advocated and practised. Today critical theory, consensus theory, world systems theory, feminist theory and complexity theory are a few of the alternative perspectives which guide research in the field. As we approach the twenty-first century, 'the field of comparative education ... is in remarkably Qood health. It is marked by a considerable degree of intellectual and

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organisational vigour' (Altbach, 1991: 506). Comparative education remains a popular choice for student teachers at many universities throughout the world. The largest centre is located in the United States, with active centres in Britain and Germany. Communities engaged in studying comparative education are growing in Korea, Taiwan, and Japan. In China the development of comparative education, albeit linked to government, has been impressive. Important comparative communities are also located in Brazil, Australia, Canada, and several Western European nations. There is a small but lively community of comparative educationists in southern Africa, a newly founded journal, The Southern African Review of Education, and a society, the Southern African Society of Comparative and History of Education, which holds an annual conference in the region. Questions that are commonly raised by students of comparative education are: What aspects are there in other schools that are similar to our own experiences? What are the striking differences? How have other countries dealt with educational problems that are similar to our own? Is it really possible to learn from the successes and mistakes of others? In some universities and colleges, comparative education forms part of a general course; in others it is simply called comparative pedagogics. The popularity of comparative education is not limited to educators. In recent times its usefulness as been seen by those in government agencies dealing with social issues, policy makers, economists and non-governmental agencies. For example, comparative education has helped to shape the lending programmes of the World Bank and the policies of foreign assistance agencies or governments (Altbach, 1991). Research conducted by the World Bank is regularly published in journals of comparative education. An increasing concern for international economic competitiveness as well as a desire for greater international understanding has been at the root of this interest in comparative education from the non-education sector.

3 TVfat can we ^Leantifri&KSttcdqutq, Sducattov fa OtAen fl*nM#Ue&7 In the light of this brief history of the development of comparative education, let us consider some of the ways in which teachers may benefit from learning about education in other parts of the world (Noah, 1984). When rigorously practised, comparative education can deepen our understanding of our own education and society. Accurate and detailed description gives us an idea of what other countries are doing, planning or changing in their education systems. This kind of data can serve to show us that our own educational problems are not unique and can assist us with our own policy making and decision making. For example, vocational education and curricula which are related to the workplace have long been identified as a need in South Africa. This is not a uniquely South African concern: the British are also worried about

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youth unemployment. Knowing how others have dealt with problems helps us decide how to address similar problems at home. Descriptive studies also provide an opportunity to estimate the quality of our education relative to that of other countries in areas of similar interest. In this vein, the International Association for the Evaluation of Education Achievement has undertaken a detailed analysis and comparison of the performance of schoolchildren in various countries in mathematics, languages, science, and civics. Intercountry rankings can reveal special problems and indicate where improvements are needed. For example, the poor scores in maths and science of American schoolchildren relative to their Japanese counterparts gave rise to government concern about the quality and efficiency of American schooling in the eighties. Detailed studies may also be useful in remedying popular misconceptions about foreign systems, especially those which are difficult to gain access to. Noah's (1984) study of education in the former Soviet Union showed that, contrary to the general assumption that vocational and secondary schooling received the most funding, secondary schooling on its own was the most generously funded sector in the Soviet Union. Another use of comparative education is that studies of education indicate more than just educational conditions. For example, authoritarian attitudes in school may reflect authoritarian political arrangements. The inefficient use of classroom resources may be an extension of a wider inability to use resources effectively in industry, agriculture and commerce. Cross-cultural investigations of education uncover the origins of certain practices or key influences on education systems. Contemporary European practices in secondary education cannot be understood without reference to models developed in the United States. For example, the American model of the neighbourhood comprehensive high school which is not differentiated by social (class) origins of students is at the root of the comprehensive school movement in Sweden, France, and Great Britain. Likewise, an examination of the education systems of some African and Asian countries, even decades after independence, clearly shows their colonial past. For this reason, education in Zimbabwe or Tunisia cannot be understood without taking into account the models introduced in those places by the British and French. This kind of study can identify the potential and limits of international borrowing and adaptation. Finally, comparative studies allow us to identify trends in education worldwide which warrant closer examination. This enlarges our frame of reference with regard to what is happening in our country.

4 SducctfuM'HaM totd^a* I have pointed out the value of learning about education in other countries. I shall now continue with a few brief descriptions of national education systems. Each country discussed has made considerable progress in providing education for its

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people, yet in each case there are many challenges that have to be faced at the dawn of a new century. Hopefully these descriptions will inspire you to further study of education in the international context.

4.1 Education in the United States The United States of America has a population of approximately 150 million people from a wide range of racial and ethnic backgrounds. This very diverse population is the result of waves of immigrants who sought a new life in this comparatively young nation during the past three centuries and continue to do so. Beginning in the seventeenth century, immigrants who went to live in the United States developed an appreciation for the values and qualities necessary for survival in a young land: desire for change, the qualities of determination and initiative, and an appreciation of the practical and useful. These values are reflected in the work of John Dewey, foremost American philosopher and educational pioneer, who stressed pragmatism and experimentalism, and profoundly influenced the theory and practice of contemporary American education. Today democracy and self-determination, individual freedom and equality of all under the law constitute the foundation of the democratic American way of life. Consequently, the school is viewed as an important agency, serving society by transmitting these values. A key characteristic of American public education is that it is a highly decentralized system. The United States has a federal form of government. Its constitution divides powers between the federal government and the fifty states. Education is excluded from federal authority. Though the federal government does have constitutional powers to allocate certain funds for education, it has no direct control over education. Each of the fifty states has the primary responsibility for its own system of public education. The State Board of Education of each state determines education policies in compliance with state laws. The key educational official and chief executive officer of the State Board of Education is called the Superintendent of Public Instruction. Most of the states have further devolved the obligation for education to local authorities who see to the day-to-day operation of schools. These local authorities set taxes, erect school buildings, determine curricula and employ teachers. Individual political and economic differences among states lead to great differences among the state schooling systems. Education is financed primarily by the local school districts, which use local property taxes as a basis of revenue. All states provide free, compulsory, and secular education. Schooling is based on the principle of equal educational opportunities in accordance with an individual's abilities, aptitudes and interests. Compulsory school attendance normally starts between the ages of six and seven and ends at 15 to 17 years. The average length of the school year is 178 days. The most common pattern of organization in schooling is the 6+3+3 plan, which includes the elementary school in grades 1 to 6, junior high school in grades 7 to 9, and senior high school in grades 10 to 12. Preschool education is only partly funded by the state. Nevertheless, the National Household

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Education Survey carried out in 1991 confirmed that most American schoolchildren attend kindergarten (Valverde, 1995).

Figure 12.1 United States of America: Structure of the formal education system (Valverde, 1995)

The public elementary schools are regarded as the keystone of American education. In comparison with South African schools, American schools are exceptionally wellresourced with educational aids, textbooks, and technology. The pupil-teacher ratio is small, about 25 :1 or even less. Teachers are commonly assisted by a classroom aide or volunteer. In some districts junior secondary and middle schools are housed in separate buildings. Senior secondary schools are normally large, comprehensive institutions (enrolment may be as high as 4 000 students), where students are prepared for tertiary education as well as for the workplace. Students at American schools enjoy a very wide range of course options from which they can choose to suit interest, aptitude, and ability. Pupils do not wear school uniforms at any level of schooling. The United States has no official examination system to assess competency as a requirement for the high school diploma. Continuous evaluation of students' achievement takes place throughout the year. Standards are maintained by a variety of scholastic and achievement tests. The atmosphere in classrooms is informal. American pedagogy is marked by a child-centred approach, an emphasis on

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discovery learning, and a hands-on approach. A small number of private schools also exist, of which some are affiliated to religious groups; others are secular. Curriculum policy is under the control of each state and is often determined by each local school district or individual school. Since the population of American schools has become increasingly multicultural during this century, school curricyla and teaching strategies strive to reflect this rich cultural diversity. The medium of instruction is English. Special programmes exist, however, to facilitate the learning of English by minority students and to assist them to acculturate into the community, it is a matter of concern to educationists that the educational attainments of the different ethnic and racial groups in the United States vary substantially. For example, in 1989 79 % of the white population aged 25 years or older had completed twelve or more years of schooling overall. Only 67 % of the Afro-American population in the same age group had completed the same amount of schooling (Valverde, 1995). There are two distinct systems of higher education in the United States: state universities and colleges, which are state maintained, and the independent universities and colleges maintained by churches or private foundations. There has been a very rapid expansion of higher education since the end of World War II. College enrolment reached 13,8 million students in 1989, the highest level in national history. An important reason for this expansion is the increased participation of older students, especially women. In spite of its remarkable educational achievements, American education is not without its critics. In the early eighties public concern about the effectiveness of public education and falling standards reached a peak. Comparative international analyses of school outcomes showed that American pupils underachieved in mathematics, science and geography. The result was an in-depth investigation which led to the publication of an influential report, A Nation at Risk (1983). In 1989 the first national goals for education were drafted and later endorsed in 1990 by the President and the governors of each state (Valverde, 1995). The aim of this effort was to restructure schools and increase expectations for student performance. The six national goals include: * * * * * *

the achievement of school readiness for all children; high school completion for all students; competency for all high school students in key areas; world excellence in science and mathematics; adult literacy; drug- and violence-free school campuses.

The reports and national goals have led to a number of reform efforts in several states and local school districts. Global competitiveness has made the success of school reform an extremely important topic in the US.

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4.2 Education in Japan Unlike the US, where there is widespread concern about the declining standards of public schools, Japan has an education system that is criticized for being too competitive: children work so hard that their social and cultural development suffers. The lead held by Japanese children over those in the West in international surveys has aroused considerable interest among comparative educationists in education in this small country. Japan is a highly industrialized country which, like the United States, is a world leader in terms of economic achievement. Japan's remarkable postwar recovery has been due, among other factors, to its highly efficient education system. Japan has a population of 124 million. It is an ethnically homogeneous country and Japanese is the sole official language and medium of instruction. Education is administered by the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of the national government. Administratively, Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, further subdivided into municipalities. The responsibility for establishing and maintaining public schools rests with the prefectural and municipal governments which establish boards of education for education administration. The goals of Japanese education were enumerated in the Fundamental Law of Education Issues in 1947 and have not changed since then (Pretorius, 1993). Education aims at the full development of the personality, the love of truth and justice, respect for individual values, a strong work ethic, and a sense of responsibility for the building of the state and society. Education is financed by national, prefectural and municipal governments with funds obtained from taxes and other sources. Formal education is compulsory for nine years and starts at the age of six years. The majority of children attend kindergartens, most of which are privately run. Elementary school lasts for six years. The curriculum is determined centrally and textbooks are provided free of charge for the years of compulsory education. Lower secondary school is three years in duration and comprises the second phase of compulsory education. The average pupil-teacher ratio at elementary level was 22:2 in 1990. Simultaneous collective instruction is typical in schools. Textbooks are the primary instructional material in the classroom. Grade-to-grade promotion during compulsory education is virtually automatic. However, upper secondary school is not compulsory and access is determined by entrance examinations taken at the age of 14. Ninety-five percent of applicants are successful and continue to upper secondary school. Tuition fees are required and textbooks are no longer free. There are two types of upper secondary schools: fulltime schools and part-time and correspondence schools. A nationwide test every January is organized by the Ministry of Education to assess the achievements of upper secondary school students. The results are often used by the universities to select students.

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Figure 12.2 Japan: Structure of the formal education system (Pretorius, 1993)

The system of higher education can be divided into three categories: the university, the junior college, and the college of technology. The university is a traditional academic centre of higher learning, junior colleges offer shorter courses in the humanities, home sciences, education, and social sciences. Colleges of technology offer courses in technology and engineering. The Japanese are concerned about the excessive emphasis placed by society on a person's educational career, excessive competition in entrance examinations, rising school absenteeism and an increase in the number of dropouts. In 1987, the government produced a policy paper calling for the implementation of education reform in six areas:

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* * * * * *

the development of lifelong learning; reforms in elementary and secondary education; reforms in higher education; promotion of research; reforms in administration and finance; assisting students to cope with change.

In spite of its problems, Japan's education continues to interest, and is admired by, many Western educators.

43 Education in Malaysia Malaysia consists of the Malay peninsula and the states of Sabah and Sarawak in the northwestern coastal area of Borneo Island. These two areas are about 500 km apart, separated by the South China Sea. Malaysia's history of colonization by the Dutch, Portuguese and British and the influx of Chinese and Indian immigrants during the late nineteenth century have created a population that is multilingual, multicultural, multiracial, and multireligious. Since independence in 1957, the national cultural policy has been aimed at strengthening national identity and unity. Goals of education have focused on nation building, national development, and personal development. The school system makes provision for the use of three languages as media of instruction for primary schooling: the national language Bahasa Melayu, Chinese, and Tamil. The national language is used as the main medium of instruction in secondary schools and higher education. English is an important second language which is used widely in business. Malaysia's population of about 17 million is mostly rural. Since the 1960s the country's agricultural economy has diversified into industries and rapid industrial growth has taken place. The administrative structure of Malaysian education consists of four levels: federal, state, district, and school. Policy and policy guidelines are formulated on national level by the Ministry of Education. Subdivisions of the ministry are responsible for educational planning and research, teacher education, curriculum development, and the inspection of schools. State departments are responsible for implementation of national policy. District education offices link the schools and the state education departments. Education is free and, while it is not compulsory, there is almost universal participation in primary education. An interesting characteristic of Malaysian education is the role of the state in the provision of 'preschools'. Of preschools 77 % are state operated and about 70 % of all young children attend preschool. Preschools do charge fees. The duration of primary education is six years and children enter school at the age of six. Parents are free to choose the type of primary school according to the three languages used as media of instruction at primary level. Most children enter national schools using Behasa Melayu as medium of instruction. The majority proceed from primary to secondary schools.

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Secondary education is available over five or six years and is divided into the lower and the upper secondary levels. Children from Chinese and Tamil schools spend a year in a transitional class to improve language proficiency before proceeding to secondary schools where Behasa Melayu is the medium of instruction. Upper secondary education branches into arts, science, technical, and vocational streams. Selection for upper secondary school is based on passing the Lower Certificate of Education examination held at the end of grade 9. In 1990, 67 % of all primary school children entered upper secondary school. Those who fail the entrance examination enter the labour market. Many schools in Malaysia operate on double shifts. Boarding facilities are provided for pupils in the lower income groups from rural areas. There are also several types of private schools which cater for ethnic and religious minorities. Private schools are regulated by the Ministry of Education through a common curriculum and common examinations.

Figure 12.3 Malaysia: Structure of the formal education system (Aziz & Maimunah, 1995)

Schools, both private and public, follow a common content curriculum formulated by the Curriculum Development Centre, using national objectives as guidelines. The cultivation of a national consciousness as well as the development of skills necessary for the workforce are central to the curriculum. Bahasa Melayu is taught to all pupils. In all government schools, pupils are promoted automatically until grade 9. At the end of grade 6 they are required to do a national assessment test in language and mathematics. At the end of grade 9 they write the national examination which determines their streaming in secondary schools. Students are examined again at the end of upper secondary schooling to determine university placement.

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Two years of postsecondary school prepare students for the examinations which determine selection for higher education. Polytechnics and colleges also offer postsecondary education and training. Higher education is provided by seven universities. A problem in Malaysia is the shortage of trained teachers, particularly in the fields of maths and science, Behasa Melayu, and English. The shortage is most critical in the rural areas. Teacher training is conducted mainly by the universities and some twenty-eight colleges of teacher education under the auspices of the Teacher Education Division. The appointment and posting of trained teachers is done centrally by the Ministry of Education. Major educational reforms in Malaysia have concentrated on improving primary and secondary education, as well as teacher education. Greater decentralization of education has also taken place. Disparities in educational standards between rural and urban areas is a problem that needs to be addressed amidst the demands made by very rapid industrialization. Another concern is the need for a wider provision of technical and vocational education.

4.4 Education in India India has a long tradition of learning and education. The seventh-largest country in the world with the second-largest population, 900 million, India has one of the largest and most diversified education systems in the world. Scientific and technological progress coexist with a system which is impeded by many major weaknesses and far removed from the country's major socio-economic objectives. India has two main religious groups: the Hindus (83 %) and the Moslems (11 %). The country is extremely multilingual. Bilingualism is the norm and trilingualism is common. Many of the languages spoken have their own scripts. The economy is agricultural and most of the population live in rural areas. The country has a planned economy and national income has increased since the fifties. Yet India is one of the poorest countries in the world with wide disparities of income and wealth distribution. About 30 % of the population lives below the poverty line. During the period of British colonial rule, the ancient indigenous education system was replaced with an Anglocentric system using English as medium of instruction. Since independence in 1947 there have been attempts to develop an alternative model of education according to the ideas of Mahatma Gandhi and other important educationists. This model advocates the idea of basic education which marries theoretical learning with productive manual work. Unfortunately, educational progress has been hindered by Indian Brahmanical tradition, the ancient system in which instruction is imparted in a language known only to a small elite and in which formal education remains the right of a certain class of society. Consequently, the vast majority of Indians continue to be deprived of education or receive poor quality education. For this reason, India has the largest number of illiterate people in the world.

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Figure 12.4 /ncf/a; Structure of the formal education system (Bordai, 1995)

India has a federal government and the main responsibility for education rests with the states. State policy provides for free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 years. In 1985 a new education policy was introduced by central government. This aims to establish a national system of education, provide universal primary education and spread adult literacy. A common core curriculum is designed to promote values such as a common cultural heritage, equality of opportunity, and the promotion of science. Education is funded by the central government, state governments, local authorities, and private sources. However, the individual parent is burdened with the expenses of textbooks and school clothing. Fees paid in government schools are very low. Little attention has been given to preprimary education. Formal schooling follows a 10+2+3 pattern. This provides for a common school curriculum up to class 10. Vocational and technical education starts at the secondary stage. Wide differences in educational provision exist among the types of schools. Special schools provide quality education to children with special talents, irrespective of their ability to pay fees. Public schools modelled on the British public school also provide elitist education

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for a minority. On the other end of the continuum are the numerous ill-equipped, poorly supervised and poorly staffed rural or municipal schools. In these schools classes are large, often more than fifty students. There are also private schools, central schools for children of government employees, and the basic schools inspired by Gandhi's ideals of schooling linked to productive work. The success of the formal schooling system is hampered by a very high dropout rate — 46 % in 1986. Enrolment is low and the dropout rate particularly high among girls and socially disadvantaged groups. Higher education is provided in universities and colleges; affiliated colleges provide technical and professional courses. Curricula for schools are compiled by the education board of each state. Efforts to incorporate productive work into the curricula have not been successful. Rote learning and an excessively academic approach to education are still prevalent. Examinations dominate Indian education. Promotion from grade to grade depends on continuous assessment, term tests and a year-end examination. Boards of examination examine children at the end of the secondary and senior secondary stages. The 1986 education policy has attempted to place less emphasis on examinations.

4.5 Education in Chile Chile is a republic situated on a long, narrow stretch of land on the south-western coast of South America. It is a very mountainous country with extreme geographic contrasts: desert, narrow plains, and deep channels and fjords. Consequently, the population is very scattered, with nearly half the population living in Santiago, the capital city. The ethnic background and language of the 13 million Chileans is very homogeneous as a result of the successful integration of the native inhabitants with their Spanish conquerors, beginning in the sixteenth century. During the twentieth century the political history of Chile has been turbulent. From 1970 to 1990 the tradition of a democratically elected government acting in a presidential system was interrupted by an autocratic military regime. Educating people is an important state responsibility in Chile. An important aim of education is to provide equal opportunity of access to education for all citizens and to ensure that everyone has at least primary education. In 1991, a six-year programme was launched to improve the quality and equity of Chilean education. Chilean education was traditionally centralized in the Ministry of Education but has undergone many changes since the 1980s. The administration of public schools has now been given to the municipalities and into private hands. The Ministry of Education remains responsible for educational policy making, producing norms and standards, and supervising education through its specialized departments. Certain powers are devolved to regional Secretaries of Education. But the responsibility for the day-to-day running of primary and secondary schools lies with the municipal authorities. Financing comes mainly from the central government, provincial and municipal sources, and from the schools themselves. Self-financing has become more important in higher education, where the state contribution has diminished.

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Figure 12.5 Chile: Structure of the formal education system (Rodriguez, 1995)

Preprimary education is voluntary and absorbs only a limited number of children. Formal schooling begins at the age of six and comprises eight years of compulsory primary schooling and four years of secondary schooling. Primary schooling is general and formative. There is a single, uniform curriculum for the primary school, developed by the Ministry of Education. Secondary schooling branches into two main streams: the academic and the vocational. The curriculum for secondary education is uniform nationwide, as are the syllabuses of studies for the different subjects. The major instructional problems lie in training teachers to stress higher cognitive processes, to replace traditional teaching methods in schools, and to make content more relevant for students. The criteria for promotion in schools are school attendance and continuous assessment, not grades. Nevertheless, repeating grades is a problem among families of low socio-economic status. On average, it takes children ten years to complete what should be eight years of primary education. The higher education system consists of eight universities, along with professional institutes and centres for technical training. Access to the universities is dependent on performance of secondary school students in a nationwide examination administered across the country on common dates. A nationwide examination is also administered by the Ministry of Education to all students in grades 4 and 8 respectively. Outcomes are made available to all schools and this allows teachers to assess their teaching and

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their students' learning. It also makes it possible to identify the poorest-achieving schools so that they can be given special support. Traditionally, boys and girls are given equal opportunities in Chile. School attendance in primary school is slightly higher for boys than girls, whereas attendance of girls is higher at the secondary level. At tertiary level women students predominate. The concentration of the Chilean population in the metropolitan region implies that this is the development centre of the country. Consequently, there are economic and educational disparities between rural and metropolitan areas. For instance, rural enrolment only represented 12,4 % of the total school population in 1990. The greatest challenges to Chilean education are thus to expand primary and secondary schooling and to improve in the quality and equity of educational provision (Rodriguez, 1995).

4.6 Education in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe is bordered by South Africa to the south, Mozambique to the east, Botswana to the west and Zambia to the north. About 98 % of the population is indigenous. A small minority of Asian and white people live in the country. This was one of the last African countries to achieve independence from the United Kingdom, which it did in 1980 after a long liberation struggle. During the 90 years of colonization a racially segregated education system was established. Education for black students was mainly in private hands. In the last decade the government has succeeded in creating a unitary education system from the two subsystems although resources continue to be unequal. Zimbabwe has a population of 10 million; over 73 % live in rural areas, and almost 40% are of school-going age. English was introduced as the official language and used in certain instances as the medium of instruction following occupation by the British South Africa Company in 1890. At independence, the status of English was retained and Shona and Ndebele were elevated to national languages. English became the medium of instruction in all schools, except during the junior primary phase. A sociolinguistic description of the status and domains of English usage shows its entrenchment in Zimbabwean society. English is used exclusively in the following domains: international and intercultural communication, national and regional official activities, education, science and technology; and almost exclusively for government and the media. Shona and Ndebele are spoken by 80 % and 15 % of the population respectively. Native English speakers comprise about 3,5 % of the population. At independence, educational policy was aimed at sociocultural unification and the formation of national identity; the efficient handling of government, administration, and education; and national development. Education is the responsibility of the national government and is administered by two ministries. The Ministry of Education and Culture is in charge of primary and secondary education, while the Ministry of Higher Education administers tertiary education. The Ministry of Education and Culture appoints and pays teachers both in government and in private schools.

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Primary school education is compulsory, but in practice the government is not able to enforce attendance. Generally children start primary school at the age of seven years. In urban areas a significant number of children attend preschool, which is the responsibility of the community. Primary education runs for seven years. Secondary education is available for either four or six years, depending on whether the students leave the system after O-level examinations or proceed to a higher level of studies in preparation for university. Until 1992, primary education was free in government and private schools. In 1992 tuition fees were introduced in urban primary schools. All children pay for tuition in secondary schools. Generally, competent English is a prerequisite for promotion to all higher grade work. The major examinations are compiled and taken through the medium of English. Moreover, a pass in English in the Zimbabwe Junior Certificate (ZJC) is the minimum requirement for employment in the police force, the post office, and banks. Students hoping to proceed to higher level examinations have to complete the Cambridge Olevel examination successfully, with a pass in English. This examination, administered by the Cambridge Examinations Syndicate, serves as a stringent selection mechanism to identify those who may continue to sixth form studies, the Cambridge A level and university. The latter opportunities are thus limited to a rigorously selected minority. The Eurocentric curriculum of the colonial past has gradually been replaced by domestically developed and oriented materials relevant to Zimbabwean conditions. Dominant classroom practice comprises rote learning and extensive note writing. Zimbabwean classrooms are characterized by large classes with a pupil-teacher ratio of between 45 : 1 and 50 : 1. The teacher plays a frontal and central role in the classroom.

Figure 12.6 Zimbabwe: Structure of the formal education system (Gatawa, 1995)

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A wide spectrum of school systems has been realized, ranging from ill-equipped rural schools on communal lands to elite independent schools in the towns. Government schools can be categorized into Group A schools (former white schools), situated in low-density residential areas, and Group B schools (former black schools), situated in high-density residential areas or townships. Group B schools have poorer facilities and are more crowded than those in Group A and often operate a platoon system (having classes in morning and afternoon shifts), with its attendant difficulties. The exodus of privileged minority white and Asian pupils, as well as affluent black pupils, into elitist multicultural private schools is a striking feature of Zimbabwean education. Tertiary education institutions are the University of Zimbabwe, the National University of Science and Technology, and a private university established by the United Methodist Church, as well as a number of colleges. Two major polytechnic colleges offer degrees in technology. Teacher training is the responsibility of colleges of education and the universities. Teachers serve a one-year probationary period before becoming eligible for permanent employment. Other key features of educational restructuring since independence in Zimbabwe have been the rapid expansion of primary education, expansion of secondary enrolments and a rigidly selective examination system in high school; the deterioration of standards in all schools; and the replacement of a racial elite with a class elite, a process in which proficiency in English plays no mean role. African culture and languages are neglected in many low-density schools, where black pupils are reluctant or even forbidden to use the indigenous languages. A mystique continues to cling to 'overseas' educational standards, symbolized by the Cambridge Syndicate exams (albeit now locally administered), Eurocentric content, and the traditions and ethos of former white schools and expensive fee-paying private schools (Gatawa, 1995).

5 S<wte flte*uU fa StUtcatto* TVoMuwU Comparative education does not only focus on a systematic country-by-country description of the structure and functioning of education systems in their natural and cultural context. Many educationists prefer to focus thematically on contemporary educational issues and problems common to educators and policy makers across the globe. From the plethora of issues confronting educators, a selection of three is briefly presented: women's education, multiculturalism, and literacy.

5.1 Achieving equality in women's education The twentieth century has witnessed dramatic shifts in the role of women throughout most Western countries. The most radical change observed has been the increasing participation of women in paid employment. This now extremely well-documented long-term trend is regarded as the most significant labour market development.

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However, in spite of the entry of large numbers of women into the workforce, trends in female labour market participation are less encouraging when analysed qualitatively. Early surveys conducted internationally show that women remained concentrated in the traditional female occupations, were paid less than men, were less likely to be promoted, and remained underrepresented in positions of management and leadership. Factors such as persistent occupational segregation, the changed social role of women, and social movements focusing on equality stimulated research into the role played by schooling in the socialization of young girls and thus in determining their occupational choices and eventual level of achievement. Consequently, studies investigating the role of gender in education have proliferated since the sixties, particularly in the United States, Western Europe, and Australasia. In all societies and at all times, the education of girls and women has been considered of less importance and has assumed a different form to that of boys and men. Influenced by social changes, researchers during the last three decades have turned their attention to the role played by the school in determining the status and life outcomes of women. Aspects of schooling which commanded interest in this regard were the curriculum, learning and resource materials, teacher behaviour, career counselling, and the participation of girls in maths and science. Research showed that the school curriculum operates on two levels: one intentional and official and the other unintentional. While it is possible that the transmission of culture which takes place in schools via the curriculum can serve to improve the life chances of the disadvantaged, it can also perpetuate existing class, racial and gender divisions in society. The hidden curriculum teaches the child various other things in addition to academic skills. A major source of unintentional teaching and learning about sex roles takes place through educational materials and media. This area for investigation characterized early gender studies, and thorough research has been carried out in most Western and several developing countries. Analyses of textbooks in various parts of the world have shown women either portrayed in a narrow range of female roles, underrepresented, or totally absent. Teacher attitudes, teacher expectations, and the positions occupied by male and female teachers within the school hierarchy are also components of the hidden curriculum and contribute to how children perceive themselves. Teachers generally consider girls to be less independent, creative, and autonomous than boys. Boys are believed to be more logical and quicker to grasp concepts. Several studies monitoring teacher-pupil interaction demonstrate that teachers treat boys and girls differently in the classroom and spend about two thirds more time interacting with boys than with girls. Interestingly, extensive research in the eighties in a variety of American schools confirmed research already carried out in the sixties and seventies: day-to-day life in classrooms has remained fundamentally unchanged over the past twenty years, with boys receiving overall preferential treatment during formal education, which partly determines their life chances. Furthermore, the underrepresentation of women in educational leadership also confirms the idea that women nurture learners, while men lead. Studies of career guidance practice also show that career counselling tends to be influenced by

443

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

the gender segregation of the labour market and does not adequately incorporate the female experience of career. Underachievement and underrepresentation of girls in maths and science is another common phenomenon worldwide. An overall conclusion of research conducted in many parts of the world is that equality of opportunity and outcomes for girls cannot be measured only in terms of access to schooling but must include the processes of schooling as well. Equality of opportunity should not be sought in the overt curriculum alone but is also contingent on an unbiased school climate (Lemmer, 1993).

5.2 Coping with cultural diversity Teachers throughout the world are faced with teaching increasingly culturally diverse classes. This has brought about a need for a school reform programme that will change the nature of teaching and learning so that the needs of all pupils will be met and suitable learning environments created for motivating pupils towards acquiring the necessary skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes to enable them to participate meaningfully in a multicultural society. Various of the educational responses to cultural diversity in the school and classroom over the years have included the policies of assimilation and multiculturalism. The latter has received much attention in the 1970s and has become more widely accepted, resulting in the development and implementation of multicultural education. This has become an important approach to the education of culturally diverse classes. Assimilation is a monocultural policy which has prevailed until recently in most multicultural Western societies. It places emphasis on minimizing cultural differences and encouraging social conformity and continuity. Minority groups are therefore expected to become assimilated into the mainstream of the dominant group culture. They are required to adopt the language, cultural modes, and values of the dominant group. Education gives little recognition to the needs of individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds as long as educational policies and practices remain ethnocentric. In contrast, there are classroom programmes which develop sensitivity and sympathy, understanding and awareness of diverse cultural groups. Such classroom programmes are given different names: multicultural education, multiethnic education, antiracist education and intercultural education. In its 'weak' sense multicultural education focuses on different beliefs, values, eating habits, cultural activities, dress, and gestures. This form of multicultural education attempts to exten the cultural vocabulary and cultural grammar of the individual child. The 'stronger' forms of multicultural education have their basis partly in the arousing of, and sensitivity to, cultural diversity. Such aims are also underpinned by political and ideological aims. The aims and assumptions of multicultural education may be defined as follows (Baker, 1995): * There is fundamental equality of all individuals, irrespective of language and culture.

444

EDUCATION IN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT

* In a democracy there should be equality of opportunity, irrespective of ethnic, cultural, and linguistic origin. * Any manifest or latent form of discrimination by the dominant power group against minorities must be eliminated. A culturally diverse society should avoid racism and ethnocentrism. Cultural stereotypes are to be avoided. * An awareness of minority cultural groups' needs and of their culture is a precondition and foundation for the building of intercultural awareness. Attempts to provide multicultural education vary widely. The term is very broad, ambiguous, and diverse. It may range from awareness programmes for majority children to the sharing of cultural experiences within a classroom containing a variety of ethnic groups. It may range from a programme of one lesson a week in the timetable to a radical reconstruction both of the whole curriculum and of relationships between schools and their communities. For some educators, even this relatively strong approach to multiculturalism will not be enough. In the widespread victimization of minorities and the violence of racism continuing in many commmunities, they see the mark of failure of multicultural education in school. Such an antiracist movement demands not only direct intervention in all schools and by all teachers: it requires changes in society at a political level. From this viewpoint monocultural fundamentalism and racism cannot be combated through education alone (Baker, 1995).

5.3 Literacy education The final issue selected for discussion is of importance in virtually every country of the world: it is that of literacy education. Literacy today means much more than the mere ability to read and write. It is also the ability to think, access information, and use language in a variety of contexts. A major problem in a multicultural society is that language minorities often find that literacy education is only available in the majority language. Three levels of literacy are often distinguished: no schooling whatever (illiteracy), elementary schooling lasting some four to six years (basic literacy), and completion of high school (functional literacy). Such categories are useful for demographic reports that require an indication of the educational levels in particular countries, but they are often inappropriate and misleading in contexts outside of the school. Alternative categories distinguish environmental literacy (the unspecified competence needed to function in a literate environment) from functional literacy (the degree of literacy needed to function in the workplace). There are several different approaches to the teaching of literacy. Each has different emphases and these will impact on teaching and learning. The skills approach focuses on learning to read and write at very basic levels. Moreover, the skills approach recognizes the status quo, does not question the causes of illiteracy, and focuses on the student becoming literate in order to become a good citizen. The whole-language approach stresses an integrated approach, where the stress lies on creativity and making learning fun. It makes use of 'real' books, that is, books with a

445

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

communicative, recreative purpose, and does not question the status quo. The construction of meaning approach stresses the role of culture in the construction of meaning. Readers bring a world of experience to the text and will construct meaning according to their background. Teachers need to be aware of the social context of literacy. The social cultural literacy approach stresses the ability to construct appropriate cultural meaning. The cultural heritage may, however, be seen differently by different people. A majority assimilationist will stress the cultural heritage of the majority culture. A cultural pluralist will appreciate the social and cultural context of minorities. The critical literacy approach views literacy in its social and political context and critically examines literacy education and its relationship to the power dimensions in society (Baker, 1995). A variety of studies in different communities illustrate different values ascribed to literacy. European society, for example, has come, over centuries, to value the printed word very highly. In contrast, other communities show a very conservative attitude with respect to the adoption of literacy. A study of an Eskimo community in 1983 showed that while public school instruction in English has been available locally for at least 50 years, levels of literacy remain low because in this fishing and hunting community literacy is of little value. Liberia has an indigenous script but no tradition of school-based literacy and thus literacy is used to a very limited extent. Consequently, its practice does not confer the sort of general abilities associated with the term. Heath's (1983) study of three distinct but neighbouring communities in North Carolina found that literacy seemed to have few of the effects commonly associated with it. In other countries, such as Morocco, a form of literacy related to religion is widespread but restricted to religious purposes. In this society the elite are literate in French, whereas other members of the community will pay a scribe to provide them with literacy services (Toomey, 1995). UNESCO has been a prime mover in the provision of adult literacy education in developing countries and works closely with national personnel. The delivery systems of adult literacy education outside the formal environs of the school are often organized at grassroots level, utilizing not only teachers but any educated personnel and any facility such as homes, churches, other religious institutions, community halls, or the workplace. Greater attention is presently being given to literacy in developing countries as governments realize that it can boost production, create new employment opportunities, and lead to a more equitable distribution of wealth (Toomey, 1995).

6

(faidut^ There is growing interest in comparative education as global awareness among educators increases. Policy makers need to know how their country is doing in relation to other countries, and the study of other national education systems can contribute in this respect. Moreover, comparative education has generated a set of

446

EDUCATION IN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT

approaches to research that permits understanding of a variety of educational issues in a cross-cultural framework. Unfortunately, comparative education does not always form part of the core curriculum of teacher education. However, it clearly offers teachers tools which can afford a clearer insight into their own practices through the study of the practice of others.

Suwwvuf 1 Educators are interested in what is happening in education systems throughout the world. The field of enquiry that deals with education in the international context is comparative education. 2 Comparative education had its beginnings in travellers' tales, based on informal, unsystematic descriptions of foreign education systems. 3 Comparative education traces its formal beginning to the work of Jullien de Paris, who proposed a comprehensive framework for the study of foreign systems. Early comparativists were mainly interested in improving their own systems by borrowing the ideas of others. 4 During the early twentieth century comparativists recognized the influence of the natural factors and cultural forces which shaped education systems. 5 The practice of comparative education during the sixties and seventies was marked by a quest for a rigorous methodology. The field was influenced by structural functionalist and quantitative approaches to research. 6 As we move towards the twenty-first century, comparative education has adopted a more eclectic and multiperspectival approach. Studies are focused on classroom reality as well as the macro system of education. 7 The study of other education systems suggest that problems of educational development are common to many societies. By studying education in different societies educators develop new insights into these societies while deriving an innovative understanding of their own conditions. 8 A brief description of education in the United States, Japan, Malaysia, India, Chile, and Zimbabwe is given. 9 Comparative education also involves the thematic study of educational issues rn the international context. Three issues, namely women's education, multiculturalism, and literacy are cited as examples. 10 Comparative education can widen teachers' understanding about education in their country. For this reason, it forms a valuable component of teacher training.

447

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

70W4, and,

(fatcefifo

assimilation

hidden curriculum

comparative education

intercultural education

cultural borrowing

literacy education

forces and factors

multiculturalism

gender issues

transplantation

global awareness

Student ActMtoa 1 Compare and contrast the education systems described in this chapter. In what ways do they differ as regards aims of education, the structure of schooling education, the language of instruction, and administration and control? What reasons can you give for the differences? 2 From your study of the education systems described above, identify different policies that may benefit South African education. 3 Choose one of the education systems described in this chapter. Use your access to the library, the Internet, journal articles, and newspapers to gather additional information about education in this country. 4 Locate a student or teacher who has had experience of schooling in another country. Interview him/her in order to obtain insight about education in that country. In what way does his/her description differ from what you have read about education in that country? 5 Obtain the address of a school in another country. Your local library, newspaper, or teacher association may be of assistance. Organize correspondence between the students you teach and their counterparts in that school.

^i&tuwuifdiu Altbach, P G. 1991. Trends in comparative education. Comparative Education Review, 35 (3), 491-507 Aziz, A A & S Maimunah. 1995. Malaysia: System of education. In T N Postlewaite (ed) Encyclopedia of Comparative Education, 2 ed. Oxford: Pergamon Baker, C. 1995. Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Bordai, A. 1995. India: System of education. In T N Postlewaite (ed) Encyclopedia of Comparative Education, 2 ed. Oxford: Pergamon Eckstein, M A & H ] Noah. 1969. Scientific Investigation in Comparative Education. London: Macmillan Gatawa, B S M. 1995. Zimbabwe: System of education. In T N Postlewaite (ed) Encyclopedia of Comparative Education, 2 ed. Oxford: Pergamon

448

EDUCATION IN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT Hans, N. 1929. Principles of Educational Policy. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Heath, S B. 1983. Ways with Words: Language, Life and Work in Communities and Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Holmes, B. 1965. Problems in Education: A Comparative Approach. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Kandel, I. 1933. Comparative Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Lemmer, E M. 1993. Gender issues in education. In E I Dekker & E M Lemmer (eds) Critical Issues in Modem Education. Durban: Butterworths Masemann, V L. 1990. Ways of knowing. Comparative Education Review, 34 (4), 465-73 National Commission on Excellence in Education. 1983. A Nation at Risk. Unpublished Report. Noah, H. 1984. The use and abuse of comparative education. Comparative Education Review, 28 (4), 550-62 Noah, H J & M A Eckstein. 1969. Toward a Science of Comparative Education. London: Collier Macmillan Pretorius, S G. 1993. The education system of japan. In EI Dekker & E M Lemmer (eds) Modem Education Systems, 2 rev ed. Durban: Butterworths Rodriguez, C. 1995. Chile: System of education. In T N Postlewaite (ed) Encyclopedia of Comparative Education, 2 ed. Oxford: Pergamon Toomey, D. 1995. Anthropological study of literacy and numeracy. Jn T N Postlewaite (ed) Encyclopedia of Comparative Education, 2 ed. Oxford: Pergamon Valverde, G A. 1995. United States: System of education. In T N Postlewaite (ed) Encyclopedia of Comparative Education, 2 ed. Oxford: Pergamon Vos, A J & V M Brits. 1987. Comparative and International Education for Student Teachers. Durban: Butterworths

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B

A Policy Framework for Education and Training (ANC report) 36, 71 acculturation 194 active learning 181, 231 administration 337-8 cost of 367 administrative law 386 adult basic education and training (ABET) 1 64-5 advance organizers 289 affective domain 268 African College 73 African education colonial 54 indigenous 50 African Educational Movement (AEM) 74 African National Congress (ANC) 74-5 African nationalism 127-8 africanization 207-8 Afrikaans 69-70 Afrikaner nationalism 1 25-6 Afrikaners 55-8 age 202-3 aims 266 and objectives 303 alternative schools 73 altruism 237-41 American School Movement 73 ANC Youth League 74 anglicization 60-1, 62, 67 Anglo-Boer War 62, 65, 67, 85 anorexia nervosa 223 apartheid education 51 end of 58 overview of 59 see also separate education apartheid laws 56, 57 areas of learning 1 74-5 Aristotle 108 Arnold, Matthew 425 assimilation 444 attention disorders 247 audi alteram partem rule 41 0 auditory disability 245-6 authority 338 axiology 98, 99

Bantu Education 9, 75, 76-80 Bantu Education Act (47 of 1953) 20, 55-6, 69, 75, 144 behavioural disorders 246-7 behaviourism 287-8 Bereday, George 426 Bill of Rights 338, 388-9 Black Consciousness 128 Black Consciousness Movement 76 black schools (medium of instruction) 69-71, see also Bantu Education block grants 371 boards of management 148 body image 222 Boers medium of instruction 62-3, 65-6, 67 religious instruction 84-6 breach of duty 399-401 Brebner, Dr John 85 British rule medium of instruction in education under 60-1, 62, 63, 65, 66-7 religious issues under 83 separate education under 52-5 budget, national 364-5 bulimia nervosa 223 Burgers Education Act (4 of 1 874) 62 Butelezi, Elias Wellington 73 C

Calvinism 83-4, 84 Cape education and medium of instruction 60-1, 68 Calvinism in 83-4 Cape African Teachers' Association (CATA) 1 0, 75 Cape African Teachers' Union (CATU) 76 Cape School Board Act (35 of 1905) 54 Cape Teachers' Professional Association (CTPA) 1 0 capital costs 367 career ladder (for teachers) 1 8 case law 391-2 Cattell, James McKean 224 causal relationship 401 chaos theory 333, 369 Chile, education in 438-40

451

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS Christian National Education (CNE) 10, 56, 125-6 controversy about 86-7 schools 62, 65-6, 67, 85 chronic disease 222, 245 class tests 320-1 classicism 112-13 classroom instruction, legal context of 394-8 classroom interventions, alternative 373 classroom supervision 404 classroom rules 41 6-1 7 climate, school 344-6 coercive power 338 cognitive domain 219, 268 cognitive development 224-34 cognitive-developmental approach 288-9, 228-31 Coloured Persons Act (47 of 1963) 56 Committee on Teacher Education Policy (COTEP) 8, 31, 33-4, 35, 310 common law 391 communication 198 communism see Marxism community schools 144, 1 72-3 comparative education 428-42 benefits of study of 427-8 development of 424-7 trends in 442-46 completion items tests 320 complex structures 332, 334-5 complexity theory 292, 369 concrete-operational phase 229 conditioned response 287 conflict theory 362 Congress of South African Students (COSAS) 79, 80 consensus theory 361 Constitution, the (Interim) 35, 142, 154, 387-9 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (200 of 1993) 387, see also Constitution, the (Interim) Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1 08 of 1996)36,58, 339, 387 Constitutional Court 392 constitutional law 386 contextual approach 231-2 Coordinating Committees for the School Curriculum 174 core values 1 30 corporal punishment 411-12 cost saving (in education) 370-2 costs (of education) 366-7 courts, hierarchy of 392 Cradock, John 83 criminal law 386 critical pedagogy 293 critical theory 1 01

452

critical rationalism 1 01 cultural awareness 35-6 cultural discontinuity 197 cultural diversity 1 89 altruism and 238 educational reform and 21 0-1 factors underlying 1 90-203 implications of and reactions to 203-9 international view of 444-5 cultural discontinuity 197 cultural relativism 1 98 culture 1 91 -9 and schooling 197-9 general characteristics of 1 96-7 in complex societies 193-7 meaning of 1 91 -3 school 344-5 culture clubs 74 culture rights 389 curriculum 308-1 1 definition of 259-60 design 1 75-6, 260, 265 development 1 74-6, 260, 266-72 legal issues related to 394-5 models 264-75 perspectives of 263-4 process 310 product 309-1 0 socioconstructivist 309 curriculum change 371-2 Curriculum Framework 1 74 customer satisfaction 337

D Dale, Langham 54 damages 401 De Lange Report 36, 56, 79 DeMist, J A U 8 3 De Villiers Education Commission (1879) 61 decoupling 348 Department of Bantu Education 69-70 Department of Education (DE) 13, 21, 30, 58, 142, 162, 163, 301, 339 Department of Education and Training (DET) 1 2, 1 9, 30,56,79,82,141,144 Department of National Education (DNE) 12, 141-2 Descartes, Rene 105, 106, 331 detention 41 3 development 370 Dewey, John 114,429 dialectical process 119 didactically neglected learners 248-9 diligens paterfamilias 400-1

INDEX direct costs 367 direct expository teaching approach 307 discipline of students 409-1 7 forms of 41 1-1 3 teachers' obsession with 283 discovery learning 289 distance education 1 73-4 diversity see cultural diversity Du Toit Education Act (1 of 1882) 62 Dutch settlers/rule Calvinism and 83-4 education and 50, 51-2 medium of instruction and 61, 62 duty of care 399

E early childhood development (ECD) 150, 163 early childhood education 149-51 Eckstein, Max 426 economic decline 368-9 education African 54 apartheid 51, see also separate education benefits of 355-6 classicism and 1 1 3 cost concepts in 366-7 cost saving in 370-2 culture and 1 97-9 Erikson's influence on 236-7 existentialism and 1 1 8 expenditure 364-5 financing 372-6 funding of 359-76 idealism and 1 06-7 Indian 54-5 indigenous 50-1 landmark events in 88-9 liberalism and 123-4 Marxism and 121 naturalism and 111 philosophy and 1 02-29 Piaget's influence on 230-1 pragmatism and 1 1 5 rate of return for 357-9 realism and 1 08-9 religious issues and 83-8 resistance in 72-82 Sternberg's influence on 234 the law and 385-7 Vygotsky's influence on 232 Education Act (1 3 of 1865) 61, 84 Education Act (6 of 1866) 61, 84

Education Act (4 of 1874)84 Education Act (1 of 1882)84 Education Act (25 of 1907) 63, 85 Education Act (35 of 1908) 66 Education and Training Act (90 of 1979) 79 education and training policy 157-8 education and training quality authorities (ETQAs) 161, 163 education levels (formal education sectors) 149 Education Ordinance (1 of 1874) 85 Education Regulation (of 1 859) 61 Education Renewal Strategy (DNE report) 36

education rights 389 education ministries (old) 141-2 education system history of 141-2 organization of 1 63-8 overview of apartheid 59 philosophical trends in 125-9 transition to new 142 statistics for 77-8 see also schooling system educational content 31 1 educational leaders 330 educational management see management Educational Ordinance (of 1 903) 65 educational reform, diversity and 210-1 1 educative power 284 effective schools developing 180-2 characteristics of 1 76-80 effective teaching 312 Eiselen Commission 69, 75 Eisenberg, Nancy 240 emotional disorders 246-7 enculturation 193, 197-8 English language see anglicization environmentally deprived learners 248 epistemology 98, 99 equality (constitutional right) 388 Erikson, Erik 234-7 essays 319-20 essentialism 105 established government schools 53, 60 ethnic mobilization 126 ethnicity 199-200 ethnocentrism 198 evaluation 270, 314-22 criteria for 316-18 methods for 318 reasons for 315-16 skills 31 4 exceptional learners 242-9

453

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

existential phenomenology 117 existentialism 117-19 experiential learning 290 expert power 338 expulsion 41 0-1 1,41 2-1 3

F facilitators 231 farm schools 144-5, 172 fields of activity 194-6 financing, education 372-6 model for 374-5 First National Consultative Conference (FNCC) 80 formal education funding of 360-1 levels of 149-55 management of 339-40 formal-operational phase 229-30 foundation phase 1 63 free Christian schools 61 free education 367-9 freedom and security of person (constitutional right) 388 Freedom Charter 74-5, 128 freedom of expression (constitutional right) 389, 396-7 Freire's pedagogy 5-6, 290 fringe benefits (for teachers) 1 7-1 8 Fundamental Pedagogics 1 0 further education and training 1 65-6 Further Education Certificate (FEC) 159, 160

G Galton, Sir Francis 224 Gardner, H 226 Gauteng Youth College 1 55-6 gender 202 altruism and 238 see also women's education general education and training 1 63-5 General Education and Training Certificate (GEC) 1 59, 160, 164-5 Gestalt theory 288 giftedness 243-4 goals 266, 267-9 governing body (schools) 146, 148, 169, 170-1, 341-3 Grey College 63-4 gross national product (GNP) 364 group and discussion teaching method 307 group power 338 Guilford, J P 226 H Hans, Nicholas 425

454

Heads of Education Departments Committee (HEDCOM) 38 hearing problems 245-6 Hegel, Georg 105, 119 hermeneutics 1 01 hidden curriculum 260, 443 higher education and training (HET) 159, 166-8 holistic approach 227 Holmes, Brian 426 home schooling 1 71 household charges 370-1 human capital theory 357-9, 363 human dignity (constitutional right) 388 Human Sciences Research Council Investigation into Education see De Lange Report Hunter Report 340-1 hyperactivity 247 hyperrationalism 331

1 idealism 105-7 identity 204 identity confusion 232 ideology/ideologies 261 103 illness 221 -2, 245 in loco parentis 391, 399

incapacity 221 -2 inclusion 251 indemnity 408 independent schools 146-7, 171 funding of 360-1, 375, 376 Independent Schools Association (ISA) 147 India, education in 436-8 Indians (education for) 54-5 Indians Education Act (61 of 1965) 56 indigenous education 50-1 indirect costs 367 individualism 124 Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU) 73 industrialization 363 informal groups (in schools) 343 information 308-1 1 need for 261 information-processing approach 233-4 in-service education and training for teachers (INSET) 19 institutionalized racism 1 26 instructional design 291 intellectual development see cognitive development intellectual disability 244 intelligence tests 225-6 intelligence nature of 226-7

INDEX qualitative aspects of 228 models of 226-7 measurement of 224-6 intermediate phase 164 International Association for the Evaluation of Education Achievement 428 International Society League (ISL) 73 IQ (intelligence quotient) 225

1 Japan, education in 432-4 journal, teaching 322 Jullien de Pans, M-A 424 junior primary phase 1 52 junior secondary phase 153 just administrative action (constitutional right) 389 K Kandel, Isaac 425 Kierkegaard, Sven 1 1 7 knowledge 261, 308-11 availability of 369-70 domains of 262 existing 231 organizing 261 -3 self 298 teacher's 294 Kohlberg, Lawrence 239 /coster schools 83

L language 286 impairments 246 rights 389 law, the different parts of 386-7 education and 385-7 nature and sources of 387-92 law of contract 387 law of delict 387 leadership 337-8 learner exceptionality 242-9 learner development, domains 219-20 learners with special educational needs (LSEN) 242 South African policy regarding 250-2 learning classicism and 113 disabilities 247-8 evaluation of 314-22 existentialism and 119 idealism and 1 07 liberalism and 124-5 Marxism and 1 22

naturalism and 1 1 2 organization of 1 63-8 pragmatism and 116-17 realism and 109-10 learning content 308-1 1 and educational technology 31 1 learning outcomes 1 62, 1 66, 272-4 examples of 302 learning styles 1 98 legal system, education within 386-7 legislation (as source of law) 389-91 lesson 305-1 1 format of 306 introducing and concluding 313-14 phases 306 planning 304-5 presentation of 306-7 structure of 306, 313-14 lesson units 304 liberal tradition 1 26-7 liberalism 122-5 lifelong learning 261 limitation of rights 389 linear causality 331 listening skills 314 literacy education 445-6 local government 391 logical empiricism 1 01 Lovedale Institute 72 Lyle, J Vacy 62

M mainstreaming 251 Malaysia, education in 434-6 Mallinson, Vernon 426 malnutrition 223 management 337-8 informal aspects of 3436 of formal education 339-40 of schools 347-9 teaching as 291 -2 theories 335-7 management committees (school) 148 Mann, Horace 425 marks 321 -2 Marx, Karl 119 Marxism 119-22 matching items tests 320 mathematics teachers (shortage of) 30 Mayibuye schools 73 meaningful learning 289 mechanical structures 332 medium of instruction 58-72

455

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS

at present 71-2 in black schools 69-71 in Cape 60-1 in Natal 66-7 in Orange Free State 63-6 in Transvaal 61 -3 in Union of South Africa 67-8 lessons from struggle over 71 mental disability 244 metacognition 297 metaphysics 98, 99 metascience 1 00-2 metatheories 1 00-2 Ministry of Education and Training 142, 339 minority status 201 mission schools 53, 54 Model A schools 145 Model B schools 145 Model C (state-aided) schools 145-6, 172, 375, 376 modernism 330-1 moral development 239 moral reasoning 240 moral domain 219 morality 237-41 motivational skills 314 multicultural education 209-10, 444-5 multiculturalism 36, 205, 209 multilingual teachers (shortage of) 30-1 multilingualism 36, 71 multiple-choice tests 319 multiple disabilities 244-5

N Natal medium of instruction 66-7, 68 religious instruction 86 Natal African Teachers' Union (NATU) 10 National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE) 167-8 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) 38 National Education Act (39 of 1967) 68, 86, 87 National Education Coordinating Committee 82 National Education Crisis Committee (NECC) 80-1, 82 National Education Policy Investigation Report (NEPI report) 36, 295 National Education Union of South Africa (NEUSA) 10 national institutes for lifelong learning development (NILLD)162 National Open Learning Agency (NOLA) 1 74 National Policy for General Affairs Act (76 of 1984) 68, 79-80, 87 National Professional Teachers' Organization of South Africa(NAPTOSA)10

456

National Qualifications Framework (NQF) 38, 158-63 curriculum development and 1 74-6 higher education and training and 1 66-7 national standards bodies (NSBs) 161, 162 National Teachers' Unity Forum (NTUF) 82 nationalism 363, 369 nation-state 369-70 Native Educational Association (NEA) 9 natural justice 41 0-1 1 naturalism 83, 110-12 negligence 399-402 common sources of 402 nemo judex in sua causa rule 41 0

neo-Calvinism 125-6 Neo-Marxism 121 neo-Thomism 112 NEST 155 newspapers-in-education 1 56 Nietzsche, Friedrich 1 1 7 night schools 73 Noah, Harold 426 non-formal education 1 55 funding of 360-1 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 19, 155

O obesity 223-4 objectives 266, 267-9 aims and 303 planning teaching and 302 objectives based curriculum 264-72 objectivity 330-1 open learning 1 73-4, 271 oral tests 31 8 Orange Free State medium of instruction 63-6, 68 religious instruction 85-6 Orange Free State Teachers' Association (OFSTA) 10 Ordinance 5 (of 1911)68 Ordinance 13 (of 1945)68 Ordinance 29 (of 1953)85 Ordinance 16 (of 1954)68 Ordinance Policy 1 (of 1874) 64 organizational culture (in schools) 344-5 organizational skills 314 outcomes see learning outcomes outcomes-based curricula 1 74-5, 272-5 outcomes-based education (OBE) 1 74, 272-4

P parents, reporting to 322 Parent-Teacher-Student Associations (PTSAs) 81 Paris, Jullien de see Jullien de Paris

INDEX Parliament 389-90 partnership funding 375-6 Peirce, Charles Sanders 1 1 3 People's Club 73 people's education 80-2, 127-8 education-political aims of 81 perennialism 112 perspectives 263-4 phenomenology 101, 290 philosophies contemporary-modern 1 1 3-25 traditional 105-13 philosophy 97-1 02 science and 99-104 branches of 99 education and 1 02-29 scope of 98-9 teachers and 97-104, 129-32 education system and 1 04-29 physical problems 221-4 physical disabilities 244-5 physical education (supervision of) 405 physical development 220-4 physical domain 219 Piaget, Jean 228-31 planning (teaching) 301-5 objectives and 302 resources for 304 who is responsible for 301-2 Plato 105 playground supervision 405 plus-one matching principle 240 population growth 368 postcompulsory sector 376 postmodernism 100, 369 power 338 PowerMatric programme 156-7 pragmatism 113-17 preoperational phase 229 preprimary education see early childhood education primary school system 151-3 principal see school principal privacy (constitutional right) 388 private law 386 private schools see independent schools problem solving 1 1 6 process curriculum 310 Proclamation 113 (of 1882) 61 Proclamation 80 (of 1886) 84 product curriculum 309 professional (definition of) 7-8 professional growth 1 9 programme 260

progressivism 114 promotion (of teachers) 1 8-1 9 provinces (SA) 143 provincial education departments 142, 340, 374 provincial laws 390 proximal development 232 psychological well-being 221-4 psychometric approach 224-8 disadvantages of 224 psychomotor domain 268-70 psychosocial development 234-7 psychosocial domain 219 public funding 359-62 alternatives to 370-2 public law 386 public schools see state (public) schools punishment, fair and reasonable 409-1 0

Q qualifications 1 62 Qualifications Councils (QCs) 161, 162 questioning 312-13

R race 190-1 rainbow nation 205 rate of return 357-9 rationalism 83 reacting 31 3 READ 155 realism 108-10 reasonable preventability 400-1 reasonable foreseeability 400 reception learning 289 recurrent costs 367 re-enculturation 194 reflective teaching 284 reliability (of test results) 316-17 religious freedom (constitutional right) 388-9 religious issues (education and) 83-8 report cards 321-2 research 36 resistance (in education) 72-82 reward power 338 rights (constitutional) 388-9 limitation of 389 Rose-lnnes, James 53, 60, 84 rules 41 6-1 7 Russell, Bertrand 108

S Sadler, Sir Michael 425 salaries (teachers) 1 6-1 7

457

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS proposed reform of 38-40 scaffolding 232 scheme of work 304 school as a complex structure 332-5 as a product of modernism 330-1 climate and culture 344-6 committees 144 excursions (supervision of) 406 effectiveness 1 76-82 financing of 375-6 goals 1 77 local management of 340-3 management of change in 347-9 mission 1 76-8 new theory of the 332-5 organizational principles of 347-9 ownership 1 72-3 rules 41 6-1 7 sport (supervision of) 405 structure 1 52 school principal 343 schooling existentialism and 1 1 8 Marxism and 1 21 naturalism and 110-11 classicism and 112-13 liberalism and 1 23 realism and 1 08 pragmatism and 114-15 idealism and 1 05-6 schooling system 143-9 organization of 1 68-72 reform initiatives 157-8 statistics 148 science, philosophy and 99-1 04 science teachers (shortage of) 30 search and seizure 414-16 Second National Consultative Conference 80, 81 secondary school system 151-2, 153 self-evaluation 318-19 self -organization 334 self-realization 106 self-similar patterning 335 senior primary phase 1 52-3 secondary phase 153, 164 sensorimotor phase 228 separate education, history of 51-8 sex 202 sexual development 221 short-answer tests 319-20 situational analysis 260, 266-7 skills 310

458

teaching 311-14 slaves (education of) 51-2, 53, 72 Smith, Adam 122 social class 200-1 social change, teaching for 292-3 social values 1 98 societal development and change 363 socioconstructivist curriculum 309 Somerset, Lord Charles 53, 60, 83 Somerset schools 53, 60 South African Communist Party (SACP) 73 South African Community College Model 166 South African Democratic Teachers' Union (SADTU) 1 0 South African Native National Council (SANNC) 72 South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) 35, 38, 159,161,162,176 South African Qualifications Authority Act (58 of 1 995) 161,162,167 South African Race Congress (SARC) 72 South African Republic see Transvaal South African Schools Act (84 of 1996) 72, 88, 1 70 South African Schools Bill 72, 87, 171, 172 South African Students' Movement (SASM) 76, 77 South African Students' Organization (SASO) 76 Soweto Parents' Crisis Committee (SPCC) 80 Soweto Students' League 79 Soweto uprising (1976) 70, 76-80 Spearman, Charles 226 special education needs 1 47-8, 1 66 speech impairments 246 Spencer, Herbert 1 1 1 sponsoring bodies (school) 148 standards (in evaluating) 315 standards-generating bodies (SGBs) 161, 162 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 225 stare decisis doctrine 391-2 state (public) schools 144, 169-71, 375 early childhood services in 1 50-1 governing bodies of 341 -3 statistics for 23-6 Sternberg, Robert 233 structural pluralism 204-5 student records 397 Student Representative Councils (SRCs) 81 student teaching (for teachers) 35 student uprisings 76-80 study material, selection of 269-70 subculture (microculture) 192 supervision 402-9 areas of 404-7 suspension 41 2-1 3 syllabus 260 systems theory 101, 292

INDEX

T taxonomies 267-9 teacher/teachers 294-301 as career-seeking travellers-in-transit 13-14 as professionals 5-8 choice of subjects 1 3 competencies of 8-9 duty to report to parents 322 entry into practice 299 fringe benefits for 1 7-1 8 liability 398-409 philosophy and 129-32 professional growth of 1 9 profile of in South Africa 21-3 projected demand for 26-7 projected supply of 27-9 promotion of 1 8-1 9 reasons for becoming 1 0-1 9 role as educator 300-1 role of in moral development 240-1 role of 21 8-1 9, 299-300 salaries for 16-1 7, 38-40 shortage of 30-1 supply of and demand for 23-32 task regarding LSEN 251-2 un/underqualified 22-3 teacher attrition 19-21 teacher education 33-5 programmes 35 proposed reform in 36-40 teacher preparation 32-3 Teachers' League of South Africa (TLSA) 75 teachers' organizations 9, 304 teachers' training colleges 1 54-5 teaching as management 291-2 aspects of 294 behaviour 287-8 classicism and 1 1 3 consciousness 289-90 evaluating 314-22 existentialism and 118-19 for social change (democracy) 292-3 idealism and 1 07 intrinsic rewards for 14-15 legal context of 384, 392-4 liberalism and 1 24 Marxism and 121-2 meaning 289 naturalism and 1 1 1 organization of 1 63-8 perceptions of 4-1 0

planning for 301-5 pluralist approach to 287-94 power of 282-4 practical benefits of 1 5-1 9 pragmatism and 115-16 proposed reform in 36-40 realism and 1 09 redefining 284-7 strategies 306-7 thinking 288-9 why people leave 19-21 teaching media 31 1 teaching practice 35 teaching skills 31 1-1 4 categories of 314 team planning 303-4 technical colleges 1 54 technikons 1 54 technological advancement 363 tertiary education 154-5, 376 testing 315, see also evaluation thinking and enquiry teaching method 307 Thomism 1 1 2 Thurber, Charles H 425 total quality management (TQM) 336-7 traditional leaders 144 transaction (perspective on curriculum) 263 transformation (perspective on curriculum) 263, 271 transmission (perspective on curriculum) 263, 264 Transvaal medium of instruction in 61 -3, 68 religious instruction in 84-5 Transvaal African Teachers' Association (TATA) 76 Transvaal Teachers' Association (TTA) 1 0 tribunals 392 true-false tests 320 tuition tax credit 371 two factor theory 336 Tyler's model (curriculum) 264-6

U ubuntu 128, 206-7 undernourishment 223 UNESCO 446 Union of South Africa 67-8 unit standards 1 62, 1 65 United Democratic Front (UDF) 79 United States, education in 429-31 unity 205-10 universities 154 un/underqualified teachers 22-3 user charges 370-1

459

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS V

W

validity (of test results) 31 7 Van der Linden Education Regulation (of 1 852) 61 Van Rheede 52 Verwoerd, Dr H F 55 visual disability 246 volitional domain 21 9 volitional development 241-2 Voortrekkers 55 medium of instruction and 61 -2, 63, 66 religious instruction 84-6 voucher system 371 Vygotsky, L S 232

women's education 442-4 world wars 364 world-view 198 written tests 318

460

Y Young Revolutionary Council 79

Z Zimbabwe, education in 440-2