Introduction to Australian Insects (Revised Edition)

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An Introduction to Australian Insects Phillip W. Hadlington & Judith A. Johnston Revised Edition

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A Unsw Press book Published by University of New South Wales Press Ltd University of New South Wales Sydney 2052 Australia Published in 1982 Reprinted in 1987 Reprinted with amendments in 1990 Revised edition 1998 © P. Hadlington and J. Johnston This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission. Inquiries should be addressed to the publisher. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry Hadlington, Phillip W., 1923-. An introduction to Australian insects. Rev. ed. Bibliography. ISBN 0 86840 465 9. 1. Insects - Australia 2. Insects - Australia - Identification. I. Johnston, J. A. (Judith A.), 1947-. II. Title. 595.70994 Printed by South China Printing, Hong Kong

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Contents Acknowledgements

vi

Introduction

vii

Classification

1

What Is an Insect?

4

The Insect Orders

19 20

Class CollembolaSpringtails 20 Class and Order Diplura 20 Class and Order Protura 20 Class Insecta 20 Order ThysanuraSilverfish 21 Order EphemeropteraMayflies 21 Order OdonataDragonflies, Damselflies 22 Order IsopteraTermites (White Ants) 24 Order BlattodeaCockroaches 24 Order MantodeaPraying Mantids 25 Order OrthopteraGrasshoppers, Crickets, Locusts 28 file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_v.html[09/13/2010 09:14:19 ...]

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Order PhasmatodeaStick Insects or Phasmatids 29 Order PlecopteraStoneflies 30 Order DermapteraEarwigs 30 Order EmbiopteraWeb Spinners 30 Order PsocopteraBook Lice, Psocids 31 Order PhthirapteraLice 32 Order ThysanopteraThrips 32 Order HemipteraBugs 45 Order NeuropteraLacewings, Ant Lions 46 Order MegalopteraAlderflies, Fishflies 46 Order MecopteraScorpion Flies 47 Order ColeopteraBeetles, Weevils 59 Order SiphonapteraFleas 60 Order TrichopteraCaddis Flies 60 Order LepidopteraMoths and Butterflies 70 Order DipteraFlies 80 Order HymenopteraSawflies, Wasps, Bees, Ants file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_v.html[09/13/2010 09:14:19 ...]

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Spiders and Some Other Arthropods

88

Collecting and Preserving Insects and Spiders

102

Further Reading

109

Index

111

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Acknowledgements We would like to thank Jennifer Carter, Joyce Chandler, Bob Faragher, Max Maddock, Bob Part, Max Phillipps and Ted Taylor for providing the insect specimens for the photographs and drawings. Joyce Chandler in particular supplied many of these specimens and also assisted in checking references used throughout this book.

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Introduction For those who have had no formal training in the study of insects (entomology) the standard textbooks on the subject can be daunting. It is the authors' intention in this book to present an easily readable account of the insect world using as little technical jargon as possible. A section on spiders and related creatures has been included as this information is often sought by people interested in insects and fits naturally into a book of this type. A guide to further reading and sources of information is given for those who wish to continue with the study of insects. This book has been written for people wanting to identify insects and learn something of their life cycles and habits. It can also be used as a reference for students and teachers. The many photographs and drawings can be used for identifying many of the insects and spiders found in the home, garden or on bushwalks. The caption beneath each photograph has been made as complete as possible so that relevant information can be found without searching the text. Under the black and white photographs the insect's common name is given where this is known together with some features of its biology or importance in Australia. Where possible its scientific name is also given and this is followed by the family name and the order name. Its size from the head to the tip of the abdomen, unless stated otherwise, is given in millimetres. The colour of the insect follows. For example: The black field cricket hides during the day in, or close to the soil, coming out at night to feed. It sometimes damages pastures and crops. On summer nights its chirping song is common. Teleogryllus commodusGryllidaeOrthoptera20 mm/black The colour photographs include the same information except that the insect's colour is omitted. It should be noted that some insects can be easily recognised from a photograph even to the correct species. However, in some groups there may be several species differentiated only by obscure characteristics well beyond the scope of this book. To identify an insect the following steps are suggested: • Locate an insect that looks the same or similar to a photograph in the book, using both colour and black and white. • Refer to the text (where applicable) describing the insect family checking any important features. It may also be necessary to check the features of the insect order, for example some wasps and flies look very similar and one may even mimic the other. However, the wasp (Order Hymenoptera) will have four wings and the fly (Order Diptera) only two. • If it is important to have the name of the genus and species and

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perhaps something about its biology, refer to other books, in particular The Insects of Australia*. A list of books and other sources of information are given on page 109. • Where positive confirmation of an identification is required consult an entomologist at a State museum or an authority in the particular insect group. A book of this size can, of course, only include a very limited number of examples. Most examples have been chosen because they are common, interesting for some reason, or of economic importance. Examples of forest insects have often been given because, unlike agricultural or domestic pests, information on them is not readily available. Most species are Australian although quite a number have been accidentally introduced. Often these insects are better known because, without their natural controls, they have become pests. Other species have been purposely introduced to control these insects. The early sections of the book give a background for understanding insect structures and the way in which they work. Terms used in later sections are also explained. The insect orders and a selection of representative families are then described using drawings and photographs to show their important features. Details are given on how to assemble an insect collection as many students are required to do this as part of a course. Throughout, every effort has been made to make this a useful reference book, where simple descriptions of technical terms can be found quickly and easily. For this purpose, although insects are often referred to by their common names they can also be found under their scientific names. It is hoped that this book will be itself a source of much useful information and will provide the background required for more detailed reading. *CSIRO Division of Entomology The Insects of Australia MUP

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Classification To study and understand plants and animals biologists classify them, grouping similar individuals. The classification used is a hierarchy ranked in the following order of importance: Phylum1 Class Order Family Genus2 Species3 Thus a phylum is a group of similar classes, a class is a group of similar orders and so on. Further, any one species can be put in only one genus, any one genus can be put in only one family. There are other optional categories prefixed by 'Super' (above) or 'Sub' (below). For example, Superfamily is a group of several families, Suborder is a division of an order. The fundamental unit is the species. Other categories are to some extent arbitrary and depend upon the preference of the person classifying them (the taxonomist). The Species Individuals of a species are capable of breeding with one another but cannot breed with individuals of another species. In practice, many species may be described from collected, dried specimens. Differences in their physical features (colour, size, markings etc.) are used to determine to which species they belong. However, appearance is not a foolproof determinant of species. There are instances of the male and female of a species being described as separate species because their external features were so different. The most reliable descriptions include biological information (physiology, behaviour, cytology and ecology). Scientific Names Insects are given scientific names which are written in a latinised form. Scientific names must always be underlined or printed in italics. Each insect species is originally described by an author who must publish this description in a suitable scientific journal. The naming of insects (and other animals) is subject to a complicated and strict set of rules presided over by an international committee. The common name of an insect may vary from country to country but the scientific name is universally understood. • Common namehousefly • Scientific nameMusca domestica Linnaeus Linnaeus, the name of the author in this case, is written after the name but does not form part of the name. It is useful to scientific workers for reference. 1. plural Phyla 2. plural Genera 3. plural Species

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• Musca is the name of the genus, the generic name, and is used for a number of different species of flies of the same genus. For example, Musca vetustissima, the bush fly. The generic name always begins with a capital letter. • domestica is the name of the species, the specific name, when written after the correct generic name. This has no meaning used on its own. For example, Opodiphthera eucalypti, the emperor gum moth and Ctenarytaina eucalypti, the blue gum psyllid are unrelated insects in different orders. The specific name always begins with a small letter. • M. domestica is a shortened form of Musca domestica and can be used when there is no ambiguity. The name is first written in full and subsequently can be shortened. • Musca sp. This means a species of the genus Musca and may refer to any fly of that genus. • Musca spp. This is the plural of Musca sp. and indicates more than one species of the genus Musca. Sometimes a scientific name is written in three words, the last word of which is the name of the subspecies. This is really only of relevance to the taxonomist. Sometimes an author's name is written in brackets indicating that the name of the insect has been changed since the original description. The name in brackets is that of the original author, for example, Nasutitermes triodiae (Froggatt), originally Eutermes triodiae Froggatt. It is common for generic names to be changed as information is collected on the insect and on related species. The names of authors are not given in this book for reasons of space and simplicity. The publication CSIRO Handbook of Australian Insect Names (Ian Naumann, 1993) is the standard cross reference for scientific and common names and includes authors' names. Evolution The theory of evolution was first proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859 and is now almost universally accepted. It explains how the immense variety of living things known today originated through a process of modification, in successive generations, from very simple forms of life. This has taken place over a very long period of time. The earliest insect remains are 350 million years old. Primitive characters or features of an insect are those that are similar to early ancestors of the insect. When an insect is described as primitively wingless (for example Order Thysanura, the silverfish) this means that these insects are derived from ancestors which have never had wings. Alternatively, secondarily wingless (for example Order Siphonaptera, the fleas) means that although the ancestors of fleas were insects which had developed wings the fleas have become specialised over millions of years and have lost their wings, their wingless condition being suited to their habitat. A full account of the evolution of insects is beyond the scope of this book.

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The Arthropods. All the creatures described in this book are contained in the Phylum Arthropoda. This is the largest phylum in the Animal Kingdom. The most important features common to arthropods are: • a hard outer skin with flexible joints for movement, • bilateral symmetry (each side of the body is a mirror of the other), • segmented body and paired limbs. Phylum Arthropoda spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites etc. Class Arachnida

two body sections, four pairs of legs, no antennae, no compound eyes, simple eyes present. pillbugs, landhoppers, woodlice, slaters

two body sections, five or more pairs of legs, antennae present, Class Malacostraca usually sea dwellers, occasionally on land. centipedes. Class Chilopoda

body long and flattened, one pair of legs to each segment, first pair of legs modified to form poison fangs, body of at least 19 segments, antennae present. millipedes.

Class Diplopoda Class Collembola Class Protura Class Diplura Class Insecta

rounded body, two pairs of legs to each segments, 11 or more body segments, no poison fangs, antennae present, eyes present.

three body sections, three pairs of legs on thorax, antennae present, wings present or absent.

Class Arachnida

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Class Insecta

Class Diplopoda

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What Is an Insect? External Appearance The body of an insect is divided into three regionshead, thorax and abdomen. It is bilaterally symmetrical, that is, the left and right sides look alike. The upper surface is referred to as dorsal and the under surface as ventral. Most insects undergo some degree of change or metamorphosis during their life cycles and the young stages may be quite different from the adult. The following is a general description of an adult insect. Particular insects may have some structures absent, reduced or greatly modified. Young stages do not have all the features shown.

Head This is often called the head capsule because it is hard and compact. There is usually a narrow 'neck' region to allow movement of the head. The head bears the following: Antennae One pair of antennae arise from the front of the head and are for feeling and smelling. They can move in all directions and are made up of a few or many segments. Their size and shape vary greatly as shown in the photographs throughout this book. In some insects such as moths, the male and female of a species may have quite different antennae. Those of the male are mostly feathery while the female's are plain and thin.

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Eyes

Head of a robber fly showing the strong, piercing and sucking mouthparts. Note the many eye units and antennae between the eyes. Asilidae - Diptera Most insects have both compound and simple eyes although only one or the other may be present. Compound Eyes Most insects have one pair of compound eyes which are the main structures for seeing. They are usually round but vary in shape. They also vary in size depending on the habits of the insect and may almost cover the head as in dragonflies, or may be very small or even absent. The surface of a compound eye looks like a fine mesh as it is made up of many single lenses, hexagonal shaped units, called ommatidia (singular = ommatidium). Each compound eye of a dragonfly has more than 20 000 such units. Nerves carry information to the brain from the eyes. Insect eyes can discriminate colours and can perceive movement particularly well. Simple Eyes Many adult insects have simple eyes (ocelli), which have a jewel-like appearance. Up to three may be present. This is the most common number, arranged in a triangle on top of the head. Each ocellus has only one lens. Ocelli are apparently able to distinguish light from darkness and may discern faint images. The simple eyes of larvae are called stemmata and most larvae have them. Mouthparts. The mouth is surrounded by the mouthparts which differ in appearance depending on the method of feeding. The mouthparts may be jaw-like for chewing or tube-like for sucking. For details of the mouthparts and their components see the section on Feeding. Thorax The thorax is made up of three segments. From front to rear these arethe prothorax, the mesothorax and the metathorax. Insects have six legs, one pair from each thoracic segment. There are usually two pairs of wings, one pair of forewings on the mesothorax and one pair of hindwings on the metathorax. There is a pair of spiracles (breathing apertures) on the mesothorax and one pair on the metathorax. The thorax is the most strongly muscled file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_5.html[09/13/2010 09:14:22 ...]

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region of the body. Legs

Generalized insect leg for walking and running

Fore leg of praying mantis specialized for seizing prey

Hind leg of grasshopper specialized for jumping The six legs of an insect are jointed. Though basically used for walking they have become adapted for many different functions (jumping, swimming, attack) and thus vary in shape. Wings Many adult insects are winged. Silverfish, fleas, some bugs, lice and even some moths are the exceptions. There are usually two pairs of wings, though true flies (Order Diptera) have one pair of wings with the hindwings modified to form club-shaped structures called halteres, which are used for balance.

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Some insects such as grasshoppers, cockroaches and crickets have their delicate hindwings protected by modified forewings known as tegmina (singular = tegmen), which form a tough, protective covering. The membranous hindwings of beetles are covered by a very hard type of forewing known as the elytra (singular = elytron). Some beetles, although having elytra and membranous hindwings,

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do not fly. The German cockroach, which has tegmina, also appears to have lost this ability. A wing is not merely a single membrane, but is two thin membranes firmly stuck together. Upon emerging, the adult insect has bag-like wings full of fluid. As the fluid disappears the two faces of the membranes come together appearing as one. The wings are strengthened by veins. Each vein may contain a trachea, haemolymph (blood) and the larger veins often contain a nerve. The pattern of veins is called the wing venation, which is a constant characteristic for many species and is often used for identification. This is particularly true of the flies and the wasps. The wings are articulated to the sides of the thorax and connected internally to strong muscle bands. To improve the efficiency of flight the forewings and hindwings may be coupled together by special structures. Different methods of doing this are found in several insect orders such as Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera.

A German cockroach with its thickened forewings, the tegmina protecting the membranous hindwings. (Note the egg case being carried by this female and the pair of prominent cerci at the end of the abdomen.) Blattella germanica - Blattellidae - Blattodea 18 mm/amber, brown

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Like most winged insects this sirex wasp has two pairs of wings, one pair from the mesothorax, and one pair from the metathorax. Sirex noctilio - male - Siricidae - Hymenoptera - 30 mm/orange, dark blue

Flies (order Diptera) have one pair of functional forewings. The club-shaped halteres, which are the reduced hind wings, can be clearly seen on this march fly. Tabanidae - Diptera

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A parasitic wasp which lays its eggs into larvae of insects. Note the long egg laying structure (ovipositor). Ichneumonidae - Hymenoptera - 28 mm/pale brown Abdomen

The overlapping plates of each segment of the abdomen can be seen on this tree cricket. Note also the short pair of cerci at the end of the abdomen. Gryllacrididae - Orthoptera - 35 mm pale brown The abdomen is made up a number of segments joined by flexible membranes. Up to 11 segments may be present though the number is often less. In addition, several segments may be much reduced or modified for mating so that the number which can be readily counted in some cases may be only four or five. There are commonly eight pairs of spiracles (air intake apertures), one pair to a segment.

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Some insects have a pair of cerci (singular = cercus), located at the tip of the abdomen. They are for feeling and are often used during mating. The hind end of the abdomen is modified for mating. Some females, such as those of the parasitic wasps have long ovipositors (tubes) for depositing their eggs deeply. Some males exhibit claspers or holding organs used during mating. The anus is located at the end of the abdomen. Larvae of moths and butterflies have prolegs on the abdomen. These are not true jointed legs. Some aquatic larvae have gills on the outside of the abdomen for breathing under water. The Body Covering The shape of an insect is determined by its tough outer covering, the integument. This forms a skeleton (an exoskeleton), within which lie all the soft tissues. This is in contrast to man and other vertebrate animals whose skeletons are internal and covered by the loose and fleshy tissues. The integument is made up of three layers shown in the illustration. The outer layer of the cuticle is a thin waxy layer, the epicuticle, which protects the insect from water loss. Silica aerogel is sometimes used to control cockroaches. It physically destroys the wax and the insects dry out and die.

When the cuticle is first formed it is soft and pliable and the part beneath the epicuticle is called the procuticle. The outer layer of the procuticle soon hardens and darkens over most of the body by a process called sclerotisation and is then called the exocuticle. The layer beneath it which is not sclerotised is called the endocuticle. To allow movement, the cuticle is hardened in sections or plates (sclerites) with flexible, unsclerotised cuticle between. The cuticle of many larvae remains soft over all the body.

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Cicada nymphs leave the soil, climb vertical objects, and then the winged adult emerges leaving its cast skin. This cast skin shows the split along its back through which the adult has emerged. Cicadidae - Hemiptera - 45 mm/amber Growth and Life Cycles The cuticle of an insect does not grow once it has been formed, nor can it stretch. It must therefore be shed at intervals and replaced by a larger one as the insect grows. The act of casting the skin is called a moult or ecdysis and the cast skin is called an exuviae. After a moult the insect enters a new stage or instarthus first instar larva, second instar larva etc. The adult stage is the imago. The number of moults which occur during the life of an insect varies from three to 20 but is usually a fixed number for any particular species. The growth of an insect and the events leading up to and during moulting are controlled by hormones produced within the nervous system and special glands. Before the cuticle is shed a new one is formed beneath it. The insect, covered in a new soft cuticle, leaves the remains of the old cuticle from a split along the back. The new cuticle then hardens and darkens. Insects with chewing mouthparts and some larvae may eat their cast skin to conserve protein. At ecdysis the insect is very vulnerable. Not only is the hard outer covering gone but also the cuticular lining of some internal organs, including the tracheae. Insects can replace broken limbs. These are gradually regenerated at each successive moult so that a limb lost in a very early instar will be more developed than one lost during a later instar. Metamorphosis Metamorphosis is the change in appearance of an insect during its life cycle from egg to a sexually mature adult. Some insects change very little during their life cycles except in size while others take on completely different forms.

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Complete metamorphosis. The four stages of the life cycle of this predatory ladybird beetle can be seen eggs, larva, pupa and adult. Note the shed pupal skin. Coccinellidae - Coleoptera - beetle: 4 mm/yellow, black Metamorphosis can be divided into three categories as shown below. There are insects whose life cycles do not fit neatly into these categories and they may be described differently in other books.

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1 Metamorphosis absent (primitive, ametabolous) Young stages look like adult except in size

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Incomplete metamorphosis. A dragonfly nymph showing the wings developing externally as wing buds (exopterygote). Odonata - 25 mm/cream to amber 2 Metamorphosis incomplete (hemimetabolous, direct development) Young stages (usually called nymphs) change gradually at each moult to become the adult. Wings, when present, develop as external wing buds. (Rarely there may be a resting stage).

Complete metamorphosis. The pupa (a resting stage) of a hawk moth showing the future features of the moth wings, eyes and antennae. Sphingidae - Lepidoptera - 40 mm/dark brown file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_9.html[09/13/2010 09:14:24 ...]

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3 Metamorphosis complete (holometabolous, indirect development) Young stages (larvae) quite different from adult. Wings, when present, develop internally and are not seen until the adult stage. There is a resting pupal stage before the adult emerges. The larvae are spe cialised for feeding, the adult for reproduction and dispersal.

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Diapause An insect will often reduce or stop activity under adverse conditions such as cold or dryness and resume normal activity as soon as favourable conditions return. In contrast to this, some stop developing, even though conditions may be favourable, and require particular environmental conditions before development can resume. This state of arrested development is called diapause. Although diapause may occur in any stage of the life cycle it is usually a constant stage for a particular species. The ringbarker phasmatid, Podacanthus wilkinsoni, is a stick insect which at times occurs in plague numbers. This species has a diapause during the egg stage. When conditions are warm the eggs will not develop unless they have previously been exposed to a cold temperature. Apart from cold, there are other conditions which an insect may need before a diapause is broken. These may be moisture, temperature or variable length of daylight. Feeding.

Most pittosporum trees show this type of damage. It is due to a leaf mining fly larva, the pittosporum leafminer. Phytoliriomyza pittosporphylli Agromyzidae - Diptera - 2 mm/amber Insects feed on an immense variety of substances. Plants provide food for many species, which may chew the leaves, suck the sap, drink the nectar or bore into the stems and wood. Some insects, living within a plant cause the formation of galls, abnormal growths of the plant tissue, sometimes in quite fantastic shapes. Many insects feed on animal life, the blood suckers being particularly well known to man. Predatory insects seize and devour their prey, usually other insects. Parasitic insects eat and live in or on the body of a living organism (the host). External parasites live on the surface and internal parasites live within the body of the host. A term that is more correctly applied to many parasitic insects is 'parasitoid', whose feeding causes the death of the host. However, this distinction has not been made in this book and only the term parasite is used.

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Praying mantids are predatory. They hold their front legs in a praying pose ready to seize passing insects. Mantidae - Mantodea - 65 mm/green-brown

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Mouthparts

A female mosquito feeding on blood. Its mouthparts are deeply into the skin and the sheath is curved backwards. Aedes sp. - Culicidae - Diptera - 5 mm/black, white stripes

Piercing and sucking mouthparts of a bronze orange bug. Tessaratomidae - Hemiptera For convenience, an insect's mouthparts can be described as one of three basic types: chewing (mandibulate), piercing and sucking, and sucking. Modifications of these three types occur in many insects and these will be considered in the discussion of the insect families. In many insects having a complete metamorphosis the mouthparts are different in the larval and adult stages. For example, moths and butterflies have larvae with chewing mouthparts while the adults have sucking mouthparts. Chewing or Mandibulate Mouthparts

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Mandibulate mouthparts, dissected from a field cricket, showing the structure. They are from top down: • labrum (upper lip) • two hard and toothed mandibles (mainjaws) • two maxillae (supplementary jaws) with their five segmented palps for tasting • labium (lower lip) with two segmented palps for tasting and food selection The main component of this type is a pair of strong-toothed jaws (the mandibles) which close together from the sides. They are assisted by another smaller pair of jaws, the maxillae. The mandibles and maxillae are enclosed from above by the top lip, or labrum, and from below by the bottom lip or labium. The two lips are quite separate. The maxillae and labium each have a pair of palps, which are used for feeling and testing when selecting food. Within the mouth is a tongue called the hypopharynx. The adult honey bee does have mandibles, but they are not of the characteristic shape and structure described above. The liquid obtained from flowers is gathered by a tongue which is really a modified and elongated lower lip. Piercing and Sucking Mouthparts Insects with this type of mouthpart feed by piercing plant or animal tissue and sucking up liquid food. The components of the mouthparts are the same as the mandibulate type but highly modified to form a system of sharp, elongated piercing organs (stylets) and tubes for drawing up liquid. In the Order Hemiptera (the bugs) the mandibles and the maxillae form the needle-like stylets that are protected by a sheath formed from the labium. The whole structure is called the proboscis or rostrum. When the stylets are inserted into the food the sheath folds outwards. The stylets are grooved and arranged in such a way that saliva can be injected down one tube into the tissue while

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plant or animal juices are sucked up a separate tube. In other orders of insects the stylets may be formed from other mouthpart structures.

The head and mouthparts of a cabbage white butterfly showing the labial palps and coiled sucking mouthparts (haustellum). At the end of the coiled haustellum can be seen a clump of pollen grains from the flower on which it has been feeding. Pieris rapae - Pieridae - Lepidoptera - 30 mm/white, black Blood sucking insects such as mosquitoes and bed bugs inject anticoagulants to prevent blood clotting. They also cause local reactions and itching to the skin surface. The injected saliva of some plant suckers such as psyllids produces dead, brown areas on the leaves. Diseases of plants and animals (including man) may be transmitted along with injected saliva. Sucking Mouthparts

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Sucking mouthparts of a blowfly. This sucking pad is applied to food, saliva produced and the liquid sucked up. Calliphoridae - Diptera - 10 mm/brown and amber Insects in several orders have their mouthparts in the form of a tube for sucking up liquids, often nectar, from flowers. The sucking tube of the moths and butterflies is known as an haustellum, which when not in use is coiled up under the head like a spring. The haustellum is really a great elongation of the maxillae into a double tube which is withdrawn or extended as required. The sucking tube in the Order Hymenoptera (wasps, bees) is an elongation of the labium. Many flies have sucking mouthparts formed from an elongation of the labium often with a pad at the end (formed from the labial palps). The pad is placed on the food, saliva runs onto the food surface and the mixture is then sucked up. Disease organisms can be physically spread in this way.

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How an Insect Digests Its Food Once food has been tested for acceptability by the palps of the mouthparts and taste sensitive hairs it is taken in and passes into the intestine. During its passage, it is broken down physically, and then chemically by enzymes, into molecules which are absorbed into the blood (haemolymph). Undigested food and waste continue down the intestine and are passed out via the anus. The length and form of the intestine (or gut) vary considerably but have basic sections outlined in the previous illustration. The faeces of many insects are characteristically shaped. This feature can be used for identifying some leaf eating insects, such as cup moth larvae or emperor gum moth larvae, which may be feeding high up in a tree. The population of insects feeding in tall trees can be estimated by collecting, drying and weighing the faeces which fall. This method has been used extensively in forest entomology. The term 'frass' is often applied to the dry faeces and undigested food particles of many wood and grain destroying insects. BreathingRespiration Insects need to obtain oxygen and to get rid of carbon dioxide. They do this, not by using lungs and red blood cells, but directly by a system of air tubes. These air tubes or tracheae (singular = trachea) are spirally strengthened with cuticle to retain their shape. They branch and become smaller in diameter until they are called tracheoles. The tracheoles end blindly within cells in all parts of the body. Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse across the thin walls of the tracheoles. When an insect sheds its skin the lining of the air tubes is also shed. The tracheae open to the outside through apertures called spiracles in the body wall of the thorax and abdomen. Spiracles can open and close. They stay closed whenever possible to prevent water loss from the insect. They open to allow oxygen to enter and carbon dioxide to pass out. The ability of an insect to open and close its spiracles is exploited in the cyanide fumigation of borer infested timber. The timber is placed in a tank and a vacuum created which causes the insects to open their spiracles. Without relieving the vacuum hydrocyanic gas is released into the chamber and enters the open spiracles. Without the vacuum the insects could keep their spiracles closed for long periods.

Spiracles of a moth larva. They can be opened and closed. Anthelidae - Lepidoptera Insects do not have red blood, but a yellow to greenish fluid called haemolymph. Haemolymph is a poor carrier of oxygen and only a very small amount is carried, or dissolved in it.

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Flying insects require more oxygen than sluggish insects. Their wing movements together with expansion and contraction of the abdomen help to pump air in and out. In addition many winged insects have thin walled air sacs within the tracheal system. The air supply system of an insect is modified to suit its habits and environment. This is demonstrated by aquatic insects which have developed a number of ways of obtaining oxygen. The water beetle (Family DytiscidaeColeoptera) carries an air bubble under its elytra. Mosquito larvae pierce the water surface with their elongated tails. Many aquatic larvae such as mayflies and dragonflies have gills. These gills are usually outgrowths of the

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abdomen which are richly supplied with tracheae. The gases pass across the cuticle between the water and the tracheae. The Blood and Its Circulation

Feathery antennae of a male moth which detects the scent (pheromone) released by the female. The blood of insects is a yellow to greenish fluid called haemolymph. It is generally not confined to tubular arteries and veins but bathes all the internal organs and fills the body cavity. It is circulated by the pumping action of a tube-like heart which lies just below the upper (dorsal) surface in the abdomen and sometimes part of the thorax. Blood enters the heart through openings (ostia) in the rear of the heart, is pumped forwards and either leaves the heart through similar openings at the front portion of the heart or continues forward to the head along the tubular aorta. The blood carries nutrients to the organs and transports waste from them. Cells in the blood are mostly for engulfing foreign particles. Very little oxygen or carbon dioxide is carried in the blood. The malpighian tubules are long, hollow tubes joined to the hind intestine. Waste substances from the blood pass across the walls of these tubules and enter the intestine, leaving the body with the faeces. The Nervous System Insects, like other animals, have receptors for seeing, feeling, tasting and hearing, and they can respond to these stimuli by appropriate behaviour such as moving. These functions rely on electrical messages sent along nerves. The nerves are fine and threadlike. In places they are grouped together to form a ganglion (plural = ganglia).

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Bark of lantana cut to show eggs of a longicorn inserted between the bark and wood. Plagiohammus spinnipennis Cerambycidae Coleoptera - eggs: 2 mm/white Electrical messages are coordinated in the central nervous system, which consists of: • a brain (or supraoesophageal ganglion) joining, • a suboesophageal ganglion, and • a double nerve cord which lies under the gut in the thorax and abdomen and connects a series of ganglia, basically one per body segment.

Insects have special hairs on various parts of the body. Some of these are sensitive to touch. Movement of the hair causes the nerve within the hair to be electrically stimulated. Other hairs on the mouthparts, antennae or certain parts of the legs are called chemoreceptors. Their open ends are sensitive to certain substances so they are used for tasting and smelling.

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Many insects can produce sound, usually by rubbing together specialised parts of the body, such as the forewings of crickets. The drums (tymbals) of cicadas are pieces of thick cuticle which are deflected by strong muscles. Their rapid in and out movement

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makes the well known sound. The ears of an insect are thin areas of cuticle (the tympanum) supplied with special nerve endings. Their position varies, for instance, in some grasshoppers there is an ear on each foreleg, in cicadas they occur on the abdomen and in some moths they are on the thorax.

Most insecticides have been developed to affect the nervous system of insects. Reproduction. Generally most insects occur as approximately equal numbers of males and females which mate (copulate) and the female then lays eggs fertilised by sperm from the male. In some species the eggs hatch within the female and live young are born. The females of certain species such as aphids, stick insects and some wasps may at times also reproduce without having been fertilised by a male. This process is called parthenogenesis. In some species this is the only method of reproduction. Most individuals in a social species (for example, termites) are not sexual and reproduction is carried out by a small number of the colony.

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The male has a pair of testes located inside the abdomen. Sperm cells are produced in the testes, pass down the tubular vas deferentia into the sperm sacs (vesiculae seminales) or single sperm sac where they are stored. Secretions from the accessory glands are mixed with the sperm cells before they pass down the ejaculatory duct and leave via the male genitalia. The sperms are often enclosed in a capsule called a spermatophore.

Eggs of lacewings laid on stalks on a plant stem. The stalk provides a degree of protection from predators. Chrysopa sp. - Chrysopidae - Neuroptera stalk and eggs: 8 mm/white The female has a pair of ovaries comprising several egg tubes or ovarioles located inside the abdomen. Eggs produced in the ovaries pass down the oviducts and into the median oviduct. Most females have a spermatheca where sperm from the male are stored. As the egg passes the opening to the spermatheca sperm are released to fertilise the egg. Accessory glands produce coverings for some eggs or provide attachment for eggs to a host. The hind end of the abdomen is modified for mating and in the female for laying eggs. The structures, called the genitalia, are varied. The male generally has claspers for holding the female during mating and an aedaegus (penis) for depositing sperm within the female. The egglaying structures or ovipositor of the female are sometimes greatly elongated for laying eggs deeply or modified for stinging. The male and female of a species may look quite different (called sexual dimorphism). This difference is so marked in one species of stick insect, Extatosoma tiaratum, that the male was originally described as a separate species.

An egg mass of a praying mantis. The eggs are embedded in a frothy material. Mantodea - 30 mm/pale brown

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Internal Structures The photographs below show a male and female stick insect which have been cut open along the underside and spread out to show the arrangement of the internal organs. The gut has been cut off at the hind end and moved aside.

Male

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Female

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1 Head of a cicada showing the compound eyes and the triangle of three jewel-like ocelli. Cicadidae - Hemiptera

2 Head of a tree cricket. The upper lip hides the chewing surfaces of the mandibles. The two pairs of palps are used during feeding. Note the compound eyes (no ocelli). Gryllacrididae - Orthoptera

3

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Moulting (ecdysis) - a stick insect commencing to shed its skin. The old cuticle splits along its back.

4 The new stick insect begins to emerge from the split.

5 Still attached to the old skin the insect continues to withdraw itself.

6 Completely free of its old skin the insect will dry and then eat its cast skin. Podacanthus wilkinsoni - Phasmatidae - Phasmatodea

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7 Empty eggs and the tiny bugs which have just hatched from them. Hemiptera

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8 A dragonfly whose nymphs and adults are predatory. The nymphs are aquatic. Synthemidae - Anisoptera - Odonata - 55 mm

9 The subterranean termite has damaged this violin and case which was stored under a house. This is a very destructive species damaging houses throughout most of Australia. Coptotermes acinaciformis - Rhinotermitidae - Isoptera - Soldier: 5 mm

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10 A damselfly. It is more delicate in appearance than the dragonfly. Both nymphs (aquatic) and adults are predatory. Zygoptera - Odonata - 45 mm

11 The ringant termite, a pest of trees, lives in small groups or colonies within the tree. This is a soldier with dark head and large mandibles. Neotermes insularis - Kalotermitidae Isoptera - 12 mm

12 The subterranean termite showing its various castes, the queen, soldiers and winged forms. The queen was once the size of the winged reproductive. Coptotermes acinaciformis Rhinotermitidae - Isoptera - queen: 28 mm

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13 Niggerhead termites infest trees. This soldier caste has its head drawn into a snout and can eject a chemical for defence of the nest. Nasutitermes walkeri - Termitidae - Isoptera - 6 mm

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The Insect Orders In this book almost all orders of insects will be dealt with, but not all the families in each order will be described. Small orders will generally be considered as a whole and not divided into families. In the large orders a selection of families has been made to include representative, important or interesting insects. Until recently Collembola, Diplura and Protura were separate orders within the Class Insecta. They have now each been given the status of Class but because of their close association with the insects have been grouped with the Class Insecta under the Superclass Hexapoda.

Ephemeropteramayflies Odonatadragonflies Isopteratermites Blattodeacockroaches Mantodeapraying mantids Orthopteragrasshoppers Phasmatodeastick insects Plecopterastone flies Dermapteraearwigs Embiopteraweb spinners Psocopetrapsocids, book lice Phthirapteralice Thysanopterathirps Hemipetrabugs, scales Neuropteralacewings Megalopteraalderflies Mecopterascorpion flies Coleopterabeetles Siphonapterafleas Trichopteracaddis flies Lepidopteramoths, butterflies Dipteraflies, mosquitoes file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_19.html[09/13/2010 09:14:28 ...]

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Hymenopteraants, bees, wasps

These tiny collembola are found in damp rubbish, but often occur in puddles or swimming pools in large numbers. Collembola - 1.5 mm/dark brown

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Class and Order Collembola Spring Tails

Wingless; mostly less than 6 mm; often a forked structure on the abdomen for jumping (furcula). Occur in moist soil and leaf debris, also at times on the surface of fresh water in drains and ponds. They are mainly scavengers, but the lucerne flea, Sminthuris viridis, is an introduced pest of certain legumes. Class and Order Diplura

Wingless; mostly 4 to 6 mm; beadlike antennae; no eyes; no scales on body. Occur in moist soil, under logs and in leaf debris. The cerci are of various shapes and sizes and in the family Japygidae they are robust and forcep-like. Class and Order Protura

Wingless; minute, about 0.5 to 1.5 mm; eyes and antennae absent; front legs larger than mid and hind legs; no cerci. Proturans live and feed in moist soil, decayed wood and leaf litter. Class Insecta Order Thysanura Silverfish

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Silverfish, which are covered with scales, are often encountered feeding on paper and fabrics in houses. Ctenolepisma longicaudata Lepismatidae - Thysanura - 15 mm/silver Wingless; 5 to 15 mm long; body tapers towards the rear; three tails (a long appendix dorsalis and a shorter pair of cerci); chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; long antennae. No metamorphosis, young stages and adults look the same except for their size. The best known silverfish are the introduced pest species, for example, Ctenolepisma longicaudata, found in houses eating items such as book covers and wallpaper. They are silvery-grey and covered in loose scales. There are also many native species, which live under bark and amongst leaves and debris on the ground. Others are inquilines (tolerated inhabitants) in ant and termite nests. Silverfish can run quickly. They hide during the day and come out to feed at night. They are long-lived (up to four years) and continue to shed their skin at intervals after becoming adults. Reproduction is generally sexual. The male deposits a sperm capsule (spermatophore) and the female picks it up and transfers it to her genitalia.

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Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies

A mayfly adult is a delicate insect which lives for only a few hours or a few days. Atalophlebia sp. - Leptophlebiidae Ephemeroptera - 30 mm/dark brown, amber Delicate, soft-bodied, length 20 to 40 mm; membranous wings, forewings triangular and held vertically at rest, hindwings reduced; antennae very short; mouthparts not developed and non-functional; triangular head, compound eyes divided into two lobes each; two or three long tails. Incomplete metamorphosis; nymphs aquatic with gills and developed mouthparts. The eggs are laid on the surface of cool running water. The nymphs live under water either in crevices or buried in the mud, and have gills for obtaining oxygen from the water. They have chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts and feed on plants or debris, and a few capture minute animals. The nymphs live for about 6 or 12 months and moult many times. The fully developed nymph floats to the surface or crawls onto a stone or plant where it moults to become a winged pre-adult (subimago) which flies off (sometimes within seconds). A few hours later it sheds another skin to become the full adult which is shinier and has more transparent wings. Mayflies are the only insects to have this extra moult after the wings have formed. The adults live for only hours or days. They have an erratic dancing flight and often gather in large swarms for mating. Adults do not eat and the gut is inflated with air.

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The nymphs and adults are an important food for fish and other aquatic creatures.

Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies. Medium to large, up to 75 mm long; two pairs of long, membranous wings of similar length; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; large compound eyes; very short antennae; three ocelli; abdomen long, cylindrical and soft; short legs. Incomplete metamorphosis; nymphs aquatic, mouthparts modified for seizing prey, internal or external gills. Suborder Anisoptera Dragonflies

Generally rest with wings held spread in the horizontal position; body broad; stout nymphs (known as 'mud-eyes') with internal gills. Suborder Zygoptera Damselflies Generally rest with wings held vertically over abdomen; smaller than dragonflies; nymphs slender with external gills. The adults are often colourful and are swift fliers. Using their legs they seize their prey (small insects) in flight. The file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_21.html[09/13/2010 09:14:29 ...]

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female and male remain coupled while eggs are laid either loosely into the water or into submerged plant stems in fresh or brackish water.

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The 'mask' of a dragonfly nymph is extended to catch a variety of marine life. Odonata - Anisoptera - 25 mm/cream to amber

Head of dragonfly nymph The nymphs live under water and have gills for extracting oxygen. In the Anisoptera (dragonflies) the gills are within the rectum (the end of the gut) and by pumping water in and out the nymph can shoot along by jet propulsion. Nymphs hunt insects, tadpoles and other animals. An extension of the lower lip, the mask, is folded beneath the head and shot out to capture prey which are seized by two curved, moveable teeth at the end. The length of the life cycle and the number of moults varies with conditions but is often complete within 1 to 3 years. The nymph climbs a plant stem and the adult emerges leaving the shed skin firmly attached to the plant. Nymphs and adults are eaten by fish, frogs and birds. Order Isoptera Termites (White Ants)

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Developing reproductives and a soldier of the ringant termite which infests trees but does not attack houses. Its soldier caste is the largest of any Australian species. Neotermes insularis - Kalotermitidae - Isoptera-soldier: 12 mm/cream, brown Social insects living in colonies made up of specialised forms; soft-bodied, small, commonly 3 to 10 mm long; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; antennae bead-like; compound eyes present; ocelli present or absent; workers and soldiers are blind; winged forms have two pairs of membranous, elongated wings of equal length; no constriction (waist) between thorax and abdomen. Incomplete metamorphosis. A termite colony is made up of different forms of individuals as follows: • The king and queen. Reproduce sexually, the eggs laid produce all the other individuals; wingless (though originally winged); king of normal size, queen often with greatly swollen abdomen. • Supplementary (neoteinic) reproductives. May or may not be present; pairs of male and female which also reproduce sexually. • Workers. Build and repair the nest, tend king and queen; pale and soft-bodied; blind; sexually undeveloped. • Soldiers. Defend colony; head large, dark coloured and hard; large mandibles (mandibulate type), or head with a pointed elongation (nasute type); sexually undeveloped. • Alates. Leave the nest at certain times to start new colonies; winged; sexually developed. • Nymphs. Young stages that hatch from eggs and develop into either worker, soldier or alate. A species is identified from the soldier caste, though specialists can identify from sexual forms.

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Worker

Soldier

NYMPH of alate with wing buds

Alate (reproductive)

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A termite mound approximately 1.5 metres high. This species does not attack houses. Coptotermes lacteus Rhinotermitidae - Isoptera - soldier 4 mm white, brown Termites live together in a colony with an organised social structure, each termite caste performing a particular function. Some species such as the destructive, subterranean termite, Coptotermes acinaciformis live in large colonies of a million or more individuals. Some drywood termites such as Neotermes insularis have no massive colony but have many lesser family units separated from each other by partitions of wood within the one tree or wooden article. The termite nest may be built on a tree (Nasutitermes walkeri), as a mound above ground (Coptotermes lacteus), underground or in the base of a tree (Coptotermes acinaciformis). At certain times of year winged, sexually developed males and females (the alates) are produced. They leave the colony, often in swarms, and after settling shed their wings. A male and female pair will seek suitable shelter and begin a new colony in which they will be king and queen. Only a few of the alates survive to form new colonies as many of them are eaten by other insects, frogs, lizards and spiders. The food of termites includes wood and vegetable material such as grasses and plant debris. Those species which feed on wood can digest cellulose with the aid of protozoan or bacterial micro-organisms in their gut tissue. The workers feed the soldiers, young nymphs and reproductives with partly digested food and as they do this the gut micro-organisms are passed on from the gut of the workers. This close association between workers and other castes, together with their habit of grooming one another is exploited when nests are eradicated by arsenic dust treatment. Fine arsenious trioxide powder is carefully blown into the workings of the termites where the workers will contact it. It is then taken back to the nest and eaten by other individuals.

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A nest of a niggerhead termite. This species usually attacks trees. Note the mud covered runways over the surface of this power pole. Nasutitermes walkeri - Termitidae Isoptera Termites live in the dark. They build earthen tunnels from the nest to their food source although they can search for food in the open during humid nights. The earthen tunnels are mainly built underground but are seen on the surface where they cross walls and paths. The outside surface of timber shows little or no sign of damage although it may be only a shell. A constant source of moisture is required and most species maintain a connection with the ground although drywood termites living in trees in small groups use the trees' moisture. The true drywood termites, such as the introduced West Indian drywood termite, Cryptotermes brevis, need only the small amount of moisture in the furniture and structural timbers which they attack. If this termite became established in Australia the threat to buildings would be great. Several species of termites can cause considerable damage to the wooden parts of buildings, fences, railway sleepers and to living trees, especially in the warmer parts of Australia. The most

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destructive species, in terms of the speed with which it can damage timber, is Mastotermes darwiniensis which occurs in the Northern Territory, north of Western Australia and north Queensland. The soldiers of this soil inhabiting species are 11.5 to 13.0 mm long. Termites are eaten by lizards, spiders, birds, ants and other insects, numbats and echidnas. Order Blattodea Cockroaches

The American Cockroach occurs abundantly in sewers. It can breed in houses which it often enters during the summer months. Periplaneta americana Blattidae Blattodea - 35 mm/brown, amber Oval and flattened, up to 70 mm long; thorax covered by a large plate (the pronotum) which extends partly over the head; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts with strong, toothed mandibles; long, many segmented antennae; two compound eyes; two simple ocelli-like spots; winged or wingless, hardened forewings (tegmina) cover the membranous hindwings; prominent cerci. Incomplete metamorphosis, young resemble adults.

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A female brownbanded cockroach with its egg capsule attached. A pest of homes, hotels and restaurants. Supella longipalpa - Blattidae Blattodea - 17 mm/amber, brown The best known cockroaches are the pests that inhabit houses, restaurants and sewers. These species are all introduced and include the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana, the Australian cockroach, Periplaneta australasiae, the oriental cockroach, Blatta orientalis and the German cockroach, Blattella germanica. There are also over 400 Australian species but these are not pests and most live hidden under stones, logs and bark. Cockroaches usually hide during the day and come out to feed at night. They can run quickly. The food of the native species is generally unknown. The pest species will eat almost anything and spoil food with their excreta and their characteristic odour. They also spread disease by physically transporting disease organisms. Salmonella organisms are passed on to food in this way. Eggs are held in an egg capsule (ootheca) containing 16 to 40 eggs. In some species this is carried by the female file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_24.html[09/13/2010 09:14:30 ...]

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protruding from the end of her abdomen. Order Mantodea Praying Mantids Elongated, 20 to 150 mm long; head triangular, moves freely; large compound eyes; three ocelli (larger in male than female); chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; antennae long and thin; first thoracic segment (prothorax) elongated: forelegs adapted for catching and holding prey; two pairs of wings, forewings narrow and tough, hindwings membranous and fan-like. Incomplete metamorphosis, nymphs similar to adults but wingless.

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The praying mantis is so called because of its praying pose as it sits in wait for passing insects. When its victim is within range the mantis shoots out its spiny forelegs to seize the insect and hold it while it is eaten. Most mantids are green or brown and are well-camouflaged so that they are not easily seen by their victims or by the birds which eat them. Males can usually fly but the females have reduced wings or may be wingless. Mantids occur as single individuals and not in groups. The eggs are laid into a frothy material forming the egg mass (the ootheca) which is attached to fixed objects, for example, plant stems, fence posts. The young (called pronymphs at this stage) emerging from the eggs immediately shed an extra skin to become nymphs. Egg masses often have small round holes on the surface. These are the emergence holes of parasitic wasps which have destroyed the mantid eggs. Order Orthoptera Crickets, Grasshoppers, Locusts Mostly medium sized insects; no distinct constriction between head and thorax; antennae thread-like, long or short; compound eyes usually quite large; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts: foresection of thorax well developed; enlarged hindlegs modified for jumping; forewing thickened (tegmen), hindwing membranous, wings sometimes reduced or absent; cerci present; females usually with long ovipositor (egg layer). Incomplete metamorphosis, nymphs resemble adults.

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A mole cricket which feeds on roots. With the spade-like tarsi of its front legs, it burrows into soil. Gryllotalpa sp. - Gryllotalpidae Orthoptera - 45 mm/brown Most orthopterans have strong chewing mouthparts and are plant eaters, although a few eat other insects. Their shape, colour and markings are often very similar to their backgrounds making them hard to see. They can produce sound by rubbing parts of the body together and are often heard on hot summer nights. The sound is usually made by the male to attract the female. Their organs for hearing are either on the abdomen or forelegs. The eggs are usually laid into the ground but some species lay them onto plants. The nymphs, which grow by a series of moults, generally have the same habits as the adults. Most species are found singly or in small numbers. However, a few species are gregarious and may at times occur in enormous swarms. They can cause much damage and huge crop losses. Family Gryllacrididae Some Tree Crickets Stout bodied antennae very long; wings soft and wrapped round body, forewings folded on each other and over the hindwings, some species wingless; tarsus of each leg segmented into four. Paragryllacris spp. prey on other insects and live concealed in vegetation or tree holes. They are nocturnal and frequently enter houses at night. They are harmless but will bite if handled.

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Tree crickets hide under the bark of trees. They prey on other insects and if handled can bite with their strongr mandibles. Gryllacrididae - Orthoptera - 50 mm/brown, cream

Some grasshoppers lay their eggs in long rows. These are typical of their family. Tettigoniidae - Orthoptera length of row: 125 mm/brown

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This is a unique 'grasshopper' since it has no hindwings. The abdomen is striped with red. It is the female of the mountain katydid. The male is slender and fully winged. Acripeza reticulata - Tettigoniidae Orthoptera - 25 mm/grey, red

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Family Tettigoniidae Long-Horned Grasshoppers

The black field cricket hides during the day, in, or close to, the soil, coming out at night to feed. It can damage pasture and crops. On summer nights its chirping song is often heard. Teleogryllus commodus - Gryllidae Orthoptera - 20 mm/black Large, mostly slender and at least partly green; antennae long; wings tough and held roof-wise over body, left forewing folds over the right; tarsus of each leg segmented into four. Most of the species in this large family are plant eaters. Many of them are nocturnal, resting during the day on the plants against which they are well-camouflaged. A common species, Caedicia olivacea has wings resembling the leaves of eucalypts. The well-known sounds produced by the males are made by the wings. A rough area on the underside of the left forewing rubs against the edge of the right forewing. Part of the right forewing forms a membranous mirror which helps to amplify the sound. The organs for hearing are on the front legs. Family Gryllidae Crickets, Tree Crickets. Light to dark, drab coloured; long antennae; tarsus of each leg segmented into three; wings held flat across the top of the body and extending down the sides, right forewing (tegmen) overlaps the left, some species with short wings, others wingless; long cerci; ovipositor long and rounded.

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Crickets remain concealed during the day and are active at night. Their loud chirping sounds are well-known on summer nights. The sound is produced by rubbing specialised parts of the forewings together. The black field cricket, Teleogryllus commodus, is a common, shiny black species which may enter houses at night. It eats plant and animal material and may sometimes damage pastures and crops. The tree crickets of this family are pale and elongated. The wings are broadly rounded at the end. They are found on foliage. Family Gryllotalpidae Mole Crickets Large, brownish; thorax strong and rounded; antennae short; forelegs modified for digging; wings short; no visible ovipositor. Although most of these species have wings and may fly, their bodies are specialised for burrowing and living underground. They spend most of their time in their burrows, feeding on roots and small animals in the soil. They produce sound by using their forewings. Family Acrididae Short-Horned Grasshoppers, Locusts Antennae short; wings held roof-wise over body; each tarsus segmented into three; cerci short; ovipositor short. Species in this family vary in shape from slender to robust but

A short-horned grasshopper often found in gardens feeding on plants. Acrida conica - Acrididae - Orthoptera - 40 mm/green

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all are typical grasshoppers with the hindlegs well developed for jumping. They are active during the day. Sound is produced by rubbing a row of pegs on the hindlegs against part of the forewings. The ears are located on the first segment of the abdomen. Eggs are generally laid in a mass in the soil using the short ovipositor. They may be laid very deeply by extending the abdomen.

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to identify the species. The eggs of several Australian species are featured here. smallest egg: 3 mm largest egg: 8 mm The name locust is given to those species that may at times occur in swarms. The most damaging is the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera, which has a black patch at the tip of the hindwing and some scarlet on the hindlegs. When not in swarms the body of the female is often green. When swarming it is brownish. Another locust not of such economic importance is the yellow-winged locust, Gastrimargus musicus. When disturbed it flies off making a clicking sound with its wings. Order Phasmatodea Stick Insects or Phasmatids Elongated, large often exceeding 250 mm resembling either sticks or leaves; small head; antennae short to long; compound eyes present, ocelli present or absent; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; second thoracic segment (mesothorax) long; legs often strongly spined; wings mostly absent, in winged species male with developed wings, female usually with very small wings and unable to fly, forewings (tegmina) short, hindwings membranous and fan-like with a toughened front section; abdomen long and cylindrical or flattened. Incomplete metamorphosis, nymphs closely resemble adults. The colour, shape and swaying movements of stick insects make them very difficult to see against their background of trees and shrubs. They eat leaves and are usually found singly or in small numbers. However, three Australian species may occur in plague numbers. These species are Didymuria violescens, Podacanthus wilkinsoni and Ctenomorphodes tessulatus. When present in high numbers the nymphs, instead of being their usual green colour, have a pattern of black and yellow markings. During a plague, eucalypts of several favoured species are completely stripped of leaves and the area, often thousands of hectares, looks as if it had

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been badly burnt by a bushfire. On closer examination the trees are seen to be thickly draped with stick insects that glide or fall clumsily to a fresh source of leaves. The eggs fall to the ground and lie loosely in the top of the soil and litter. They are thick-shelled and have an obvious lid and many have raised markings. There is often a period of suspended development of the embryo in the egg while it is in the soil. This may be months or even years. In the plague species it is usually 15 to 18 months. This type of break in development is known as egg diapause. On hatching, nymphs climb any upright object and feed on leaves. They shed their skins 5 to 8 times before becoming adult. Adults and nymphs are eaten by birds. Eggs are attacked by parasitic wasps which lay their eggs inside the phasmatid egg. The eggs are also eaten by lizards and other insects and some ants store them in their colonies. Order Plecoptera Stoneflies Soft bodied, 5 to 50 mm long; mostly drab coloured; two pairs of membranous wings, (some with short wings, occasionally wingless,) forewings narrow and slightly thickened, hindwings larger and fan-like; head broad, immobile; compound eyes present, two or three ocelli; antennae long, thin and of many segments; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; strong legs; cerci usually of many segments. Incomplete metamorphosis, larvae resemble adults; larvae aquatic, usually with external gills on thorax, or abdomen or at the rear end. Adult stoneflies fly clumsily and are found near fresh water streams. When at rest on tree trunks etc. they are difficult to see.

Stonefly nymphs live and feed on organic material at the bottom of fresh water streams. Gripopterygidae - Plecoptera 30 mm/ cream, amber Eggs are deposited or dropped into the water. The nymphs usually live on the gravelly beds of fast flowing creeks or rivers. With their mandibulate mouthparts they feed on organic matter and minute animal life. They extract oxygen from the water with their gills. When the nymphal stage is complete (commonly one year) the nymph climbs onto a rock where the adult emerges. The female stonefly produces over 1 000 eggs. The numerous nymphs are an important part of the diet of fresh water fish, particularly trout in mountain streams.

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Order Dermaptera Earwigs

Earwigs have a pair of forceps at the end of the abdomen. They can be found under stones and bark where they hide during the day. Dermaptera - 30 mm/brown Elongated and flattened, 5 to 35 mm long; mostly brown or black; compound eyes present, no ocelli; antennae segmented and thread-like; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; short legs; winged or wingless, the hardened forewings (tegmina) small, hindwings membranous and in a half circle when open; abdomen long; a pair of strong forceps at the end of the abdomen. Incomplete metamorphosis, young stages resemble adults. Earwigs shelter during the day in damp places under logs, stones or bark and come out at night to feed on plants, dead plant material or small animal life. In winged species the membranous hindwings are folded fan-wise and then tucked under lengthwise so that they are protected by the short hardened forewings. The female usually lays her eggs in a batch in the soil. She attends them until about a week after they hatch. The native Australian earwigs are not pests but the introduced, European earwig, Forficula auricularia, when present in large numbers may damage the softer tissues of plants including seedlings and flowers.

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Order Embioptera Web Spinners

Small, elongated insects up to 8 mm long; head wide; antennae thread-like; compound eyes present, ocelli absent; chewing (man-dibulate) mouthparts; wings always absent in females, wings present or absent in males, forelegs with swollen ends containing silk glands. Incomplete metamorphosis. All stages of both sexes produce silk from glands in the tarsi of their forelegs. They live in silken galleries constructed in bark and leaf litter and on fences and rocks. They eat mosses, lichens and dead vegetable matter. They are not commonly encountered and are of no economic importance. Order Psocoptera Booklice, Psocids Small, up to 5 mm long; head large; antennae long and slender; compound eyes present; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; two pairs of unequal wings held roofwise, or wings absent; large abdomen, no cerci. Incomplete metamorphosis, nymphs resemble adults. file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_30.html[09/13/2010 09:14:33 ...]

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Psocids move very quickly and are most often encountered during warm, humid months. They are commonly found under bark and on plant foliage or in leaf litter and a loose grey web may be associated with them. They feed on organic matter including fungus.

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Some species may occur in stored food or paper, but only when these have been spoiled by moisture or other insects. Dried insect collections can be seriously damaged by booklice.

Order Phthiraptera Lice External parasites of birds, animals and man; small, flattened, 0.5 to 10 mm; pale to dark coloured; wingless; head immobile, attached close to thorax; compound eyes small or absent; no ocelli; antennae short. Slight metamorphosis, nymphs and adults look the same except for their size. This order is divided into two suborders. Suborders Amblycera and Ischnocera Biting Lice.

Suborder Amblycera Chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; three thoracic segments are free or appear so. Suborder Anoplura Sucking Lice

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Suborder Anoplura Piercing and sucking mouthparts; three thoracic segments fused and appear as one. All lice are parasitic and adapted for clinging to the feathers or hair of their hosts. The biting lice feed on flaking skin, feathers or hair. The sucking lice suck blood. Eggs are cemented to hair or feathers and the nymphs feed in the same way as the adults. There are many species of lice and each one will feed on only a small range of related hosts, some on only one host species. The best known lice are the pests of man (all are sucking lice), the head louse, Pediculus capitis, the body louse Pediculus humanus and the crab louse, Pthirus pubis. The head louse and body louse were previously regarded as two forms of the same species. Many lice are pests of domestic animals and birds, for example, the poultry shaft louse, Menopon gallinae and the dogbiting louse, Trichodectes canis. In large numbers they cause severe irritation and loss of production in commercial animal products. In Australia there are also many native lice which are parasites of native birds and animals. Lice are responsible for spreading several important diseases of man and animals including epidemic typhus (absent from Australia) and the trench fever of the 191418 war. Lice that are pests of man are associated with unhygienic conditions. However, head lice often become a problem in schools as they are easily spread. All infected children and their families need careful and rigorous treatment and removal from the source of infection to eradicate the lice. The tiny eggs, called nits, which stick to the hair look like grains of sand.

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Order Thysanoptera Thrips

Elongated, soft-bodied, small 0.5 to 2 mm long but one genus, Idolothrips up to 12 mm; winged or wingless, two pairs of wings, long and narrow and fringed with fine hairs; compound eyes present; antennae short and threadlike; mouthparts piercing, rasping and sucking, unique characteristic of this order; legs small, clawless but with balloon-like endings for adhering to plants. Incomplete metamorphosis, the young nymphs (wingless) resemble the adults but there are two (or three) non-feeding, resting pupalike stages with wing pads, the last pre-adult pupa is sometimes enclosed in a cocoon. Most thrips feed on plants and some prey on other arthropods. Their mouthparts are in the form of a cone from the end of which project stylets to pierce and rasp the host. The sap which oozes out is sucked up by the mouth cone. Eggs are laid on or into the plant tissue. Nymphs feed in the same way as adults. Thrips are typically found clustered in flower buds and new branch tips or on the underside of leaves where a hand lens will show the often pale nymphs and dark adults and the black, tary spots of their faeces. Leaves with a silvered appearance and distorted growth of branch tips are characteristic of damage by thrips. There are many species of thrips in Australia, both native and introduced. A few are pests of fruit, vegetable and flower crops. Although generally tiny they can occur in enormous numbers and destroy whole crops. Ornamental trees and shrubs are sometimes attacked. Oaks and liquidambers may be so severely affected that premature leaf fall occurs. The plague thrips, Thrips imaginis, is a native species that has become a pest of fruit, vegetable and ornamental plants. Some species cause galls in native plants seen either as branch swellings or leaf curling. The large Idolothrips spp. are found in dry eucalypt leaf debris. Some species of thrips are vectors of plant virus diseases. Thrips can cause skin irritation if trapped in clothing. Order Hemiptera Bugs Plant Hoppers, Cicadas, Water Bugs, Scale Insects, Gall Formers Piercing and sucking mouthparts in the form of a beak, which extends backwards beneath the head when at rest; mostly plant feeders, some animal feeders; two pairs of wings (some wingless). Incomplete metamorphosis. This order is divided into three suborders. Suborder Heteroptera

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Forewings divided into a hardened front portion and a membranous rear section; wings held flat over body, tips usually overlap; antennae often long and conspicuous; sucking beak arises from the front part of the head; two ocelli or none.

Suborder Heteroptera Suborders Sternorrhynch Auchenorrhyncha Forewings of the same texture throughout (either thickened or membranous); wings usually held roofwise over the body; antennae mostly short but may be long; sucking beak arises from the hind part of the head; up to three ocelli present.

Suborders Sternorrhyncha Auchenorrhyncha Most hemipterans are plant feeders and many do considerable damage to crops, garden plants, shrubs and trees. A few species feed on other insects and so are beneficial to man. The bed bug is a human parasite.

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Piercing and sucking mouthparts of a cicada. Cicadidae - Hemiptera

Strong mouthparts of a predatory assassin bug. They pierce the cuticle of insects and suck their body fluids. Reduviidae - Hemiptera - 20 mm/brown, amber Metamorphosis of the Hemiptera is usually gradual, nymphs commonly resembling adults although their colour and markings may be very different. However, the young stages may be quite unlike the adult, for example cicadas, where the nymph is specialised for burrowing. Rarely is there a resting pupal stage.

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A plant bug which sucks sap from shoots of plants. Lygaiedae - Hemiptera - 14 mm/black, white The presence of plant feeding bugs may be first noticed because of a black sooty substance on a plant. This is mould which grows on a sugary material (honey dew) secreted by the bugs. Because ants like to feed on this honey dew they help to protect the bugs from predators by driving them off. Species which live within plant tissue may cause abnormal plant growth resulting in a gall. Galls are often characteristic of the insect and plant concerned. In many families of the Heteroptera, for example Coreidae, there are glands which produce obnoxious odours to repel invaders. Suborder Heteroptera Family Lygaeidae Lygaeid Bugs Elongated, 4 to 20 mm long; hard body; membranous area of forewing has no more than five veins; antennae join head well below the level of the compound eyes, ocelli usually present. This large family includes pests of crops and vegetation. The

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Rutherglen bug, Nysius vinitor damages crops and fruit trees. It is greyish-brown and can occur in great numbers. The black and white, coon bug, Oxycarenus arctatus has red nymphs. It sometimes attacks cultivated plants and is occasionally seen in swarms. Family Pyrrhocoridae Red Bugs, Fruit Bugs

Harlequin bugs are pests of many deciduous fruits. Dinduymus versicolor Pyrrhocoridae - Hemiptera - 12 mm/black, fawn Similar to lygaeids but no ocelli and more veins in the membranous area of the forewing; most are red or red and black. The red and black, harlequin bug, Dindymus versicolor damages a wide range of plants particularly fruit. Family Coreidae Coreid Bugs. Elongated, 5 to 25 mm long; antennae of four segments and join the head on the level of the compound eyes; many veins in the membranous area of the forewing. The crusader bug, Mictis profana has a prominent yellow cross when its wings are folded. When disturbed it shoots out an obnoxious fluid. Chelinidea tabulata was among the insects introduced into Australia for the biological control of prickly pear in the 1920's. Family Pentatomidae and Family Tessaratomidae Stink Bugs or Shield Bugs

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The bronze orange bug is a pest of citrus along the east coast of Australia. Musgraveia sulciventris Tessaratomidae - Hemiptera - 25 mm/brown Shield-shaped to oval, over 7 mm long; characterised by triangular area of the thorax (scutellum) extending partly over abdomen; unpleasant odour when disturbed or crushed. Usually pests of plants, but some are predatory. The native, bronze orange bug, Musgraveia sulciventris (Family Tessaratomidae) is a common pest of citrus. It lays pale green eggs in groups. The tissuethin second stage nymphs may be found on the underside of the leaves during winter. The adult green vegetable bug, Nezara viridula (Family Pentatomidae), is green but the nymphs are variously coloured with black markings. The eggs are laid in rows often on beans and tomatoes. Family Scutelleridae Shield Bugs Similar to pentatomids but with enlarged scutellum covering abdomen; 5 to 10 mm long. Most are plant feeders and tropical. Family Cydnidae Burrowing Bugs Dark brown to black, shiny; less than 6 mm; resemble beetles; live in soil, under rocks and debris; spines on hindlegs. Family Cimicidae Bed Bugs

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The adult bed bug sucks blood from humans, but does not carry disease. Cimex lectularius Cimicidae - Hemiptera - 5 mm/amber Flat, oval 5 to 6 mm; amber to pale brown; no functional wings (only stubs); has characteristic bug odour when crushed; sucks blood of man and animals. The introduced bed bug, Cimex lectularius, is the only species known in Australia. During the day it hides in cracks and crevices (where it lays its eggs) and feeds at night on humans. Family Miridae Leaf or Plant Bugs Elongated or oval, up to 10 mm long, delicate, mostly dull coloured. There are many species in this family. Most are plant pests although some feed by sucking insect blood or eggs. Family Hydrometridae Slender Water Striders Long thin bodies, long fine head; eyes towards centre of the length of the head; long legs; slow moving; found in swamps; feed on small insects.

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14 The ringbarker phasmatid, which occurs in plague numbers in the highlands of New South Wales, defoliates eucalypts. Podacanthus wilkinsoni - Phasmatidae - Phasmatodea - 100 mm

15 A praying mantis in its characteristic pose, waiting to seize insects on which it feeds. Mantidae - Mantodea - 65 mm

16 A leaf eating long-horned grasshopper. Tettigoniidae - Orthoptera - 45 mm

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17 A katydid which feeds on plants. It is well camouflaged to blend with its environment. Caedicia sp. - Tettigoniidae Orthoptera - 45 mm

18 A grass and leaf eating short-horned grasshopper. Acrididae - Orthoptera - 45 mm

19 Defoliation by plague stick insects caused the death of these eucalypts in the central highlands of New South Wales. Phasmatidae - Phasmatodea

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20 A late nymphal instar of the spiny leaf insect. The adult female is green and male brown. Extatosoma tiaratum - Phasmatidae Phasmatodea - 100 mm

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21 Thrips suck sap from plants. The small tarry spots on this leaf are characteristic of thrips. Thrips imaginis - Thripidae - Thysanoptera - 3 mm

22 The two forms of aphids (winged and wingless) can be seen. Aphids attack many plants. Macrosiphum rosae - Aphididae - Hemiptera - 3 mm

23 This shield bug species, the cotton harlequin bug, attacks Norfolk Island hibiscus. Note the eggs, and the partly developed wing buds on the nymph in the centre. Tectocoris diophthalmus Scutelleridae - Hemiptera - 18 mm file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_36.html[09/13/2010 09:14:36 ...]

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24 These psyllid tests (lerps) conceal the developing insect. The brown eggs can also be seen. Cardiaspina sp. - Psyllidae - Hemiptera - test 4 mm

25 Gumtree scale which infests and debilitates euculypts. Note the large pink female scales and the minute, pink mobile young near the small white scales from which the winged males emerge. Eriococcus coriaceus - Eriococcidae Hemiptera - female 2.5 mm

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26 Not all bugs are plant feeders. This species is predatory and is seen sucking the body fluids from a moth larva. Oechalia schellenbergii - Pentatomidae - Hemiptera - 12 mm

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27 One of the cochineal insects of prickly pear (pest pear), introduced during the prickly pear campaign in the 1920's. Dactylopius opuntiae Eriococcidae -.Hemiptera - 1 mm

28 A female insect gall on a eucalypt. The galls are a characteristic shape for each species. The male galls are clustered at the base of the two larger female galls. Apiomorpha excupula Eriococcidae - Hemiptera female 45 mm

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29 The golden mealybug of Norfolk Island pine is seen here being preyed upon by a white, mealy ladybird beetle larva. Nipaecoccus aurilanatus Pseudococcidae - Hemiptera - 3 mm

30 Large female insect galls on stems with smaller male, trumpet-shaped structures on leaves of a eucalypt. Apiomorpha sp. - Eriococcidae Hemiptera - female gall: 35 mm - male gall: 7 mm

31 The Apiomorpha female gall cut in halves. Note the fleshy female within and the tiny access hole for the male.

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32 The crusader bug is often encountered in gardens, feeding on Cassia sp. It has a pale cross on the back. Mictis profana - Coreidae - Hemiptera - 30 mm

33 An often encountered cicada species, a 'green grocer'. Cicada nymphs live underground and feed on plant juices from roots. The adults suck juices from plant stems. Cyclochila australasiae - Cicadidae - Hemiptera - 85 mm

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34 The fungus bug is found in damp bark and under houses where wood decay is present. It does no damage. Achilus flammeus - Achilidae - Hemiptera - 9 mm

35 A planthopper which feeds on eucalypts but does not cause damage. Siphanta acuta - Flatidae Hemiptera - 5 mm

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36 The nymphs of spittle bugs cover themselves with a frothy exudate. This material protects them from predators. Cercopidae - Hemiptera - 4 mm

37 A bladder cicada has a big abdomen which is largely air filled and leaf-like wings. Cystosoma saundersii - Cicadidae - Hemiptera - 35 mm

38 This leaf hopper lives on gum tree bark.

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Cephalelus sp. - Cicadellidae - Hemiptera - 12 mm

39 A large mealybug which feeds on wattles. Pseudococcidae - Hemiptera - 20 mm

40 Cochineal insects and their emerging young on a segment of tiger pear. The section at the base is being damaged internally by larvae of the Cactoblastis moth. Dactylopius sp. - Eriococcidae - Hemiptera - 1 mm Cactoblastis cactorum - Pyralidae - Lepidoptera - 30 mm

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Family Gerridae Water Striders

This water strider skates quickly on the surface of fresh water and feeds on other insects. Limnogonus sp. - Gerridae - Hemiptera - 8 mm/black Stout bodies, more than 10 mm long; long, thin legs, midlegs arise closer to hindlegs than to forelegs; live on the surface of water (usually fresh water); some winged, others wingless. These bugs are often seen running quickly over the surface of the water. They feed on small insects. Family Notonectidae Backswimmers

Backswimmers are aquatic insects which, as their name implies, swim on their backs. Their long hind legs, fringed with hairs are used like oars. Anisops sp. - Notonectidae Hemiptera - 12 mm/dark brown Less than 15 mm; swim upside down and their backs are keel-shaped for this purpose; two parallel grooves down abdomen with hairs for holding air when submerged; large eyes; feed on insects. Often seen floating on the water surface with fore- and midlegs folded in and rear legs, which they use like oars, held in a 'V' position. Family Nepidae Water Scorpions.

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A water scorpion with its long breathing tube at the rear of its body. They live in the mud in ponds and streams and feed on aquatic life. Laccotrephes tristis - Nepidae Hemiptera - 30 mm/dark brown Long and slender or oval, up to 40 mm long; forelegs adapted for seizing prey; two long terminal filaments. They live under water in mud and debris feeding on small arthropods. The terminal filaments form a breathing tube that pierces the water surface. They can inflict a painful bite. Family Corixidae Water-Boatmen Up to 10 mm long; upper surface of body flattened; forelegs very short, hindlegs long, with hairs and used like oars for rapid swimming. They spend much of their time under water feeding on algae (some feed on minute animal life) using air trapped under their folded wings. Family Belostomatidae Giant Water Bugs

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in summer but is aquatic and feeds on tiny fish, tadpoles and other marine life. Lethocerus sp. Belostomatidae Hemiptera 55 mm/dark brown Large, up to 70 mm long; forelegs adapted for grasping prey, hindlegs with hairs for swimming; feed on insects, tadpoles and small fish. Adults fly long distances and are attracted to lights in summer time. They sham death and if picked up can pierce the skin with their mouthparts.

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Family Tingidae Lace Bugs

Lace bugs from the Americas. This insect was introduced to Australia in an attempt to control lantana, however it was not successful. Leptobyrsa decora - Tingidae - Hemiptera 3 mm/brown Hardened forewings with a raised lace-like pattern of veins; small, mostly less than 5 mm; front of thorax usually extends partly over head. Lace bugs are plant feeders and may cause extensive damage. The lantana bug, Teleonemia scrupulosa, was introduced into Australia in the 1930's and is well established on the east coast. Leptobyrsa decora was introduced for the same purpose in the 1970's. The azalea lace bug, Stephanitis pyrioides, feeds on the undersurface of the leaves and gives them a mottled greyish appearance. When magnified the nymphs are spiny. Family Reduviidae Assassin Bugs

A predatory assassin bug with strong mouthparts and concave abdomen. Reduviidae - Hempitera 18 mm/orange, black

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Mostly elongated, up to 25 mm long; narrow head; beak short, curved, segmented into three; antennae segmented into four; top surface of abdomen often concave; femur of each foreleg often enlarged; groove on underside of thorax for sound production; predacious, feed on insects. These bugs can inflict a painful bite if handled carelessly. Suborder Auchenorrhyncha Family Delphacidae Leathoppers Mostly small, up to 8 mm; hind tibiae with a large moveable spur at the tip. Some species are vectors (carriers) of virus diseases of some grasses and cereal crops while the sugarcane leaf hopper, Perkinsiella saccharicida (native), is a pest of sugarcane and carries Fiji disease. Family Ricaniidae Planthoppers

The passionvine hopper sucks sap from young passionfruit vines and other plants such as lantana. Scolypopa australis - Ricaniidae Hemiptera - 7 mm/grey, brown Up to 15 mm long; forewings are transparent except for the edges which are darkly barred. The passionvine hopper, Scolypopa australis, is common and may do much damage to passionvines. It attacks other plants such as lantana and is found in rows along a single shoot. Family Flatidae Planthoppers Similar appearance to Family Ricaniidae; wedge-shaped body; forewing elongated and triangular and held almost vertically; cross veins near rear of forewing; hind tibiae with spines on the sides; mostly brown or green. The green planthopper, Siphanta acuta, is often found on young eucalypt shoots. Family Achilidae Fungus Bugs. Body flattened, up to 15 mm long; forewings folded flat and overlapping at tip. The fungus bug, Achilus flammeus, is a bright red hopper found under decaying bark. It is also found by pest control operators on badly decayed timbers under houses. Nymphs are grey and white. Froghoppers and Spittle Bugs This Superfamily is made up of the Families Cercopidae and Aphrophoridae in which the nymphs live under a frothy covering called spittle, and the Family Machaerotidae in which the nymphs inhabit liquid filled tubes. Up to 12 mm, appearance similar to leafhoppers; jumping habit file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_40.html[09/13/2010 09:14:37 ...]

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hind tibiae with one or two spines and a ring of spines at the tip. Often seen on wattles, she-oaks, eucalypts and bottlebrushes. The eggs are laid on the foliage and small stems. The froghopper, Philagra parva, is dull brown with an elongated, tapering head. It may be found on she-oaks. Family Cicadidae Cicadas

A hill of mud is sometimes made by a cicada nymph prior to its emergence as an adult. Cicadidae - Hemiptera - hill: 125 mm/pale brown

The same cicada hill turned over to show the cavity formed by the nymph. Up to 70 mm long; forewings and hindwings membranous; three ocelli; do not jump; male has sound-producing organs on the abdomen. The eggs are laid in slits cut into the bark. The nymphs, which have forelegs adapted for digging, live underground for several years feeding on tree roots. When in the last nymphal stage they climb a vertical surface and emerge as winged cicadas leaving the shed skin attached to the trunks of trees etc. Cicadas are best known for the loud noise they make during summer. The sound is produced by the vibrations of a

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pair of plates of cuticle (the tymbals or drums), one on either side of the abdomen. The ears are adjacent to the drums. Several species are well known with common names such as the yellow Monday, Cyclochila australasiae, and the large, double drummer, Thopha saccata, which is black and red. Cicadas are often erroneously called locusts, a name that rightfully belongs to certain grasshoppers which may occur in swarms.

A female cicada. Unlike the male it does not produce sound. Cicadidae - Hemiptera - 65 mm/black

Cicada nymph exposed in soil. Some species can spend many years underground feeding on roots of trees. Cicadidae - Hemiptera - 40 mm/cream, brown

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Family Membracidae Treehoppers Up to 12 mm long; head vertical; front section of thorax often enlarged and projecting backwards over abdomen, frequently with horn-like projections; jumping habit. They feed on trees and shrubs and are often attended by ants. The wattle treehopper, Sextius virescens, is often seen on wattles (especially black wattle) where, as with other membracids, the terminal shoots are killed. The eggs are laid into the bark and the nymphs and adults feed together. Family Cicadellidae Leafhoppers

Leafhoppers feed on tender shoots of eucalypts, producing a sugary secretion (honey dew) which is eaten by ants. Eurymela sp. - Eurymelidae Hemiptera - 14 mm/dark blue, red, white Up to 10 mm long; body tapered or straight-sided; hind tibiae with numerous spines. They feed on a wide range of trees and other plants and often have ants in attendance feeding on honey dew produced by the leafhoppers. The apple leafhopper, Typhlocyba froggatti, is greenish-yellow with red eyes. In large numbers they can debilitate trees and shrubs, but this seldom occurs. Family Eurymelidae Leafhoppers Up to 10 mm long; similar to cicadellids; mostly have one or several broadly based spines on hind tibiae. They are often found on eucalypts and she-oaks with ants in attendance. The gumtree hoppers, Eurymela spp. are black or dark blue with white, yellow or red markings. They are easily disturbed. They can damage young eucalypts, but are normally controlled by predatory insects and birds. Suborder Sternorrhyncha Family Aphidae Aphids Up to 3 mm long; soft body, enlarge central portion of abdomen; pair of projections (cornicles) often present towards end of abdomen; wingless, or winged with wings usually held vertically above body. Aphids occur in large numbers on host plants causing wilting and malformation of branch tips. Some feed on plant roots. Most species in Australia have been accidently introduced. They can carry many plant diseases. Ants are often in file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_42.html[09/13/2010 09:14:38 ...]

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attendance and may even herd the aphids for their honey dew. The life cycle is unusual, with parthenogenetic (without fertilisation) and sexual reproduction occuring. A typical life cycle starts in spring when eggs hatch into wingless females which, without mating, produce live young (not eggs). These develop into more wingless females and there are several generations during summer with winged females being produced at intervals. Later winged females and males that mate are produced. Eggs are laid and these overwinter. Some aphids feed on only one type of plant, others feed on many different plants. The black peach aphid, Brachycaudus persicae, attacks the roots and the above ground parts of peach and other similar trees. The wingless form feeds on the roots. No males are known, only females, which produce living young. The rose aphid, Macrosiphum rosae, is one of several aphids that may be found on roses. The juniper aphid, Cinara juniperi, is a large grey aphid which causes foliage of ornamental cypress trees to brown. They cluster around the trunk during the day. The cypress pine aphid, Cinara tujafilina, attacks native cypress pine particularly in western New South Wales.

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Family Phylloxeridae Phylloxera Similar to aphids but with wings held flat over body at rest. The grape phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifolii, is a pest of grape-vines in parts of Australia, attacking their roots and also producing galls on the leaves. Family Adelgidae Pine Aphids. 1 mm or less long with woolly coverings or in galls; wings held roof-wise over body; abdominal projections (cornicles) absent. Both sexual and parthenogenetic forms occur in most species. The pine adelgid, Pineus pini, an introduced species, attacks radiata pine causing the terminal shoots to die. It betrays its presence by the white woolly material at the base of the needles. Superfamily Coccoidae Scale Insects and Mealybugs Plant feeders; the two sexes differ markedly. Female wingless, often immobile, male smaller and more delicate than female, may be winged (one pair of wings); most form scale coverings, some in galls, some without a protective covering or exudation; eggs usually laid under scale covering, newly hatched, mobile nymphs known as crawlers. The crawler stage allows these insects to spread. After this mobile stage the mouthparts of the nymphs and the females often remain in one position in the plant. The female is most often seen and is often the form by which a species is known. The insects themselves are difficult to identify but many scale insects can be reliably identified by their coverings or galls, and the plant being attacked. Superfamily Coccoidea Family Margarodidae Giant Coccids Up to 30 mm, often white and covered with a mealy material. The native, cottonycushion scale, Icerya purchasi, of wattle, attack citrus. It is controlled by the native vedalia ladybird, Rodolia cardinalis in Australia. As the eggs are laid under the female they are covered with a white fluted woolly mass. The small male is winged and dark coloured. The females of Callipappus spp. are large mealy bugs up to 25 mm long with legs and clearly segmented body. The male is smaller, delicate, winged and with fine filaments extending from the abdomen. They are known as bird of paradise flies. Superfamily Coccoidea Family Diaspididae Armoured Scales

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The California red scale of citrus. Underneath this covering is the sap-sucking scale insect which is a serious pest of many citrus fruits. Aonidiella aurantii - Diaspididae Hemiptera - scale: 2 mm/red brown Small, hard scales; female has no legs, antennae or eyes and lives under flattened disc-shaped coverings. California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii, and yellow scale, Aonidiella citrina, are serious pests of citrus. They have similar life cycles but attack different parts of the tree. The females produce living young (not eggs). The males are winged. The San José scale, Comstockaspis perniciosus, attacks deciduous fruit trees such as peach and apple. Superfamily Coccoidea Family Eriococcidae Scales, Galls, Mealybugs Great variety of forms, scales and gall formers; wide host range. The gumtree scale, Eriococcus coriaceus, is a pest of many

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eucalypts. The females are enclosed in their tough, reddish-brown, rounded cases and the winged males emerge from their smaller, whitish, papery cases. The characteristic and often fantastically shaped galls of Apiomorpha spp. (often a different shape for male and female) make many identifications easy. The mealy bugs Dactylopius spp. were introduced during the 1920's during the programme to control prickly pear. Dactylopius coccus yields the colouring material, cochineal. Superfamily Coccoidea Family Coccidae Scale Insects

Psyllids (lerp insects) live under these coverings or tests (lerps) and suck sap from leaves. Note their eggs on the lower portion of the leaf. Creiis sp. - Psyllidae - Hemiptera - test: 2.5 mm/white These insects are usually covered by a soft waxy scale although some are uncovered. There are native and introduced species in Australia. The introduced, white wax scale, Gascardia destructor, formerly Ceroplastes destructor, is a pest of citrus orchards and also occurs on many shrubs and trees. The scale is greyish-white, irregularly shaped and up to 10 mm long. The Indian white wax scale, Ceroplastes ceriferus, is also introduced and occurs on some garden and native plants. It is white, regular in shape and smaller than the white wax scale. The pink wax scale, Ceroplastes rubens, occurs on many shrubs and trees. It is various shades of pink and the scales are smaller than the white wax scale (up to 4 mm long). The wattle tick scale, Cryptes baccatus, is smooth, spherical, usually bluish and resembles an engorged tick. It occurs in groups on wattles. The soft brown scale, Coccus hesperidum, infests many plants especially citrus. It produces excessive honey dew and associated sooty mould. Superfamily Coccoidea Family Pseudococcidae

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Mealybugs Oval to elongated, soft-bodied, some up to 20 mm; have legs and are quite mobile. Some are pests of native and introduced trees and plants. The golden mealybug, Nipaecoccus aurilanatus, attacks Norfolk Island pine but is usually controlled by the larvae of ladybird beetles. This mealy bug is black and gold banded and the beetle larvae that eat it are white.

Tests (lerps) of the spottedgum psyllid, a frequent pest of certain eucalypts including the lemon scented gum. Eucalyptolyma maideni - Psyllidae Hemiptera - test: 10 mm/white

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Family Psyllidae Lerp Insects Plant feeders; vary in size up to 10 mm; wings held roof-like over body; move quickly when disturbed; some freeliving, some in galls, most covered by test (or lerp); many native species. The lerps of these insects may be found in large numbers on leaves, usually of eucalypts with the nymphs (often orange in colour) sheltering beneath. The lerps are often on the undersurface of the leaf. The nymphs enlarge the often fine, intricate lerps as they develop. Most psyllid species are very host specific. The insects' saliva causes browning of the leaf and premature leaf fall. Species such as Cardiaspina sp. may defoliate trees. Cardiaspina fiscella is a pest of swamp mahogany, Eucalyptus robusta, along the east coast of New South Wales. Family Aleyrodidae White Flies

Some species of white flies cover themselves with white threads. Aleyrodidae - Hemiptera Adult male and female winged, up to 3 mm wing span; body and wings covered with white powdery material; two pairs of wings of almost equal size held flat over body; nymphs ovoid and flattened. Eggs are laid in groups on the underside of leaves. After the first crawler stage nymphs remain in the one place. The last nymphal stage is that of resting (pupa). There are native and introduced species. The greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum (introduced) is commonly found in glasshouses. Order Neuroptera Lacewings, Ant Lions.

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A lacewing larva which occurs on foliage where it feeds on aphids and other insects. Nymphidae - Neuroptera - 6 mm/green Small to medium-sized insects; prominent head; antennae mostly long and thread-like, or clubbed; large compound eyes, ocelli usually absent; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; two pairs of nearly equal membranous wings with many veins, held roofwise; abdomen without cerci. Complete metamorphosis; larvae active, predacious, modified mandibulate mouthparts; pupa in a silken cocoon.

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Eggs of this species of lacewings are laid on stalks in the form of a 'U'. Nymphes myrmeleonides - Nymphidae Neuroptera - egg form: 30 mm/white Family Myrmeleontidae Ant Lions

The adult is quite large, has clubbed antennae often with black markings. The larvae, ant lions, live at the base of small pits they construct in sandy soil. Only the head protrudes from the pit and the ant lion captures ants and other small insects which slip into the trap.

This ant lion larva lies concealed at the bottom of a coneshaped depression in sandy soil. It feeds on ants which slip into the trap. Myrmeleontidae - Neuroptera - 7 mm/pale brown Order MegalopteraAlderflies, Fishflies Up to 35 mm long (some have a wing span of 150 mm); prominent eyes; antennae thread-like; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; two pairs of membranous wings held roofwise; abdomen very soft. Complete metamorphosis; larvae aquatic, mandibulate mouthparts, gills on abdomen. The adults are very similar in appearance to lacewings (Order Neuroptera). They are found near streams and the aquatic larvae are predacious. Both adults and larvae provide food for fish. Order MecopteraScorpion Flies Small to medium-sized; elongated head (long faced); antennae long and thread-like; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; compound eyes present; two pairs of membranous wings, almost equal; legs long and thin; abdomen variable often long and thin. Complete metamorphosis; larvae caterpillar-like. The name scorpion fly is derived from the shape of the end of the male abdomen, which is sometimes curved forward like that of a scorpion. file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_46.html[09/13/2010 09:14:40 ...]

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The most commonly found scorpion flies are Harpobittacus spp. They feed on nectar and only the male preys on other insects. During their complex courtship ritual the male gives a captured insect to the female who eats it. Eggs are laid loosely or in clusters and vary in shape, those of Harpobittacus sp. being cube-shaped. The larvae eat dead insects and vegetation and pupate in moist soil.

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Scorpion flies are often found hanging in foliage. Harpobittacus tillyardi - Bittacidae - Mecoptera - 35 mm/brown Order Coleoptera Beetles, Weevils

Small to very large; antennae variable; size and shape of compound eyes varies; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts; first segment of thorax (prothorax) well-developed; forewings (elytra) hard and protective, hindwings membranous and folded under elytra; elytra usually cover abdomen but may be shorter; abdomen without cerci. Complete metamorphosis; larva with hardened head, chewing mouthparts, usually with legs, no prolegs on abdomen. The two main suborders are Adephaga and Polyphaga with Suborder Polyphaga containing by far the most species. These two suborders differ in several ways, including wing venation and a difference on the undersurface as file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_47.html[09/13/2010 09:14:40 ...]

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illustrated below.

Suborder Adephaga Suborder Polyphaga The Order Coleoptera is the largest order of insects on earth and contains many thousands of species. Habits and life cycles vary greatly and many pest species as well as many beneficial ones are members. The majority of beetles are well-protected by a very hard body covering. The top of the first thoracic segment (the prothorax) is hard and well-developed. The remainder of the thorax and the abdomen (usually) are covered by the hardened elytra. In flight, the elytra are held upwards while the membranous hindwings are folded out and beaten. Many beetles are brown or black and conceal themselves.

The cowboy beetle, a scarab, showing one elytron moved forwards and a membranous hindwing outstretched. The appearance of the larvae is also very varied depending on where they live and what they eat. They live in the soil, on the ground, in water and on or in plant tissue. They eat a wide range of living and dead plant material, and animal remains. Many are predacious.

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Suborder Adephaga Family Carabidae Ground Beetles

Ground beetles are active and mostly prey on other ground dwelling insects. The parallel lines down the elytra are typical of these beetles. Eurylychnus sp. - Carabidae Coleoptera - 28 mm/black Small to large; many black but some brightly coloured; slender antennae; legs long and slender; larvae elongated, hard with strong mandibles. Both the adults and larvae move quickly and hunt insects and small animals such as slaters and worms. Most species shelter under objects such as stones during the day and come out at night to feed. When disturbed the bombardier beetle, Pheropsophus verticalis, ejects a cloud of acrid smoke with an audible explosion. The tiger beetles are mostly brightly coloured with a metallic sheen. Some adults hunt during the day. The larvae live in burrows in the soil and capture passing insects. Family Dytiscidae Water Beetles Aquatic; elongated oval, smooth body; thread-like antennae; hindlegs long with hairs and used like oars; larvae elongated without gills. The adults and larvae are active and prey on insects, tadpoles etc. Air is obtained at the surface by both adult and

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larva and the adult carries an air bubble under the elytra. Family Gyrinidae Whirligig Beetles.

Two whirligig beetles at rest on the surface of water. Each eye is divided into two for seeing above and below water. Macrogyrus sp. - Gyrinidae Coleoptera - 15 mm/black Aquatic; oval, smooth body; very short antennae; eyes divided into dorsal and ventral faces; forelegs long for grasping, mid- and hindlegs short and broad; larvae elongated, gill tufts along abdomen. These beetles are noticeable whirling about on the surface of fresh water. With their divided eyes they can see above and below the water simultaneously. Adult and larva are predacious. Suborder Polyphaga Family Staphilinidae Rove Beetles

Rove beetles are found in decaying plant matter. Some are predacious, however the food of many is unknown. The hindwings, as shown, are usually tucked under the short elytra. Staphylinidae - Coleoptera 12 mm/black

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Elongated, slender; short elytra, several abdominal segments exposed; larvae and adults of similar shape. The adults and larvae are predacious or scavenging and are found in many places including beneath decaying animal and vegetable matter, rocks and on flowers. They often run with the abdomen curved upwards. The beetles can fly.

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Family Passalidae Passalid Beetles

Passalid beetles are black and shiny. They live with their larvae in rotting wood. Mastachilus - Passalidae Coleoptera - 40 mm/black Moderate to large, black and shiny; antennae short, clubbed and curved; elytra parallel sided with longitudinal grooves; larvae C-shaped with hind legs reduced. The adults and larvae live and feed together in rotting wood. They can both produce sound. Family Lucanidae Stag Beetles Usually large, often of beautiful metallic colours; male with enlarged mandibles; antennae with club made up of separated broad plates; larvae whitish, C-shaped and similar to larvae of Family Scarabaeidae. Adults are mostly active at night and may be found on leaves or flowers on which they feed. The male not only has larger mandibles but is also larger overall than the female. The larvae live in rotting logs. Family Scarabaeidae Christmas Beetles, Dung Beetles

A Christmas beetle larva found in the soil feeding on grass roots. Note the spiracles along its side. Scarabaeidae Coleoptera - 30 mm/white and grey Moderate to large, stoutly built and of characteristic shape; hind tip of abdomen usually exposed; head obvious; antennae with club of several plates; tibiae of forelegs strongly developed for digging; larvae white, mostly Cshaped (curl grubs), strong heads, live in soil, rotting vegetation etc.

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The cowboy beetle is often seen flying in summer. It eats foliage and its larva lives in the soil. Diaphonia dorsalis Scarabaeidae - Coleoptera 25 mm/dark brown, fawn. Dung beetles are black. The adults feed on animal faeces and bury it as food for their larvae. Some species make compact balls of dung which they roll for a long distance before burying it. Although there are many native dung beetles they are generally not suited to the large dung pads of cattle. To disperse cattle pads, and reduce the number of fly larvae developing in them, dung beetles have been introduced from overseas. Many scarab beetles eat leaves but some feed on nectar. The brightly coloured Christmas beetles, Anoplognathus spp., are well-known. The adults often strip the leaves from eucalypts and the larvae feed on humus and roots in the soil. Some scarab larvae damage crops, pastures and lawns. The African black beetle, Heteronychus arator is common in spring on the coast of New South Wales. It is rounded and shiny black (about 12 mm) and chews plant stems just below ground level. It is a serious pest of pastures and crops, especially maize, and may occur in very high numbers.

Christmas beetles are often seen eating eucalypts in summer. Their larvae live on roots in the soil. Anoplognathus sp. - Scarabaeidae - Coleoptera - 25 mm/fawn, green

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Jewel beetle larva with typical flattened, cobra-like thorax. These larvae feed in the inner bark of trees making crescent shaped marks along their tunnels. Buprestidae - Coleoptera - 30 mm/cream

While jewel beetle larvae feed in the bark of trees, the beetles feed on flowers or leaves. Buprestidae - Coleoptera 30 mm/yellow, brown Family Buprestidae Jewel Beetles Small to large; elongated, tapering body; brightly coloured often metallic; short, serrated antennae; longitudinal parallel grooves on elytra; larvae white, legless, first segment of thorax (prothorax) enlarged and body slender behind.

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Dermestes sp. Dermestidae Coleoptera - 8 mm/black During summer, these often strikingly coloured beetles frequent the flowers of trees and shrubs. Their larvae feed under the bark and in the sapwood of living trees and pupate in the wood. The shape of the larvae is characteristic and resembles a cobra snake, making them easily distinguishable from the larvae of longicorn beetles (Family Cerambycidae), which are found in similar situations. The larvae of the hoop-pine jewel beetle, Prospheres aurantiopictus, attack hoop pine and beetles may emerge 2 to 4 years after the timber has been converted to furniture. Family Lampyridae Fireflies These beetles produce flashes of light from the underside of the abdomen which can be seen at night when they fly. They are brownish with a yellow prothorax. Nearly all Australian species are confined to the tropical forests of the north. The larvae attack snails which they paralyse, using their tubular mandibles, with a fluid that also breaks down the tissues of the snail. Family Dermestidae Carpet Beetles, Skin and Hide Beetles

Variegated carpet beetles are often found in houses where their larvae eat carpets and other animal fibres. The beetles feed on pollen in flowers and can be carried indoors in cut flowers. Anthrenus verbasci - Coleoptera 3 mm/yellow, brown, fawn Moderate to small, oval; covered with hairs or scales; dull brown or black, sometimes variegated; antennae short and clubbed lying in grooves; larvae often elongated, covered in coarse, long and short hairs. Larvae feed on dry animal products such as hair, carcasses, dead insects, woollen material (although the Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium, which has not yet reached Australia is a pest of grain). Adults are found on flowers. Woollen carpets and fabrics may be attacked by Anthrenus spp. including the variegated carpet beetle, Anthrenus verbasci. Larvae of museum beetles sometimes ruin dried insects in collections. Dermestes spp. are pests of skins and hides and stored products such as cheese.

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Family Bostrichidae Auger Beetles.

The large auger beetle is a pest of the sapwood of many native timbers if moist. It does not re-infest dry wood. Bostrychopsis jesuita - Bostrychidae Coleoptera - 14 mm/black Small to medium size, hard, cylindrical, brown or black; head concealed beneath prothorax; antennae with club of three segments; front surface of prothorax rough; rear end of elytra almost vertical (chisel-like) and often spined; larvae cream, curved, with short legs. The beetles bore round holes to lay eggs in the moist sapwood of dying or freshly dead hardwood trees. Larvae feed on sugars and starch (not cellulose). Adults may emerge from seasoned timber but will not reinfest it. However, they will bore into wooden wine casks. The large auger beetle, Bostrychopsis jesuita, is a large species which attacks wattles, eucalypts and some citrus trees. The cylindrical auger beetle, Mesoxylion cylindricus is a common species. It is brown and 6 to 12 mm long. A small introduced species, the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica, is a pest of grain. Subfamily Lyctinae Powderpost Beetles

The powderpost beetle is a pest of dry sawn timber attacking only the outer sapwood. Many woods are attacked but not pines. Lyctus brunneus

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- Lyctidae Coleoptera - 4 mm/brown Small, flat, brown; sides of body parallel; head clearly visible from above; antennae with club or two segments; larvae similar to bostrychids but have two enlarged spiracles on the second last segment. The introduced Lyctus brunneus is a common timber pest throughout Australia. The larvae destroy only the starchcontaining sapwood of hardwood tress, such as many eucalypts, and the attack continues until all the sapwood is destroyed. Family Tenebrionidae Tenebrionid Beetles

'Pie-dish' or 'verandah' beetles may be found under bark or in rubbish. Tenebrionidae - Coleoptera 15 mm/dark brown Large to small, hard, shape and form very varied; usually brown or black; antennae variable, thread-like, bead-like or clubbed; front tarsi have five segments, the hind tarsi four segments; larvae elongated, cylindrical, hard, with three pairs of legs. This is a very large and varied family of beetles. Many of its members resemble ground beetles (Family Carabidae). Most larvae and beetles feed on bark, decaying vegetation, moulds, seeds and plant products. They are commonly found on the ground under stones, logs etc. Tenebrio molitor and T. obscurus live in flour and other food products, their larvae known as mealworms. The family includes many other pests of stored food products including the small (about 4 mm long) flour beetles, Tribolium castaneum and T. confusum. Family Anobiidae Furniture Beetles Small, brown beetles covered with fine hairs; head concealed beneath a hood-like prothorax; last three segments of antennae enlarged and separated; legs can be folded flat under body; larvae soft, white, curved, with short legs. The most well-known species is the introduced furniture beetle, Anobium punctatum. The larvae seriously damage softwood flooring and furniture. Although most species are timber borers the drug store beetle, Stegobium paniceum, is a pest of stored food and other products and the cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne, eats stored tobacco. (See photo on p.54.)

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Family Coccinellidae Ladybird Beetles

A predatory ladybird beetle larva which feeds on other insects. Coccinellidae - Coleoptera - 12 mm/green, brown and yellow

The larva of a ladybird beetle which feeds on the foliage of pumpkins and other cucurbits. Coccinellidae - Coleoptera - 7 mm/green, yellow Small, nearly round, dome shaped, brightly coloured, often spotted; head almost concealed by prothorax; antennae short and clubbed; larvae soft-bodied, variously coloured, mostly spiny, with well-developed legs. Nearly all ladybird beetles and their larvae are predacious, feeding on small insects such as scales and aphids. The common spotted ladybird, Harmonia conformis, is bright orange with black spots. A few species are plant-eaters and may do considerable damage to the leaves of pumpkins, tomatoes and potatoes. These pests include the twentyeight-spotted ladybird Epilachna vigintisex-punctata Family Ptinidae Spider Beetles Small, shiny or covered in fine hairs; head and thorax small, abdomen large and globular; legs long; superficially resemble spiders; larvae similar to anobiids. This family feeds on dried animal and vegetable material and includes several pests of stored products including a common domestic pest, the Australian spider beetle, Ptinus tectus.

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Family Elateridae Click Beetles Elongated body, somewhat flattened, mostly dull coloured; antennae serrated; prothorax separate from rest of body with pointed corners at the rear; larvae elongated, cylindrical, smooth, hard, shiny, brownish, with short legs. These beetles have a peg-like structure which projects backwards from the underside of the prothorax and fits into a cavity in the mesothorax. These structures are used to give the beetle a sudden jump accompanied by a click when the beetle is placed on its back or held by the abdomen. Beetles may be collected from bark or flowers and some often enter houses. Most larvae live in the soil and feed on roots. Some, known as wireworms, are pests of grasses and some crops. Agrypnus variabilis damages sugarcane. Some larvae prey on wood boring larvae. Family Cantharidae Soldier Beetles Elongated, soft-bodied, elytra quite soft; sides of abdomen parallel; larvae soft, usually dark coloured, covered in fine hair. During the warmer months some species of these beetles may occur in swarms. The orange-yellow body and greenish or bluish metallic elytra are distinctive. They favour flowering trees and shrubs and their large numbers often cause concern. They feed on other insects and are harmless. The larvae, which also eat insects live in the soil under bark etc. Family Chrysomelidae Leaf Beetles

This leaf beetle (and its larvae) feeds on eucalypts. It lays eggs in a rosette around stems of leaves. Other species lay their eggs in long rows on leaves. Chrysomelidae - Coleoptera - 7 mm/fawn, black Small to medium; shape variable but many oval and resemble ladybird beetles; often brightly coloured and shiny; antennae less than half as long as body; second last segment of the tarsus rounded into a distinct pad; larvae of varying shape and colour. There are more than 2 000 species in this family and all feed on plants. Eggs are generally laid on flowers and both the larvae and adults feed on the same host plant. Pupation often occurs in the ground. The native, pumpkin beetle, Aulacophora hilaris, is orange-yellow with four black patches. It is more elongated file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_52.html[09/13/2010 09:14:42 ...]

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than the similar coloured ladybird beetle. The beetles, which are a serious pest of

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pumpkins, squash etc. eat the leaves and flowers, and the larvae tunnel in the stems. The yellow monolepta beetle, Monolepta australis, attacks a wide range of plants including avocadoes, citrus and maize. It damages the fruit, blossoms and foliage. The beetles are about 6 mm long and generally yellow with red markings. Chrysophtharta spp. and Paropsis spp., of which there are many species, feed on eucalypts and wattles. They are often beautifully coloured. The beetles and their caterpillar-like larvae eat the leaves.

Larva of a leaf beetle. Like this one, many feed on eucalypts. The adult beetles also feed on leaves. Chrysomelidae - Coleoptera - 12 mm/cream, black Octotoma sp. and Uroplata sp. were introduced for the control of the weed Lantana camara. The larvae mine in the leaves and pupate there and the adults feed on the leaf surface. Family Cerambycidae Longicorn or Longhorn Beetles. Small to large, elongated, parallel-sided; antennae long and flowing; compound eyes kidney-shaped and partly surrounding the bases of the antennae; elytra cover abdomen, rarely short; larvae white to cream, legless or nearly so, soft-bodied. Australia is very rich in longicorn beetles. They are strong and active. The larvae are borers in the wood of trees and shrubs. Weakened or dead trees are favoured by the females who lay their eggs into the bark.

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The yellow longicorn, Phoracantha recurva, attacks many eucalypts, the habits of its larvae being typical of longicorns. The larva first feeds between the bark and the wood and later tunnels into the sapwood. The emerging adult leaves the tree through an oval-shaped hole. The fig longicorn, Acalolepta vastator, attacks many trees including native figs and wisteria.

Typical damage to a eucalypt by the bullseye borer, a longicorn beetle whose larva bores deeply into wood. Tryphocaria acanthocera - Cerambycidae Coleoptera - scar: 150 mm

A typical legless longicorn larva which feeds under the bark of trees, often ringbarking them. Cerambycidae - Coleoptera - 45 mm white

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The powderpost beetle is a pest of dry sawn timber attacking only the outer sapwood. Many woods are attacked but not pines. Lyctus brunneus - Lyctinae-Bostrichidae Coleoptera - 4 mm/brown Family Curculionidae Weevils, Bark Beetles, Ambrosia Beetles Small to large, mostly dull coloured; very hard, often scaled; head usually extended as a snout (the rostrum) with mouthparts at the end; antennae elbowed and clubbed, on rostrum in front of eyes; larvae C-shaped, soft, legless. This is an enormous family. The typical weevil can be recognised by its hard body and long snout with elbowed antennae. Nearly all the larvae stay concealed in the soil or within their food which may be wood, grain, plant tissue, seeds etc. Adults of the dicky rice weevil, Maleuterpes spinipes, damage fruit and young foliage of citrus. Eggs are laid in the ground and the larvae live in the soil eating the roots but do not do much damage. There are many species whose larvae live in the wood of eucalypts. Many of the tree-damaging weevils attack dead or dying trees. However, the cypress bark weevil, Aesiotes leucurus, attacks live ornamental cypress and occasionally radiata pine. The beetle is dark grey with the elytra white-tipped. The larvae feed in the sapwood and then construct pupal chambers padded with strips of wood. The introduced grain and rice weevils, Sitophilus spp. are important pests. The beetles are small (3 to 5 mm) and brown to nearly black. The larva and pupa stay wholly within the grain. The Subfamilies Scolytinae and Platypodinae are made up of small beetles known as bark beetles, shothole borers or pinhole borers. They attack mostly dying or freshly dead trees, occasionally living trees. All of the platypodines and some scolytines are ambrosia beetles. They tunnel deeply into the wood and adults and larvae feed on the fungi which they grow in the tunnels. Other scolytines feed on the inner back and sapwood. The fig bark beetle, Aricerus eichhoffi (Scolytinae), damages native and cultivated figs. The larvae tunnel in the terminal shoots.

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Weevils are usually hard and have a long proboscis (snout) at the end of which are the chewing mouthparts. The antennae are elbowed. Curculionidae - Coleoptera - 20 mm/mottled grey

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41 The diamond beetle. The legless larvae are found in the bark and wood of wattles. Chrysolopus spectabilis Curculionidae Coleoptera - 25 mm

42 A predatory lacewing larva. This species occurs on foliage. Note the prominent mandibles. Nymphidae - Neuroptera - 4 mm

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43 A lacewing, predatory in both larval and adult stages, often enters houses on summer nights. Chrysopa sp. - Chrysopidae - Neuroptera - 22 mm

44 A tiger beetle. It is predatory on other insects, moves quickly and its larvae live in the soil. Megacephala australis - Carabidae - Coleoptera - 30 mm

45 The transverse ladybird beetle feeds on scale insects. Both the larvae and beetles are predatory and important in controlling the scale. Coccinella transversalis - Coccinellidae file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_55.html[09/13/2010 09:14:44 ...]

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Coleoptera - 4 mm

46 Damage by Christmas beetles. Defoliation of roadside trees often occurs in mid summer. Scarabaeidae - Coleoptera

47 This jewel beetle feeds on Banksia leaves. Jewel beetles are beautifully coloured, often with a metallic sheen. The larvae feed under the bark of trees. Cyria imperials - Buprestidae Coleoptera - 40 mm

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48 Spider beetles are pests of grain and grain products and they are often found inside houses. Mezium sp. - Ptinidae - Coleoptera - 3 mm

49 The pittosporum longicorn whose larvae kill branches of pittosporum by boring into the stems. Strongylurus thoracicus - Cerambycidae Coleoptera - 40 mm

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50 The rice weevil is a serious pest of whole grain. The larval and pupal stages are passed within the grain. Note the long snout, typical of weevils. Sitophilus oryzae - Curculionidae Coleoptera - 3 mm

51 The figleaf beetle and its yellowish-green and later black larvae feed on the leaves of native and cultivated fig trees. Poneridia semipullata - Chrysomelidae Coleoptera - 12 mm

52 The common eucalypt longicorn attacks injured and weakened eucalypts. The larva bores in the bark and wood, causing damage. Phoracantha semipunctata - Cerambycidae Coleoptera - 35 mm

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53 Soldier beetles occur abundantly on eucalypt flowers during summer. They feed on other insects, and so do not damage foliage. Chauliognathus lugubris - Cantharidae - Coleoptera - 18 mm

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54 Larva of the twentyeight-spotted ladybird feeding on pumpkin leaves. Epilachna vigintisexpunctata - Coccinellidae - Coleoptera - 7 mm

55 The white-banded clerid and its larvae are predators of wood boring beetles and their larvae. Paratillus carus - Cleridae - Coleoptera - 5 mm

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56 The fiddler beetle. The name is derived from the markings on its back. The beetles are found on flowers and the larvae in rotting wood. Eupoecila australasiae - Scarabaeidae Coleoptera - 18 mm

57 The bean weevil is often found in stored bean seeds. The larval and pupal stages are passed inside the seed. Acanthoscelides obtectus - Bruchidae Coleoptera - 3 mm

58 The lantana leafminer, whose larvae mine inside lantana leaves, were introduced from the Americas for biological control. Octotoma scabripennis - Chrysomelidae - Coleoptera - 6 mm

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59 A stag beetle with prominent mandibles. The larvae feed in rotting wood and soil. Lamprima sp. - Lucanidae - Coleoptera - 30 mm

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60 The larva of a tenebrionid beetle. This species lives in decayed wood. Tenebrionidae - Coleoptera - 40 mm

61 A pine looper caterpillar whose natural food is eucalypts also damages exotic pine forests in Australia. Chlenias sp. - Geometridae - Lepidoptera - 35 mm

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62 An emperor gum moth larva. These caterpillars are often found on eucalypts and are eaten by birds. Opodiphthera eucalypti - Saturniidae Lepidoptera - 75 mm

63 This tailed emperor butterfly whose larvae feed on Albizia sp. has just emerged from the pupal case. Polyura semipronius - Nymphalidae Lepidoptera - 30 mm

64 The green carab beetle, a ground beetle which feeds on other insects and their larvae. It produces an odour and can occur in large numbers. Calosoma schayeri - Carabidae Coleoptera - 30 mm

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65 A citrus butterfly whose larvae feed on many varieties of citrus leaves. Princeps sp. - Papilionidae Lepidoptera - 105 mm across wings

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Family Cleridae Clerid Beetles

The sawtoothed grain beetle ('teeth' on the thorax) and their larvae are pests of stored grain products. Oryzaephilus surinamensis Silvanidae - Coleoptera 3.5 mm/dark brown Small to medium, elongated, variously coloured; body covered with prominent hairs; larvae elongated, often brightly coloured, prothorax hardened, often with a pair of processes at the rear end of the abdomen. Both larvae and adults are active and prey on other insects. They are mostly found in bark and wood where they feed on timber insects. The yellowhorned clerid, Trogodendron fasciculatum, attacks longicorns and jewel beetles and their larvae. The whitebanded clerid, Paratillus carus, often preys on auger and powder post beetles. It is 5 to 7 mm long with a transverse yellow or white band across the elytra. Order Siphonaptera Fleas External parasites of man, animals and birds; generally 1 to 2 mm; flattened from side to side; pale to dark brown; wingless; piercing and sucking mouthparts; two eyes when present. Antennae short; backwardly directed hairs on body and sometimes as a dark comb on the thorax; hindlegs modified for jumping. Complete metamorphosis; larva white, legless with chewing mouthparts; pupa in a silken cocoon.

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compressed to pass between hairs. The mouthparts pierce the skin and suck blood. Ctenocephalides canis - Pulicidae Siphonaptera - 2 mm/brown There are several species of fleas all of which are blood sucking external parasites of animals and birds. Some species of fleas have only one kind of host and others may parasitise a number of different kinds of host. They move about on the surface of the host and are adapted for this in the flattened shape of the body, the backwardly directed hairs and the clinging legs. They move from host to host by jumping. Eggs laid on the host fall to the ground and the larvae that hatch are worm-like and feed on animal debris and bits of dried blood. The silken cocoons are thin and often covered in particles of dust. The human flea, Pulex irritans, is a frequent pest of man breeding in floor coverings, between floor boards and sometimes in sandy soils. For this reason it is a troublesome pest, particularly near beaches. The cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis, and the dog flea, C. canis, though different species may temporarily affect other animal hosts. Fleas may carry disease. The oriental rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, is a vector of bubonic plague from rats to man. Murine typhus, a rodent borne disease is also transmitted to man by rat fleas. The poultry stickfast flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea, is a pest of poultry and many native birds.

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Order Trichoptera Caddis Flies

Caddis fly larvae are aquatic and form an important part of the diet of fresh water fish. Trichoptera - 7 mm/cream to brown Small to medium sized, 2 to 40 mm long; moth-like, slender, brownish; compound eyes prominent; antennae long and thread-like; mouthparts basically mandibulate, but much reduced; two pairs of unequal wings, hairy and held roofwise. Complete metamorphosis; larvae aquatic, mostly in cases, chewing mouthparts, often with gills on the abdomen. Adults frequent lakes and streams, but are not often seen. Most species are active at night. The mouthparts are reduced, but capable of taking in liquids.

Caddis flies are winged, and resemblemoths. Sekddin seen. Trichoptera - 6mm/pale amber Eggs are laid in damp places ,near or in streams. The aquatic larvae are similar to caterpillars and feed on plant tissue or are predacious. Most of them construct cases of silk with debris attached in which they live and then pupate. The shape of the case varies and may be characteristic of a species or genus. Larval cases are found under rocks in streams. Caddis flies, particularly their larvae, are an important component in the diet of many freshwater fish.

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Order Lepidoptera Moths and Butterflies Small to very large; large compound eyes, ocelli one above each eye or absent; antennae long and slender in female moths, mostly feathery in male moths and clubbed in butterflies; mouthparts formed into a sucking tube, the haustellum; two pairs of wings covered in scales, the larger forewing held by a coupling device in flight to the smaller hindwing, a few moths wingless; middle segment of thorax (mesothorax) enlarged, others reduced; thorax and abdomen mostly covered with hairs or scales. Complete metamorphosis; larvae (called caterpillars) with strong head, chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts, three pairs of jointed thoracic legs and often with unsegmented prolegs on abdomen; pupa often in a silken cocoon.

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The order Lepidoptera is divided into four suborders but two of these contain nearly all the Australian species. Suborder Monotrysia and Suborder Ditrysia are separated on details including wing venation, mouthpart and genital structure, which is beyond the scope of this book. There is little scientific reason for the categories of 'moth' and 'butterfly'. However, these terms are widely used. Butterflies include members of families within the superfamilies Papilionoidea and Hesperioidea. Moths have thread-like antennae in the female and mostly feathery antennae in the male whereas butterflies have antennae which are thread-like with a club at the end.

Australian goat moth larvae feed beneath the bark of eucalypts and angophoras. They often occur in groups. Culama caliginosa - Cossidae - Lepidoptera - 45 mm/pink Silk is used by caterpillars for many purposes, such as cocoon construction to protect the pupa, case making for sheltering larvae, and binding leaves. The silk is produced in special glands and comes out via the mouth. Silk is also used by caterpillars to lower themselves for dispersal and escaping predators. The Lepidoptera contains many pests of crops in Australia. It is, of course, the caterpillar stage with its chewing mouthparts that causes the damage. The adult feeds on liquids by extending the tubular haustellum, which when not in use is coiled beneath the head. Some do not feed in the adult stage. Many of these pests are native to Australia, others have been accidently introduced. There are several caterpillars that may strip trees of their leaves though under forest conditions they are generally kept in check by parasites, predators and diseases. One introduced moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, has been of immense benefit in controlling the weed cacti, the prickly pears. Family Cossidae Wood Moths

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Small to very large moths (wing span up to 250 mm), stout body, mostly grey. The larvae eat wood and most species live in the tunnels they bore. They all have a stout prothorax appearing armoured. Larvae of the wattle goat moth, Xyleutes eucalypti, tunnel in large wattle roots while the giant wood moth, Xyleutes cinereus, feeds in the trunks of many eucalypts. The witjuti, the larva of Xyleutes sp., a South Australian species, lives in the soil and feeds externally on the roots of one species of wattle, Acacia ligulata. The Australian goat moth, Culama caliginosa, is a pest of eucalypts and angophoras. Groups of up to ten larvae (larva about 35 mm long) feed beneath the bark.

The giant wood moth whose larvae tunnel in the wood and bark of eucalypts. They may take two to three years to complete their life cycle. Xyleutes affinis - Cossidae - Lepidoptera - 100 mm/grey

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Family Hepialidae Swift Moths Small to very large moths, often beautifully coloured, antennae very short. The adults are fast fliers and do not feed. The caterpillars of some species tunnel in the wood of living trees, usually downwards and feed on the outer tissue around the hole which is covered by web and faeces. The bentwing ghost moth, Zelotypia. stacyi, is an orange-brown moth whose females have a wingspan of 230 mm. Their larvae tunnel in eucalypts. The common splendid ghost moth, Aenetus ligniveren, is pale green and its larvae attack eucalypts and other native trees. The larvae of some species live in vertical tunnels in the soil and feed on roots. They also pupate there. Family Tortricidae This family is better known for its larvae than for its adults. The larvae include those that tie leaves together, feed in forest floor debris, tunnel in insect galls or fruits or make mines in leaves. The introduced pest of apples, the codling moth, Cydia pomonella, the silky oak leafminer, Peraglyphis atimana and the lantana flower caterpillar, Epinotia lantana (introduced to help control lantana) are well known tortricids. Family Psychidae Case Moths.

The casemaking clothes larva protrudes from its case to feed on woollen fabrics (note the faeces). It pulls the case along as it moves and finally pupates inside. The case on the left contains a pupa. Tinea pellionella - Tineidae - Lepidoptera cases: 6 mm/colour of the fabric The larvae of these moths live in cases made of tough silk ornamented with twigs or leaves. They feed on leaves and carry cases about with them, finally pupating within the case. The moths are seldom seen. The male is winged

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but the female is often wingless and remains inside the case.

The oak leafminer damages oak leaves in summer. Although only recently introduced into Australia it has become well established. Phyllonorycter messaniella Gracillariidae Lepidoptera - mines: 12 mm/brown The leaf case moth, Hyalarcta huebneri, feeds on many hosts including radiata pine, which it may defoliate. The ribbed case moth, Hyalarcta nigrescens, occurs on some eucalypts.

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The leaf case moth is a pest of eucalypts and radiata pine. The larva lives and pupates inside the case. Hyalarcta huebneri - Psychidae - Lepidoptera - case: 70 mm/brown

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Family Tineidae Clothes Moths The moths are small and inconspicuous. The larvae often make cases in which they live and pupate. They feed on a variety of plant materials (including leaves and grain) and animal fibres. The best known species is the introduced casemaking clothes moth, Tinea pellionella, which damages fabrics mostly made of animal fibres. Its small cases of silk and fabric particles are often seen in houses particularly in cupboards used for storing winter clothes. Family Gracillariidae Leaf Blotch Miners The moths are tiny and are not easily identified. The larvae are usually leaf miners that feed within the leaf. Blister type mines are made by the blackbutt leafminer, Acrocercops laciniella, and the wattle leafminer, Acrocercops plebeia (in Queensland silver wattle). The leaves of oak trees in Australia are now commonly attacked by the recently introduced oak leafminer, Phyllonorycter messaniella. Family Pyralidae This family contains moth larvae of widely different feeding habits from stored grain products, dried fruits, tobacco, tip and stem borers of herbaceous and woody plants, and defoliators. The problem of the weed prickly pears was largely overcome by the introduction in the 1920's of the cactoblastis moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, from Central America. The larvae feed within the tissue. The cedar shoot caterpillar, Hypsipyla robusta, attacks the branch tips of red cedar trees deforming their growth. The webbing of food products in domestic kitchens is often due to the larvae of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella. Larvae of the kurrajong leaf-tier, Lygropia clytusalis, are gregarious and live within a mass of webbed leaves. Families Zygaenidae and Bucculatricidae Small moths, often beautifully coloured. The larvae usually live in loose webbing on leaves. The slug-like larvae of the native fig moth, Lactura caminaea, feed exposed on the leaves of figs such as Port Jackson and Moreton Bay. A well-known member of this family is the scribblygum moth, Ogmograptis scribula, which makes the scribbles on some smooth barked gums such as the scribbly gum, Eucalyptus haemastoma. Family Oecophoridae Decay Moths This is a very large family of small moths. The habits and food of the larvae vary greatly. Many feed on dead or living leaves which they web together with silk, and a few species live in the soil and may damage pastures (the pasture tunnel moth). One of the most encountered species is the decay moth larva, Barea consignatella, which feeds on decayed wood in fences, flooring and decking. The caterpillar lives under a web of silk and faeces which may resemble the mud channels of termites. Family Xyloryctidae Fruit-Tree and Twig Borers

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A larva of a fruit-tree borer removed from its tunnel. Cryptophasa sp. - Xyloryctidae Lepidoptera - 35 mm/cream, brown

The fruit-tree borers attack many native trees including Christmas bush. The characteristic clump of silk and faeces has been pulled away to reveal the hole in which the larva lives. Cryptophasa sp. - Xyloryctidae - Lepidoptera There are many species in this family of small to medium sized moths. The larvae feed on the seeds, flowers, leaves or bark of many native and introduced trees and shrubs. The larvae of the fruit-tree borer, Maroga melanostigma, tunnel into the twigs or trunks of many trees such as

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wattles, banksias and fruit trees. It feeds on the bark around the hole, covering its workings with wood and faeces webbed together with silk.

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Family Limacodidae Cup Moths

Larvae of the black slug cup moth are sometimes found in large numbers on the east coast of Australia where they damage eucalypts. Doratifera casta Limacodidae - Lepidoptera 20 mm/black, pale yellow

Moth and cocoons of the painted cup moth often seen on eucalypts. Doratifera oxleyi - Limacodidae - Lepidoptera - cups: 10 mm/grey These moths are small to medium sized and rarely seen. The family is best known from its larvae which are brightly coloured having retractable stinging spines, and from the cocoons which are cup-like. Two species often found on eucalypts are the painted cup moth, Doratifera oxleyi, and the mottled cup moth, Doratifera vulnerans. The larvae eat leaves and may defoliate trees. Family Hesperiidae Skippers file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_64.html[09/13/2010 09:14:48 ...]

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Small to medium sized butterflies whose flight is in small bursts. The larvae are leaf eaters. Family Papilionidae. Large butterflies, often very colourful, some with the hindwing tailed. The larvae feed on a variety of native and introduced plants. They often have soft spines along the body. When disturbed, a fleshy forked structure (the osmeterium) shoots up from behind the head and gives off an offensive odour. The pupa is attached to its support by a silken thread. The large citrus butterfly, Princeps aegeus, and the small citrus butterfly, Eleppone anactus, (larvae black and yellow) are frequently encountered. The beautiful, blue triangle butterfly, Graphium sarpedon choredon, is common, its larvae feeding on the camphor laurel and some native trees. Family Pieridae Whites Butterflies in this family are mostly white on the upper surfaces of the wings, with the undersides often patterned and coloured. The best known is the introduced, cabbage white butterfly, Pieris rapae, whose larvae eat cabbages and related plants. The larvae of Delias spp. (including the imperial white butterfly D. harpalyce) feed on mistletoe. Butterflies of Delias spp. have red and yellow markings on the underside of the wings. The caper white, Belenois java teutonia, is migratory. It is well-known on the coast although its host plant is an inland species. The underside of the wings are thickly veined in black and spots of yellow.

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A typical skipper butterfly, the orange palm dart. The larva feeds on palm trees. Cephrenes augiades sperthias - Hesperiidae - Lepidoptera - 30 mm/brown, orange

Larva of the orange palm dart. Cephrenes augiades sperthias - Hesperiidae - Lepidoptera - 35 mm/pale green

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The cabbagewhite butterfly is often seen in gardens where its larvae feed on plants in the cabbage family. Pieris rapae - Pieridae - Lepidoptera - 30 mm/white and black

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The wanderer butterfly is found in a zone extending from northern Queensland to Victoria. Its larva feeds mainly on introduced cotton bush. Danaus plexippus plexippus - Nymphalidae - Lepidoptera - 105 mm (wingspread)/pale brown, dark brown, white

This is the adult of a native looper caterpillar which now feeds on radiata pine. Most moths in this family have their wings outstretched when at rest. Looper moth - Geometridae Lepidoptera - 22 mm/mottled light and dark grey

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These butterflies are characterised by their undeveloped forelegs. Like many other nymphalids the banded larva of the oleander butterfly, Euploea core corinna, has long fleshy filaments on the upper surface. The wanderer butterfly, Danaus plexippus plexippus, is orange-brown with black veins and white spots. They spend winter in the adult stage in large clusters. Different individuals return to the same site each year. Family Geometridae Loopers, Inchworms This is a very large family whose caterpillars eat many species of plants. The pine loopers Chlenias spp. attack radiata pine. The caterpillars move by looping as they have no legs in the central portion of their bodies. They often resemble twigs in shape, colour and posture. The moths are small to large and usually hold their wings outstretched when at rest. They are often coloured and marked to blend in with their backgrounds. Larvae of the autumn gum moth, Mnesampela privata, are brightly coloured. They attack young blue gum leaves such as Tasmanian blue gum where they shelter in twos and threes between leaves tied with silk.

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Family Anthelidae The moths are rather hairy and some species are very large. The caterpillars are covered with stiff hairs and many species are gregarious particularly during the young stages. The very large caterpillars of the whitestemmed gum moth, Chelepteryx collesi, are often encountered near estuarine waters eating the foliage of eucalypts and angophoras. Pupation occurs in a silken cocoon covered with larval hairs which cause severe skin irritation. Anthela nicothoe is another large species which feeds on some wattles in highland New South Wales. It also attacks radiata pine. Family Saturniidae Emperor Moths Large, stout, hairy moths of striking appearance; 'eye' spots on the wings; antennae of the male feathery and of the female simple; mouthparts small or absent. Caterpillars variously coloured and have soft spines topped with bristles. Pupa enclosed in hard, ovoid cocoon. A common species is the beautiful, emperor gum moth, Opodiphthera eucalypti, which feeds on eucalypts but seldom causes severe defoliation.

Cocoon of the whitestemmed gum moth. The larva pushes the prickly hairs through the silk. The eggs are on the stem. Chelepteryx collesi - Anthelidae Lepidoptera 120 mm/grey

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A male emperor gum moth. The 'eye' spots are a characteristic of the species. Note the feathery antennae. Opodiphthera eucalypti - Saturniidae - Lepidoptera - 100 mm (wingspread)/buff, brown

The larva of the whitestemmed gum moth feeds on eucalypts and angophoras in areas near estuarine waters. Its hairs cause severe irritation. Chelepteryx collesi - Anthelidae - Lepidoptera 110 mm/brown, green

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Family Sphingidae Hawk Moths

Hawk moths have pointed forewings and abdomens and are swift fliers. They hover while feeding on nectar. Cizara ardeniae - Sphingidae - Lepidoptera - 30 mm/brown, orange

The larva of the Australian privet hawk moth which feeds on privet and jasmine. Like other hawk moths its abdomen ends in a pointed horn. Psilogramma menephron menephron - Sphingidae Lepidoptera - 75 mm/green, white, yellow

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Moths large and stout; forewing pointed and much larger than hindwing; wings at rest form a triangle; body cigarshaped and pointed at the rear; caterpillar nearly always with the rear tip of the abdomen extended upwards in the shape of a horn. The moths are very fast fliers. The caterpillars are leaf eaters and pupation takes place in the soil or leaf debris. The green and white caterpillar of the Australian privet hawk moth, Psilogramma menephron menephron, is well known. The moth is grey. Family Lymantriidae Tussock Moths Moths hairy, inconspicuous; male winged, female sometimes flightless with tiny wings; caterpillar very hairy with four obvious tussocks of hairs on the top surface and two tufts of longer hairs projecting forwards at the front; pupa in cocoon of silk and larval hairs. Wattles are the natural food of the painted apple moth, Teia anartoides, but they attack many garden plants. The larvae are similar to those of the painted pine moth, Orgyia australis. Larvae of the white cedar moth, Leptocneria reducta, are very hairy, the hairs causing considerable skin irritation. They have a processional habit, feed at night and shelter during the day. Hairs of the mistletoe browntail moth, Euproctis edwardsii also cause skin irritation.

Larva of the mistletoe browntail moth which feeds on mistletoe. The hairs cause intense irritation to humans. Euproctis edwardsii - Lymantriidae - Lepidoptera 45 mm/brown and banded

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White cedar moth caterpillars eat the leaves of white cedar trees. The caterpillars defoliate trees and leave in a procession to a fresh tree. The hairs cause skin irritation. Leptocneria reducta - Lymantriidae - Lepidoptera - 45 mm/brown Family Nolidae The moths are small and inconspicuous; larvae characteristic and very hairy. Larvae of the gumleaf skeletonizer moth, Uraba lugens, feed on eucalypts and at times cause extensive defoliation of river red gums along the Murray Valley. The larval head capsules are retained and stacked one on the other until pupation, which occurs in hair-covered cocoons. The hairs are extremely irritating. Family Noctuidae Cutworms, Armyworms. The moths are grey coloured with dark and light areas on the forewings. They are active at night and are attracted to lights. The larvae are mostly smooth and cylindrical and when disturbed they curl up, a few species have a looping movement. This is a very large family containing serious pests of a wide range of crops. The bogong moth, Agrotis infusa, is a brown to black colour and congregates in large numbers in the Australian Alps during summer. In winter it disperses to the pastures of inland New South Wales and Queensland. The larvae are typical cutworms, attacking plants at ground level. They feed at night and shelter during the day. Armyworms feed in the same manner as cutworms but belong to species which at certain times occur in large numbers and move in a front leaving bare pasture behind. The corn earworm, Helicoverpa armiger, and the native budworm, Helicoverpa punctiger, are serious pests of cotton, attacking the cotton boll. They also attack tomatoes, lucerne and maize. Family Agaristidae

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The grapevine moth caterpillar is a defoliator of grape vines. Phalaenoides glycinae - Agaristidae - Lepidoptera 32 mm/cream, blue and red Both the moths and larvae of this family are often colourful. Larvae of the common grapevine moth, Phalaenoides glycinae, eat the leaves and young fruit of grapevines and also attack virginia creeper. Family Thaumetopoeidae This is most frequently seen as the large bags of the bag shelter moth, (processionary caterpillar), Ochrogaster lunifer, seen in western New South Wales on Acacia pendula. The larvae live gregariously within the bag made of leaves webbed together. As with most hairy caterpillars the hairs of these larvae irritate the skin.

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Order Diptera Flies, Mosquitoes Mostly small to medium sized (up to 50 mm long); one pair of wings (forewings), hindwings reduced to club-like halteres; head large and moveable; compound eyes often very large; antennae mostly small; mouthparts sucking or piercing and sucking; middle segment of thorax (mesothorax) enlarged, prothorax and metathorax small; tarsi of all legs generally five segmented. Complete metamorphosis; Complete larvae mostly legless (maggots), head usually inconspicuous, chewing mouthparts or hooks; pupa often within a hardened case (puparium).

The order Diptera is divided into two suborders. The features used to separate the suborders, which include details of wing venation and mouthparts will not be given here. Suborder Nematocera Slender body; long legs; antennae of many segments and relatively long; larvae with well-developed head in moist or aquatic environments, some in galls in plants. Suborder Brachycera Robust; antennae very variable, short usually only three segments (arista present or absent); larvae with hidden or small head, often living in or on he soil, rotting vegetation or animal material and some are predacious or parasitic. The Diptera is a large order with many thousands of species. All feed on liquids either in the free form or by piercing plant or animal tissue. Solid food may be eaten by first dissolving it in saliva and then sucking up the resulting liquid. This is the method by which a housefly feeds on foods such as sugar. Flies generally lay eggs but in some species the eggs hatch within the female so that larvae are laid. Most larvae live in damp places and many swim about within their liquid food source. Some larvae, like those of mosquitoes, are aquatic while others are parasitic and live on or in their hosts. The pupae of many flies lie within a hard, protective puparium.

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The best known flies are those which affect man and his animals. The housefly is a well known carrier of disease, particularly some types of diarrhoea. In other countries blood sucking flies are vectors of many diseases including malaria, elephantiasis and sleeping sickness as well as several diseases of animals and birds. In Australia, blowfly strike of sheep is a serious problem. However, among the less well known flies are those which pollinate flowers, decompose organic matter or eat other insects. Suborder Nematocera Family Tipulidae Crane Flies or Daddy-Longlegs Slender body; long thin fragile legs; antennae moderately long. Crane flies do not bite although they resemble very large mosquitoes. They rest in damp sheltered places, bobbing gently on their long legs. Most larvae feed on moist, decaying vegetation. Family Psychodidae Moth Flies Small; hairy body and wings; wings broad and coming to a point. These flies resemble small moths. The adults, which are short-lived and generally do not feed, are found in moist places. The larvae live in and feed on moist organic matter. One species is commonly seen resting on bathroom walls, its larvae living in sewers. Species that bite are rare in Australia and are not associated with disease. However, in other countries they are called sand flies and carry diseases such as kala-azar. Family Chironomidae Midges or Plumed Gnats. Small to minute; resemble mosquitoes; male with very feathery antennae. These flies do not bite. They often occur in the evening in large numbers near still water. The larvae are aquatic, living in or on debris, either free or in the loose tubes which they construct. Tube dwelling larvae of Chironomus spp. are known as bloodworms because their blood is red due to the presence of haemoglobin.

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Crane flies or daddy-long-legs are often found in forests. If handled they drop their long legs. They do not bite. Tipulidae - Diptera - 25 mm/amber, brown

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Family Ceratopogonidae Sand Flies, Biting Midges

Small to minute; piercing and sucking mouthparts. Most are blood sucking and feed on man, other animals and insects. Their bite is painful and they occur in large numbers in some seaside areas. The larvae live in wet situations, often saline or brackish. Family Culicidae Mosquitoes Scales along wing veins and rear margins of wings; mouthparts long, sharp proboscis; antennae of female inconspicuous while that of the male is feathery. Female mosquitoes suck blood from their hosts but the males feed on plant sap or nectar. There are over 200 species in Australia, the best known attacking man although others attack animals, birds, reptiles and frogs. Larvae and pupae swim actively. Most larvae feed on plant and animal particles though some are predacious. Female mosquitoes carry many serious diseases. For example, Anopheles spp. carry malaria, Aedes aegypti carry dengue fever and Culex spp. carry elephantiasis. In other countries these and other mosquito-borne diseases (including yellow fever) are a serious health problem. Myxamatosis of rabbits and heartworm of dogs are also spread by mosquitoes. Family Bibionidae Small to moderate; stout body; brown or smokey wings. Bibio imitator, garden maggot, is common around flowers in summer. The female has a reddish brown thorax and orange abdomen while the male is black. Its larvae feed on decaying vegetation in moist soil. Family Cecidomyiidae Gall Midges

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These round galls on a long-leaved wattle have been caused by larvae of the wattle gall fly. Cecidomyia acaciae-longifolia Cecidomyiidae - Diptera - galls: 8 mm/green The adults are small to minute and active fliers. The larvae mostly form galls in plants, shrubs or trees. Harmomyia omalanthi forms red galls on the midribs of eucalyptus leaves. Family Mycetophilidae Fungus Gnats Small, delicate gnats found in moist, shady locations. The larvae usually live amongst fungi. The most interesting larvae are the predatory glow-worms, Arachnocampa spp. They make sticky threads that hang down from the ceilings of caves and overhanging rocks. The light they produce glows from the tip of the abdomen and attracts their prey which are then caught in the threads. In New South Wales they can be seen at Bundanoon and in the disused railway tunnel above Newnes.

A march fly. These are blood suckers of man and animals. They produce a stinging sensation but do not transmit diseases. Tabanidae - Diptera - 18 mm/light to dark grey

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Suborder Brachycera Family Tabanidae March Flies (Horse Flies)

A larva (maggot) of a soldier fly. These larvae feed on plant roots. Some are pests. Stratiomyidae - Diptera 16 mm/dark brown Medium to large; wide head, large eyes, strong proboscis. A few species feed on flowers although most are blood suckers, some of which are pests of man, cattle and horses, particularly in swampy areas. When brushed away the fly will persist. The bite is painful. The larvae live in water or damp places and eat other insects. Family Stratiomyidae Soldier Flies

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The garden soldier fly which is often encountered on windows of houses or in gardens. It does not bite. The larvae live in the soil. Exaireta spinigera - Stratiomyidae Diptera - 25 mm/black Elongated body; abdomen flattened; antennae of three segments with the last one being long and thin. These flies do not bite. They frequent flowers and the best known is Exaireta spinigera often seen indoors on windows. It is glossy black with dark patches on the wings and banded legs. The larvae are flattened with an obvious head and live in damp soil and rotting vegetation. Family Asilidae Robber Flies.

A predatory robber fly which has strong piercing and sucking mouthparts. It can catch insects in mid-flight. Neoaratus sp. - Asilidae - Diptera - 35 mm/brown Most species moderate to large; eyes prominent; legs strong; thorax stout; abdomen long and tapering; often very bristly. The adults are predatory, capturing other insects in flight. The prey is held while the body juices are sucked up by the hard proboscis. The creamy cylindrical larvae live in damp soil and organic matter and many are predacious.

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Family Bombyliidae Bee Flies

A bee fly which has a hairy body and long wings. Hovers and darts erratically. Bombyliidae - Diptera - 20 mm/dark brown Small to large; body stout and hairy; wings held partially outstretched at rest. Some resemble bees in both appearance and flight while other species resemble wasps. They have no sting. The larvae are parasitic on other insects. Family Syrphidae Hover Flies Medium sized flies characterised by their habit of hovering over flowers and their darting flight. The abdomen is often banded with yellow. Some species may be mistaken for bees, others resemble wasps. Most larvae live in stagnant, polluted water including the rat-tailed larvae, Eristalis spp., which are maggots with long tails for obtaining air at the surface. Some larvae are free living and important predators of aphids and similar insects. Pupa is in a capsule-like puparium. Family Tephritidae Fruit Flies Small colourful flies; wings mostly banded or spotted; head distinct from thorax; abdomen tapering to a point; female with prominent ovipositor. The larvae of many of these flies feed within ripening fruit. The Queensland fruit fly, Dacus tryoni, is a serious pest of orchards in eastern Australia. The female lays her eggs in, or stings, the fruit. As the maggots develop the fruit becomes soft and decayed. When fully fed the maggot moves into the soil and pupates in a pale brown puparium. The larvae of some species form galls in plants. Family Drosophilidae Vinegar Flies, Ferment Flies These are small, yellow or brown flies. Their larvae live in decaying fruit. Pupa is in a puparium. They have been widely used for genetic studies into the fundamental mechanisms of heredity. Family Calliphoridae Blowflies, Blue Bottles Antennae feathery; coloured brown or metallic blues and greens.

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The adults feed on nectar and putrid liquids. Some lay eggs, others deposit larvae. The pupa is in a puparium. The larvae feed on dead animals, but some are pests of living sheep causing the open wounds of blowfly strike. The Australian sheep blowfly, Lucilia cuprina, and a small number of other species cause primary strike of sheep while most species are secondary, only attacking when strike is already established.

A brown blowfly which is often encountered in houses during summer. The larvae feed on meat. Calliphora sp. - Calliphoridae - Diptera 10 mm/brown

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66 A cup moth larva, armed with rosettes of stinging spines, which defoliates gum trees. Doratifera sp. - Limacodidae - Lepidoptera - 25 mm

67 A painted apple moth larva (a tussock moth) which is often seen in the garden feeding on many different plants. Teia anartoides - Lymantriidae Lepidoptera - 35 mm

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68 Citrus butterfly larva which can defoliate several species of citrus trees. Princeps sp. - Papilionidae - Lepidoptera - 40 mm

69 Cactoblastis larvae in a segment of prickly pear. This insect saved many parts of Australia from colonisation by the prickly pears in the early part of this century. Cactoblastis cactorum - Pyralidae Lepidoptera - 30 mm

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Wingless female of the painted apple moth (the male has wings). She is seen here just after emergence from the pupal case and cocoon and has laid some eggs. Teia anartoides - Lymantriidae - Lepidoptera - 25 mm

71 Dayflying moths are often seen along the east coast of Australia. The larvae are black and hairy feed on foliage. Amata sp. - Arctiidae - Lepidoptera - 20 mm

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72 The gumleaf skeletonizer moth larva. It forms a crown of its previously shed head capsules. Uraba lugens - Nolidae - Lepidoptera - 30 mm

73 The larva of the whitestemmed gum moth is often seen in summer on gum trees near estuarine waters. The body hairs cause irritation to humans. Chelepteryx collesi - Anthelidae - Lepidoptera - 110 mm

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74 The larva of the gumleaf skeletonizer moth has long body hairs which cause severe irritation when they touch human skin.

75 An egg mass of the painted cup moth. The body hairs of the moth are used to cover and protect the mass of eggs. Doratifera oxleyi - Limacodidae Lepidoptera - egg mass: 4 mm

76 A larva of the macadamia cup moth feeding on hakeas. Mecytha fasciata - Limacodidae - Lepidoptera - 15 mm

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77 The grapevine moth is often found around grape vines in summer. The larvae defoliate the vines. Phalaenoides glycinae - Agaristidae - Lepidoptera - 30 mm

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78 A hover fly which is often found near flowers. Syrphidae - Diptera - 12 mm

79 A gall formed on the terminal shoot of a crofton weed gall fly. Note the small 'windows' of thin tissue from which the files emerge. Procecidochares utilis - Tephritidae - Diptera galls 30 mm × 14 mm

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80 Galls of crofton weed opened to show the fly pupae inside. The fly was introduced to control this weed. Procecidochares utilis - Tephritidae Diptera - Adult 6 mm

81 Round pits formed by a tiny leaf mining fly which attacks pittosporum. Few leaves escape attack, but the tree remains vigorous. Phytoliriomyza pittosporphylli - Agromyzidae Diptera - adult 3 mm

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82 The Queensland fruit fly atttacks many fruits. It is shown here 'stinging' a lemon The larvae live within the fruit. Dacus tryoni - Tephritidae - Diptera - 7 mm

83 A maggot-like hover fly larva (on the right) feeding on fig psyllids. Syrphidae - Diptera - 8 mm

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84 The harmless soldier fly is often seen indoors on windows. Their larvae live in moist soil. Stratiomyidae - Diptera - 20 mm

85 Larva of the teatree sawfly has a pointed abdomen. It eats leaves and then pupates in the bark of surrounding trees. Pterygophorus sp. - Pergidae - Hymenoptera - 25 mm

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86 Robber flies are predatory on other insects. This species with its orange and brown stripes, resembles a wasp. Asilidae - Diptera - 25 mm

87 A sirex wasp male. An insect accidentally introduced into Australia from New Zealand, now killing pines in plantations in Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales. Sirex noctilio - Siricidae - Hymenoptera - 25 mm

88 A sirex wasp female. The female lays her eggs in the wood of pine trees. A fungus accompanies them and this kills the tree by blocking the water conduction system. Sirex noctilio - Siricidae - Hymenoptera - 25 mm

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89 Soldiers and workers of the nocturnal sugar ant. Like other ants they live in a social group comprising special castes for different tasks. Camponotus consobrinus - Formicidae - Hymenoptera - 12 mm

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Family Muscidae House Fly, Stable Fly

The size and habits of the many flies in this family vary widely. The most well known is the introduced house fly, Musca domestica, which carries many diseases including typhoid and dysentery. Their larvae or maggots live in decaying refuse and manure. The pupa is enclosed in a puparium. The bush fly, Musca vetustissima, is a constant nuisance to people in the bush during summer settling persistently on backs and faces. The stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, looks like a large house fly but has a strong proboscis with which it bites horses, cattle and man to suck blood. In Africa blood sucking tsetse flies, (Glossina spp.), carry diseases such as sleeping sickness. Family Sarcophagidae Flesh Flies

Flesh flies have strong bristles, a checkered pattern on the abdomen and a striped thorax.

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Sarcophagidae - Diptera - 9 mm/grey (below right) Most species with distinct longitundinal stripes on the thorax; abdomen appears checkered; antennae feathery but the tip is bare. These flies are often seen in houses and resemble blowflies. The eggs hatch within the female and live maggots are deposited usually on decaying organic matter such as dead animals. The pupa is in a puparium. The larvae of some species are parasitic on other insects. Family Tachinidae Tachinid Flies

A tachinid fly whose larvae are internal parasites of other insects and arachinds. Tachinidae - Diptera - 10 mm/grey, pale grey (below left) Very bristly flies; antennae not feathery. Some species resemble blowflies or flesh flies. However, their larvae are all parasitic, living inside the bodies of insects and other arthropods. The pupa is in a puparium. Eggs or larvae may be deposited, sometimes on the host or directly into it. Some species lay eggs on leaves, which are then eaten by the host. These flies help to control the numbers of other insects such as caterpillars, grasshoppers, beetles and others. Family Hippoboscidae Sheep Ked, Louse, Flies, Wallaby Flies. These flies have a tick- or louse-like appearance and are specialised as blood sucking parasites on the skin of birds, sheep and other animals. The introduced sheep ked may be numerous enough to cause anaemia.

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Order Hymenoptera Sawflies, Wasps, Bees, Ants Small to medium sized; two pairs of membranous wings, or wings absent, fore- and hindwings held together by small hooks, hindwings smaller than forewings, venation often much reduced; chewing (mandibulate) mouthparts, in some the lower lip modified to form a tongue, for example, bees; compound eyes usually large; female generally has a long ovipositor which may be modified for sawing, piercing, stinging etc. Complete metamorphosis. The order is divided into two suborders: Suborder Symphyta

Larva of Symphyta. This sirex wasp larva taken from the wood of a radiata pine tree, shows the characteristic spine on the tip of the abdomen. Sirex noctilio - Siricidae - Hymenoptera - 25 mm/white Body has no waist. Most females have a saw-like egglaying device (ovipositor) for cutting slits in plants into which the eggs are laid. Larvae are caterpillar-like and feed on plant tissue or wood of living trees. Suborder Apocrita

Iarva of Apocrita Body has a distinct waist. The first segment of the abdomen (called the propodeum) is incorporated into the thorax. A narrow region, the petiole, joins this to the remainder of the abdomen called the gaster. Larvae are maggot-like. The habits of this suborder vary greatly. Some are parasites, predators or nectar or pollen gatherers. Some are organised into social communities.

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A typical member of the Suborder Symphyta, a sawfly whose larvae feed on the leaves of bottlebrushes. Note that there is no 'waist' between the thorax and the abdomen. Lophyrotoma sp. - Perigidae Hymenoptera - 20 mm/orange, black

A typical wasp of Suborber Apocrita showing the two pairs of wings - the forewings from the mesothorax, the hindwings from the metathorax. Note the distinct waist. Many hymenopterous insects are well known especially those, like some of the bees and ants, which live in large social communities. Less well known are the many species which are parasites of other insects, laying their eggs on or into hosts where the larvae feed and grow. Many of these parasitic wasps are small and inconspicuous but play an important part in controlling the numbers of other insects. The host may be paralysed before the egg is laid. The sting is delivered by the ovipositor at the tip of the abdomen. The sting of some species is painful to humans. Some wasps lay their eggs into plant tissue and as the larvae develop the plant grows abnormally around it forming a gall. Suborder Symphyta file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_81.html[09/13/2010 09:14:55 ...]

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Sawflies, Woodwasps Family Siricidae Woodwasps

Sirex wasps are pests of growing pine trees (Pinus sp.). A fungus is injected by the female wasp into the sapwood of the tree when she lays her eggs. This fungus, not the borer holes, kills the tree. Sirex noctilio - Siricidae Hymenoptera - larva: 25 mm/cream The sirex wasp, Sirex noctilio, is the only member of this family in Australia. It was accidentally introduced in the 1940s and is now established in Victoria, N.S.W. and Tasmania where it kills Pinus radiata trees. As is characteristic of this family the tip of the abdomen extends into a horn (short in male, long in female). The ovipositor of the female is strong and used for boring into trees. The larvae are almost legless with a pointed spine at the end of the abdomen. Eggs are laid into the sapwood together with fungal spores. The fungus is necessary for larval development but damages the wood. In an effort to control this wasp biologically, insect and nematode parasites have been introduced from overseas. Family Tenthredinidae Sawflies This small family includes the introduced pest, the pear and cherry slug, Caliroa cerasi, whose larvae feed on the surface of leaves and pupate in the soil. The larvae are dark and slimy.

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Family Pergidae Sawflies

Steelblue sawfly larvae are often seen in clusters on eucalypts which they defoliate. When disturbed they flick their abdomens. Perga sp. - Pergidae - Hymenoptera - 35 mm/dark brown This family of small to medium sized sawflies contains many species whose larvae eat the foliage of native trees. Eggs are laid by the female using the saw-like ovipositor, which cuts slits into the plant. The larvae of the steelblue sawfly, Perga dorsalis, cluster during the day on eucalypts, dispersing at night to feed on the leaves. The larvae, which are black with white bristles, flick their abdomens when disturbed. They pupate in the soil. Larvae of the callistemon sawfly, Lophyrotoma sp. are well camouflaged as they lie along the stems of the bottlebrushes on which they feed. The leafblister sawfly, Phylacteophaga froggatti lays its eggs in the leaves of eucalypts and the larvae mine between the leaf surfaces and pupate there. Suborder Apocrita Wasps, Bees, Ants Family Ichneumonidae. Mostly medium sized, slender, often brightly coloured; antennae long, of 16 or more segments; characteristic wing venation, wings sometimes coloured with blues or browns. The many members of this family are all parasites of the young stages of other insects. In most species the female,

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using her long ovipositor, lays an egg into the body of the host and the larva feeds within the host. Other ichneumonids lay their eggs on the surface of the host and the larva either feeds externally or burrows in. A common species is the orchid dupe, Lissopimpla excelsa, which has dark wings and white spots along the abdomen. The male 'mates' with orchid flowers mistaking their scent for that of the female wasp. The female lays her eggs into moth larvae. Megarhyssa nortoni and Rhyssa persuarsoria were introduced for the control of the sirex wasp. They now occur extensively in Victoria and New South Wales.

The male of the orchid dupe, an ichneumonid wasp. Lissopimpla excelsa - Ichneumonidae Hymenoptera - 20 mm/white, red, dark brown

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Family Braconidae

Braconid wasp parasites near their pupal cases which were found alongside a dead moth larva. Braconidae - Hymenoptera - 4 mm dark brown The many wasps in this family resemble ichneumonids but differ in wing venation and generally are dark coloured. They are parasites of other insects, often caterpillars or the larvae of wood boring beetles. Species of Apanteles are common, including the cabbage white butterfly parasite, Apanteles glomeratus. Many eggs are laid into the caterpillar and when fully fed the parasitic larvae leave the host and make silken cocoons near its remains. Family Evaniidae Hatchet Wasps Their name is derived from the hatchet shape of the adult wasp's abdomen with its 'handle' attached near the top of the thorax. The abdomen is flattened from the sides. These wasps are usually black, sometimes with yellow antennae. Their larvae are parasitic, living within the egg capsules of cockroaches. Family Chalcididae

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Family Eurytomidae The wasps in this family are mostly gall formers or parasites of other insects. Most species of Eurytoma form galls on eucalypts, wattles or other native trees. The citrus gall wasp, Bruchophagus fellis is a native species which originally bred in native citrus trees but is now a pest of cultivated citrus. The wasp is black and about 2.5 mm long. Eggs are laid into young stems, particularly of lemons, and development of the larvae within results in the abnormal growth of the tissue around it, known as a gall.

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Family Cleptidae These tiny wasps are egg parasites of stick insects (Phasmatodea) The female, which often has undeveloped wings searches in the forest litter for stick insect eggs into which she lays her own eggs. Family Pompilidae Spider Wasps Medium to large; body shiny, smooth, often black or black and orange; legs long, prominent spurs on the tibiae; wings held upright at rest. These are all very active wasps. They search for spiders which they sting and paralyse. Most species dig a burrow in sand to which they transport one or more paralysed spiders. An egg is laid on or near the spider and the developing larva feeds on the spider and then pupates in a silken cocoon. Family Scoliidae Flower Wasps Medium to large, stout bodied, very hairy, often metallic blues; male and female winged. These wasps are found on flowers. The female is stouter than the male and lays her eggs on scarab larvae (curl grubs, Scarabaeidae. Col.) in the soil. The wasp larva then feeds on the scarab. Family Tiphiidae Flower Wasps In most species the male is winged and the female is wingless (previously in Thynnidae). Both sexes feed mainly on nectar and their larvae are parasitic on scarab larvae and some other ground dwelling insects. The wingless female has legs modified for burrowing in the soil to locate the host larvae. She then paralyses and lays her egg onto it. In most species the male flies carrying the female to food. Mating also occurs in flight. This is not the case with Diamma sp., the female of which is large and a bright metallic blue. For this reason she is known as the blue ant. Her sting can be very painful. Family Mutillidae Velvet Ants. The females of this family are all wingless and the males winged. All have hard bodies and are very hairy. The females are similar to ants and lay their eggs on the young stages of some wasps and bees. The males carry the females in flight while mating. Family Vespidae Paper Nest Wasps Social wasps with female, male and worker castes; construct papery nests; wings folded longitudinally over the body at rest; two spurs on the tibia of each midleg. The paper nest is characteristic of these wasps and may be of reasonable size attached to foliage or under eaves of a house by a small but strong stalk. The wasps prey on caterpillars, which are partly broken down before being given to the larvae inside the hexagonal papery cells. They will sting if disturbed. Polistes spp. are the most commonly encountered wasps of this family. Family Vespidae European Wasps

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European Wasp - Vespula germanica This imported pest, Vespula germanica, is now established in Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales and will spread into other States of Australia in time. The workers are sterile females about 1215 mm long with yellow bands on a black body. They are fast fliers, with clear wings that fold longitudinally over their bodies. The queens and males are larger, about 20 mm long, the queen having a stout abdomen and the male a long thin abdomen.

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The nest varies in size from about 15 cm to 5 metres and contains up to 4 million cells and over 100,000 workers. Usually the nest or colony lasts 1 year, but in warmer climates it will last much longer and extend through winter. In winter the males die while the fertilized females hibernate and build other nests the following year. The new queen lays eggs in cells of the nest and after some weeks in the larval stage they pupate and soon emerge as adults. The European wasp may sting several times when disturbed which can be very painful. In New Zealand it attacks weak hives of honey bees causing losses. It has some value by being predatory on some insects and their larvae. Family Sphecidae This is a large family of mostly medium to large, solitary wasps. They hunt a wide range of insects or spiders (though any one species preys on a restricted range) which they paralyse and use to feed the larval wasps. The adults generally feed on nectar or other sweet fluids. Nests for the developing larvae are dug in sandy soil and are made of mud (the mud daubers) or may be in holes in wood. The most commonly encountered species is Sceliphron laetum, which is a large black and yellow wasp with a very long and slender waist. It may be seen in and around houses where it constructs clay nests on walls, rafters or under eaves. Its larvae are fed with paralysed spiders. The Bees Bees are generally thought of as social insects living in large colonies with different castes or forms having welldefined functions. Some bees do live in this manner, however, most bees are solitary, with the female making her own nest and providing food for her larvae. Solitary bees may live together, sometimes in large numbers, but they function as individuals. They nest in places such as burrows in the soil, trees, plant stems or logs. Bees gather nectar as a source of sugar, and pollen for their protein. Many bees have a long tongue for collecting nectar. Pollen is collected on special hairs usually on the hindlegs or the underside of the abdomen. Each larva occupies a cell in the nest and is supplied with food, usually bee-bread, a mixture of pollen and honey (regurgitated nectar). The cuckoo bees lay their eggs in the nests of other bees. Their larvae develop at the expense of the original inhabitant. Family Anthophoridae Mortar Bees, Carpenter Bees

A 'cuckoo' bee which lays its eggs in the nests of other bees such as Amegilla spp. Thyreus lugubris Anthophoridae Hymenoptera - 14 mm/black and white

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This family contains many solitary bees, most of which are large and heavily haired, although some species are only lightly haired. Amegilla spp. nest in burrows in the soil but this habit has been extended to include the mortar between bricks. Large amounts of mortar may be raked out. The carpenter bees make their burrows in wood or the stems of plants and shrubs.

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Family Apidae Honey Bees, Native Bees This family contains native bees together with the introduced, well known and commercially exploited honey bee, Apis mellifera. This species can be distinguished from native Australian bees by its hairy eyes. The Apidae are social bees. Each nest contains a queen (with long abdomen) which lays eggs, workers (which are sterile females) who build the nest and tend the larvae, and males (or drones). The native species are all Trigona spp. and nest in hollow trees. Their honey is stored in large quantities separate from the cells containing larvae. They are small, black or brown and do not sting. Family Megachilidae Leafcutting Bees These are solitary bees, some of which cut pieces from leaves and use them to construct their nests. The nests are made in burrows in soil or in existing holes in materials such as wood. Family Formicidae Ants

Ants have a distinctive appearance. The feature which separates them from other Hymenoptera is the characteristic waist region, often called the pedicel. It is made up of one or two hump-shaped segments, which are the second and third segments of the true abdomen (the first being, as in other Hymenoptera, the propodeum which is closely applied to the thorax). All ants live in social communities with three castes of individuals: 1. the queen a fertile female who lays all the eggs; winged at first but loses wings after mating. There may be one or more in a nest. 2. the workers wingless, sterile females that build the nest and tend the queen, the larvae and the pupae. Workers are sometimes differentiated into workers and soldiers (for defence of the colony). Soldiers are larger, with disproportionately larger heads and mandibles than other workers. 3. the males

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winged, fertilise females. The nests of most ants are built underground but other localities include trees, logs and wall cavities. A colony often contains several hundred individuals but this number can vary from a few to many thousands. Typically, at a time of year particular to the species a large number of males and queens are produced and these fly off and mate. Many are eaten by predators such as lizards and birds. A successful queen starts a new colony in a cavity in the soil. The first few eggs produce workers which soon take over the role of nest building and caring for other young. Larvae are legless and fed by the workers. When fully fed larvae of many species, spin a cocoon in which to pupate. Cocoons are often seen being carried by workers. Ants feed on a variety of substances including dead animal matter, other insects, seeds, fungi, nectar and honey dew produced by scales and aphids. In exchange for the honey dew the ants protect the scales or aphids from attackers. When a foraging ant finds a food source it returns to the nest leaving a trail of pheromones which are chemicals produced by one individual which stimulate another individual. The resulting processionary behaviour of ants is well known. The larvae are fed on small pieces of food or on regurgitated liquids.

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Among the well known stinging ants are the bulldog ants and jumper ants, Myrmecia spp. Bulldog ants are large (25 mm) and black with red or yellow areas. They will fiercely defend their nest and have both strong mandibles with which to bite and a painful sting. They occur in natural bushland but are not often found in gardens. The jumper ants are more slender and smaller (about 12 mm) and commonly black and yellow. They make moundshaped nests and when disturbed several at a time will attack in short jumping movements. A common species is the sugar ant, Camponotus consobrinus, which is yellow and black and about 12 mm long. It has no sting and feeds on sweet substances. It often enters houses. The meat ants, Iridomyrmex spp., build large, gravel-covered mounds. They feed mostly on honey dew. Several species of small black or brown ants may be a nuisance in houses. The Argentine ant, Linepithema humile, was accidentally introduced into Australia. It feeds on a wide range of materials and can be a major household pest. A campaign has been mounted to eradicate this ant. It is brown, about 3 mm long, travels in well-defined trails and gives no formic acid odour when crushed. Other species of ants do not occur where the Argentine ant is present.

The jumper ant is quite common and can inflict a painful sting. Myrmecia nigrocincta - Formicidae - Hymenoptera 24 mm orange, dark brown

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Spiders and Some Other Arthropods. Class Arachnida Spiders, Ticks, Mites, Scorpions Two body segments: the cephalothorax (never a separate head and thorax) and the abdomen; cephalothorax has one pair of chelicerae, one pair of palps (leg-like) and four pairs of legs, no antennae; abdomen can be segmented or unsegmented. Order Araneida Spiders Arachnids with a waist between the cephalothorax and abdomen; respiration by a combination of book lungs and tracheae; spinnerets at the rear end of the abdomen for web production; fangs; usually six or eight single lens eyes. Female spiders are larger than males, particularly in species that construct orb webs. The males do not spin extensive webs, but usually inhabit those of the female. The palps have a sensory function in both sexes but are enlarged in the male, for it is this structure which is used to transfer sperm to the female genitals. The book lungs are situated on the under side of the abdomen and look like leaves of a book. The eggs are laid in a sac, varying greatly in size and shape. They usually contain many eggs, hundreds in some species. The hatched spiderlings (which resemble the adult but are much smaller) may spend their first growth period within the sac. After this they disperse, construct their webs, feed and grow by shedding their skins in the same way as other arthropods. To grow from egg to adult usually takes 6 to 12 months but some of the ground dwelling spiders may take up to four years to reach sexual maturity. Most species of spiders are active at night (nocturnal). One exception is the orb weaving nephila. The main food of spiders is insects and other arthropods which are caught either directly by ground dwelling spiders or in the webs of web spinners. Cannibalism occurs amongst spiders especially where there is overcrowding. The male is sometimes eaten by the female. Spiders produce venom that is used in defence or to kill or immobilise their prey. The venom is injected through hollow fangs and the prey is squeezed by a strong basal section of the fangs (chelicerae). Saliva in the spider's upper lip digests the body contents of its victim which are consumed and the hard outer body is discarded. Spiders are eaten by birds and lizards. Wasps kill and store them for their young. Certain mites are external parasites while some flies are internal parasites of spiders. Spiders are considered here as ground dwellers, orb web builders and other web builders.

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Ground Dwelling Spiders These spiders live in the ground in holes or between stones or debris in the soil. The holes are often lined with web and some have a flap over the top. The spiders come out to search for food mainly at night. 1 The Sydney Funnelweb Spider Atrax Robustus This spider is found in most suburbs of Sydney and even well beyond so that few areas on the coastal fringe are in fact free of possible occurrences. The female lives in a long web funnel which she constructs in loose soil or debris in fairly moist and sheltered places. The mature male is more of a wanderer, especially during January to April, and for this reason may enter houses particularly when his habitat is disturbed. Both sexes are black to red brown though their colour is not a reliable identifying feature. The cephalothorax is shiny. The body length of the female is 30 mm and of the male, 25mm. Both sexes have long spinnerets with the last or terminal segment being longer than any one of the other segments. The male has slightly swollen palps and a large spur on the inner margin of each of the second front pair of legs. The egg sac is white, round, about 20 mm in diameter and contains many eggs. The venom of the Sydney funnelweb spider is extremely toxic to humans, that of the male spider being much more so than that of the female. Deaths recorded to date have been caused by the male. This species is aggressive when disturbed or cornered and is able to inflict multiple strikes. The tree funnelweb spider, Hadronyche cerberea usually lives in trees, is very toxic, but fortunately is not often encountered.

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2 The Sydney Brown Trapdoor Spider Misgolas Rapax This spider is often confused with the Sydney funnelweb. However, compared with the Sydney funnelweb it is generally paler. It is brown to dark brown but may be almost black, particularly dead specimens or those in spirits. The brown trapdoor is also more hairy and its holes are found in more open and drier areas. The body length of the female is 25 to 40 mm. In both sexes the last or terminal segment of the spinnerets is shorter than any one of the other segments. The male has typical boxing-glove-shaped terminal segment of the palps and a small spine on each of the front legs. 3 The Mouse Spider Missulena spp. Because the female of this species is black and has a shiny cephalothorax it is often mistakenly identified as the Sydney funnelweb spider. Unlike the funnelweb, the female mouse spider has very short legs, moves slowly, is not aggressive and lives in open dry areas where its holes are often easily seen. The male of this species has a red cephalothorax, but in others the male is entirely black. The body of the female is 25 mm long and that of the male 10 to 20 mm. In both sexes the spinneretsare short with short terminal segments. The male has slightly swollen palps and there are no spurs on the legs of either the male or female. Its bite is not toxic. 4 The Garden Wolf Spider Geolycosa Godeffroyi This spider is grey with a mottled pattern on the cephalothorax and abdomen. Only when placed in spirits could it be confused with the Sydney funnelweb spider. It uses holes already in the ground and often puts leaves or sticks over the entrance. This species is often found in suburban backyards, but it is not aggressive and uses its speed to escape. Its bite is not toxic although it may be painful.

Sydney funnelweb spider male Body: 2.5 cm Spinnerets: terminal segment longest Palps: not very swollen Legs: second front has a large spur

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Sydney funnelweb spider female Body: 3.5 cm, shiny black Spinnerets: terminal segment longest

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Sydney brown trapdoor spider male Body: 2.5 cm, mostly brown and hairy Spinnerets: longest segment at base Palps: boxing-glove shaped end segment Legs: front pair have a small spine

Sydney brown trapdoor spider female Body: 2.5 cm, mostly brown and hairy Spinnerets: longest segment at base

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Spinnerets: longest segment at base

Mouse spider female Body: 2.5 cm black and shiny Spinnerets: longest segment at base Legs: very short, moves awkwardly

Garden wolf spider male Body: 2.0 cm, grey mottled appearance and very hairy Palps: swollen Legs: long and moves very fast Fangs: not prominent

Garden wolf spider female Body: 2.5 cm, grey, mottled and hairy Legs: long and move very fast Fangs: not prominent

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Garden orb-weaving spider female Body: 3.0 cm The Orb Web Builders These harmless spiders construct symmetrical orb webs between buildings, shrubs and trees to snare flying insects. Two types of web are produced a dry silk to form the guy rope and an adhesive silk for the main orb web. Most build their webs in the evenings, but the nephila spiders, Nephila spp. are active during the day. The orb weavers are very useful and exert some influence on insect populations. The males are seldom seen mainly because they are smaller than the female. Some common orb weaving spiders are: • The garden orb weaving spider Eriophora transmarina • The leaf curling spider Phonognatha graeffei • Saint Andrew's cross spider Argiope keyserlingii Other Web Builders. These spiders which differ from species to species are better known from their appearance or habits rather than their web. They generally construct loose webs or merely line an area under bark or whatever habitat they have chosen. Some of these are well known around the house. 1 The Redback Spider Latrodectus Hasselti

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This spider is found in all states of Australia and is considered to be a form of the American black widow spider, both being of the same species. The female is black and has a red stripe on the abdomen though sometimes the stripe may not be obvious. The body length of the female is a little over 10 mm and that of the male is about 3 mm.

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The female is extremely toxic, but the much smaller male is harmless. This spider is not aggressive. Its loose, untidy webs are built amongst leaves, rubbish, under houses and in unsewered outside toilets. It feeds on insects and other small arthropods and even small lizards. Several egg sacs, each containing about a hundred eggs are suspended in the web. 2 The Black House Spider Badumna Insignis

House spider female Body: 2.0 cm This species usually constructs its web under eaves of houses and around window frames. Its natural habitat is in the bark of trees. It has light and dark bands on its legs. They help to control flies and mosquitoes around the house, but their webs are unsightly. Its bite can be extremely painful, but does not cause death. 3 The Huntsman Spiders Isopeda and Neosparassus spp.

Huntsman spider male Body: 3.0 cm These are large, fierce-looking spiders, sometimes being 100 to 120 mm wide including body and legs. They're easily identified as their two front pairs of legs are longer than the rear two pairs. They live under the bark of trees and are flat. Often they enter houses, particularly during warm and moist weather. They are not aggressive and if provoked to bite no symptoms of toxicity follow.

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4 The Netcasting Spiders Deinopis Subrufa Net-casting spiders are also known as stick spiders because they are similar in appearance and colour to pieces of dry twig. They prepare a net of web which they hold between their two pairs of front legs and open the net to catch prey passing by. 5 The Spider Anglers Ordgarius spp. Spider anglers produce a thread of web on the end of which is a globule of sticky material that catches small flying insects. The prey is then drawn in like a fishing line. The death's head, the hairy imperial, and the magnificent spiders are spider anglers.

Net-casting spider female Body: 3.5 cm

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The Poisonous Spiders The Sydney funnelweb spider and the redback spider are the only two Australian spiders to have caused human deaths. Anyone bitten by either of these two spiders should seek immediate medical attention. Where possible, the spider should be collected so that it can be positively identified. The Sydney Funnelweb Spider The venom of the male spider is much more toxic than that of the female and all recorded deaths, where identification of the spider has been confirmed, have been caused by the male. The spiders are extremely aggressive when disturbed and they may strike repeatedly causing painful bites. However, only a small minority of people bitten develop symptoms that affect the whole body. When this occurs the symptoms develop within about 15 minutes. An antivenene is being developed. Where possible, pressure should be applied to the bite immediately, preferably in the form of a firm bandage (elastic is best). The patient should be kept as quiet as possible and taken to hospital immediately. The Redback Spider The male spider is small and harmless. The female spider, though not aggressive, can inflict a painful bite that may result in the death of the victim. There is an antivenene available and about 240 cases are treated in this way each year. Fatalities are now very rare. First aid treatment should be limited to keeping the patient quiet and warm while medical attention is sought. Tourniquets are not recommended. Symptoms develop relatively slowly. Bites by the two poisonous spiders can be avoided to some extent by noting the following points: · These spiders are active at night so particular attention should be taken to wearing shoes (not thongs) outside at night especially during summer. · Gloves and shoes should be worn when gardening where spiders are likely to occur. Male funnelweb spiders wander about during January to April and may enter houses particularly when their habitat has been disturbed by gardening or after heavy rains. Houses built on concrete slabs are easier for the spiders to enter than those well off the ground. Where there are gaps under doors physical barriers may need to be considered. Funnelweb spiders prefer loose, rocky soil in moist places. Clearing such areas near houses (in winter or spring when the male spiders are not active) reduces the spider population. Red-backs are often found in rubbish in garages, gardens and under houses. Removal of the rubbish will lessen the chance of these spiders breeding. A favourite haunt of redback spiders is in outdoor toilets and many of their bites have been on male genitals at night. · Pest control companies often treat houses and gardens with residual insecticides to control spiders. However, for a few days after treatment there is a danger of disturbed spiders entering the house and insecticide-affected spiders are more likely to bite. Also, after treatment, ground spiders are not usually affected by contacting a treated but dry surface. It is important to weigh the dubious advantages of treatment against the small chance of being bitten.

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90 A honey bee on a flower. Note the tongue-like mouthparts used for feeding. Apis mellifera - Apidae - Hymenoptera - 14 mm

91 Native bees live in banks of soil. They are often seen on flowers, feeding on pollen. Amegilla sp. - Anthophoridae Hymenoptera - 12 mm

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92 A native pollen-gathering bee. It is often called a mortar bee because it burrows between bricks, sometimes causing serious damage to the mortar. Amegilla sp. - Anthophoridae Hymenoptera - 13 mm

93 Leafblister sawfly larvae feeding inside a leaf. The small dark particles are their faeces. This is the view obtained when a leaf is held towards the sun. Phylacteophaga froggatti - Pergidae Hymenoptera - larva: 10 mm

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94 Social, papernest wasps attending and guarding their nest which is usually suspended in tree foliage or under house eaves. Polistes sp. - Vespidae - Hymenoptera - 22 mm

95 Eucalypt leaves damaged by leafblister sawfly. The entire larval and pupal periods are passed inside the leaf. The adults leave the leaf and fly. Pergidae - Hymenoptera

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96 A long-bodied mud dauber wasp which collects spiders, paralyses them and stocks its nest with them as food for the larval wasps. Sceliphron laetum - Sphecidae Hymenoptera - 30 mm

97 Winged male of a flower wasp. It may carry the wingless female into the air where mating occurs. Tiphiidae - Hymenoptera - 25 mm

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98 These hairy lumps are often seen on the undersurface of the leaves of turpentine trees. They are galls formed by a wasp. Epimegastigums sp. - Torymidae Hymenoptera - 1.5 mm

99 The female 'blue-ant' is wingless and lays her eggs on larvae of scarab beetles. She can inflict a painful sting. Diamma bicolor - Tiphiidae - Hymenoptera - 28 mm

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101 The cicada killer attacks cicadas and spiders, paralyses them and stores them in underground tunnels to feed their young. Exeirus lateritius - Sphecidae - Hymenoptera - 35 mm

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Order Acarina Ticks and Mites. Arachnids with a false head; larvae usually have three pairs of legs; nymphs and adults have four pairs of legs. Ticks There are many species of ticks and if in doubt as to the species, specimens should be referred to a specialist in this group of arthropods. The most commonly encountered ticks on the east coast of Australia are the Australian paralysis tick, cattle tick, New Zealand cattle tick and brown dog tick. The life cycle and hosts (animals on which the tick feeds) of ticks varies greatly depending on the species. Some ticks remain on the one host, others require several hosts. The life cycle of the paralysis tick is given as an example of a species which has several different hosts.

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The Australian paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus, causes distress and death of many domestic animals. It can cause sickness and, very rarely, death to humans. It is encountered along the east coast of Australia, particularly from Wollongong to Kempsey in New South Wales. It is native to Australia, its original hosts being bandicoots and other small marsupials. Immature stages are often called seed ticks or grass ticks and the fully engorged adult is often referred to as the blue bottle tick.

Engorged paralysis tick female Body: 1.2 cm The female tick produces up to three thousand eggs. When these hatch the young larval tick climbs any vegetation and becomes attached to a passing animal. When full of blood it falls off and sheds its skin (moults) and then climbs the vegetation again as the nymphal tick. After it has attached itself to another animal and had another blood meal if falls to the ground, sheds its skin and climbs the vegetation once more as the adult tick. The female feeds on blood and may cause death of animals. The male is harmless. Tick affected animals suffer from loss of appetite, lassitude and general malaise followed by limb weakness and paralysis. They should be referred to a veterinary surgeon. Animals continually exposed to ticks develop resistance to poisoning, but this lasts for only 3 to 4 weeks after exposure. The same short term resistance follows administration of the serum used to treat poisoned animals. The most effective prevention of tick poisoning is daily searching of animals and removal of ticks using fine pointed tweezers. The tick should be grasped below the body region towards the skin and removed pulling sideways firmly. The body should not be squeezed. Insecticidal washes and collars may be effective to some extent but should not replace careful searching. Tick - poisoned humans develop headaches, have difficulty focusing the eyes, and are effected by a general malaise followed by limb weakness and paralysis. Medical attention should be sought. Canine tick serum may be given. Fatalities are very rare. The cattle tick, Boophilus microplus, is a serious pest of cattle causing fever and heavy losses. It is not native having been introduced from Indonesia, and occurs in northern Australia. Larvae, nymphs and adults remain on the same animal. The New Zealand cattle tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis, worries many animals and humans, mostly not seriously. It is not native having been introduced from Japan. Each stage attaches to a different animal, mostly cattle and horses. The brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, is often encountered on dogs and cats and other animals in Queensland and northern New South Wales. It has been introduced. Each stage attaches to a different animal.

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Mites

A typical mite The identification of these minute arthropods is usually left to a specialist. Some mites may be identified from their habits and habitats. The European house dust miteDermatophagoides pteronyssinus Minute anthropods that occur in house dust practically all over the world; considered to be a contributing factor in allergic rhinitis and asthma; their detection involves special fine sampling techniques and the use of a microscope.

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Mites are frequent external parasites of spiders often leading to the death of the spider. Here a huntsman spider has mites on the cephalothorax The straw itch mitePyemotes herfsi Often encountered in straw products and grain; an external parasite of many insects, even wood-boring insects which are well hidden inside their food; causes skin irritation to many indoor workers, particularly fair-skinned persons, during January and February on the eastern coast of Australia. When pest control operators are replacing borer infested flooring they are often effected by hay itch mites. The bryobia miteBryobia cristata Coloured red; migrates indoors from surrounding vegetation, usually in spring. Red spider mitesTetranychus spp. Several species; pests of crops, vegetables, flowers, shrubs, fruit trees and bananas; large numbers of reddish mites may be found clustered during heavy infestations. The poultry red miteDermanyssus gallinae Attacks poultry; can be carried indoors on clothing causing some discomfort. The grass itch miteOdontacarus australiensis Commonly encountered in grass; causes discomfort and a rash; forms red pustules of mites in the ear folds of cats. The starling miteOrnithonyssus bursa Enters houses from birds nesting in roof cavities; causes skin irritation. The scabies miteSarcoptes scabiei Adults tunnel in the upper layer of skin causing the intense irritation of scabies in humans and a type of mange in file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_99.html[09/13/2010 09:15:02 ...]

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dogs. Food mitesTyrophagus spp. Many species; associated with food particularly during warm, humid weather.

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Some Other Arthropods Class Arachnida, Order Scorpionida Scorpions Four pairs of legs; a pair of palps for grasping; abdomen tapers to a stinger which has poison glands; some are toxic to humans; life cycle may take some years; young born alive. The little marbled scorpion. Lychas marmoreus, is common on east coast of Australia. It occurs under bark and is not toxic.

Marbled scorpion Body: 3.5 cm Class Arachnida, Order Chelonethida False or Bark Scorpions No tail or stinger. These scorpions are harmless, feed on minute insects and are found under bark.

False scorpion Body: 2 mm Class Crustacea, Order Isopoda Slaters or Wood Lice The common slater, Porcellio scaber, is the most common species. It feeds on decaying organic matter, lives in very moist situations and is harmless.

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Slater Body: 1.5 cm

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Class Chilopoda Centipedes

House centipede Body: 2.5 cm The giant centipede, Ethmostigmus rubripes, is dark green and has a flattened body. It bites with large jaws on the head-end and can inflict a painful bite. The house centipede, Allothereua maculata, has long legs and is harmless. Its presence in a house often indicates dampness, usually under the floor.

Garden centipede Body: 10 cm Class Diplopoda Millipedes Two pairs of short legs per body segment. Millipedes have a rounded body, feed on organic matter and do not bite.

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Millipede Body: 4.0 cm

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Collecting and Preserving Insects and Spiders. The aim of preserving insects is to keep them in a natural state, without deterioration while showing as many of their identifying structures as possible. If prepared well, insects can be kept indefinitely. This may require special skills and techniques for certain specimens because of their size, colouration or fragility. The basic methods of collecting and preserving insects will be described using materials readily available and safe to use. For more detailed information the reader is referred to The Collection and Preservation of Insects, K.R. Norris and M.S. Upton, Australian Entomological Society, Miscellaneous Publication 3. Equipment for catching and storing insects can be purchased from nature study shops or entomological suppliers whose staff are generally very helpful. Many articles can be made at home. Collecting The best time of year to catch insects is during the warm months, not in the middle of winter. Many specimens can be caught by: • lifting rotten logs and loose tree bark, • inspecting chewed or discoloured plants (especially the underside of leaves), • shaking shrubs in flower over a sheet or inverted umbrella, • hanging up a sheet behind a light at night and catching the moths and other insects which settle there, • using a small net or wire strainer to scoop up insects from the surface of still water, especially around vegetation at the edges, and • rearing nymphs, larvae or pupae to obtain adult specimens. Sometimes, instead of the insect itself a parasite may emerge.

A Homemade Butterfly Net

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Many winged insects can be captured using a butterfly net made of fine light netting. The bag of the net should be long enough to flip over and retain the captured insect. It is more successful to net an insect at rest than to attempt a chase. Very small insects are best collected using a soft camel hair brush or forceps. A note of the date and location should be kept with captured insects. It is also a good idea to keep a notebook to record where the insect is living and its behaviour. This may help in identification. Flat bottomed glass tubes with plastic caps (50 mm and 100 mm × 25 mm) are convenient for keeping collected insects for a short time. Using a Hand Lens It is always useful to carry a hand lens of ×10 magnification as it has a multitude of uses. These include making small insects visible, seeing details of larger insects and studying insect damage to plants. Hand lenses are inexpensive, easy to use and can be carried in a pocket, bag or hung around the neck. To use a hand lens hold lens close to one eye and bring the object towards it until it is in focus. Eyes will be less subject to strain when using a lens for a long period if both eyes are kept open.

Keeping Live Insects Insects that need to be kept alive for short periods (before pinning or photography) can be held in sealed containers, as their air requirement is very small. A leaf provides sufficient moisture and a piece of absorbent paper gives the insect something to cling to and prevents condensation from forming. This is particularly important for

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delicate, winged insects which become trapped in droplets of water and drown. Many insects need food and this should be given only in small amounts to prevent the growth of mould. Containers must be kept out of direct sunlight to prevent overheating.

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Insects reared for any length of time to observe their behaviour or to obtain adults for preservation should be given food and surroundings as similar as possible to their natural conditions. Many insects have special requirements at different stages of their life cycles, for example, leaves to eat as larvae, soil to pupate in and room to emerge as adults. The best container to use depends on the insect, but for many plant-eating insects such as bugs, beetles, caterpillars, mantids this is a simple cage made from a wooden or wire frame with a nylon netting bag over it. The bag can be removed easily for washing. This type of cage is also suitable for many moths, butterflies, flies and wasps. Alternatively, a glass or plastic container covered with fine netting can be used. Condensation and mould growth become a problem when foliage is kept in sealed containers. When insects breed, the size of the young stages must be considered as they will often be small enough to escape. Strong insects and those with powerful chewing mouthparts can force their way through flimsy materials. Perfect adult specimens of, for example, moths and butterflies can be obtained by placing collected cocoons in a spacious cage and allowing the wings of the emerged adult to dry and harden before it is killed. Specimens can also be obtained from insect-damaged branches or wooden articles by placing them in a cage for the insects to emerge. Water must be provided for most insects. To prevent drowning, a small container should be filled with cotton wool or sponge and this kept wet for the insects to walk on and drink from. Crumpled paper provides a surface for the insects to walk around on or hide in.

A Simple Cage Suitable for Many Different Kinds of Insects

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Food Plant eating insects need a supply of fresh leaves from the plant that they would normally eat. If in doubt, a selection can be given until a favoured plant is found. The stems should be in a container of water sealed with cotton wool or paper to prevent drowning. Diluted honey, changed daily, provides food for moths, wasps, flies etc. This is given on strips of paper or cotton wool. Predatory insects must be kept separately and fed insects smaller than themselves. Insects can be kept on plants or trees in the garden or in pots by enclosing a section in nylon netting, although attack by ants may be a problem. This method can be used to obtain insects emerging from galls, though often parasites will emerge instead. Killing It is usual to kill insects as soon as they are collected by dropping them into a killing bottle. Some delicate specimens are best brought home alive. Several killing bottles should be prepared when collecting: a wide-mouthed jar for large insects and the rest 100 × 25 mm flat-bottomed glass tubes. To prepare a simple killing bottle use ethyl acetate (flammable and dangerous if inhaled). Either dip a small strip of paper in the liquid and place it under the stopper or put a small amount (not enough to wet the insect) on a piece of cotton wool and wedge part of it in beside the stopper. Alternatively, a small piece of paper can be sprayed momentarily with one of the household insect aerosol sprays containing dichlorvos, (D.D.V.P.). The label on the can will state the ingredients. Both ethyl acetate and D.D.V.P. kill by their vapours and if killing bottles are not airtight they will soon become ineffective. Preserving Insects Most insects are impaled on a pin and left in a well-ventilated place until dry (a week or so for medium sized insects). They can then be kept indefinitely in storage boxes. Larvae and soft bodied insects are preserved in liquids such as alcohol. Pin and Cardboard Mounts

pin to the right of thoraxbugs, flies, wasps

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pin in top of right wing cover beetles The insect to be pinned is held between thumb and finger and the pin pushed through, leaving about twice as much room below the insect as above it. The pin is generally pushed through the centre of the thorax but it is usual to put it to the right of the centre in the Hemiptera (bugs), Diptera (flies) and Hymenoptera (wasps etc.). In the Coleoptera (beetles) the pin is put through the top of the right hand wing cover.

pin in centre of thorax- many kinds of insects including moths and butterflies Ordinary pins corrode and damage the specimens. The best pins to use are stainless steel: size 3 or 38 mm × 0.5 mm for most medium and large insects, and fine, headless micropins for small insects. The tiny pins are put into a spongy material (polyporous pith), which is in turn pinned and placed in the storage box. Polyporous pith is purchased as strips and cut to length with a razor blade. Entomological forceps are useful for gripping pins. A simpler method for small insects is to glue them to small, rectangular pieces of white cardboard or, if very small, to the point of a triangle. Clear nail polish is suitable, though experienced collectors use gum mixtures which can be easily dissolved.

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Labelling Every pinned insect must have a small, neat label showing place of collection, date (may be written as, for example, 16 vii 1979) and collector's name. This is placed on the pin below the insect. Sometimes an extra label is placed under this with other details such as 'on Eucalyptus sp.', 'reared from larva'.

Setting. While the insect is still moveable (either freshly killed or about 24 hours later) the legs and antennae should be pushed into a neat, compact, fairly natural position. If the pin is pushed into a sheet of polystyrene foam the legs can be spread on the surface. In some groups of insects, for example, moths and butterflies, the wings are spread out. This may be done on one side only especially with mantids, stick insects and cockroaches. Wings of Hemiptera (bugs), Coleoptera (beetles), Hymenoptera (wasps etc.) and Diptera (flies) are usually not spread out. Setting Boards The simplest board for setting wings is made from polystyrene foam (used for packaging) by cutting V-shaped grooves of varying sizes deep enough to take the body of the insect. Also boards made from wood with a cork covering can be purchased. To set the wings the pin is pushed into the bottom of the groove until the underneath of the wings is level with the top of the board. A piece of transparent paper is pinned to the board in front of the insect. A fine pin held with forceps is carefully inserted behind a main vein near the base of the wing and is used to push the wing forward under the paper until the rear edge is at a right angle to the body. The rear wing is then moved forward. The wings are held gently with a finger until small pins are pushed in around the wings to keep them in place. It is often necessary to support the body using a pair of crossed pins. The legs may also need to be propped up with pins.

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Relaxing If an insect dries before it can be pinned or set it can be softened again (relaxed) by putting it in an airtight jar with a piece of damp sponge or paper. The insect should not be allowed to touch the sponge and should be pinned as soon as it is relaxed (a few hours). If chlorocresol (or phenol) is available a little should be added to stop mould. Relaxed insects may become loose on the pin when dry and can be anchored with clear nail varnish. Freshly dead insects can be kept in a good condition for a few days by putting them into a sealed container with a slightly moist piece of paper in the refrigerator. This will keep them relaxed and free of mould. Wet Preservation

Soft bodied insects such as termites and immature stages such as larvae of moths, beetles, wasps etc. are not pinned and dried for preservation but are put into a liquid preservative, usually 80 per cent ethyl alcohol (ethanol). Many larvae shrink, lose their colour or, if white turn brown or black when placed straight into the preservative. To prevent this, they first should be fixed. There are many fixatives and techniques suitable for different insects and the serious collector wishing to keep a collection indefinitely is referred to a book such as The Collection and file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_107.html[09/13/2010 09:15:05 ...]

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Preservation of Insects*. A generally useful fixative especially for caterpillars and beetle larvae is K.A.A. (to make 100 ml use 8 ml kerosene, 77 ml 95 per cent alcohol, 15 ml glacial acetic acid). The larvae are killed in this fixative and left for several hours before storing in 80 per cent alcohol. For student collections that will be kept for only a short time soft-bodied insects and larvae may simply be dropped into methylated spirits. A label written in pencil or Indian ink on firm paper is allowed to dry, then placed in the tube with the insect and the tube tightly capped. The methylated spirits may need to be replaced as it often discolours. *Norris K.R. and Upton M.S. The Collection and Preservation of Insects Australian Entomological Society Miscellaneous Publication No 3

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Keeping the Collection Wooden storage boxes for keeping dried specimens can be purchased or built. The base and lid are both lined with cork or polyethylene foam and are deep enough to take pinned insects. For temporary collections any box with a closely fitting lid can be used with either cork or one of the rigid foams glued to the base for the pins. Collections must be kept in a dry, well ventilated place. To prevent damage by book lice (psocids) and museum beetle larvae, naphthalene is kept in the boxes. It must be fixed in place to prevent damage to the specimens and the simplest way to do this is to put it in a piece of muslin or stocking and pin it securely to the base. Insects in methylated spirits should be checked periodically and the liquid topped up if necessary. Embedding Insects in Resin Special kits of plastic resin can be purchased for embedding objects and many insects can be treated in this way. This method is not suggested for general insect collections but where an insect specimen is handled often (as in a teaching situation when it is passed around a class) the resin makes a convenient and durable casing through which most structures can be seen. Preserving Spiders The simplest way to preserve a spider is in a sealed tube or jar of methylated spirits. For a more life-like specimen a thin layer of paraffin wax can be poured into a petri dish or wide mouthed jar and the spider held in a natural position using fine pins crossed over the legs. A label written in pencil or Indian ink giving date, location and collector's name is then placed with the pinned spider in a large sealed jar of methylated spirits.

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Further Reading D'Abrera B. Moths of Australia Lansdowne Press 1974 For identifying Australian moths Common I.F.B. and Waterhouse D.F. Butterflies of Australia Angus and Robertson 1981 For identifying most species of butterfly with descriptions of their distribution and life history CSIRO Division of Entomology The Insects of Australia Melbourne University Press 1970 Supplement Melbourne University Press 1974 A comprehensive work available in most libraries Hadlington P.W. and Gerozisis J. Urban Pest Control UNSW Press 1995 A practical manual describing pests of homes and industry and methods of control Healy A. and Smithers C. Australian Insects in Colour A.H. and A.W. Reed 1969 Contains clear photographs and descriptions of some interesting facets of insect life Hinton H.E. and Corbet A.S. Common Insect Pests of Stored Food Products British Museum (Natural History) A guide to the identification of pests, using keys Hughes R.D. Living Insects Collins 1974 A natural history approach to insects Mascord R. Spiders in Australia A.H. and A.W. Reed 1978 Good colour photographs of many species McKeown K.C. Australian Insects Sydney and Melbourne Publishing 1945 Out of print. Vivid descriptions of many insects and their habits Newman L.H. Man and Insects, Insect Allies and Enemies Nature and Science Library for The American Museum of Natural History 1965 Norris K.R. and Upton M.S. The Collection and Preservation of Insects The Australian Entomological Society Miscellaneous publication No 3 Richards O.W. and Davies R.G. Imms' General Textbook of Entomology 10th ed Chapman and Hall 1977 A general textbook in two volumes Simon-Brunet B. The Silken Web Reed Books 1994 Tillyard R.J. The Insects of Australia and New Zealand Angus and Robertson 1926 Out of print. A classic work Woods A. Pest Control: A Survey McGraw-Hill 1974 Historical account of pests and pesticides Zanetti A. The World of Insects Sampson Low 1977 Other Sources of Information Leaflets by the New South Wales Department of Agriculture, Forestry Commission of N.S.W., the Australian Museum and their counterparts in other states. Specialist nature study shops

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Acknowledgements We would like to thank Jennifer Carter, Joyce Chandler, Bob Faragher, Max Maddock, Bob Part, Max Phillipps and Ted Taylor for providing the insect specimens for the photographs and drawings. Joyce Chandler in particular supplied many of these specimens and also assisted in checking references used throughout this book.

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Index. A Abdomen, 4, 7 Acacia ligulata, 61 pendula, 69 Acanthoscelides obtectus, 57 Acarina, 97 Adelgidae, 43 Accessory glands, 15 Achilidae, 38, 40 Achilus flammeus, 38, 40 Acrida conica, 27 Acrididae, 27, 35 Acripeza reticulata, 26 Acrocercops laciniella, 63 plebeia, 63 Adephaga, 47, 48 Adult, 9 Aedaegus, 15 Aedes, 11 aegypti, 72 Aenetus ligniveren, 62 Aesiotes leucurus, 54 Agaristidae, 69, 76 Agromyzidae, 77 Agrotis infusa, 69

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Agrypnus variabilis, 52 Alate, 22, 23 Albizia, 58 Alderflies, 19, 46 Aleyrodidae, 45 Allothereua maculata, 101 Amata, 75 Amegilla, 85, 95 Amphipods, 3 Angophoras, 61, 67 Anisops, 39 Anisoptera, 21, 22 Anobiidae, 51 Anobiids, 52 Anobium punctatum, 51 Anopheles, 72 Anoplognathus, 49 Anoplura, 31 Ant, 19, 33, 42, 46, 78, 80, 82, 86; Argentine, 87; blue, 84, 96; bulldog, 87; jumper, 87; meat, 87; stinging, 87; sugar, 78, 87; velvet, 84 Antennae, 4 feathery, 14 Anthelidae, 67, 76 Anthela nicothoe, 67 Anthophoridae, 85, 95

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Anthrenus, 50 verbasci, 50 Antivenene, 94 Ant-lions, 45, 46 Aonidiella aurantii, 43 citrina, 43 Apanteles, 83 glomeratus, 83 Apidae, 86, 95 Apiomorpha, 37, 43 excupula, 37 Apis mellifera, 86, 95 Anus, 12 Aphid, 36, 42, 43, 45, 86; black peach, 42; juniper, 42; pine, 43; rose, 42 Aphididae, 36, 42 Aphrophoridae, 40 Apocrita, 80, 81, 82 Appendix dorsalis, 20 Apterygota, 19 Aquatic larvaenymphs, 21, 22, 29, 46, 48, 60, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74 Arachnida, 3, 88, 97, 100 Arachnids, 79 Arachnocampa, 72 Archeognatha, 19 Aretiidae, 75 Argiope keyserlingii, 92 Aricerus eichhoffi, 54

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Arista, 70 Armyworms, 69 Arsenious trioxide, 23 Arsenic dust, 23 Arthropoda, 3 Asilidae, 5, 73, 78 Atalophlebia, 21 Atrax robustus, 89 Aulacophora, 52 Azalea lace bug, 40 B Backswimmers, 39 Badumna insignis, 93 Baetidae, 21 Bandicoots, 98 Banksia, 55, 63 Barea consignatella, 63 Barnacles, 3 Bed bug, 32, 34 Bee, 19, 80, 82, 84; bread, 85; carpenter, 85; cuckoo, 85; honey, 86, 95; leaf-cutting, 86; mortar, 85; native, 86, 95 Beetle, 19, 47, 79; African black, 49; ambrosia, 54; auger, 51, 59;

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Australian spider, 52; bark, 54; bombardier, 48; Christmas, 49, 55; cigarette, 51; clerid, 59; click, 52; cowboy, 47, 49; cylindrical auger, 51; diamond, 55; dung, 49; fiddler, 57; fig bark, 54; figleaf, 56; flour, 51; furniture, 51; green carab, 58; ground, 48; hooppine jewel, 50; hump-backed, 53; jewel, 50, 55, 59; khapra, 50; ladybird, 52; large auger, 51; leaf, 52; longicorn = longhorn, 53, 59; passalid, 49; pie-dish or verandah, 51; powder-post, 54, 59; pumpkin, 52; rove, 48; sawtoothed grain, 59;

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skin and hide, 50; soldier, 52, 55; spider, 52, 56; stag, 49, 57; tenebrionid, 51, 58; tiger, 48, 55; variegated carpet, 50; water, 48; whirlgig, 48; wood boring, 57; yellow monolepta, 53 Belostomatidae, 39 Bibionidae, 72 Blattodea, 19, 24 Blood, 14 Bloodworms, 71 Blowfly, 12, 70, 71, 74, 79; Australian sheep, 74; brown, 74; strike, 74 Blue bottles, 74 Bibio imitator, 72 Bittacidae, 47 Blatta orientalis, 24 Blattella germanica, 24 Bombyliidae, 74 Book lice, 19, 30; pests of insects, 108 Book lungs, 88 Boophilus microplus, 98 Bostrichids, 54 Bostrichidae, 51

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Bostrichopsis jesuita, 50 Bottlebrush, 41, 81, 82 Brachycaudus persicae, 42 Brachycera, 70, 73 Braconidae, 83 Breathing, 13 Bruchidae, 57 Bruchophagus fellis, 83 Bryobia cristata, 99 Bubonic plague, 59 Bug, 19, 32; azalea lace, 40; assassin, 33, 40; bed, 32, 34; bronze orange, 34; burrowing, 34; coon, 34; cotton harlequin, 36; coreid, 34; crusader, 34, 37; fruit, 34; fungus, 40, 38; green vegetable, 34; harlequin, 34; leaf, 34; lygaeid, 33, 34; plant, 34; plant feed-

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Document Page 112 ing, 33; red, 34; Rutherglen, 34; shield, 34, 36; spittle, 40; stink, 34 Bullseye borer, 53 Buprestidae, 50, 55 Butterflies, 19, 60, 61, 66; blue triangle, 64; cabbage white, 12, 64, 65; imperial white, 64; large citrus, 64; oleander, 66; skipper, 65; small citrus, 64; tailed emperor, 58; wanderer, 66 C Cabbage white butterfly, 12, 64, 65; parasite of, 83 Cactoblastis cactorum, 38, 61, 63, 75 Caddisf lies, 19, 60 Caedicia, 35 olivacea, 27 Cage-breeding, 104 Calipappus, 43 Caliroa cerasi, 81 Calliphora, 74

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Calliphoridae, 74 Calosoma schayeri, 58 Camphor laurel, 64 Camponotus consobrinus, 78, 87 Canine tick serum, 98 Cannibalism, 88 Cantharidae, 52, 56 Carabidae, 48, 51, 55 Cardiaspina, 36, 45 fiscella, 45 Cassia, 37 Caterpillar, 60, 79; processionary, 69 Cecidomyia acaciae-longifolia, 72 Cecidomyiidae, 72 Cedar shoot caterpillar, 63 Centipedes, 3, 101; garden, 101; house, 101 Cephalelus, 38 Cephalothorax, 88, 89, 90 Cephrenes augiades sperthias, 65 Cerambycidae, 50, 53, 56 Ceroplastes, ceriferus, 44 destructor, 44 rubens, 44 Ceratopogonidae, 72 Cerci, 4, 7, 20 Cercopidae, 40 Cercopoidea, 40 Chalcididae, 83

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Chauliognathus lugubris, 56 Chelepteryx collesi, 67, 76 Chelicerae, 88, 89 Chelinidea tabulata, 34 Chelonethida, 100 Chemoreceptors, 14 Chilopoda, 3, 101 Chironomidae, 71 Chironomus, 71 Chlenias, 58, 66 Chortoicetes terminifera, 28 Christmas bush, 63 Chrysolopus spectabilis, 55 Chrysomelidae, 52, 53, 56, 57 Chrysopa, 55 Chrysophtharta, 53 Chrysopidae, 45, 55 Cicada, 8, 17, 32, 33, 37; bladder, 38; killer, 96; nymph, 41 Cicadellidae, 38, 39 Cicadidae, 41, 37 Cimex lectularius, 34 Cimicidae, 34 Cinara juniperi, 42 tujafilina, 42 Citrus, 43, 44, 51, 54, 58, 64, 75; butterfly, 58, 64, 75; gall wasp, 83 Cizara ardeniae, 68

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Claspers, 15 Class, 1 Cleptidae, 84 Clerid, whitebanded, 57, 59; yellow-horned, 59 Cleridae, 57, 59 Coccid, 43 Coccidae, 44 Coccinella transversalis, 55 Coccinellidae, 8, 52, 55, 57 Coccoidea, 43, 44 Coccus hesperidum, 44 Cochineal insects, 37, 38; cochineal, 44 Cockroach, 19, 24; American, 24; Australian, 24; German, 6, 24; oriental, 24; parasites of, 83 Coleoptera, 19, 47 Collecting insects, 102 Collecting net, 102 Collembola, 3, 19, 20 Comstockaspis perniciosus, 43 Coptotermes acinaciformis, 18, 23 lacteus, 23 Coreidae, 33, 37 Corixidae, 39 Corn earworm, 69 Cornicles, 42

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Cossidae, 61 Cotton, 69 Coxa, 5, 47 Crabs, 3 Creiis, 44 Cricket, 25; black field, 27, mole, 26, 27; tree, 7, 17, 26, 27 Crofton weed, 77 Crop, 12, 16 Crustacea, 3, 100 Cryptes baccatus, 44 Cryptotermes brevis, 23 Ctenarytaina eucalypti, 2 Ctenocephalides canis, 59 felis, 59 Ctenolepisma longicaudata, 20 Ctenomorphodes tessulatus, 28 Culama caliginosa, 61 Culex, 72 Culicidae, 72 Cup moth, 64; black slug, 64; macadamia, 76; mottled, 64; painted, 64, 75 Curculionidae, 54, 55, 56 Curl grubs, 49, 84 Cuticle, 7, 17; endocuticle, 7;

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epicuticle, 7; exocuticle, 7 Cutworms, 69 Cyclochila australasiae, 41, 37 Cydia pomonella, 62 Cydnidae, 34 Cyria imperialis, 55 Cystosoma saundersii, 38 D Dacus tryoni, 74, 77 Dactylopius, 38, 44 coccus, 43 opuntiae, 37 Daddy-longlegs, 71 Daktulosphaira vitifolii, 43 Damselflies, 18, 21 Danaus plexippus plexippus, 66 D.D.V.P., 105 Deinopis, 93 Delias, 64 harpalyce, 64 Delphacidae, 40 Dengue fever, 72 Dermanyssus gallinae, 99 Dermaptera, 30 Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, 98 Dermestes, 50 Dermestidae, 50 Diamma, 84 bicolor, 96 Diapause, 10, 29 Diaphonia dorsalis, 49

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Diaspididae, 43 Dichlorvos, 105 Didymuria violescens, 28 Digestion, 13, 23 Dihammus vastator, 53 Dindymus versicolor, 34 Diplopoda, 3, 101 Diplura, 3, 19, 20 Diptera, 19, 70 Ditrysia, 61 Doratifera casta, 64 oxleyi, 64, 75, 76 vulnerans, 64 Double drummer, 41 Dragonflies, 5, 13, 18, 21, 22 Drones, 86 Drosophilidae, 74 Dysentry, 79 Dytiscidae, 13, 48 E Earwigs, 19, 30 Ecdysis, 8, 17 Echidnophaga gallinacea, 59 Egg, 14, 16, 17; lacewing, 15; praying mantis, 15; stick insect, 28 Ejaculatory duct, 15 Elateridae, 52 Elephantiasis, 71, 72 Eleppone anactus, 64

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Elytron, 5, 47, 48 Embioptera, 19, 30 Embedding, 108 Emergence, 17 Emperor gum moth, 58 Endocuticle, 7 Endopterygote, 19 Enteric caecae, 12 Enzymes, 13 Ephemeroptera, 19, 21

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Document Page 113 Epicuticle, 7 Epilachna vigintisexpunctata, 52, 57 Epimegastigmus, 96 Epinotia lantana, 62 Eriococcidae, 36, 37, 43 Eriococcus coriaceus, 36 43 Eriophora transmarina, 92 Eristalis, 74 Ethmostigmus rubripes, 101 Ethyl acetate, 105 Eucalyptolyma maideni, 44 Eucalypts, 27, 28, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 58, 61, 62, 64, 67, 69, 72, 82, 95 Eucalyptus haemastoma, 63 robusta, 45 Euploea core corinna, 66 Eupoecila australasiae, 57 Euproctis edwardsi, 68 European wasp, 84, 85 Eurylychnus, 48 Eurymela, 42 Eurymelidae, 42 Eurytoma, 83 Eurytomidae, 83 Eutermes = Nasutitermes Evaniidae, 83 Evolution, 2 Exaireta spinigera, 73 Exeirus lateritus, 96 file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_113.html[09/13/2010 09:15:08 ...]

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Exopterygote, 9, 19 Exoskeleton, 7 Extatosoma tiaratum, 15, 35 Exuviae, 8 Eyes, 4, 5, 17 F Faeces, 13 Family, 1 Fangs, 88, 89 Feeding, 10 Femur, 5 Fig, 53, 54, 56, 63; longicorn, 53; psyllid, 77 Fireflies, 50 Flies, 19, 70; bee, 74; bird of paradise, 43; bush, 79; crane, 70, 71; ferment, 74; flesh, 79; fruit, 70, 74; garden soldier, 73; horse, 73; house, 1, 70, 79; hover, 74, 77; louse, 79; march, 72, 73; moth, 71; Queensland fruit, 74, 77; robber, 70, 73, 78; file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_113.html[09/13/2010 09:15:08 ...]

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sand, 71, 72; soldier, 70, 73, 78; stable, 79; tachinid, 79; tsetse, 79; vinegar, 74; wallaby, 79 Fishflies, 46 Flatidae, 38, 40 Fleas, 2, 19, 59; cat, 59; dog, 59; human, 59; oriental rat, 59; poultry stickfast, 59 Flour beetles, 51 Forficula auricularia, 30 Forewings, 4, 5 Formicidae, 78, 86, 87 Frass, 13 Froghoppers, 40, 41 Fruit-tree borer, 63 Fumigation, 13 Fungus bug, 40 Forcula, 20 Furniture beetle, 51 G Gall, 32, 33, 43, 45, 70, 72, 74, 77; gall formers, 32, 36, 83; of crofton weed, 77 Ganglion, 14, 16 suboesophageal, 14

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supraoesophageal, 14 Gascardia destructor, 44 Gaster, 80 Gastrimargus musicus, 28 Geolycosa godeffroyi, 90, 91 Geometridae, 58, 66 Gizzard, 12 Genus, 1 Gerridae, 34 Giant fish killer, 39 Giant water bugs, 39 Gills, 7, 13, 21, 29 Glands; silk, 30 Glossina, 79 Graphium sarpedon choredon, 64 Glow-worms, 72 Gnats; fungus, 71; plumed, 72 Goat moth; Australian, 61; wattle, 61 Grain, 50, 51, 54, 56, 59 Grape, 43, 76 Grasshoppers, 19, 25, 79; long-headed, 27; long-horned, 27, 35; short-horned, 27, 35 Greenhouse whitefly, 45 Grevillea, 62 Gripopterygidae, 29 Green grocer, 37 Growth, 8 Gryllacrididae, 17, 26

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Gryllidae, 27 Gryllotalpa, 26 Gryllotalpidae, 26, 27 Gum; river red, 69 Gumleaf skeletonizer, 69, 76 Gumtree hoppers, 42 Gyrinidae, 48 H Hadronyche cerberea, 89 Haemaphysalis longicornis, 98 Haemoglobin, 71 Haemolymph, 6, 12 Hakea, 76 Haltere, 5, 6, 70 Hand lens, 102 Harmonia conformis, 52 omalanthi, 72 Harpobittacus, 46 tillyardi, 47 Haustellum, 12, 60, 61 Head capsule, 4, 69, 77 Heart, 14 Heartworm 72 Helicoverpa armiger, 69 punctiger, 69 Hemiptera, 11, 17, 19, 32, 36, 37 Hepialidae, 62 Hesperiidae, 64, 65 Hesperioidae, 61 Heteronychus arator, 49

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Heteroptera, 32, 33 Hexapoda, 3, 19 Hindwings, 4, 5 Hipoboscidae, 79 Homoptera, 32, 40 Honey, 85 Honey dew, 33, 42, 44, 86, 87 Hoop-pine jewel beetle, 50 Hormones, 8 House fly, 1, 70, 79 Hyalarcta heubneri, 62 nigrescens, 62 Hydremetridae, 39 Hypropia clytusalia, 63 Hymonoptera, 6, 19, 76, 80 Hypopharynx, 11 Hypsipyla robusta, 63 I. Icerya perchasi, 43 Ichneumonidae, 82 Idolothrips, 32 Inchworms, 66 Imago, 8 Inqulines, 20 Insecta, 3, 19 Isopeda, 93 Isopoda, 100 Isoptera, 18, 19, 22 Ixodes holocyclus, 98 J Japygidae, 20

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Jasmine, 68 K K.A.A., 107 Kalotermitidae, 22 Kala-azar, 71 Katydid, 35 Killing bottle, 105 Kurrajong leaf-tier, 63 L Labelling, 106 Labium, 11 Labrum, 11, 17 Laccotrephes tristis, 39 Lace bugs, 40 Lacewings, 19, 45, 46, 55 Lacquer-nail, 105 Lactura caminaea, 63 Ladybird, 8, 37, 44, 52, 55; common spotted, 52, transverse, 55; twenty-eight spotted, 52, 57; vedalia, 43 Lamprima, 57 Lampyridae, 50 Lantana, 40, 57, 62, leafminer, 57; lacebug, 40 Lantana camara, 53 Larva, 9 Lasioderma serricorne, 51 Latrodectus hasselti, 92 Leafhoppers, 40, 42;

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apple, 42; sugarcane, 40 Leafminer, 63, 77; blackbutt, 63; grevillae, 62; oak, 62, 63; wattle, 63 Legs, 4, 5

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Document Page 114 Lemon scented gum, 44 Lepidoptera, 6, 12, 19, 60, 75 Leptobrysa decora, 40 Leptocneria reducta, 68, 69 Leptophlebiidae, 21 Lerp, 36, 44, 45 Lesser grain borer, 51 Lethocerus, 39 Lice, 19, 31; biting, 31; sucking, 31 Life cycle, 8, 9 Limacodidae, 64, 75, 76 Limnogonus, 39 Linpithema humile, 87 Lissopimpla excelsa, 82 Locusts, 25, 27, 28, 41 Longicorn, 50, 53, 56; fig, 53; pittosporum, 56; yellow, 53 Loopers-pine, 66 Lophyrotoma, 81, 82 Louse; body, 31; crab, 32; head, 31; poultry shaft, 31 Lucanidae, 49, 57 Lucerne flea, 20 Lucilia auprina, 74 file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_114.html[09/13/2010 09:15:09 ...]

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Lychas marmoreus, 100 Lyctinae, 51 Lyctus brunneus, 54 Lygaeidae, 33 Lygropia clytusalis, 63 Lymantriidae, 68, 69, 75 M Machaerotidae, 39 Macrogyrus, 48 Macrosiphum rosae, 36, 42 Maggot, 70, 73, 79 Malacostraca, 3 Malaria, 71, 72 Maleuterpes spinipes, 54 Mallophaga, 3 Malpighian tubules, 12, 14, 16 Mandibles, 11, 17, 55, 57 Mantidae, 35 Mantodea, 19, 24, 35 March fly, 6 Margarodidae, 43 Maroga melanostigma, 63 Mask, 22 Mastachilus, 49 Mastotermes darwiniensis, 24 Maxillae, 11 Mayflies, 13, 19, 21 Mealybug, 43, 44, 45; golden, 37, 44 Mealworms, 51 Mecoptera, 19, 46, 47 Mecytha fasciata, 76 file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_114.html[09/13/2010 09:15:09 ...]

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Megacephala australis, 55 Megachilidae, 86 Megaloptera, 19, 46 Megarhyssa nortoni, 82 Membracidae, 42 Menopon gallinae, 31 Mesthorax, 4, 5 Mesoxylion cylindricus, 51 Metamorphosis, 8, 11; ametabolous, 9; complete, 9; hemimetabolous, 9; holometabolous, 9; incomplete, 9; primitive, 9 Metathorax, 4, 5 Methylated spirits, 107, 108 Mezium, 56 Mictis profana, 34, 37 Midges, 70; biting, 72; gall, 72 Mid gut, 12 Millipede, 3, 101 Miridae, 34, 38 Misgolas rapax, 90, 91 Missulena sp., 90, 91 Mistletoe, 64, 68; browntail moth, 68 Mites, 3, 88, 96, 97, 98; as parasites, 99; Bryobia, 99;

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food, 99; grass itch, 99; house-dust, 96; poultry red, 99; red spider, 99; scabies, 99; starling, 99; straw itch, 99 Mnesampela privata, 66 Monolepta australia, 53 Monotrysia, 61 Mosquitoes, 19, 70, 71, 72 Moth, 5, 19, 60, 61; Austrlaian goat, 61; Australian privet hawk, 68; autumn gum, 66; bag shelter, 69; bentwing swift, 62; bogong, 69; Cactoblastis, 63, 75; case making clothes, 62, 63; clothes, 63; codling, 62; cup, 64, 75; dayflying, 75; decay, 63; emperor, 67; emperor gum, 67; grapevine; 69, 76; green swift, 62; gumleaf skeletonizer, 69, 76, hawk, 68;

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Indian meal, 63; leaf case, 62; macadamia cup, 76; native fig, 63; painted apple, 68; painted pint, 68; pasture tunnel, 63; ribbed case, 62; scribblygum, 63; swift, 62; tussock, 68, 75; wingless, 62, 68, 73; white cedar, 68, 69; white stemmed gum, 67, 76 Mould, 33 Moult, 8, 17 Mountain katydid, 26 Mouthparts, 4, 5; chewing (mandibulate), 11; piercing and sucking, 5, 11, 32, 33 Mud daubers, 84, 96 Mud-eyes, 21 Musca, 2 domestica, 1, 2, 79 vetustissima, 2, 79 Muscidae, 79 Museum beetle, 108 Musgraveia sulciventris, 34 Mutillidae, 84 Mycetophilidae, 72 Myrmecia nigrocincta, 87 Myrmeleontidae, 46

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Myxamatosis, 72 N Naphthalene, 108 Nasute, 22 Nasutitermes triodiae, 2 walkeri, 18, 23 Native budworm, 69 Nematocera, 70, 71 Neoaratus, 73 Neosparassus spp., 93 Neoteinic, 22 Neotermes insularis, 18, 22, 23 Nephila, 92 Nepidae, 39 Nerve cord, 14, 16 Nervous system, 14 Neuroptera, 19, 45, 46, 55 Nezara viridula, 34 Nipaecoccus aurilanatus, 37, 44 Nits, 31 Noctuidae, 69 Nolidae, 69, 76 Notodontidae, 69 Notonectidae, 39 Nymph, 9, 66 Nymphalidae, 58, 66 Nymphes myrmeleonides, 45, 46 Nymphidae, 45, 46, 55 Nysius vinitor, 34 O Oak leafminer, 63

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Ocelli, 4, 5, 17 Ochrogaster lunifer, 69 Octotoma, 53 scabripennis, 57 Odonata, 19, 21 Odontacarus australiensis, 99 Oechalia schellenbergii, 36 Oecophoridae, 63 Oesophagus, 12 Ogmograptis scribula, 63 Oleander butterfly, 66 Ommatidia, 5 Ootheca, 24, 25 Opodiphthera eucalypti, 2, 58, 67 Orange palm dart, 65 Orb webs, 88 Orchid dupe, 82 Order, 1 Ordgarius sp., 93 Orgyia australis, 68 Ornithonyssus bursa, 99 Orthoptera, 19, 25, 35 Oryzaephilus surinamensis, 59 Osmeterium, 64 Ostia, 14 Ovary, 15, 16 Ovariole, 15 Oviduct, 15, 16 Ovipositor, 7 Oxycarenus arctatus, 34 P Palps, 11, 17, 88, 89, 90

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Papilionidae, 58, 64, 75 Papilionoidea, 61 Paragryllacris, 26 Parasites, 10, 31, 32, 53, 61, 79, 80, 82 83, 84; external, 10, 59; internal, 10, 79 Parasitoid, 10 Paratillus carus, 57, 59 Paropsis, 53 Parthenogenesis, 15, 42 Passalidae, 49 Passionvine hopper, 40 Pear and cherry slug, 81 Pedicel, 86 Pediculus capitis, 31 humanus, 31

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Document Page 115 Penis, 15 Pentatomidae, 34, 36 Peraglyphis atimana, 62 Perga, 82 dorsalis, 82 Pergidae, 78, 81, 82, 95 Periplaneta americana, 24 australasiae, 24 Perkinsiella saccharicida, 40 Petiole, 80 Phalaenoides glycinae, 69, 76 Pharynx, 12 Phasmatic, 28; ringbarker, 10, 35 Phasmatidae, 35 Phasmatodea, 19, 28, 35, 84 Pheromone, 14 Pheropsophus verticalis, 48 Philagra parva, 41 Phonognatha graeffei, 92 Phoracantha recurva, 53 semipunctata, 56 Phthiraptera, 19 Phylacteophaga froggatti, 82, 95 Phyllonorycter messaniella, 62, 63 Phylloxera, 43; grape 43 Phylloxeridae, 43 file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_115.html[09/13/2010 09:15:10 ...]

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Phylum, 1 Phytoliriomyza pittosporphylli, 10, 77 Pieridae, 64 Pieris rapae, 12, 64, 65 Pine, 43, 51, 54, 58, 62, 66, 67, 78, 80, 81, cypress, 42, 54; Norfolk Island 44 Pine looper, 58, 66 Pineus pini, 43 Pinhole borer, 54 Pinning, 105 Pittosporum, 56, 77; leafminer, 10 Plagiohammus spinnipennis, 14 Planthoppers, 32, 38, 40 Platypodinae, 54 Plecoptera, 19, 29 Plodio interpunctella, 63 Podacanthus wilkinsoni, 10, 17, 28, 35 Podurids, 19 Polistes, 84, 95 Polyphaga, 47, 48 Polyporous pith, 105 Polyura semipronius, 58 Pompilidae, 84 Poneridia semipullata, 56 Porcellio scaber, 100 Praying mantis, 10, 19, 24, 25, 35; egg capsule, 25 Preservation; alcohol, 107; of insects, 107; of spiders, 108

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Prickly pear, 37, 44, 61, 63, 75 Princeps aegeus, 64 Privet, 68 Proboscis, 11, 54, 73 Procecidochares utilis, 77 Prolegs, 47, 60 Pronotum, 24 Pronymphs, 25 Propodeum, 80, 86 Prospheres aurantiopictus, 50 Prothorax, 4, 5 Protozoan, 23 Protura, 3, 20 Proventriculus, 12, 16 Pseudococcidae, 37, 38, 44 Psilogramma menephron menephron, 68 Psocids, 19, 30 Psocoptera, 19, 30 Psychidae, 62 Psychodidae, 71 Psyllidae, 36, 44, 45 Psyllid, 36, 44, 45; fig, 77; spottedgum, 44 Pterygophorus, 78 Pterygota, 19 Pthirus pubis, 31 Ptinidae, 52, 56 Ptinus tectus, 52 Pulex irritans, 59 Pupa, 9 Puparium, 70, 79

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Pyemotes herfsi, 99 Pyralidae, 38, 63, 75 Pyrrhocoridae, 34 Q Queen; of ants, 86; of bees, 86; of termites, 22 R. Rat tailed larva, 74 Receptors, 14 Rectum, 12 Reduviidae, 33, 40 Relaxing, 107 Reproduction, 15 Respiration, 13 Rhinotermitidae, 23 Rhipicephalus sanguineus, 98 Rhipiphoridae, 53 Rhyssa persuasoria, 82 Rhyzopertha dominica, 51 Ricaniidae, 40 Rodolia cardinalis, 43 Rostrum, 54 S Salivary glands, 12, 16 Salmonella, 24 Sarcophagidae, 79 Sarcoptes scabiei, 99 Saturniidae, 58, 67 Sawfly, 80, 81, 82; callistermon, 82; leafblister, 82, 95; file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_115.html[09/13/2010 09:15:10 ...]

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steelblue, 82; teatree, 78 Scale, 19, 32, 43, 45, 55, 86; armoured, 43; California red, 43; cottonycushion, 43; gumtree, 36, 43; Indian white wax, 44; pink wax, 44; San José, 43; soft brown, 44; wattle tick, 44; yellow, 43; white wax, 44 Scarab, 47, 49; larva, 84 Scarabaeidae, 49, 55, 57, 84 Sceliphron laetum, 85, 96 Sclerite, 7 Scolia soror, 96 Scoliidae, 84, 96 Scolypopa australis, 40 Scolytinae, 54 Scorpion, 3, 88, 100; bark, 100; false, 100; marbled, 100 Scorpion fly, 19, 46, 47 Scorpionida, 100 Scutelleridae, 34, 36 Scutellum, 34 Setting, 106;

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board, 106 Sextius virescens, 42 Sexual dimorphism, 15 Sheep ked, 79 She-oak, 41, 42 Shothole borers, 54 Silica aerogel, 7 Silk, 61 Silvanidae, 59 Silverfish, 2, 19, 20 Siphanta acuta, 40 Siphonaptera, 2, 19, 59 Sirex noctilio, 6, 78, 80, 81 Sirex wasp, 78; larva, 80, 81 Siricidae, 80, 81 Sitophilus oryzae, 54, 56 Skin irritation, 67, 68, 69, 76 Skippers, 65, 65 Slater, 3, 100 Sleeping sickness, 71, 79 Slender water striders, 39 Sminthurus viridis, 20 Social insects, 22, 84, 85 Soldier; of ants, 86; of termites, 22 Sooty mould, 44 Sound, 14, 26, 27, 28, 41, 49 species, 1 Sperm, 15 Spermatheca, 15 Spermatophore, 15, 20

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Sphecidae, 84, 85, 96 Sphingidae, 68 Spider, 3, 88; anglers, 93; black house, 93; death's head, 93; garden wolf, 90, 91; ground dwelling 88, 89; hairy imperial, 93; huntsman, 93; leaf curling, 92; magnificent, 93; mouse, 90, 91; nephila, 88, 92; net casting, 93; orb weaving, 88, 92; parasite of, 84, 85; poisonous, 94; preserving, 108; redback 92, 93, 94; Saint Andrew's Cross, 92; Sydney brown trapdoor, 90, 91; Sydney funnelweb, 89, 90, 94; tree funnel web, 89 Spinnerets, 88, 89 Spiny leaf insect, 35 Spiracle, 4, 5, 12, 13, 49 Springtails, 20 Staphilinidae, 48 Stegobium peniceum, 51 Stephanitis pyrioides, 40 Stick insect, 17, 19, 28, 35;

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egg parasite, 84; eggs, 28 Stomoxys calcitrans, 79 Stone flies, 19, 29 Stratiomyidae, 73, 78 Stronglurus thoracicus, 56 Stylets, 11 Subimago, 21 Suborder, 1 Supella longipalpa, 24 Superfamily, 1 Swamp mahogany, 45 Symphyta, 80, 81 Synthemidae, 18 Syrphidae, 74, 77

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T Tabanidae, 6, 72 Tachinidae, 79 Tarsus, 5 Tasmanian blue gum, 66 Tectocoris diophthalmus, 36 Tegmen, 5, 24, 30 Teia anartoides, 68, 75 Teleogryllus commodus, 27 Teleonemia scrupulosa, 40 Tenebrio molitor, 51 obscurus, 51 Tenebrionidae, 51, 58 tenthredinidae, 81 Tephritide, 74, 77 Termite, 19, 63; alate, 22, 23; drywood, 23; eradication, 23; mandibulate, 22; nasute, 22; niggerhead, 18, 23; nymphs, 22, 23; ringant, 18; soldier, 23; subterranean, 18; West Indian drywood, 23; worker, 23 Tessaratomidae, 34

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Test, 44 Testes, 15, 16 Tetranychus, 99 Tettigoniidae, 26, 27, 35; eggs, 26 Thopha saccata, 41 Thorax, 4, 5, 16 Thripidae, 36 Thrips, 19, 32, 36; plague, 32 Thrips imaginis, 32, 36 Thynnidae, 84 Thyreus lugubris, 85 Thysanoptera, 19, 32, 36 Thysanura, 2, 19, 20 Tibia, 5 Tick, 3, 88, 97; Australian paralysis, 97, 98; brown dog, 97, 98; cattle, 98; poisoning symptoms, 98; New Zealand cattle, 97, 98 Tinea pellionella, 62, 63 Tineidae, 62, 63 Tingidae, 40 Tiphiidae, 84, 96 Tipulidae, 71 Tobacco, 51 Tortricidae, 62 Torymidae, 96 Trachea, 6, 13, 16, 88 Tracheoles, 13

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Treehopper, green, 42 Trench fever, 31 Trialeurodes vaporariorum, 45 Tribolium castaneum, 51 confusum, 51 Trichodectes canis, 31 Trigona, 86 Trichoptera, 19, 60 Trochanter, 5 Trogodendron fasciculatum, 59 Trogoderma granarium, 50 Tryphocaria acanthocera, 53 Tymbals, 14, 41 Tympanum, 15 Typhlocyba froggatti, 42 Typhoid, 79 Typhus, 31; murine, 59 Twig borer, 63 Tyrophagus, 99 U Uraba lugens, 69, 76 Uroplata, 53 V Vas deferens, 15 Venom, 88 Vesiculae seminales, 15 Vespidae, 84, 85, 95 Virginia creeper, 69 W Wasp, 19, 74, 78, 80, 81, 82; file:///F|/important%20information/insects/An%20Introduction%20to%20Australian%20Insects/files/page_116.html[09/13/2010 09:15:11 ...]

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braconid, 83; blue flower, 96; flower, 84, 96; hatchet, 83; ichneumonid, 82; mud dauber, 96, paper nest, 84, 95; parasitic, 25, 29; sirex, 78, 80, 81, 82; social, 84; solitary, 84; spider, 84 Water; beetle, 48; -boatmen, 39; bugs, 32; scorpions, 39; striders, 34 Wattle, 41, 42, 43, 44, 51, 53, 55, 61, 63, 67, 68, 72; gall fly, 72 leafminer, 63 Web spinners, 19, 30 Weevil, 47, 54, 55, 56; bean, 57; cypress bark, 54; dicky rice, 54; rice, 54, 56 White ant, 22 White cedar moth, 68, 69 White flies, 45 Whites, 64; caper, 64 White stemmed gum moth, 67, 76

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Wine casks, 51 Wing, 5; venation, 6 Wireworms, 52 Witjuti, 61 Wood lice, 100 Wood moth, 61; giant, 61 Woodwasps, 81 Workers; of ants, 86; of termites, 22 X Xenopsylla cheopis, 59 Xyleutes affinis, 61 cinereus, 61 eucalypti, 61 Xyloryctidae, 63 Y Yellow fever, 72 Yellow Monday, 41 Yponomeutidae, 63 Z Zelotypia stacyi, 62 Zygoptera, 21

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