© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180)
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Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
J. Gilbert Kaufman
ASM International® Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180)
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No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner. First printing, November 2000
Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM’s control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended. Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement. Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International. ASM International staff who worked on this project included Veronica Flint, Manager, Book Acquisitions; Bonnie Sanders, Manager, Production; Carol Terman, Copy Editor; Kathy Dragolich, Production Supervisor; and Scott Henry, Assistant Director, Reference Publications. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kaufman, J. G. (John Gilbert), 1931Introducton to aluminum alloys and tempers / J. Gilbert Kaufman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Aluminum alloys. 2. Metals—Heat treatment. I. Title. TA480.A6 K36 2000 620.1’86—dc21 00-056544 ISBN 0-87170-689-X SAN: 204-7586 ASM International® Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 http://www.asminternational.org Printed in the United States of America
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Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii CHAPTER 1: Introduction: The Nature of the Problem . . . . . . . 1 The Keys to Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of Wrought Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of Cast Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definitions for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . Applications of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Microscopy of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . Units and Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
.2 .3 .5 .5 .7 .7 .7
CHAPTER 2: Aluminum Alloy and Temper Designation Systems of the Aluminum Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Wrought Aluminum Alloy Designation System . . . . . . . . . . . Cast Aluminum Alloys Designation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . Designations for Experimental Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . Aluminum Alloy Temper Designation System . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Temper Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subdivisions of the Basic Tempers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. 10 . 11 . 16 . 16 . 16 . 17 . 22
CHAPTER 3: Understanding Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 The Wrought Alloy Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How the System is Applied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principal Alloying Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Wrought Alloy Strengthening Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Wrought Alloy Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Characteristics Related to Principal Alloying Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Wrought Alloy Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . Links to Earlier Alloy Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unified Numbering System (UNS) Alloy Designation System for Wrought Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Cast Alloy Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
. . . 23 . . . 23 . . . 25 . . . 25 . . . 26 . . . 28 . . . 30 . . . 31 . . . 31 . . . 32
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How the Current Aluminum Cast Alloy Designation System is Applied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Cast Alloy Strengthening Mechanisms . . . . . . Understanding Cast Alloy Advantages and Limitations . . . . . Examples of the Use of Variations in Cast Alloy Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alloys for Different Casting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Characteristics Related to Composition . . . . . . . . . . . Evolution of the Aluminum Cast Alloy Designation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UNS Alloy Designation System for Cast Alloys . . . . . . . . . .
. 32 . 33 . 34 . 35 . 35 . 35 . 35 . 36
CHAPTER 4: Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Tempers for Wrought Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Review of the Basic Tempers for Wrought Alloys . . . . . . . . Subdivisions of the Basic Tempers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tempers Designating Residual Stress Relief of Heat Treated Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temper Designations Identifying Modifications in Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Designations Indicating Heat Treatment by User . . . . . . . . . Tempers Identifying Additional Cold Work between Quenching and Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tempers Identifying Additional Cold Work Following Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tempers Designating Special Corrosion-Resistant Tempers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temper Designation for Special or Premium Properties . . . . . Tempers for Cast Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Review of the Basic Tempers for Cast Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . Subdivisions of the Basic Temper Types for Cast Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Importance to Understanding Aluminum Tempers . . . . . . . . . .
. 39 . 57 . 60 . 67 . 68 . 68 . 70 . 70 . 71 . 71 . 73 . 73 . 74 . 76
CHAPTER 5: Understanding Aluminum Fabricating Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Ingot and Billet Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strip and Slab Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hot and Cold Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cast Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Permanent Mold Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sand Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. 77 . 78 . 78 . 79 . 79 . 80 . 80 . 81
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Investment Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combinations of Casting and Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. 82 . 83 . 84 . 84
CHAPTER 6: Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Applications by Alloy Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Wrought Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Cast Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Applications by Market Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Electrical Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Building and Construction Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Transportation Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Marine Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Rail Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Packaging Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Petroleum and Chemical Industry Components . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Other Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 CHAPTER 7: Representative Micrographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Wrought Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Welded Wrought Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brazed Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cast Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Welded Cast Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Welded Wrought-To-Cast Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Welded Aluminum To Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Welded Aluminum to Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. 120 . 153 . 162 . 164 . 181 . 182 . 184 . 184
CHAPTER 8: Selected References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Alloy Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Cast Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Wrought Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
v
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180)
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ASM International Technical Books Committee (1999-2000) Sunniva R. Collins (Chair) Swagelok/Nupro Company Eugen Abramovici Bombadier Aerospace (Canadair) A.S Brar Seagate Technology Inc. Ngai Mun Chow Det Norske Veritas Pte Ltd. Seetharama C. Deevi Phillip Morris, USA Bradley J. Diak Queen’s University Dov B. Goldman Precision World Products James F.R. Grochmal Metallurgical Perspectives Nguyen P. Hung Nanyang Technological University Serope Kalpakjian Illinois Institute of Technology
Gordon Lippa North Star Casteel Jacques Masounave Université du Québec Charles A. Parker (Vice Chair) AlliedSignal Aircraft Landing Systems K. Bhanu Sankara Rao Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research Mel M. Schwartz Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation (retired) Peter F. Timmins University College of the Fraser Valley George F. Vander Voort Buehler Ltd.
vi
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180)
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Preface The idea for this timely reference book was originally suggested by Tom Croucher, a California-based consulting metallurgist. Dr. Croucher and Harry Chandler of ASM International provided input for the first draft version. I broadened it out substantially to cover the understanding of the advantages and limitations of aluminum alloy/temper combinations in terms of the relationship of their composition, process history, and microstructure to service requirements. I would like to acknowledge Dr. John A. S. Green and the Aluminum Association, Inc. for making available critically important material for inclusion in this book. Among the Aluminum Association publications used as key references, notably on the alloy and temper designation system and aluminum terminology, were the following: O Aluminum Standards and Data O Standards for Aluminum Sand and Permanent Mold Castings O Aluminum: Technology, Applications, and Environment More complete citations to these and other reference materials are given in the Selected References, Chapter 8. Among the ASM International books used as major sources, most notably for micrographs, are the following: O Heat Treater’s Guide: Practices and Procedures for Nonferrous Alloys O ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Finally, I want to acknowledge the publications of the American Foundrymen’s Society, Inc. and the Diecasting Development Council, whose publications Aluminum Casting Technology and Product Design for Die Casting, respectively, provided excellent resources for casting terminology and descriptions of casting procedures. J. Gilbert Kaufman Columbus, Ohio
vii
Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers J. Gilbert Kaufman, p1-8 DOI:10.1361/iaat2000p001
CHAPTER
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1
Introduction: The Nature of the Problem THE NEED FOR THIS BOOK stems directly from the increasing use of aluminum and aluminum alloys in automobiles and a great variety of other products that we encounter in everyday living. The excellent combination of light weight, high strength, great corrosion resistance, and reasonable cost has made aluminum and its alloys one of the most commonly used metal groups. Whereas weight saving by substituting light metals for heavy metals has been standard practice for generations in critical aerospace structures, it has now reached top priority status in a variety of other industries, including those manufacturing cars, trucks, military vehicles, aviation ground support vehicles, munitions, building and highway structures, and construction equipment. The transition from heretofore more widely used iron and steel can be especially difficult for those with little or no experience with aluminum and aluminum alloys. Of necessity, they must become conversant with a new alloy designation system and, perhaps even more importantly, with a great number and variety of tempers, the designations for which provide background on how the alloys have been produced to obtain the desired properties and characteristics. The positive news is twofold. First, contrary to the case for other metals, there are widely accepted alloy and temper designation systems for aluminum, created and maintained by the Aluminum Association, that are used throughout the aluminum industry. Those systems are published in the Aluminum Association publication Aluminum Standards and Data (see Chapter 8, “Selected References”) and are recognized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as the American National Standard Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum (see Chapter 8). The second item of positive news is that, with a little concentration, the aluminum alloy and temper designation systems are consistent, logical, and easily understood.
2 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
The Aluminum Association maintains the alloy and temper designations systems and, in fact, is accredited by ANSI to carry out this role for the United States. The procedures for registering alloys and tempers, and a record of the alloys and tempers registered, are published in Alloy and Temper Registration Records (see Chapter 8) and are available at minimal cost for any producer or user to track. Further, standard aluminum tempers that have been registered with the Aluminum Association and are in widest use are described in Aluminum Standards and Data. An additional complication to be dealt with is the fact that, typically, each country around the world has its own designations system for aluminum alloys and tempers. Fortunately, great progress is being made in improving that situation, and the Aluminum Association’s alloy designation system is now recognized by about 90% of the world’s aluminum industry. The publication Recommendation: International Designation System for Wrought Aluminum and Wrought Aluminum Alloys (see Chapter 8) has been accepted almost universally, and progress is slowly being made in broadening the agreement to cast alloys and certain basic temper designations as well. Regrettably, however, experience indicates that full acceptance of universal equivalents has not yet been completed, and situations requiring producers and buyers to discuss clarifications can still occur.
The Keys to Understanding Thus, the principal keys to gaining a good introduction to aluminum alloys and tempers are knowledge and understanding of the alloy and temper designations systems themselves. The main mission of this book is to build upon the information available in sources such as The Aluminum Association Alloy and Temper Registration Records and Aluminum Standards and Data to shed more light and understanding on the characteristics, production technology, and applications for the most commonly used aluminum alloys and tempers. To accomplish this, the basic aluminum alloy and temper designation systems, as developed by the Aluminum Association and documented in Aluminum Standards and Data and ANSI H35.1, are presented in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 explains the alloy designation system in greater detail with examples, and Chapter 4 covers the temper designation system in a similar manner. The processes used to produce aluminum alloy products are described briefly in Chapter 5, and representative applications are described in Chapter 6. We want to emphasize that the real authority on aluminum alloys and tempers is the Aluminum Association Technical Committee on Product Standards (TCPS), the group that, on behalf of the Aluminum Associa-
Introduction: The Nature of the Problem / 3
tion, maintains the alloy and temper designation systems and registers new alloys and tempers as they come along. At times, there is an unfortunate tendency on the part of some producers and fabricators to intentionally or unintentionally create their own designations for aluminum alloys and tempers and to do so in a style that misleadingly suggests that the newly created designations have been recognized by the industry as a whole through the registration process. This is unethical and improper because it misleads producers and users alike as to the heritage of the designation and dilutes the value of systems based on uniformity and industry standards. The independent creation of either alloy or temper designations without the complete registration process defined by the Aluminum Association and ANSI H35.1 is to be avoided. Any questions or decisions needed on existing or new registrations should be directed to that group at the following address: Aluminum Association Technical Committee on Product Standards The Aluminum Association, Inc. 900 Nineteenth Street, NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20006 We want to emphasize that the mission of this publication is to provide a brief introduction to aluminum alloys, including their applications. For more detail on the various aspects of this subject, readers are encouraged to consult the selected references in Chapter 8, particularly the complete treatise on the aluminum industry by D.G. Altenpohl, Aluminum: Technology, Applications, and Environment.
Characteristics of Wrought Aluminum Alloys It is appropriate to briefly note at this stage some of the basic characteristics of wrought aluminum alloys that make them desirable candidates for a wide range of applications. Wrought alloys are addressed first, then cast alloys. Corrosion Resistance. As a result of a naturally occurring tenacious surface oxide film, many aluminum alloys provide exceptional resistance to corrosion in many atmospheric and chemical environments. Alloys of the 1xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx, and 6xxx systems are especially favorable in this respect and are even used in applications where they are in direct contact with seawater and antiskid salts. Thermal Conductivity. Aluminum and aluminum alloys are good conductors of heat, and while they melt at lower temperatures than steels, approximately 535 °C (1000 °F). They are slower than steel to reach very high temperatures in fire exposure.
4 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Electrical Conductivity. Pure aluminum and some of its alloys have exceptionally high electrical conductivity (i.e., very low electrical resistivity), second only to copper among common metals as conductors. Strength/Weight Ratio. The combination of relatively high strength with low density means a high strength efficiency for aluminum alloys and many opportunities for replacement of heavier metals with no loss (and perhaps a gain) in load-carrying capacity. This characteristic, combined with excellent corrosion resistance and recyclability, has led to the broad use of aluminum in containers, aircraft, and automotive applications. Fracture Toughness and Energy Absorption Capacity. Many aluminum alloys are exceptionally tough and make excellent choices for critical applications where resistance to brittle fracture and unstable crack growth are imperatives. Alloys of the 5xxx series, for example, are prime choices for liquefied natural gas tankage. In addition, special hightoughness versions of aircraft alloys, such as 2124, 7050, and 7475, replace the standard versions of these alloys for critical bulkhead applications. Cryogenic Toughness. Aluminum alloys, especially of the 3xxx, 5xxx, and 6xxx series, are ideal for very low temperature applications because of the detailed documentation that their ductility and toughness, as well as strength, are higher at subzero temperatures, even down to near absolute zero, than at room temperature. Workability. Aluminum alloys are readily workable by a great variety of metalworking technologies and are especially amenable to extrusion (the process of forcing heated metal through shaped dies to produce specific shaped sections). This characteristic enables aluminum to be produced in a remarkable variety of shapes in which the metal can be placed in locations where it can most efficiently carry the applied loads. Ease of Joining. Aluminum alloys can be joined by a very broad variety of commercial methods, including welding, brazing, soldering, riveting, bolting, and even nailing, in addition to an unlimited variety of mechanical procedures. Welding, while considered difficult by those familiar only with joining steel and who try to apply the same techniques to aluminum, is particularly easy when performed by proven techniques such as gas metal arc welding (GMAW or MIG) or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW or TIG). Recyclability. Aluminum and aluminum alloys are among the easiest to recycle of any structural materials. They are recyclable in the truest sense, unlike materials that are reused but in lower-quality products; aluminum alloys may be recycled directly back into the same high-quality products, such as rigid containers, sheet, and automotive components.
Introduction: The Nature of the Problem / 5
Characteristics of Cast Aluminum Alloys The desirable characteristics of wrought alloys also are generally applicable to cast alloys, but in fact, the choice of one casting alloy over another tends to be determined by the relative abilities of the alloy to meet one or more of the following characteristics: O Ease of casting O Strength O Quality of finish Unfortunately, few alloys or alloy series possess all three characteristics, but some generalizations may be made. Ease of Casting. The high-silicon 3xx.x series are outstanding in this respect because their relatively high silicon contents lend a characteristic of good flow and mold-filling capability. As a result, the 3xx.x series are the most widely used and especially chosen for large and very complex castings. Strength. The 2xx.x alloys typically provide the very highest strengths but are more difficult to cast and lack good surface characteristics. Therefore, their use usually is limited to situations where expert casting techniques can be applied and where strength and toughness are at a premium, such as in the aerospace industry. Finish. The 5xx.x and 7xx.x series are noteworthy for the fine finish they provide, but they are more difficult to cast than the 3xx.x series and so usually are limited to those applications where that finish is paramount. A good example is the use of 7xx.x alloys for bearings.
Definitions for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
A few of the most useful definitions for aluminum and aluminum alloys and products applicable to the discussion in this book are listed in this section. A more complete listing of applicable terminology is included in the Appendix. The definitions included therein are taken primarily from Aluminum Standards and Data, with some additions from Product Design for Die Casting in Recyclable Aluminum, Magnesium, Zinc, and ZA Alloys and Aluminum Casting Technology (Chapter 8, “Selected References,” contains details). Some widely used definitions include: O Commercially pure aluminum: Commercially pure (CP) aluminum contains a minimum of 99% “pure” metal. Various specialty grades of
6 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O
O
O
O
O
O
higher purity exist for use in special applications, up to and including the “six nines” aluminum (i.e., 99.9999% pure aluminum). Aluminum alloy: A substance having metallic properties and composed of two or more elements of which at least one is an elemental metal. Most aluminum alloys contain 90 to 96% aluminum, with one or more other elements added to provide a specific combination of properties and characteristics. It is quite usual to have several minor alloying elements in addition to one or two major alloying elements to impart special fabrication or performance characteristics. Strain-hardenable aluminum alloy: This is the type of alloy for which the major and minor alloying elements do not provide significant solid solution and precipitation strengthening during any type of thermal treatment and which, therefore, must be strengthened principally by strain hardening (i.e., by cold rolling or drawing). These alloys are referred to as strain hardenable. Heat treatable aluminum alloy: For this type of alloy, the major, and perhaps some minor, alloying elements do provide significant solid solution and precipitation strengthening during solution heat treatment and subsequent aging. These alloys are referred to as heat treatable. Wrought aluminum alloy: This term is applied to alloys produced in ingot or billet form and subsequently worked by any of a number of processes such as rolling, extruding, forging, drawing, or other metalworking process to produce semifinished products from which end-use products are subsequently made. Cast aluminum alloy: This term is used in the context of this reference to mean alloys that generally are used in parts cast to final or near-final shape and to the ingot from which such castings are made. Generally speaking, cast alloy compositions are not used for subsequent rolling, extrusion, forging, or other metal shaping processes. Casting as discussed herein does not generally apply to the production of ingots, billets, or other stock primarily intended for subsequent metalworking. Specification Limits and Test Directions: Most aluminum alloy specifications include tensile property limits, which individual lots are expected to equal or exceed in 99% of the instances with 95% confidence. Tensile test specimens used for such determinations have prescribed specimen directions or orientations. The standard orientations most often referred to in material specifications and in testing documents and reports in general are the following: a. Longitudinal: The axis of the specimen is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the product and to the direction of major grain flow in the product. b. Long transverse: The axis of the specimen is normal to the longitudinal axis of the product and to the direction of major grain flow in the product, and it is within the major plane of the product.
Introduction: The Nature of the Problem / 7
In relatively thin sections, this orientation may be referred to simply as the transverse direction. c. Short transverse: The axis of the specimen is normal to the major plane of the product, and thus normal to both the longitudinal and long transverse directions. This orientation is used only when products are thick enough to permit the taking of practical specimen sizes. All tensile tests and, in fact, all mechanical tests, are made in accordance with the appropriate ASTM standard test procedures as presented in the Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
Applications of Aluminum Alloys It is useful in gaining an improved understanding of the alloy and temper designations for aluminum alloys to look at a variety of typical applications for a variety of the alloys in various tempers. Accordingly, the applications are reviewed in Chapter 6, both by alloy type and by market area. This review provides additional insight into the advantages and disadvantages of the various alloy groups and illustrates the application of specific tempers for specific performance needs. Many of the examples included herein are taken from D.G. Altenpohl’s book, Aluminum: Technology, Applications and Environment, and readers looking for additional details on the variety of applications of aluminum, as well as a greater understanding of the aluminum industry in total, are encouraged to consult that reference.
Microscopy of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys To further assist the reader in understanding the principles of the alloy and temper designation systems and the consequences of applying the production technology implied by the temper designations, a catalog of micrographs is included in Chapter 7 of this book. While not exhaustively representing all alloys and tempers referenced in the text, a good cross section of the aluminum alloys and tempers discussed in this text is included.
Units and Unit Conversion The reader will note that the normal procedures for handling English/ engineering and metric units in ASM publications are not followed in this book. Rather, in this book about aluminum alloys, tempers, products, and applications, the standard procedures of the aluminum industry as
8 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
documented by the publications of the Aluminum Association have been followed. These procedures are described briefly as follows. For wrought aluminum alloy products, the U.S. aluminum industry elected upon establishing metric standards for aluminum and aluminum alloy products to develop property limits and product dimensions in normal rounded values the way they would be found in a metric environment, a practice known as “hard conversion.” This is in sharp contrast to the much less useful procedure known as “soft conversion” of using the odd numbers that result from direct calculation from the English/engineering values. As a result, when tables of properties for wrought alloys are presented herein (e.g., Tables 2 and 2M in Chapter 4), two separate tables are shown, one of English/engineering units, and one in metric/International Standard units. These may not be readily converted back and forth since each represents a separate but compatible set of standards. The practice followed in this book is completely consistent with that followed by the Aluminum Association, Inc., in publishing two complete sets of the standards for wrought alloys for the industry, one in each units system. For additional, more detailed information on industry practices, the reader is referred to Aluminum Standards and Data and Aluminum Standards and Data 1998 Metric SI. For aluminum alloy castings, metric (SI) conversions used by the aluminum industry are rounded soft (direct) conversions with rounding to represent comparable rounding used in the English/engineering system. Metric values are calculated using the exact conversion factors and then rounded to the nearest five megapascals, (i.e., 5 MPa, which is similar to rounding to the nearest thousand psi [ksi]) for strengths and nearest gigapascals (i.e., 1 MPa ⫻ 106, or GPa) for moduli. For both wrought and cast aluminum alloys, elongations are about 5 to 10% lower when determined in accordance with international standard methods compatible with the metric system (i.e., using gage lengths of 5D [five times the specimen diameter] rather than 4D as with engineering methods). Accordingly, elongations are reported at about 10% lower in metric (SI) tables. Note that this is not the result of a calculated conversion as for strength or modulus, but the result of a difference in the standard tensile test procedure.
Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers J. Gilbert Kaufman, p9-22 DOI:10.1361/iaat2000p009
CHAPTER
Copyright © 2000 ASM International® All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org
2
Aluminum Alloy and Temper Designation Systems of the Aluminum Association IT IS VERY USEFUL for secondary fabricators and users of aluminum products and components to have a working knowledge of the Aluminum Association alloy and temper designation systems. The alloy system provides a standard form for alloy identification that enables the user to understand a great deal about the chemical composition and characteristics of the alloy. Similarly, the temper designation system permits an understanding of the manner in which the product has been fabricated. The alloy and temper designation systems for wrought aluminum that are in use today were adopted by the aluminum industry around 1955, and the current system for the cast aluminum system was developed somewhat later. The aluminum industry itself manages the creation and continuing maintenance of these systems through its industry organization, the Aluminum Association. This chapter describes the basic systems as defined and maintained by that organization. The alloy registration process is carefully controlled and its integrity maintained by the Technical Committee on Product Standards of the Aluminum Association. This committee is made up of industry standards experts. Further, as noted earlier, the Aluminum Association designation system is the basis of the ANSI Standards, incorporated in ANSI H35.1 and, for the wrought alloy system at least, forms the basis for the nearly worldwide International Accord on Alloy Designations. The Aluminum Association Alloy and Temper Designation Systems covered in ANSI H35.1 and Aluminum Standards and Data are outlined in this chapter. Additional information is provided in subsequent chapters
10 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
to assist in understanding and using the systems, as well as recognizing the meanings of the designations themselves.
Wrought Aluminum Alloy Designation System
The Aluminum Association Wrought Alloy Designation System consists of four numerical digits, sometimes including alphabetic prefixes or suffixes, but normally just the four numbers: O The first digit defines the major alloying class of the series starting with that number. O The second defines variations in the original basic alloy: that digit is always a zero (0) for the original composition, a one (1) for the first variation, a two (2) for the second variation, and so forth. Variations are typically defined by differences in one or more alloying elements of 0.15 to 0.50% or more, depending on the level of the added element. O The third and fourth digits designate the specific alloy within the series; there is no special significance to the values of those digits, nor are they necessarily used in sequence. Table 1 shows the meaning of the first of the four digits in the alloy designation system. The alloy family is identified by that number and the associated main alloying ingredient(s), with three exceptions: O Members of the 1000 series family are commercially pure aluminum or special purity versions and as such do not typically have any alloying elements intentionally added; however, they do contain minor impurities that are not removed unless the intended application requires it. O The 8000 series family is an “other elements” series comprising alloys with rather unusual major alloying elements such as iron and nickel. O The 9000 series is unassigned.
Table 1 Main alloying elements in the wrought alloy designation system Alloy
Main alloying element
1xxx
Mostly pure aluminum; no major alloying additions
2xxx
Copper
3xxx
Manganese
4xxx
Silicon
5xxx
Magnesium
6xxx
Magnesium and silicon
7xxx
Zinc
8xxx
Other elements (e.g., iron or tin)
9xxx
Unassigned
Aluminum Alloy and Temper Designation Systems of the Aluminum Association / 11
The major benefit for understanding this designation system is that a great deal will be known about the alloy just from knowledge of the series of which it is a member, for example: O 1xxx series alloys are pure aluminum and its variations; compositions of 99.0% or more aluminum are by definition in this series. Within the 1xxx series, the last two of the four digits in the designation indicate the minimum aluminum percentage. These digits are the same as the two digits to the right of the decimal point in the minimum aluminum percentage specified for the designation when expressed to the nearest 0.01%. As with the rest of the alloy series, the second digit indicates modifications in impurity limits or intentionally added elements. Compositions of the 1xxx series do not respond to any solution heat treatment but may be strengthened modestly by strain hardening. O 2xxx series alloys have copper as their main alloying element, and because copper will go in significant amounts into solid solution in aluminum, these alloys will respond to solution heat treatment and are referred to as heat treatable. O 3xxx series alloys are based on manganese and are strain hardenable. These alloys do not respond to solution heat treatment. O 4xxx series alloys are based on silicon; some alloys are heat treatable, others are not, depending on the amount of silicon and the other alloying constituents. O 5xxx series alloys are based on magnesium. They are strain hardenable, but not heat treatable. O 6xxx series alloys have both magnesium and silicon as their main alloying elements, which combine as magnesium silicide (Mg2Si) following solid solution. Alloys in this series are heat treatable. O 7xxx series alloys have zinc as their main alloying element, often with significant amounts of copper and magnesium. They are heat treatable. O 8xxx series contain one or more of several less frequently used major alloying elements such as iron or tin. The characteristics of this series depend on the major alloying element(s). The compositions of a representative group of widely used commercial aluminum alloys are given in Table 2, taken from Aluminum Standards and Data (see Chapter 8, “Selected References”).
Cast Aluminum Alloys Designation System The designation system for cast aluminum alloys is similar in some respects to that for wrought alloys but has a few very important differences as noted by the following description.
12 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 2
Nominal chemical composition of wrought aluminum alloys Percent of alloying elements; aluminum and normal impurities constitute remainder
Alloy
Silicon
Copper
Nickel
Zinc
Titanium
1050
...
...
Manganese
99.50% min aluminum
Magnesium
Chromium
...
...
...
1060
...
...
99.60% min aluminum
...
...
...
1100
...
0.12
99.0% min aluminum
...
...
...
1145
...
...
99.45% min aluminum
...
...
...
1175
...
...
99.75% min aluminum
...
...
...
1200
...
...
99.00% min aluminum
...
...
...
1230
...
...
99.30% min aluminum
...
...
...
1235
...
...
99.35% min aluminum
...
...
...
1345
...
...
99.45% min aluminum
...
...
...
1350(a)
...
...
99.50% min aluminum
...
...
...
2011(b)
...
5.5
2014
0.8
4.4
2017
0.50
4.0
2018
...
4.0
2024
...
2025
...
...
...
...
...
...
0.8
0.50
...
...
...
...
0.7
0.6
...
...
...
...
...
0.7
...
2.0
...
...
4.4
0.6
1.5
...
...
...
...
0.8
4.4
0.8
...
...
...
...
...
2036
...
2.6
0.25
0.45
...
...
...
...
2117
...
2.6
...
0.35
...
...
...
...
2124
...
4.4
0.6
1.5
...
...
...
...
2218
...
4.0
...
1.5
...
2.0
...
...
2219(c)
...
6.3
0.30
...
...
...
...
0.06
2319(c)
...
6.3
0.30
...
...
...
...
0.15
2618(d)
0.18
2.3
...
1.6
...
1.0
...
0.07
3003
...
0.12
1.2
...
...
...
...
...
3004
...
...
1.2
1.0
...
...
...
...
3005
...
...
1.2
0.40
...
...
...
...
3105
...
...
0.6
0.50
...
...
...
...
4032
12.2
0.9
...
1.0
...
0.9
...
...
4043
5.2
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
4045
10.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
4047
12.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
4145
10.0
4.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
4343
7.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
4643
4.1
...
...
0.20
...
...
...
...
5005
...
...
...
0.8
...
...
...
...
5050
...
...
...
1.4
...
...
...
...
5052
...
...
...
2.5
0.25
...
...
...
5056
...
...
0.12
5.0
0.12
...
...
...
5083
...
...
0.7
4.4
0.15
...
...
...
5086
...
...
0.45
4.0
0.15
...
...
5154
...
...
...
3.5
0.25
...
...
5183
...
...
0.08
4.8
0.15
...
...
...
5252
...
...
...
2.5
...
...
...
...
5254
...
...
...
3.5
0.25
...
...
...
5356
...
...
0.12
5.0
0.12
...
...
0.13
...
(continued) Listed herein are designations and chemical composition limits for some wrought unalloyed aluminum and for wrought aluminum alloys registered with the Aluminum Association. This does not include all alloys registered with the Aluminum Association. A complete list of registered designations is contained in the Registration Record of International Alloy Designations and Chemical Composition Limits for Wrought Aluminum and Wrought Aluminum Alloys. These lists are maintained by the Technical Committee on Product Standards of The Aluminum Association. (a) Formerly designated EC. (b) Lead and bismuth, 0.40 each. (c) Vanadium, 0.10; zirconium 0.18. (d) Iron, 1.1. (e) Lead and Bismuth, 0.55 each. (f) Zirconium, 0.14. (g) Zirconium, 0.12. (h) Zirconium, 0.18. (i) Iron, 0.7. (j) Boron, 0.02. (k) Iron, 0.35.
Aluminum Alloy and Temper Designation Systems of the Aluminum Association / 13
Table 2
(continued) Percent of alloying elements; aluminum and normal impurities constitute remainder
Alloy
Silicon
Copper
Manganese
Magnesium
Chromium
Nickel
Zinc
Titanium
5454
...
...
0.08
2.7
0.12
...
...
...
5456
...
...
0.08
5.1
0.12
...
...
...
5457
...
...
0.30
1.0
...
...
...
...
5554
...
...
0.08
2.7
0.12
...
...
0.12
5556
...
...
0.08
5.1
0.12
...
...
0.12
5652
...
...
...
2.5
0.25
...
...
...
5654
...
...
...
3.5
0.25
...
...
0.10
5657
...
...
...
0.8
...
...
...
...
6003
0.7
...
...
1.2
...
...
...
...
6005
0.8
...
...
0.50
...
...
...
...
6053
0.7
...
...
1.2
0.25
...
...
...
6061
0.6
0.28
...
1.0
0.20
...
...
...
6063
0.40
...
...
0.7
...
...
...
...
6066
1.4
1.0
0.8
1.1
...
...
...
...
6070
1.4
0.28
0.7
0.8
...
...
...
...
6101
0.50
...
...
0.6
...
...
...
...
6105
0.8
...
...
0.6
...
...
...
...
6151
0.9
...
...
0.6
0.25
...
...
...
6162
0.6
...
...
0.9
...
...
...
...
6201
0.7
...
...
0.8
...
...
...
...
6253
0.7
...
...
1.2
0.25
...
2.0
...
6262(e)
0.6
0.28
...
1.0
0.09
...
...
...
6351
1.0
...
0.6
0.6
...
...
...
...
6463
0.40
...
...
0.7
...
...
...
...
6951
0.35
0.28
...
0.6
...
...
...
...
7005(f)
...
...
0.45
1.4
0.13
...
4.5
0.04
7008
...
...
...
1.0
0.18
...
5.0
...
7049
...
1.6
...
2.4
0.16
...
7.7
...
7050(g)
...
2.3
...
2.2
...
...
6.2
...
7072
...
...
...
...
...
...
1.0
...
7075
...
1.6
...
2.5
0.23
...
5.6
...
7108(h)
...
...
...
1.0
...
...
5.0
...
7175
...
1.6
...
2.5
0.23
...
5.6
...
7178
...
2.0
...
2.8
0.23
...
6.8
...
7475
...
1.6
...
2.2
0.22
...
5.7
...
8017(i)
...
0.15
...
0.03
...
...
...
...
8030(j)
...
0.22
...
...
...
...
...
...
8176(i)
0.09
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
8177(k)
...
...
...
0.08
...
...
...
...
Listed herein are designations and chemical composition limits for some wrought unalloyed aluminum and for wrought aluminum alloys registered with the Aluminum Association. This does not include all alloys registered with the Aluminum Association. A complete list of registered designations is contained in the Registration Record of International Alloy Designations and Chemical Composition Limits for Wrought Aluminum and Wrought Aluminum Alloys. These lists are maintained by the Technical Committee on Product Standards of The Aluminum Association. (a) Formerly designated EC. (b) Lead and bismuth, 0.40 each. (c) Vanadium, 0.10; zirconium 0.18. (d) Iron, 1.1. (e) Lead and Bismuth, 0.55 each. (f) Zirconium, 0.14. (g) Zirconium, 0.12. (h) Zirconium, 0.18. (i) Iron, 0.7. (j) Boron, 0.02. (k) Iron, 0.35.
The cast alloy designation system also has four digits, and the first digit specifies the major alloying constituent(s) as shown in Table 3. However, a decimal point is used between the third and fourth digits to make clear that these are designations used to identify alloys in the form of castings or foundry ingot.
14 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
As for the wrought alloy designation system, the various digits of the cast alloy system convey information about the alloy: O The first digit indicates the alloy group, as can be seen in Table 3. For 2xx.x through 8xx.x alloys, the alloy group is determined by the alloying element present in the greatest mean percentage, except in cases in which the composition being registered qualifies as a modification of a previously registered alloy. Note that in Table 3, the 6xx.x series is shown last and for cast alloys is designated as the unused series. O The second and third digits identify the specific aluminum alloy or, for the aluminum 1xx.x series, indicate purity. If the greatest mean percentage is common to more than one alloying element, the alloy group is determined by the element that comes first in sequence. For the 1xx.x group, the second two of the four digits in the designation indicate the minimum aluminum percentage. These digits are the same as the two digits to the right of the decimal point in the minimum aluminum percentage when expressed to the nearest 0.01%. O The fourth digit indicates the product form: xxx.0 indicates castings, and xxx.1, for the most part, indicates ingot having limits for alloying elements the same as or very similar to those for the alloy in the form of castings. A fourth digit of xxx.2 may be used to indicate that the ingot has composition limits that differ from but fall within the xxx.1 limits; this typically represents the use of tighter limits on certain impurities to achieve specific properties in the finished cast product produced from that ingot. A letter before the numerical designation indicates a modification of the original alloy or an impurity limit. These serial letters are assigned in alphabetical sequence starting with A, but omitting I, O, Q, and X, with X being reserved for experimental alloys. Note that explicit rules have been established for determining whether a proposed composition is a modification of an existing, or whether it is a new, alloy. Table 4 presents the nominal compositions of a representative group of commercial aluminum casting alloys. Table 3
Cast alloy designation system
Alloy
Main alloying element
1xx.x
Pure aluminum, 99.00% max
2xx.x
Copper
3xx.x
Silicon, with added copper and/or magnesium
4xx.x
Silicon
5xx.x
Magnesium
7xx.x
Zinc
8xx.x
Tin
9xx.x
Other elements
6xx.x
Unused series
Aluminum Alloy and Temper Designation Systems of the Aluminum Association / 15
Table 4
Nominal chemical compositions of aluminum alloy castings Percent of alloying elements; aluminum and normal impurities constitute remainder
Alloy
Silicon
Iron
Copper
Manganese
Magnesium
Chromium
Nickel
Zinc
Titanium
Notes
201.0
...
...
4.6
0.35
0.35
...
...
...
0.25
(a)
204.0
...
...
4.6
...
0.25
...
...
...
...
A206.0
...
...
4.6
0.35
0.25
...
...
...
0.22
208.0
3.0
...
4.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
213.0
2.0
1.2
7.0
...
...
...
...
2.5
...
222.0
...
...
10.0
...
0.25
...
...
...
...
224.0
...
...
5.0
0.35
...
...
...
...
...
240.0
...
...
8.0
0.5
6.0
...
0.5
...
...
242.0
...
...
4.0
...
1.5
...
2.0
...
...
A242.0
...
...
4.1
...
1.4
0.20
2.0
...
0.14
295.0
1.1
...
4.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
308.0
5.5
...
4.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
319.0
6.0
...
3.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
328.0
8.0
...
1.5
0.40
0.40
...
...
...
...
332.0
9.5
...
3.0
...
1.0
...
...
...
...
333.0
9.0
...
3.5
...
0.28
...
...
...
...
336.0
12.0
...
1.0
...
1.0
...
2.5
...
...
354.0
9.0
...
1.8
...
0.5
...
...
...
...
355.0
5.0
...
1.25
...
0.5
...
...
...
...
C355.0
5.0
...
1.25
...
0.5
...
...
...
...
356.0
7.0
...
...
...
0.32
...
...
...
...
A356.0
7.0
...
...
...
0.35
...
...
...
...
357.0
7.0
...
...
...
0.52
...
...
...
...
A357.0
7.0
...
...
...
0.55
...
...
...
0.12
359.0
9.0
...
...
...
0.6
...
...
...
...
360.0
9.5
...
...
...
0.5
...
...
...
...
A360.0
9.5
...
...
...
0.5
...
...
...
...
380.0
8.5
...
3.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
A380.0
8.5
...
3.5
...
...
...
...
...
...
383.0
10.5
...
2.5
...
...
...
...
...
... ...
384.0
11.2
...
3.8
...
...
...
...
...
B390.0
17.0
...
4.5
...
0.55
...
...
...
...
413.0
12.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
A413.0
12.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
443.0
5.2
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
B443.0
5.2
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
C443.0
5.2
(e)
A444.0
7.0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
512.0
1.8
...
...
...
4.0
...
...
...
...
513.0
...
...
...
...
4.0
...
...
1.8
...
514.0
...
...
...
...
4.0
...
...
...
...
518.0
...
...
...
...
8.0
...
...
...
...
520.0
...
...
...
...
10.0
...
...
...
...
535.0
...
...
...
.18
6.8
...
...
...
0.18
705.0
...
...
...
0.5
1.6
0.30
...
3.0
...
707.0
...
...
...
0.50
2.1
0.30
...
4.2
...
(b)
(c) (c) (c, d)
(c) (c)
(c)
(f)
(continued) Values are nominal (i.e., average of range of limits for elements for which a range is specified). (a) Also contains 0.7% silver. (b) Also contains 0.10% vanadium and 0.18% zirconium. (c) For this alloy, impurity limits are significantly lower than for the similar alloy listed just above. (d) Also contains 0.055% beryllium. (e) May contain higher iron (up to 2.0% total) than 443.0 and A443.0. (f) Also contains 0.005% beryllium and 0.005% boron. (g) Also contains 6.2% tin.
16 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 4
(continued) Percent of alloying elements; aluminum and normal impurities constitute remainder
Alloy
Silicon
Iron
Copper
Manganese
Magnesium
Chromium
Nickel
Zinc
Titanium
Notes
710.0
...
...
0.50
...
0.7
...
...
6.5
...
711.0
...
1.0
0.50
...
0.35
...
...
6.5
...
712.0
...
...
...
...
0.58
0.50
...
6.0
0.20
713.0
...
...
0.7
...
0.35
...
...
7.5
...
771.0
...
...
...
...
0.9
0.40
...
7.0
0.15
850.0
...
...
1.0
...
...
...
1.0
...
...
(g)
851.0
2.5
...
1.0
...
...
...
0.50
...
...
(g)
852.0
...
...
2.0
...
0.75
...
1.2
...
...
(g)
Values are nominal (i.e., average of range of limits for elements for which a range is specified). (a) Also contains 0.7% silver. (b) Also contains 0.10% vanadium and 0.18% zirconium. (c) For this alloy, impurity limits are significantly lower than for the similar alloy listed just above. (d) Also contains 0.055% beryllium. (e) May contain higher iron (up to 2.0% total) than 443.0 and A443.0. (f) Also contains 0.005% beryllium and 0.005% boron. (g) Also contains 6.2% tin.
Designations for Experimental Aluminum Alloys Experimental alloys of either the wrought or cast aluminum series are indicated with the addition of the prefix X. This prefix is dropped when the alloy is no longer experimental. However, during development and before an alloy is designated as experimental, a new composition may be identified by a serial number assigned by the originating organization. Use of the serial number is discontinued when the composition is registered with the Aluminum Association and the ANSI H35.1 designation is assigned.
Aluminum Alloy Temper Designation System Basic Temper Designations The temper designation is always presented immediately following the alloy designation with a hyphen between the designation and the temper (e.g., 2014-T6). The first character in the temper designation is a capital letter indicating the general class of treatment. The designations are defined and described as follows: O F, as fabricated: Applies to wrought or cast products made by shaping processes in which there is no special control over thermal conditions or strain-hardening processes employed to achieve specific properties. For wrought alloys there are no mechanical property limits associated with this temper, although for cast alloys there generally are. O O, annealed: Applies to wrought products that are annealed to obtain the lower strength temper, usually to increase subsequent workability. The O applies to cast products that are annealed to improve ductility
Aluminum Alloy and Temper Designation Systems of the Aluminum Association / 17
and dimensional stability and may be followed by a digit other than zero. O H, strain hardened: Applies to products that have their strength increased by strain hardening. They may or may not have supplementary thermal treatments to produce some reduction in strength. The H is always followed by two or more digits. O W, solution heat treated: Applies only to alloys that age spontaneously after solution heat treating. This designation is specific only when digits are used in combination with W to indicate the period of natural aging, for example, W 1⁄2 hr. O T, thermally treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H: Applies to products that are thermally treated, with or without supplementary strain hardening, to produce stable tempers. The T is always followed by one or more digits.
Subdivisions of the Basic Tempers The temper designation system is based on sequences of basic treatments used to produce different tempers and their variations. Subdivisions of the basic tempers, discussed next, are indicated by one or more digits (descriptor digits) following the letter. Subdivisions of the Basic H Tempers. The first number(s) following the letter designation indicates the specific combination of basic operations: O H1, strain hardened only: Applies to products that have been strain hardened to obtain a desired level of strength without a supplementary thermal treatment. The number following H1 indicates degree of strain hardening. O H2, strain hardened and partially annealed: Applies to products that have been strain hardened more than the desired final amount, and their strength is reduced to the desired level by partial annealing. The number added to H2 indicates the degree of strain hardening remaining after partial annealing. O H3, strain hardened and stabilized: Applies to products that have been strain hardened and then stabilized either by a low temperature thermal treatment, or as a result of heat introduced during fabrication of the product. Stabilization usually improves ductility. The H3 temper is used only for those alloys that will gradually age soften at room temperature if they are not stabilized. The number added to H3 indicates the degree of strain hardening remaining after stabilization. O H4, strain hardened and lacquered or painted: Applies to products that are strain hardened and that have been subjected to heat during subsequent painting or lacquering operations. The number added to H4 indicates the amount of strain hardening left after painting or lacquering.
18 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Adding Additional Digits: H Temper. A digit following H1, H2, H3, or H4 indicates the degree of strain hardening as identified or indicated by the minimum value for tensile strength: O The hardest temper normally produced is indicated by adding the numeral 8 (i.e., HX8). O A degree of cold work equal to approximately one-half that for the HX8 temper is indicated by the HX4 temper, and so on. O For a degree of cold work halfway between the O temper and the HX4 temper, the HX2 temper is used. O For a degree of cold work halfway between HX4 and HX8, the HX6 temper is used. O The numbers 1, 3, 5, and 7, similarly, designate tempers intermediate between those just listed. O The numeral 9 is used to indicate tempers that exceed those of HX8 by 14 MPa (2 ksi) or more. Table 5 indicates gains in the tensile strength of wrought alloys in the annealed temper when they are treated to the HX8 temper. Several three-digit H tempers also have been standardized. For all strain-hardenable alloys, the following three-digit designations are recognized: O HX11: Applies to products that incur sufficient strain hardening after the final anneal such that they fail to qualify as annealed, but not so much or so consistent an amount of strain that they qualify as HX1. O H112: Applies to products that may acquire some temper from working at an elevated temperature and for which there are mechanical property limits. Other recognized three-digit H tempers apply to types of sheet, as shown in Table 6. Table 5
Tensile strengths of HX8 tempers
Minimum tensile strength in annealed temper, ksi
Up to 6 7–9 10–12
Increase in tensile strength to HX8 temper, ksi
8 9 10
13–15
11
16–18
12
19–24
13
25–20
14
31–36
15
37–42
16
43 and over
17
Aluminum Alloy and Temper Designation Systems of the Aluminum Association / 19
Table 5M (metric)
Tensile strengths of HX8 tempers
Minimum tensile strength in annealed temper, mPa
Increase in tensile strength to HX8 temper, mPa
Up to 40
55
45–60
62
65–80
69
85–100
76
105–120
83
125–160
90
165–200
97
205–240
103
245–280
110
285–320
115
296 and over
120
Subdivisions of the Basic T Temper. The first number(s) following the letter T designation indicates the specific combination of basic operations: O T1, cooled from elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition: Applies to products (a) that are not cold worked after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process or (b) for which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening may not be recognized in mechanical property limits O T2, cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked, and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition: Applies to products (a) that are cold worked to improve strength after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process or (b) for which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening is recognized in mechanical property limits O T3, solution heat treated, cold worked, and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition: Applies to products (a) that are cold worked to improve strength after solution heat treatment or (b) for which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening is recognized in mechanical property limits O T4, solution heat treated and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition: Applies to products (a) that are not cold worked after solution heat treatment or (b) for which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening may not be recognized in mechanical property limits O T5, cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, then artificially aged: Applies to products (a) that are not cold worked after cooling from elevated temperature shaping process or (b) for which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening may not be recognized in mechanical property limits O T6, solution treated, then artificially aged: Applies to products (a) that are not cold worked after solution treatment or (b) for which the effect
20 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O
O
O O
of cold work in flattening or straightening may not be recognized in mechanical property limits T7, solution heat treated and overaged/stabilized: Applies to (a) wrought products that are artificially aged after solution heat treating to increase their strength beyond the maximum value achievable to provide control of some significant property or characteristic or (b) cast products that are artificially aged after solution treatment to provide stability in dimensions and in strength T8, solution heat treated, cold worked, then artificially aged: Applies to products (a) that are cold worked to improve strength or (b) for which the effect of cold work in flattening and straightening is recognized in mechanical property limits T9, solution heat treated, artificially aged, then cold worked: Applies to products that are cold worked to improve strength T10, cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked, then artificially aged: Applies to products (a) that are cold worked to improve strength or (b) for which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening is recognized in mechanical property limits
In all of the T-type temper definitions just described, solution heat treatment is achieved by: O Heating cast or wrought shaped products to a suitable temperature O Holding them at that temperature long enough to allow constituents to enter into solid solution O Cooling them rapidly enough to hold the constituents in solution to take advantage of subsequent precipitation and the associated strengthening (i.e., precipitation hardening) Adding Additional Digits: T Temper. Additional digits, the first of which shall not be zero, may be added to designations T1 through T10 to indicate a variation in treatment that significantly alters the product characteristics that are or would be obtained using the basic treatment. The specific additional digits shown in Table 7 have been assigned for stress-relieved tempers of wrought products. The special T-temper desigTable 6
Tempers for aluminum pattern sheet
Pattern or embossed sheet
Fabricated from
H114
O temper
H124, H224, H324
H11, H21, H31 temper, respectively
H134, H234, H334
H12, H22, H32 temper, respectively
H144, H244, H344
H13, H23, H33 temper, respectively
H154, H254, H354
H14, H24, H34 temper, respectively
H164, H264, H364
H15, H25, H35 temper, respectively
H174, H274, H374
H16, H26, H36 temper, respectively
H184, H284, H384
H17, H27, H37 temper, respectively
H194, H294, H394
H18, H28, H38 temper, respectively
H195, H295, H395
H19, H29, H39 temper, respectively
Aluminum Alloy and Temper Designation Systems of the Aluminum Association / 21
Table 7
Tempers for stress-relieved products
Temper
Application
Stress relieved by stretching TX51
Applies to plate and rolled or cold-finished rod or bar, die or ring forgings, and rolled rings when stretched the indicated amounts after solution heat treatment or after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process. The products receive no further straightening after stretching. Plate, 11⁄2–3% permanent set Rolled or cold-finished rod and bar, 1–3% permanent set Die or ring forgings and rolled rings, 1–5% permanent set
TX510
Applies to extruded rod, bar, profiles (shapes), and tube and to drawn tube when stretched the indicated amounts after solution heat treatment or after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process. These products receive no further straightening after stretching. Extruded rod, bar, profiles (shapes), and tube, 1–3% permanent set Drawn tube, 1⁄2–3% permanent set
TX511
Applies to extruded rod, bar, profiles (shapes), and tube and to drawn tube when stretched the indicated amounts after solution heat treatment or after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process. These products may receive minor straightening after stretching to comply with standard tolerances. Extruded rod, bar, profiles (shapes), and tube, 1–3% permanent set Drawn tube, 1⁄2–3% permanent set
Stress relieved by compressing TX52
Applies to products that are stress relieved by compressing after solution heat treatment or cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process to produce a permanent set of 1–5%.
Stress relieved by combined stretching and compressing TX54
Applies to die forgings that are stress relieved by restriking cold in the finish die.
Same digits (51, 52, 54) may be added to the designation W to indicate unstable solution heat treated and stress-relieved tempers.
nations listed in Table 8 have been assigned for wrought aluminum products from which test materials are taken and heat treated to demonstrate response to heat treatment of the product as a whole. Assigned O-Temper Variations. The following temper designation has been assigned for wrought products that are high-temperature annealed to accentuate ultrasonic response and to provide dimensional stability: O O1, thermally treated at approximately the same time and temperature required for solution heat treatment and slow cooled to room temperature: Applicable to products that are to be machined prior to solution heat treatment by the user. Mechanical property limits are not applicable. Table 8 Temper
T42
Tempers for testing response to heat treatment Description
Solution heat treated from annealed or F temper and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition
T62
Solution heat treated from annealed or F temper and artificially aged
T7X2
Solution heat treated from annealed or F temper and artificially overaged to meet the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance limits of the T7X temper
These temper designations have been assigned for wrought products test material heat-treated from annealed (O, O1, etc.) or F temper to demonstrate response to heat treatment. Temper designations T42 and T62 also may be applied to wrought products heat treated from any temper by the user when such heat treatment results in the mechanical properties applicable to these tempers.
22 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Note: As the O temper is not part of the strain-hardened (H) series, variations of O temper shall not apply to products that are strain hardened after annealing and in which the effect of strain hardening is recognized in the mechanical properties or other characteristics.
Summary This completes an overview of the Aluminum Association Alloy and Temper Designation Systems in the terms described in Aluminum Standards and Data and in ANSI H35.1. In the chapters that follow, we will look at the systems in more detail, discuss the meanings of some of the variations, and provide illustrations of the usage of the systems. With this information, heat treaters, fabricators, and end users of aluminum products should be able to better understand the designations and, hence, the practices used in their particular situations. For more detailed information on any of the discussion presented in this chapter, the reader is referred directly to the master sources (publication information can be found in Chapter 8, “Selected References”): O Aluminum Standards and Data (English/engineering and metric editions) O American National Standard Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum O Standards for Aluminum Sand and Permanent Mold Casting
Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers J. Gilbert Kaufman, p23-37 DOI:10.1361/iaat2000p023
CHAPTER
Copyright © 2000 ASM International® All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org
3
Understanding Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys Designations THE WROUGHT ALLOY DESIGNATION SYSTEM consists of four numerical digits, sometimes preceded by a capital letter as indicated in Chapter 2. The first digit indicates the principal alloying elements, as described in this chapter in the section “Principal Alloying Elements” and Table 1; the second digit is the variation of that alloy; and the last two digits represent the specific alloy designation.
The Wrought Alloy Series How the System is Applied The First Digit. Assignment of the first digit of the designation of a new alloy is fairly straightforward; few judgment decisions are needed unless there are equal amounts of two or more alloys. In the latter case, specific guidance has been provided by the developers of the alloy designation system that the choice of alloy series assigned shall be in the order of copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg), magnesium silicide (Mg2Si), and zinc (Zn). Thus, if a new alloy has equal amounts of manganese and zinc, it will be assigned to the 3xxx series. In such cases, the 6xxx series requires the most judgment because alloys that have more silicon than magnesium, but significant quantities of both, are likely to be placed in the 6xxx series rather than the 4xxx series in establishing properties and characteristics due to the predominance of the magnesium and silicon combination. Thus, for example, alloys such as 6005, 6066, and 6351, all have significantly more silicon than magnesium or other elements, but find themselves in the Mg2Si series.
24 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
The Second Digit. Assignment of the second digit of the alloy designation is related to the variations in a specific alloy, in many cases, tightening of controls on one or more impurities to achieve specific properties. If the second digit is 0, it generally indicates that the aluminum making up the bulk of the alloy is commercially pure aluminum having naturally occurring impurity levels. When the second digit is an integer 1 to 9, it indicates that some special control has been placed on the impurity levels of that variation, or that the range for one of the major alloy elements has been shaded one way or the other to achieve certain performance. However, the sequence has no significance in the composition variation; the digits are assigned sequentially as the situations occur, and the sequence indicates chronology more than level of control. An example of the application of these principles is the alloy set 7075, 7175, 7275, 7375, and 7475. The original alloy was 7075 with commercial quality aluminum; when added fracture toughness was needed, controls on various impurities, notably iron and silicon led to the other variations, of which 7175 and 7475 remain active alloys known for their superior toughness. The Third and Fourth Digits. As noted earlier, the last two digits in the 1xxx series indicate the purity level in terms of the first two digits after the 99.XX% purity of the aluminum used in preparing that composition. Thus, for example, the designation 1060 indicates 99.60% minimum aluminum in that composition. In the remaining 2xxx to 8xxx series, the last two digits have no special significance. They serve only to identify the specific individual alloys and mean nothing in terms of the sequence in which the alloys were developed or registered. Historically, for the older alloys, those digits came from the earlier designations (e.g., 2024 was 24S before 1950). More recently, it has been the tradition that developers of new alloys ask for specific designations, sometimes based on proximity of application to other alloys of the same series or because they judge them easy to remember or such. Alloy 2020, now inactive, is an example of the latter. If the developer asks for a specific number when filing for registration, the Aluminum Association Product Standards Committee, which oversees the system, is likely to agree to the request if no confusion would result. However, if no designation is requested, the committee would likely take the lowest used number in the sequence 1 to 99. The alloy designation system also calls for the use of capital letters in front of the four-digit numerical: O Experimental alloys—X: Early in the development of aluminum alloys, when such development has moved beyond single-company in-house trials, and the alloys are ready for customer trials and/or perhaps multicompany production but are still not sufficiently well understood or documented to become standard alloys, the alloys may be registered,
Understanding Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys Designations / 25
but an X is added to the designation. A historical example was the use of X2020, when the first of the lithium-bearing alloys was put forth in the 1960s. That designation was employed for about ten years before the further use of the alloy was deemed inappropriate and its application was discontinued. Another example is X7050, from which the X was removed once the broad application of the alloy was considered appropriate and the properties and standards were well defined. O Variations—A, B, etc.: Under certain situations when minor variations in alloy compositions are introduced, such variation sometimes is noted with the addition of a capital letter behind the original fournumber designation, rather than a change in the second digit. The only current example of the application of this procedure in commercial practice is 6005A—a modification of alloy 6005. In general, the practice is to reflect such variations with the second digit as noted earlier in this chapter.
Principal Alloying Elements As indicated in Chapter 2 and in the previous discussion, the most obvious characteristic of the alloy series defined by the designation is the major alloying element or elements, as recapped in Table 1. This breakdown leads to the ability to recognize a variety of things about the alloys themselves because each of these elements carries certain characteristics with it into the aluminum system as defined in subsequent paragraphs. Remembering these associations will add immeasurably to understanding the behavior and proper treatments to be given the alloys.
Understanding Wrought Alloy Strengthening Mechanisms The first major piece of information conveyed by understanding the alloy designation system is the manner in which the alloy can be most effectively strengthened. For example, pure aluminum (1xxx) and alloys containing principally manganese (3xxx) or magnesium (5xxx) with only minor amounts of other elements must be strengthened primarily by strain hardening because they Table 1 Main alloying elements in the wrought aluminum alloy designation system Alloy
Main alloying element
1xxx
Mostly pure aluminum; no major alloying additions
2xxx
Copper
3xxx
Manganese
4xxx
Silicon
5xxx
Magnesium
6xxx
Magnesium and silicon
7xxx
Zinc
8xxx
Other elements (e.g., iron and silicon)
9xxx
Unassigned
26 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
do not respond to solution heat treatment. Pure aluminum has no appreciable amounts of any elements that can go into solution to provide solution strengthening or precipitation hardening. And elements such as magnesium, silicon, and manganese, while they are soluble to some degree in aluminum and provide modest solution strengthening, do not provide for an appreciable amount of the more significant precipitation hardening. Thus, for pure aluminum and the 3xxx and 5xxx alloys, cold rolling, stretching, or drawing, or some combination of these, are the principal means of strengthening. On the other hand, elements such as copper (2xxx series), zinc (7xxx series), and magnesium in combination with silicon as Mg2Si (6xxx series) do go into solution to an appreciable degree and provide the opportunity for appreciable precipitation hardening. Thus, solution heat treatment (a high temperature holding to permit the elements to go into solution), followed by a sufficiently rapid quench to keep the elements in solution, and then either natural aging (i.e., at room temperature) or artificial aging (holding in a furnace at a moderately elevated temperature) for precipitation hardening are most often used. The result is that alloy series containing copper (2xxx), magnesium plus silicon (6xxx), or zinc (7xxx) are the higher-strength series. The 4xxx series is somewhat unique in that silicon alone does not provide much heat treating advantage, so most alloys in this series are considered non-heat-treatable. However, in some 4xxx alloys the silicon is present with sufficient amounts of other elements such as magnesium that heat treatment is effective; alloy 4032 is an example. The situation is similar for the 8xxx series; some alloys such as 8017 and 8040 with only small amounts of alloying element are non-heat-treatable, while those such as 8090, with a significant amount of copper are.
Understanding Wrought Alloy Advantages and Limitations In addition to being indicative of specific strengthening mechanisms, the major alloying elements also indicate several things about basic behavioral or performance characteristics of the alloys. It is helpful to a secondary fabricator, heat treater, or user of the various alloys to be knowledgeable about these as well. The following example characteristics may be noted. 1xxx, Pure Aluminum. The compositions in this group have relatively low strength, even when strain hardened; however, they have extremely high ductility and formability and so may be readily worked or formed. The 1xxx series aluminums also have exceptionally high electrical conductivity and resistance to all types of corrosive environments and may be readily joined by a number of commercial processes. 2xxx, Copper. As the principal alloying element in this series, copper provides relatively high strength because it provides solution strengthening and the ability to precipitation harden. Many commercial aluminum
Understanding Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys Designations / 27
alloys contain copper as the principal alloying constituent in concentrations from 1 to 10%. Because these alloys naturally age at room temperature, it is advantageous to do any required working or forming of the metal soon after quenching from solution heat treatment. If a delay is needed, it may be desirable to cool them until the mechanical work can be performed. In the fully hardened (age-hardened) condition, the ductility of 2xxx alloys is generally lower than for some other alloys (except in special variations that are discussed later), and their resistance to atmospheric corrosion is not as good as that of pure aluminum or most non-heattreatable alloys. Unless given special treatments, 2xxx alloys in the T3 and T4 conditions may be susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) when stressed in the short-transverse direction (i.e., normal to the principal plane of grain flow). Precipitation hardening improves resistance to SCC but reduces ductility and toughness. Most aluminum-copper alloys are not readily welded by commercial processes, but a few alloys such as 2219 and 2195 have been developed especially for applications requiring welding. 3xxx, Manganese. Manganese provides only modest strength increase even when strain hardened but relatively high formability and ductility, and very high resistance to corrosion in almost all environments. Alloys of the 3xxx series are readily weldable and are among the best for brazing and soldering applications. Commercial aluminum-manganese alloys contain up to 1.2% manganese, but it is appropriate to note that manganese is commonly employed as a supplementary alloying constituent in alloys of the other series to enhance strength. 4xxx, Silicon. There are two types of silicon-bearing aluminum alloys: those with silicon alone, which are not very strong but provide excellent flow and finishing characteristics, and those that also include copper and/or magnesium as well as silicon and so gain strength by solution heat treatment and aging. The 4xxx alloys are not highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion and tend to “gray” with time in humid environments. Interestingly, this characteristic is used to advantage with finishing techniques such as anodizing to obtain a variety of rich gray shades. Because silicon adds to their “flow” characteristics during working, some 4xxx alloys (e.g., 4032) are used for complex or finely detailed forgings such as pistons. The 4xxx alloys are readily welded and, in fact, include some of the mostly widely used weld filler alloys, another result of their high fluidity. 5xxx, Magnesium. Magnesium additions to aluminum provide among the highest strength non-heat-treatable alloys. These alloys also are exceptionally tough, absorbing lots of energy during fracture, and so
28 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
can be used in critical applications where superior toughness is vital. Alloys of the 5xxx series are readily welded by commercial procedures. Generally, the 5xxx alloys also have excellent resistance to atmospheric and seawater corrosion to the point that they may be used in severe marine environments (as described in more detail in Chapter 6). However, alloys with more than 3% Mg are not recommended for service in which significant exposure to high temperature may be encountered because some sensitization to SCC may develop. For these types of applications, alloys such as 5052, 5454, and 5754 containing less magnesium are recommended. 6xxx, Magnesium Plus Silicon. With both magnesium and silicon present, aluminum forms a quasi-binary section with the Mg2Si phase of the magnesium-silicon system, which in turn provides excellent precipitation-hardening capability. This results in modestly higher strengths than possible with non-heat-treatable alloys, combined with generally excellent corrosion resistance. Alloys of the 6xxx type are among the easiest of aluminum alloys to extrude, and are thus widely used for complex (e.g., multihollow or finned) shapes produced in this manner. In addition, they are readily joined by almost all commercial processes. As with the 2xxx series, some natural aging begins immediately after solution heat treatment, so forming operations should be scheduled soon after the material is quenched. 7xxx, Zinc. Zinc-bearing aluminum alloys, especially when combined with copper and magnesium, provide the highest strengths of any commercial series. As a group, these alloys possess relatively poorer atmospheric corrosion resistance compared with other aluminum alloys and, except for the special versions described later, are less tough and more susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking under short-transverse stressing. Special treatments have been developed to deal with these characteristics and are especially important when the alloys would be subjected to high shorttransverse stresses in service (as described in the following paragraphs). As with the 2xxx and 6xxx series, 7xxx alloys naturally age following heat treatment, so scheduling of any intended forming operations is essential.
Other Characteristics Related to Principal Alloying Element As noted earlier, knowledge of the alloy designation system also provides some information about the properties and characteristics of the alloys. Two notable examples are density and modulus of elasticity: O Density: The density of each aluminum alloy is influenced by the density of each of the individual alloying elements, most especially by the major alloying element indicated by the first number of the
Understanding Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys Designations / 29
designation. The degree of influence is directly related to the percentage of the alloying element present. For example, alloys with magnesium and lithium present are lighter than pure aluminum, while alloys with copper, iron, and zinc are heavier. Those alloys with mostly silicon or silicon combined with magnesium have densities about the same as pure aluminum. In Section 2 of Aluminum Standards and Data, Tables I and II provide both typical density values and procedures for calculating densities. Practical estimates of the density of an alloy also may be made by summing the percentages of each element present multiplied by the respective density of that element (representative values given in Table 2). O Modulus of Elasticity: As in the case of density, the moduli of elasticity of aluminum alloys, with a few exceptions, are influenced by the modulus of elasticity of the alloying elements in direct relation to the amount present. Thus, by summing the percentages of each element present multiplied by the respective modulus, the modulus of the alloy may be estimated. There are two important exceptions—magnesium and lithium; both of these relatively low-modulus elements have the effect of increasing the modulus of aluminum: magnesium by a small amount and lithium by a large amount. Table 3 provides the moduli of the major alloying elements for use in estimating the moduli of alloys in which they are used. It must be emphasized that calculations made on this basis are to be considered to be rough estimates, not suitable for Table 2 Densities of aluminum and aluminum alloying elements Density Alloying element
g/cm3
lb/in.3
Aluminum
2.699
0.0971
Silver
10.49
0.379
Gold
19.32
0.698
Beryllium
1.82
0.066
Bismuth
9.80
0.354
Cadmium
8.65
0.313
Cobalt
8.9
0.32
Chromium
7.19
0.260
Copper
8.96
0.324
Iron
7.87
0.284
Lithium
0.53
0.019
Magnesium
1.74
0.0628
Manganese
7.43
0.268
Molybdenum Nickel Lead Silicon
13.55
0.490
8.90
0.322
11.34
0.410
2.33
0.084
Tin
7.30
0.264
Titanium
4.54
0.164
Zinc
7.13
0.258
Zirconium
6.5
0.23
30 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
design purposes. For design purposes, there is no substitute for precise measurements of modulus in accordance with ASTM Method E 111.
Understanding Wrought Alloy Variations Most wrought alloys start at the mill as cast ingot or billet. The ingot or billet is hot worked into semifabricated wrought products by such processes as hot rolling and extrusion, some of which are further finished by cold rolling or drawing. Wrought alloys are available in a variety of product forms, including sheet, plate, tube, pipe, structural shapes, extrusions, rod, bar, wire, rivets, forging, forging stock, foil, and fin stock. These processes and products are described further in Chapter 6. As stated earlier, the second digit of an alloy designation defines variations of the original alloy composition. Several examples may help to illustrate this point. Example 1. Alloys 2124, 2224, and 2324 are variations, actually higher-purity variations, of alloy 2024. The original alloy has been and continues to be useful for transportation applications, but research metallurgists noted that controlling impurity elements such as iron and silicon enhanced the toughness of the alloy, providing variations especially useful for critical aerospace applications where high fracture toughness is vital. This procedure was adopted first to make 2124, a plate Table 3 Elastic moduli of aluminum and aluminum alloying elements Elastic modulus Alloying element
GPa
106 psi
Aluminum
69
Silver
71
11.0
Gold
78
12.0
Beryllium
10.0
255
37.0
Bismuth
32
4.6
Cadmium
55
8.0
Cobalt
21
30.0
Chromium
248
36.0
Copper
128
16.0
Iron
208
28.5
Lithium
0.7(b)
0.1(b)
Magnesium
44(a)
Manganese
159
23.0
Molybdenum
325
50.0
Nickel
207
30.0
Lead
261
2.6
Silicon
110
16.0
Tin Titanium
6.5(a)
44
6.0
120
16.8
Zinc
69(c)
10(c)
Zirconium
49.3
11.0
(a) Effect of magnesium is equivalent to approximately 75 GPa/11.0 ⫻ 106psi. (b) Effect of lithium is equivalent to approximately 207 GPa/30.0 ⫻ 106psi. (c) The modulus of elasticity of zinc is not well defined; these values are lower-limit estimates.
Understanding Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys Designations / 31
alloy with all the advantages of 2024 but substantially higher elongation and toughness, especially in the short transverse direction. The process was adopted subsequently to create 2324, an alloy for extrusions with similar attributes. Some special processing also may be required for such alloys. Example 2. Alloys 7175 and 7475 are modifications of alloy 7075. Both 7175 and 7475 alloys have the same major alloying elements as 7075 but, as in the case of the 2xxx alloys, scientists learned that control of the impurities and the relationship of the levels of certain minor elements added to the fracture toughness of alloys, making them especially useful for critical aerospace applications. Alloy 7175 has found most of its application in forgings, while 7475 is most often used in applications requiring sheet and plate. Designations 7275 and 7375 were assigned earlier but then discarded and are no longer in commercial use.
Links to Earlier Alloy Designations For reference purposes, it is useful to note that prior to the development of the current Aluminum Association Alloy Designation System, another alloy designation system had been in place. Occasionally, a specification or a component turns up where the older designation still is evident, and it is useful to be able to bridge the gap. The old system for wrought alloy designations consisted of a one or two digit number followed by a capital S. A capital letter in front of the alloy number was used to illustrate a variation of a basic composition. Because it lacked sufficient rigor, flexibility, and consistency, this system was abandoned in the 1950s and replaced by the current system. When the four-digit system was installed, the letters were dropped, and the two surviving numbers became a part of the new system. For example, alloy 17S became alloy 2017, and similarly, alloy 24S became alloy 2024, as illustrated in Table 4, which provides a reference conversion showing both the current and original designations.
Unified Numbering System (UNS) Alloy Designation System for Wrought Alloys The UNS alloy designation system, while not used in most domestic or international commerce, is sometimes cited for information purposes in domestic or international standards, including ASTM material specifications. For both wrought and cast aluminum alloys, the UNS designation is based directly on the Aluminum Association alloy designation system. For wrought alloys, the UNS number is the Aluminum Association designation preceded by “A9.” Thus, for example, alloy 2024 becomes A92024 in the UNS system; 7075 is A97075. The Aluminum Association is the maintainer of the UNS designation system for aluminum alloys.
32 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 4 Comparison of previous and current aluminum alloy designation systems Old designation
Current designation
1S
1100
3S
3003
4S
3004
14S
2014
17S
2017
A17S
2117
24S
2024
25S
2025
26S
2026
32S
4032
50S
5050
B51S
6151
52S
5052
56S
5056
61S
6061
63S
6063
75S
7075
76S
7076
The Cast Alloy Series The cast alloy designation series has a more complex and confusing history than the wrought alloy series, and so, in addition to describing the current alloy designations, some explanation will be given to the several variations of designations still rather widely applied to cast aluminum alloys. This is made more important because the most recent changes in the cast alloy designation system have occurred much more recently than those in the wrought alloy series, so there is a much higher probability that there are many parts in service and specified in drawings identified with earlier designations. There may be many individuals still unaware of the most recent changes. In the material that follows, the current system is discussed first, followed by a look back at earlier designations systems.
How the Current Aluminum Cast Alloy Designation System is Applied The cast alloy designation has four numbers, with a decimal point between the third and fourth numbers and a letter preceding the numbers to indicate variations. The first three numbers indicate the alloy, and the fourth indicates the product form. The first digit identifies the family, based on the series listed in Table 5. For example, a 3xx.x designation represents the group of aluminumsilicon alloys that contain magnesium or copper. As with wrought alloy designations, when there are two major elements in equal percentage in
Understanding Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys Designations / 33
Table 5
Aluminum casting alloys
Series
Alloying element(s)
1xx.x
Unalloyed compositions
2xx.x
Copper
3xx.x
Silicon plus copper and/or magnesium
4xx.x
Silicon
5xx.x
Magnesium
6xx.x
Not used
7xx.x
Zinc
8xx.x
Tin
9xx.x
Other elements
the alloy, the alloy is designated in accordance with the sequence: copper, silicon plus copper and/or magnesium, silicon, magnesium, or zinc. The second and third digits identify a specific alloy of the family. For all except the 1xx.x series, there is no special significance to those numbers; they neither indicate a sequence of any type nor represent any characteristic of the alloy. In some, though not all, instances, the numbers may refer back to an earlier designation system. In the 1xx.x series, the last two digits represent the percentage of aluminum present in terms of the two digits to the right of the decimal point in that percentage; for example, 160.0 represents a casting of 99.60% minimum aluminum, relatively high purity. The final digit following the decimal indicates the product form⫺casting or ingot. If the designation applies to a finished casting, a zero always is used (xxx.0); if it applies to the ingot from which the casting was or will be produced, a 1 or 2 is used (xxx.1 or xxx.2). In the latter case, the xxx.1 designation is the most common and refers to the common commercial composition. The xxx.2 designation usually is limited to those cases where a narrower composition range of one or more of the elements—all within the composition limits for the xxx.1 version—is used to achieve special properties. As an example, alloy 356.0 represents a finished casting of the silicon plus copper and/or magnesium series. The designation 356.1 normally would represent the ingot from which the 356.0 casting was made. Prefix letters such as A or B indicate variations in the composition of casting alloys, but overall similarity. Continuing the example above, alloy A356.0 indicates a variation of 356.0 alloy, but with tighter controls on iron and other impurities. The ingot from which the A356.0 was made may be designated A356.1 or 356.2, both indicating the tighter control at the ingot stage.
Understanding Cast Alloy Strengthening Mechanisms As with wrought alloys, we can note several major characteristics of casting alloys by their alloy class, the first digit of the designation. Response to heat treatment is one important characteristic:
34 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O O O O
1xx.0: 2xx.0: 3xx.0: 4xx.0:
Unalloyed; non-heat-treatable Copper; heat treatable Silicon plus copper and/or magnesium; heat treatable Silicon; heat treatable
O O O O
5xx.0: 6xx.0: 7xx.0: 8xx.0:
Magnesium; non-heat-treatable Unused series Zinc; heat treatable Tin; heat treatable
O 9xx.0: Other elements; limited use Despite these descriptive categorizations, it is appropriate to note that while casting alloys of the 3xx.0 and 4xx.0 groupings are listed as heat treatable, it is not customary in the die-casting industry to use separate solution heat treatment for these alloys. Some strength advantage is gained by the rapid cooling from the casting process, but even this is not usually a closely controlled procedure. On the other hand, sand and permanent mold castings foundries typically take advantage of solution heat treating capabilities. The reader also will note that there is no discussion of strain hardening as a strengthening mechanism for cast alloys. This is simply because the vast majority of castings are produced to near-finished dimensions, and neither the shapes nor the dimensional controls lend themselves to stretching or compression cold work.
Understanding Cast Alloy Advantages and Limitations Based upon the effects of the primary alloying elements, some generalizations may be made about several characteristics of the major classes of aluminum casting alloys. Among the most important such characteristics are those related to castability and to end-product properties and characteristics, as illustrated in Table 6, with ratings from 1 (highest or best) to 5 (lowest or worst). Such ratings are generalizations, and some individual alloys in the groups may exhibit somewhat different behavior. Table 6 Class
Characteristic ratings for cast aluminum alloys Fluidity
Cracking
Tightness
1xx.0
Corrosion
Finishing
1
1
Joining
1
2xx.0
3
4
3
4
1–3
2–4
3xx.0
1–2
1–2
1–2
2–3
3–4
1–3
4xx.0
1
1
1
2–3
4–5
1
5xx.0
5
4
4–5
3
1–2
3
7xx.0
3
4
4
4
1–2
4
8xx.0
4
5
5
5
3
5
Understanding Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys Designations / 35
Examples of the Use of Variations in Cast Alloy Designations In the cast alloy designations more so than in the wrought series, letter prefixes are used to indicate variations. As noted earlier, an excellent example is illustrated by A356.0 as a variation of 356.0. Both are readily castable into complex shapes, but 356.0, because of the relatively greater impurity levels tolerated by its specifications (e.g., 0.6% Fe max), may be more variable in quality, including reduced ductility and toughness. A356.0 is a variation of 356.0 where iron and other impurities are controlled to lower levels (e.g., 0.20% Fe max) with the result that appreciably higher strength, ductility, and toughness are reliably provided. Another example is A357.0 as a low-impurity variation of 357.0, for which the situation is quite parallel.
Alloys for Different Casting Processes There are a variety of processes that can be employed to produce aluminum cast parts, as described in Chapter 5. While many of the alloys can be produced from a wide variety of these processes, commercial die castings are generally limited to a relatively small number of compositions, namely, 360.0, A360.0, 380.0, A380.0, 383.0, 384.0, A384.0, B390.0, 413.0, C443.0, and 518.0.
Other Characteristics Related to Composition As with wrought alloys, both density and elastic modulus are directly related to composition, and the same procedures and rules apply. Reference is thus made to an earlier section in this chapter, “Other Characteristics Related to Principal Alloying Element,” and to Tables 2 and 3 for the procedures on how to estimate these properties from the compositions.
Evolution of the Aluminum Cast Alloy Designation System For reference purposes, when links to earlier alloy designation systems are required, it is useful to note that there have been two gradual transitions in casting alloy designations. Originally, casting alloys were specified by a rather randomly applied two- or three-digit designation, without consistent relationships to major alloying elements. Around 1950, with the increased wrought alloy standardization, there began the tendency to standardize casting alloys with three digits, often with the aforementioned letter prefixes, but there were still few specific rules or guidelines guiding alloy designation uniformity. When the current system was adopted in about 1980, the change was both to reform the series designations to make it more reliable and consistent with regard to alloying constituents and to add the fourth digit, which included the precursor casting ingot from which the castings are
36 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
made. Therefore, at that time, castings designated as 356 castings became 356.0, and A356 castings became A356.0; the ingot from which they were made became 356.1, A356.1, or 356.2, respectively. For some other alloys placed in the wrong series initially, the change was more drastic: alloy 108 became 208.0, alloy 43 became 443.0 (or B443.0), and B214 became 512.0. A summary of some of the major changes over this period is shown in Table 7. Included in this table are both the current and former designations used within the industry, as well as the former designations followed by federal, ASTM, and SAE specifications. Regrettably, unlike the case with wrought alloys, the current cast alloy designations are not so widely accepted throughout the world, and in fact, they are not universally accepted even in the United States. While the American Foundrymen’s Society (AFS) and the Non-Ferrous Founders’ Society (NFFS) accept and use the Aluminum Association/ANSI cast alloy designation system, even the 1996 publications of the Die Casting Development Council still report cast alloy designations without the decimal point and the fourth digit and, more surprisingly, refer to the alloy designations used before the alloy series were rationalized by major alloying element.
UNS Alloy Designation System for Cast Alloys As noted earlier, the UNS alloy designation system for cast aluminum alloys, as for wrought aluminum alloys, is based directly on the Aluminum Association alloy designation system. For cast alloys, the Aluminum Association alloy designation is preceded by “A” followed by a “0” (zero) if there is no letter preceding the alloy designation, or by 1, 2, 3, and so on, representing the letter of the alphabet used. No period is used, as in the Aluminum Association casting alloy designation. So, for example, 356.0 becomes A03560, A356.0 becomes A13560, and B518.0 becomes A25180.
Understanding Wrought and Cast Aluminum Alloys Designations / 37
Table 7 AA/ANSI
Cross reference chart of aluminum casting alloy designations Former
UNS
Federal
Old ASTM
Old SAE
201.0
...
A02010
...
CQ51A
382
204.0
...
A02040
...
...
...
208.0
108
A02080
108
CS43A
...
213.0
C113
A02130
C113
CS74A
33
222.0
122
A02220
122
CG100A
34
242.0
142
A02420
142
CN42A
39
295.0
195
A02950
195
C4A
38
296.0
B295
A02960
B295
...
380
308.0
A108
A03080
A108
...
...
319.0
319, Allcast
A03190
319
SC64D
326
328.0
Red X-8
A03280
Red X-8
SC82A
327
332.0
F332.0
A03320
F132
SC103A
332
333.0
333
A03330
333
SC94A
331
336.0
A332.0
A03360
A132
SN122A
321
354.0
354
A03540
...
...
...
355.0
355
A03550
355
SC51A
322
C355
A33550
C355
SC51B
335
356
A03560
356
SG70A
323
A356
A13560
A356
SG70B
336
C355.0 356.0 A356.0 357.0
357
A03570
357
...
...
A357
A13570
...
...
...
359.0
359
A03590
...
...
...
360.0
360
A03600
360
SG100B
...
A360
A13600
A360
SG100A
309
A357.0
A360 380.0
380
A03800
380
SC84B
308
A380
A13800
A380
SC84A
306
383.0
383
A03830
383
SC102
383
384.0
384
A0384
384
SC114A
303
B390.0
390
A23900
390
SC174B
...
413.0
13
A04130
13
S12B
...
A13
A14130
A13
S12A
305
A380
A413.0 443.0
43
A04430
...
S5B
35
B443.0
43
A24430
43
S5A
...
C443.0
43
A34430
43
S5C
304
A444.0
...
A14440
...
...
...
512.0
B514.0
A05120
B214
GS42A
...
513.0
A514.0
A05130
A214
GZ42A
514.0
214
A05140
214
G4A
518.0
218
A05180
218
G8A
...
520.0
220
A05200
220
G10A
324
535.0
Almag 35
A05350
Almag 35
GM70B
...
705.0
603, Ternalloy 5
A07050
Ternalloy 5
ZG32A
311
707.0
607, Ternalloy 7
A07070
Ternalloy 7
ZG42A
312
710.0
A712.0
A07100
A612
ZG61B
313
320
711.0
C721.0
A07110
...
ZC60A
314
712.0
D712.0
A07120
40E
ZG61A
310
713.0
613, Tenzaloy
A07130
Tenzaloy
ZC81A
315
771.0
Precedent 71A
A07710
Precedent 71A
...
...
850.0
750
A08500
750
...
...
851.0
A850.0
A08510
A750
...
...
852.0
B850.0
A08520
B750
...
...
Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers J. Gilbert Kaufman, p39-76 DOI:10.1361/iaat2000p039
CHAPTER
Copyright © 2000 ASM International® All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org
4
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System This chapter provides additional detail and illustrations for the use of temper designations in the aluminum industry today for both wrought and cast alloys. This discussion expands on the basic Aluminum Association Temper Designation System as described in Chapter 2. All standard tempers (i.e., those recognized by the industry because they have been registered by the Aluminum Association Technical Committee on Product Standards) are published either in Aluminum Standards and Data or in the Alloy and Temper Registration Records together with the procedures for registering alloys.
Tempers for Wrought Aluminum Alloys As noted earlier, temper designations are alphanumeric designations appended to the alloy designations that convey to the producer and user alike information about the general manner in which the alloy has been mechanically and/or thermally treated to achieve the properties desired. Most tempers have specific mechanical properties associated with them, and satisfactory achievement of the intended temper is generally indicated by whether the specified properties have been achieved. The temper designation does not indicate precise details of how the material has been treated, such as specific amounts of reduction during cold rolling, or the temperatures used in the thermal treatments. Topics covered in this chapter include: O Review of basic temper designations and their major variations O Applications and variations of the O temper
40 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O O O O
Applications Applications Applications Applications
and and and and
variations variations variations variations
of of of of
the the the the
F temper W temper H tempers T tempers
a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
Identifying cold work Identifying stabilization treatments Identifying partial annealing treatments Identifying specific products (e.g., embossed sheet) Applications and variations of the T tempers Identifying stress relief (TX51, TX510, TX511; TX52) Identifying modifications in quenching (T5 versus T6; T6 versus T61) h. Heat treatment by nonproducer (heat treater or fabricator) (TX2) i. Applications of H or T Tempers for Specific Performance (corrosion resistance; identifying tempers for special or premium properties; T736 and T74) As background and useful reference material in understanding more about aluminum alloy temper designations, the typical mechanical properties of representative wrought and cast aluminum alloys are presented in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Table 1
Typical mechanical properties of wrought aluminum alloys(a) Tension Elongation, % In 4D 1⁄2 in. diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kg load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, ksi
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), ksi % 103
Yield
In 2 in. 1⁄16 in. thick specimen
1060-O 1060-H12 1060-H14 1060-H16 1060-H18
10 12 14 16 19
4 11 13 15 18
43 16 12 8 6
… … … … …
19 23 26 30 35
7 8 9 10 11
3 4 5 6.5 6.5
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
1100-O 1100-H12 1100-H14 1100-H16 1100-H18
13 16 18 21 24
5 15 17 20 22
35 12 9 6 5
45 25 20 17 15
23 28 32 38 44
9 10 11 12 13
5 6 7 9 9
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
1350-O 1350-H12 1350-H14 1350-H16 1350-H19
12 14 16 18 27
4 12 14 16 24
… … … … …
(d) … … … (e)
… … … … …
8 9 10 11 15
… … … … 7
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
2011-T3 2011-T8
55 59
43 45
… …
15 12 (continued)
95 100
32 35
Strength, ksi Alloy and temper
Ultimate
18 18
10.2 10.2
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is about 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 10 in. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 10 in. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 were formerly designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 1⁄4 in. thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 41
Table 1
(continued) Tension Elongation, % Strength, ksi
In 4D 1⁄2 in. diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kg load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, ksi
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), ksi % 103
Alloy and temper
Ultimate
2014-O 2014-T4, T451 2014-T6, T651 Alclad 2014-O Alclad 2014-T3
27 62 70 25 63
14 42 60 10 40
… … … 21 20
18 20 13 … …
45 105 135 … …
18 38 42 18 37
13 20 18 … …
10.6 10.6 10.6 10.5 10.5
Alclad 2014-T4, T451 Alclad 2014-T6, T651 2017-O 2017-T4, T451 2018-T61
61 68 26 62 61
37 60 10 40 46
22 10 … … …
… … 22 22 12
… … 45 105 120
37 41 18 38 39
… … 13 18 17
10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.8
2024-O 2024-T3 2024-T4, T351 2024-T361(f) Alclad 2024-O
27 70 68 72 26
11 50 47 57 11
20 18 20 13 20
22 … 19 … …
47 120 120 130 …
18 41 41 42 18
13 20 20 18 …
10.6 10.6 10.6 10.6 10.6
Alclad Alclad Alclad Alclad Alclad
65 64 67 65 70
45 42 63 60 66
18 19 11 6 6
… … … … …
… … … … …
40 40 41 40 42
… … … … …
10.6 10.6 10.6 10.6 10.6
2025-T6 2036-T4 2117-T4 2124-T851 2218-T72
58 49 43 70 48
37 28 24 64 37
… 24 … … …
19 … 27 8 11
110 … 70 … 95
35 … 28 … 30
18 18(g) 14 … …
10.4 10.3 10.3 10.6 10.8
2219-O 2219-T42 2219-T31, T351 2219-T37 2219-T62
25 52 52 57 60
11 27 36 46 42
18 20 17 11 10
… … … … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
… … … … 15
10.6 10.6 10.6 10.6 10.6
2219-T81, T851 2219-T87 2618-T61 3003-O 3003-H12
66 69 64 16 19
51 57 54 6 18
10 10 … 30 10
… … 10 40 20
… … 115 28 35
… … 38 11 12
15 15 18 7 8
10.6 10.6 10.8 10.0 10.0
3003-H14 3003-H16 3003-H18 Alclad 3003-O Alclad 3003-H12
22 26 29 16 19
21 25 27 6 18
8 5 4 30 10
16 14 10 40 20
40 47 55 … …
14 15 16 11 12
9 10 10 … …
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Alclad 3003-H14 Alclad 3003-H16 Alclad 3003-H18
22 26 29
21 25 27
8 16 5 14 4 10 (continued)
… … …
14 15 16
… … …
10.0 10.0 10.0
2024-T3 2024-T4, T351 2024-T361(f) 2024-T81, T851 2024-T861(f)
Yield
In 2 in. 1⁄16 in. thick specimen
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is about 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 10 in. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 10 in. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 were formerly designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 1⁄4 in. thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
42 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 1
(continued) Tension Elongation, % In 4D 1⁄2 in. diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kg load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, ksi
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), ksi % 103
Ultimate
Yield
In 2 in. 1⁄16 in. thick specimen
3004-O 3004-H32 3004-H34 3004-H36 3004-H38
26 31 35 38 41
10 25 29 33 36
20 10 9 5 5
25 17 12 9 6
45 52 63 70 77
16 17 18 20 21
14 15 15 16 16
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10
Alclad Alclad Alclad Alclad Alclad
26 31 35 38 41
10 25 29 33 36
20 10 9 5 5
25 17 12 9 6
… … … … …
16 17 18 20 21
… … … … …
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
3105-O 3105-H12 3105-H14 3105-H16 3105-H18
17 22 25 28 31
8 19 22 25 28
24 7 5 4 3
… … … … …
… … … … …
12 14 15 16 17
… … … … …
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
3105-H25 4032-T6 5005-O 5005-H12 5005-H14
26 55 18 20 23
23 46 6 19 22
8 … 25 10 6
… 9 … … …
… 120 28 … …
15 38 11 14 14
… 16 … … …
10.0 11.4 10.0 10.0 10.0
5005-H16 5005-H18 5005-H32 5005-H34 5005-H36
26 29 20 23 26
25 28 17 20 24
5 4 11 8 6
… … … … …
… … 36 41 46
15 16 14 14 15
… … … … …
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
5005-H38 5050-O 5050-H32 5050-H34 5050-H36
29 21 25 28 30
27 8 21 24 26
5 24 9 8 7
… … … … …
51 36 46 53 58
16 15 17 18 19
… 12 13 13 14
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
5050-H38 5052-O 5052-H32 5052-H34 5052-H36
32 28 33 38 40
29 13 28 31 35
6 25 12 10 8
… 30 18 14 10
63 47 60 68 73
20 18 20 21 23
14 16 17 18 19
10.0 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2
5052-H38 5056-O 5056-H18 5056-H38 5083-O
42 42 63 60 42
37 22 59 50 21
7 … … … …
8 35 10 15 22
77 65 105 100 …
24 26 34 32 25
20 20 22 22 …
10.2 10.3 10.3 10.3 10.3
5083-H321, H116
46
33
…
16 (continued)
…
…
23
10.3
Strength, ksi Alloy and temper
3004-O 3004-H32 3004-H34 3004-H36 3004-H38
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is about 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 10 in. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 10 in. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 were formerly designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 1⁄4 in. thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 43
Table 1
(continued) Tension Elongation, % In 4D 1⁄2 in. diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kg load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, ksi
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), ksi % 103
Alloy and temper
Ultimate
Yield
In 2 in. 1⁄16 in. thick specimen
5086-O 5086-H32, H116 5086-H34 5086-H112 5154-O
38 42 47 39 35
17 30 37 19 17
22 12 10 14 27
… … … … …
… … … … 58
23 … 27 … 22
… … … … 17
10.3 10.3. 10.3 10.3 10.2
5154-H32 5154-H34 5154-H36 5154-H38 5154-H112
39 42 45 48 35
30 33 36 39 17
15 13 12 10 25
… … … … …
67 73 78 80 63
22 24 26 28 …
18 19 20 21 17
10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2
5252-H25 5252-H38, H28 5254-O 5254-H32 5254-H34
34 41 35 39 42
25 35 17 30 33
11 5 27 15 13
… … … … …
68 75 58 67 73
21 23 22 22 24
… … 17 18 19
10.0 10.0 10.2 10.2 10.2
5254-H36 5254-H38 5254-H112 5454-O 5454-H32
45 48 35 36 40
36 39 17 17 30
12 10 25 22 10
… … … … …
78 80 63 62 73
26 28 … 23 24
20 21 17 … …
10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2
5454-H34 5454-H111 5454-H112 5456-O 5456-H25
44 38 36 45 45
35 26 18 23 24
10 14 18 … …
… … … 24 22
81 70 62 … …
26 23 23 … …
… … … … …
10.2 10.2 10.2 10.3 10.3
5456-H321, H116 5457-O 5457-H25 5457-H38, H28 5652-O
51 19 26 30 28
37 7 23 27 13
… 22 12 6 25
16 … … … 30
90 32 48 55 47
30 12 16 18 18
… … … … 16
10.3 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.2
5652-H32 5652-H34 5652-H36 5652-H38 5657-H25
33 38 40 42 23
28 31 35 37 20
12 10 8 7 12
18 14 10 8 …
60 68 73 77 40
20 21 23 24 12
17 18 19 20 …
10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.0
5657-H38, H28 6061-O 6061-T4, T451 6061-T6, T651 Alclad 6061-O
28 18 35 45 17
24 8 21 40 7
7 25 22 12 25
… 30 25 17 …
50 30 65 95 …
15 12 24 30 11
… 9 14 14 …
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Alclad 6061-T4, T451
33
19
22 … (continued)
…
22
…
10.0
Strength, ksi
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is about 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 10 in. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 10 in. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 were formerly designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 1⁄4 in. thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
44 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 1
(continued) Tension Elongation, % Strength, ksi
Alloy and temper
Ultimate
Yield
In 2 in. 1⁄16 in. thick specimen
In 4D 1⁄2 in. diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kg load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, ksi
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), ksi % 103
Alclad 6061-T6, T651 6063-O 6063-T1 6063-T4 6063-T5
42 13 22 25 27
37 7 13 13 21
12 … 20 22 12
… … … … …
… 25 42 … 60
27 10 14 … 17
… 8 9 … 10
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
6063-T6 6063-T83 6063-T831 6063-T832 6066-O
35 37 30 42 22
31 35 27 39 12
12 9 10 12 …
… … … … 18
73 82 70 95 43
22 22 18 27 14
10 … … … …
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
6066-T4, T451 6066-T6, T651 6070-T6 6101-H111 6101-T6
52 57 55 14 32
30 52 51 11 28
… … 10 … 15(h)
18 12 … … …
90 120 … … 71
29 34 34 … 20
… 16 14 … …
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
6262-T9 6351-T4 6351-T6 6463-T1 6463-T5
58 36 45 22 27
55 22 41 13 21
… 20 14 20 12
10 … … … …
120 … 95 42 60
35 … 29 14 17
13 … 13 10 10
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
6463-T6 7049-T73 7049-T7352 7050-T73510, T73511 7050-T7451(i)
35 75 75 72 76
31 65 63 63 68
12 … … … …
… 12 11 12 11
74 135 135 … …
22 44 43 … 44
10 … … … …
10.0 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4
7050-T7651 7075-O 7075-T6, T651 Alclad 7075-O Alclad 7075-T6, T651
80 33 83 32 76
71 15 73 14 67
… 17 11 17 11
11 16 11 … …
… 60 150 … …
47 22 48 22 46
… … 23 … …
10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4
7175-T74 7178-O 7178-T6, T651 7178-T76, T7651 Alclad 7178-O
76 33 88 83 32
66 15 78 73 14
… 15 10 … 16
11 16 11 11 …
135 … … … …
42 … … … …
23 … … … …
10.4 10.4 10.4 10.3 10.4
Alclad 7178-T6, T651 7475-T61 7475-T651 7475-T7351 7475-T761
81 82 85 72 75
71 71 74 61 65
10 11 … … 12
… … 13 13 …
… … … … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
10.4 10.2 10.4 10.4 10.2
7475-T7651 Alclad 7475-T61 Alclad 7475-T761 8176-H24
77 75 71 17
67 66 61 14
… 11 12 15
12 … … …
… … … …
… … … 10
… … … …
10.4 10.2 10.2 10.0
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is about 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 10 in. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 10 in. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 were formerly designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 1⁄4 in. thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 45
Table 1M
Typical mechanical properties of wrought aluminum alloys, (metric)(a) Tension Elongation, % In 5D 12.5 mm diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kgf load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), MPa % 103
Yield
In 50 mm 1.60 mm thick specimen
1060-O 1060-H12 1060-H14 1060-H16 1060-H18
70 85 100 115 130
30 75 90 105 125
43 16 12 8 6
… … … … …
19 23 26 30 35
50 55 60 70 75
20 30 35 45 45
69 69 69 69 69
1100-O 1100-H12 1100-H14 1100-H16 1100-H18
90 110 125 145 165
35 105 115 140 150
35 12 9 6 5
42 22 18 15 13
23 28 32 38 44
60 70 75 85 90
35 40 50 60 60
69 69 69 69 69
1350-O 1350-H12 1350-H14 1350-H16 1350-H19
85 95 110 125 185
30 85 95 110 165
… … … … …
(d) … … … (e)
… … … … …
55 60 70 75 105
… … … … 50
69 69 69 69 69
2011-T3 2011-T8 2014-O 2014-T4, T451 2014-T6, T651
380 405 185 425 485
295 310 95 290 415
… … … … …
13 10 16 18 11
95 100 45 105 135
220 240 125 260 290
125 125 90 140 125
70 70 73 73 73
Alclad 2014-O Alclad 2014-T3 Alclad 2014-T4, T451 Alclad 2014-T6, T651 2017-O
170 435 421 470 180
70 275 255 415 70
21 20 22 10 …
… … … … 20
… … … … 45
125 255 255 285 125
… … … … 90
73 73 73 73 73
2017-T4, T451 2018-T61 2024-O 2024-T3 2024-T4, T351
425 420 185 485 472
275 315 75 345 325
… 21 20 18 20
20 10 20 … 17
105 120 47 120 120
260 270 125 285 285
125 115 90 140 140
73 74 73 73 73
2024-T361(f) Alclad 2024-O Alclad 2024-T3 Alclad 2024-T4, T351 Alclad 2024-T361(f)
495 180 450 440 460
395 75 310 290 365
13 20 18 19 11
… … … … …
130 … … … …
290 125 275 275 285
125 … … … …
73 73 73 73 73
Alclad 2024-T81, T851 Alclad 2024-T861(f) 2025-T6 2036-T4 2117-T4
450 485 400 340 295
415 455 255 195 165
6 6 … 24 …
… … 17 … 24
… … 110 … 70
275 290 240 205 195
… … 125 125(g) 95
73 73 72 71 71
2124-T851
485
440
… (continued)
8
…
…
…
73
Strength, MPa Alloy and temper
Ultimate
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is approximately 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 250 mm. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 250 mm. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 formerly were designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 6.3 mm thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
46 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 1M
(continued) Tension Elongation, % In 5D 12.5 mm diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kgf load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), MPa % 103
Alloy and temper
Ultimate
Yield
In 50 mm 1.60 mm thick specimen
2218-T72 2219-O 2219-T42 2219-T31, T351 2219-T37
330 170 360 360 395
255 75 185 250 215
… 18 20 17 11
9 … … … …
95 … … … …
205 … … … …
… … … … …
74 73 73 73 73
2219-T62 2219-T81, T851 2219-T87 2618-T61 3003-O
415 455 475 440 110
290 350 395 370 40
10 10 10 … 30
… … … 10 37
… … … 115 28
… … … 260 75
105 105 105 90 50
73 73 73 73 69
3003-H12 3003-H14 3003-H16 3003-H18 Alclad 3003-O
130 150 175 200 110
125 145 170 185 40
10 8 5 4 30
18 14 12 9 37
35 40 47 55 …
85 95 105 110 75
55 60 70 70 …
69 69 69 69 69
Alclad 3003-H12 Alclad 3003-H14 Alclad 3003-H16 Alclad 3003-H18 3004-O
130 150 175 200 180
125 145 170 185 70
10 8 5 4 20
18 14 12 9 22
… … … … 45
85 95 105 110 110
… … … … 95
69 69 69 69 69
3004-H32 3004-H34 3004-H36 3004-H38 Alclad 3004-O
215 240 260 285 180
170 200 230 250 70
10 9 5 5 20
15 10 8 5 22
52 63 70 77 …
115 125 140 145 110
105 105 110 110 …
69 69 69 69 69
Alclad 3004-H32 Alclad 3004-H34 Alclad 3004-H36 Alclad 3004-H38 3105-O
215 240 260 285 115
170 200 230 250 55
10 9 5 5 24
15 10 8 5 …
… … … … …
115 125 140 145 85
… … … … …
69 69 69 69 69
3105-H12 3105-H14 3105-H16 3105-H18 3105-H25
150 170 195 215 180
130 150 170 195 160
7 5 4 3 8
… … … … …
… … … … …
95 105 110 115 105
… … … … …
69 69 69 69 69
4032-T6 5005-O 5005-H12 5005-H14 5005-H16
380 125 140 160 180
315 40 130 150 170
… 25 10 6 5
9 … … … …
120 28 … … …
260 75 95 95 105
110 … … … …
79 69 69 69 69
5005-H18
200
195
4
… (continued)
…
110
…
69
Strength, MPa
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is approximately 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 250 mm. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 250 mm. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 formerly were designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 6.3 mm thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 47
Table 1M
(continued) Tension Elongation, % In 5D 12.5 mm diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kgf load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), MPa % 103
Ultimate
Yield
In 50 mm 1.60 mm thick specimen
5005-H32 5005-H34 5005-H36 5005-H38 5050-O
140 160 180 200 145
115 140 165 185 55
11 8 6 5 24
… … … … …
36 41 46 51 36
95 95 105 110 105
… … … … 85
69 69 69 69 69
5050-H32 5050-H34 5050-H36 5050-H38 5052-O
170 190 205 220 195
145 165 180 200 90
9 8 7 6 25
… … … … 27
46 53 58 63 47
115 125 130 140 125
90 90 95 95 110
69 69 69 69 70
5052-H32 5052-H34 5052-H36 5052-H38 5056-O
230 260 275 290 290
195 215 240 255 150
12 10 8 7 …
16 12 9 7 32
60 68 73 77 65
140 145 160 165 180
115 125 130 140 140
70 70 70 70 71
5056-H18 5056-H38 5083-O 5083-H321, H116 5086-O
435 415 290 315 260
405 345 145 230 115
… … … … 22
9 13 20 14 …
105 100 … … …
235 220 170 … 165
150 150 … 160 …
71 71 71 71 71
5086-H32, H116 5086-H34 5086-H112 5154-O 5154-H32
290 325 270 240 270
205 255 130 115 205
12 10 14 27 15
… … … … …
… … … 58 67
… 185 … 150 150
… … … 115 125
71 71 71 70 70
5154-H34 5154-H36 5154-H38 5154-H112 5252-H25
290 310 330 240 235
230 250 270 115 170
13 12 10 25 11
… … … … …
73 78 80 63 68
165 180 195 … 145
130 140 145 115 …
70 70 70 70 69
5252-H38, H28 5254-O 5254-H32 5254-H34 5254-H36
285 240 270 290 310
240 115 205 230 250
5 27 15 13 12
… … … … …
75 58 67 73 78
160 150 150 165 180
… 115 125 130 140
69 70 70 70 70
5254-H38 5254-H112 5454-O 5454-H32 5454-H34
330 240 250 275 305
270 115 115 205 240
10 25 22 10 10
… … … … …
80 63 62 73 81
195 … 160 165 180
145 115 … … …
70 70 70 70 70
5454-H111
260
180
14
… (continued)
70
160
…
70
Strength, MPa Alloy and temper
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is approximately 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 250 mm. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 250 mm. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 formerly were designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 6.3 mm thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
48 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 1M
(continued) Tension Elongation, % In 5D 12.5 mm diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kgf load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), MPa % 103
Ultimate
Yield
In 50 mm 1.60 mm thick specimen
5454-H112 5456-O 5456-H25 5456-H321, H116 5457-O
250 310 310 350 130
125 160 165 255 50
18 … … … 22
… 22 20 14 …
62 … … 90 32
160 … … 205 85
… … … … …
70 71 71 71 69
5457-H25 5457-H38, H28 5652-O 5652-H32 5652-H34
180 205 195 230 260
160 185 90 195 215
12 6 25 12 10
… … 27 16 12
48 55 47 60 68
110 125 125 140 145
… … 110 115 125
69 69 70 70 70
5652-H36 5652-H38 5657-H25 5657-H38, H28 6061-O
275 290 160 195 125
240 255 140 165 55
8 7 12 7 25
9 7 … … 27
73 77 40 50 30
160 165 95 105 85
130 140 … … 60
70 70 69 69 69
6061-T4, T451 6061-T6, T651 Alclad 6061-O Alclad 6061-T4, T451 Alclad 6061-T6, T651
240 310 115 230 290
145 275 50 130 255
22 12 25 22 12
22 15 … … …
65 95 … … …
165 205 75 150 185
95 95 … … …
69 69 69 69 69
6063-O 6063-T1 6063-T4 6063-T5 6063-T6
90 150 170 185 240
50 90 90 145 215
… 20 22 12 12
… … … … …
25 42 … 60 73
70 95 … 115 150
55 60 … 70 70
69 69 69 69 69
6063-T83 6063-T831 6063-T832 6066-O 6066-T4, T451
255 205 295 150 360
240 185 270 85 205
9 10 12 … …
… … … 16 16
82 70 95 43 90
150 125 185 95 200
… … … … …
69 69 69 69 69
6066-T6, T651 6070-T6 6101-H111 6101-T6 6262-T9
395 380 95 220 400
360 350 75 195 380
… 10 … 15(h) …
10 … … … 9
120 … … 71 120
235 235 … 140 240
110 95 … … 90
69 69 69 69 69
6351-T4 6351-T6 6463-T1 6463-T5 6463-T6
250 310 150 185 240
150 285 90 145 215
20 14 20 12 12 (continued)
… … … … …
… 95 42 60 74
… 200 95 115 150
… 90 70 70 70
69 69 69 69 69
Strength, MPa Alloy and temper
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is approximately 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 250 mm. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 250 mm. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 formerly were designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 6.3 mm thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 49
Table 1M
(continued) Tension Elongation, % In 5D 12.5 mm diam specimen
Hardness, Brinell No., 500 kgf load, 10 mm ball
Shear, ultimate shearing strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus, modulus of elasticity(c), MPa % 103
Ultimate
Yield
In 50 mm 1.60 mm thick specimen
7049-T73 7049-T7352 7050-T73510, T73511 7050-T7451(i) 7050-T7651
515 515 495 525 550
450 435 435 470 490
… … … … …
10 9 11 10 10
135 135 … … …
305 295 … 305 325
… … … … …
72 72 72 72 72
7075-O 7075-T6, T651 Alclad 7075-O Alclad 7075-T6, T651 7175-T74
230 570 220 525 525
105 505 95 460 455
17 11 17 11 …
14 9 … … 10
60 150 … … 135
150 330 150 315 290
… 160 … … 160
72 72 72 72 72
7178-O 7178-T6, T651 7178-T76, T7651 Alclad 7178-O Alclad 7178-T6, T651
230 605 570 220 560
105 540 505 95 460
15 10 … 16 10
14 9 9 … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
72 72 71 72 72
7475-T61 7475-T651 7475-T7351 7475-T761 7475-T7651
565 585 495 515 530
490 510 420 450 460
11 … … 12 …
… 13 13 … 12
… … … … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
70 72 72 70 72
Alclad 7475-T61 Alclad 7475-T761 8176-H24
515 490 160
455 420 95
11 12 15
… … …
… … …
… … 70
… … …
70 70 69
Strength, MPa Alloy and temper
Note: Table values not intended for use in design. (a) The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except O temper material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For O temper products, typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) values. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is approximately 2% greater than tension modulus. (d) 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 250 mm. (e) 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 11⁄2% in 250 mm. (f) Tempers T361 and T861 formerly were designated T36 and T86, respectively. (g) Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens. (h) Based on 6.3 mm thick specimen. (i) T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and in some specifications as T73651.
Table 2
Typical mechanical properties of aluminum alloy castings Tension
Type of casting
Sand
Alloy and temper
Ultimate strength, ksi
Yield strength(a), ksi
201.0-T6 201.0-T7 201.0-T43 204.0-T4 A206.0-T4
65 68 60 45 51
55 60 37 28 36
208.0-F 213.0-F 222.0-O 222.0-T61 224.0-T72
21 24 27 41 55
14 15 20 40 40
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 ksi
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
Shear, ultimate strength, ksi
8 6 17 6 7
130 … … … …
… … … … 40
… 14 … … …
… … … … …
3 2 1 <0.5 10
… 70 80 115 123
17 20 21 32 35
11 9 9.5 8.5 9
… …
Elongation in 2 in. or 4D, %
10.7 10.5
(continued) Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
50 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 2
(continued) Tension
Type of casting
Sand (continued)
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 ksi
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
Shear, ultimate strength, ksi
1 1 1 1 …
90 … 70 85 90–120
… … 21 26 …
… … 8 11 …
… 10.3 10.3 10.3 10.3
23 … 16 24 32
2 2 9 5 2
75 … 80 75 90
24 … 26 30 33
10.5 … 7 7.5 8
10.3 … 10.0 10.0 10.0
29 27 30 36 25
16 18 26 24 14
3 2 2 2 1
55–85 70 80 80 45–75
… 22 24 29 …
… 10 11 11 …
10.0 10.7 10.7 10.7 …
328.0-T6 355.0-F 355.0-T51 355.0-T6 355.0-T61
34 23 28 35 35
21 12 23 25 35
1 3 2 3 1
65–95 … 65 80 90
… … 22 28 31
… … 8 9 9.5
… 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2
355.0-T7 355.0-T71 C355.0-T6 356.0-F 356.0-T51
38 35 39 24 25
26 29 29 18 20
1 2 5 6 2
85 75 85 … 60
28 26 … … 20
10 10 … … 8
10.2 10.2 … 10.5 10.5
356.0-T6 356.0-T7 356.0-T71 A356.0-F A356.0-T51
33 34 28 23 26
24 30 21 12 18
4 2 4 6 3
70 75 60 … …
26 24 20 … …
8.5 9 8.5 … …
10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5
A356.0-T6 A356.0-T71 357.0-F 357.0-T51 357.0-T6
40 30 25 26 50
30 20 13 17 42
6 3 5 3 2
75 … … … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
10.5 10.5 … … …
357.0-T7 A357.0-T6 359.0-T62 A390.0-F A390.0-T5
40 46 50 26 26
34 36 42 26 26
3 3 6 <1.0 <1.0
60 85 16 100 100
… 40 … … …
… 12 … … …
… … … … …
A390.0-T6 A390.0-T7 443.0-F B443.0-F A444.0-F
40 36 19 17 21
40 36 8 6 9
<1.0 <1.0 8 3 9
140 115 40 25–55 30–60
… … 14 … …
13 … 8 … …
… … 10.3 … …
Ultimate strength, ksi
Yield strength(a), ksi
34 31 27 32 32
28 20 18 30 20
242.0-T77 A242.0-T75 295.0-T4 295.0-T6 295.0-T62
30 31 32 36 41
295.0-T7 319-F 319.0-T5 319.0-T6 328.0-F
Alloy and temper
240.0-F 242.0-F 242.0-O 242.0-T571 242.0-T61
Elongation in 2 in. or 4D, %
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
(continued) Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 51
Table 2
(continued) Tension
Type of casting
Sand (continued)
Permanent mold
Elongation in 2 in. or 4D, %
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
Shear, ultimate strength, ksi
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 ksi
Ultimate strength, ksi
Yield strength(a), ksi
A444.0-T4 511.0-F 512.0-F 514.0-F 520.0-T4
23 21 20 25 48
9 12 13 12 26
12 3 2 9 16
43 50 50 50 75
… 17 17 20 34
… 8 9 7 8
… … … … …
535.0-F 535.0-T5 A535.0-F 707.0-T5 707.0-T7
35 35 36 33 37
18 18 18 22 30
9 9 9 2 1
60–90 60–90 65 70–100 65–95
… … … … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
710.0-F 710.0-T5 712.0-F 712.0-T5 713.0-F
32 32 34 34 32
20 20 25 25 22
2 2 4 4 3
60–90 60–90 60–90 60–90 60–90
… … … … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
713.0-T5 771.0-T5 771.0-T52 771.0-T53 771.0-T6
32 32 36 36 42
22 27 30 27 35
3 3 2 2 5
60–90 70–100 70–100 … 75–105
… … … …
… … … …
… … … …
771.0-T71 850.0-T5 851.0-T5 852.0-T5
48 20 20 27
45 11 11 22
2 8 5 2
105–135 45 45 65
… 14 14 18
… … … 10
… 10.3 10.3 10.3
201.0-T6 201.0-T7 201.0-T43 204.0-T4 A206.0-T4
65 68 60 48 62
55 60 37 29 38
8 6 17 8 17
130 … … … …
… … … … 42
… 14 … … …
… … … … …
A206.0-T7 208.0-T6 208.0-T7 213.0-F 222.0-T551
63 35 33 30 37
50 22 16 24 35
12 2 3 2 <0.5
… 75–105 65–95 85 115
37 … … 24 30
… … … 9.5 8.5
… … … … 10.7
222.0-T52 238.0-F 242.0-T61 A249.0-T63 296.0-T7
35 30 47 69 39
31 24 42 60 20
1 2 1 6 5
100 100 110 … 80
25 24 35 … 30
… … 10 … 9
10.7 … 10.3 … 10.1
308.0-F 319.0-F 319.0-T6 324.0-F 324.0-T5
28 34 40 30 36
16 19 27 16 26
2 3 3 4 3
70 85 95 70 90
22 24 … … …
13 … … … …
… 10.7 10.7 … …
324.0-T62
45
39
3
105
…
…
…
Alloy and temper
(continued) Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
52 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 2
(continued) Tension
Type of casting
Permanent mold (continued)
Ultimate strength, ksi
Yield strength(a), ksi
Elongation in 2 in. or 4D, %
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
Shear, ultimate strength, ksi
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 ksi
332.0-T5 328.0-T6 333.0-F 242.0-T571 333.0-T5
36 34 34 40 34
28 21 19 34 25
1 1 2 1 1
105 65–95 90 105 100
… … 27 30 27
… … 15 10.5 12
… … … 10.3 …
333.0-T6 333.0-T7 336.0-T551 336.0-T65 354.0-T61
42 37 36 47 48
30 28 28 43 37
2 2 1 1 3
105 90 105 125 …
33 28 28 36 …
15 12 14 … …
… … … … …
354.0-T62 355.0-F 355.0-T51 355.0-T6 355.0-T61
52 27 30 42 45
42 15 24 27 40
2 4 2 4 2
… … 75 90 105
… … 24 34 36
… … … 10 10
… 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2
355.0-T7 355.0-T71 C355.0-T6 C355.0-T61 C355.0-T62
40 36 48 46 48
30 31 28 34 37
2 3 8 6 5
85 85 90 100 100
30 27 … … …
10 10 … … …
10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2
356.0-F 356.0-T51 356.0-T6 356.0-T7 356.0-T71
26 27 38 32 25
18 20 27 24 …
5 2 5 6 3
… … 80 70 60–90
… … 30 25 …
… … 13 11 …
10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5
A356.0-F A356.0-T51 A356.0-T6 357.0-F 357.0-T51
27 29 41 28 29
13 20 30 15 21
8 5 12 6 4
… … 80 … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
10.5 10.5 10.5 … …
357.0-T6 357.0-T7 A357.0-T6 359.0-T61 359.0-T62
52 38 52 48 50
43 30 42 37 42
5 5 5 6 6
100 70 100 … …
35 … 35 … …
13 … 15 … 16
… … … … …
A390.0-F A390.0-T5 A390.0-T6 A390.0-T7 443.0-F
29 29 45 38 23
29 29 45 38 9
<1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 10
110 110 145 120 45
… … … … 16
… … 17 15 8
… … … … 10.3
B443.0-F A444.0-F A444.0-T4 513.0-F 535.0-F
21 24 23 27 35
6 11 10 16 18
6 13 21 7 8
30–60 44 45 60 60–90
… … 16 22 …
… … 8 10 …
… … … … …
705.0-T5
37
17
10
55–75
…
…
…
Alloy and temper
(continued) Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 53
Table 2
(continued) Tension
Alloy and temper
Type of casting
Permanent mold (continued)
Die cast
Ultimate strength, ksi
Yield strength(a), ksi
Elongation in 2 in. or 4D, %
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
Shear, ultimate strength, ksi
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), ksi
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 ksi
707.0-T7 711.0-T1 713.0-T5 850.0-T5 851.0-T5
45 28 32 23 20
35 18 22 11 11
3 7 4 12 5
80–110 55–85 60–90 45 45
… …
… …
… …
15 14
9 9
10.3 10.3
851.0-T6 852.0-T5
18 32
… 23
8 5
… 70
… 21
… 11
10.3 10.3
360.0-F A360.0-F 380.0-F A380.0-F 383.0-F
44 46 46 47 45
25 24 23 23 22
3 4 3 4 4
75 75 80 80 75
28 26 28 27 …
20 18 20 20 21
10.3 10.3 10.3 10.3 10.3
384.0-F 390.0-F B390.0-F 392.0-F 413.0-F
48 40.5 46 42 43
24 35 36 39 21
3 <1 <1 <1 3
85 … 120 … 80
29 … … … 25
20 … 20 … 19
… … 11.8 … 10.3
A413.0-F C443.0-F 518.0-F
42 33 45
19 14 28
4 9 5
80 65 80
25 29 29
19 17 20
… 10.3 …
Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
Table 2M
Typical mechanical properties of aluminum alloy castings (metric) Tension
Type of casting
Sand
Shear, ultimate strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 MPa
130 … … … …
… … … … 275
… 95 … … …
… … … … …
… 70 80 115 123
115 140 145 220 240
75 60 65 60 60
… …
1 1 1 1 …
90 … 70 85 90–120
… … 145 180 …
… … 55 75 …
… 71 71 71 71
2 2
75 …
165 …
70 …
71 …
Alloy and temper
Ultimate strength, MPa
Yield strength(a), MPa
201.0-T6 201.0-T7 201.0-T43 204.0-T4 A206.0-T4
450 470 415 310 350
380 415 255 195 250
8 6 17 6 7
208.0-F 213.0-F 222.0-O 222.0-T61 224.0-T72
145 165 185 285 380
655 105 140 275 275
3 2 1 <0.5 10
240.0-F 242.0-F 242.0-O 242.0-T571 242.0-T61
235 145 185 220 220
195 140 125 205 140
205 215
160 …
242.0-T77 A242.0-T75
Elongation In 5D, %
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
74 73
(continued) Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater than the tension modulus. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
54 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 2M
(continued) Tension
Type of casting
Sand (continued)
Ultimate strength, MPa
Yield strength(a), MPa
Elongation In 5D, %
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
Shear, ultimate strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 MPa
295.0-T4 295.0-T6 295.0-T62 295.0-T7 319-F
220 250 285 200 185
110 165 220 110 125
9 5 2 3 2
80 75 90 55–85 70
180 205 230 … 150
50 50 55 … 70
69 69 69 69 74
319.0-T5 319.0-T6 328.0-F 328.0-T6 355.0-F
205 250 170 235 160
180 165 95 145 85
2 2 1 1 3
80 80 45–75 65–95 …
165 200 … … …
75 75 … … …
74 74 … … 70
355.0-T51 355.0-T6 355.0-T61 355.0-T7 355.0-T71
195 240 240 260 240
160 170 240 180 200
2 3 1 1 2
65 80 90 85 75
150 195 215 195 180
55 60 65 70 70
70 70 70 70 70
C355.0-T6 356.0-F 356.0-T51 356.0-T6 356.0-T7
270 165 170 230 235
200 125 140 135 205
5 6 2 4 2
85 … 60 70 75
… … 140 180 165
… … 55 60 60
… 73 73 73 73
356.0-T71 A356.0-F A356.0-T51 A356.0-T6 A356.0-T71
195 160 180 275 205
145 85 125 205 140
4 6 3 6 3
60 … … 75 …
140 … … … …
60 … … … …
73 73 73 73 73
357.0-F 357.0-T51 357.0-T6 357.0-T7 A357.0-T6
170 180 345 275 315
90 115 295 235 250
5 3 2 3 3
… … … 60 85
… … … … 275
… … … … 85
… … … … …
359.0-T62 A390.0-F A390.0-T5 A390.0-T6 A390.0-T7
345 180 180 275 250
290 180 180 275 250
6 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
16 100 100 140 115
… … … … …
… … … 90 …
… … … … …
443.0-F B443.0-F A444.0-F A444.0-T4 511.0-F
130 115 145 23 145
55 40 60 60 85
8 3 9 12 3
40 25–55 30–60 43 50
95 … … … 115
55 … … … 55
71 … … … …
512.0-F 514.0-F 520.0-T4 535.0-F 535.0-T5
140 170 330 240 240
90 85 180 125 125
2 9 16 9 9
50 50 75 60–90 60–90
115 140 235 … …
60 50 55 … …
… … … … …
250
125
9
65
…
…
…
Alloy and temper
A535.0-F
(continued) Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater than the tension modulus. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 55
Table 2M
(continued) Tension
Type of casting
Sand (continued)
Permanent mold
Alloy and temper
Ultimate strength, MPa
Yield strength(a), MPa
Elongation In 5D, %
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
Shear, ultimate strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 MPa
707.0-T5 707.0-T7 710.0-F 710.0-T5 712.0-F
230 255 220 220 235
150 205 140 140 170
2 1 2 2 4
70–100 65–95 60–90 60–90 60–90
… … … … …
… … … … …
… … … … …
712.0-T5 713.0-F 713.0-T5 771.0-T5 771.0-T52
235 220 220 220 250
170 150 150 185 205
4 3 3 3 2
60–90 60–90 60–90 70–100 70–100
… …
… …
… …
… …
… …
… …
771.0-T53 771.0-T6 771.0-T71 850.0-T5 851.0-T5 852.0-T5
250 290 330 140 140 185
185 240 310 75 75 150
2 5 2 8 5 2
… 75–105 105–135 45 45 65
… … … 95 95 125
… … … … … 60
… … … 71 71 71
201.0-T6 201.0-T7 201.0-T43 204.0-T4 A206.0-T4
450 470 415 330 430
380 415 255 200 260
8 6 17 8 17
130 … … … …
… … … … 290
… 95 … … …
… … … … …
A206.0-T7 208.0-T6 208.0-T7 213.0-F 222.0-T551
435 240 230 205 255
345 150 110 165 240
12 2 3 2 <0.5
… 75–105 65–95 85 115
255 … … 165 205
… … … 65 60
… … … … 74
222.0-T52 238.0-F 242.0-T571 242.0-T61 A249.0-T63
240 205 275 325 475
215 165 235 290 415
1 2 1 1 6
100 100 105 110 …
170 165 205 450 …
… … 70 70 …
74 … 74 74 …
296.0-T7 308.0-F 319.0-F 319.0-T6 324.0-F
270 195 235 275 205
140 110 130 185 110
5 2 3 3 4
80 70 85 95 70
205 150 165 … …
60 90 … … …
70 … 74 74 …
324.0-T5 324.0-T62 332.0-T5 328.0-T6 333.0-F
250 310 250 235 235
180 270 195 145 130
3 3 1 1 2
90 105 105 65–95 90
… … … … 185
… … … … 105
… … … … …
333.0-T5 333.0-T6 333.0-T7 336.0-T551
235 290 255 250
170 205 195 193 (continued)
1 2 2 1
100 105 90 105
185 230 195 193
85 105 85 95
… … … …
Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater than the tension modulus. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
56 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Table 2M
(continued) Tension
Type of casting
Permanent mold (continued)
Shear, ultimate strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 MPa
125 … … … 75
250 … … … 165
… … … … …
… … … 70 70
4 2 2 3 8
90 105 85 85 90
235 250 205 185 …
70 70 70 70 …
70 70 70 70 70
235 255 125 140 185
6 5 5 2 5
100 100 … … 80
… … … … 205
… … … … 90
70 70 73 73 73
220 170 165 200 285
165 … 90 140 205
6 3 8 5 12
70 60–90 … … 80
170 … … … …
75 … … … …
73 73 73 73 73
357.0-F 357.0-T51 357.0-T6 357.0-T7 A357.0-T6
195 200 360 260 360
105 145 295 205 290
6 4 5 5 5
… … 100 70 100
… … 240 … 240
… … 90 … 105
… … … … …
359.0-T61 359.0-T62 A390.0-F A390.0-T5 A390.0-T6
330 345 200 200 310
255 290 200 200 310
6 6 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
… … 110 110 145
… … … … …
… 110 … … 115
… … … … …
A390.0-T7 443.0-F B443.0-F A444.0-F A444.0-T4
260 160 145 165 160
260 60 40 75 70
<1.0 10 6 13 21
120 45 30–60 44 45
… 110 … … 110
105 55 … … 55
… 71 … … …
513.0-F 535.0-F 705.0-T5 707.0-T7 711.0-T1
185 240 255 310 195
110 125 115 240 125
7 8 10 3 7
60 60–90 55–75 80–110 55–85
150 … … … …
70 … … … …
… … … … …
713.0-T5 850.0-T5 851.0-T5 851.0-T6 852.0-T5
220 160 140 125 220
150 75 75 … 160 (continued)
4 12 5 8 5
60–90 45 45 … 70
105 95 … 145
60 60 … 75
71 71 71 71
Ultimate strength, MPa
Yield strength(a), MPa
Elongation In 5D, %
336.0-T65 354.0-T61 354.0-T62 355.0-F 355.0-T51
325 330 360 185 205
295 255 290 105 165
1 3 2 4 2
355.0-T6 355.0-T61 355.0-T7 355.0-T71 C355.0-T6
290 310 275 250 330
185 275 205 215 195
C355.0-T61 C355.0-T62 356.0-F 356.0-T51 356.0-T6
315 330 180 185 260
356.0-T7 356.0-T71 A356.0-F A356.0-T51 A356.0-T6
Alloy and temper
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater than the tension modulus. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 57
Table 2M
(continued) Tension
Type of casting
Die cast
Hardness, Brinell No., 500kg/10mm
Shear, ultimate strength, MPa
Fatigue, endurance limit(b), MPa
Modulus of elasticity(c), 106 MPa
3 4 3 4 4
75 75 80 80 75
195 180 195 185 …
140 124 140 140 145
71 71 71 71 71
165 240 250 270 145
3 <1 <1 <1 3
85 … 120 … 80
200 … … … 170
140 … 140 … 130
… … 81 … 71
130 95 193
4 9 5
80 65 80
170 200 200
130 115 140
… 71 …
Alloy and temper
Ultimate strength, MPa
Yield strength(a), MPa
360.0-F A360.0-F 380.0-F A380.0-F 383.0-F
305 315 315 325 310
170 165 160 160 150
384.0-F 390.0-F B390.0-F 392.0-F 413.0-F
330 280 315 290 295
A413.0-F C443.0-F 518.0-F
290 230 310
Elongation In 5D, %
Values are representative of separately cast test bars, not of specimens taken from commercial castings. (a) For tensile yield strengths, offset ⫽ 0.2%. (b) Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using R.R. Moore type of machines and specimens. (c) Average of tension and compression moduli; compressive modulus is nominally approximately 2% greater than the tension modulus. Data taken from various industry handbooks.
Review of the Basic Tempers for Wrought Alloys The temper designation always is presented immediately following the alloy designation (Chapter 3), with a hyphen between the two (e.g., 2014-T6). Generally, the temper designation consists of a capital letter indicating the major class of fabrication treatment(s) used, plus one or more numbers providing more specific information about how the processing was carried out. These designations are not intended to provide the exact practices (times, temperatures, reductions), but rather the general combinations of practices followed. As review, recall that the first character in the temper designation (a capital letter, F, O, H, W, or T) indicates the general class of treatment. Information on each of these classes of designation and a few examples of each are provided by the following descriptions: O F, as fabricated: This designation is used for wrought or cast products made by some shaping process such as rolling, extrusion, forging, drawing, or casting where there is no special control over the thermal conditions during working or the strain-hardening processes to achieve specific properties. There are no specified limits on mechanical properties of any wrought F temper product. Except in the case of cast parts, which may be in the final configuration, most F temper products are “semifinished” products that will be used in some subsequent shaping, finishing, or thermal process to achieve other finished forms or tempers. For example, 2014-F designates an as-fabricated product form of alloy 2014; it may represent any production process or product
58 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
form and may be used for products that have been rolled, extruded, forged, or any combination of those processes. O O, annealed: This designation is used for wrought or cast products made by some shaping process such as rolling, extrusion, forging, drawing, or casting, and which product at some point in the process has been annealed (i.e., given a high-temperature recrystallization treatment, sufficient to remove the effects of any prior working or thermal treatments and usually resulting in complete recrystallization of the material). Annealing treatments are used to achieve the lowest-strength condition for the particular alloy involved. The primary reason for using such a treatment on wrought alloys generally is to maximize subsequent workability or increase toughness and ductility to a maximum. For example: a. 2014-O designates any product form of 2014 whose most recent treatment has been holding at a high temperature (⬃410 °C, or ⬃770 °F) for 2 to 3 h, slow cooling to ⬃260 °C (⬃500 °F) and then cooling at an uncontrolled rate to room temperature. For this alloy, the treatment would normally be given to increase ease of subsequent working while completely removing any effects of prior treatments. b. 5083-O designates any product form of 5083 whose most recent treatment has been heating up to a high temperature (⬃345 °C, ⬃650 °F) and then cooled at an uncontrolled rate to room temperature. For this alloy, the treatment would normally be given to increase toughness and ductility for its use in critical structural applications such as liquefied natural gas tanks. O H, strain hardened: This designation is used for non-heat-treatable wrought alloys that have had their strength increased by strain hardening (e.g., rolling, drawing) usually at room temperature. This designation may, but does not necessarily, also apply to products that have been given supplementary thermal treatments to achieve some stabilization in strength level, since a number of aluminum alloys will gradually soften slightly with time after cold working. The H is always followed by two or more digits, the purpose of which is to indicate the approximate amount of cold work and the nature of any thermal treatments that followed. The variety of subsequent designations available is discussed later, so the examples focus more on the H designation itself at this point. For example: a. 1350-H12 indicates that sheet, plate, rod, or wire of alloy 1350 has been cold worked to increase its strength. The H12 combination indicates approximately 20 to 25% cold reduction without any subsequent thermal treatments (other variations are discussed later).
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 59
b. 5005-H18 indicates that sheet (the only product available in that temper) of alloy 5005 has been cold rolled to increase its strength. The H18 combination indicates a large amount of cold work, normally around 75 to 80% without any subsequent thermal treatment. O W, solution heat treated: This designation is rather limited in its use and applies only to alloys that age naturally and spontaneously after solution heat treating (holding at high temperature followed by quenching or relatively rapid cooling to room temperature). Digits may be added to characterize more specifically the elapsed time since the cooling took place; this is not necessary and is of limited value since the time may continue to increase, but it is often helpful in whatever subsequent treatments are to be applied to know that elapsed time and the effects of the elapsed time on response to subsequent working or thermal exposure. As with the F temper, there are no published standard property limits for wrought alloys associated with the W temper, and it is rarely a “finished” temper (i.e., sold in that temper; it is always an “in-process” temper, to be followed by subsequent mechanical or thermal treatments). For example: a. 6061-W indicates a semifinished product of 6061 that has been heat treated and quenched by standard procedures but not yet given any subsequent mechanical or thermal treatment. Alloy 6061 naturally ages following a quench from a heat treatment, and so the yield strength, in particular, of this material gradually increases with time until some treatment that will stabilize its properties is given, such as artificial aging for precipitation hardening. b. 6061-W1⁄2hr. indicates the same material as in the preceding example, except that a time (1⁄2 h after quenching) has been added to define the time lapse and perhaps permit some estimate of the effect on strength (assuming that aging rate data are accessible). O T, thermally treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H: The T designation is the most widely used for heat treated alloys, and applies to any product form of any heat treatable alloy that has been given a solution heat treatment followed by a suitable quench and either natural (i.e., in air) or artificial (i.e., in a furnace) aging. The T always is followed by one or more digits that define in general terms the subsequent treatments; these will be discussed in more detail later, and so the following examples focus on the T designation. For example: a. 2024-T4 indicates a 2024 product that has been solution heat treated, quenched, and naturally aged by standard commercial processes to a stable condition. Since this alloy achieves a commercially useful level of strength coupled with a high toughness in the T4 condition, this may well be the final temper designation.
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b. 2014-T4 indicates an alloy 2014 product that has been solution heat treated and naturally aged to a stable condition preparatory to artificially aging it for precipitation hardening to the T6 temper. Alloy 2014 does not have a useful combination of strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance in the T4 condition, so it is almost always subsequently given a precipitation hardening treatment.
Subdivisions of the Basic Tempers As just indicated, most of the basic temper designations listed previously are used with additional numerical digits to define the practices more completely. It is useful to review these additional digits and the resulting complete designations in considerable detail to obtain the best understanding of their meanings. The H and T are the most frequently used tempers and are, therefore, discussed sequentially. The F, O, and W designations are generally used alone and provide the complete description, and thus there is little to say about them except for one minor variation of the O temper that is covered later. Subdivisions of the H Temper for Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys. The H temper indicates that the alloy involved has been cold worked by strain hardening. The H always is followed by at least two numbers: O The first number after the H tells whether the strain-hardened alloy has been thermally treated and, if so, by what procedure. O The second number indicates approximately how much the alloy was strain hardened (i.e., the approximate percentage of cold reduction). O Any subsequent numbers define special practices, variations of the normal indicated by the first two numbers. The first number, indicating variations in thermal treatments following cold work, may be one of four possibilities: O H1 indicates that processing was limited to strain hardening; there was no subsequent thermal treatment. O H2 indicates strain hardening followed by a partial high-temperature recrystallization thermal treatment (i.e., a partial anneal) to take the properties back to some stable level less than those achieved by the cold working. When this temper is used, the alloy has intentionally been strain hardened more than the desired amount and then partially annealed back to achieve a specific level of strength. O H3 indicates strain hardening followed by a thermal stabilization treatment (i.e., holding at a modestly elevated temperature to permit the properties to stabilize and avoid time-dependent age softening, to
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 61
which certain alloys, especially of the 5xxx series, are prone). This also may be accomplished by the heat applied during a subsequent forming. O H4 indicates strain hardening followed by some thermal operation such as paint curing or lacquering in which the heat applied during this processing effectively reduces the degree of hardening remaining in the alloy and provides some stabilization to the final properties. It is useful to note that there are no unique property limits associated with H4X tempers; rather, the property limits associated with the comparable H2X or H3X tempers are used. As noted earlier, these H1, H2, H3, and H4 designations always are followed by a second number that indicates the approximate amount of cold work. Examples of the application of these designations include: O 3003-H12: Strain hardened approximately 25%; no other treatment (i.e., meets properties for H12 temper) O 3005-H26: Strain hardened and partial annealed to effective strain hardening of about 75% (i.e., meets properties for H26 temper) O 5052-H32: Strain hardened and stabilized to effective strain hardening of about 25% (i.e., meets properties for H32 temper) O 5052-H42: Strain hardened and given some finishing treatment that provides effective strain hardening of approximately 25% (i.e., meets properties for H42/H22 temper) As indicated by these examples, the digit following H1, H2, H3, or H4, indicates the effective degree of strain hardening remaining in the metal following the sequence of operations indicated by the first digit. In other words: O H1X temper: The X represents the actual amount of strain hardening given the alloy; no thermal treatment has been given to reduce the effective work remaining in the metal. O H2X temper: The X represents the effective cold work remaining after the metal has been cold worked beyond the final level desired, and partial annealed back. O H3X and H4X tempers: The X indicates the effective cold work remaining in the metal following cold working and the intermediate temperature stabilization treatment or the thermal exposure involved in the subsequent forming, painting, or lacquering processes. The second numerical digits have both a technical definition according to the Aluminum Association and a “schematic,” or approximate, definition as used in the trade. According to the Aluminum Association rules, the second digit is defined based upon the minimum value of the ultimate
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tensile strength of the material. In other words, the level of strength achieved is compared with the standard limits published for the various alloys, and the level most nearly met is used as the appropriate temper. Therefore, the hardest temper normally produced is indicated by adding the numeral 8 (i.e., HX8), and the standard increase in strength from the annealed (no cold work) to the HX8 temper is judged by the values in Table 3. Tempers between O and HX8 are defined as follows: O A degree of cold work equal to approximately one-half that for the HX8 temper is indicated by the HX4 temper and would be indicated by an increase in tensile strength of one-half the value in the second column of Table 3 for the appropriate level in the annealed temper. As an example, the minimum tensile strength of 1100-O sheet and plate is 11 ksi, so the tensile strength limit for 1100-H14 is 11 ksi plus 1⁄2 ⫻ 10 (from Table 3) or 16 ksi. In the corresponding metric example, the minimum tensile strength of 1100-O sheet and plate is 75 MPa, so the tensile strength of 1100-H14 is 75 plus 1⁄2 ⫻ 75 (from Table 3M) or 112.5 MPa, rounded to 110 MPa. It is appropriate to note that the rules in Tables 3 and 3M were not used in the early days of the aluminum Table 3
Range of values per HX8 temper
Minimum tensile strength in annealed temper, ksi
Increase in tensile strength to HX8 temper, ksi
Up to 6
8
7 to 9
9
10 to 12
10
13 to 15
11
16 to 18
12
19 to 24
13
25 to 30
14
31 to 36
15
37 to 42
16
43 and over
17
Table 3M (metric)
Tensile strengths of HX8 tempers
Minimum tensile strength in annealed temper, MPa
Increase in tensile strength to HX8 temper, MPa
Up to 40
55
45–60
62
65–80
69
85–100
76
105–120
83
125–160
90
165–200
97
205–240
103
245–280
110
285–320
115
296 and over
120
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 63
industry, and so there are exceptions among long-established property values. O A degree of cold work halfway between the O temper and the HX4 temper is indicated by the HX2 temper; a degree of cold work halfway between HX4 and HX8 is the HX6 temper. Following the example given for 1100, the respective tensile strength limits would be 14 ksi for H12 and 19 ksi for H16, respectively (the 0.5 ksi increments being rounded up). As a metric example for 1100, the respective tensile strength limit would be 130 MPa for H16, midway between the H14 and H18 values. O The numbers 1, 3, 5, and 7 similarly designate tempers intermediate between those just listed. In practice, these designations are seldom used; when they are, as in the case of 5657-H25, it is usually for some special product to indicate a specific treatment given to enhance some specific property (brightness, in the example given). The odd-numbered tempers also are used for pattern sheet temper designations, as described later. O The numeral 9 is used to indicate tempers with properties exceeding those of HX8 by 14 MPa (2 ksi) or more. This temper is achieved by cold rolling sheet to very small thicknesses, usually only a few thousandths of an inch. This designation also is used only for special products; the most important example is 3004-H19 sheet for can stock (i.e., starting stock for the production of aluminum cans). Some additional examples of two-digit H tempers that illustrate use of the first and second digits include the following: O 3003-H14: The “1” indicates that the material has been strain hardened and given no subsequent processing; the “4” indicates that the amount of strain hardening was about 50% of the level for the H18, or “full-hard” temper. O 5657-H26: The “2” indicates that the alloy has been strain hardened a relatively large amount and then partially annealed back to the desired level of effective cold work; the “6” indicates that the effective final level of cold work was about 80% of that of the full-hard H18 temper. O 5086-H32: The “3” indicates that the alloy has been strain hardened and stabilized; the “2” indicates that the degree of strain hardening was about 25% of the level for the H38 temper. Applications include sheet, plate, and drawn tube. Three-digit H Tempers. The final group of subdivisions of the H tempers that needs to be recognized involves the use of a third numeric digit for the H tempers. A third digit, such as HXX1, indicates a variation in a two-digit temper. Differences may be in such things as the degree of
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control of mechanical properties or a special finish; in such instances, however, the differences are not usually very great. An excellent example of the use of a third digit of an H temper designation is the series used for embossed sheet (i.e., sheet that, after other processing, has been finish rolled, with rolls having specific patterns on the surface to impart the reverse of that pattern onto the surface of the sheet). Such products also are known as pattern sheet and have the specific set of temper designations listed in Table 4 associated with them. These designations follow the same rules just described but have the number 4 added to the standard designation describing its processing up to the final pattern rolling operation. Another example of a three-digit H temper indicating treatment to impart special properties is the H116 temper (e.g., 5086-H116), which has been given a unique combination of cold work and thermal treatment to make it especially resistant to the corrosive effects of water and high-humidity environments and to minimize the possible effects of stress-corrosion sensitization from high-temperature exposure. Two other examples of a three-digit H temper cover the special cases of products having an uncontrolled amount of cold work but still being required to meet minimum specifications (i.e., the H111 and H112 tempers): O Alloy 5086-H111: This temper recognizes that the alloy underwent some amount of cold strain hardening after annealing but not enough for it to qualify as an H11 or H12 temper. The H111 temper is usually applied to extruded shapes that must be straightened after annealing to meet straightness tolerances, but for which the amount of strain is not controlled beyond a very modest amount. There are mechanical property limits indicative of the modest cold work. O Alloy 5086-H112: In this instance, the product has been hot worked enough that it has acquired some added strength that is reflected in the mechanical property limits. The product has not been subsequently cold worked or annealed but retains the effective strain hardening imparted by the hot work. Applications of this alloy include sheet and plate, extruded tube, and extruded rod, wire, bar, and shapes. Table 4
Three-digit temper designations for aluminum pattern sheet
Pattern or embossed sheet
H114
Fabricated from
O temper
H124, H224, H324
H11, H21, H31 temper, respectively
H134, H234, H334
H12, H22, H32 temper, respectively
H144, H244, H344
H13, H23, H33 temper, respectively
H154, H254, H354
H14, H24, H34 temper, respectively
H164, H264, H364
H15, H25, H35 temper, respectively
H174, H274, H374
H16, H26, H36 temper, respectively
H184, H284, H384
H17, H27, H37 temper, respectively
H194, H294, H394
H18, H28, H38 temper, respectively
H195, H295, H395
H19, H29, H39 temper, respectively
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 65
Subdivisions of the T Temper for Heat Treatable Alloys. The T tempers for heat treatable alloys may have from one to five digits following the T, and there are many more possible combinations than for the H tempers. The first digit after the T always indicates the basic type of treatment, and the second to fifth, if they are used, indicate whether the product was stress relieved and, if so, how it was stress relieved, and whether any other special treatments were given. The first digit after the T may be any of the following: O T1: Indicates that the alloy has been cooled directly from some high-temperature hot-working process such as rolling or extrusion and then naturally aged to a stable condition. As a result, it has received an “effective heat treatment,” but it has not received any other processing such as cold work that is recognized by special mechanical property limits. This temper is not widely used because, among other things, the corrosion resistance of the material may not be as good as with other combinations of treatments. O T2: Indicates that the alloy has been cooled from some hightemperature hot-working process such as rolling or extrusion and then cold worked before being naturally aged to a stable condition. Here again, the alloy has received an “effective heat treatment” as a result of the high-temperature treatment, but in this case, it has been cold worked sufficiently to increase its strength. This temper, as the T1, is not widely used because of limitations in certain characteristics compared with those given other combinations of treatments described as follows: O T3: Indicates the alloy has been given a solution heat treatment following hot working, quenching, cold working, and being naturally aged to a stable condition. This temper, like T4, T6, T7, and T8, indicates the use of a specific solution heat treatment (i.e., holding in a furnace at a sufficiently high temperature for the important alloying elements to go into solution, where they are retained upon quenching and provide a source of precipitation-hardening constituents). The amount of cold work is controlled to provide specific amounts of strain hardening with a commensurate increase in strength. This is a widely used temper type for 2xxx series alloys such as 2024, which naturally age efficiently following cold work. O T4: Indicates the alloy has been given a solution heat treatment and, without any cold work, naturally aged to a stable condition. This temper also is rather widely used for the 2xxx alloys. O T5: Indicates the alloy has been cooled from a high-temperature shaping process, usually extrusion, and then, without any intermediate cold work, is artificially aged. The artificial aging consists of holding at a sufficiently high temperature and sufficiently long time (e.g., 8 h at 175 °C, or 350 °F, or 24 h at 120 °C, or 250 °F) to permit precipitation
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O
O
O
O
O
hardening to take place. If there is any straightening or flattening to meet dimensional tolerances, it is not sufficient to be recognized with higher mechanical property limits. T6: Indicates the alloy has been solution heat treated and, without any significant cold working, artificially aged to achieve precipitation hardening. If there is any straightening or flattening to meet dimensional tolerances, it is not sufficient to be recognized with higher mechanical property limits. T7: Indicates the alloy has been solution heat treated and, without any significant cold working, aged in a furnace to an overaged (i.e., past peak strength) condition (also sometimes referred to as stabilized). This treatment generally is used for the 7xxx series alloys (e.g., 7075-T73 or T76) to improve their resistance to either stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) (T73) or to exfoliation corrosion (T76) attack; the T73 is the more severely overaged condition (see the subsequent section “Tempers Designating Special Corrosion-Resistant Tempers”). T8: Indicates the alloy has been solution heat treated, cold worked for strain hardening, and then artificially aged to achieve precipitation hardening. The material also may have been cold worked primarily to meet dimensional or stress relief requirements, but if the T8 temper is used, the amount of cold work is sufficient to be recognized by higher mechanical property limits. This temper primarily is used for the 2xxx alloys (e.g., 2024-T81 sheet). T9: Indicates the alloy has been solution heat treated, artificially aged to achieve precipitation hardening, and then cold worked to improve its strength. This temper is not widely used but is applied to the 2xxx series in some cases. T10: Indicates the alloy has been cooled from a high-temperature shaping process such as extrusion, cold worked, and then artificially aged for precipitation hardening. This temper rarely is used because there are no current commercial applications for it.
In all of the T-type tempers just described, solution heat treatment is achieved by heating semifinished or finished products to a suitable temperature, holding them at that temperature long enough to allow constituents to go into solution, and cooling them rapidly enough to hold the constituents in solution so that they may be the basis of precipitation hardening upon natural (i.e., room temperature) or artificial (i.e., in a furnace) aging. Adding Additional Digits to the T1 to T10 Tempers. Additional digits, the first of which shall not be zero, may be added to designations T1 to T10 to indicate a variation in treatment that significantly alters the product characteristics that are or would be obtained using the basic treatment. There is no standard listing of all such possible variations, so
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 67
the best way to illustrate and understand this usage better is to examine the major examples, as in the following sections that cover: O O O O O O
Stress relief Heat treatment by user Variations in heat treatment procedures Variations in quenching procedures Addition of cold work before or after aging Special practices for unique properties
Tempers Designating Residual Stress Relief of Heat Treated Products Two major classes of mechanical cold work are widely used by the aluminum industry to reduce the level of internal residual stresses in aluminum semifinished products resulting from prior heat treatment: O Stress relief by stretching, usually in the range of 1 or 11⁄2 to 3%, applied to rolled plate and rod, to extruded shapes, and occasionally to die or ring forgings; this treatment is designated by: a. TX51 for plate, rolled or cold-finished rod, and die or ring forgings b. TX510 or TX511 for all extruded shapes, where the extra digit 0 indicates stretching only, and the extra digit 1 indicates stretching combined with additional straightening such as twisting O Stress relief by 1 to 5% compressive cold work, usually applied to hand forgings and die forgings. This treatment is indicated by the TX52 temper designation. Sometimes these two methods of stress relief are used in combination (i.e., both stretching and compressing), indicated by the use of the TX54 temper designation. In all of these cases, the cold work for stress relief is carried out following quenching from the solution heat treatment and before artificial aging. While these temper designations for stress-relieved products have their widest use for heat treated products with T-type tempers, it should be noted that all of these designations may be applied to the W-type tempers as well. To illustrate the use of these designations for stress-relieved tempers, consider the following examples: O Alloy 7075-T651 plate: Basic temper is T6, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging; product has been stress relieved: T65; stress relief provided by stretching 1⁄2 to 2%: T651 O Alloy 7075-T6510 extruded tube: Basic temper is T6, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging; product has
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been stress relieved: T65; stress relief provided by stretching 1⁄2 to 3%, without any additional twisting or mechanical straightening: T6510 O Alloy 7075-T6511 extruded tube: Basic temper is T6, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging; product has been stress relieved: T65; stress relief provided by stretching 1⁄2 to 3% and twisting for straightness: T6511 O Alloy 2014-T652 hand forging: Basic temper is T6; product has been stress relieved: T65; stress relief provided by compression 1 to 5% O Alloy 7050-T654 die forging: Basic temper is T6, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging; product has been stress relieved: T65; stress relief has been provided by a combination of stretching and restriking in cold dies: T654
Temper Designations Identifying Modifications in Quenching Another means of minimizing residual stresses besides cold work following quenching is to quench the product in boiling water or oil following holding in a furnace for heat treatment, in contrast to the cold-water quench known to impart much of the residual stress. A special temper designation is used to designate such treatment⫺the addition of the digit 1. Thus, for some wrought alloys in T4 (solution heat treated and naturally aged), T6 (solution heat treated and artificially aged), and T7 (solution heat treated and overaged/stabilized) conditions, a descriptive digit 1 is added to the regular temper designation to indicate a change from the normal quenching procedure. By itself, the “1” indicates a boiling water quench. A second digit may be used to indicate some specialized variation of that quench, for example: O Alloy 2014-T61 forging: Basic temper is T6 temper, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging. Material was quenched in boiling water following the solution heat treatment to minimize residual stresses: T61. O Alloy 2014-T611 forging: Basic temper is T6 temper, indicating solution treat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging. Material was quenched in a special way following the solution heat treatment to minimize residual stresses: T61. Quench medium was adjusted to give property level between T6 and T61 tempers: T611. O Alloy 2014-T6151 plate: Basic temper is T6 temper, indicating solution treat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging. Material was quenched in boiling water following the solution heat treatment: T61. Plate was subsequently stretched 1⁄2 to 3% for additional stress relief: T6151.
Designations Indicating Heat Treatment by User Most temper designations are applied by the producer of the semifinished or finished products, and so the producer is in a position to ensure
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 69
that the specifications for strength and dimensional tolerances are met when parts are purchased by a customer who then performs some other shaping or machining procedure before the part is heat treated. However, the original producer no longer has any control over the degree to which the required final specifications are met. Therefore, special temper designations have been developed to cover the condition when the final heat treatment and meeting of property specifications is the responsibility of the customer rather than the original producer. These are the TX2 tempers. It is important to note that the TX2 temper is the proper one to use any time a customer or vendor rather than the original producer heat treats a product. An independent heat treater, regardless of how reliable, cannot be assumed to apply one of the standard tempers described heretofore to a product in the same manner and with the same reliability as the original producer. It is important, therefore, to make clear that the responsibility for meeting mechanical properties rests with the customer rather than the producer. The TX2 descriptor is applied to wrought products heat treated from any temper by the user of the product or the vendor (e.g., an aircraft company or its heat treating service) rather than the original material producer (e.g., an aluminum company). The TX2 designation is used in combination with tempers such as T4, T6, T73, or T76, indicative of other aspects of the processing (e.g., T42, T62, T732, or T762). In practice, the TX2 temper is used most often for wrought products that have been heat treated from the O or F temper to demonstrate response to heat treatment. Aluminum producer mills are almost always starting with freshly produced F temper materials and are accustomed to paying close attention to the consistency in processing operations needed to ensure meeting materials specifications. These procedures provide the mill with a consistent statistical base of operations and good knowledge of allowable variations in aging times and temperatures for the semifinished parts. There are times when the mechanical property limits for the standard temper and the TX2 version of that temper (e.g., T6 and T62) differ. This is because of the difference in controls of processing variables in the producer’s operations compared with those in customers’ and their vendors’ plants, and because customers and their vendors may not be able to do standard stress relief treatments such as those done by producers. On the other hand, structural engineers, such as those in the aerospace industry, may use tensile strength and yield strength values based on their extensive statistical analyses of finished parts, which become the basis of their design values. These values may differ from producer-developed specification limits. Differences in producer and user testing requirements also must be taken into account. The producer guarantees tensile, yield, and elongation properties of each heat or lot of material to be delivered by the producer.
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Each heat or lot is tensile tested to be sure that property requirements are met. Questionable material is either reprocessed or rejected. By comparison, the end-user heat treater of the material may or may not be asked by the customer to tensile test each lot. Typically, the heat treater relies solely on the results of hardness and conductivity tests to determine whether heat treatment is done correctly. There is an assumption made by the customer that the material would pass tensile test minimums if tested. For example, for 7075-T62 die forging, the basic temper is T6, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging. The added digit 2 in T62 indicates that the heat treatment and aging were carried out by other than the original producer of the forging (i.e., by the user or a contractor of the user).
Tempers Identifying Additional Cold Work between Quenching and Aging To obtain particularly high strengths in aluminum alloy sheet in the heat treated condition, alloys (notably 2024) sometimes are given additional cold work between solution heat treatment and artificial aging beyond that which might be used simply for straightening or stress relief. These are indicated by variations of the usual tempers for sheet that is simply straightened or flattened after heat treatment, such as the T3 and T81 tempers of 2024. With the additional cold work, the temper designations are T361 and T861, respectively: O 2024-T361 sheet: Basic temper is T3, indicating solution heat treatment followed by cold work. The amount of cold work is significantly beyond that for straightening or flattening (T3 temper): T361. O 2024-T861 sheet: Basic temper is T8, indicating solution heat treatment, cold work, and artificial aging. The amount of cold work is significantly beyond that for straightening or flattening (T81 temper): T861.
Tempers Identifying Additional Cold Work Following Aging Another means sometimes used to gain added strength in aluminum alloy products is the addition of stretching or drawing following the heat treatment and artificial aging. This is indicated by the use of the T9 temper. It is used only for a few standard products such as screw machine stock and wire. The T9 may be followed by other numbers indicating special modifications of the treatment: O 6262-T9 rod: Basic temper is T9, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging followed by cold work. O 6061-T94 wire: Basic temper is T9, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging followed by cold work. Modification given to ensure meeting requirements for product: T94
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 71
Tempers Designating Special Corrosion Resistant Tempers To increase the corrosion resistance of certain high-strength heat treatable alloys of the 7xxx series in particular, they are given an overaging or stabilization treatment following solution heat treatment and quenching, rather than being aged to peak strength as indicated by the T6 temper. Such treatments are designated by the use of the T7-type temper, and the digit following the T7 indicates something about the extent of the treatment and of the resultant level of corrosion resistance. There are two basic variations of corrosion-resistance enhancement used for such alloys: O Enhanced stress-corrosion resistance, T73 temper: Indicating aging sufficient to increase stress-corrosion resistance to a relatively high level, well above that of the T6-type temper but at approximately a 15% sacrifice in tensile yield strength. O Enhanced exfoliation corrosion resistance, T76 temper: Indicating aging sufficient to improve resistance to exfoliation corrosion over that of the T6-type temper, but strengths about 5 to 10% less than those of the T6 temper. Note that this T76 temper has strengths superior to those available with the T73 temper, but it provides less resistance to SCC than the T73 temper. The stress-corrosion enhancements may be used in combination with the special tempers for residual stress relief, as illustrated by the following examples: O T7651 plate: Basic temper is T7, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and an artificial aging treatment beyond peak strength aimed at enhancing corrosion resistance in some manner. Degree of overaging is for enhanced exfoliation corrosion resistance: T76. Plate was subsequently stress relieved by stretching 1⁄2 to 3%: T7651. O T73510 extruded shape: Basic temper is T7, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and an artificial aging treatment beyond peak strength aimed at enhancing corrosion resistance in some manner. Degree of overaging is for enhanced stress corrosion resistance: T73. Plate was subsequently stress relieved by stretching 1⁄2 to 3% without further straightening or twisting: T73510.
Temper Designation for Special or Premium Properties There are times when applications with special needs, typically in the aerospace industry, require special performance capabilities of aluminum alloys. These capabilities are accomplished by the use of special processing (sometimes combined with tighter composition control). When special processing is used, and it is to be used in a fairly broad
72 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
commercial manner, a special temper designation usually is developed. Several of these designations are noted subsequently. Several years ago, special processes were developed to provide 7175 forging (7175 being a special version of 7075 with tighter impurity limits control) with a superior combination of high strength, high fracture toughness, and good corrosion resistance. The temper designation developed for 7175 forgings produced by this special processing was T736 (T73652 if stress relieved by compressive cold work). Broader use of this approach for 7175 as well as 7050 and potentially other high toughness, high corrosion-resistant alloys led to the redefinition and simplification of T736 to T74. As is often the case with such special processing, the specific combinations of thermal and mechanical treatments used to achieve the properties required are not specifically spelled out in the literature, and in fact, individual producers may have their own proprietary processes to accomplish the needs. In such cases, the mechanical property limits for the special products are detailed so that the desired performance must be met; however, it is accomplished by individual producers. Examples of such products and special processes are as follows: O 7175-T74 die forging: Basic temper is T7, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and aging to achieve special properties (e.g., aging beyond peak strength). Special treatment used to enhance combination of strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance, with specification limits on fracture toughness as well as strength: T74 O 7175-T7454 die forging: Basic temper is T7, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and aging to achieve special properties (e.g., aging beyond peak strength). Special treatment used to enhance combination of strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance, with specification limits on fracture toughness as well as strength: T74. Stress relieved by a combination of stretching and compressive cold work: T7454 Another means sometimes used to indicate special treatments by the temper designation is the use of an extra “6” added to T6 temper: O 7175-T66: Basic temper is T6, indicating solution heat treatment, quenching, and artificial aging. Special undefined treatment to achieve maximum strength: T66 The development of special temper designations to cover unique cases is under the auspices of the Product Standards Committee of the Aluminum Association, and proposals for such unique tempers arise with some regularity. It is always possible, therefore, that new temper designations are being developed and registered by the Aluminum
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 73
Association, and anyone interested in remaining abreast of such developments should purchase the Registration Records Series Tempers for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Products in addition to Aluminum Standards and Data. It is strongly emphasized once again that it is incorrect and unethical for anyone⫺producer, heat treater, or customer/user⫺to make up a temper designation in a format that implies or might be misconstrued to mean that the alloy has been registered by the Aluminum Association and recognized by others in the industry. Such practices dilute the value and reliability of the entire temper designation standards recognized by the industry, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and the International Accord (see Chapter 8, “Selected References”) community.
Tempers for Cast Aluminum Alloys The temper designation system for cast aluminum alloys is basically the same as that for wrought aluminum alloys, but in practice, there are some significant differences in usage. The following discussion focuses on those differences while noting the similarities. The descriptive sources for the aluminum alloy designation system, such as Aluminum Standards and Data, focus more strongly on wrought alloys than on the cast alloys, and this discussion, therefore, also includes guidance from the American Foundrymen’s Society book, Aluminum Casting Technology.
Review of the Basic Tempers for Cast Alloys For practical considerations, a review of the basic temper designations can be restricted to the three types of tempers in commercial usage for castings: F, O, and T, described as follows: O F, as fabricated: This designation is used for cast products made by any casting process (e.g., sand casting, permanent mold casting, die casting, etc.) and refers to the condition of the casting as it comes from the molds without any further thermal or mechanical treatment. Unlike the case with wrought alloys, the F temper is a very common finish or final temper for castings, especially die castings. In addition, unlike wrought alloys, there are likely to be published typical mechanical properties and, in some cases, even minimum mechanical property limits published for the F temper. For example, 360.0-F designates a 360.0 casting as it has come straight from the mold and cooled to room temperature. In this alloy, this is likely to be the temper supplied to the purchaser. O O, annealed: This designation is used for cast alloys that are annealed (i.e., given a high-temperature stabilization or recrystallization treat-
74 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
ment, sufficient to remove the effects of the thermal cycles it experienced during the casting and cooling processes, thermal treatments, and to result in a softening of the material and the minimum practical level of mechanical strength. For castings, the treatment may be used both to improve ductility and increase dimensional stability, but it is not a very common finish temper for castings as it is for wrought non-heat-treatable aluminum alloys. For example, 222.0-O designates a 222.0 casting whose most recent treatment has been holding at a high temperature (⬃415 °C, or ⬃775 °F) for 5 h, slow furnace cooling by a carefully defined program, intended for dimensional stability. O T, thermally treated to produce stable tempers other than O or F: The T designation applies to any cast alloy that has been given a solution heat treatment followed by a suitable quench and either natural (i.e., in air) or artificial (i.e., in a furnace) aging. The T is always followed by one or more digits that define in general terms the subsequent treatments, which are discussed in more detail subsequently. For example: 356.0-T6 designates a 356.0 casting that has been heat treated, quenched, and artificially aged.
Subdivisions of the Basic Temper Types for Cast Alloys For cast alloys, there are no standard variations and, therefore, no additional digits on the designations for the F and O tempers; the following discussion, therefore, focuses only on the T tempers. For the T type of temper for aluminum castings, there are four commercially used subdivisions: T4, T5, T6, and T7. These subdivisions have generally the same meaning as for wrought alloys, but the usage varies slightly: O T4 indicates the casting has been given a solution heat treatment and, without any cold work, naturally aged (i.e., at room temperature) to a stable condition. For most casting alloys this is an unstable temper, comparable to W for wrought alloys, and so most cast alloys are subsequently aged. Example: 295.0-T4 O T5 indicates the casting has been cooled from the casting process and then artificially aged (i.e., in a furnace). The artificial aging consists of holding at a sufficiently high temperature and sufficiently long time (e.g., 8 h at 175 °C, or 350 °F, or 24 h at 120 °C, or 250 °F) to permit precipitation hardening to take place. This process stabilizes the castings dimensionally, improves machinability, relieves residual stresses, and increases strengths somewhat. Example: 319.0-T5 O T6 indicates the casting has been solution heat treated and artificially aged to achieve maximum precipitation hardening. It results in relatively high strengths with adequate ductility and stabilizes properties and dimensions. Example: 295.0-T6
Understanding the Aluminum Temper Designation System / 75
O T7 indicates the casting has been solution heat treated and artificially aged to an overaged (i.e., past peak strength) condition. This treatment is used to provide a better combination of high strength and high ductility and stabilization of properties and dimensions. Example: 356.0-T7 Additional digits are used sometimes with these T5, T6, and T7 tempers, but the variations are not as well defined for castings as for wrought products; they do denote variations from the standard practices of either casting or heat treating the part. For different alloys, the same temper designation may not always mean the same variation in casting or heat treating practice: O For T5: The T51, T52, T53, T533, T551, and T571 tempers are recognized variations, intended to either increase dimensional stability or increase strength. For example, for 242.0-T571, the basic temper, T5, indicates that the casting has been cooled from the casting process and then artificially aged (i.e., in a furnace). A special chill was added as the casting cooled to ensure higher strengths. O For T6: The T61, T62, and T65 variations exist and deal with variations in quench media and/or artificial aging conditions, once again to increase dimensional stability or improve certain properties. For example, for A356.0-T61, the basic temper, T6, indicates that the casting has been solution heat treated, quenched, and artificially aged following casting. The aging practice has been modified from the peak-strength treatment (which would have been indicated by T6) to ensure optimal performance. O For T7: The T71, T75, and T77 tempers are recognized, also primarily to increase dimensional stability or improve certain properties. For example, for 355.0-T71, the basic temper, T7, indicates that the casting has been heat treated and artificially aged to an overaged (i.e., past peak strength) solution condition. The artificial aging practice has been modified to further enhance the corrosion resistance and ductility. Unfortunately, there is no clear resource to document the exact nature and degree of consistency of these variations in temper for cast aluminum alloys, as only a few of the tempers for casting have been recently enough registered to appear in Aluminum Association publications such as the Registration Record Series Tempers for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Products. Many of the tempers go back many years and have not been through a rigorous rationalization process.
76 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Importance to Understanding Aluminum Tempers One of the main points of the preceding discussion is to demonstrate that what may seem like a complex or confusing set of coded numbers in a temper designation can actually be recognized and understood by looking at the individual letters and numbers and recognizing the function and meaning of each segment. End users and their heat treaters and fabricators should understand these in considerable detail so that in their own subsequent processes they do not destroy some key capability provided by the producer’s treatment. The heat treater, for example, is advised to constantly refer to specifications, drawings, and controlling documents, to ensure that the end customer’s requirements are being followed explicitly. If this is not done, end-user fabricators or heat treaters may face the prospect of salvaging parts rejected by the customer.
Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers J. Gilbert Kaufman, p87-118 DOI:10.1361/iaat2000p087
CHAPTER
Copyright © 2000 ASM International® All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org
6
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers THERE ARE AT LEAST two approaches to overviewing important applications of aluminum alloys: by alloy class, as initiated in Chapter 3 and carried out in greater detail subsequently, and by type of application. Both approaches are considered in this chapter⫺a review first by alloy class and then by application. Readers are referred to Aluminum: Technology, Applications and Environment (see Chapter 8) for more detailed information on many of the applications mentioned in this chapter. All photographs are courtesy of the Aluminum Association unless otherwise indicated, many from the reference noted in the previous paragraph.
Applications by Alloy Class Wrought Alloys 1xxx, Pure Aluminum. The major characteristics of the 1xxx series are: O Strain hardenable O Exceptionally high formability, corrosion resistance, and electrical conductivity O Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 70 to 185 MPa (10–27 ksi) O Readily joined by welding, brazing, and soldering The 1xxx series represents the commercially pure (CP) aluminum, ranging from the baseline 1100 (99.00% min Al) to relatively purer 1050/1350
88 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
(99.50% min Al) and 1175 (99.75 % min Al). The 1xxx series of alloys are strain hardenable but would not be used where strength is a prime consideration. The primary uses of the 1xxx series would be applications in which the combination of extremely high corrosion resistance and formability are required (e.g., foil and strip for packaging, chemical equipment, tank car or truck bodies, spun hollowware, and elaborate sheet metal work). Electrical applications are one major use of the 1xxx series, primarily 1350, which has relatively tight controls on those impurities that might lower electrical conductivity. As a result, an electrical conductivity of 62% of the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) is guaranteed for this material, which, combined with the natural light weight of aluminum, means a significant weight and, therefore, cost advantage over copper in electrical applications. Specific illustrations provided include an aluminum electrical bus bar installation (Fig. 1), food packaging trays of pure aluminum (Fig. 2), decorated foil pouches for food and drink (Fig. 3), aluminum foil of CP aluminum and pet food decorated wrap (Fig. 4), and a bright-polished telescopic mirror of a high-purity aluminum (Fig. 5).
Fig. 1
Aluminum electrical bus bar installation with 1350 bus bar
Fig. 2
Food packaging trays of pure aluminum (1100)
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 89
2xxx, Aluminum-Copper Alloys. The major characteristics of the 2xxx series are: O O O O
Heat treatable High strength, at room and elevated temperatures Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 190 to 430 MPa (27–62 ksi) Usually joined mechanically, but some alloys are weldable
The 2xxx series of alloys are heat treatable and possess in individual alloys good combinations of high strength (especially at elevated temperatures), toughness, and, in specific cases, weldability. They are not as resistant to atmospheric corrosion as several other series and so usually are painted or clad for added protection.
Fig. 3
(a)
Fig. 4
Decorated foil pouches for food and drink (1060 or 1100)
(b)
(a) Reynolds Wrap (Reynolds Metals Co., Richmond, VA) aluminum foil of commercially pure aluminum (1100 or similar) and (b) Reynolds pet food decorated wrap
90 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Primary Uses. The higher-strength 2xxx alloys are widely used for aircraft (2024) and truck body (2014) applications, where they generally are used in bolted or riveted construction. Specific members of the series (e.g., 2219 and 2048) are readily joined by gas metal arc welding (GMAW) or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and so are used for aerospace applications where that method is the preferred joining method. Alloy 2195 is a new lithium-bearing aluminum alloy providing very high modulus of elasticity along with higher strength and comparable weldability to 2219 for space applications. For applications requiring very high strength plus high fracture toughness, there are high-toughness versions of several of the alloys (e.g., 2124, 2324, and 2419) that have tighter control on the impurities that may diminish resistance to unstable fracture, all developed specifically for the aircraft industry. Alloys 2011, 2017, and 2117 are widely used for fasteners and screw-machine stock. Illustrations of applications for the 2xxx series alloys include aircraft internal and external structures (Fig. 6), structural beams of heavy dump and tank trucks and trailer trucks (Fig. 7), the fuel tanks and booster rockets of the Space Shuttle (Fig. 8), and internal railroad car structural members (Fig. 9). 3xxx, Aluminum-Manganese Alloys. The major characteristics of the 3xxx series are: O High formability and corrosion resistance with medium strength O Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 110 to 285 MPa (16–41 ksi) O Readily joined by all commercial procedures
Fig. 5
Bright-polished telescopic mirror of a high-purity aluminum
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 91
Fig. 6
Aircraft internal structure includes extrusions and plate of 2xxx alloys such as 2024, 2124, and 2618. External sheet skin may be alclad 2024 or 2618; the higher-purity cladding provides corrosion protection to the aluminum-copper alloys that otherwise will darken with age.
Fig. 7
Heavy dump and tank trucks and trailer trucks may employ 2xxx extrusions for their structural members.
92 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8
(a) The booster rockets and (b) fuel tanks of the Space Shuttle are 2xxx alloys, originally 2219 and 2419; now sometimes aluminum-lithium “Weldalite” alloy 2195
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 93
The 3xxx series of alloys are strain hardenable, have excellent corrosion resistance, and are readily welded, brazed, and soldered. Primary Uses. Alloy 3003 is widely used in cooking utensils and chemical equipment because of its superiority in handling many foods and chemicals, and in builders’ hardware because of its superior corrosion resistance. Alloy 3105 is a principal for roofing and siding. Because of the ease and flexibility of joining, 3003 and other members of the 3xxx series are widely used in sheet and tubular form for heat exchangers in vehicles and power plants. Alloy 3004 and its modification 3104 are the principals for the bodies of drawn and ironed can bodies for beverage cans for beer and soft drinks. As a result, they are among the most used individual alloys in the aluminum system, in excess of 1.6 billion kg (3.5 billion lb) per year. Typical applications of the 3xxx alloy series include automotive radiator heat exchangers (Fig. 10) and tubing in commercial power plant heat exchangers (Fig. 11). In addition, the bodies of beverage cans (Fig. 12) are alloys 3004 or 3104, making it the largest volume alloy combination in the industry. 4xxx, Aluminum-Silicon Alloys. The major characteristics of the 4xxx series are: O O O O
Heat treatable Good flow characteristics, medium strength Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 175 to 380 MPa (25–55 ksi) Easily joined, especially by brazing and soldering
Primary Uses. There are two major uses of the 4xxx series, both generated by the excellent flow characteristics provided by relatively high
Fig. 9
Internal railroad car structural members are sometimes 2xxx alloys (also sometimes 6xxx alloys).
94 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Automotive radiator heat exchangers are of alloys such as 3002.
Alloy 3003 tubing in commercial power plant heat exchanger
silicon contents. The first is for forgings: the workhorse alloy is 4032, a medium high-strength, heat treatable alloy used principally in applications such as forged aircraft pistons. The second major application is a weld filler alloy; here the workhorse is 4043, used for GMAW and GTAW 6xxx alloys for structural and automotive applications.
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 95
Fig. 12
The bodies of beverage cans are alloys 3004 or 3104, making it the largest volume alloy combination in the industry.
Fig. 13
Refrigerator coolant circulation system in brazed unit of high-silicon brazing alloy sheet
As noted, the same characteristic—good flow provided by the high silicon content—leads to both types of application. In the case of forgings, this good flow ensures the complete and precise filling of complex dies; in the case of welding, it ensures complete filling of grooves in the members to be joined. For the same reason, other variations of the 4xxx alloys are used for the cladding on brazing sheet, the component that flows to complete the bond. Figure 13 illustrates a refrigerator coolant circulation system in a brazed unit of a high-silicon brazing alloy sheet. Alloy 4043 is one of the most widely used weld wires used in applications such as the automated welding of an auto body structure illustrated in Fig. 14. 5xxx, Aluminum-Magnesium Alloys. The major characteristics of the 6xxx series are:
96 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O Strain hardenable O Excellent corrosion resistance, toughness, weldability; moderate strength O Building and construction, automotive, cryogenic, and marine applications O Representative alloys: 5052, 5083, and 5754 O Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 125 to 350 MPa (18–51 ksi) Aluminum-magnesium alloys of the 5xxx series are strain hardenable and have moderately high strength, excellent corrosion resistance even in salt water, and very high toughness even at cryogenic temperatures to near absolute zero. They are readily welded by a variety of techniques, even at thicknesses up to 20 cm (8 in.). Primary Use. As a result, 5xxx alloys find wide application in building and construction; highway structures, including bridges, storage tanks, and pressure vessels; cryogenic tankage and systems for temperatures as low as –270 °C (⫺455 °F) or near absolute zero, and marine applications. Alloys 5052, 5086, and 5083 are the workhorses from the structural standpoint, with increasingly higher strength associated with the increasingly higher magnesium content. Specialty alloys in the group include 5182, the beverage can end alloy and, thus, among the largest in tonnage; 5754 for automotive body panel and frame applications; and 5252, 5457, and 5657 for bright trim applications, including automotive trim. Care must be taken to avoid use of 5xxx alloys with more than 3% Mg content in applications where they receive continuous exposure to temperatures above 100 °C (212 °F). Such alloys may become sensitized and susceptible to SCC. For this reason, alloys such as 5454 and 5754 are recommended for applications where high temperature exposure is likely.
Fig. 14 structure.
Alloy 4043 is one of the most widely used weld wires used in applications such as this automated welding of an auto body
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 97
High-speed, single-hull ships such as the Destriero, shown in Fig. 15, employ 5083-H113/H321machined plate for hulls, hull stiffeners, decking, and superstructure. Figure 16 shows the internal hull stiffener structure of a high-speed yacht. Single- or multiple-hull high-speed ferries employ several aluminum-magnesium alloys, 5083, 5383, and 5454, as sheet and plate (Fig. 17) (along with 6xxx extruded shapes, described next) with all-welded construction. Other applications for the broadly used 5xxx series of alloys can be seen in Fig. 18 to 26. 6xxx, Aluminum-Magnesium-Silicon Alloys. The major characteristics of the 6xxx series are: O Heat treatable O High corrosion resistance, excellent extrudibility; moderate strength
Fig. 15
High-speed, single-hull ships such as the Destriero, employ 5083H113/H321 machined plate for hulls, hull stiffeners, decking, and superstructure.
Fig. 16
The internal hull stiffener structure of a high-speed yacht (see Fig. 15)
98 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 125 to 400 MPa (18–58 ksi) O Readily welded by GMAW and GTAW methods The 6xxx alloys are heat treatable and have moderately high strength coupled with excellent corrosion resistance. A unique feature is their great extrudability, making it possible to produce in single shapes relatively complex architectural forms, as well as to design shapes that put the majority of the metal where it will most efficiently carry the highest tensile and compressive stresses. This feature is a particularly important advantage for architectural and structural members where stiffnesscriticality is important. Primary Use. Alloy 6063 is perhaps the most widely used because of its extrudability; it is not only the first choice for many architectural and structural members, but it has been the choice for the Audi automotive space frame members. A good example of its structural use was the all-aluminum bridge structure in Foresmo, Norway (Fig. 26); it was prefabricated in a shop and erected on the site in only a few days.
Fig. 17
Single- or multiple-hull high-speed ferries employ several aluminum-magnesium alloys⫺5083, 5383, and 5454⫺as sheet and plate (along with 6xxx extruded shapes) with all-welded construction.
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 99
Higher-strength alloy 6061 extrusions and plate find broad use in welded structural members such as truck and marine frames, railroad cars, and pipelines. Among specialty alloys in the series: 6066-T6, with high strength for forgings; 6070 for the highest strength available in 6xxx extrusions; and 6101and 6201 for high-strength electrical bus and electrical conductor wire, respectively.
Fig. 18 Alloy 5083 was the workhorse for the 32 m (125 ft) diam spheres for shipboard transport of liquefied natural gas; the all-welded construction was 200 mm (8 in.) thick at the horizontal diam.
Fig. 19
The superstructure of many ocean liners, ferries, and most naval ships is of welded 5xxx alloy construction, providing lightweight and excellent corrosion resistance.
100 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Figure 27 shows that the power of extruded aluminum-magnesiumsilicon alloys is the “put-the-metal-where-you need-it” flexibility these alloys and the extrusion process provide. Some of the other most important applications for aluminum-magnesium-silicon are in the structural members of wide-span roof structures for arenas and gymnasiums shown in Fig. 28; geodesic domes, such as the one made originally to house the Spruce Goose, the famous Hughes wooden flying boat, in Long Beach, CA, the largest geodesic dome ever constructed, at 250 m (1000 ft) across, 100 m (400 ft) high (Fig. 29); an integrally stiffened bridge deck shape, used to produce replacement bridge decks, readily put in the roadway in hours (Fig. 30, 31); and a magnetic levitation (Mag-Lev) train in development in Europe and Japan
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Rugged coal cars are provided by welded 5454 alloy plate construction.
The demands of the superstructures of offshore oil rigs in high humidity and water exposure are met with 5454, 5086, and 5083 aluminum-magnesium alloy welded construction.
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 101
(Fig. 32). In addition, aluminum light poles are widely used around the world for their corrosion resistance and crash protection systems providing safety for auto drivers and passengers, as shown in Fig. 33. Representative important applications of the 6xxx alloy series in automobile structures are shown in Fig. 34 to 36.
Fig. 22
Automotive structures are likely to employ increasing amounts of 5754-O formed sheet for parts such as internal door stiffeners or the entire body-in-white.
Fig. 23
Aluminum cans have ends of alloy 5182, making that one of the largest volume alloys in production.
102 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
7xxx, Aluminum-Zinc Alloys. The major characteristics of the 7xxx series are: O O O O
Heat treatable Very high strength; special high-toughness versions Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 220 to 610 MPa (32–88 ksi) Mechanically joined
Fig. 24
5xxx alloys are commonly used as external facing sheets of composite aluminum-plastic structural panels, as in this Alusuisse Alucoban example.
Fig. 25
Sheet of 5xxx alloys often forms the surface of geodesic dome structures, as in this example of a water treatment plant.
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 103
The 7xxx alloys are heat treatable and, among the aluminum-zincmagnesium-copper versions in particular, provide the highest strengths of all aluminum alloys. These alloys are not considered weldable by commercial processes and are regularly used with riveted construction. Primary Use. The widest application of the 7xxx alloys historically has been in the aircraft industry, where fracture-critical design concepts have
Fig. 26
The Foresmo Bridge in northern Norway is an excellent example of the use of aluminum-magnesium alloys for built-up girders systems; this photograph illustrates a major advantage of replacement aluminum bridges⫺the ability to prefabricate the spans and move them in place quickly, minimizing the disruption to traffic.
Fig. 27
The power of extruded aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys is the “put-in-the metal-where-you-need-it” flexibility these alloys and the extrusion process provide.
104 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 28
The structural members of wide-span roof structures for arenas and gymnasiums are usually 6063 or 6061 extruded tube or beams, covered with 5xxx alloy sheet.
provided the impetus for the high-toughness alloy development. There are several alloys in the series that are produced especially for their high toughness, notably 7150, 7175, and 7475; for these alloys, controlled impurity levels, particularly of iron and silicon, maximize the combination of strength and fracture toughness. The atmospheric corrosion resistance of the 7xxx alloys is not as high as that of the 5xxx and 6xxx alloys, thus, in such service, they usually are coated or, for sheet and plate, used in an alclad version. Also, special tempers have been developed to improve their resistance to exfoliation
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 105
Fig. 29
This geodesic dome in Long Beach, CA, made originally to house the “Spruce Goose,” is the largest geodesic dome ever constructed⫺250 m (1000 ft) across, 100 m (400 ft) high.
Fig. 30
Integrally stiffened bridge deck shape, which is usually produced in 6063
and SCC, the T76 and T73 types, respectively. These tempers are especially recommended in situations where there may be high short transverse (through the thickness) stresses present during exposure to atmospheric or more severe environments. Applications of 7xxx alloys include critical aircraft wing structures of integrally stiffened aluminum extrusions (Fig. 37), long-length drill pipe (Fig. 38), and the premium forged aircraft part of alloy 7175-T736 (T74) shown in Fig. 39. 8xxx, Alloys with Aluminum Plus Other Elements (Not Covered by Other Series). The major characteristics of the 8xxx series are:
106 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O Heat treatable O High conductivity, strength, and hardness O Typical ultimate tensile strength range: 120 to 240 (17–35 ksi) The 8xxx series is used for those alloys with lesser-used alloying elements such as iron, nickel, and lithium. Each is used for the particular characteristics it provides the alloys.
Fig. 31
Replacement bridge decks, usually produced in 6063, are readily put into the roadway in hours.
Fig. 32
Experimental magnetic levitation (Mag-Lev) train in development in Europe and Japan, employ bodies with 6061 and 6063 structural
members.
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 107
Primary Use. Iron and nickel provide strength with little loss in electrical conductivity and so are used in a series of alloys represented by 8017 for conductors. Lithium in alloy 8090 provides exceptionally high strength and modulus, and so this alloy is used for aerospace applications in which increases in stiffness combined with high strength reduces component weight. A forged helicopter component of aluminum-lithium alloy 8090-T852 can be seen in Fig. 40.
Fig. 33
Aluminum light poles are widely used around the world for their corrosion resistance, and their breakaway-base crash protection systems that provide safety for car drivers and passengers.
(a)
Fig. 34
(b)
Extruded aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys make up (a) a complete Verlicchi Nino & Fugli motorcycle chassis and (b) the entire body frame of the Audi A-8.
108 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Cast Alloys In comparison with wrought alloys, casting alloys contain larger proportions of alloying elements such as silicon and copper, which results in a largely heterogeneous cast structure (i.e., one having a substantial volume of second phases). This second phase material warrants careful study, since any coarse, sharp, and brittle constituent can create harmful internal notches and nucleate cracks when the component is later put under load. The fatigue properties are very sensitive to large heterogeneities. As is shown later, good metallurgical and foundry practices can largely prevent such defects. The elongation and strength, especially in fatigue, of most cast products are relatively lower than those of wrought products. This is because current casting practice is as yet unable to reliably prevent casting defects. In recent years, however, innovations in casting processes such as squeeze
Fig. 35
Welded 6063 extrusions combined with 5083 tube and 357 casting make up the axle body assembly for the BMW Model 5.
Fig. 36
The General Motors Aurora, like many other production automobiles, has aluminum closure panels of alloy 6111-T4.
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 109
casting have brought about some significant improvements in the consistency and level of properties of castings, and these should be taken into account in selecting casting processes for critical applications. 2xx.x, Aluminum-Copper Alloys. The major characteristics of the 2xx.x series are: O Heat treatable sand and permanent mold castings O High strength at room and elevated temperatures; some high-toughness alloys
Fig. 37
Critical aircraft wing structures are often of 7xxx alloy sheet or integrally stiffened extrusion construction; alloy 7075-T73 or hightoughness alloys such as 7050 or 7475 are among the principal choices.
Fig. 38
Long-length drill pipe often is made of 7xxx (as well as 2xxx) aluminum alloy extruded tube.
110 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O Approximate ultimate tensile strength range: 130 to 450 MPa (20–65 ksi) Primary Use. The strongest of the common casting alloys is heat treated 201.0, which has found important application in the aerospace industry. The castability of the alloy is somewhat limited by a tendency to microporosity and hot tearing so that it is best suited to investment casting. Its high toughness makes it particularly suitable for highly stressed components in machine tool construction, in electrical engineering (pressurized switchgear castings), and in aircraft construction.
Fig. 39
An example of a premium forged aircraft part of alloy 7175-T736 (T74)
Fig. 40
A forged helicopter component of aluminum-lithium alloy 8090T852
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 111
Besides the standard aluminum casting alloys, there are special alloys for particular components, for instance, for engine piston heads, integral engine blocks, or bearings. For these applications, the chosen alloy needs good wear resistance and a low friction coefficient, as well as adequate strength at elevated service temperatures. A good example is the alloy 203.0, which to date is the aluminum casting alloy with the highest strength at approximately 200 °C (400 °F). An example of an application for 2xx.x alloys is an aircraft component that is made in alloys of high-strength alloy 201.0-T6 (Fig. 41). 3xx.x, Aluminum-Silicon Plus Copper or Magnesium Alloys. The major characteristics of the 3xx.x series are: O Heat treatable sand, permanent mold, and die castings O Excellent fluidity, high-strength, and some high-toughness alloys O Approximate ultimate tensile strength range: 130 to 275 MPa (20–40 ksi) O Readily welded The 3xx.x series of castings is one of the most widely used because of the flexibility provided by the high silicon content and its contribution to fluidity, plus their response to heat treatment, which provides a variety of high-strength options. In addition, the 3xx.x series may be cast by a variety of techniques ranging from relatively simple sand or die casting to very intricate permanent mold, investment castings, and the newer thixocasting and squeeze casting technologies. Primary Use. Among the workhorse alloys are 319.0 and 356.0/A356.0 for sand and permanent mold casting; 360.0, 380.0/A380.0, and 390.0 for die casting; and 357.0/A357.0 for many types of casting, including, especially, the relatively newly commercialized squeeze/forge cast technologies. Alloy 332.0 also is one of the most frequently used aluminum
Fig. 41
Aircraft components are made from high-strength cast aluminum alloys, such as alloy 201.0.
112 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 42
Thixoformed A356.0-T6 inner turbo frame for the Airbus family of aircraft
casting alloys because it can be made almost exclusively from recycled scrap. Among the illustrative applications are the thixoformed A356.0-T6 inner turbo frame for the Airbus family of aircraft (Fig. 42); the gearbox casing for a passenger car in alloy pressure die cast 380.0 shown in Fig. 43; rear axle housing (Fig. 44); complex 3xx.x castings made by the investment casting processes, providing the ability to obtain exceptionally intricate detail and fine quality (Fig. 45); and A356.0 cast wheels, which are widely used in the U.S. automotive industry (Fig. 46). 4xx.x, Aluminum-Silicon Alloys. The major characteristics of the 4xx.x series are: O Non-heat-treatable sand, permanent mold, and die castings O Excellent fluidity, good for intricate castings O Approximate ultimate tensile strength range: 120 to 175 MPa (17–25 ksi) Alloy B413.0 is notable for its very good castability and excellent weldability, which are due to its eutectic composition and low melting point of 700 °C (1292 °F). It combines moderate strength with high elongation before rupture and good corrosion resistance. The alloy is particularly suitable for intricate, thin-walled, leak-proof, fatigue-resistant castings. Primary Use. These alloys have found applications in relatively complex cast parts for typewriter and computer housings and dental equipment, and also for fairly critical components in marine and architectural applications. 5xx.x, Aluminum-Magnesium Alloys. The major characteristics of the 5xx.x series are:
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 113
Fig. 43
Gearbox casting for a passenger car, in alloy pressure die cast 380.0
Fig. 44 O O O O
Rear axle housing of 380.0 sand casting
Non-heat-treatable sand, permanent mold, and die castings Tougher to cast; provides good finishing characteristics Excellent corrosion resistance, machinability, and surface appearance Approximate ultimate tensile strength range: 120 to 175 MPa (17–25 ksi)
The common feature of this group of alloys is good resistance to corrosion. Primary Use. Alloys 512.0 and 514.0 have medium strength and good elongation and are suitable for components exposed to seawater or to
114 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
other similar corrosive environments. These alloys often are used for door and window fittings, which can be decoratively anodized to give a metallic finish or provide a wide range of colors. Their castability is inferior to that of the aluminum-silicon alloys because of its magnesium
Fig. 45
Complex 3xx.x castings made by the investment casting processes, providing the ability to obtain exceptionally intricate detail and fine
quality
Fig. 46
A356.0 cast wheels are widely used in the U.S. automotive industry.
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 115
content and, consequently, long freezing range. For this reason, it tends to be replaced by 355.0, which has long been used for similar applications. For die castings where decorative anodizing is particularly important, alloy 520.0 is quite suitable. 7xx.x, Aluminum-Zinc Alloys. The major characteristics of the 7xx.x series are: O Heat treatable sand and permanent mold castings (harder to cast) O Excellent machinability and appearance O Approximate ultimate tensile strength range: 210 to 380 MPa (30–55 ksi) Primary Use. Because of the increased difficulty in casting 7xx.x alloys, they tend to be used only where the excellent finishing characteristics and machinability are important. Representative applications include furniture, garden tools, office machines, and farming and mining equipment. 8xx.x, Aluminum-Tin Alloys. The major characteristics of the 8xx.x series are: O O O O
Heat treatable sand and permanent mold castings (harder to cast) Excellent machinability Bearings and bushings of all types Approximate ultimate tensile strength range: 105 to 210 MPa (15–30 ksi)
Primary Use. As with the 7xx.x alloys, 8xx.x alloys are relatively hard to cast and tend to be used only where their combination of superior surface finish and relative hardness are important. The prime example is for parts requiring extensive machining and for bushings and bearings.
Applications by Market Area In the paragraphs that follow, a review is provided of the alloys often selected for products in a number of the major markets in which aluminum is used.
Electrical Markets The major products for which aluminum is used in electrical applications are electric cable and bus conductors, where the high electrical conductivity (60% IACS) makes aluminum a cost-effective replacement for copper products:
116 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O Electrical conductor wire: 1350 where no special strength requirements exist; 6201 where a combination of high strength and high conductivity are needed O Bus conductor: 6101 O Electrical cable towers: 6061 or 6063 extruded shapes
Building and Construction Markets Building and construction encompasses those markets in which architectural and/or structural requirements come together. Such applications include residential housing, commercial storefronts and structures, conference centers and areas (i.e., long roof bay requirements), highway bridges and roadside structures, and a variety of holding tanks and chemical structures (also considered under “Chemical and Petroleum Markets”). Among the choices are: O Bridges and other highway structures: 6061 and 6063 extrusions (Fig. 30); 5083, 5086, and 5454 plate (Fig. 26, 30, 31, 33) O Storefronts, curtain wall: 6063 extrusions O Building sheet, siding: 3005, 3105, and 5005 sheet O Arena and convention center roofs: 6061 extrusions with 5xxx alloy sheet panels (Fig. 29) O Residential housing structures: 6063 extrusions O Architectural trim: 5257, 5657, 6463 O Composite wall panels: 5xxx alloy sheet plus expanded polymers (Fig. 24)
Transportation Applications The transportation market has several major subsections, as discussed subsequently. Automobile, Van, Sport Utility Vehicle (SUV), Bus, and Truck Applications. Automotive structures require a combination of aluminum castings, sheet, and extrusions to cover all good opportunities to increase gasoline mileage and reduce pollutants. Among examples are the following: O Frame: 5182 or 5754 sheet (Fig. 14, 22) or, for space frame designs, 6063 or 6061 extrusions (Fig. 34a and b) O External body sheet panels where dent resistance is important: 2008, 6111 (Fig. 36) O Inner body panels: 5083, 5754 O Bumpers: 7029, 7129 O Air conditioner tubes, heat exchangers: 3003 (Fig. 10, 14) O Auto trim: 5257, 5657, 5757 O Door beams, seat tracks, racks, rails, and so on: 6061, 6063 O Hood, deck lids: 2036, 6016, 6111 (Fig. 36)
Applications for Aluminum Alloys and Tempers / 117
O O O O
Truck beams: 2014, 6070 (Fig. 7) Truck trailer bodies: 5456 (Fig. 7) Wheels: A356.0 (Fig. 46) or formed 5xxx sheet Housings, gear boxes: 357.0, A357.0 (Fig. 43, 44)
Aircraft and Aerospace Applications. Aircraft and aerospace applications require high strength combined with, depending on the specific component, high fracture toughness, high corrosion resistance, and/or high modulus (sometimes all three). The result has been a great number of alloys and tempers developed specifically for this market, as illustrated by the examples below: O Space mirror: High-purity aluminum (Fig. 5) O Wing and fuselage skin: 2024, alclad 2024, 7050 and 7475 sheet and plate or extrusions (Fig. 6) O Wing structures: 2024, 2124, 2314, 7050 stiffened extrusions (Fig. 37) O Bulkhead: 2197, 7049, 7050, 7175 O Rocket tankage: 2195, 2219, 2419 (Fig. 8a, b) O Engine components: 2618 O Propellers: 2025 O Rivets: 2117, 6053 O If high modulus is critical: Lithium-bearing alloys 2090, 2091, 2195, 8090 O If high fracture toughness is critical: 2124, 2224, 2324, 7050, 7175, 7475 O For maximum fracture toughness: 7475 O If stress-corrosion resistance is important: 7X50 or 7X75 in the T73-type temper O If resistance to exfoliation attack is vital: 7xxx alloys in the T76-type temper O For welded construction, as for shuttle tanks: 2219, 2195, 5456
Marine Transportation Many aluminum alloys readily withstand the corrosive attack of marine salt water and so find applications in boats, ships, offshore stations, and other components that are immersed in saltwater: O O O O
Hull material: 5083, 5383, 6061, 6063 (Fig. 15–17) Superstructure: 5083, 5456 (Fig. 15) Structural beams: 6061, 6063 (Fig. 16, 17) Offshore stations, tanks: 5083, 5456 (Fig. 21)
Rail Transportation Much as for automobile and truck bodies, aluminum lends itself to railcar structural and exterior panel applications:
118 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
O O O O O
Beams: 2014, 6061, 6070 (Fig. 9) Exterior panels: 5456, 6111 (Fig. 9, 32) Tank cars: 5083, 5454 Coal cars: 5083, 5454 (Fig. 20) Cars for hot cargo: 5454 (Fig. 20)
Packaging Applications Packaging applications require either great ductility and corrosion resistance for foil and wrapping applications or great strength and workability for rigid container sheet applications (i.e., cans). Alloy choices include: O Aluminum foil for foods: 1175 (Fig. 2–4) O Rigid container (can) bodies: 3004 (Fig. 12) O Rigid container (can) ends: 5182 (Fig. 23)
Petroleum and Chemical Industry Components The excellent combination of high strength combined with superior corrosion resistance plus weldability makes a number of aluminum alloys ideal for chemical industry applications, even some involving very corrosive fluids: O O O O O
Chemical piping: 1060, 5254, 6063 Pressure vessels (ASME Code): 5083, 5086, 6061, 6063 Pipelines: 6061, 6063, 6070 Cryogenic tankage: 5052, 5083, 5454, 6061, 6063 (Fig. 18) Containers for hydrogen peroxide: 5254, 5652
Other Markets While not major markets in themselves, a variety of specialty products find great advantage in aluminum alloys: O O O O
Screw machine products: 2011, 6262 Appliances: 5005, 5052 Tread plate: 6061 Weld wire: 4043 (for welding 6xxx alloys), 5356, 5183, 5556 (for welding 5xxx alloys) (Fig. 14)
Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers J. Gilbert Kaufman, p119-184 DOI:10.1361/iaat2000p119
CHAPTER
Copyright © 2000 ASM International® All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org
7 Representative Micrographs
A COMPILATION OF MICROGRAPHS illustrating the microstructure of a wide range of aluminum alloys and tempers is a valuable additional resource in understanding aluminum alloys and tempers. Therefore, micrographs of a number of representative alloys and tempers are shown in the following pages. The reader should recognize that even within a single cross section of a piece of plate, forging, extrusion, or casting, a considerable range of microstructural features may be evident. Among different samples of a single alloy, temper, and product, an even wider range of variations in microstructure will be evident. Thus, it should be clear that the microstructures presented here are to be considered representative of the respective alloy, temper, and product but that not all other lots or even all other locations within these particular lots will look exactly like the examples provided. Micrographs were taken mostly from Metallography and Microstructures, Volume 9 of the ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1985, pages 360 to 387. A few were taken from D.G. Altenpohl’s book Aluminum: Technology, Applications and Environment (see Chapter 8), courtesy of the Aluminum Association, Inc.
120 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Wrought Aluminum Alloys
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1
99.99% high-purity aluminum as-cast. Transmission electron micrographs show subgrain structure in 99.99% 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) thick: (a) hard rolled; (b) after recovery, 2 h at 150 °C (302 °F). 350⫻
Fig. 2
99.5% aluminum as-cast. Structure of 99.5% aluminum, DC case with grain refiner. Grain size is smaller than 0.5 mm (0.02 in.); cell size is from 50 to approximately 300 μm. The residual melt has solidified mainly in the cell boundaries.
Representative Micrographs / 121
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3 99.5% aluminum as-cast. (a) Coarse cell structure due to the solidification rate. Continuous case 99.5% aluminum. Average cell size: 90 μm. (b) Fine cell structure. Normal solidification rate. Average cell size: 60 μm. (c) Adjacent coarse and fine cells in direct chill (DC) cast 99.5% aluminum. The coarse cells solidified relatively slowly and belong to a “floating crystal.”
(a)
Fig. 4
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Alloy 1100, various amounts of cold work. Recrystallized grain size as a function of cold work. The following percentage numbers indicate the degree of cold work before annealing: (a) 0%. (b) 2%. (c) 4%. (d) 6%. (e) 8%. (f) 10%.
122 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
(a)
Fig. 5
Alloy 1100 as-cast. (a) Cross sections through cast, commercial purity aluminum ingots (DC cast in rolling ingot shape). The grain structure has been revealed through etching. Columnar crystals (grains) can be seen in the outer zones, especially in the upper ingot. The columnar grains grow in a direction opposite to the removal of heat. (b) Composition of the cast structure near the ingot surface. R, narrow exterior band of fine crystals, due to rapid cooling of the surface of the casting; St, zone of columnar grains, with axes parallel to the heat flow; K, grain zone without directional cooling⫺ “equiaxed grain structure” (b)
Representative Micrographs / 123
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Alloy 1100-O sheet, cold rolled and annealed. Recrystallized, equiaxed grains, and insoluble particles of FeAl3 (black). Size and distribution of FeAl3 in the worked structure were unaffected by annealing. See Fig. 7. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Alloy 2014-T4 closed-die forging, solution heat treated at 500 °C (935 °F) for 2 h and quenched in water at 60 to 70 °C (140 to 160 °F). Longitudinal section. Structure contains particles of CuAl2 (white, outlined) and insoluble (Fe,Mn)3SiAl12 (dark). Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Alloy 1100-H18 sheet, cold rolled. Note metal flow around insoluble particles of FeAl3 (black). Particles are remnants of scriptlike constituents in the ingot that have been fragmented by working. See Fig. 6. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Alloy 2014-T6 closed-die forging, solution heat treated, then aged at 170 °C (340 °F) for 10 h. Longitudinal section. Fragmented grain structure contains particles of CuAl2 (white, outlined) and insoluble (Fe,Mn)2SiAl12 (dark), but very fine particles of CuAl2 have precipitated in the matrix. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
124 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 11
Fig. 10
Alloy 2014-T61 closed-die forging. Blister on surface is associated with hydrogen porosity. As-polished. 50⫻
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Alloy 2014-T6 closed-die forging, overaged. Solution heat treatment was sufficient, but specimen was overaged. Fragmented grain structure contains particles of CuAl2 (white, outlined) and insoluble (Fe,Mn)2SiAl12 (dark), but more CuAl2 has precipitated. Note lack of grain contrast. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Alloy 2024-O plate, 13 mm (0.5 in.) thick, hot rolled and annealed. Longitudinal section. Elongated recrystallized grains and unrecrystallized stringers resulting from polygonization that occurred during the hot water working. KMnO4, Na2CO3. 100⫻
Alloy 2024-O sheet. Structure consists of light gray particles of insoluble (Cu,Fe, Mn)Al6 and fine particles of CuMgAl2 that precipitated during annealing. 25% HNO3. 500⫻
Representative Micrographs / 125
Fig. 14
Alloy 2024-T3 sheet, solution heat treated at 495 °C (920 °F) and quenched in cold water. Longitudinal section. Dark particles are CuMgAl2, Cu2MnAl20, and Cu2FeAl7. See also Fig. 15. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Alloy 2024-T3 sheet, solution heat treated at 495 °C (920 °F) and quenched in boiling water. The lower quenching rate resulted in precipitation of CuMgAl2 at grain boundaries. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
Alloy 2024-T3 sheet, solution heat treated at 495 °C (920 °F) and cooled in an air blast. The lower cooling rate resulted in increased precipitation of CuMgAl2 at grain boundaries. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Fig. 15
Alloy 2024-T3 sheet, solution heat treated at 495 °C (920 °F) and cooled in still air. The slow cooling resulted in intragranular and grainboundary precipitation of CuMgAl2. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
126 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 18
Alloy 2024-T3 alclad, sheet clad with alloy 1230 (5% per side), solution heat treated. Normal amount of copper and magnesium diffusion from base metal into cladding (top). Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 20
Alloy 2024-T6 sheet, 6.4 mm (0.24 in.) thick (reduced from 406 mm, or 16 in., thick ingot), stretched 6%. Longitudinal section. Some faint strain lines have formed. See also Fig. 21. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 19
Alloy 2024-T6 sheet, 6.4 mm (0.24 in.) thick (reduced from 406 mm, or 16 in., thick ingot), stretched 2%. Longitudinal section. Note absence of strain lines in structure. See also Fig. 20 and 21. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 21
Alloy 2024-T6 sheet, 6.4 mm (0.24 in.) thick (reduced from 406 mm, or 16 in., thick ingot), stretched 20%. Longitudinal section. Many strain lines have formed. See also Fig. 20. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Representative Micrographs / 127
Alloy 2024-T851 plate, 150 mm (6 in.) Fig. 22 thick, cold rolled, solution heat treated, stretched, and artificially aged. Section was taken in the rolling plane (long transverse) from an area near the surface showing elongated grains. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Alloy 2024-T851 plate, 150 mm (6 in.) Fig. 23 thick, cold rolled, solution heat treated, stretched, and artificially aged. Longitudinal section showing the edge view of an area near the surface of the plate. Grains are flattened and elongated in the direction of rolling. See also Fig. 24. 200⫻
Fig. 24
Alloy 2024-T851 plate, 150 mm (6 in.) thick, cold rolled, solution heat treated, stretched, and artificially aged. A short transverse section showing the end view of an area near the surface of the plate. Grains are flattened but are not as elongated as grains in Fig. 23. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Fig. 25 Alloy 2024-T851 plate, 150 mm (6 in.) thick, cold rolled, solution heat treated, stretched, and artificially aged. Section was taken in the rolling plane (long transverse) from the center of the plate thickness, which received less cold working than the surface. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
128 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 26
Alloy 2024-T851 plate, 150 mm (6 in.) thick, cold rolled, solution heat treated, stretched, and artificially aged. Specimen was taken from the center of the plate thickness. There is less flattening and elongation of the grains. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Alloy 2024-T851 plate, 150 mm (6 in.) thick, cold rolled, solution heat treated, stretched, and artificially aged. A short transverse section showing the end view of an area from the center of the plate thickness. Less cold working resulted in less deformation. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Fig. 28
Fig. 29
Alloy 2024-T851 plate, 100 mm (4 in.) thick, hot rolled, solution heat treated, stretched, and artificially aged. Fragmented grain structure, one small recrystallized grain. High rolling temperature limited strain and recrystallization. 10% H3PO4. 500⫻
Fig. 27
Alloy 2025-T6 closed-die forging, solution heat treated and artificially aged. Longitudinal section. Complete recrystallization resulted from high residual strain in the forging before solution treatment. See also Fig. 30. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 30
Alloy 2025-T6 closed-die forging, solution heat treated and artificially aged. Longitudinal section. Worked structure is only partly recrystallized. Incomplete recrystallization occurred because forging had lower residual strain before solution heat treatment than in Fig. 29. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Representative Micrographs / 129
(a)
(b)
Fig. 31
Fig. 32
Alloy 2090, plate and sheet. Crystallized microstructures. (a) 45 mm (1.75 in.) thick 2090 plate. (b) 1.6 mm (0.063 in.) thick 2090 sheet.
Alloy 2117-T4 rivet, cold upset, solution heat treated at 500 °C (935 °F) for 35 min, quenched in water at 25 °C (75 °F) max. The small recrystallized grains are in the rivet head, and the large grains are in the shank. Keller’s reagent. 60⫻
Fig. 33
Alloy 2218-T61 closed-die forging, solution heat treated and artificially aged. Fine, recrystallized structure. The dark particles of insoluble FeNiAl9 phase show banding, which resulted from the working during forging. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
130 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 34
Alloy 2219-T6 closed-die forging solution heat treated and artificially aged. Longitudinal section. Worked structure contains some recrystallized grains. See Fig. 35 for a totally unrecrystallized structure. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 35
Alloy 2219-T6 closed-die forging solution heat treated and artificially aged. Longitudinal section shows no recrystallization of the worked structure. Note the large amount of slip (light parallel lines) that has occurred on two sets of slip planes. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 36
Alloy 2618-T4 closed-die forging, solution heat treated at 530 °C (985 °F) for 2 h, quenched in boiling water. Small particles of CuMgAl2 precipitated at grain boundaries; larger particles are insoluble FeNiAl9 phase. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Fig. 37
Alloy 2618-T4 forging, solution heat treated at 530 °C (985 °F) for 2 h and cooled in still air. Small particles of CuMgAl2 precipitated at grain boundaries; larger particles are insoluble FeNiAl9 phase. Slower cooling resulted in an increase of CuMgAl2 at grain boundaries and within grains. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Fig. 38 Alloy 2618-T61 forging, solution heat treated, quenched in boiling water, aged at 200 °C (390 °F) for 20 h, stabilized at 230 °C (450 °F) for 7 h. Small particles of CuMgAl2 precipitated at grain boundaries; larger particles are insoluble FeNiAl9 phase. CuMgAl2 also has precipitated in grains. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Fig. 39 Alloy 2618-T61 forging, solution heat treated, cooled in still air, aged at 200 °C (390 °F) for 20 h, stabilized at 230 °C (450 °F) for 7 h. Small particles of CuMgAl2 precipitated at grain boundaries; larger particles are insoluble FeNiAl9 phase. CuMgAl2 also has precipitated in grains. Note increase in precipitation and alloy depletion near light grain boundaries. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Representative Micrographs / 131
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 40 Alloy 3003 as-cast. (a) Structure of a DC cast rolling ingot. Angular precipitates of the aluminummanganese-iron phase in the cast grains and at the grain boundaries. 860⫻. (b) Structure of a DC cast rolling ingot heat-treated 72 h at 600 °C (1112 °F) then quenched. Through diffusion processes the precipitates have grown and rounded off (spheroidized). 800⫻. (c) Structure of a DC cast rolling ingot heat-treated 6 h at 600 °C (1112 °F), then furnace cooled for 15 h to 450 °C (842 °F). A fine AlMnFe precipitate originated from the supersaturated solid solution due to the slow cooling. At the same time, the precipitates from the cast structure spheroidized, less than in (b) due to the shorter heat treatment. 860⫻
Fig. 41
Alloy 3003-F hot rolled. Longitudinal section shows stringer of oxide from an inclusion in the cast ingot and particles of phases that contain manganese, both primary (large, angular) and eutectic (small). Aspolished. 500⫻
Fig. 42
Alloy 3003-O sheet, annealed. Longitudinal section shows recrystallized grains. Grain elongation indicates rolling direction, but not the crystallographic orientation within each grain. Polarized light. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
132 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 43
Alloy 3003-O sheet, annealed. Higher magnification of the longitudinal section shows recrystallized grains. Grain elongation indicates rolling direction, but not the crystallographic orientation within each grain. Dispersion of insoluble particles of (Fe,Mn)Al6 (large) and aluminum-manganese-silicon (both large and small) was not changed by annealing. 0.5% HF. 750⫻
Fig. 44
Alloy 5083 plate, cold rolled. The coarse, gray areas are particles of insoluble (Fe,Mn)3Al12; adjacent black areas are voids caused by breakup of the brittle (Fe,Mn)3Al12 particles during cold rolling. Separate black areas may be insoluble particles of Mg2Si. As-polished. 500⫻
Fig. 45
Alloy 5083-H112 plate, cold rolled. Longitudinal section shows particles of primary MnAl6 (gray, outlined). Small, dark areas may be particles of insoluble phases, such as phases that contain magnesium (for example, Mg2Si) or that contain manganese. Keller’s reagent. 50⫻
Representative Micrographs / 133
Fig. 46
Alloy 5083, plate. Development of microstructures during hot rolling at 315 °C (600 °F)
134 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 47
Alloy 5086-H34 plate, 13 mm (0.5 in.) thick, cold rolled and stabilized at 120 to 175 °C (250 to 350 °F) to prevent age softening. Undesirable continuous network of Mg2Al3 particles precipitated at grain boundaries; large particles are insoluble phases. See also Fig. 50. 25% HNO3. 250⫻
Alloy 5454, hot-rolled slab, longitudinal section. Oxide stringer from an inclusion in the cast ingot. The structure also shows some particles of (Fe,Mn)Al6 (light gray). As-polished. 500⫻
Fig. 49
Fig. 50
Alloy 5456 plate, hot rolled. Longitudinal section. Polarized light. Partial recrystallization occurred immediately after hot rolling from residual heat. This type of recrystallization is frequently referred to as “dynamic recrystallization.” Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 48
Alloy 5456 plate, 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) thick, cold rolled and stress relieved below the solvus at 245 °F (475 °F) . Particles are (Fe,Mn)Al6 (gray), Mg2Si (black), and Mg2Al3 (fine precipitate). In contrast to Fig. 47, there is no continuous network of precipitate at grain boundaries. 25% HNO3. 500⫻
Representative Micrographs / 135
Alloy 5456-O plate, 13 mm (0.5 in.) thick, Fig. 51 hot rolled and annealed above the solvus. Rapid cooling resulted in retention of Mg2Al3 in solid solution. The light, outlined particles are insoluble (Fe,Mn)Al6; the dark particles are insoluble Mg2Si. 25% HNO3. 500⫻
Fig. 53
Alloy 5457-F plate, 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) thick, hot rolled. Fine particles of Mg2Si precipitated during the rolling. If carried through to final sheet, this amount of precipitate would cause an objectionable milky appearance in a subsequently applied anodic coating. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Fig. 52
Alloy 5457-F extrusion. A transverse section, photographed with polarized light. Surface grains (top) show random reflection, indicating random crystallographic orientation; interior grains show uniform reflection, indicating a high degree of preferred orientation. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 54
Alloy 5457-O plate, 10 mm (0.4 in.) thick, longitudinal section. Annealed at 345 °C (650 °F). Polarized light. The grains are equiaxed. See also Fig. 55–57. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 55
Alloy 5457-O plate, originally 10 mm (0.4 in.) thick, annealed at 345 °C (650 °F). Effect of cold rolling. Polarized light. See Fig. 56 for annealed structure. 10% reduction. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 56
Alloy 5457-O plate, originally 10 mm (0.4 in.) thick, annealed at 345 °C (650 °F). Effect of cold rolling. Polarized light. See Fig. 54 for annealed structure. 40% reduction. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 57
Alloy 5457-O plate, originally 10 mm (0.4 in.) thick, annealed at 345 °C (650 °F). Effect of cold rolling. Polarized light. See Fig. 54 for annealed structure. 80% reduction. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 58
Alloy 5657 ingot. Dendritic segregation (coring) of titanium. Black spots are etch pits. Anodized coating from Barker’s reagent was stripped with 10% H3PO4 at 80 °C (180 °F). 200⫻
Fig. 59
Alloy 5657-F sheet, cold rolled (85% reduction). Longitudinal section. Polarized light. Grains are greatly elongated and contribute to high strength, but ductility is lower than for specimen in Fig. 61. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 60 Alloy 5657-F sheet, cold rolled (85% reduction). Stress relieved at 300 °C (575 °F) for 1 h. Polarized light. Structure shows onset of recrystallization, which improves formability. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
Representative Micrographs / 137
Fig. 61
Alloy 5657-F sheet, cold rolled (85% reduction). Annealed at 315 °C (600 °F) for 1 h. Polarized light. Recrystallized grains and bands of unrecrystallized grains. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
Alloy 5657 sheet. Banding from dendritic Fig. 62 segregation (coring) of titanium in the ingot (see Fig. 58). Anodized coating from Barker’s reagent was stripped with 10% H3PO4 at 80 °C (180 °F). 200⫻
Fig. 63
Fig. 64
Alloy 6061-F plate, 38 mm (1.5 in.) thick, as hot rolled (91% reduction). Longitudinal section from center of plate thickness. Particles are Fe3SiAl12 (gray, scriptlike) and Mg2Si (black) See also Fig. 64 and 65. 0.5% HF. 250⫻
Alloy 6061-F plate, 38 mm (1.5 in.) thick, as hot rolled (91% reduction). Longitudinal section from near plate surface. Particles of Fe3SiAl12 and Mg2Si are more broken up and uniformly distributed than in Fig. 63 (midthickness). See also Fig. 65. 0.5% HF. 250⫻
138 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 65
Alloy 6061-F 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) sheet, hot rolled (reduced 98%); midthickness longitudinal section Fe3SiAl12 particles more broken and dispersed than in Fig. 64. Most Mg2Si will dissolve during solution treating. 0.5% HF. 250⫻
Fig. 66
Alloy 6063-T5 extrusion. Transverse section. Grains at surface of extrusion have recrystallized because of more working and heating. Grains in the interior of the extrusion are unrecrystallized. Tucker’s reagent. Actual size
Fig. 67
Alloy 6063 as-cast. Cross section. Annealed at 580 °C (1076 °F) and slow cooled. Precipitation of fine Mg2Si particles within the grains and coarser Mg2Si phases along the grain boundaries. H2SO4 ⫹ HF. 200⫻
Representative Micrographs / 139
Fig. 68
Alloy 6063 extrusion. Longitudinal section. Cooled with agitated air. Metastable, oversaturated mixed crystal and primary phases aligned along the direction of the deformation. H2SO4 ⫹ HF. 200⫻
Fig. 69
Alloy 6063 extrusion, artificially aged, air cooled. Cross section showing coherent fine precipitates and primary phases in the grains and coarser precipitates on the grain boundaries. H2SO4 ⫹ HF. 200⫻
140 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 70
Alloy 6063, continuous casting. Cross section. Alloy segregation (coring) with areas of leftover molten material at the grain boundaries. Barker’s reagent. 50⫻
Fig. 71
Alloy 6063-T4, annealed at 580 °C (1076 °F) and water quenched. Cross section showing substantial removal of segregation and absorption of the cast phases. Barker’s reagent. 50⫻
Representative Micrographs / 141
Fig. 72
Alloy 6063-T6, annealed at 580 °C (1076 °F) and air cooled. Cross section showing precipitation of fine Mg2Si particles within the grains and cast phases along the grain boundaries. H2SO4 ⫹ HF. 200⫻
Fig. 73
Alloy 6151-T6 closed-die forging showing large particles of Mg2Si (rounded) and (Fe,Mn)3SiAl12 (angular or scriptlike) and a fine, banded dispersion of extremely small particles of a chromium intermetallic phase. Keller’s reagent. 250⫻
Fig. 74 Alloy 6351-T6 extruded tube, 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) wall. Longitudinal section. Polarized light. Coarse, recrystallized grains at top are near surface; polygonized subgrains are in unrecrystallized interior. Barker’s reagent. 100⫻
142 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 76
Alloy 7039 ingot 305 mm (12 in.) thick. Polarized light. Structure shows equiaxed grains with interdendritic areas of Mg2Si and Fe3-SiAl12. See also Fig. 76. Barker’s reagent. 50⫻
Alloy 7039 ingot 305 mm (12 in.) thick. Dendritic cells are more evident than in Fig. 75 because of the higher magnification and the etchant used. Dendritic cells also show precipitate formed during homogenization. 10% H3PO4. 100⫻
Fig. 77
Fig. 78
Fig. 75
Alloy 7039-F plate, 150 mm (6 in.) thick, as hot rolled (50% reduction). Polarized light. Grains are elongated and thinned by working. See also Fig. 78. Barker’s reagent. 50⫻
Alloy 7039-F plate, 50 mm (2 in.) thick, as hot rolled (83% reduction). Polarized light. Grains are greatly elongated and thinned. See also Fig. 79. Barker’s reagent. 50⫻
Representative Micrographs / 143
Fig. 79
Alloy 7039-F plate, 150 mm (6 in.) thick, as hot rolled (50% reduction). Dendritic cells are elongated and thinned by working. See also Fig. 77. 10% H3PO4. 100⫻
Alloy 7039-F plate, 50 mm (2 in.) thick, as hot rolled (83% reduction). Dendritic cells are elongated and thinned by working. See also Fig. 78. 10% H3PO4. 100⫻
Fig. 81
Fig. 82
Alloy 7075-O sheet, annealed. The fine particles of MgZn2 (dark) were precipitated at lower temperatures during heating to or cooling from the annealing temperature. The insoluble particles of FeAl3 (light gray, outlined) were not affected by the annealing treatment. See also Fig. 82. 25% HNO3. 500⫻
Fig. 80
Alloy 7075-O sheet, annealed, cooled more slowly from annealing temperature than specimen in Fig. 81. The fine particles of MgZn2 (dark) were precipitated at lower temperatures during heating to or cooling from the annealing temperature. The soluble particles of FeAl3 (light gray) were not affected by the annealing treatment. Platelets of MgZn2 precipitated at grain boundaries during slow cooling. 25% HNO3. 500⫻
144 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 83
Alloy 7075-T6 sheet clad with 0.07 mm (0.0027 in.) of alloy 7072 for 1.6 mm (0.064 in.) total thickness. Particles in cladding (top) are Fe3SiAl12; those in core are Cr2Mg3Al18 and (Fe,Mn)Al6. Keller’s reagent. 350⫻
Fig. 84
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Parting-plane fracture in a forging that contained a bushing in a machined hole. Fracture was caused by excessive assembly stress. See also Fig. 87 and 88. Keller’s reagent. 1.5⫻
Fig. 85
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Detail of parting- Fig. 86 Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Fracture surface of plane fracture in Fig. 84. The fracture parting-plane fracture in Fig. 84 (machined started at the machined hole and progressed parallel to hole at bottom). Woody, brittle fracture pattern is typical the flaw lines of the forging. See also Fig. 88. Keller’s of parting-plane fracture in this alloy. Not polished, not reagent. 8⫻ etched. 4⫻
Representative Micrographs / 145
Fig. 87
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Fold, or lap, at a machined fillet in a forging. Defect was continuous before machining. See also Fig. 88 for details of a small area of the portion of the defect at lower right. Keller’s reagent. 8⫻
Fig. 88
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Enlarged view of an area of the fold, or lap, at lower right in Fig. 87. Defect contains nonmetallic particles, oxides, and voids, which prevented it from welding, or healing, during forging. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Fig. 89
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Surface appearance of a lap (at trough, center). Forging flow lines bend in the vicinity of the lap, indicating that the defect occurred during forging. See also Fig. 90. Not polished, not etched. 10⫻
146 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 90
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Section through the forging lap shown in surface view in Fig. 89. The trough at the surface is at the left. The grains near the lap are deformed, which indicates that the defect occurred during forging. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Fig. 91
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Band of shrinkage cavities and internal cracks. The cracks developed from the cavities, which were produced during solidification of the ingot and which remained during forging because of inadequate cropping. See Fig. 93 and 94 for higher magnification view of this defect. Keller’s reagent. 9⫻
Fig. 92 Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Fractured lug. Arrows illustrate sites at machined hole where stress-corrosion cracks originated because of stress acting across the short transverse grain direction. See also Fig. 94. Keller’s reagent. 2.75⫻
Representative Micrographs / 147
Fig. 93
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Area of the forging in Fig. 91 that contains rows of unhealed shrinkage cavities (black) shown at higher magnification. No cracks have developed from the cavities in this particular area. See Fig. 95 for view of cracked area. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Higher magnification view of area of the Fig. 94 fractured lug in Fig. 92 that contains intergranular cracks caused by stress corrosion, which resulted when assembly of a pin in the machined hole produced excessive residual hoop stress in the lug. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Fig. 95
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Area of the forging in Fig. 91 that contains intergranular and connecting transgranular cracks shown at a higher magnification. The cracks developed from shrinkage cavities. See also Fig. 93. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
148 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 96
Alloy 7075-T6 forging. Brittle surfaces in a tension-test specimen machined from an alloy 7075-T6 forging that contained a defect of the type shown in Fig. 91 (shrinkage cavities and internal cracks). Not polished, not etched. 3⫻
Fig. 97 Alloy 7075-T6 extrusion. Fracture in an extrusion, showing segregation of chromium particles (light gray, fractured). Segregation originated in the ingot and persisted through to the final product. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Representative Micrographs / 149
Alloy 7075-T6 extrusion. Fracture showing a spongy inclusion of Fig. 98 dross (center) and some segregation of chromium particles (left) at fracture surface, both of which originated in the ingot. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Fig. 99
Alloy 7075-T6 extrusion. Pitting-type corrosion (dark area) in the surface of an aircraft wing plank machined from an extrusion. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Fig. 100 200⫻
Alloy 7075-T6 plate. Intergranular corrosion. Grain boundaries were attacked, causing the grains to separate. Keller’s reagent.
150 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 101
Alloy 7075-T6 extrusion. Exfoliation-type corrosion. Rapid attack was parallel to the surface of the extrusion and along the grain boundaries or along striations within elongated grains. See also Fig. 102. Keller’s reagent. 20⫻
Fig. 102
Alloy 7075-T6 extrusion. Higher magnification view of Fig. 101 (rotated 90°), showing how the corrosion product caused the uncorroded, recrystallized skin of the extrusion to split away, resulting in a leafing action. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Representative Micrographs / 151
Fig. 103
Alloy 7075-T6 alclad sheet. Typical ductile fracture, showing the deformed grains and necking at the fracture. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Fig. 105
Alloy 7075-T6 extruded bar. Typical branched intergranular stress corrosion cracks. Transverse section. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Fig. 104
Alloy 7075-T6 alclad sheet. Brittle fracture in overheated alclad sheet, caused by solid-solution melting at the grain boundaries. Keller’s reagent. 200⫻
Fig. 106 Alloy 7075-T6 sheet. Surface fretting (dark gray) on 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) thick sheet that was fayed to a 4130 steel strap in a fatigue test. Fretting corrosion product is Al2O3. Keller’s reagent. 1050⫻
(a)
(b)
Fig. 107
Alloy 7075-T652 forging, showing the effect of saturation peening. (a) Longitudinal section. (b) Transverse section. The forging was peened with S230 cast steel shot to an Almen-gage intensity of 0.006 to 0.008 A. The surface of the sheet (at top) shows deformation and roughening. Keller’s reagent. 150⫻
Fig. 108
Alloy 7075-T7352 forging, solution heat treated, cold reduced, and artificially aged. Particles are insoluble (Fe,Mn)Al6 (dark gray). Some unresolved Mg2Si may be present. This is a normal structure. See also Fig. 109. Keller’s reagent. 250⫻
Fig. 109
Fig. 110
Fig. 111
Alloy 7178-T76 sheet, 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) thick, exposed in a test chamber containing a fog of 5% NaCl for two weeks. Note exfoliation of the sheet. See also Fig. 111. Keller’s reagent. 75⫻
Alloy 7075-T7352 forging, solution heat treated, cold reduced, and artificially aged. Eutectic melting temperature was exceeded during solution heat treatment. Fusion voids (black areas) and agglomeration of insoluble phases (dark gray). Keller’s reagent. 250⫻
Alloy 7178-T76 sheet, 3.1 mm (0.125 in.) thick, clad with 0.127 mm (0.005 in.) of alloy 7072 (3.2 mm, or 0.125 in., total thickness). Sacrificial corrosion of cladding prevented exfoliation of sheet during testing. Keller’s reagent. 75⫻
Representative Micrographs / 153
Welded Wrought Aluminum Alloys
Fig. 112
Pressure weld (cold) in alloy 2014-T6 bar. The flow lines of the joint show the movement of metal toward the edge of the bar during weld upsetting. 0.5% HF. 150⫻
Fig. 114
Fig. 113
Weld in alloy 2024-T4 sheet clad with alloy 1230. Core of alclad sheet used in resistance spot weld shown in Fig. 114. The dark particles are CuMgAl2, Cu2MnAl20, and Cu2FeAl7; light particles, CuAl2. See also Fig. 115–118. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Weld in alloy 2024-T4 sheet clad with alloy 1230. Resistance spot weld. Oval nugget has zone of columnar grains, surrounding equiaxed grains. See also Fig. 115–118. Tucker’s reagent. 10⫻
154 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 115
Weld in alloy 2024-T4 sheet clad with alloy 1230. Inner zone of nugget of the resistance spot weld shown in Fig. 114. The structure consists of small equiaxed grains. This inner zone is surrounded by an outer zone that consists of columnar grains. See also Fig. 116. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Fig. 116
Weld in alloy 2024-T4 sheet clad with alloy Fig. 117 Weld in alloy 2024-T4 sheet clad with 1230. Outer zone of nugget of the weld alloy 1230. Transition zone of the weld in shown in Fig. 114. Columnar grains are normal to the edge Fig. 114 showing eutectic segregation⫺depletion (light of the nugget. See also Fig. 115, which shows inner zone of band) at edge of nugget and concentration (dark band) in nugget. Keller’s reagent. 550⫻ the base metal. Keller’s reagent. 550⫻
Fig. 118 Weld in alloy 2024-T4 sheet clad with alloy 1230. Outer zone of nugget (at interface) of resistance spot weld made in alclad sheets. Unfused cladding (right) projects into the weld nugget. See also Fig. 114. Keller’s reagent. 550⫻
Fig. 119 Parent metal alloy 2219-T37 sheet. Structure of 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) thick sheet used for the weld shown in Fig. 120 and 121. Longitudinal section. Elongated grains of solid solution with particles of CuAl2 (light) and (Fe,Mn)3SiAl12 (dark) Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Representative Micrographs / 155
Fig. 120
Weld in alloy 2219-T37 sheet. Gas tungsten arc weld in a butt joint. Alloy ER 2319 filler metal. See also Fig. 122. Keller’s reagent. 10⫻
Fig. 121
Weld in alloy 2219-T37 sheet. Electron beam weld in a butt joint. Alloy ER 2319 filler metal. See also Fig. 123. Keller’s reagent. 10⫻
156 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 122
Weld in alloy 2219-T37 sheet. Gas tungsten arc weld in a butt joint. Alloy ER 2319 filler metal. Edge of the fusion zone of the gas tungsten arc weld shown in Fig. 120. The base metal is on the left. See also Fig. 123. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 123
Weld in alloy 2219-T37 sheet. Alloy ER 2319 filler metal. Edge of the fusion zone of the electron beam weld shown in Fig. 121. The base metal is on the left. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Representative Micrographs / 157
Fig. 124
Parent metal alloy 5052-O sheet, 10 mm (0.40 in.) thick, used for weld shown in Fig. 125–127. Structure shows particles of CrAl7 (coarse black). Rounded, outlined areas are pits, where etchant removed Mg2Si. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Fig. 126
Welded alloy 5052-O sheet, 10 mm (0.40 in.) thick. Bead of weld shown in Fig. 127. Filler metal was alloy ER 5356. The structure consists of equiaxed dendrites of aluminum with a fine precipitate of Mg2Al3 (dark) in the dendrites and at dendrite boundaries. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Fig. 125
Welded alloy 5052-O sheet, 10 mm (0.40 in.) thick. Weld bead (See also Fig. 126) is to the right. Structure equiaxed dendrites of aluminum with much Mg2Al3 precipitate near dendrite boundaries forming the dark band in Fig. 127. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Fig. 127 Weld in alloy 5052-O sheet, 10 mm (0.40 in.) thick. Gas tungsten arc fillet weld. Filler metal was alloy ER 5356. See also Fig. 124–126. Tucker’s reagent. 15⫻
158 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 128
Weld in alloy 5456-H321 plate, 25 mm (1 in.) thick. Electron beam weld in a butt joint. No filler metal was used. See Fig. 129 for details of the edge of the fusion zone. Keller’s reagent. 10⫻
Fig. 129 Weld in alloy 5456-H321 plate, 25 mm (1 in.) thick. Edge of fusion zone (base metal is at bottom) of the electron beam weld in Fig. 128. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 130
Weld in alloy 6061-T6 sheet, 1.6 mm (0.063 in.) thick. Gas tungsten arc weld in a butt joint. Alternating current and ER 4043 filler metal were used. Note the extent of the heat-affected zone. See also Fig. 131 and 138. Keller’s reagent. 5.5⫻
Representative Micrographs / 159
Fig. 131
Weld in alloy 6061-T6 sheet. Structure of 1.6 mm (0.063 in.) thick sheet used in making the weld shown in Fig. 130. The microstructure is the same as Fig. 136 but contains more Mg2Si. See Fig. 138 for structure of edge of fusion zone. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 132
Weld in alloy 6061-T6 sheet. Electron beam weld in a 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) thick sheet. No filler metal was used. See Fig. 133 and 134 for details of the edge of the fusion zone. Keller’s reagent. 10⫻
Fig. 133
Weld in alloy 6061-T6 sheet, 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) thick. Edge of the fusion zone (base metal is at left) of the electron beam weld in Fig. 132. Note abrupt change from structure of base metal to that of weld bead. See also Fig. 134. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 134
Weld in alloy 6061-T6 sheet, 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) thick, shown at a higher magnification than Fig. 133. Particles of Mg2Si (black) and Fe3SiAl12 (gray) in base metal (left) and interdendritic Al-Mg2Si eutectic in weld metal. Keller’s reagent. 500⫻
Fig. 135
Weld in alloy 6061-T6 plate, 6.4 mm (0.250 in.) thick. Gas tungsten arc weld in a butt joint. Alternating current and ER 4043 filler metal were used. See also Fig. 136 and 137 for other views of the weld. Keller’s reagent. 5.5⫻
Fig. 137
Fig. 136
Weld in alloy 6061-T6 plate. Structure of 6.4 mm (0.250 in.) thick plate used in making the weld shown in Fig. 135. Elongated grains of aluminum solid solution contain particles of Mg2Si (black). See also Fig. 131. Keller’s reagent 100⫻
Welded alloy 6061-T6 plate. Edge of fusion zone of a weld made in 6.4 mm (0.250 in.) thick plate, using alternating current. Interdendritic network of aluminum-silicon eutectic (dark) in weld beam (right), dark band of Al-Mg2Si eutectic in the heat-affected zone. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 138
Fig. 139
Welded alloy 6061-T6 plate. Edge of fusion zone of a weld made in 1.6 mm (0.063 in.) thick plate, using alternating current. The base metal is located on the left, and weld bead is located on the right. The structure is the same as that in Fig. 137, but some porosity (large, black areas) is evident. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Welded alloy 6061-T6 plate. Edge of fusion zone of a weld made in 6.4 mm (0.250 in.) thick sheet, using straight-polarity direct current. Dark band of Al-Mg2Si eutectic in heat-affected zone, next to weld beam (right), is narrower and more pronounced than in Fig. 137 (weld made with alternating current). Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Representative Micrographs / 161
Fig. 140
Welded alloy 6061-T6 plate. Edge of fusion zone of a weld made in 1.6 mm (0.063 in.) thick plate using straight-polarity direct current. The microstructure is the same as for the 6.4 mm (0.250 in) thick plate in Fig. 139, but the amount of interdendritic aluminum-silicon eutectic in the weld bead is greater. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 141
Parent metal alloy 6061-T6 extruded tube. Structure of the extruded tube (extrusion direction vertical) used for the weld shown in Fig. 142. Black dots are Mg2Si particles. Keller’s reagent. 50⫻
Fig. 142
Weld in alloy 6061-T6 extruded tube. Gas tungsten arc fillet weld joining a 6061-T6 tube (upper left) and an A356-T6 investment casting; ER 4043 filler metal. Keller’s reagent. 15⫻
Fig. 143
Weld in alloy 7039-T63 plate, 25 mm (1 in.) thick. Electron beam weld in a butt joint of alloy. No filler metal was used. See Fig. 144 for details of the edge of the fusion zone. Keller’s reagent.
10⫻
Fig. 144
Weld in alloy 7039-T63 plate, 25 mm (1 in.) thick. Edge of fusion zone (base metal is at bottom) of the electron beam weld in Fig. 143. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Brazed Joints
Fig. 145
Brazed joint in alloy 6063-O sheet, made with 4047 (BAIS-4) filler metal. See Fig. 146 for details of structure of the smaller fillet. Aspolished. 5⫻
Fig. 146
Brazed joint in alloy 6063-O sheet. Smaller fillet of brazed joint shown in Fig. 145. Structure consists of dendrites of aluminum solid solution (light gray) and aluminum-silicon eutectic matrix (dark). As-polished. 50⫻
Representative Micrographs / 163
Fig. 147
Brazed joint in alloy 7004-O sheet. Brazed joint between alloy 7004-O sheets, made with alloy 4245 filler metal. See Fig. 148 for details of the microstructure of the larger fillet. As-polished. 5⫻
Fig. 148
Brazed joint in alloy 7006-O sheet. Larger fillet of brazed joint shown in Fig. 147. Structure consists of dendrites of aluminum solid solution (light), matrix of aluminum-silicon eutectic (mottled), and particles of primary silicon (dark). Aspolished. 50⫻
Fig. 149
Brazed joint in alloy 3003 brazing sheets (clad on both sides with alloy 4343 filler metal). Brazed joint in 12-O brazing sheets. Fillets show dendrites of solid solution (light) in aluminum-silicon eutectic matrix. 0.5% HF. 30⫻
164 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Cast Aluminum Alloys
Fig. 150 Alloy 201.0-F, as premium quality cast. Structure consists of an interdendritic network of undissolved eutectic CuAl2 (gray, outlined); some shrinkage cavities (black). See Fig. 151 and 152 for the effect of solution heat treatment and stabilization. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Fig. 151
Alloy 201.0-T7, premium quality cast, solution heat treated and stabilized. Structure is a fine precipitate of CuAl2 in grains and at grain boundaries; no undissolved eutectic CuAl2; some shrinkage cavities (black). See Fig. 152 for structure at higher magnification. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Fig. 153
Fig. 152
Alloy 201.0-T7, premium quality cast, solution heat treated, and stabilized. Higher magnification view of Fig. 151 showing pattern of CuAl2 precipitate that resulted from segregation of copper (coring). Note that the presence of silver in the alloy has resulted in some agglomeration of the precipitate. See also Fig. 156. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Alloy 222.0-T61, sand cast, solution heat treated, and artificially aged. The structure consists of an interdendritic network of rounded CuAl2 containing blades of Cu2FeAl7 and some Fe3SiAl12 (dark-gray script). 0.5% HF. 250⫻
Representative Micrographs / 165
Fig. 154
Alloy 224.0-F, as premium quality cast. The structure consists of an interdentritic network of undissolved eutectic CuAl2 (gray, outlined). See Fig. 155 and 156 for the effect of heat treatment on the structure. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Fig. 155
Alloy 224.0-T7, as premium quality cast, solution heat treated, and stabilized. Structure: fine CuAl2 precipitate; almost all of the eutectic CuAl2 present in Fig. 154 has been dissolved. See also higher magnification view in Fig. 156. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Fig. 157
Fig. 156
Alloy 224.0-T7, premium quality cast, solution heat treated, and stabilized. Enlarged view of structure in Fig. 155 showing a fairly even pattern of very fine particles of CuAl2 precipitates in the aluminum grains and slightly larger particles of the precipitate at grain boundaries. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Alloy 238.0-F, as permanent mold cast. The structure consists of an interdendritic network of rounded CuAl2 (light gray) containing blades of Cu2FeAl7 (medium gray) and some particles of silicon (dark gray). 0.5% HF. 500⫻
166 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 158
Alloy 240.0-F, as investment cast. The microstructure contains large shrinkage voids (black), an interdendritic network of Al-Cu-Mg Fig. 159 Alloy 308.0-F, as permanent mold cast. Structure consists of an interdendritic neteutectic (mottled), and some interdendritic particles of work of silicon particles (dark gray, angular) and CuMgAl2 (gray). As-polished. 50⫻ rounded particles of CuAl2 (light gray) that contain blades of Fe2Si2Al9. 0.5% HF. 250⫻
Fig. 160
Alloy 319.0-F, as permanent mold cast. Fig. 161 Alloy 319.0-T6, permanent solid cast, Dendrites of aluminum solid solution solution heat treated, and artificially show segregation (coring). Other constituents are inter- aged. Segregation in dendrites of solid solution was dendritic network of silicon (dark gray) rounded CuAl2 eliminated by diffusion, and CuAl2 was dissolved during and (Fe,Mn)3SiAl12 script. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻ solution heat treating. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Representative Micrographs / 167
Fig. 162
Alloy 356.0-F as investment cast with Fig. 163 Alloy 356.0-T51, sand cast, artificially sodium-modified ingot. Al2O3 inclusions. aged. The angular, dark-gray constituent Light-gray interdendritic network consists of particles of is silicon. Black script is Mg2Si. Blades are Fe2Si2Al9. silicon. As-polished. 50⫻ Light script is FeMg3Si6Al8. 0.5% HF. 250⫻
Fig. 164
Alloy 356.0-T6. Hydrogen porosity (black) in a 356-T6 permanent mold casting that had been solution heat treated and artificially aged. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Alloy 356.0-T7, modified by sodium adFig. 165 dition, sand cast, solution heat treated, and stabilized. Structure: rounded particles of silicon and blades of Fe2Si2Al9. 0.5% HF. 250⫻
168 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 166 Alloy 356.0-F sand casting to which no grain refiner was added. The macrograin size is 5 mm (0.20 in.). See also Fig. 167. Tucker’s reagent. 2⫻
(a)
Fig. 168
Alloy 356.0-F sand casting with 0.05% Ti Fig. 167 and 0.005% B added as grain refiners. Macrograin size is 1 mm (0.04 in.). Tucker’s reagent. 2⫻
(b)
Alloy A356.0-T6. Comparison of structure fineness using dendrite arm spacing (DAS). Two structures in the eutectic alloy A356.0-T6. (a) DAS ⫽ 20 μm. (b) DAS ⫽ 40 μm.
Representative Micrographs / 169
Fig. 169
Alloy A356.0-T6. Scanning electron microscope image of the fracture surface of a cast sample of A356.0-T6, with microporosity exposing the bare dendrites. Only on the right is there a small area (appearing fibrous) of ductile fracture where there had been cohesion. Dendrite arm spacing, 50 μm; porosity, 3–4%; elongation in rupture, 1%
Fig. 170
Alloy A357.0-F, as premium quality cast. The structure consists of an interdendritic network of eutectic silicon (gray); some particles of Mg2Si (black). See Fig. 171 and 172 for the effect of solution heat treatment and artificial aging. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Fig. 171
Alloy A357.0-T6, premium quality cast, solution heat treated, and artificially aged. Compared with Fig. 170, the silicon particles in the eutectic have been rounded and agglomerated by solution heat treatment. See Fig. 172 for a higher magnification view. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Alloy A357.0-T6, premium quality cast, solution heat treated, and Fig. 172 artificially aged. At higher magnification than Fig. 171, showing that very little undissolved Mg2Si (black particles) remained after solution heat treatment. No silicon precipitate is visible. See Fig. 174 for the effect of insufficient solution heat treatment. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Fig. 173
Alloy A357.0-T61, permanent mold cast, solution heat treated at 540 °C (1000 °F) for 12 h, quenched in water at 60 to 80 °C (140 to 180 °F), aged at 155 °C (310 °F) for 10 h. A desirable structure: rounded silicon particles and no undissolved Mg2Si. See also Fig. 176. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
(a)
Fig. 174
Alloy A357.0-T61, permanent mold cast, insufficiently solution heat treated and artificially aged. Structure contains undissolved Mg2Si (black), and some of the particles of silicon are more angular than those in the desirable structure shown in Fig. 175. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
(b)
Fig. 175
Alloy A357.0-T6. Commercial thixocast parts and the equiaxed development of the ␣-crystals in the solid solution before and after deformation (thixostructure). Here, the shape and size of the primary crystals remain unchanged, the solidification process being limited to the residual melt in the thin layers between them. (a) Microstructure of a log in A357.0-T6. (b) Microstructure of a landing gear component “thixoformed” in a die casting machine.
Representative Micrographs / 171
Fig. 176
Alloy 380.0-F die casting. Area near a machined surface (A) shows structure typical of a casting that has desirable properties: interdendritic particles of eutectic silicon (B) and CuAl2 (C) in a matrix of aluminum solid solution (D). See also Fig. 177. 0.5% HF. 260⫻
Fig. 178
Alloy 380.0-F die casting. Fine Al2O3 (A), which should not cause machining difficulties, near the machined surface (B) of an alloy 380-F die casting. Eutectic silicon is indicated by (C); CuAl2 by (D); and sludge, by (E). See also Fig. 179. 0.5% HF. 260⫻
Fig. 177
Alloy 380.0-F die casting. Area near a machined surface (A) illustrates some primary crystals of sludge (B) in the aluminum matrix (C) that contains eutectic silicon (D). Sludge is a highmelting iron-manganese-chromium phase that forms in high-silicon aluminum alloys. See also Fig. 176. 0.5% HF. 130⫻
Fig. 179
Alloy 380.0-F die casting shown at a higher magnification than in Fig. 178. Aluminum oxide particles are indicated by (A) and (B); particles of eutectic silicon, by (C); aluminum matrix, by (D); and particles of sludge, by (E). 0.5% HF. 520⫻
172 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 181
Fig. 180
Alloy 380.0-F die casting. Hard area (A) at a machined surface (B) of an alloy 380-F die casting. Figures 181 and 182 show details of the microstructure in the hard area, which differs from the normal microstructure (C). 0.5% HF. 65⫻
Alloy 380.0-F die casting. Edge of hard area in Fig. 180 shown at a higher magnification. Hard area (A) is separated from the area of normal structure (B) by a “flow line” (C) where two streams of liquid alloy met. Some sludge (D) in hard area. 0.5% HF. 425⫻
Fig. 182
Alloy 380.0-F die casting. Hard area in Fig. 180 shown at a higher magnification. Structure consists of a heavy concentration of eutectic silicon (A) and CuAl2 (B) in the aluminum matrix (C). The hard area caused difficulty in machining. 0.5% HF. 1300⫻
Fig. 183
Alloy 380.0-F die casting. Gas porosity (A), caused by entrapped air, near the machined surface (B) of an alloy 380-F die casting. Eutectic silicon particles (C) in aluminum matrix (D) and particles of sludge (E and F). 0.5% HF. 130⫻
Representative Micrographs / 173
Fig. 184
Alloy 384.0-F die casting. Flow lines (A, B, and C) in an alloy 384-F die casting. Fig. 185 Alloy 384.0-F die casting. Region near a cast surface (A) has the desired structure, These lines may have been caused by incorrect gating, incorrect die lubrication, or incorrect injection and back which consists of interdendritic particles of eutectic silicon (B) in an aluminum matrix (C), but also has some pressures. 0.5% HF. 65⫻ Al2O3 particles (D, and in outlines area E). For a higher magnification view of area (E), see Fig. 186. 0.5% HF. 65⫻
Alloy 384.0-F die casting. Area (E) in Fig. Fig. 187 Alloy 384.0-F die casting. Cold-shut (A, B) and flow lines (C, D), both caused by 185 at higher magnification, which shows that the Al2O3 particles (A and B) are fine and failure of the streams of molten metal to merge, at the may not cause machining problems. Small particles of cast surface (E) of an alloy 384-F die casting. 0.5% HF. sludge (C, D, and E) are associated with the Al2O3 55⫻ particles. (F) is eutectic silicon; (G) is matrix of aluminum solid solution. 0.5% HF. 520⫻
Fig. 186
174 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Alloy 384.0-F die casting. Void (A), which was caused by poor Fig. 188 filling of the mold and associated flow lines (B) in an alloy 384-F die casting. Figure 183 shows for flow lines without voids. 0.5% HF. 65⫻
Fig. 189 Alloy 384.0-F die casting. Gas-porosity Fig. 190 Alloy 384.0-F. Coarse primary crystals of cavity (A), which was caused by ensludge (A, B, C, and D) removed from trapped air, at a machined surface (B) of an alloy 384-F molten alloy 384 prior to die casting. The remainder of die casting. Microstructure is eutectic silicon (C) in an the structure consists of aluminum matrix (E), eutectic aluminum matrix (D); some sludge (E) is present. 0.5% silicon (F), and Al2O3 (G). 0.5% HF. 40⫻ HF. 130⫻
Representative Micrographs / 175
Fig. 191
Alloy 392.0-F, as permanent mold cast. The structure consists of silicon (small, angular, gray particles in eutectic, and large, unrefined primary particles) and Mg2Si (black constituent). See also Fig. 192. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Fig. 192
Alloy 392.0-F, as permanent mold cast. The structure consists of silicon (small, angular, gray particles in eutectic) and Mg2Si (black constituent); however, the addition of phosphorus to the melt refined the size of the particles of primary silicon. See also Fig. 191. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
176 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Fig. 193
Alloy 413.0-F, as die cast. The structure consists of eutectic silicon (gray constituent), blades of Fe2Si2Al9, and some light-gray particles that probably are Fe3SiAl12 in a matrix of aluminum solid solution. Note extreme fineness of all particulate constituents. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Fig. 195
Fig. 194
Alloy 413.0-F die casting. The gate area (A) of the casting has the desired structure, which consists of interdendritic particles of eutectic silicon (B) and the light-etching matrix of aluminum solid solution (C). 0.5% HF. 41⫻
Alloy 413.0-F die casting. Gate area (A) Fig. 196 Alloy 413.0-F die casting. Area (G) in Fig. of an alloy 413.0-F die casting, showing 195 at a higher magnification. Angular gas porosity (B, C, and D) scattered from the outside wall eutectic silicon (A) in matrix of aluminum solid solution (E) to the inside wall (F). See Fig. 196 for details of (G), (B) in normal and rounded silicon in undesirable struca sound region. 0.5% HF. 11⫻ tures (C and D). 0.5% HF. 520⫻
Representative Micrographs / 177
Fig. 197
Alloy 413.0-F die casting. Gate area (A). Fig. 198 Alloy 413.0-F die casting. Gate area (A) There are areas of undesirable silicon of a die casting that has a cold-shut void structure (B) and a gas pore (C), which was caused by air (B) and a region of undesirable structure (C and D) entrapment, in a region that otherwise exhibits a normal surrounded by areas of normal structure (E and F). See structure (D). 0.5% HF. 41⫻ also Fig. 199 and 200. 0.5% HF. 11⫻
Fig. 199
Alloy 413.0-F die casting. Area of coldshut void (A) in Fig. 198. The void resulted when two streams of molten metal failed to merge Fig. 200 Alloy 413.0-F die casting. Inner end of cold-shut void (A) in Fig. 199 showing and interdiffuse. One of the streams produced a normal structure (B), and the other produced an undesirable start of flow line between region of normal structure (B), structure (C). See also Fig. 200 and 201. 0.5% HF. 35⫻ with eutectic silicon (C) of normal shape in matrix of aluminum solid solution (D), and region of undesirable structure (E). See also Fig. 201. 0.5% HF. 520⫻
178 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Alloy 413.0-F die casting. Continuation of flow line (A) in Fig. 200, Fig. 201 separating normal structure (B), with angular silicon (C) in aluminum matrix (D), from undesirable structure (E), with rounded silicon (F) in aluminum matrix (G). Line extends across entire section thickness. 0.5% HF. 520⫻
(a)
(b)
Fig. 202
(c)
Alloy B413.0-F. (a) Angular. (b) Lamellar. (c) Modified
Representative Micrographs / 179
Fig. 203
Alloy 443.0-F, as sand cast. Large dendrite cells resulted from slow cooling in the sand mold. Interdendritic structure: silicon (dark gray), Fe3SiAl12 (medium-gray script), and Fe2Si2Al9 (light-gray needles). 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Alloy B443.0-F, as permanent mold cast. Fig. 204 Large dendrite cells resulted from slow cooling in the sand mold, but the dendrite cells are smaller than in Fig. 201 because of faster cooling in the metal permanent mold. Interdendritic structure: silicon (dark gray), Fe2SiAl12 (medium gray script), and Fe2Si2Al9 (light gray needles). See Fig. 205. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Fig. 205
Fig. 206
Alloy C443.0-F, as die cast. Dendrite cells are smaller than in Fig. 203 and 204 because of the very rapid cooling obtained in the water-cooled die-casting die. Interdendritic structure: silicon (dark gray), Fe2SiAl12 (medium gray script), and Fe2Si2Al9 (light-gray needles). 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Alloy 520.0-F, as sand cast. Structure is insoluble particles of FeAl2 (black) and an interdendritic network of Mg2Al2 phase (gray). Figures 207 and 208 show the effect of solution heat treatment 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Fig. 207 Alloy 520.0-T4, sand cast, solution heat treated at 425 °C (800 °F). Structure is insoluble particles of FeAl2 (black) and an interdendritic network of Mg2Al2 phase (gray), although the solution heat treating has dissolved most of the Mg2Al2 phase. See also Fig. 208. 0.5% HF. 100⫻
Fig. 208 Alloy 520.0-T4, sand cast, solution heat treated. Solidus was exceeded during solution heat treating, and melting of the eutectic has formed a lacy network and rosettes of Mg2Al2 phase (gray). See also Fig. 207. 0.5% HF. 500⫻
Fig. 209
Alloy D712.0-F, as sand cast. Interdendritic network: particles of CrAl7, Fe3SiAl12, and FeAl6. Note the segregation (coring) of magnesium and zinc in the grains. See also Fig. 210. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Fig. 210 Alloy D712.0-F, as investment cast. Interden- Fig. 211 Alloy 850.0-F, as permanent mold cast. Note dritic network: particles of CrAl7, Fe2SiAl12, hot tear, which occurred at or above the and FeAl6. Intergranular fusion voids (black) were caused by solidus, and some Al-CuAl2 eutectic (gray) back filling of eutectic melting as a result of exceeding the solidus tem- tear. Particles of tin (rounded), NiAl3, and FeNiAl9 (both irregular). 0.5% HF. 100⫻ perature during dip brazing. Keller’s reagent. 100⫻
Representative Micrographs / 181
Welded Cast Aluminum Alloys
Fig. 212
Welded alloy 295.0-T6, investment casting. Electron beam weld in an alloy 295.0-T6 investment casting. Weld was made without filler metal. Overheating during welding resulted in a considerable amount of dropthrough (right), with accompanying longitudinal shrinkage cracks in the center of the weld metal. See also Fig. 213. Tucker’s reagent. 5⫻
Fig. 214
Welded alloy 356.0-F, investment casting. Edge of a fusion zone of a gas tungsten arc repair weld in a 356.0-F investment casting. Alternating current and R-SG70A filler metal were used. Interdendritic aluminum-silicon eutectic (gray); porosity (black). See also Fig. 215. Keller’s reagent. 50⫻
Fig. 213
Welded alloy 295.0-T6, investment casting. Edge of fusion zone of weld shown in Fig. 212 (base metal at bottom). Large dendrites of solid solution in base metal, small dendrites in weld bead. Al-CuAl2-Si eutectic in both. Keller’s reagent. 150⫻
Fig. 215
Welded alloy 356.0-F, investment casting after solution heat treatment. Particles of eutectic silicon have become rounded and agglomerated. Zone between weld bead and heat-affected zone is less clearly defined than in Fig. 214; porosity remains. Keller’s reagent. 50⫻
182 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Welded Wrought-to-Cast Alloys
Fig. 216
Welded alloy 6061-T6 to A356.0-T6. Gas tungsten arc fillet weld joining a 6061-T6 tube (upper left) with an A356.0-T6 investment casting. ER 4043 filler metal. Keller’s reagent. 15⫻
Fig. 217
Welded alloy 6061-T6 to A356.0-T6. Structure of A356.0-T6 investment casting (sodium-modified, grain-refined) used for the weld shown in Fig. 216. Interdendritic network is eutectic silicon. Keller’s reagent. 50⫻
Fig. 218
Welded alloy 6061-T6 to A356.0-T6. Edge of the fusion zone of the weld shown in Fig. 216, with the tube at the left and the weld bead at the right. Aluminum-silicon eutectic is present between the dendrites of the weld bead; Al-Mg2Si eutectic is between the grains of the heat-affected zone of the tube. Keller’s reagent. 50⫻
Representative Micrographs / 183
Fig. 219
Welded alloy 6061-T6 to A356.0-T6. Edge of the fusion zone of the weld shown in Fig. 216, with the weld bead at the top and left and the casting at bottom and right. Interdendritic aluminum-silicon eutectic is present, some in the weld bead, and a large amount in the heat-affected zone of the casting. Keller’s reagent. 50⫻
Fig. 220
Welded alloy 6061-T6 to A356.0-T6. Bead (near tube) at the weld in Fig. 216. Interdendritic network of aluminum-silicon eutectic is present in the matrix solid solution. Keller’s reagent. 50⫻
Fig. 221
Welded alloy 6061-T6 to A356.0-T6. Bead (near casting) of the weld in Fig. 216. Dendrites of solid solution are less equiaxed, more columnar than in Fig. 220. Keller’s reagent. 50⫻
184 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Welded Aluminum to Steel
Aluminum-steel weld. Explosive welded Fig. 223 Aluminum-steel weld. Ripple at interface of explosive welded joint between alumijoint between aluminum sheet (top) and steel showing characteristic ripples at the interface. A num sheet (top) and steel. Cracks have appeared in the ripple is shown at a high magnification in Fig. 223. dark-gray phase (which probably is FeAl3). As-polished. 60⫻ As-polished. 6⫻
Fig. 222
Welded Aluminum to Copper
Fig. 224
Aluminum-copper weld. Explosive welded joint between aluminum sheet (top) and copper. Cracks (black) have appeared in the aluminum-copper phase (light gray) at the relatively smooth interface. Aspolished. 225⫻
Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers J. Gilbert Kaufman, p187-224 DOI:10.1361/iaat2000p187
Copyright © 2000 ASM International® All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org
APPENDIX
Terminology The following list of terms covers wrought and cast aluminum products and their production. These terms may be helpful in understanding and interpreting other information in this book regarding aluminum alloys, tempers, production processes, and applications. Most of these terms come from the Aluminum Association publication Aluminum Standards and Data and are republished with the permission of the Aluminum Association. The terms included for casting processes are taken from publications of the American Foundrymen’s Society (AFS); the reader is referred to those publications for more complete terminology for casting and casting processes. The list is not intended to include every term likely to be used within the aluminum industry, but it is hoped that most of the terms that are unique to the industry are defined and may help in understanding the alloy and temper designations that are the subject of this book. Note: Italicized words within a definition can be found as a separate entry in this list.
A AFS. American Foundrymen’s Society AMS. Aerospace Material Specification. ANSI. American National Standards Institute. ASME. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. AWS. American Welding Society. abrasion. See mark, traffıc. age hardening. An aging process that results in increased strength and hardness. age softening. Spontaneous decrease of strength and hardness that takes place at room temperature in certain strain-hardened alloys containing magnesium.
188 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
aging. Precipitation from solid solution resulting in a change in properties of an alloy, usually occurring slowly at room temperature (natural aging) and more rapidly at elevated temperatures (artificial aging). alclad. An aluminum or aluminum-alloy coating that is metallurgically bonded to either one or both surfaces of an aluminum alloy product, and that is anodic to the alloy to which it is bonded, thus electrolytically protecting the core alloy against corrosion. For alclad products, see specific product such as plate, sheet, tube, or wire. alligatoring. See lamination. alloy. A substance having metallic properties and composed of two or more elements of which at least one is an elemental metal. angularity. Conformity to, or deviation from, specified angular dimensions in the cross section of a shape or bar. angulation. The deliberate departure from a horizontal passline on the entry side of a rolling mill used for one-side bright rolling. annealing. A thermal treatment to soften metal by removal of stress resulting from cold working or by coalescing precipitates from solid solution. annealing, partial. Thermal treatment (H2X temper nomenclature) given cold-worked metal to reduce strength and increase ductility to controlled levels other than annealed temper. anodizing. Forming a coating on a metal surface produced by electrochemical treatment through anodic oxidation. anodizing sheet. See sheet, anodizing. arbor break. See buckle, arbor. arbor mark. See mark, arbor. artificial aging. See aging. as-cast condition. Referring to newly produced, unmachined castings that have not been subjected to any form of finishing operations (beyond gate removal or shot-blast cleaning) or treatment of any kind, including heat treatment.
B back-end condition. A condition occurring in the last metal to be extruded. It is a result of the oxidized surface of the billet feeding into the extrusion. backup roll. Nongrooved roll that stiffens or strengthens work rolls. bar. A solid wrought product that is long in relation to its cross section, which is square or rectangular (excluding plate and flattened wire), with sharp or rounded comers or edges, or is a regular hexagon or octagon, and in which at least one perpendicular distance between parallel faces is over 10 mm (0.375 in. or greater).
Terminology / 189
bar, cold-finished. Bar brought to final dimensions by cold work to obtain improved surface finish and dimensional tolerances. bar, cold-finished extruded. Cold-finished bar produced from extruded bar. bar, cold-finished rolled. Cold-finished bar produced from rolled bar. bar, extruded. Bar brought to final dimensions by hot extruding. bar, rolled. Bar brought to final dimensions by hot rolling. bar, saw-plate. Bar brought to final thickness by hot or cold rolling and to final width by sawing. base box, general. An agreed-upon unit of area used primarily in packaging applications. One common base box for aluminum is 20,232 m2 (31,360 in.2) originally composed of 112 rectangular sheets, each 356 by 508 mm (14 by 20 in.). belled edge. See edge, belled. belly. A loose center buckle extending to near the edges of a sheet. billet. A hot-worked semifinished product suitable for subsequent working by such methods as rolling, forging, extruding, and so on. binder. A material used to hold the grains of foundry sand together to form a mold or core. It can be a cereal, an oil, clay, or natural/synthetic resin. blank. A piece of metal cut or formed to regular or irregular shape for subsequent processing such as by forming, bending, or drawing. The piece of sheet stock cut out by blanking die. It will subsequently be drawn into a cup or end shell. blast cleaning. A process to clean or finish castings by use of an air blast or airless centrifugal wheel that throws abrasive particles or metal shot against the surface of castings. bleed out. See two-tone. blister. A raised area on the surface of an extruded product due to subsurface gas expansion. This condition can occur during extrusion or thermal treatment. blister, bond. A raised spot on only one surface of the metal whose origin is between the cladding and core in clad products. blister, coating. A blister in the coating of an alclad or a clad product. blister, core. A raised spot (one or both sides) on rolled metal. block mark. See scratch, tension. bloom. A semifinished hot-rolled product, rectangular or square in cross section, produced on a blooming mill. blow hole. A blister that has ruptured and may produce a void. See also blister. boss. A knoblike projection on the main body of a forging or casting. bottom draft. Taper or slope in the bottom of a forged depression to assist the flow of metal toward the sides of the depressed area. bow. Longitudinal curvature of rod, bar, profiles (shapes), and tube. Bow is measured after allowing the weight of the extrusion to minimize the
190 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
deviation. Bow can be caused by a nonuniform extrusion rate across the cross section, resulting in one portion of the extrusion being longer than the other or nonuniform contraction during quenching. bow, lateral. Deviation from straight of a longitudinal edge. bow, longitudinal. Curvature in the plane of sheet or plate in the rolling direction. bow, transverse. Curvature across the rolling direction of sheet or plate. brazing. Joining metals by fusion of nonferrous alloys that have melting points above 425 °C (800 °F) but lower than those of the metals being joined. This may be accomplished by means of a torch (torch brazing), in a furnace (furnace brazing), or by dipping in a molten flux bath (dip or flux brazing). brazing rod. A rolled, extruded, or cast round filler metal for use in joining by brazing. brazing sheet. Sheet of a brazing alloy or sheet clad with a brazing alloy on one or both sides. brazing wire. Wire for use as a filler metal in joining by brazing. bright sheet. See sheet, (1SBMF), (S1SBF) and (S2SBF). bristle mark. See mark, bristle. broken edge. See edge, broken. broken eie. A deviation from the desired cross section due to the absence of a certain portion of the die used to extrude the profile (shape). broken matte finish. Nonuniform surface on the inside of packed rolled foil (bright spots). broken surface. See crazing. bruise. See mark, roll bruise. buckle. A distortion of the surface of the metal. buckle, arbor. Bend, crease, wrinkle, or departure from flat, occurring perpendicular to the slit edge of a coil and which are repetitive in nature, with severity decreasing as the distance increases in the coil from the original source. Normally, it is found on the inside diameter of a coil but can appear on the coil outside diameter as a result of a prior winding operation. buckle, center. Undulation (wavy region) in the center of the metal. buckle, edge. Undulation (wavy region) along the edge(s) of the metal. buckle, oil can. See buckle, trapped. buckle, quarter. Undulation (wavy region) that occurs approximately at both quarter points across the width. buckle, trapped. Undulation (wavy region) that is smaller sized and often circular in shape. buffing. A mechanical finishing operation in which fine abrasives are applied to a metal surface by rotating fabric wheels for the purpose of developing a lustrous finish. buff streak. See streak. burnish streak. See streak, burnish.
Terminology / 191
burnishing. See two-tone. burr. A thin ridge of roughness left by a cutting operation such as slitting, trimming, shearing, blanking, or sawing. bursting strength. The pressure required to rupture a foil specimen when it is tested in a mullen instrument under specified conditions. See also mullen test. bus bar. A rigid electric conductor in the form of a bar. butt-seam tube. See tube, open-seam.
C Camber. See bow, lateral. carbon mark. See mark, carbon. casting (noun). An object formed by pouring, pumping, or sucking molten metal into a mold or set of dies and allowing it to solidify. casting (verb). The act of pouring, pumping, or sucking molten metal into a mold (made of sand, metal, ceramic, or graphite) or a set of metal dies. casting strains. Strains in a cast metal component resulting from internal stresses created during cooling. Heat treatment and other processes are used to remove these strains. casting yield. The weight of casting or castings divided by the total weight of metal poured into the mold, expressed as a percent. center. The difference in thickness between the middle and edges (average) of a sheet. centrifugal casting. In the centrifugal casting process, commonly applied to cylindrical castings, a permanent mold is rotated rapidly about the axis of the casting while a measured amount of molten metal is poured into the mold cavity. Centrifugal force is used to hold the metal against the outer walls of the mold with the volume of metal poured determining the wall thickness of the casting. center buckle. See buckle. chafing. See mark, traffıc. chatter mark. See mark, chatter. chill. Metal insert placed in a mold to increase speed of cooling. Internal chills are placed in the mold cavity and become integral parts of the casting. chip mark. See dent, repeating. chop. Metal sheared from a vertical surface of a die forging, which is spread by the die over an adjoining horizontal surface. chucking lug. A lug or boss added to a forging so that on-center machining and forming may be performed with one setup or checking. This lug is finally machined or cut away. cinching. See scratch, tension.
192 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
circle. A circular blank fabricated from plate, sheet, or foil. clad sheet. See sheet, clad. cleaning. Removal of sand and excess metal from a sand casting, ceramic and excess metal from an investment casting, or excess metal from a die casting. CO2 process. Molds and cores, made with sand containing sodium silicate, which are hardened by permeating the sand with carbon dioxide gas. coating. Continuous film on the surface of a product. coating blister. See blister, coating. coating buildup. A coating thickness greater than nominal in localized area of sheet, usually along edges, due to uneven application techniques. coating, conversion. An inorganic pretreatment sometimes applied to a metal surface to enhance coating adhesion and to retard corrosion. coating drip. A nonuniform extraneous deposit of coating on the coated sheet. coating, high or low. Failure of the coating to meet the agreed-upon thickness limits measured in weight per unit area. coating oven trash. See dirt. coating streak. See streak, coating. cobble. A jamming of the mill by aluminum product while being rolled; a piece of aluminum, which for any reason has become so bent or twisted that it must be withdrawn from the rolling operation and scrapped. coil curvature. See coil set. coil orientation, clockwise coil. With the coil core vertical (eye to the sky) and viewed from above, a trace of the metal edge from the inside diameter to the outside diameter involves clockwise movement. coil orientation, counterclockwise (anticlockwise) coil. With the coil core vertical (eye to the sky) and viewed from above, a trace of the metal edge from the inside diameter to the outside diameter involves counterclockwise (anticlockwise) movement. coil set. Longitudinal bow in an unwound coil in the same direction as curvature of the wound coil. coil set differential. The difference in coil set from edge to edge of a coiled sheet sample. It is measured with the sample on a flat table, concave side up, and is the difference in elevation of the comers on one end. coil set, reversed. Longitudinal bow in an unwound coil in the direction opposite the curvature of the wound coil. coiled sheet. See sheet, coiled. cold shut. (1) A linear discontinuity in a cast surface caused when meeting streams of metal fail to merge prior to solidification. (2)
Terminology / 193
Forging defect developed by metal flowing into a section from two directions, resulting in a discontinuity at the junction. cold working. Plastic (i.e., permanent) deformation of metal at such temperature and rate that strain hardening occurs. collapse. Out-of-round condition of coil often due to inappropriate tension during rewinding operations. coloring. A finishing process, or combination of processes, that alters the appearance of an aluminum surface via coating, chemical, and/or mechanical operations. combination die (multiple-cavity die). In die casting practice, a die with two or more different cavities for different castings. concavity. Curved as the inner surface of a sphere. See also convexity. concentricity. Conformance to a common center as, for example, the inner and outer walls of round tube. condensation stain. See corrosion, water stain. condenser tube. The term “heat-exchanger tube” is preferred, unless specific reference to a condenser application is intended. conduit. A tube used to protect electric wiring. See also tubing, electrical metallic. conduit, rigid. Conduit having dimensions of ANSI schedule 40 pipe in standardized length with threaded ends. coned-out coil. See telescoping. contour. That portion of the outline of a transverse cross section of an extruded shape that is represented by a curved line or curved lines. controlled cooling. Process by which a metal object is cooled from an elevated temperature in a manner that avoids hardening, cracking, or internal damage. conversion coating, can ends. See coating, conversion. convexity. Curved such as the outer surface of a sphere. See also concavity. core (for casting). Separable part of a mold that usually is made of sand and a binder to create openings and various specially shaped cavities in castings. core (for rolled products). A hollow cylinder on which a coiled product may be wound that forms the inside diameter of a coil. core blister. See blister, core. coring. See back-end condition. corner turnup. A distortion, buckle, or twist condition that causes the corner(s) of the sheet to deviate from a perfectly flat plane on which it rests. corrosion. The deterioration of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. corrosion, exfoliation. Corrosion that progresses approximately parallel to the metal surface, causing layers of the metal to be elevated by the formation of corrosion product.
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corrosion, galvanic. Corrosion associated with the current of galvanic cell consisting of two dissimilar conductors in an electrolyte or two similar conductors in dissimilar electrolytes. Aluminum will corrode if it is anodic to the dissimilar metal. corrosion, intergranular. Corrosion occurring preferentially at grain boundaries (also termed “intercrystalline corrosion”). corrosion, pitting. Localized corrosion resulting in small pits or craters in a metal surface. corrosion, stress-cracking. Failure by cracking resulting from selective directional attack caused by the simultaneous interaction of sustained tensile stress at an exposed surface with the chemical or electrochemical effects of the surface environment. The term often is abbreviated SCC, which correctly stands for stress-corrosion cracking. corrosion, water stain. Superficial oxidation of the surface with a water film, in the absence of circulating air, held between closely adjacent metal surfaces. corrugating. Forming rolled metal into a series of straight parallel regular alternate grooves and ridges. coupon. A piece of metal from which a test specimen may be prepared. covering area. Yield expressed in terms of a given number of square inches in a pound. For metric units, use square meters per kilogram. crazing. A macroscopic effect of numerous surface tears, transverse to the rolling direction, which can occur when the entry angle into the cold mill work rolls is large. crease. A sharp deviation from flat in the sheet that is transferred from processing equipment subsequent to the roll bite. cross hatching. See crazing. crown. See convexity. curl. An undesirable condition caused by uneven rates of absorption or evaporation of moisture, uneven rates of contraction or expansion, or internal stresses in the material. Curl is most prevalent in laminated structures where the components have differing physical properties. cutoff. Removal of gates, risers, and other excess metal from a casting.
D deep drawing. Forming a deeply recessed part by forcing sheet metal to undergo plastic flow between dies, usually without substantial thinning of the sheet. defect. A defect is anything that renders the aluminum unfit for the specific use for which it was ordered.
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dent. (1) For rolled products, a sharply defined surface impression on the metal that may be caused by a blow from another object. (2) For extrusions, a synonym for handling mark. See also mark, handling. dent, expansion. Localized surface deviation from flat generated by expansion of vapor during thermal treatment of cold-rolled coiled sheet. dent, repeating. Repeating depression caused by a particle adhering to a rotating roll over which the metal has passed. die (in casting). Metal form(s) used to produce a die casting, a lost foam pattern, or a wax pattern. A metal block used in the die casting process, incorporating the cavity or cavities that form the cast component, the molten metal distribution system, and means for cooling and ejecting the casting. die (in forging or extrusion). Metal forms between which metal is forged or through which metal is extruded. The shapes of the dies control the form and shape of the finished parts. die casting (noun). A casting produced by the die casting process. Today, the process is most suitable for high-volume production of aluminum, zinc, and magnesium alloy castings. die casting (verb). Injecting molten metal under pressure into a mold chamber, which is formed by metal die. In Europe, any casting produced in a metal mold. die casting, cold chamber. Die casting process in which the metal injection mechanism is not submerged in molten metal. die casting, gravity. Term used in Europe for producing a casting by pouring molten metal (gravity pouring) into a metal mold, with no application of pressure. In the United States, this is the permanentmold casting process. die casting, hot chamber. Die casting process in which the metal injection mechanism is submerged in the molten metal. die casting, pressure. In Europe, a casting made in a metal mold (set of metal dies) in which the metal is injected under high pressure, by either cold-chamber or hot-chamber die casting machines. In the United States, this is simply die casting. High-pressure die casting and low-pressure die casting are terms commonly used in Europe to differentiate between what in the United States would be called, respectively, die casting and low-pressure permanent molding. See also low-pressure casting process and high-pressure molding. die line. A longitudinal depression or protrusion formed on the surface of drawn or extruded material. Die lines are present to some degree in all extrusions and are caused by a roughening of the die bearing. die number. The number assigned to a die for identification and cataloging purposes, and which usually is assigned for the same purpose to the product produced from that die. diffusion streak. See streak, diffusion.
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dimensional stability. Ability of a casting to remain unchanged in size and shape under ordinary atmospheric conditions. dirt. Foreign debris from rolling or post-rolling operations imbedded in or under the coating. disc. A circular blank fabricated from plate, sheet, or foil, from which a central concentric area has been removed. double shear notch. See notch, double shear. draft. Taper on the sides of a die or mold impression to facilitate removal of forgings, castings, or patterns from dies or molds. drag mark. See rub, tool. draw and iron-can bodies. Term that refers to a method of fabricating a can body in which a cup is drawn from flat sheet, redrawn to the final diameter, and then wall ironed to reduce the wall thickness and to achieve the required height. drawing. (1) In forging, an operation of working metal between flat dies to reduce the cross section and increase length. (2) The process of pulling material through a die to reduce the size, change the cross section or shape, or harden the material. drawing stock. A hot-worked intermediate solid product of uniform cross section along its whole length, supplied in coils and of a quality suitable for drawing into wire. drawn-in scratch. See scratch, drawn-in. drawn product. A product formed by pulling material through a die. dropped edge. See edge, dropped. dry sand molding. Dry sand molds are made by many different processes. Sand mixed with binders that cure by baking is one form of dry sand mold; other more common dry sand molding techniques use sand with binders that can be cured by chemical, or catalytic, reaction induced by mixing with the sand or by blowing gases through the mold after it is formed. dry sheet. See lube, low. dry surface. A foil surface substantially free from oily film and suitable for lacquering, printing, or coating with water-dispersed adhesives. ductility. The property that permits permanent deformation before fracture by stress in tension. duct sheet. Coiled or flat sheet in specific tempers, widths, and thicknesses, suitable for duct applications.
E earing. Wavy symmetrical projections formed during cupping, deep drawing, or spinning. Earing is caused by nonuniform directional properties in the aluminum and/or by improperly adjusted tooling.
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ears. Wavy symmetrical projections formed in the course of deep drawing or spinning as a result of directional properties or anisotropy in sheet. Ears occur in groups of four or eight with the peaks of the projections located at 45° and/or at 0 and 90° to the rolling direction. Degree of earing is the difference between average height at the peaks and average height at the valleys, divided by average height at the valleys, multiplied by 100 and expressed in percent. eccentricity. Deviation from a common center as, for example, the inner and outer walls of a round tube. The difference between the mean wall thickness and minimum or maximum wall thickness at any one cross section. The permissible degree of eccentricity can be expressed by a plus and minus wall-thickness tolerance. edge, band. See two-tone. edge, belled. Excessive buildup of material on edge(s) during a rewinding operation. Typical causes include excessive edge burr, turned edge, and dog bone-shaped cross-sectional profiles. edge, broken (cracked). Edge(s) containing crack, split, and/or tear caused by the inability to deform without fracturing. edge, build-up. See edge, belled. edge, damaged. Edge of a coil that has been bent, torn, or scraped by an object. edge, dropped. A continuous, downward edge deflection. edge, liquated. Surface condition remaining after portions of a side of an as-cast rolling ingot deforms enough during hot rolling to become top and/or bottom surface(s) of the rolled product at an edge. edge, rippled. See buckle, edge. edge, wavy. See buckle, edge. elastic limit. The highest stress that a material can withstand without permanent deformation after complete release of an applied stress. For most practical application purposes, the elastic limit is the yield strength. electrical conductivity. The capacity of a material to conduct electrical current. For aluminum, this capacity is expressed as a percentage of the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS), which has a resistivity of 1/58 ohm-mm2/m at 20 °C (68 °F) and an arbitrarily designated conductivity of unity. electrical resistivity. The electrical resistance of a body of unit length and unit cross-sectional area or unit weight. The value of 1⁄58 ohm-mm2/m at 20 °C (68 °F) is the resistivity equivalent to the IACS for 100% conductivity. This means that a wire of 100% conductivity, 1 m (3 ft) in length and 1 mm2 (0.002 in.2) in cross-sectional area would have a resistance of 0.017241 ohms at 20 °C (68 °F). elongation. The percentage increase in distance between two gage marks that results from stressing the specimen in tension to fracture. The original gage length is usually 50 mm (2 in.) for flat specimens. For
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cylindrical specimens, the gage length is 5D for metric usage and 4D for U.S. standards. Elongation values depend to some extent upon size and form of the test specimen. For example, the values obtained from sheet specimens will be lower for thin sheet than for thicker sheet; those obtained in 5D will be lower than those for 4D. embossing. Raising a design in relief against a surface. endurance limit. The limiting stress below which a material will withstand a specified large number of cycles of stress. equivalent round. The diameter of a circle having a circumference equal to the outside perimeter of other than round tube. expendable pattern casting. Metal casting process that employs a foam plastic pattern-and-sprue assembly that is usually robot positioned in a metal flask. Loose sand is poured into the flask and vibrated in and around the pattern-and-sprue assembly. Molten metal, poured into the sprue, vaporizes it and the foam pattern instantly and replaces its shape with what becomes the casting when it solidifies. This process is also widely referred to as lost foam casting. extrusion. A product formed by pushing material through a die. extrusion billet. The starting stock for the extrusion operation. Extrusion billet is a solid or hollow form, commonly cylindrical, and is the length charged into the extrusion press cylinder. It is usually a cast product but may be a wrought product or powder compact. extrusion butt end defect. A longitudinal discontinuity in the extreme rear portion of an extruded product, which is normally discarded. extrusion log. The starting stock for extrusion billet. Extrusion log is usually produced in lengths from which shorter extrusion billets are cut. extrusion seam. A region in extruded hollow profiles observed after creating two streams of metal and rejoining them around the mandrel of a porthole or bridge die. eyehole. See holiday.
F fatigue. The tendency for a metal to break under conditions of repeated cyclic stressing considerably below the ultimate tensile strength. feeder. See riser. feed in. See back-end condition. feed line. See streak, grinding. fillet. A concave junction between two surfaces. fin. A thin projection on a forging resulting from trimming or from the metal under pressure being forced into hairline cracks in the die or around die inserts.
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finish. The characteristics of the surface of a product. fin stock. Coiled sheet or foil in specific alloys, tempers, and thickness ranges suitable for manufacture of fins for heat-exchanger applications. fish mouthing. See lamination. flag. A marker inserted adjacent to the edge at a splice or lap in a roll or foil. flaking. A condition in coated sheet where portions of the coating become loosened due to inadequate adhesion. flange. See rib. flash. A thin protrusion at the parting line of a forging that forms when metal, in excess of that required to fill the impressions, is forced between the die interfaces. flash line. A line left on a forging where flash has been removed. flatness. (1) For rolled products, a distortion of the surface of sheet such as a bulge or a wave, usually transverse to the direction of rolling. Often described by location across width (i.e., edge buckle, quarter buckle, center buckle, and so on). (2) For extrusions, flatness (off contour) pertains to the deviation of a cross-section surface intended to be flat. Flatness can be affected by conditions such as die performance, thermal effects, and stretching. flow lines. (1) Lines on the surface of painted sheet, brought about by incomplete leveling of the paint. (2) The line pattern revealed by etching, which shows the direction of plastic flow on the surface or within a wrought structure. flow through. A forging defect caused when metal flows past the base of a rib, resulting in rupture of the grain structure. foil. A rolled product rectangular in cross section of thickness less than 0.15 mm (0.006 in.). In Europe, foil is equal to and less than 0.20 mm (0.008 in.). foil, annealed. Foil completely softened by thermal treatment. foil, bright two sides. Foil having a uniform bright specular finish on both sides. foil, chemically cleaned. Foil chemically washed to remove lubricant and foreign material. foil, embossed. Foil on which a pattern has been impressed by means of an engraved roll or plate. foil, etched. Foil roughened chemically or electrochemically to provide an increased surface area. foil, hard. Foil fully work hardened by rolling. foil, intermediate temper. Foil intermediate in temper between annealed foil and hard foil. foil, matte one side (M1S). Foil with a diffuse reflecting finish on one side and a bright specular finish on the other. foil, mechanically grained. Foil mechanically roughened for such applications as lithography.
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foil, mill finish (MF). Foil having a nonuniform finish that may vary from coil to coil and within a coil. foil, scratch brushed. Foil abraded, usually with wire brushes, to produce a roughened surface. foil stock. See reroll stock. fold. A forging discontinuity caused by metal folding back on its own surface during flow in the die cavity. forgeability. The term used to describe the relative workability of forging material. forging. A metal part worked to a predetermined shape by one or more processes such as hammering, upsetting, pressing, rolling, and so on. forging billet. The term forging stock is preferred. forging, blocker-type. A forging made in a single set of impressions to the general contour of a finished part. forging, cold-coined. A forging that has been restruck cold to obtain closer dimensions, to sharpen comers or outlines, and in non-heattreatable alloys, to increase hardness. forging, die. A forging formed to the required shape and size by working in impression dies. forging, draftless. A forging with zero draft on vertical walls. forging, flashless. A closed-die forging made in dies constructed and operated to eliminate, in predetermined areas, the formation of flash. forging, hammer. A forging produced by repeated blows in a forging hammer. forging, hand. A forging worked between flat or simply shaped dies by repeated strokes or blows and manipulation of the piece. forging, no-draft. See forging, draftless. forging plane. A reference plane or planes normal to the direction of applied force from which all draft angles are measured. forging, precision. A forging produced to tolerances closer than standard. forging, press. A die forging produced by pressure applied in a forging press. forging, rolled ring. A cylindrical product of relatively short height, circumferentially rolled from a hollow section. forging stock. A wrought or cast rod, bar, or other section suitable for forging. forging, upset. A forging having part or all of its cross section greater than that of the stock. formability. The relative ease with which a metal can be shaped through plastic deformation. fracture toughness. A generic term for measure of resistance to extension of a crack. The term is sometimes restricted to results of a fracture mechanics test, which is directly applicable in fracture control. fretting. See mark, traffıc.
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friction scratch. See scratch, friction. full center. See buckle, center.
G gage. A term previously used in referring to the thickness of a wrought product. Thickness is preferred in dimension description. gas porosity. Casting defects caused by gases trapped in molten metal or developed during solidification. gate. Specifically, the point in the runner system at which molten metal enters the sand mold cavity. Sometimes used as a general term to indicate the entire assembly of connected columns and channels carrying the metal from the top of a mold to the part forming the casting cavity proper. Term also applies to pattern parts that form the passages or to the metal that fills them. gated patterns. One or more patterns with gates or channels attached. gated system. The complete assembly of sprues, runners, and gates in a mold through which metal flows to enter the casting cavity. Term also applies to equivalent portions of the pattern. gating system. Gating is the term used to describe all of the passages leading to the casting cavity. When molten metal is poured into a mold, it is poured into the pouring basin or cup. It travels down the sprue through the runner into the feeder or riser then through the gate into the casting cavity. The gate is the breaking point at the casting from which the gating system is separated from the casting. glaze. See pickup, roll. gouge. A gross scratch. See also scratch. gouge, rolled in. A more localized gross rolled-in scratch. See also scratch, rolled-in. grain flow. The directional characteristics of the metal structure after working, revealed by etching a polished section. grain size. A measure of crystal size usually reported in terms of average diameter in millimeters, grains per square millimeter, or grains per cubic millimeter. grease streak. See streak, grease. green sand. Moist clay-bonded molding sand ready for making molds. green sand molding. The mold is composed of a prepared mixture of sand, clay, sea coal, and moisture for use while still in the damp condition. The mold is not cured or dried and therefore is known as a green (uncured) sand mold.
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H hair, slitter. Minute hairlike sliver along edge(s) due to shearing or slitting operation. handling mark. See mark, handling. hardener. An alloy containing at least some aluminum and one or more added elements for use in making alloying additions to molten aluminum. Also referred to as master alloy. hardness. Resistance to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. The term also may refer to stiffness or temper, or to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. Brinell hardness of aluminum alloys is obtained by measuring the permanent impression in the material made by a ball indenter 10 mm in diameter after loading with a 500 kgf (4.903 kN) for 15 s and dividing the applied load by the area of the impression. Rockwell hardness: An indentation hardness test based on the depth of penetration of a specified penetrator into the specimen under certain arbitrarily fixed conditions. heat streak. See streak, heat. heat treatable alloy. An alloy that may be strengthened by a suitable thermal treatment. heat treating. Heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in such a way as to obtain desired conditions or properties. Commonly used as a shop term to denote a thermal treatment to increase strength. Heating for the sole purpose of hot working is excluded from the meaning of this definition. See also solution heat treating and aging. heat treat lot. See lot, heat treat. heat treat stain. A discoloration due to nonuniform oxidation of the metal surface during solution heat treatment. herringbone. See streak, herringbone. high-pressure molding. A term applied to certain types of high-production sand molding machines in which high-pressure air is instantly released from a large pressure vessel to produce extremely hard, high-density molds from green sand. holding temperature. The temperature at which the liquid casting alloy is held during casting. Usually set as the lowest temperature that fills the mold (no misruns). The higher the temperature is, the higher the equilibrium gas content in the metal will be. hole. Void in rolled product. Typical cause is a nonmetallic inclusion during rolling. holiday. Region in which film is absent due to nonwetting of the metal surface by the coating. homogenizing. A process whereby ingots are raised to temperatures near the solidus temperature and held at that temperature for varying lengths of time. The purposes of this process are to (1) reduce microsegrega-
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tion by promoting diffusion of solute atoms within the grains of aluminum and (2) improve workability. hook. An abrupt deviation from straightness. Hook can be caused by nonuniform metal flow during breakthrough. See also bow. hot cracking. A crack in a casting caused by thermal contraction of the part combined with thermal expansion of the surrounding steel die. Sometimes confused with hot tearing, the crack surface looks quite different under low-power magnification. hot isostatic pressing (HIP). A process that uses high pressures at elevated temperatures to close interior voids in castings or consolidate P/M products. hot line pickup. See pickup, roll. hot shortness. A condition of the metal at excessively high working temperatures characterized by low mechanical strength and a tendency for the metal to crack rather than deform. hot spot. Dark gray or black surface patches appearing after anodizing. These areas usually are associated with lower hardness and coarse magnesium silicide precipitate caused by nonuniform cooling after extrusion. hot tear. See tear, speed. hot working. Plastic deformation of metal at such temperature and rate that strain hardening does not occur.
I impact. A part formed in a confining die from a metal slug, usually cold, by rapid single-stroke application of force through a punch, causing the metal to flow around the punch and/or through an opening in the punch or die. impregnation. A process for making castings fluid tight by pressure injecting them with liquid synthetic resins or other sealers. The injected liquid is solidified in place by heating or baking. Media used include silicate of soda, drying oils with or without styrenes, plastics, and proprietary compounds. inclusion. Foreign material in the metal or impressed into the surface. inclusion, stringer. An impurity, metallic or nonmetallic, that is trapped in the ingot and elongated subsequently in the direction of working. It may be revealed during working or finishing as a narrow streak parallel to the direction of working. incomplete seam. See weld, incomplete. ingot. A cast form suitable for remelting or fabricating. See also ingot, extrusion; ingot, fabricating; ingot, forging; ingot, remelt; and ingot, rolling. ingot, extrusion. A cast form that is solid or hollow, usually cylindrical, suitable for extruding. See also ingot, fabricating.
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ingot, fabricating. A cast form suitable for subsequent working by such methods as rolling, forging, extruding, and so on (rolling ingot, forging ingot, extrusion ingot). See also ingot, extrusion; ingot, forging; and ingot, rolling. ingot, forging. A cast form intended and suitable for subsequent working by the forging process. ingot, remelt. A cast form intended and suitable for remelting, usually for producing castings. ingot, rolling. A cast form suitable for rolling. See also ingot, fabricating. injection. The process of forcing molten metal or plastic into a die cavity. inoculant. Material which, when added to molten metal, modifies the structure, and thereby changes the physical and mechanical properties to a degree not explained on the basis of the change in composition resulting from its use. insert. A metal component (plug or stud) that is placed in a die casting die or sand mold allowing molten metal to be cast around it. The component becomes an integral part of the casting. inspection lot. See lot, inspection. interleaving. The insertion of paper or application of suitable strippable coatings between layers of metal to protect from damage. investment casting. A process in which a wax pattern is invested (dipped in a slurry then sprinkled with loose sand). This process is repeated several times, making a thick, green pottery mold. After the mold dries, the wax pattern is melted out, and the mold is baked, producing a ceramic shell or mold. Molten metal is poured into the mold to make a casting. investment molding. The process also is known as the lost wax process. Molds are produced by dipping wax or thermoplastic patterns in a fine slurry to produce as smooth a surface as possible. The slurry is air dried and redipped several times using cheaper and coarser, more permeable refractory until the shell is of sufficient thickness for the strength required to contain molten metal. Investment molds also are produced as solid molds by putting the pattern assembly in a flask, which is then filled with a refractory slurry and air dried. The molds then are put into a furnace where the wax or plastic is melted and burned out of the mold cavity. Molten metal is poured into the molds while the molds are still superheated, thus making it possible to pour very thin wall sections. A metal pattern die is used to produce the wax or plastic expendable patterns. Investment molding produces casting of superior surface finish, dimensional accuracy, and without parting fins or seams. This process is expensive and is used to produce parts that would be very difficult or impossible to machine, such as turbine engine parts, particularly high-temperature, heat-resistant alloy applications such as turbine blades.
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K kink. (1) For rolled products, an abrupt bend or deviation from flat that is caused by localized bending during handling. (2) For extrusions, an abrupt deviation from straightness. A kink can be caused by handling. knife mark. See mark, knife. knock-out mark. See mark, knock-out.
L lacquer. Occasionally used to describe oil stain. See also stain, oil. lamination. An internal crack or separation aligned parallel to the direction of major metal flow and, in the case of plate, sheet, or foil, parallel to the rolled surfaces. In extrusions, it can be caused by contaminants that feed into the metal flow before it reaches the die opening or cracked billets. See also back-end condition. lap. See fold. lateral bow. See bow, lateral. layout sample. A prototype forging or a cast used to determine conformance to designed dimensions. leveler chatter. See mark, chatter (roll or leveler). leveler mark. See dent, repeating. leveler streak. See streak, leveler. leveling. The mechanical flattening of plate, sheet, or foil. leveling, roller. Leveling carried out by bending. leveling, stretcher. Leveling carried out by uniaxial tension. leveling, tension. Leveling continuously carried out by uniaxial stretching, usually with the assistance of bending. leveling, thermal. Leveling carried out at an elevated temperature under an applied load normal to the surface to be flattened. line, flow. The line pattern that shows the direction of flow on the surface. line, looper. Closely spaced symmetrical lines on the surface of metal that has undergone nonuniform deformation, usually in a drawing operation. line, Lueders. Elongated surface markings or depressions appearing in patterns caused by localized plastic deformation that results from nonuniform yielding. liner. The slab of coating metal that is placed on the core alloy and is subsequently rolled down to clad sheet as composite. line, weld. See seam, extrusion. liquated edge. See edge, liquated. liquation. The bleeding of the low-melting constituents through the solidified ingot surface.
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lock. A condition in which the parting line of a forging is not all in one plane. log. See extrusion log. longitudinal bow. See bow, longitudinal. longitudinal direction. The direction of major metal flow in a working operation. long transverse direction. For plate, sheet, and forgings, the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction that is also at right angles to the thickness of the product. See also longitudinal direction. looper line. See line, looper. loose wrap. See wrap, loose. lost foam casting. The casting process, also known as full-mold, polycast, cavity’s molding, evaporative-pattern, or expendable-pattern casting, is one in which a polystyrene pattern is vaporized by molten metal during the metal pour and is thereby lost. lot, heat treat. Material of the same mill form, alloy, temper, section, and size traceable to one heat treat furnace load (or extrusion charge or billet in the case of press heat treated extrusions) or, if heat treated in a continuous furnace, charged consecutively during an 8 h period. lot, inspection. (1) For non-heat-treated tempers, an identifiable quantity of material of the same mill form, alloy, temper, section, and size submitted for inspection at one time. (2) For heat treated tempers, an identifiable quantity of material of the same mill form, alloy, temper, section, and size traceable to a heat treat lot or lots and submitted for inspection at one time. (For sheet and plate, all material of the same thickness is considered to be of the same size.) low-pressure casting process. The term low-pressure permanent molding (LPPM) is a casting process in which air pressure is introduced into a molten metal holding furnace to force molten metal (usually aluminum alloys) up a central tube into the metal mold cavity. Pressure is maintained on the heat until the metal in the mold solidifies as a casting. In a low-pressure (sand mold) casting process, the same basic approach is used to force molten metal up a tube into the cavity of a sand mold. Once filled, an automatic mechanism seals the mold immediately, and the mold is quickly removed from the filling tube connection and turned over before the metal solidifies. See also vacuum casting process. lube, high. Lubricant limit exceeds the maximum agreed-upon limit measured in weight per unit area. lube, low. Failure of the lubricant to meet the agreed-upon minimum limit measured in weight per unit area. Lueders line. See line, Lueders.
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M mark. Damage in the surface of the product whose name is often described by source. mark, arbor. Surface damage in the vicinity of a coil inside diameter caused by contact with a roughened, damaged, or noncircular arbor. mark, bearing. A depression in the extruded surface caused by a change in bearing length in the extrusion die. mark, bite. A line that is generally perpendicular to the rolling direction. mark, bristle. Raised surface approximately 25 mm (1 in.) long, crimped wire shaped, and oriented in any direction. mark, carbon. Gray or black surface marking caused by contact with carbon run-out blocks. mark, chatter (roll or leveler). Numerous intermittent lines or grooves that are usually full width and perpendicular to the rolling or extrusion direction. mark, drag. See rub, tool. mark, edge follower. Faint intermittent marks at the edge of a coldrolled product, which are usually perpendicular to the rolling direction. This mark is caused by action of devices designed to rewind coils without weave. mark, handling. (1) For rolled products, an area of broken surface that is introduced after processing. The mark usually has no relationship to the rolling direction. (2) For extrusions, damage that can be imparted to the surface during handling operations. mark, heat treat contact. Brownish, iridescent, irregularly shaped stain with a slight abrasion located somewhere within the boundary of the stain. It is a result of metal-to-metal contact during the quenching of solution heat treated flat sheet or plate. mark, inclusion. Appearance of surface where actual inclusion or the void it left is observed. See also inclusion, stringer. mark, knife. A continuous scratch (which also may be creased) near a slit edge, caused by sheet contacting the slitter knife. mark, knock-out. A small solid protrusion or circular fin on a forging or a casting, resulting from the depression of a knock-out pin under pressure or inflow of metal between the knock-out pin and the die or mold. mark, leveler chatter. See mark, chatter (roll or leveler). mark, metal-on-roll. See dent, repeating. mark, mike. Narrow continuous line near the rolled edge caused by a contacting micrometer. mark, pinch. See crease. mark, roll. (1) For rolled products, a small repeating raised or depressed area caused by the opposite condition on a roll. The repeat distance is a function of the offending roll diameter. (2) For extrusions, a
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longitudinal groove or indentation caused by pressure from contour rolls as a profile (shape) passes through them for dimensional correction. mark, roll bruise. A greatly enlarged roll mark with a very shallow height or depth. See also mark, roll. mark, roll skid. A full-width line perpendicular to the rolling direction and repeating as a function of a work roll diameter. mark, rub. A large number of very fine scratches or abrasions. A rub mark can occur by metal-to-metal contact, movement in handling, and movement in transit. mark, snap. A bandlike pattern around the full perimeter of an extruded section and perpendicular to its length. A snap mark can occur whenever there is an abrupt change in the extrusion process. See also mark, stop. mark, stop. A bandlike pattern around the full perimeter of an extruded section and perpendicular to its length. A stop mark occurs whenever the extrusion process is suspended. See also mark, snap. mark, stretcher jaw. A cross-hatched appearance left by jaws at the end(s) of metal that has been stretched. These marks are seen if insufficient metal has been removed after the stretching operation. mark, tab. See buckle, arbor. mark, tail. See mark, roll bruise. mark, take-up. See scratch, tension. mark, traffic. Abrasion that results from relative movement between contacting metal surfaces during handling and transit. A dark color from the abrasively produced aluminum oxide is usually observed. A mirror image of a traffic mark is observed on the adjacent contacting surface. mark, whip. A surface abrasion that is generally diagonal to the rolling direction. It is caused by a fluttering action of the metal as it enters the rolling mill. master alloy. See hardener. mean diameter. The average of two measurements of the diameter at right angles to each other. mechanical properties. Those properties of a material that are associated with elastic and inelastic reaction when force is applied, or that involve the relationship between stress and strain; for example, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, endurance limit. These properties often are incorrectly referred to as physical properties. microporosity. Extremely fine porosity in castings caused by shrinkage or gas evolution, apparent on radiographic film as mottling. mike mark. See mark, mike. minimum residual stress (MRS). The term applied to products, usually flat rolled, that have been processed to minimize internal stress of the kind that causes distortion when material is disproportionately re-
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moved from one of the two surfaces through mechanical or chemical means. mismatch. Error in register between two halves of a forging by opposing die halves not being in perfect alignment. modulus of elasticity. The ratio of stress to corresponding strain throughout the range where they are proportional. As there are three kinds of stresses, so there are three kinds of moduli of elasticity for any material modulus in tension, in compression, and in shear. mold. A refractory container into which molten metal is poured to produce a specific cast shape. mold cavity. The space in a mold that is filled with liquid metal to form the casting upon solidification. The channels through which liquid metal enters the mold cavity and reservoirs for liquid metal are not considered part of the mold cavity proper. mottling, pressure. Nonuniform surface appearance resulting from uneven pressure distribution between adjacent layers of the product. mullen test. Measurement of bursting strength of foil in pounds per square inch. Testing machine applies increasing pressure to 645 mm2 (1 in.2) of the sample until it ruptures.
N natural aging. See aging. nick. Rolled products, see scratch; extrusions, see mark, handling. nondestructive testing. Testing or inspection procedure that does not destroy the product being inspected. nonfill. Failure of metal to fill a forging die impression. non-heat-treatable alloy. An alloy that can be strengthened only by cold work. notch, double shear. An abrupt deviation from straight on a sheared edge. This offset may occur if the flat sheet or plate product is longer than the blade for the final shearing operation.
O off gage. Deviation of thickness or diameter of a solid product, or wall thickness of a tubular product, from the standard or specified dimensional tolerances. offset. Yield strength by the offset method is computed from a load-strain curve obtained by means of an extensometer. A straight line is drawn parallel to the initial straight line portion of the load-strain curve and at a distance to the right corresponding to 0.2% offset (0.002 mm per mm, or 0.002 in. per in., of gage length). The load reached at the point
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where this straight line intersects the curve divided by the original cross-sectional area (mm2, or in.2) of the tension test specimen is the yield strength. oil stain. See stain, oil. orange peel. Surface roughening on formed products that occurs when large grains in the metal are present. oscillation. Uneven wrap in coiling and lateral travel during winding. Improper alignment of rolls over which the metal passes before rewinding and insufficient rewind tension are typical causes. See also telescoping. out-of-register. An embossed pattern distortion due to misalignment of the male and female embossing rolls. ovalness. See quality. oxide discoloration. See stain, heat treat.
P pack rolling. The simultaneous rolling of two or more thicknesses of foil. parent coil. A coil that has been processed to final temper as a single unit. The parent coil may subsequently be cut into two or more smaller coils or into individual sheets or plates to provide the required width and length. parent plate. A plate that has been processed to final temper as a single unit. The parent plate may subsequently be cut into two or more smaller plates to provide the required width and length. partial annealing. See annealing, partial. parting line. A condition unique to stepped extrusions where more than one cross section exists in the same extruded shape. A stepped shape uses a split die for the minor, or small, cross section and, after its removal, another die behind it for the major configuration. Slightly raised fins can appear on that portion of the shape where the two dies meet. See also profile, stepped extruded. pattern. A wood, metal, plastic, or wax replica of a casting that is used to form the cavity in a mold into which molten metal is poured to form a cast part. A pattern has the same basic features as the part to be cast, except that it is made proportionately larger to compensate for shrinkage due to the contraction of the metal during cooling and solidifying. patterned sheet. See embossing. permanent mold casting. A casting process that uses a long-life mold, usually metal, into which molten metal is poured by gravity. Metals cast are usually aluminum alloys, although a few producers pour iron into water-cooled metal dies.
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physical properties. The properties, other than mechanical properties, that pertain to the physics of a material; for example, density, electrical conductivity, heat conductivity, thermal expansion. pickoff. The transfer of portions of the coating from one surface of the sheet to an adjacent surface due to poor adhesion of the coating. pickup. Small particles of oxide adhering to the surface of a product at irregular intervals. pickup, repeating. See dent, repeating. pickup, roll. Small particles of aluminum and aluminum oxide generated in the roll bite, which subsequently transfer to the rolled product. It may be distributed uniformly and/ or in streaks. See also streak, coating. pinch mark. See crease. pinhole. (1) Minute hole in foil. (2) A small-sized void in the coating of a sheet or foil product. A typical cause is solvent popping. pipe. Tube in standardized combinations of outside diameter and wall thickness, commonly designated by nominal pipe sizes and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) schedule numbers. pipe, drawn. Pipe brought to the final dimensions by drawing through a die. pipe, extruded. Pipe formed by hot extruding. pipe, seamless. Extruded or drawn pipe that does not contain any line junctures resulting from the method of manufacture. pipe, structural. Pipe commonly used for structural purposes. piping. See back-end condition. pit. A depression in the rolled surface that usually is not visible from the opposite side. pitting. See corrosion. plate. A rolled product that is rectangular in cross section and with thickness over 6.3 mm (equal to or greater than 0.25 in.) with sheared or sawed edges. plate, alclad. Composite plate composed of an aluminum alloy core having on both surfaces (if on one side only, alclad one-side plate) a metallurgically bonded aluminum or aluminum alloy coating that is anodic to the core, thus electrolytically protecting the core against corrosion. plate circle. Circle cut from plate. pop, solvent. Blister and/or void in the coating resulting from trapped solvents released during curing process. porosity. Holes or nonspecific cavities in a casting from insufficient feed metal during solidification, or numerous other causes. precipitation hardening. See aging. precipitation heat treating. See aging. preheating. A high-temperature soaking treatment to provide a desired metallurgical structure. Homogenizing is a form of preheating.
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pressure mottling. See mottling, pressure. profile. A wrought product that is long in relation to its cross-sectional dimensions, which is of a form other than that of sheet, plate, rod, bar, tube, wire, or foil. profile, class 1 hollow extruded. A hollow extruded profile, the void of which is round and 25 mm (1 in.) or more in diameter and whose weight is equally distributed on opposite sides of two or more equally spaced axes. profile, class 2 hollow extruded. Any hollow extruded profile other than class 1, which does not exceed a 125 mm (5 in.) diameter circumscribing circle and has a single void of not less than 10 mm (0.375 in.) diameter or 70 mm2 (0.110 in.2) area. profile, class 3 hollow extruded. Any hollow extruded profile other than class 1 or class 2. profile, cold-finished. A profile brought to final dimensions by cold working to obtain improved surface finish and dimensional tolerances. profile, cold-finished extruded. A profile produced by cold finishing an extruded profile. profile, cold-finished rolled. A profile produced by cold finishing a rolled profile. profile, drawn. A profile brought to final dimensions by drawing through a die. profile, extruded. A profile produced by hot extruding. profile, flute hollow. A hollow profile having plain inside surfaces and outside surfaces that comprise regular, longitudinal, concave corrugations with sharp cusps between corrugations. profile, helical extruded. An extruded profile twisted along its length. profile, hollow. A profile in which any part of its cross section completely encloses a void. profile, lip hollow. A hollow profile of generally circular cross section and nominally uniform wall thickness with one hollow or solid protuberance or lip parallel to the longitudinal axis; used principally for heat-exchange purposes. profile, pinion hollow. A hollow profile with regularly spaced, longitudinal serrations outside, and round inside, used primarily for making small gears. profile, rolled. A profile produced by hot rolling. profile, semihollow. A profile in which any part of its cross section is a partially enclosed void the area of which is substantially greater than the square of the width of the gap. The ratio of the area of the void to the square of the gap is dependent on the class of semihollow profile, the alloy, and the gap width. profile, solid. A profile other than hollow or semihollow. profile, stepped extruded. An extruded profile with a cross section that changes abruptly in area at intervals along its length.
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profile, streamline hollow. A hollow profile with a cross section of tear-drop shape. profile, structural. A profile in certain standard alloys, tempers, sizes, and sections, such as angles, channels, H sections, I-beams, tees, and zees, commonly used for structural purposes. For channels and I-beams, there are two standards: (1) Aluminum Association Standard and (2) American Standard. profile, tapered extruded. An extruded profile with a cross section that changes continuously in area along its length or a specified portion thereof.
Q quality. Deviation from a circular periphery, usually expressed as the total difference found at any one cross section between the individual maximum and minimum diameters, which usually occur at or about 90° to each other. Since quality is the difference between extreme diameters, it is not expressed as plus or minus. quarter buckle. See buckle, quarter. quenching. Controlled rapid cooling of a metal from an elevated temperature by contact with a liquid, a gas, or a solid. quenching crack. Fracture caused by thermal stresses induced during rapid cooling or quenching or by stresses caused by delayed transformation after the object has been fully quenched.
R RCS. Rigid Container Sheet. radiographic inspection. Examination of the soundness of a casting by radiography. radiography. The use of radiant energy in the form of x-rays or gamma rays for nondestructive examination of opaque objects, such as castings, to produce graphic records that indicate the comparative soundness of the object being tested. razor streak. See inclusion, stringer. rear-end condition. See back- end condition. redraw rod. This term is not recommended. The term drawing stock is preferred. refined aluminum. Aluminum of very high purity (99.950% or higher) obtained by special metallurgical treatments. reflector sheet. Sheet suitable for the manufacture of reflectors. reheating. Heating metal again to hot-working temperature. In general, no structural changes are intended.
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reoil. Oil put on the sheet after cleaning and before coiling for shipment to prevent water stain. reroll stock. A semifinished rolled product of rectangular cross section in coiled form suitable for further rolling. Examples: foil stock and sheet stock. rib. An elongated projection on a shape, forging, or casting to provide stiffening. riser. Sometimes referred to as a head or feeder. (1) A chamber that forms the reservoir for feed metal necessary to compensate for losses caused by shrinkage as the casting solidifies. (2) The pattern part that forms it and the metal solidified in it. riser gating. Gating system in which molten metal from the sprue enters a riser close to the mold cavity and then flows into the mold cavity. rivet. See wire, cold heading. rod. A solid wrought product that is long in relation to its circular cross section, which is not less than 10 mm (0.375 in.) diameter. rod, alclad. Rod having on its surface a metallurgically bonded aluminum or aluminum alloy coating that is anodic to the core alloy to which it is bonded, thus electrolytically protecting the core alloy against corrosion. rod, cold-finished. Rod brought to final dimensions by cold working to obtain improved surface finish and dimensional tolerances. rod, cold-finished extruded. Rod produced by cold working extruded rod. rod, cold-finished rolled. Rod produced by cold working rolled rod. rod, cold-heading. Rod of a quality suitable for use in the manufacture of cold-headed products such as rivets and bolts. rod, extruded. Rod produced by hot extruding. rod, rivet. See rod, cold-heading. rod, rolled. Rod produced by hot rolling. roll chatter. See mark, chatter (roll or leveler). roll coating. See streak, coating. rolled-in metal. An extraneous chip or particle of metal rolled into the surface of the product. rolled-in scratch. See scratch, rolled-in. rolled-over edge. See edge, liquated. roll grind. The uniform ground finish on the work rolls that is imparted to the sheet or plate during rolling. rolling slab. A rectangular semifinished product, produced by hot rolling fabricating ingot and suitable for further rolling. roll mark. See mark, roll. roll pickup. See pickup, roll. rolled ring. See forging, rolled ring.
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roofing sheet. Coiled or flat sheet in specific tempers, widths, and thicknesses suitable for the manufacture of corrugated or V-crimp roofing. roping. A ropelike appearance in the rolling direction after the metal has undergone severe deformation. roundness. This term is not recommended. The term quality is preferred. rub mark. See mark, rub. rub, tool. A surface area showing a scratch or abrasion resulting from contact of the hot extrusion with the press equipment or tooling or, in the case of multihole dies, with other sections as they exit the press. runner. That portion of the gate assembly connecting the downgate or sprue with the casting. runner system. Also called gating; the set of channels in a mold through which molten metal travels to the mold cavity; includes sprues, runners, gates, and risers.
S sample. A part, portion, or piece taken for purposes of inspection or test as representative of the whole. sand castings. Metal castings produced in sand molds. sand mold. A mold is a form that contains the cavity into which molten metal is poured. It usually consists of two mold halves, separately made, and mated to form the mold cavity. saw-plate bar. See bar, saw-plate. scalping. Mechanical removal of the surface layer from a fabricating ingot or semifinished wrought product so that surface imperfections will not be worked into the finished product. scratch. (1) For rolled products, a sharp indentation in the surface usually caused by a machine or during handling. (2) For extrusions, a synonym for handling mark. See also mark, handling. scratch, drawn-in. A scratch occurring during the fabricating process and subsequently drawn over, making it relatively smooth to the touch. scratch, friction. A scratch caused by relative motion between two contacting surfaces. scratch, handling. A more severe form of rub mark. See also mark, rub. scratch, machine. An indentation that is straight, is in the rolling direction, and is caused by contact with a sharp projection on equipment. scratch, oscillation. Minor indentations at an angle to the rolling direction that result from coil oscillation during unwinding or rewinding.
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scratch, oven. A scratch caused by moving contact of coating against a nonmoving object in an oven. scratch, rolled-in. A scratch that is subsequently rolled. It will then appear as a grayish white ladder (distinct transverse lines within the longitudinal indentation). scratch, slippage. See scratch, tension. scratch, tension. A short longitudinal indentation parallel to the rolling direction. seam defect. An unbonded fold or lap on the surface of the metal, which appears as a crack, usually the result of a defect in working that has not bonded shut. seam, extrusion. The junction line of metal that has passed through a hollow die, separated and rejoined at the exit point. Seams are present in all extruded hollows produced from the direct extrusion process and in many cases are not visible. See also weld, incomplete. seamless. A hollow product that does not contain any line junctures resulting from method of manufacture. section number. The number assigned to an extruded or drawn profile (shape) for identification and cataloging purposes, usually the same number assigned for the same purpose to the die from which the profile (shape) is made. serpentine weave. See snaking. shape. This term is no longer recommended. The term profile is preferred. shear strength. The maximum stress that a material is capable of sustaining in shear. In practice, shear strength is considered to be the maximum average stress computed by dividing the ultimate load in the plane of shear by the original area subject to shear. Shear strength usually is determined by inserting a cylindrical specimen through round holes in three hardened steel blocks, the center of which is pulled (or pushed) between the other two so as to shear the specimen on two planes. The maximum load divided by the combined cross-sectional area of the two planes is the shear strength. sheet. A rolled product that is rectangular in cross section with thickness over 0.15 through 6.3 mm (less than 0.250 in. but not less than 0.006 in.) and with slit, sheared, or sawed edges. sheet, alclad. Composite sheet composed of an aluminum alloy core having on both surfaces (if one side only, alclad one-side sheet) a metallurgically bonded aluminum or aluminum alloy coating that is anodic to the core, thus electrolytically protecting the core against corrosion. sheet, anodizing. Sheet with metallurgical characteristics and surface quality suitable for the development of protective and decorative films by anodic oxidation processes.
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sheet, clad. Composite sheet having on both surfaces (if on one side only, clad one-side sheet) a metallurgically bonded metal coating, the composition of which may or may not be the same as that of the core. sheet, coiled. Sheet in coils with slit edges. sheet, coiled circles. Circles cut from coiled sheet. sheet, coiled cut to length. Sheet cut to specified length from coils and which has a lesser degree of flatness than flat sheet. sheet, flat. Sheet with sheared, slit, or sawed edges, which has been flattened or leveled. sheet, flat circles. Circles cut from flat sheet. sheet, mill finish (MF). Sheet having a nonuniform finish that may vary from sheet to sheet and within a sheet and may not be entirely free from stains or oil. sheet, one-side bright mill finish (1SBMF). Sheet having a moderate degree of brightness on one side and a mill finish on the other. sheet, painted. Sheet, one or both sides of which has a factory-applied paint coating of controlled thickness. sheet, standard one-side bright finish (S1SBF). Sheet having a uniform bright finish on one side and a mill finish on the other. sheet, standard two sides bright finish (S2SBF). Sheet having a uniform bright finish on both sides. sheet stock. See reroll stock. shell molding. Shell molds are made from a mixture of sand and thermosetting resin binder. shell mold process. A process in which resin-coated sand is laid on a heated pattern, bonding it together to form a hardened shell about 10 to 20 mm (0.40 to 0.80 in.) thick. Two mating shells are glued together to make a precision mold to produce a casting with excellent dimensional accuracy and a smooth surface texture. short transverse direction. For plate, sheet, and forgings, the direction through the thickness perpendicular to both longitudinal and long transverse directions. shrinkage. Contraction that occurs when metal cools from the casting or hot-working temperature. side crack. See edge, broken (cracked). side set. A difference in thickness between the two edges of plate, sheet, or foil. skip. An area of uncoated sheet frequently caused by equipment malfunction. slippage scratch. See scratch, tension. slitter hair. See hair, slitter. sliver. Thin fragment of aluminum that is part of the material but only partially attached. Surface damage or residual liquation that is subsequently rolled are typical causes. slug. A metal blank for forging or impacting.
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smudge. A dark film of debris, sometimes covering large areas, deposited on the sheet during rolling. smut. See smudge. snaking. A series of reversing lateral bows in coil products. This condition is caused by a weaving action during an unwinding or rewinding operation. solution heat treating. Heating an alloy at a suitable temperature for sufficient time to allow soluble constituents to enter into solid solution where they are retained in a supersaturated state after quenching. specimen. That portion of a sample taken for evaluation of some specific characteristic or property. speed crack. See tear, speed. speed tear. See tear, speed. splice. The end joint uniting two webs. spot, lube. A nonuniform extraneous deposit of lube on the coated sheet. sprue. The vertical portion of the gating system through which molten metal first enters the mold. squareness. Characteristic of having adjacent sides or planes meeting at 90°. squeeze casting. Also known as liquid metal forging or forge casting, it is a casting process by which molten metal (ferrous or nonferrous) solidifies under pressure within closed dies positioned between the plates of a hydraulic press. stabilizing. A low-temperature thermal treatment designed to prevent age softening in certain strain-hardened alloys containing magnesium. stain, heat treat. A discoloration due to nonuniform oxidation of the metal surface during heat treatment. stain, oil. Surface discoloration that may vary from dark brown to white and is produced during thermal treatment by incomplete evaporation and/or oxidation of lubricants on the surface. stain, saw lubricant. A yellow to brown area of surface discoloration at the ends of the extruded length. It is the residue of certain types of saw lubricants if they are not removed from the metal prior to the thermal treatment. stain, water. See corrosion, water stain. starvation. Nonuniform coating application that results in the absence of coating in certain areas. sticking. Adherence of foil surfaces sufficient to interfere with the normal ease of unwinding. straightness. The absence of divergence from a right (straight) line in the direction of measurement. strain. A measure of the change in size or shape of a body under stress, referred to its original size or shape. Tensile or compressive strain is the change, due to force, per unit of length in an original linear dimension in the direction of the applied force.
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strain hardening. Modification of a metal structure by cold working resulting in an increase in strength and hardness with loss of ductility. streak, bearing. A longitudinal discoloration that can occur where there are large changes in wall thickness as a result of uneven cooling. These streaks usually appear lighter than the surrounding metal. streak, bright. A bright superficial band or elongated mark that produces a nonuniform surface appearance. streak, buff. A dull, continuous streak caused by smudge buildup on a buff used at shearing or other operations. streak burnish. A bright region on the sheet caused by excessive roll surface wear. streak, coating. A banded condition caused by nonuniform adherence of roll coating to a work roll. It can be created during hot and/or cold rolling. If generated in the hot rolling process, it also is called hot mill pickup. streak, cold. See streak, heat. streak, diffusion. Surface discoloration that may vary from gray to brown and found only on alclad products. streak, dirt. Surface discoloration that may vary from gray to black, is parallel to the direction of rolling, and contains rolled-in foreign debris. It is usually extraneous material from an overhead location that drops onto the rolling surface and is shallow enough to be removed by etching or buffing. streak, grease. A narrow discontinuous streak caused by rolling over an area containing grossly excessive lubricant drippage. streak, grinding. A streak with a helical pattern appearance transferred to a rolled product from a work roll. streak, heat. Milky colored band(s) parallel to the rolling direction that vary in both width and exact location along the length. streak, herringbone. Elongated alternately bright and dull chevron markings. streak, leveler. A streak on the sheet surface in the rolling direction caused by transfer from the leveler rolls. streak, mill buff. See streak, roll. streak, pickup. See streak, coating. streak, roll. A nonuniform surface appearance parallel to the rolling direction. streak (stripe). A superficial band or elongated mark that produces a nonuniform surface appearance. A streak often is described by source. streak, structural. A nonuniform appearance on an etched or anodized surface caused by heterogeneities (variabilities) remaining in the metal from the casting, thermal processes, or hot-working stages of fabrication.
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stress. Force per unit of area. Stress is normally calculated on the basis of the original cross-sectional dimensions. The three kinds of stresses are tensile, compressive, and shear. stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). See corrosion, stress-cracking. stress relieving. The reduction of the effects of internal residual stresses by thermal or mechanical means. stretcher strain. See line, Lueders. striation. Longitudinal nonuniform coating thickness caused by uneven application of the liquid coating. strip. This term is not recommended. The term sheet is preferred. structural streak. See streak, structural. suck-in. A defect caused when one face of a forging is sucked in to fill a projection on the opposite side. surface tear. Minute surface cracks on rolled products that can be caused by insufficient ingot scalping.
T tail mark. See mark, roll bruise. tear, speed. A series of surface cracks perpendicular to the extruding direction. Speed tearing normally occurs in corner radii or extremities of a section and is caused by localized high temperature. telescoping. Lateral stacking, primarily in one direction, of wraps in a coil so that the edges of the coil are conical rather than flat. Improper alignment of rolls over which the metal passes before rewinding is a typical cause. See also oscillation. temper. The condition produced by either mechanical or thermal treatment, or both, and characterized by a certain structure and mechanical properties. tensile strength. In tensile testing, the ratio of maximum load to original cross-sectional area. Also called ultimate strength. tension scratch. See scratch, tension. tolerance. Allowable deviation from a nominal or specified dimension. tool. A term usually referring to the dies, mandrels, and so on used in the production of extruded or drawn shapes or tube. tooling pad. See chucking lug. tooling plate. A cast or rolled product of rectangular cross section over 6.3 mm (0.250 in.) or greater in thickness and with edges either as-cast, sheared, or sawed, with internal stress levels controlled to achieve maximum stability for machining purposes in tool and jig applications. torn surface. A deep longitudinal rub mark resulting from abrasion by extrusion or drawing tools. traffic mark. Abrasion that results from relative movement between contacting metal surfaces during handling and transit. A dark color
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from the abrasively produced aluminum oxide usually is observed. A mirror image of a traffic mark is observed on the adjacent contacting surface. transverse bow. See bow, transverse. transverse direction. A direction perpendicular to the direction of working. tread plate. Sheet or plate having a raised figured pattern on one surface to provide improved traction. trim inclusion. Edge trimming accidentally wound into a roll of foil. tube. A hollow wrought product that is long in relation to its cross section, which is symmetrical and is round, a regular hexagon or octagon, elliptical, or square or rectangular with sharp or rounded corners, and that has uniform wall thickness except as affected by corner radii. tube, alclad. Composite tube composed of an aluminum alloy core having on either the inside or outside surface a metallurgically bonded aluminum or aluminum alloy coating that is anodic to the core, thus electrolytically protecting the core against corrosion. tube, arc-welded. Tube made from sheet or plate butt welded by either gas tungsten or gas metal arc welding method, with or without the use of filler metal. tube bloom. This term is not recommended. The term tube stock is preferred. tube, brazed. A tube produced by forming and seam brazing sheet. tube, butt-welded. A welded tube, the seam of which is formed by positioning one edge of the sheet against the other for welding. tube, drawn. A tube brought to final dimensions by cold drawing through a die. (Note: This product may be produced from either seamless or nonseamless extruded stock or from welded stock.) tube, embossed. A tube, the outside surface of which has been roll embossed with a design in relief regularly repeated in a longitudinal direction. tube, extruded. A tube formed by hot extruding. (Note: This product may be either seamless or nonseamless.) tube, finned. Tube that has integral fins or projections protruding from its outside surface. tube, fluted. A tube of nominally uniform wall thickness having regular, longitudinal, concave corrugations with sharp cusps between corrugations. tube, heat-exchanger. A tube for use in apparatus in which fluid inside the tube will be heated or cooled by fluid outside the tube. The term usually is not applied to coiled tube or to tubes for use in refrigerators or radiators. tube, helical-welded. A welded tube produced by winding the sheet to form a closed helix and joining the edges of the seam by welding.
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tube, lap-welded. A welded tube, the seam of which is formed by longitudinally lapping the edges of the sheet for welding. tube, lock-seam. A tube produced by forming and mechanically lock seaming sheet. tube, open-seam. A shape normally produced from sheet of nominally uniform wall thickness and approximately tubular form but having a longitudinal unjointed seam or gap of width not greater than 25% of the outside diameter or greatest overall dimension. Also referred to as butt-seam tube. tube, redraw. This term is not recommended. The term tube stock is preferred. tube, seamless. A tube that does not contain any fine junctures (metallurgical welds) resulting from the method of manufacture. (Note: This product may be produced by die and mandrel or by hot piercer processes.) tube, sized. A tube that, after extrusion, has been cold drawn a slight amount to minimize quality. tube, stepped drawn. A drawn tube whose cross section changes abruptly in area at intervals along its length. tube stock. A semifinished tube suitable for the production of drawn tube. tube, structural. Tube commonly used for structural purposes. tube, welded. A tube produced by forming and seam welding sheet longitudinally. tubing. This term is not recommended. The term tube is preferred. tubing, electrical metallic. A tube having certain standardized length and combinations of outside diameter and wall thickness thinner than that of rigid conduit, commonly designated by nominal electrical trade sizes, for use with compression-type fittings as a protection for electrical wiring. tubular conductor. A tubular product suitable for use as an electric conductor. twist. (1) For rolled products, a winding departure from flatness. (2) For extrusions, a winding departure from straightness. two-tone. A sharp color demarcation in the appearance of the metal due to a difference in the work roll coating.
U ultimate tensile strength. See tensile strength.
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V vacuum casting process. A process in which a special design sand mold or a permanent (metal) mold with a bottom opening is used and a vacuum is placed on the mold; the metal is drawn into the mold through gates in the bottom of the mold. It is a foundry industry term for any casting process in which metal is melted and poured under very low atmospheric pressure. vent mark. A small protrusion on a forging resulting from the entrance of metal into a die vent hole.
W water stain. See corrosion, water stain. wavy edge. See buckle, edge. weave. See oscillation. web. (1) A single thickness of foil as it leaves the rolling mill. (2) A connecting element between ribs, flanges, or bosses on shapes and forgings. weld, incomplete. The junction line of metal that has passed through a die forming a hollow profile (shape), separated and not completely rejoined. Flare testing is a method of evaluating weld integrity. welding. Joining two or more pieces of aluminum by applying heat or pressure, or both, with or without filler metal, to produce a localized union through fusion or recrystallization across the interface. (Cold welding is a solid-state welding process in which pressure is used at room temperature to produce coalescence of metals with substantial deformation at the weld.) welding rod. A rolled, extruded, or cast round filler metal for use in joining by welding. welding wire. Wire for use as filler metal in joining by welding. weld line. See seam, extrusion. wettability test. The degree to which a metal surface may be wet to determine the absence of or the amount of residual rolling or added lubricants or deposits on the surface. whip marks. See mark, whip. whisker. See hair, slitter. wire. A solid wrought product that is long in relation to its cross section, which is square or rectangular with sharp or rounded corners or edges, or is round, hexagonal, or octagonal, and whose diameter or greatest perpendicular distance between parallel faces is up through 10 mm (less than 0.375 in.). wire, alclad. A composite wire product composed of an aluminum-alloy wire having on its surface a metallurgically bonded aluminum or
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aluminum-alloy coating that is anodic to the alloy to which it is bonded, thus electrolytically protecting the core alloy against corrosion. wire, cold-heading. Wire of quality suitable for use in the manufacture of cold-headed products such as rivets and bolts. wire, drawn. Wire brought to final dimensions by drawing through a die. wire, extruded. Wire produced by hot extruding. wire, flattened. Wire having two parallel flat surfaces and rounded edges produced by roll flattening round wire. wire, flattened and slit-flattened. Wire that has been slit to obtain square edges. wire, rivet. See wire, cold-heading. workability. The relative ease with which various alloys can be formed by rolling, extruding, forging, and so on. work hardening. See strain hardening. wrap, loose. A condition in a coil due to insufficient tension that creates a small void between adjacent wraps. wrinkle. See crease. wrought product. A product that has been subjected to mechanical working by such processes as rolling, extruding, forging, and so on.
Y yield strength. The stress at which a material exhibits a specified permanent set. The offset used for aluminum and its alloys is 0.2% of gage length. For aluminum alloys, the yield strengths in tension and compression are approximately equal.
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Subject Index A Abrasion. See Mark, traffic. Aerospace industry alloys used ...... 5, 30–31, 69, 90, 92(F), 107, 110, 117 AFS. See American Foundrymen’s Society. Age hardening, definition ......................... 187 Age softening, definition ........................... 187 Aging. See also Artificial aging; Natural aging. definition ................................................. 188 microstructures of forgings ............... 130(F) wrought alloys .......................................... 72 Airbus .................................................... 112(F) Aircraft industry, alloys used . . . 4, 90, 91(F), 94, 103–104, 105, 107, 109(F), 110(F), 112(F), 117 Alclad, definition ....................................... 188 Alligatoring. See Lamination. Alloy, definition .......................................... 188 Alloy and Temper Registration Records ............................................ 2, 39 Alloy registration process ............................ 9 Aluminum advantages .................................................. 1 applications, industrial ............................... 1 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) welded to copper ............................... 184(F) welded to steel ................................... 194(F) Aluminum alloys applications ................................................. 7 definition ..................................................... 6 experimental alloys ...................... 16, 24–25 heat treatment ..................................... 84–85 percent aluminum content .......................... 6 variations in compositions ....................... 25 Aluminum Association ................ 1, 2–3, 7–8 casting alloy designation system ............. 37 designation systems ................... 9-22(T), 37 H temper designation of wrought alloys ........................................... 61–62 Aluminum Association Alloy and Temper Designation Systems (ANSI H35.1) .......................................... 9–22(T)
Aluminum Association Technical Committee on Product Standards (TCPS) ................................... 2–3, 72–73 address for .................................................. 3 alloy registration process controlled by ........................................................ 9 Aluminum Casting Technology ............ 73, 80 Aluminum-copper alloys aerospace industry applications .... 90, 92(F) aircraft industry applications ........ 90, 91(F) automotive industry applications .. 90, 91(F) mechanical properties ......................... 89–90 properties ............................................ 89–90 railroad industry applications ....... 90, 93(F) weldability .......................................... 89, 90 Aluminum-copper casting alloys mechanical properties ................ 109–111(F) properties ................................... 109–111(F) special alloys for engine components .... 111 Aluminum-lithium alloys, aerospace industry applications ................. 90, 92(F) Aluminum-magnesium alloys automotive industry alloys ..... 96(F), 101(F) construction industry alloys ....... 96, 100(F), 102(F), 103(F) container applications ................. 96, 101(F) cryogenic applications .............................. 96 marine industry alloys ...... 96, 97(F), 98(F), 99(F), 100(F) mechanical properties ............................... 96 packaging industry alloys ........... 96, 101(F) properties ................................. 95–97, 99(F) stress-corrosion cracking .......................... 96 weldability ................................................ 96 Aluminum-magnesium casting alloys castability ........................................ 114–115 mechanical properties ............................. 113 properties ........................................ 112–115 Aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys construction industry alloys .................... 98, 100–101(F), 102(F), 103(F), 104(F), 105(F), 106(F) electrical industry alloys .......................... 99 mechanical properties ....................... 97–102 properties ............................. 97–102, 107(F) weldability ................................................ 98
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Aluminum-manganese alloys as automotive alloys ..................... 93, 94(F) beverage can application .............. 93, 95(F) brazing ...................................................... 93 chemical industry alloys .......................... 93 construction industry alloys ..................... 93 culinary industry alloys ............................ 93 for heat exchangers ....................... 93, 94(F) mechanical properties ........................ 90, 93 properties ............................................ 90, 93 soldering ................................................... 93 weldability ................................................ 93 Aluminum-silicon alloys brazing ........................................... 93, 95(F) mechanical properties ............................... 93 properties ............................................ 93–95 soldering ................................................... 93 weldability .......................... 93–95(F), 96(F) Aluminum-silicon casting alloys construction industry alloys ................... 112 for office machine housings ................... 112 marine alloys .......................................... 112 mechanical properties ............................. 112 properties ................................................ 112 Aluminum-silicon-copper casting alloys, properties ..... 111–112(F), 113(F), 114(F) Aluminum-silicon-magnesium casting alloys, properties ..... 111–112(F), 113(F), 114(F) Aluminum-silicon plus copper or magnesium alloys mechanical properties . . 111–112(F), 113(F), 114(F) weldability .............................................. 111 Aluminum Standards and Data ...... 1–2, 8–9, 11–13(T), 22, 29, 39, 73 1998 metric standard units ......................... 8 Aluminum: Technology, Applications, and Environment (D.G. Altenpohl) ..... 7, 77, 87 Aluminum-tin casting alloys mechanical properties ............................. 115 properties ................................................ 115 Aluminum-zinc alloys aircraft industry alloys .......... 103–104, 105, 109(F) mechanical properties ..................... 102–105 properties .............. 102–105, 109(F), 110(F) weldability .............................................. 103 Aluminum-zinc casting alloys mechanical properties ............................. 115 properties ................................................ 115 Alusuisse Alucoban .............................. 102(F) American Foundrymen’s Society (AFS) ...................................... 37, 73, 80
American National Standard Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum .............................................. 1 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) ............................... 1, 2, 3, 22, 73 AMS, definition .......................................... 187 Angularity, definition ................................ 188 Angulation, definition ............................... 188 Annealing cold rolled sheet ...... 123(F), 132(F), 137(F) definition ................................................. 188 hot rolled sheet .................................. 135(F) microstructure ....................... 140(F), 141(F) partial ........................................................ 40 partial, definition .................................... 188 plate ...................................... 135(F), 136(F) precipitates in microstructure ........... 124(F), 131(F), 138(F) sheet ................................................... 143(F) temper designation ................. 16-17, 18(T), 21(T), 22 Annual Book of ASTM Standards ............... 7 Anodizing ..................................................... 27 aluminum-magnesium alloys ......... 114, 115 definition ................................................. 188 Anodizing sheet. See Sheet, anodizing. ANSI. See American National Standards Institute. Arbor break. See Buckle, arbor. Arbor mark. See Mark, arbor. Artificial aging. See also Aging. ................ 84 casting alloys ............................................ 74 of extrusion, microstructure affected by ............................................... 139(F) microstructure of castings ... 164(F), 166(F), 167(F), 169(F), 170(F) microstructure of closed-die forgings ........... 128(F), 129(F), 130(F) microstructure of forgings ................. 152(F) microstructure of plates ....... 127(F), 128(F) temper designations ................ 19–20, 21(T) wrought alloys ..... 26, 27, 60, 65–68, 70–72 As-cast condition, definition ..................... 188 ASME, definition ....................................... 187 Automotive industry alloys used .. 4, 90, 91(F), 93–96(F), 98–99, 101(F), 107(F), 108(F), 112–114(F) investment casting of engines .................. 83 AWS, definition .......................................... 187
B Back-end condition (coring) .. 164(F), 180(F) definition ................................................. 188 Backup roll, definition .............................. 188
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180G)
Bar cold-finished, definition .......................... 189 cold-finished extruded, definition .......... 189 cold-finished rolled, definition ............... 189 definition ................................................. 188 extruded ............................................. 151(F) extruded, definition ................................ 189 rolled, definition ..................................... 189 saw-plate, definition ............................... 189 Base box, general, definition .................... 189 Bearing applications ..................................... 5 Belled edge. See Edge, belled. Belly, definition .......................................... 189 Beryllium as alloying element ............................. 15(T) mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Billet, definition ......................................... 189 Billet casting .......................................... 77–78 Binder, definition ....................................... 189 Bismuth as alloying element .................. 12(T), 13(T) mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Blank, definition ........................................ 189 Blast cleaning, definition .......................... 189 Bleed out. See Two-tone. Blister bond, definition ...................................... 189 coating, definition ................................... 189 core, definition ........................................ 189 definition ................................................. 189 Blistering ............................................... 124(F) Block mark. See Scratch, tension. Bloom, definition ....................................... 189 Blow hole. See also Blister. definition ................................................. 189 Bolting, wrought alloys ................................. 4 Boron, as alloying element ......... 13(T), 15(T) Boss, definition ........................................... 189 Bottom draft, definition ............................ 189 Bow definition ......................................... 189–190 lateral, definition .................................... 190 longitudinal, definition ........................... 190 transverse, definition .............................. 190 Brazing ......................................................... 27 aluminum-manganese alloys .................... 93 aluminum-silicon alloys ................ 93, 95(F) commercially pure aluminum .................. 87 definition ................................................. 190 dip ...................................................... 180(F) of joints, microstructures .......... 162–163(F) microstructure of sheet ........ 162(F), 163(F) wrought alloys ............................................ 4 Brazing rod, definition .............................. 190
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Brazing sheet ........................................ 163(F) definition ................................................. 190 Brazing wire, definition ............................ 190 Bright sheet. See Sheet, (1SBMF), (S1SBF), and (S2SBF). Brinell hardness casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) wrought alloys ............................... 40–49(T) Bristle mark. See Mark, bristle. Broken edge. See Edge, broken. Broken eie, definition ................................ 190 Broken matte finish, definition ................ 190 Broken surface. See Crazing. Bruise. See Mark, roll bruise. Buckle arbor, definition ...................................... 190 center, definition ..................................... 190 definition ................................................. 190 edge, definition ....................................... 190 oil can. See Buckle, trapped. quarter, definition ................................... 190 trapped, definition .................................. 190 Buffing, definition ...................................... 190 Buff streak. See Streak. Burnishing. See Two-tone. Burnish streak. See Streak, burnish. Burr, definition .......................................... 191 Bursting strength. See also Mullen test. definition ................................................. 191 Bus bar ................................................... 88(F) definition ................................................. 191 Butt-seam tube. See Tube, open-seam.
C Cadmium mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Camber. See Bow, lateral. Carbon mark. See Mark, carbon. Cast aluminum alloy, definition .................. 6 Casting alloys advantages ........................................... 34(T) alloy group ............................................... 14 alloying element in greatest mean percentage ......................................... 14 alloying elements ............... 14(T), 15–16(T) applications for alloys and tempers ............................... 108–115(F) artificial aging ........................................... 74 composition ........................ 14(T), 15–16(T) corrosion .............................................. 34(T) cracking ............................................... 34(T) designation system ................. 11, 13–16(T), 32–37(T) elongations .................................................. 8
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Casting alloys (continued) family designated ............................... 32–33 fatigue ............................................. 108, 110 finishing ............................................... 34(T) fluidity ................................................. 34(T) joining .................................................. 34(T) limitations ............................................ 34(T) mechanical properties ................... 49–57(T) microstructures .......................... 164–180(F) minimum aluminum percentage .............. 14 natural aging ............................................. 74 product form ............................................. 14 properties .................................................... 5 purity ......................................................... 14 solution heat treatment ..................... 34, 74 strengthening mechanisms ................. 33–34 temper designations ............................ 73–75 temper subdivisions ............................ 74–75 tightness ............................................... 34(T) unit conversion ........................................... 8 UNS alloy designation system ................. 37 variations in designations ......................... 35 weldments .......................................... 181(F) Casting (noun), definition ......................... 191 Casting processes .................................. 80–84 Casting strains, definition ........................ 191 Casting (verb). See also specific casting processes. casting alloys .............................................. 5 definition ................................................. 191 processes ................................ 77–78, 80–84 Casting yield, definition ............................ 191 Cast parts .............................................. 80–84 Cavity halves or parts ............................... 83 Center, definition ....................................... 191 Center buckle. See Buckle. Centrifugal casting ..................................... 81 definition ................................................. 191 Chafing. See Mark, traffic. Chatter mark. See Mark, chatter. Chemical industry, alloys used .......... 93, 118 Chill, definition .......................................... 191 Chip mark. See Dent, repeating. Chop, definition ......................................... 191 Chromium as alloying element ...... 12–13(T), 15–16(T) mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Chucking lug, definition ........................... 191 Cinching. See Scratch, tension. Circle, definition ........................................ 192 Cladding aluminum-copper alloys ................ 89, 91(F) aluminum-silicon alloys as material ........ 95 aluminum-zinc alloys ............................. 104
microstructure of sheet ....... 144(F), 151(F), 152(F), 153(F), 154(F) microstructure of sheet, heat treated ........................................ 126(F) Clad sheet. See Sheet, clad. Cleaning, definition ................................... 192 Coating conversion, definition ............................. 192 definition ................................................. 192 high or low, definition ............................ 192 Coating blister. See Blister, coating. Coating buildup, definition ...................... 192 Coating drip, definition ............................ 192 Coating oven trash. See Dirt. Coating streak. See Streak, coating. Cobalt mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Cobble, definition ...................................... 192 Coil curvature. See Coil set. Coiled sheet. See Sheet, coiled. Coil orientation clockwise coil, definition ....................... 192 counterclockwise (anticlockwise) coil, definition ......................................... 192 Coil set definition ................................................. 192 reversed, definition ................................. 192 Coil set differential, definition ................. 192 Cold reduction, microstructure of forgings .......................................... 152(F) Cold rolling ............................... 26, 30, 78–79 microstructures of plate ...... 127(F), 128(F), 132(F), 134(F), 136(F) microstructures of sheet ...... 123(F), 132(F), 136(F), 137(F) Cold-shut .............................................. 173(F) definition ................................................. 193 Cold-shut void ...................................... 177(F) Cold upsetting, microstructure of rivet ............................................... 129(F) Cold working .............................................. 40 compressive .............................................. 67 definition ................................................. 193 temper designation ............................. 19, 20 of wrought alloys ......................... 61–62, 63 Collapse, definition .................................... 193 Coloring, definition ................................... 193 Combination die (multiple-cavity die), definition ............................................. 192 Commercially pure (CP) aluminum advantages ................................................ 26 aerospace alloy ....................................... 117 casting alloys ....................................... 14(T) container and packaging applications .................................. 88(F) definition ................................................. 5–6
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180G)
designation system ................................... 24 electrical applications .......................... 88(F) electrical properties ............................ 87, 88 in wrought alloy designation system .................................... 10(T), 11 limitations ................................................. 26 mechanical properties ......................... 87–88 microstructure due to solidification . . 121(F) microstructures ..................... 120(F), 121(F) properties ....................................... 87–88(F) sheet metal work ...................................... 88 strengthening mechanisms ............ 25–26(T) as telescopic mirror material ........ 88, 90(F) Compressive cold working, wrought alloys ..................................................... 67 Concavity, definition ................................. 193 Concentricity, definition ........................... 193 Condensation stain. See Corrosion, water stain. Condenser tube, definition ....................... 193 Conduit definition ................................................. 193 rigid, definition ....................................... 193 Coned-out coil. See Telescoping. Construction industry, alloys used .... 93, 94, 96, 98, 100–101(F), 102(F), 103(F), 104(F), 105(F), 106(F), 112, 114, 116 Container and packaging industry ............ 4 commercially pure aluminum ............ 88(F) Continuous casting, microstructures ... 140(F) Contour, definition .................................... 193 Controlled cooling, definition .................. 193 Conversion coating, can ends. See Coating, conversion. Conversion of units .................................. 7–8 Convexity, definition ................................. 193 Copper as alloying element ..... 10(T), 11, 12–13(T), 14(T), 15–16(T) as alloying element, casting alloy applications .. 108, 109–111(F), 112(F), 113(F), 114(F) as alloying element, casting alloys ..................................... 33(T), 34 as alloying element, wrought alloy applications ........ 89–90, 91(F), 92(F), 93(F) as alloying element, wrought alloys ............ 23, 25(T), 26–27, 28, 29 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) welded to aluminum .......................... 184(F) CO2 process, definition ............................. 192 Core blister. See Blister, core. Core (for casting), definition .................... 193 Core (for rolled products), definition ..... 193
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Coring. See Back-end condition. Corner turnup, definition ......................... 193 Corrosion aluminum-copper alloys ........................... 89 casting alloys ....................................... 34(T) definition ................................................. 193 exfoliation ............ 104–105, 150(F), 152(F) exfoliation, definition ............................. 193 fretting ............................................... 151(F) galvanic, definition ................................. 194 intergranular, definition .......................... 194 pitting .................................... 136(F), 149(F) pitting, definition .................................... 194 stress-cracking, definition ...................... 194 water stain, definition ............................. 194 Corrosion resistance aluminum-copper alloys ........................... 89 aluminum-magnesium alloys ..................... 96, 99(F), 113–114 aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys ..................... 97, 98, 101, 107(F) aluminum-manganese alloys .............. 90, 93 aluminum-silicon alloys ......................... 112 aluminum-zinc alloys ..................... 104–105 commercially pure aluminum ............ 87, 88 temper designation ................................... 40 temper designations, wrought alloys ....... 71 wrought alloys ......................... 3, 27, 28, 66 Corrugating, definition ............................. 194 Coupon, definition ..................................... 194 Covering area, definition .......................... 194 Cracking, casting alloys ........................ 34(T) Crazing, definition ..................................... 194 Crease, definition ....................................... 194 Cross hatching. See Crazing. Crown. See Convexity. Cryogenic toughness, wrought alloys .......... 4 Curl, definition .......................................... 194 Cutoff, definition ........................................ 194
D Deep drawing, definition .......................... 194 Defect, definition ........................................ 194 Dendrite arm spacing (DAS), effect on casting structure fineness .. 168(F), 169(F) Dendrites ............................................... 157(F) of brazed joint in sheet ........ 162(F), 163(F) in castings ............... 166(F), 168(F), 169(F) in sand casting ................................... 179(F) Dendritic segregation, titanium in ingot ................................ 136(F), 137(F) Density, wrought alloys .................... 28–29(F) Dent. See also Mark, handling. definition ................................................. 195
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Dent (continued) expansion, definition .............................. 195 repeating, definition ................................ 195 Designation systems ................ 1–2, 31, 32(T) capital letters used for alloys ............. 24–25 casting alloys ................................. 32–37(T) casting alloys, cross reference chart ....................................... 36–37(T) comparison of previous and current systems ........................................ 32(T) experimental alloys ............................ 24–25 temper, for wrought alloys ................. 39–40 UNS alloy ................................................. 31 variations .................................................. 25 wrought alloys ............................... 23–32(T) Die Casting Development Council ........... 37 Die casting (noun) ................................ 83–84 aluminum-magnesium alloys ................. 113 aluminum-silicon alloys ......................... 112 aluminum-silicon plus copper or magnesium alloys ........................... 111 compositions for commercial uses ................................................... 35 definition ................................................. 195 mechanical properties .............. 53(T), 57(T) microstructure ........ 171(F), 172(F), 173(F), 174(F), 176(F), 177(F), 178(F), 179(F) Die casting (verb) cold chamber, definition ......................... 195 definition ................................................. 195 gravity, definition ................................... 195 hot chamber, definition .......................... 195 pressure. See also Low-pressure casting process; High-pressure molding. pressure, definition ................................. 195 vs. permanent mold casting ..................... 81 Die forgings ................................................. 80 Die (in casting), definition ........................ 195 Die (in forging or extrusion), definition .. 195 Die line, definition ..................................... 195 Die number, definition .............................. 195 Diffusion processes .............................. 131(F) Diffusion streak. See Streak, diffusion. Dimensional stability, definition .............. 196 Dip brazing ........................................... 180(F) Direct castings, microstructure ............ 131(F) Dirt, definition ........................................... 196 Disc, definition ........................................... 196 Double shear notch. See Notch, double shear. Draft, definition ......................................... 196 Drag mark. See Rub, tool. Draw and iron-can bodies, definition ..... 196 Drawing ................................................. 26, 30 definition ................................................. 196
Drawing stock, definition ......................... 196 Drawn-in scratch. See Scratch, drawn-in. Drawn product, definition ........................ 196 Dropped edge. See Edge, dropped. Dry sand molding, definition ................... 196 Dry sheet. See Lube, low. Dry surface, definition .............................. 196 Ductility definition ................................................. 196 wrought alloys .......................................... 27 Duct sheet, definition ................................ 196 Dynamic recrystallization ................... 134(F)
E Earing, definition ....................................... 196 Ears, definition .......................................... 197 Eccentricity, definition .............................. 197 Edge band. See Two-tone. belled, definition ..................................... 197 broken (cracked), definition ................... 197 built-up. See Edge, belled. damaged, definition ................................ 197 dropped, definition ................................. 197 liquated, definition .................................. 197 rippled. See Buckle, edge. wavy. See Buckle, edge. Elastic limit, definition .............................. 197 Electrical and electronic industry alloys used ... 88(F), 99, 106, 107, 110, 112, 115–116 commercially pure aluminum applications .................................. 88(F) Electrical beam welding of investment casting ........................ 181(F) of plate .................................. 158(F), 162(F) of sheet .................... 155(F), 156(F), 159(F) Electrical conductivity commercially pure aluminum ............ 87, 88 definition ................................................. 197 8xxx series ..................................... 106, 107 wrought alloys ............................................ 4 Electrical resistivity, definition ................ 197 Elevated temperatures aluminum-copper alloys ........................... 89 aluminum-copper casting alloys ............ 109 Elongation casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) definition ......................................... 197–198 wrought alloys ............................... 40–49(T) Embossing, definition ................................ 198 Endurance limit casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) definition ................................................. 198
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180G)
wrought alloys ............................... 40–49(T) Energy absorption capacity, wrought alloys ....................................................... 4 English/engineering units ............................ 8 Equivalent round, definition .................... 198 Expendable pattern casting, definition ... 198 Experimental aluminum alloys .... 16, 24–25 Explosive welding aluminum to copper .......................... 184(F) aluminum to steel .............................. 184(F) Extrusion ............................................... 30, 79 aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys ............. 97–102, 103(F), 104(F), 105(F), 106(F), 107(F), 108(F) aluminum-zinc alloys ................ 105, 109(F) conform ..................................................... 79 definition ................................................. 198 direct ......................................................... 79 gas tungsten arc welding ................... 161(F) indirect ...................................................... 79 microstructures ....... 135(F), 138(F), 139(F), 141(F), 148(F), 149(F), 150(F), 161(F), 151(F) reverse ....................................................... 79 Extrusion billet, definition ........................ 198 Extrusion butt end defect, definition ...... 198 Extrusion log, definition ........................... 198 Extrusion seam, definition ........................ 198 Eyehole. See Holiday.
F Fabrication, temper designation ..... 16, 57–58 Fatigue aluminum-silicon alloys ......................... 112 casting alloys .................................. 108, 110 definition ................................................. 198 test, fayed sheet ................................. 151(F) Fatigue limit casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) wrought alloys ............................... 40–49(T) Feeder. See Riser. Feed in. See Back-end condition. Feed line. See Streak, grinding. Fillet, definition .......................................... 198 Fin, definition ............................................. 198 Finish casting alloys .............................................. 5 definition ................................................. 199 Finishing, casting alloys ........................ 34(T) Fin stock, definition .................................. 199 Fish mouthing, definition ......................... 199 Flag, definition ........................................... 199 Flaking, definition ..................................... 199
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Flange. See Rib. Flash, definition ......................................... 199 Flash line, definition .................................. 199 Flatness, definition .................................... 199 Flat-rolled products .............................. 78–79 Flow lines ..... 145(F), 172(F), 173(F), 174(F), 177(F), 178(F) definition ................................................. 199 Flow through, definition ........................... 199 Fluidity, casting alloys ........................... 34(T) Foil annealed, definition ................................ 199 bright two sides, definition .................... 199 chemically cleaned, definition ............... 199 definition ................................................. 199 embossed, definition ............................... 199 etched, definition .................................... 199 fabrication ........................................... 78–79 for food products industry ..................... 188 hard, definition ....................................... 199 intermediate temper, definition .............. 199 matte one side (M1S), definition ........... 199 mechanically grained, definition ............ 199 mill finish (MF), definition .................... 200 packaging applications, for food products ................................. 88, 89(F) scratch brushed, definition ..................... 200 Foil stock. See Reroll stock. Fold ....................................................... 145(F) definition ................................................. 200 Food products industry, alloys used for packaging and utensils .. 88(F), 89(F), 93, 95(F), 96, 101(F) Foresmo Bridge ................................... 103(F) Forgeability, definition .............................. 200 Forge casting ............................................... 84 Forging ................................................... 79–80 blocker-type, definition .......................... 200 closed-die, grain structure ... 128(F), 129(F), 130(F), 141(F) cold-coined, definition ............................ 200 definition ................................................. 200 die, definition .......................................... 200 draftless, definition ................................. 200 flashless, definition ................................. 200 hammer, definition ................................. 200 hand, definition ....................................... 200 microstructures ....... 123(F), 124(F), 130(F), 144(F), 145(F), 146(F), 147(F), 148(F), 152(F) no-draft. See Forging, draftless. precision, definition ................................ 200 press, definition ...................................... 200 rolled ring ................................................. 80 rolled ring, definition ............................. 200 upset, definition ...................................... 200
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Forging billet, definition ........................... 200 Forging plane, definition .......................... 200 Forging stock, definition ........................... 200 Formability aluminum-manganese alloys .................... 90 commercially pure aluminum .................. 88 definition ................................................. 200 Fracture brittle .................................................. 151(F) ductile ................................................ 151(F) of extrusion .......................... 148(F), 149(F) parting-plane fracture in forging ....... 144(F) Fracture toughness aluminum-magnesium alloys ................... 96 casting alloys .............................................. 5 definition ................................................. 200 wrought alloys ............................................ 4 Fracture toughness testing ........................ 85 Fretting. See Mark, traffic. Friction scratch. See Scratch, friction. Full center. See Buckle, center.
G Gage, definition .......................................... 201 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) aluminum-copper alloys ........................... 90 aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys ....... 98 aluminum-silicon alloys ..................... 94, 95 wrought alloys ............................................ 4 Gas porosity .. 172(F), 174(F), 176(F), 177(F) definition ................................................. 201 Gas tungsten arc repair welding, of investment casting ............ 181(F), 182(F) Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) aluminum-copper alloys ........................... 90 aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys ....... 98 aluminum-silicon alloys ..................... 94, 95 of extruded tube ................................ 161(F) of plate .................................. 160(F), 161(F) of sheet ...... 155(F), 156(F), 157(F), 158(F), 159(F) of wrought alloys ....................................... 4 of wrought-to-cast alloys .................. 182(F) Gate .............................................................. 82 definition ................................................. 201 Gate area ................................. 176(F), 177(F) Gated patterns, definition ........................ 201 Gated system, definition ........................... 201 Gating ................................................... 173(F) Gating system, definition .......................... 201 Geodesic domes .......................... 100, 102(F), 104(F), 105(F)
Glaze. See Pickup, roll. Gold mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Gouge. See also Scratch. definition ................................................. 201 rolled in. See also Scratch, rolled-in. rolled in, definition ................................. 201 Grain flow, definition ................................ 201 Grain refiners, effect on casting structures ........................................ 168(F) Grain size, definition ................................. 201 Grease streak. See Streak, grease. Green sand ............................................ 81, 82 definition ................................................. 201 Green sand molding, definition ............... 201
H Hair, slitter, definition ............................... 202 Hand forgings ............................................. 80 Handling mark. See Mark, handling. Hard conversion ........................................... 8 Hardener, definition .................................. 202 Hardness casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) definition ................................................. 202 8xxx series .............................................. 106 wrought alloys ............................... 40–49(T) Heat streak. See Streak, heat. Heat treatable alloys .................................. 11 casting alloys ...................................... 33–34 definition ................................................. 202 temper designations ............................ 65–68 Heat treatable aluminum alloy, definition ................................................. 6 Heat treating. See also Aging; Solution heat treating. aluminum alloys ................................. 84–85 aluminum-copper alloys ........................... 89 aluminum-copper permanent mold castings ........................................... 109 aluminum-copper sand castings ............. 109 aluminum-magnesium alloys ................. 113 aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys .......................................... 97, 98 aluminum-silicon alloys ............ 93, 94, 112 aluminum-silicon plus copper or magnesium alloys ........................... 111 aluminum-tin casting alloys ................... 115 aluminum-zinc alloys ..................... 102, 103 aluminum-zinc casting alloys ................ 115 by nonproducer ......................................... 40 definition ................................................. 202 8xxx aluminum series ............................ 106
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Heat treat lot. See Lot, heat treat. Heat treat stain, definition ....................... 202 Herringbone. See Streak, herringbone. High-pressure casting ................................ 84 High-pressure molding, definition ........... 202 High-toughness alloys aluminum-copper casting alloys .... 109, 110 aluminum-silicon plus copper or magnesium alloys ........................... 111 Holding temperature, definition .............. 202 Hole, definition .......................................... 202 Holiday, definition ..................................... 202 Homogenizing ....................................... 142(F) definition ......................................... 202–203 Hook. See also Bow. definition ................................................. 203 Hot cracking, definition ............................ 203 Hot isostatic pressing (HIP), definition . . 203 Hot line pickup. See Pickup, roll. Hot rolling ....................................... 30, 78–79 microstructure of ingot ........ 131(F), 134(F) microstructure of plate ........ 128(F), 133(F), 134(F), 135(F), 137(F), 142(F), 143(F) microstructure of sheet ...................... 138(F) Hot shortness, definition ........................... 203 Hot spot, definition .................................... 203 Hot tear. See Tear, speed. Hot working, definition ............................ 203
rolling, definition .................................... 204 Injection, definition ................................... 204 Inoculant, definition .................................. 204 Insert, definition ........................................ 204 Inspection lot. See Lot, inspection. Intergranular corrosion, of plate ....... 149(F) Interleaving, definition .............................. 204 International Accord on Alloy Designations .................................... 9, 73 International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) ................................. 88 Investment casting . . 82–83, 110, 112, 114(F) aluminum-silicon plus copper or magnesium alloys ........................... 111 definition ................................................. 204 microstructure ........ 166(F), 167(F), 180(F), 181(F), 182(F) Investment molding, definition ................ 204 Iron as alloying element ........... 10(T), 11, 12(T), 13(T), 15–16(T) as alloying element, wrought alloy applications ........................... 106–107 as alloying element, wrought alloys ..................................... 25(T), 29 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T)
I
J
Impact, definition ...................................... 203 Impregnation, definition ........................... 203 Impurities ........................................ 10, 11, 24 in casting alloys ....................................... 14 Impurity limit ............................................ 14 Inclusion definition ................................................. 203 stringer, definition .................................. 203 Incomplete seam. See Weld, incomplete. Ingot. See also Ingot, extrusion; Ingot, fabricating; Ingot, forging; Ingot, remelt; Ingot, rolling. casting ................................................. 77–78 definition ................................................. 203 extrusion. See also Ingot, fabricating. extrusion, definition ................................ 203 fabricating. See also Ingot, extrusion; Ingot, forging; Ingot; rolling. fabricating, definition ............................. 204 forging, definition ................................... 204 microstructure ........ 122(F), 131(F), 134(F), 136(F), 142(F), 149(F) remelt, definition .................................... 204 rolling. See also Ingot, fabricating.
Joining aluminum-copper alloys ........................... 90 aluminum-manganese alloys .................... 90 aluminum-silicon alloys ......... 93, 94, 95(F) aluminum-zinc alloys ............................. 102 casting alloys ....................................... 34(T) wrought alloys ............................................ 4
K Kink, definition .......................................... 205 Knife mark. See Mark, knife. Knock-out mark. See Mark, knock-out.
L Lacquer. See also Stain, oil. definition ................................................. 205 Lacquering, temper designation ................. 17 Lamination, definition .............................. 205
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Lap. See Fold. Lateral bow. See Bow, lateral. Layout sample, definition ......................... 205 Lead as alloying element .................. 12(T), 13(T) mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Leveler chatter. See Mark, chatter (roll or leveler). Leveler mark. See Dent, repeating. Leveler streak. See Streak, leveler. Leveling definition ................................................. 205 roller, definition ...................................... 205 stretcher, definition ................................. 205 tension, definition ................................... 205 thermal, definition .................................. 205 Light poles .................................... 101, 107(F) Line flow, definition ........................................ 205 looper, definition .................................... 205 Lueders, definition .................................. 205 weld. See Seam, extrusion. Liner, definition ......................................... 205 Liquated edge. See Edge, liquated. Liquation, definition .................................. 205 Liquefied natural gas tankage .................... 4 Lithium as alloying element, wrought alloy applications ................ 106–107, 110(F) as alloying element, wrought alloys ........ 29 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Lock, definition .......................................... 206 Log. See Extrusion log. Longitudinal bow. See Bow, longitudinal. Longitudinal direction, definition ............ 206 Longitudinal orientation, definition ............ 6 Long transverse direction. See also Longitudinal direction. definition ................................................. 206 Long transverse orientation, definition . . 6–7 Looper line. See Line, looper. Loose wrap. See Wrap, loose. Lost foam casting, definition .................... 206 Lot heat treat, definition ............................... 206 inspection, definition .............................. 206 Low-pressure casting process. See also Vacuum casting process. definition ................................................. 206 Lube high, definition ....................................... 206 low, definition ......................................... 206 Lueders line. See Line, Lueders. Lug ........................................... 146(F), 147(F)
M Machinability aluminum-tin alloys ................................ 115 aluminum-zinc alloys ............................. 115 Magnesium as alloying element ..... 10(T), 11, 12–13(T), 14(T), 15–16(T) as alloying element, casting alloy applications .......... 111–112(F), 113(F), 114(F), 115 as alloying element, casting alloys ..................................... 33(T), 34 as alloying element, wrought alloy applications .......... 95–101(F), 102(F), 103(F), 104(F), 105(F), 106(F), 107(G), 108(F) as alloying element, wrought alloys ....... 23, 25(T), 26, 27–28, 29 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Magnesium silicide ................. 152(F), 159(F) in castings .......................................... 170(F) in wrought alloys ....... 10(T), 11, 23, 26, 28 Magnetic levitation (Mag-Lev) train .............................. 100–101, 106(F) Manganese as alloying element ..... 10(T), 11, 12–13(T), 15–16(T) as alloying element, wrought alloy applications ......... 90, 93, 94(F), 95(F) as alloying element, wrought alloys ....... 23, 25(T), 26, 27 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Marine industry, alloys used ......... 96, 97(F), 98(F), 99(F), 100(F), 112, 113–114, 117 Mark arbor, definition ...................................... 207 bearing, definition .................................. 207 bite, definition ........................................ 207 bristle, definition .................................... 207 carbon, definition .................................... 207 chatter (roll or leveler), definition ......... 207 definition ................................................. 207 drag. See Rub, tool. edge follower, definition ........................ 207 handling, definition ................................ 207 heat treat contact, definition .................. 207 inclusion. See also Inclusion, stringer. inclusion, definition ................................ 207 knife, definition ...................................... 207 knockout ................................................... 83 knock-out, definition .............................. 207
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180G)
leveler chatter. See Mark, chatter (roll or leveler). metal-on-roll. See Dent, repeating. mike, definition ...................................... 207 pinch. See Crease. roll, definition ................................. 207–208 roll bruise. See also Mark, roll. roll bruise, definition .............................. 208 roll skid, definition ................................. 208 rub, definition ......................................... 208 snap. See also Mark, snap. snap, definition ....................................... 208 stop, definition. See also Mark, snap. ....208 stretcher jaw, definition .......................... 208 tab. See Buckle, arbor. tail. See Mark, roll bruise. take-up. See Scratch, tension. traffic, definition ..................................... 208 whip, definition ...................................... 208 Master alloy. See Hardener. Mean diameter, definition ........................ 208 Mechanical properties, definition ............ 208 Melting temperature, wrought alloys ........ 3 Metallography and Microstructures ....... 119 Metric/International Standard units .......... 8 Microporosity, definition .......................... 208 Microscopy .................................................... 7 Microstructure, of alloys .................. 119–184 Mike mark. See Mark, mike. Minimum residual stress (MRS), definition ..................................... 208–209 Mismatch, definition ................................. 209 Modulus in tension, wrought alloys ......................................... 40–49(T) Modulus of elasticity casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) definition ................................................. 209 measurement method (ASTM E 111) ..... 30 wrought alloys ............. 29–30(T), 40–49(T) Mold, definition ......................................... 209 Mold cavity, definition .............................. 209 Molybdenum mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Mottling, pressure, definition ................... 209 Mullen test, definition ............................... 209
N Nailing, wrought alloys ................................. 4 Natural aging. See also Aging. .................. 84 casting alloys ............................................ 74 temper designations ...................... 19, 21(T) wrought alloys ......... 26, 27, 28, 59, 60, 65, 66, 68
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Necking ................................................. 151(F) Nick extrusions. See Mark, handling. rolled products. See Scratch. Nickel as alloying element ................ 10, 12–13(T), 15–16(T) as alloying element, wrought alloy applications ........................... 106–107 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Nondestructive testing, definition ............ 209 Non-Ferrous Founders’ Society (NFFS) ................................................. 37 Nonfill, definition ....................................... 209 Non-heat-treatable alloy casting alloys ...................................... 33–34 definition ................................................. 209 H temper subdivisions .................. 60–64(T) slab casting ............................................... 78 strip casting .............................................. 78 temper designations, wrought alloys ....... 58 wrought alloys ............................. 26, 27, 28 Notch, double shear, definition ................ 209
O Off gage, definition .................................... 209 Offset, definition ................................ 209–210 Oil and petroleum industry, alloys used .......................................... 99, 100(F) Oil stain. See Stain, oil. Orange peel, definition ............................. 210 Oscillation. See also Telescoping. definition ................................................. 210 Out-of-register, definition ......................... 210 Ovalness. See Quality. Overaging microstructure .................................... 124(F) temper designation ................................... 20 wrought alloys .................................... 68, 71 Oxide discoloration. See Stain, heat treat. Oxide stringers ..................................... 134(F)
P Packaging industry, alloys used .............. 118 Pack rolling, definition ............................. 210 Painting, temper designation ...................... 17 Parent coil, definition ................................ 210 Parent plate, definition ............................. 210
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Partial annealing. See Annealing, partial. Parting line. See also Profile, stepped extruded. definition ................................................. 210 Pattern, definition ...................................... 210 Patterned sheet. See Embossing. Peening .................................................. 152(F) Permanent mold casting alloys, mechanical properties .............. 51–53(T), 55–56(T) Permanent mold casting (noun) microstructure ........ 165(F), 166(F), 167(F), 175(F), 179(F), 180(F) heat treatable .......................................... 109 Permanent mold casting (verb) .......... 80–81 aluminum-magnesium alloys ................. 113 aluminum-silicon alloys ......................... 112 aluminum-silicon plus copper or magnesium alloys ........................... 111 aluminum-tin alloys ................................ 115 aluminum-zinc casting alloys ................ 115 definition ................................................. 210 Permanent solid castings, microstructure ................... 166(F), 170(F) Physical properties, definition .................. 211 Pickoff, definition ....................................... 211 Pickup definition ................................................. 211 repeating. See Dent, repeating. roll, definition. See also Streak, coating. ........................................... 211 Pinch mark. See Crease. Pinhole, definition ...................................... 211 Pipe definition ................................................. 211 drawn, definition ..................................... 211 extruded, definition ................................. 211 seamless, definition ................................ 211 structural, definition ............................... 211 Piping. See Back-end condition. Pit, definition .............................................. 211 Pitting. See Corrosion. Plate alclad, definition ..................................... 211 definition ................................................. 211 fabrication ........................................... 78–79 microstructures ....... 124(F), 127(F), 129(F), 132(F), 133(F), 134(F), 135(F), 136(F), 137(F), 142(F), 143(F), 149(F), 158(F), 160(F), 161(F), 162(F) Plate circle, definition .............................. 211 Polarized light effect on annealed plate ....... 135(F), 136(F) effect on cold rolled sheet . . . 136(F), 137(F) effect on extruded tube ..................... 141(F) effect on extrusion ............................. 135(F)
effect on ingot ................................... 142(F) effect on plate microstructure ........... 142(F) Polygonization ...................................... 124(F) extruded tube ..................................... 141(F) Pop (solvent), definition ............................ 211 Porosity, definition ..................................... 211 Precipitation hardening. See also Aging. ................................................... 84 temper designation ................................... 20 wrought alloys ........... 26, 27, 28, 60, 65–66 Precipitation heat treating. See Aging. Precision casting ................................... 82–83 Preheating, definition ................................ 211 Pressure mottling. See Mottling, pressure. Pressure welding .................................. 154(F) Product forms, identified by temper designation ............................................ 40 Profile class 1 hollow extruded, definition ......................................... 212 class 2 hollow extruded, definition ......................................... 212 class 3 hollow extruded, definition ......................................... 212 cold-finished, definition .......................... 212 cold-finished extruded, definition .......... 212 cold-finished rolled, definition ............... 212 definition ................................................. 212 drawn, definition .................................... 212 extruded, definition ................................ 212 flute hollow, definition ........................... 212 helical extruded, definition .................... 212 hollow, definition .................................... 212 lip hollow, definition .............................. 212 pinion hollow, definition ........................ 212 rolled, definition ..................................... 212 semihollow, definition ............................ 212 solid, definition ....................................... 212 stepped extruded, definition ................... 212 streamline hollow, definition .................. 213 structural, definition ............................... 213 tapered extruded, definition ................... 213 Pure aluminum. See Commercially pure aluminum.
Q Quality, definition ...................................... 213 Quarter buckle. See Buckle, quarter. Quenching ....................................... 40, 84, 85 casting alloys ............................................ 74 definition ................................................. 213 of dies ....................................................... 85
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180G)
modifications identified by temper designations ...................................... 68 wrought alloys ............................. 70, 71, 72 Quenching crack, definition ..................... 213
R Radiographic inspection, definition ........ 213 Radiography, definition ............................ 213 Rail transportation industry, alloys used ............................................. 117–118 Razor streak. See Inclusion, stringer. RCS, definition .......................................... 213 Rear-end condition. See Back-end condition. Recommendation: International Designation System for Wrought Aluminum and Wrought Aluminum Alloys ...................................................... 2 Recrystallization dynamic ............................................. 134(F) microstructure of closed-die forgings ......................... 128(F), 130(F) microstructure of extrusions ............ 138(F), 150(F) microstructure of plate ...................... 134(F) microstructure of sheet ....... 123(F), 131(F), 132(F), 136(F), 137(F) Recycling casting alloy 332.0 from scrap .............. 112 wrought alloys ............................................ 4 Redraw rod, definition .............................. 213 References ......................................... 185–186 Refined aluminum, definition .................. 213 Reflector sheet, definition ......................... 213 Registration process, of alloys .................... 9 Reheating, definition ................................. 213 Reoil, definition .......................................... 214 Reroll stock, definition .............................. 214 Residual stresses minimized by quenching .......................... 68 temper designations ............................ 67–68 Resistance spot welding ......... 153(F), 154(F) Reynolds Wrap ................................ 88, 89(F) Rib, definition ............................................ 214 Riser ............................................................. 82 definition ................................................. 214 Riser gating, definition ............................. 214 Rivet. See Wire, cold heading. Rod alclad, definition ..................................... 214 cold-finished, definition .......................... 214 cold-finished extruded, definition .......... 214 cold-finished rolled, definition .............. 214 cold-heading, definition .......................... 214 definition ................................................. 214
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extruded, definition ................................ 214 rivet. See Rod, cold-heading. rolled, definition ..................................... 214 Roll chatter. See Mark, chatter (roll or leveler). Rolled-in metal, definition ........................ 214 Rolled-in scratch. See Scratch, rolled-in. Rolled-over edge. See Edge, liquated. Rolled ring. See Forging, rolled ring. Roll grind, definition ................................. 214 Rolling coating. See Streak, coating. Rolling slab, definition .............................. 214 Roll mark. See Mark, roll. Roll pickup. See Pickup, roll. Roofing sheet, definition ........................... 215 Roping, definition ...................................... 215 Roundness, definition ................................ 215 Rub mark. See Mark, rub. Rub (tool), definition ................................. 215 Runner, definition ...................................... 215 Runner system, definition ........................ 215
S Sample, definition ...................................... 215 Sand casting .......................................... 81–82 aluminum-magnesium alloys ................. 113 aluminum-silicon alloys ......................... 112 aluminum-silicon plus copper or magnesium alloys ........................... 111 aluminum-tin casting alloys ................... 115 aluminum-zinc casting alloys ................ 115 vs. permanent mold casting ............... 81, 82 Sand casting alloys, mechanical properties .................. 49–51(T), 53–55(T) Sand castings definition ................................................. 215 heat treatable .......................................... 109 microstructure ........ 164(F), 167(F), 168(F), 179(F), 180(F) Sand mold, definition ................................ 215 Saw-plate bar. See Bar, saw-plate. Scalping, definition .................................... 215 Scratch. See also Mark, handling. definition ................................................. 215 drawn-in, definition ................................ 215 friction, definition ................................... 215 handling, definition. See also Mark, rub. .................................................. 215 machine, definition ................................. 215 oscillation, definition .............................. 215 oven, definition ....................................... 216 rolled-in, definition ................................. 216 slippage. See Scratch, tension. tension, definition ................................... 216
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Seam defect, definition .............................. 216 Seam (extrusion). See also Weld, incomplete. definition ................................................. 216 Seamless, definition ................................... 216 Section number, definition ....................... 216 Sensitization ................................................ 28 to stress-corrosion cracking ..................... 64 Serpentine weave. See Snaking. Shape, definition ........................................ 216 Shear strength casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) definition ................................................. 216 wrought alloys ............................... 40–49(T) Sheet alclad, definition ..................................... 216 aluminum welded to copper ............. 184(F) aluminum welded to steel ................. 184(F) anodizing, definition ............................... 216 clad, definition ........................................ 217 coiled circles, definition ......................... 217 coiled cut to length, definition ............... 217 coiled, definition ..................................... 217 definition ................................................. 216 embossed, temper designation ................. 64 fabrication ........................................... 78–79 flat circles, definition .............................. 217 flat, definition ......................................... 217 microstructures ....... 123(F), 124(F), 125(F), 126(F), 129(F), 131(F), 132(F), 136(F), 138(F), 143(F), 144(F), 151(F), 152(F), 154(F), 155(F), 157(F), 158(F), 159(F), 162(F), 163(F) mill finish (MF), definition .................... 217 one-sided bright mill finish (1SBMF), definition ......................................... 217 painted, definition ................................... 217 pattern, temper designations ............... 64(T) standard one-side bright finish (S1SBF), definition ........................ 217 standard two sides bright finish (S2SBF), definition ........................ 217 temper designation .............................. 20(T) Sheet stock. See Reroll stock. Shell molding, definition ........................... 217 Shell mold process, definition .................. 217 Short transverse direction, definition ..... 217 Short transverse orientation, definition ...... 7 Shrinkage .............................................. 146(F) definition ................................................. 217 Side crack. See Edge, broken (cracked). Side set, definition ..................................... 217 Silicon as alloying element ..... 10(T), 11, 12–13(T), 14(T), 15–16(T)
as alloying element, casting alloy applications .. 108, 111–112(F), 113(F), 114(F) as alloying element, casting alloys ..................................... 33(T), 34 as alloying element, wrought alloy applications . . 93-95(F), 96(F), 97–102, 103(F), 104(F), 105(F), 106(F), 107(F), 108(F) as alloying element, wrought alloys ....... 23, 25(T), 26, 27, 28, 29 content effect on castability ....................... 5 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Silver as alloying element ............................. 15(T) mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Skip, definition ........................................... 217 Slab casting ................................................. 78 Slippage scratch. See Scratch, tension. Slitter hair. See Hair, slitter. Sliver, definition ......................................... 217 Sludge ............ 171(F), 172(F), 173(F), 174(F) Slug, definition ........................................... 217 Smudge, definition ..................................... 218 Smut. See Smudge. Snaking, definition .................................... 218 Soft conversion ............................................. 8 Soldering ...................................................... 27 aluminum-manganese alloys .................... 93 aluminum-silicon alloys ........................... 93 commercially pure aluminum .................. 87 wrought alloys ............................................ 4 Solid-solution melting ......................... 151(F) Solution heat treating ................................ 84 casting alloys ...................................... 34, 74 definition ................................................. 218 microstructure of castings ... 164(F), 165(F), 166(F), 167(F), 169(F), 170(F), 180(F), 181(F) microstructure of closed-die forgings ........... 128(F), 129(F), 130(F) microstructure of forgings . . . 130(F), 152(F) microstructure of plates ..................... 127(F) microstructure of rivets ..................... 129(F) microstructure of sheet ....... 123(F), 125(F), 126(F) temper designations .... 17, 19–20, 21(T), 59 wrought alloys ... 11, 26, 27, 28, 60, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72 Solution strengthening ............................... 26 Specification limits, definition ...................... 6 Specimen, definition .................................. 218
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180G)
Speed crack. See Tear, speed. Speed tear. See Tear, speed. Spheroidization .................................... 131(F) Splice, definition ........................................ 218 Spot (lube), definition ............................... 218 Spruce Goose ................................ 100, 105(F) Sprue, definition ........................................ 218 Squareness, definition ............................... 218 Squeeze casting ................... 84, 108–109, 111 definition ................................................. 218 Squeeze/forge casting ............................... 111 Stabilizing .................................................... 40 definition ................................................. 218 microstructure of castings .... 165(F), 167(F) temper designations ........................... 17, 20 wrought alloys .................................... 66, 68 Stain heat treat, definition ............................... 218 oil, definition .......................................... 218 saw lubricant, definition ......................... 218 water. See Corrosion, water stain. Starvation, definition ................................ 218 Steel, welded to aluminum ................... 184(F) Sticking, definition .................................... 218 Straightness, definition ............................. 218 Strain, definition ........................................ 218 Strain-hardenable aluminum alloy, definition ................................................. 6 Strain hardening aluminum-magnesium alloys ................... 96 aluminum-manganese alloys .................... 93 commercially pure aluminum ............ 11, 87 definition ................................................. 219 H temper subdivisions for non-heat-treatable alloys ....... 60–64(T) temper designations ......... 17, 18, 22, 58–59 wrought alloys .......................................... 11 Streak bearing, definition .................................. 219 bright, definition ..................................... 219 buff, definition ........................................ 219 coating, definition ................................... 219 cold. See Streak, heat. diffusion, definition ................................ 219 dirt, definition ......................................... 219 grease, definition .................................... 219 grinding, definition ................................. 219 heat, definition ........................................ 219 herringbone, definition ........................... 219 leveler, definition .................................... 219 mill buff. See Streak, roll. pickup. See Streak, coating. roll, definition ......................................... 219 (stripe), definition ................................... 219 structural, definition ............................... 219 Streak burnish, definition ........................ 219
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Strength, casting alloys ................................. 5 Strength/weight ratio, wrought alloys ......... 4 Stress, definition. See also Residual stress. .................................................. 220 Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). See also Corrosion, stress-cracking ............... 104–105, 147(F) wrought alloys .......................................... 28 Stress relieving ............................................ 40 definition ................................................. 220 microstructure of cold rolled plate ........................................... 134(F) microstructure of cold rolled sheet ........................................... 136(F) temper designation .............................. 21(T) wrought alloys .......................................... 65 wrought alloys, temper designations ................................ 67–68 Stretcher strain. See Line, Lueders. Stretching ........................................ 26, 71, 72 microstructures of plates ...... 127(F), 128(F) microstructures of sheets ................... 126(F) wrought alloys .......................................... 67 Striation, definition ................................... 220 Strip, definition .......................................... 220 Strip casting ................................................ 78 Structural streak. See Streak, structural. Suck-in, definition ..................................... 220 Surface tear, definition ............................. 220
T Tail mark. See Mark, roll bruise. Tear, speed ............................................ 180(F) definition ................................................. 220 Tear testing .................................................. 85 Telescopic mirrors, of commercially pure aluminum .......................... 88, 90(F) Telescoping, See also Oscillation. definition ................................................. 220 Temper annealed ................. 16–17, 18(T), 21(T), 22 annealed, casting alloys ..................... 73–74 annealing treatments ................................. 58 artificially aged ....................... 19–20, 21(T) cold worked ........................................ 19, 20 corrosion resistant designations ............... 71 definition ................................................. 220 designating residual stress relief of heat treated products .......................... 67–68 designation identifying additional cold work between quenching and aging ................................................. 70 designations, for wrought alloys ........ 39–40 designations identifying modifications in quenching ..................................... 68
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240 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Temper (continued) designations indicating heat treatment by user ........................................ 68–70 designation systems ............. 1, 2, 16–22(T), 57–73(T) fabricated ...................................... 16, 57–58 fabricated, casting alloys .......................... 73 for aluminum pattern sheet ................. 20(T) for casting alloys ................................ 73–75 for wrought alloys ......................... 57–73(T) heat treatable alloys subdivisions of T temper ......................................... 65–68 identifying cold work following aging .... 70 lacquered ................................................... 17 natural aging ................................. 19, 21(T) overaged ................................................... 20 painted ...................................................... 17 precipitation hardened .............................. 20 solution heat treated ... 17, 19–20, 21(T), 59 special or premium properties designated ................................... 71–73 stabilized ............................................ 17, 20 strain hardening ............... 17, 18, 22, 58–59 stress relieved ...................................... 21(T) subdivisions of designation system .................................... 17–22(T) subdivisions of H temper for non-heat-treatable alloys ....... 60–64(T) tensile strength ......................... 18(T), 19(T) thermal treatment ............................... 59–60 thermal treatment, casting alloys ............. 74 thermal treatment for stability ..... 17, 19–20 understanding importance of designations ...................................... 76 Temper designation system .............. 9–22(T) Tempers for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Products (Registration Records Series) ............................................ 73, 75 Tensile strength casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) definition ................................................. 220 temper designations ................. 18(T), 19(T) wrought alloys ............................... 40–49(T) Tension scratch. See Scratch, tension. Test directions, definition ............................. 6 Thermal conductivity, wrought alloys ........ 3 Thermal treatment, temper designations ................. 17, 19–20, 59–60 Thixocasting ........................... 84, 111, 112(F) microstructure of parts ..................... 170(F) Tightness, of casting alloys ................... 34(T) Tin as alloying element ........... 10(T), 11, 14(T), 15(T), 16(T)
as alloying element, casting alloy applications ..................................... 115 as alloying element, casting alloys ..................................... 33(T), 34 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Titanium as alloying element ...... 12–13(T), 15–16(T) dendritic segregation in ingot .............................. 136(F), 137(F) mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Tolerance, definition .................................. 220 Tool, definition ........................................... 220 Tooling pad. See Chucking lug. Tooling plate, definition ............................ 220 Torn surface, definition ............................ 220 Traffic mark, definition .................... 220–221 Transportation industry. See Automotive industry. Transverse bow. See Bow, transverse. Transverse direction, definition ............... 221 Tread plate, definition ............................... 221 Trim inclusion, definition ......................... 221 Tube alclad, definition ..................................... 221 arc-welded, definition ............................. 221 brazed, definition .................................... 221 butt-welded, definition ........................... 221 definition ................................................. 221 drawn, definition .................................... 221 embossed, definition ............................... 221 extruded, definition ................................ 221 extruded, weldment ........................... 161(F) finned, definition .................................... 221 fluted, definition ..................................... 221 heat-exchanger, 93, 94(F) heat-exchanger, definition ...................... 221 helical-welded, definition ....................... 221 lap-welded, definition ............................. 222 lock-seam, definition .............................. 222 microstructure of extrusion ............... 141(F) open-seam, definition ............................. 222 redraw. See Tube stock. seamless, definition ................................ 222 sized, definition ...................................... 222 stepped drawn, definition ....................... 222 structural, definition ............................... 222 welded, definition ................................... 222 Tube bloom. See Tube stock. Tube stock, definition ................................ 222 Tubing. See also Tube. electrical metallic, definition .................. 222 Tubular conductor, definition .................. 222 Twist, definition ......................................... 222 Two-tone, definition .................................. 222
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers (#06180G)
U Ultimate shearing strength casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) wrought alloys ............................... 40–49(T) Ultimate tensile strength. See also Tensile strength. aluminum-copper alloys ........................... 89 aluminum-copper casting alloys ............ 110 aluminum-magnesium alloys ........... 96, 113 aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys ....... 98 aluminum-manganese alloys .................... 90 aluminum-silicon alloys ................... 93, 112 aluminum-silicon plus copper or magnesium alloys ........................... 111 aluminum-tin alloys ................................ 115 aluminum-zinc alloys ..................... 102, 115 casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T) commercially pure aluminum .................. 87 8xxx aluminum series ............................ 106 wrought alloys ...................... 40–49(T), 106 Unified Numbering System (UNS) alloy designation system .............................. 31 for casting alloys ...................................... 37 Unit conversion ......................................... 7-8 Units ............................................................ 7-8 UNS number ............................................... 31
V Vacuum casting process, definition ......... 223 Vanadium, as alloying element .. 12(T), 15(T) Variations castings alloys .......................................... 35 in alloy compositions ............................... 25 Vent mark, definition ................................ 223 Voids .............. 152(F), 174(F), 177(F), 180(F)
W Water stain. See Corrosion, water stain. Wavy edge. See Buckle edge. Weave. See Oscillation. Web, definition ........................................... 223 Weld, incomplete, definition ..................... 223 Weldability aluminum-copper alloys ........................... 89 aluminum-magnesium alloys ................... 96 aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys ....... 98 aluminum-manganese alloys .................... 93 aluminum-silicon alloys ..... 93–95(F), 96(F) aluminum-silicon plus copper or magnesium alloys ........................... 111
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aluminum-zinc alloys ............................. 103 wrought alloys ............................................ 4 Welding, definition .................................... 223 Welding rod, definition ............................. 223 Welding wire, definition ........................... 223 Weld line. See Seam, extrusion. Weldments aluminum-copper, explosive welding ...................................... 184(F) aluminum-steel, explosive welding ...................................... 184(F) casting alloys ..................................... 181(F) of wrought alloys ...................... 153–162(F) Wettability test, definition ........................ 223 Whip marks. See Mark, whip. Whisker. See Hair, slitter. Wire alclad, definition ............................. 223–224 definition ................................................. 223 cold-heading, definition .......................... 224 cold-heading, microstructure ............. 129(F) cold-heading, wrought alloys ..................... 4 drawn, definition .................................... 224 extruded, definition ................................ 224 flattened, definition ................................. 224 flattened and slit-flattened, definition .... 224 rivet. See Wire, cold-heading. Workability definition ................................................. 224 wrought alloys ............................................ 4 Work hardening. See Strain hardening. Wrap (loose), definition ............................ 224 Wrinkle. See Crease. Wrought alloys. See also Wrought alloys index. advantages .......................................... 26–28 aging .................... 26–28, 60, 65–68, 70–72 alloying elements ......... 10–11(T), 25–26(T) artificial aging ..... 26, 27, 60, 65–68, 70–72 brazeability ............................................... 87 composition ................................... 12–13(T) corrosion resistance ............................ 27, 28 density ........................................... 28–29(T) designation system ........................ 23–32(T) designation system of Aluminum Association ........... 10–11(T), 12–13(T) ductibility .................................................. 27 elongations .................................................. 8 limitations ........................................... 26–28 mechanical properties .................. 29–30(T), 40–49(T), 87 microstructures .......................... 120–163(F) modulus of elasticity ..................... 29–30(T) natural aging ....... 26–28, 59, 60, 65, 66, 68 non-heat-treatable ........................ 26, 27, 28
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242 / Introduction to Aluminum Alloys and Tempers
Wrought alloys (continued) non-heat-treatable alloys, H temper subdivisions ........................... 60–64(T) overaging ............................................ 68, 71 physical properties ........................ 28–30(T) precipitation hardening ... 26–28, 60, 65–66 product forms ........................................... 30 product units ............................................... 8 properties ................................................ 3–4 solderability .............................................. 87 solution heat treatment .. 11, 26–28, 60, 66, 68, 70–72 stabilization treatment ........................ 66, 68 stress relieving .......................................... 65 stress relieving, temper designations ................................ 67–68 unit conversion ........................................... 8 variations ............................................ 30–31 weldability ............................................ 4, 87 weldments ................................... 153-162(F) Wrought aluminum alloy, definition ........... 6 Wrought product, definition .................... 224
Y Yield strength casting alloys ................................. 49–57(T)
definition ................................................. 224 wrought alloys ............................... 40–49(T)
Z Zinc as alloying element ..... 10(T), 11, 12–13(T), 14(T), 15–16(T) as alloying element, casting alloy applications ..................................... 115 as alloying element, casting alloys ..................................... 33(T), 34 as alloying element, wrought alloy applications .......................... 102–105, 109(F), 110(F) as alloying element, wrought alloys ....... 23, 25(T), 26, 28, 29 mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T) Zirconium as alloying element ...... 12(T), 13(T), 15(T) mechanical properties ......................... 30(T) physical properties .............................. 29(T)
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