International Review of Research in Mental Retardation: v. 7

International Review of RESEARCH IN MENTAL RETARDATION VOLUME 7

Consulting Editors for This Volume Paul Weisberg UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA

Marvin S. Kivitz ELWYN INSTITUTE P H I W E L P H U , PENNSYLVANIA

International Review of RESEARCH IN MENTAL RETARDATION

EDITED BY

NORMAN R. ELLIS DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOQY UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA

VOLUME 7

1974

(29

ACADEMIC PRESS New York San Francisco London A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers

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Contents

.................................................. Prefuce ............................................................ Contents of Previous Volumes ......................................... U t of Contributors

vii

ix xi

Mediationai Proceues in the Retarded

JOHN G. BORKOWSKI AND PATRICIA B. WANSCHURA

. .................................................... ................................ III. Natural Language Mediation ...................................... IV. Conclusion ..................................................... I Introduction

.

I1 ThrccStage. Mdiational Paradigms

......................................................

References

1 7 26 49 50

The Role of Strategic Behavior In Retardate Memory

A”

L. BROWN

. . . .

I Introduction .................................................... I1. Developmental Theories of Memory and Their Implication for Retardation . III The Use of Memory Strategies by Retardates: A Brief Review .......... IV Specific Background to the Present Series of Studies .................. V. Specific Experiments ............................................. VI I m p l i c a t i ~for ~ Mucation ........................................ References ......................................................

55 56 66 77 79 100 104

Conrenation Rwearch with the Mentally Retarded

.

KEN M . WILTON AND FREDERIC J BoERSMA

.

I Introduction

....................................................

11. Studies of Conservation Development ............................... 111. Studies of Conservation Acceleration in the Mentally Retarded

.........

. V. Concluding Comments ............................................

IV Conservation and Other Aspects of Cognitive Functioning .............. References

...................................................... V

114 118 130 136 139 140

vi

Contents

Placement ot the Retarded in the Community: Prognosls and Outcome

RONALD B. MCCARVER AND ELLISM. CRAIG

. .

I Introduction .................................................... I1. Types of Studies ................................................ 111 Literature Review ............................................... IV. General Integration of Findings .................................... V. Suggestions for Future Research ................................... VI. Concluding Remarks ............................................. References ......................................................

146 147 149 180 194 199 199

Physical and Motor Development of Retarded Persons

ROBERTH. BRUININKS I. Introduction ................................................... I1 Definitions and Structures of Motor Proficiency ..................... 111. Physical Development ........................................... IV. Comparative Studies of Gross Motor Abilities ....................... V. Comparative Studies of Fine Motor Abilities VI. Comparative Studies with the Oseretsky Tests ....................... VII Training Studies ................................................ VIII. Summary and Conclusioas ....................................... References ....................................................

........................

209 210 216 220 226 228 231 248 253

..................................................

263

. .

Subject Index

Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin.

FREDERIC J. BOERSMA, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada (113)

JOHN G. BORKOWSKI, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana (1) ANN L. BROWN,University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, Illinois (55) ROBERTH. BRUININKS, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota (209) ELLISM. CRAIG, Texas Department of Mental Health and Mental Retardation, Austin, Texas (145) RONALD B. MCCARVER, Northwest Louisiana State School for the Mentally Retarded, Bossier City, Louisiana (145) PATRICIA B. WANSCHURA, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana (1) KERIM. WILTON,University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand (113)

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This volume continues in the tradition established by the six previous ones. The aim is to present current reviews of behavioral research and theory as they relate to mental retardation and similar disorders. The focus has been on behavioral research, mainly psychological, with some attention to educational and sociological issues. A major portion of the contents has centered around basic research and theory rather than application. This reflects both an editorial value judgment and also the fact that the most research has been in this vein. During the past eight years, since publication of the first volume, there has been a dearth of applied research worthy of citation, and this seems unfortunate. Nevertheless, editorial policy for the series is steeped in the belief that the ultimate hope for amelioration of this social ill lies in basic research. Moreover, research of this type with the retarded will increase our knowledge of the normal human being. While most contributions to this series are by invitation, other manuscripts of high quality will be considered.

NORMAN R. ELLIS University of Alabama

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Contents of Previous Volumes

Volume 1

A Functional Analysis of Retarded Development SIDNEY W.BIJOU Classical Conditioning and Discrimination Learning Research with the Mentally Retarded LEONARD E. Ross The Structure of Intellect in the Mental Retardate HARVEY F. DINGMAN AND C. EDWARD MEYERS Research on Personality Structure in the Retardate EDWARD ZIGLER Experience and the Development of Adaptive Behavior H. CARLHAYWOODAND JACKT. TAPP A Research Program on the Psychological Effects of Brain Lesions in Human Beings RALPHM. REITAN Long-Term Memory in Mental Retardation JOHNM. BELMONT The Behavior of Moderately and Severely Retarded Persons JOSEPH E. SPRADLIN AND FREDERIC L. GIRARDEAU Author Index-Subject Index

Volume 2

A Theoretical Analysis and Its Application to Training the Mentally Retarded M. RAY DENNY The Role of Input Organization in the Learning and Memory of Mental Retardates HERMAN H. SPITZ xi

xii

Contents of Previous VoIumes

Autonomic Nervous System Functions and Behavior: A Review of perimental Studies with Mental Defectives RATHEKARRER

Ex-

Learning and Transfer of Mediating Responses in Discriminative Learning BRYAN E. SHEPPAND FRANK D. TURRISI A Review of Research on Learning Sets and Transfer of Training in

Mental Defectives MELVINE. KAUFMAN AND HERBERT J. PREHM Programming Perception and Learning for Retarded Children MURRAY SIDMAN AND LAWRENCE T. STODDARD Programmed Instruction Techniques for the Mentally Retarded FRANCES M. GREENE Some Aspects of the Research on Mental Retardation in Norway IVAR ARNLJOT BJORGEN Research on Mental Deficiency During the Last Decade in France R. LAFON AND J. CHABANIER Psychotherapeutic Procedures with the Retarded MANNYSTERNLICHT Author Index-Subject Index Volume 3

Incentive Motivation in the Mental Retardate PAULS. SIEGEL Development of Lateral and Choice-Sequence Preferences IRMA R. GERJUOY AND JOHN J. WINTERS, JR. Studies in the Experimental Development of Left-Right Concepts in Retarded Children using Fading Techniques SIDNEYW. BIJOU Verbal Learning and Memory Research with Retardates: An Attempt to Assess Developmental Trends L. R. GOULET Research and Theory in Short-Term Memory KEITHG. SCOTTAND MARCIASTRONG SCOTT Reaction Time and Mental Retardation AND GEORGE KELLAS ALFREDA. BAUMEISTER

CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES

xiii

Mental Retardation in India: A Review of Care, Training, Research, and Rehabilitation Programs J. P. DAS Educational Research in Mental Retardation H. SPICKER SAMUELL. GUSKINAND HOWARD Author Index-Subject Index

Volume 4

Memory Processes in Retardates and Normals NORMANR. ELLIS A Theory of Primary and Secondary Familial Mental Retardation ARTHURR. JENSEN Inhibition Deficits in Retardate Learning and Attention LAIRD w. HEALAND JOHNT. JOHNSON, JR. Growth and Decline of Retardate Intelligence MARYANN FISHER AND DAVIDZEAMAN The Measurement of Intelligence A. B. SILVERSTEIN Social Psychology and Mental Retardation WARNERWILSON Mental Retardation in Animals GILBERTW.MEIER Audiologic Aspects of Mental Retardation LYLEL. LLOYD Author Index-Subject

Index

Volume 5

Medical-Behavioral Research in Retardation JOHNM. BELMONT Recognition Memory: A Research Strategy and a Summary of Initial Findings KEITHG. SCOTT

Contents of Previous Volumes

xiv

Operant Procedures with the Retardate: An Overview of Laboratory Research PAULWEISBERG Methodology of Psychopharmacological Studies with the Retarded ROBERTL. SPRAGUE AND JOHNs. WERRY Process Variables in the Paired-Associate Learning of Retardates AND GEORGE KELLAS ALFRED A. BAUMEISTER Sequential Dot Presentation Measures of Stimulus Trace in Retardates and Normals EDWARD A. HOLDEN, JR. Cultural-Familial Retardation FREDERIC L. GIRARDEAU German Theory and Research on Mental Retardation: Emphasis on Structure LOTHAR R. SCHMIDT AND PAUL B. BALTES Author Index-Subject

Index

Volume 6

Cultural Deprivation and Cognitive Competence J. P. DAS Stereotyped Acts ALFREDA. BAUMEISTER AND REXFOREHAND Research on the Vocational Habilitation of the Retarded: The Present, The Future MARCW. GOLD Consolidating Facts into the Schematized Learning and Memory System of Educable Retardates HERMAN H. SPITZ

An Attention-Retention Theory of Retardate Discrimination Learning MARYANN FISHER AND DAVIDZEAMAN Studying the Relationship of Task Performance to the Variables of Chronological Age, Mental Age, and IQ WILLIAME. KAPPAUF Author Index-Subject Index

Mediational Proaesses in the Retarded' JOHN 0. BORKOWSKI AND PATRICIA B. WANSCHURA UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME, NOTRE DAME, INDIANA

1. Introduction.

.......................................

A. Mediation Defined. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Mediation in the Retarded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Paradigmatic Approaches to Mediation in the Retarded . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. Threeatage, Mediational Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Experimentally Defied Mediational Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Mediation by Retarded Individuals in Threeatage Paradigms C. Retention and Transfer of Mediational Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Conclusions and Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. Natural Language Mediation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. An Overview of Natural Language Mediation in the Retarded . . . . . . . . . B. The Development of Natural Language Mediational Strategies. . . . . . . . . C. Retention and Transfer of Natural Language Mediation . . . . . . . . . . . . 1V. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.........

1.

A.

1 1 2 4

I I 9 21 25 26 26 21 42 49 50

INTRODUCTION

Mediation Defined

Normal adolescents and adults rarely master a verbal learning task exclusively in rote fashion. That is, rote learning, which is the strengthening of the direct association between the internal representation of two events (e.g., a stimulus and a response in a paired-associate task), does not adequately describe the adult learning process. Indeed, language habits, syntactical structures, and cognitive strategies can singly, or in combina'This paper was supported, in part, by a training grant in mental retardation from the William Randolph Hearst Foundation to the University of Notre Dame. 1

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John G. Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

tion, influence even the simplest form of learning, and usually do. All represent higher forms of mental activity than is depicted by the label rote learning, and fit well under the heading cognitive structure representative (cf. Wickelgren, 1972). Cognitive structured learning occurs when a direct association occurs between two events, together with some additional, indirect association. The indirect association-perhaps a natural language associate-serves as a chain or bridge which links the two to-be-learned events more closely together. These indirect associations are commonly referred to as mediators (cf. Bourne, Ekstrand, & Dominowski, 1971) . In its most rudimentary form, a mediator can be represented by the implicit r-s association in the sequence, S + r +- s + R. In contrast to rote learning (S - R ) , cognitive structured or mediated learning involves an implicit, probably covert, response ( r ) to a stimulus event (S), which in turn produces an implicit stimulus (s) that leads directly to the terminal response ( R ) . Most instances of mediated learning fit the S + r +- s + R paradigm, though many require a complex elaboration of the internal, mediating events. Since language habits, syntactical structures, or cognitive strategies often provide mediating associations which facilitate or inhibit the learning process in normal and retarded persons, these mechanisms require further elaboration. Language habits include the natural associations a subject brings to the task, which can facilitate the learning process, such as the word “bacon” serving as an effective link between the stimulus event “bac” and the response “eggs” (cf. Dallet, 1964). The syntactical structure of language refers to the role of words, sentences, or paragraphs that might serve as aids in learning. For instance, Jensen and Rohwer (1963b) have shown that retarded children will learn the pair “shoe-clock’ if a short sentence “I threw the SHOE at the CLOCK” is given prior to the learning task. The term cognitive strategies acts as a broad umbrella covering such diverse phenomena as learning sets, mnemonic devices, and mental imagery (cf. Paivio, 1971). The variety of these higher-order mental activities provides a rich source of learning aids for both normal and retarded individuals.

B. Mediation in the Retarded 1. LURIA’SMEDIATIONAL DEFICITPOSITION Most prominent among the neurological deficit theories of mental retardation is that proposed by the Russian investigator, Luria (1961 ). According to Luria, the central deficit in the retarded child is a lack of development in the verbal system, such that a verbal response cannot serve as an adequate regulator or mediator of voluntary behavior. More specifically,

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

3

Luria has observed the behavior of retarded children, who have clear signs of neurological damage, in simple discrimination tasks where the development of stable habits of responding, the child’s ability to switch response sets, and the role of language in mediating or regulating voluntary behavior are analyzed (cf. Zigler, 1966). Retarded children, like normal children of a much lower CA, experience considerable difficulty on discrimination tasks demanding verbal regulation of voluntary behavior. Luria ( 1961) has inferred that the major problem in the behavior of the retarded individual lies in the inadequate development of his verbal system and a “dissociation” of this system from external behavior. The “dissociation” hypothesis is at the core of Luria’s four stages of language development (cf. Spreen, 1965). At the earliest stage, an adult’s verbal commands can initiate or inhibit the child’s behavior. In the second stage, the child learns to accompany behavior with his own verbal descriptions and to activate or regulate his behaviors via verbal feedback. In the next stage, the discrimination function of language emerges (e.g., “press the blue button” promotes a specific behavior pattern). In the last stage, overt language becomes replaced by covert language (mediation) which serves to regulate behavior, especially voluntary actions. It is in the regulating functions of language where Luria postulates a verbal mediation deficit in the retarded. Much of the early mediation research in retardation seems to have originated in an attempt either to support or to refute Luria’s deficiency hypothesis. For instance, O’Conner and Hermelin (1959), Milgram and Furth (1963), and Rieber ( 1964) have claimed support for Luria’s position, while Balla and Zigler (1964) and Berkson and Cantor (1960) have provided contradictory evidence. It would seem that the imprecision of Luria’s theory makes direct, unequivocal assessment impossible. In fact, Zigler and Balla (1971 ) have pointed out that the conceptual ambiguity of Luria’s mediational deficiency hypothesis has resulted in antithetical predictions generated by different researchers. They conclude “one is tempted to argue that, in view of the negative and inconsistent experimental outcomes, the Luria formulation should be abandoned when interpreting differences in the performance of nonretarded and familial retarded children matched on MA” (Zigler &Balla, 1971, p. 412).

2. CURRENT PROCESS ANALYSES OF MEDIATIONAL DEFICIENCIES Although Luria’s theory has done much to stimulate mediation research with the retarded since the early 1960’s, recent research trends have assumed a more pragmatic orientation. Since mediation probably occurs in most learning tasks where complex language or conceptual processes are operative, it is not surprising to find that researchers have become increasingly concerned with the issue of how learning can be improved by media-

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John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

tional activities, in lieu of a preoccupation with documenting a potential mediational deficit in the retarded person. Thus, much of the current interest in mediation is centered on the processes underlying mediational activity in the retarded. A process analysis of mediation separates the associative chain (S + r + s + R) into two distinct parts: S-r and s-R. A production deficiency is said to occur when the implicit mediator, r, is not evoked by event S, even though the mediator is a part of the language repertoire of the learner (Flavell, Beach, & Chinsky, 1966). A control deficiency is assumed present when the internal mediator, r, is present and elicits the internal stimulus event, s, but fails to influence the behavior under study, R (Kendler, 1972). Kendler has proposed that the term, mediutionaf deficiency, be reserved as a generic label to cover failures to mediate due to either production or control deficiencies. Process analyses of mediational activity permit a more precise pinpointing of deficiencies and have the capacity to bring about more effective application of remedial measures. A production deficiency is likely to occur when the stimulus (S) has a low probability of eliciting the mediator (r), presumably because the S + r association is low in the subject’s language habit hierarchy or has not been learned well during prior training. On the other hand, a control deficiency seems more attributable to the set, strategy, and/or expectation of the subject which influence his ability to utilize an available mediational chain. If a retarded child is shown to have a “mediational deficiency,” it is of importance to determine whether the deficit can be located in terms of control or production phases. Kendler ( 1972) has hypothesized that mediational activity and corresponding mediational deficiencies, as shown by control and production errors, evolve in three developmental stages. The first stage includes both kinds of deficiencies. In the second stage, children between the ages of 5 and 9 continue to show production deficiencies while control deficiencies decline rapidly. In the final stage, as control deficiencies are eliminated around ages 9 and 10, the influence of production deficiencies also begins to decline. However, Boat and Clifton (1968) and Brown and Scott (1972) have demonstrated that children as young as 3 and 4 years of age can mediate. Thus, the lower limit of Kendler’s stages can be questioned, leaving the rest of the formulation to be tested. C.

Paradigmatic Approaches to Mediation in the Retarded

1. AN OVERVIEW OF MEDIATION PARADIGMS

The broad definition of mediation-internal, associative events (r-s) in an S + r * s + R chain-has been operationalized in a wide variety of

5

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

learning paradigms, Jensen (1971) lists 11 different tasks used to assess mediation, which we have ranked in terms of their frequency of usage with the retarded (see Table I). The paradigms range in diversity from discrimination learning and semantic generalization to experimentally acquired mediators (e.g., three-stage paradigms) and mnemonic elaborations. However, all refer to mental processes (mediators) that appear to intervene between stimulus and response events when the relationship between these to-be-learned associations cannot be attributed to simple, direct associative processing. Recent research has concentrated on the reliability and utility of the several paradigms that define mediation. The precision of each operational definition lies in the degree to which the internal r-s activity can be specified in terms of antecedent or consequent behaviors. For instance, Kendler and Kendler ( 1962), employing a discrimination learning paradigm, defined mediation in terms of the relative rates of learning for reversal and nonreversal shift tasks. Rats and children seemed to acquire reversal shifts, in contrast to nonreversal tasks, with more difficulty than adults, presumably due to limitations in mediational capabilities. However, the assumed mediational activity in the shift paradigms represents a rather remote inference from the actual task presented to the learner, simply a choice between several alternatives differing along various dimensions. That is, in the case of a reversal shift, the mediator is not directly manipulated by or under the control of the experimenter. In contrast, the paired-associate learning paradigm defines mediation in terms of relative rates of learning for mediated and nonmediated tasks. When mediators are supplied by the experimenter, the mediational process is under more external control. Although direct manipulation of internal events is not necessarily preferable, in a methodological sense, to more TABLE I MEDIATIONAL PARADIGMS: A RANKING ACCORDING TO FREQUENCY OF USE IN RETARDATION RESEARCH High frequency of usage (over ten studies) 1. Syntactical mediation and mnemonic elaborations 2. Associative clustering 3. Learning set formation 4. Reversal-nonreversal shifts 5. Experimentally acquired mediators 6. Labeling

Low frequency of usage (less than ten studies) 7. Extra-experimentally acquired mediators: implicit chaining paradigm 8. Semantic generalization 9. Cross-modal transfer 10. Far transposition 11. Verbal self-reinforcement

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John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

inferential mediational tasks in all cases, it does increase the probability of providing greater insights into the mediational process per se. Of the paradigms listed by Jensen (1971), natural language and three-stage PA tasks seem to allow a high degree of control of antecedent events so that the mediational (r-s) events can be directly manipulated.

2. NATURAL LANGUAGE AND THREE-STAGE MEDIATION PARADIGMS An inspection of natural language and three-stage paradigms indicates that both tasks require the learner, at one and the same time, to elaborate on the stimulus and simultaneously to reduce components of the stimulus event (Jensen, 1971) . For example, if “comb-glass” is the to-be-learned association and the experimenter has provided a sentence (“The comb is in the glass”) as a syntactical aid, then the stimulus “comb” is given novel, more elaborate properties which might compete with an erroneous old language association (e,g., comb + dresser + mirror). For the learner, which mediator, the new or the old, will become the functional mediator during PA learning? Restated, competing associations, evoked by the stimulus “comb,” must be reduced or eliminated if the sentence, “The comb is in the glass,” is to become the dominant mediational strategy. When the subject is asked to learn a pair of verbal items, designated A-C, he will likely find the learning of A-C easier if pairs A-B and B-C have previously been learned than if the prior learning consisted of the pairs A-B and D-C. In terms of such a three-stage mediational paradigm (A-B, B-C, A-C) the Occurrence of stimulus A in Stage I11 has a tendency to elicit B covertly, and the occurrence of B, in turn, tends to evoke C, the correct response (Horton & Kjeldergaard, 1961). The B mediator, which is not explicit during Stage I11 learning, has mediational properties ( r + s) in that it is elicited by A and evokes C. In three-stage paradigms, stimulus elaboration resides in the fact that each A-C pair is given an appropriate B mediator via prior experimentally developed associations. Stimulus reduction takes place when the learner uses the A + B + C strategy instead of alternative strategies, such as A + X + D or A + Y + E,which are likely based on preexisting language habits. In summary, syntactical and three-stage mediational tasks share several common features: (1) Both produce r + s mediators as aids to learning by way of experimentally defined manipulations, and (2) both require stimulus elaboration and stimulus reduction, if mediational processing is to occur in the manner intended by the experimenter. Our concern in this review is to understand more of the mediational capabilities and limitations of the mentally retarded based on data generated by syntactical and threestage paradigms.

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

7

II. THREE-STAGE, MEDIATIONAL PARADIGMS

A. Experimentally Defined Mediational Paradigms 1. THECHAINING PARADIGM

One advantage of multi-stage, mediational paradigms is that the experimenter is able to develop and control, in a direct manner, the mediational chains used by the subject during learning. The simplest form of a multistage, mediational strategy is the chaining paradigm (Horton & Kjeldergaard, 1961). In the chaining model, three paired-associate (PA) lists (A-B, B-C, A-C) are presented sequentially. The ease of learning the pairs (generally, word or picture associations) of the third list (A-C) is assumed to be related directly to mediational links developed during the learning of two prior lists (A-B and B-C). That is, the occurrence of an A stimulus in Stage I11 has a tendency to elicit B covertly and the occurrence of B tends to evoke C, the correct response. The presence of A-(B)-C mediational associations in the chaining paradigm can be inferred when A-C learning for the mediation condition is superior to that for a nonmediation, control group (A-B, D-C, A-C) . In the control condition, laboratory-produced mediators are not available to aid A-C learning; only the effects of warm-up and learning-to-learn are present. 2. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR MEDIATED FACILITATION

Although the chaining paradigm has been used extensively in mediational research with adults and normal children (Horton & Kjeldergaard, 1961; Jenkins, 1963; Goulet, 1968), it has not always resulted in a facilitation of PA learning. What seems to have emerged in this literature is a restricted set of conditions which seem to govern the presence of the mediational phenomenon (cf. Schulz, 1972). Among the more important factors that are responsible for producing mediated facilitation with normal adults in the chaining paradigm are: (1) the presumed mediator (B) must be readily available during Stage 111. Hence, it must be highly learned and discriminably different (semantically or structurally) from the A and C. (2) The association between A and C should be relatively difficult so as to encourage the use of the A-(B)-C strategy. Also, the A-C associations should not lend themselves to idiosyncratic, natural language mediators or direct language associations. (3) Schulz and Weaver (1968) have shown that the length of the test trial interval must be long enough to permit the “utilization” of mediators available to the subject. Intervals less than 5 seconds in duration are not conducive to producing mediated facilitation in PA learning for normal individuals (Schulz & Lovelace, 1964).

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John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

(4) In terms of Underwood, Runquist, and Schulz’s (1959) two-phase conception of PA learning (Phase 1 : response learning; Phase 2: associative or “hook-up” stage), mediation in the chaining paradigm is localized in the associative phase. By minimizing the role of response learning, mediation during associative learning can be more clearly assessed. For instance, the use of multiple-choice test trials in A-C learning prevents the possibility of a mediation chain being discarded because of a failure to remember the terminal response, C. Schulz (1972) has shown that an adherence to these four boundary conditions associated with list construction or procedural decisions in the chaining model almost invariably leads to mediated facilitation of PA learning with normal adults. It is important to keep in mind these “optimal” conditions, as multi-stage, mediational research with the retarded is reviewed.

3. TYPESOF MEDIATIONAL PARADIGMS The chaining model is but one type of several commonly used multistage learning paradigms. Other important paradigms are the stimulusequivalence (A-B, C-B, A-C) , response-equivalence (B-A, B-C, A-C), backward-chaining (B-A, C-B, A-C) , and the mediated-interference (A-B, B-C,, A-C) paradigms. The first three tasks involve a partial (stimulus- and response-equivalence) or total (backward-chaining) use of backward associations developed during Stages I and 11, as Stage 1111 learning occurs. The last paradigm, involving mediated interference, is constructed so that an inappropriate “repairing” of B and C terms during Stage I1 leads to an increased probability of mediational errors (e.g., Al-(Bl)-C5, rather than C,) during Stage I11 learning. Schulz (1972) has shown that under the appropriate boundary conditions all four paradigms provide evidence for the operation of mediational processes during PA learning. 4. INTERPRETATIONS OF MEDIATIONAL PROCESSING

Theoretically, most of the early mediational research was incorporated into a rather simple associationistic framework (cf. Jenkins, 1963; Schulz, Weaver, & Ginsberg, 1965 ) . More recent research has led to a widening of the theoretical perspective in which research on three-stage mediational paradigms is given interpretation. For instance, Schulz (1972) compares the chaining paradigm to a simple form of problem solving in which A-C is the to-be-solved problem, and A-B and B-C are previously acquired components, which, when properly integrated and utilized, lead to rapid learning or problem solving. A more cognitive view of mediation in the three-stage paradigms seems necessary when one considers that Stage I11

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

9

learning often appears in the absence of A-C study trials. That is, if a subject is given only test trials during Stage III, he is likely to demonstrate mediational facilitation of the A-C associations based solely on the presence of A-B and B-C links developed during the first two stages (Schulz, 1972). In fact, performance on test Trial 1 is often considerably above chance level, even prior to the first opportunity to study Stage I11 pairs. Furthermore, research on the strength of A-B and B-C associations, as they relate to mediational activity during A-C learning, does not fit well into an associationistic framework. For instance, an increase in strength of A-B and B-C associations does not necessarily lead to an increased utilization of mediators (Schulz, 1972). In short, what appears to be emerging, at a theoretical level, is the possibility that mediational activity in the chaining paradigm, as well as in more complex mediational paradigms, involves higher-order, conceptual strategies dealing with the acquisition and employment of rules, as well as simple PA processes of an S-R or associationistic nature. This eclectic view of mediational processing has implications for our review of three-stage mediational research with the retarded, who are thought by some to possess higher-order mental deficiencies (Lipman, 1963; Luria, 1961). B.

Mediation by Retarded Individuals in Three-Stage Paradigms

1. MEDIATION IN

THE

CHAINING MODEL

Berkson and Cantor (1960) conducted the first mediational study with retarded children using the chaining paradigm (A-B, B-C, A-C). They found that a normal CA group learned an initial PA list of picture pairs more efficiently than a moderately retarded group, but that in Stage 111 (A-C), mediational associations facilitated PA learning for both the normal and retarded individuals in contrast to control subjects (X-B, B-C, A-C). One problem with the Berkson and Cantor (1960) study was that the mediational subjects had more exposure to the A stimulus during Stage I than the control subjects; hence, differential stimulus familiarity during A-C might have been a factor in producing the mediated facilitation observed in the CA and retarded groups. In order to further examine the effects of mediational associations on the PA learning of moderately retarded children and adolescents, Borkowski and Johnson (1968) again used the chaining paradigm. However, they employed a control group (A-B, D-C, A-C) in which the A and C terms were shown as frequently as in the mediation condition, in order to preclude possible differential effects of stimulus familiarity which had occurred in control and mediation conditions of the Berkson and Cantor

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John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

(1960) study. In addition, Borkowski and Johnson ( 1968) compared learning rates for the retarded groups to those for equal CA and MA groups of normal subjects. The specific pictorial materials, designed for use in three-stage chaining (A-B, B-C, A-C) and control (A-B, D-C, A-C) paradigms, were constructed so that potential mediators would be highly available during List I11 learning (i.e., strong A-B, B-C associations). Furthermore, List 111 was designed so that the use of mediators would be the most “efficient” method of learning; that is, the A-C task was chosen so as to represent a rather difficult learning situation. These criteria were met by using highly associated pictures of common objects as the A and B terms, and colors as the C terms. The colored A stimuli and the black and white B stimuli were arranged in concept categories. The C colors were highly associated with B stimuli but not with A stimuli. For example, one set of pairs in the mediational lists was: girl(A)-dress(B), dress(B)-yellow(C), girl(A)-yellow(C). The control condition had pictures as D terms which were not associated with A or B, but were highly associated with C (e.g., giraffe-yellow). Six pairs were used in each of the three lists in both mediation and control conditions. It should be noted that these characteristics of the materials are in accord with Schulz’s (1972) suggestions for maximizing the chances of finding mediated facilitation: (1) Easily learned A-B and B-C links. (2) Distinctively different A, B, and C items. (3) A rather difficult A-C task, which did not lend itself easily to natural language mediators stronger than the experimentally produced mediators. Several features of the procedure used by Borkowski and Johnson (1968) deserve mention, as they may represent boundary or limiting conditions for producing mediation in the retarded. In the initial presentation of List I, the A and B terms were presented together on 3 x 24 inch cards, each pair for a 2-second duration (e.g., “the girl goes with the dress”). The first test trial involved recognition of the correct response from among the six possible alternatives. Incorrect responses were corrected and correct responses were restated. After the first study-test trial, the anticipation method was used to a criterion of two perfect, though not necessarily consecutive, recitations of the list. This criterion for mastery produced a high degree of overlearning for List A-B. Duration of presentation for recall and study intervals was 2 seconds. Pairs were randomized during 6-second intertrial intervals. Following A-B learning, list B-C was presented using exactly the same procedure as with List I, again to a criterion of two perfect recitations. A high degree of overlearning also resulted for List B-C. The study-test method of presentation was used for Stage 111. Study trials (S-Rpairs presented) and test trials (only S terms presented) were alternated until a criterion of two perfect recitations was reached, or to

11

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

a maximum of ten study-test trials. Duration of presentation on study trials was 2 seconds per pair; a longer test trial interval (i.e., 5 seconds) was employed to allow for the utilization of the mediational chain. The only knowledge of results during the test trials for A-C learning consisted of “right-wrong” or “yes-no” feedback after each response. The multiple choice testing procedure ensured the availability of the terminal response (C) for each subject, thus reducing the memory load and restricting performance to the associative phase (cf. Underwood et al., 1959). In addition, the subjects had considerable time to analyze, integrate, and utilize potential mediators during the 5-second test period. The mean number of correct responses per trial as a function of mediation and control conditions for retarded, M A , and CA groups is presented in Fig. 1. In the D-C control condition analysis of the total number of correct responses over the first five trials indicated that A-C learning was equivalent for CA and M A groups, which both performed better than the retarded group. This finding is in accord with a considerable amount of data suggesting that with moderately difficult materials there is a deficit in PA learning for retarded individuals (Lipman, 1963). In contrast, a comparison of the mediation conditions showed that the CA group was superior to both the M A and retarded groups which were not significantly different from one another. When mediating links were provided, retarded individuals utilized these associations in Stage 111learning as well as the M A group, though not as efficiently as the CA group. These results indicate that the Low-IQ deficit (cf. Denny, 1964) often found in contrasting retarded and M A groups on moderately difficult (i.e., low meaningful) rote learning and discrimination tasks may be absent in three-stage mediational contexts. Such a suggestion is encouraging, since it indicates that certain learning

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FIG. 1. Mean number of correct responses during A-C learning as a function of type of paradigm and type of subject. (From Borkowski & Johnson, 1968.)

12

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

deficits of retarded individuals can be remedied by providing the appropriate mediational supports. Schulz (1972) has suggested that with normal subjects mediation effects occurring in the chaining paradigm are generally observed early in A-C learning, often in the absence of A-C study trials. In the Borkowski and Johnson (1968) study, the MA and retarded groups had exactly the same level of performance on Trial 1, where the effects of mediation were relatively free of the influence from specific A-C learning trials. Mediational opportunities seemed to be as effectively utilized by the retarded individuals as by MA controls. In contrast, the differences between retarded and MA subjects on Trial 1 in the D-C control condition were quite large and in agreement with other data obtained in a variety of PA learning tasks (Denny, 1964). It is possible that all mediation groups, including at least some of the retarded subjects in the mediation group, may have discovered a relationship or rule regarding the use of A-B and B-C as effective aids in anticipating the pictorial pairs making up Stage 111. Indeed, the rather high level of learning (66% correct) on Trial 1 suggests that more than an associative strategy may have been operative for retarded and normal subjects during the A-C task. Conceptual behavior, akin to problem solving, could have altered the task from the simple associationistic framework (as defined by the experimenters) to a combination of cognitive-associationistic strategies (as actually learned by the subjects). From a theoretical perspective, future research with the retarded might well be aimed at detailing those procedural conditions in the chaining paradigm, as well as subject characteristics, which change a mediational paradigm from associationistic to conceptual and, presumably, result in more rapid learning of the terminal PA list. Milgram (1968a) has also provided data supporting a conceptual rather than associative interpretation of mediated facilitation in the chaining paradigm (A-B, B-C, A-C) with retarded children and adults (both EMRs and TMRs ) . In his study, an explicit mediational strategy-sentence recitation-was used to strengthen the B-C associations and to test whether B-C associative strength, as reflected in Stage I11 learning rates, was solely a function of number of prior study trials. His four experimental conditions included one group receiving a standard chaining procedure in which A-B picture associations had strong extra-experimental connections while B-C and A-C picture pairs were weakly associated; two-sentence recital groups receiving the identical standard chaining paradigm, with additional instructions to repeat sentences containing stimulus and response terms during the initial B-C trial (in one group the sentences were meaningful and in another they were nonsensical) ; a control condition consisting of the stan-

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

13

dard A-B, D-C, A-C paradigm. All lists, of lengths ranging from four (for TMRs) to six pair (for EMRs ) , were learned to a criterion of two perfect recitations; hence, many, if not all, pairs in each list were overlearned. Milgram’s (1968a) results indicated a clear superiority of the meaningful sentence recitation condition during A-C learning in contrast to the performance of the standard chaining as well as the control conditions. The effectiveness of the nonsensical sentences was also substantial when compared to the control or chaining conditions, although the differences were of smaller magnitude than when meaningful sentences were used. Only with TMRs did meaningful B-C sentences produce more evidence of mediational activity during A-C learning than nonsensical B-C sentences. Differences between the chaining and control conditions were significant, though smaller in magnitude than for the recitation and control comparisons. Analyses of Stage I1 learning showed that the meaningful sentence group learned the B-C list faster than the chaining group, with the nonsensical sentence group generally in the middle. Apparently, retarded adolescents and adults of widely different IQs were able to use explicit instructions related to B-C sentence recitation to increase mediation during A-C learning in contrast to a standard chaining group. This superiority in the sentence recitation groups was found in spite of the fact that the chaining condition had more B-C presentations and had learned the B-C associations to a high degree (i.e., a criterion of two perfect recitations of the list). Milgram (1968a) argued that his mediational results were attributed to a greater availability of B-C links during A-C learning for the sentence recitation groups and were not due to a transfer of learning strategy (sentence recitation) from Stage I1 to 111. Although in 1968 there were ample data suggesting that retarded individuals were unable to transfer a sentence strategy to a neutral list, more recent findings have demonstrated strategy transfer (MacMillan, 1972; Turnure & Thurlow, 1973; Wanschura & Borkowski, 1974). These findings argue for the inclusion of an A-B, D-C, A-C control group having sentence recitation during Stage 11, as a test for the possibility of strategy transfer during Stage 111 acquisition. In any case, both interpretations of Milgram’s ( 1968a) data suggest that higher-order, cognitive processing does indeed influence three-stage mediational activity. A simple S-R,associationistic view does not sufficiently account for mediation in the chaining paradigm by retarded individuals. 2. MEDIATIONAL DEFICIENCIES IN THE RETARDED?

Most of the studies using the three-stage chaining paradigm have indicated that mentally retarded individuals can improve PA learning via mediational associations acquired during earlier learning tasks. However, the

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

14

results of two studies might tend to restrict such a generalization. Penney, Seim, and Peters (1968b) used a three-stage, mixed list, chaining task to test for a mediational deficiency in retarded children (1% = 61 ) relative to = 99.2). In their mixed list design, normal children of the same MA all subjects received both mediational (A-B, B-C, A-C) and control (A-B, D-C, A-C) pairs within the three tasks. The most important results, shown in Fig. 2, represent mediation scores, defined as the mean number of A-C trials required to reach a criterion of one correct recitation for D-C pairs minus a similar measure for B-C pairs, plotted as a function of type of subject and length of the anticipation or test interval. In other words, the mean CI facilitation scores in Fig. 2 represent the amount of mediation as indexed by the difference in learning rates for control and experimental pairs. With a relatively short anticipation interval (6 seconds), moderately retarded children were found to be mediationally deficient relative to normal children of the same MA. However, when the interval was lengthened to 12 seconds, mediation in the retarded group was facilitated (improving from approximately -.75 to .75 trials), whereas mediated facilitation was eliminated for normal children. Does the Penney et af. (1968b) study support a mediational deficiency position? Several aspects of the design and data suggest the answer is no. First, as the rate of testing became optimal (i.e., a 12-second anticipation

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MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

15

period), the retarded group seemed to show increased benefits from mediational aids (A + B + C) during A-C learning. In fact, at the longer interval the retarded children were mediating more than the normal children. Second, the use of a mixed list design probably led to the adoption of “mixed” strategies, at least for some normal children. Hence, one explanation of the precipitous drop in mediation performance for the normal children as the anticipation interval increased could be based on their recognition of the difference between mediation and control pairs at the longer interval and a subsequent attempt to employ a unique, nonmediation strategy for control pairs. It should be noted that the 6-second test period for normals appears to be functionally equivalent, in terms of amount of mediational activity, to a 12-second test period for the retarded. In both instances, evidence for mediation is apparent; a mediational deficiency position does not seem tenable. Gallagher (1969) used the chaining paradigm to compare moderately retarded and normal children of the same MA, although he based A-B and B-C links on free-associative strengths (FAS) inferred from normative association data. In other words, rather than developing A-B and B-C associations in the laboratory, Gallagher manipulated the strength of these associations (high, low, and nonassociated FAS values) via natural language habits, requiring his subjects to learn only a single list, A-C. Within the A-C list, subjects were presented six pairs, two pairs each representing high, low, and zero FAS values; zero FAS was equivalent to a nonmediated, control condition. Significant main effects of FAS values and subject classification were found. That is, both normal and retarded subjects used natural language associations ( A + B + C) to facilitate A-C learning. However, contrary to the findings of Berkson and Cantor (1960) and Borkowski and Johnson (1968), normal M A control subjects made fewer errors than retarded subjects at all FAS levels. As Gallagher (1969) suggests, perhaps the natural language mediators based on two different sets of normative values were not as readily available to the retarded subjects. Three additional aspects of the design and procedure should be pointed out in assessing the mediational differences between the retarded and normal groups: (1 ) Study and anticipation intervals were both 2 seconds in duration. This represents a very rapid rate of presentation and testing, especially in view of the fact that the 2-second test period was filled with a stimulus probe and then a response. Schulz and Lovelace (1964) have pointed out that normal adults often require up to 5 seconds to utilize mediators available in their response repertoires. The use of a 2-second test period per A-C pair does not allow much time for mediational processing, especially in retarded individuals for whom natural language associations may be less accessible for retrieval. (2) The use of an aural presentation method is quite different from the visual presentation of pictures, which is common

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

16

in much of the three-stage mediation research. Aural presentation is probably one major cause of differences in the mediational capacities of normal and retarded children. It would seem to constitute a more difficult task situation and the apparent success of the retarded group in utilizing high and low FAS words as mediators is encouraging. (3) Another possible difference in mediational performance may be related to Gallagher’s (1969) use of a mixed design in which some pairs lent themselves more readily to a mediational strategy. Did the retarded subjects employ separate strategies for the three sets of pairs? Were the strategies for normal and retarded children the same? Were the strategies recognized and developed at the same rate across trials? Some of these questions may be answered by probing each pair following A-C learning for the various units that served as mediational links. For instance, an A stimulus might be presented and the subject instructed to recall all words that were associated with A. Both the frequency and ordering (was B or C given first?) of responses might yield information about the various learning techniques used by both the normal and retarded subjects. In summary, the Gallagher (1969) study suggests that although retarded subjects can use their language habits as mediational aids during PA learning of word pairs, the extent of facilitation for the mentally handicapped may be limited by aural presentation, short test periods, and by mixed list designs, which perhaps require differential cognitive processing for rapid acquisition of the entire mediation list.

3. MEDIATION AS

A

FUNCTION OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

a. Eflects of IQ There is not a wealth of data available on the effects of subject characteristics on mediation in the chaining paradigm with the mentally retarded. In 1960, Berkson and Cantor indicated that even low IQ retardates could profit from laboratory-produced mediators in improving PA learning. A more detailed analysis of the effects of IQ on mediated facilitation was performed in the Borkowski and Johnson (1968) study discussed in the preceding section. An inspection of mediational data for the highest and lowest IQ retarded subjects showed that those with the highest IQs (N = 8, 1% = 66.5) performed only slightly better than those with low IQs ( N = 9, = 45.9). That is, across five A-C trials on a six-pair list, the mean total correct for the high IQ subgroup was 27.4 and for the low IQ subgroup 25.3, the difference being nonsignificant. It is noteworthy that two of the three mongoloid children with IQs between 33 and 39 learned the A-C list to a criterion of two perfect recitations within five trials. Thus, the beneficial effects of mediation in the chaining paradigm do not appear

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

17

to be restricted, in any obvious way, by intelligence level within the retarded group. These results lend some support to the conclusion of Berkson and Cantor (1960) that the degree of facilitation associated with mediation is not directly related to IQ.

b. M A Comparisons The effect of MA on the mediational abilities of cultural-familial, retarded children, and adolescents was found to be significant (Penney et al., 1968b). A low MA group (3.9-5.1 years) showed less mediation in a three-stage chaining paradigm than a higher MA group (6.1-8.7 years), although the low MA group experienced more improvement in mediated learning as the anticipation (or test) interval during A-C learning increased from 6 to 12 seconds. It would seem that at this point in time there is insufficient data to propose firm statements regarding the effects of IQ, CA, and MA on three-stage mediational processes in the retarded. However, the little data available does suggest that retarded children, within a rather wide range of I@, can utilize A-(B)-C chains to improve PA learning if procedural conditions are “optimal.”

c. Institutionalization The effect of institutionalization on mediation abilities of retarded children in the chaining paradigm was investigated by Penney and Willows ( 1970). Based on Zigler’s (1966) extensive work documenting the detrimental effects of institutionalization on learning processes, it was predicted that the longer a child was institutionalized, the more likely he would be to exhibit a mediational deficiency. Eighteen cultural-familial retardates who had been institutionalized for periods ranging from 5 months to 2 years = 63.8) were compared on a mediation task with 18 retarded = 61.7) who had been institutionalized for periods ranging children from 3 to 10 years. The task was a three-stage chaining paradigm (A-B, B-C, A-C) for one-half of the picture pairs with the other pairs representing a control paradigm (A-B, D-C, A-C). Contrary to expectations, the longer the institutionalization, the higher the mediation score. That is, a mediational deficit was found in children who had relatively brief periods of institutionalization. Several aspects of the Penney and Willows (1970) study preclude any firm conclusions concerning institutionalization effects on mediation in the retarded. First, a correlation of .73 between length of institutionalization and years in school suggests that some of the mediational advantage in the “long” institutionalized group can be attributed to prior learning experiences (e.g., learning sets) similar to the experimental conditions. Second, a noninstitutionalized, retarded group of the same MA and CA was not

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John G. Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

tested; hence, a baseline for assessing the influence of institutionalization was not established. Third, the use of a mixed list design (half mediation, half control pairs per list) is questionable, from a methodological perspective, in mediational research with the retarded. That is, Schulz (1972) has shown that mixed list designs in three-stage paradigms encourage normal subjects to adopt a rather complex cognitive strategy; namely, a rapid discrimination on A-C Trials 1 and 2 of the differences between mediation (B-C) and control (D-C) pairs and a utilization of a mediational strategy (A + B + C) for some pairs but not for others. Whether or not retarded children can accomplish such a high level of discrimination is doubtful, especially early in A-C learning when mediation is normally most pronounced (cf. Schulz, 1972). In any case, the use of a mixed list probably leads to the utilization of varied strategies within a group and possibly between groups; certainly a mixed list does not present to the experimenter (let alone the subject) an easily analyzable task situation in terms of learning processes. It may well be that the higher IQ children who do discover a structural difference between mediation and control pairs within a PA list, and attempt to employ separate learning strategies for the respective pairs, are more hindered than helped by selective mediational strategies. In short, the effects of institutionalization on mediation in the mentally retarded require more detailed analyses before definite statements can be formulated. 4. COMPLEX THREE-STAGE PARADIGMS: BACKWARD ASSOCIATIONS

The chaining paradigm requires a subject to use forward associations (A + B and B + C ) if mediation is to occur during Stage I11 learning. Other three-stage paradigms are based on a subject’s ability to employ backward associations developed during Stages I and 11. Such paradigms make use of the fact that during PA learning of list A-B, both forward (A-B) and backward (B-A) associations are formed. For instance, if we present list B-A, B-C, A-C-referred to as the response-equivalence paradigm (Horton & Kjeldergaard, 1961)-a subject must use backward associations (A-B) if A + B + C mediational processing is to take place during Stage 111. Similarly, mediation in the stimulus equivalence paradigm (A-B, C-B, A-C) is based on the assumption that the backward link, B + C, developed during Stage 11, is available for A + B + C processing during Stage I11 learning. Both normal adults and chlidren have been shown to mediate in paradigms which rely on the utilization of backward associations (Palermo, 1962; Schulz, 1972). There are little data available on whether or not retarded children can mediate when more complex three-stage paradigms requiring the use of backward associations are employed. Only recently has the issue of associa-

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

19

tive symmetry-a comparison of the rates of development for forward (A-B) and backward (B-A) associations during A-B learning-been actively researched in the mentally retarded. Baumeister and Campbell (1971 ) found that backward associations did develop during the PA learning of retarded children, with the strength of backward associations being only slightly weaker than forward associations. Similarly, Borkowski, McGrath, and Doyle (1969b) used positive and negative transfer paradigms to demonstrate that backward associations in Task 1 influenced the rate of learning of Task 2 for both normal and retarded children. In their review of PA learning processes in the retarded, Baumeister and Kellas (1971) concluded that “bidirectional learning is a general phenomenon that occurs over a wide range of human development [p. 2651.” Can retarded children employ backward associations as mediational aids in three-stage paradigms? A recent unpublished study conducted by Kamfonik and Borkowski compared mediation in the stimulus-equivalence (A-B, C-B, A-C), response-equivalence (B-A, B-C, A-C), and standard control (A-B, D-C, A-C) paradigms. The materials in all three paradigms were picture pairs, similar to those used by Borkowski and Johnson (1968) designed to enhance the formation of backward associations in Stages I and 11. That is, the lists were constructed so that during Stage I11 learning, potential mediators would be highly available (i.e., strong A-B or B-C associations), and so that the level of A-C difficulty would prompt the use of mediators as the most “efficient” method of learning. An example of one set of pairs used in the stimulus equivalence list is: squirrel(A)tree(B), green(C)-tree(B), squirrel(A)-green(C). Six pairs were used in each of the three lists in both mediation and control conditions. It should be noted that identical performance has been obtained with normals when comparing A-C learning in the A-B, D-C, A-C control condition with A-C learning in A-B, D-B, A-C, and B-A, D-C, A-C control paradigms (Schulz, 1972); hence, only the A-B, D-C, A-C control group was used. The control group received pictures as D terms which were highly associated with C but not associated with the A or B terms (e.g., turtle-green). In order to compare the data with earlier studies involving the chaining paradigm, the procedures were identical to those used by Borkowski and Johnson (1968). The key features were multiple-choice test trials during A-C learning, with long ( 5 seconds) test trial intervals. The mean number of correct responses for the stimulus-equivalence (C-B) , response-equivalence (B-A) , and control (D-C) conditions is presented in Fig. 3. An analysis of variance of mean correct responses per trial indicated that the effects of trials and paradigms were significant, while the interaction between these two variables was not significant. Further analyses showed that the stimulus equivalence paradigm produced superior

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B . Wanschura

20

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FIG.3. Mean number of correct responses during A C learning for stimulusequivalence (C-B ), response-equivalence (B-A) , and control (D-C ) paradigms. (From J. G. Borkowski & A. Kadonik, unpublished study.)

learning in comparison to that produced by the response-equivalence and control paradigms, whose performances were not significantly different from one another. A trials to criterion analysis yielded a similar pattern of results. Subjects in all groups were given a modified free recall task following A-C learning. Each child was presented with an A stimulus, both visually and orally, and asked to recall as many items as he could that “went with” each A stimulus. An analysis of the modified free recall data, which was designed to assess the strength of the B mediator following Stage 111 learning, tended to substantiate the fact that mediated facilitation occurred in the stimulus-equivalence paradigm. That is, B terms were recalled correctly 67% in C-By 52% in B-A, and 47% in D-C and were recalled first 32% in C-B, 28% in B-A, and 19% in D-C. These results reaffirmed the conclusions of Baumeister and Kellas (1971) and Borkowski et al. (1969b) that retarded children develop bidirectional associations during the course of PA learning. More specifically, in the stimulus-equivalence paradigm retarded subjects were shown to employ backward associations to produce mediated facilitation. However, the absence of mediation in the response-equivalence paradigm is not consistent with the findings of Horton and Kjeldergaard (1961) and Schulz (1972) who reported rather sizable mediational effects in this paradigm with college students. There are at least two factors which might have led to mediated facilitation in the stimulus-equivalence but not in the response-equivalence para-

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

21

d i p . First, the backward links in the C-B situation are temporally closer to the test stage (A-C) than in the B-A paradigm, where the backward links are learned during the first learning task. If there are differential rates of forgetting for forward and backward associations in the retarded, it is more likely to impede mediation in the response-equivalence paradigm. The second possible reason why mediation occurred only in the C-B paradigm is that the first link (A-B) may be more critical than the second link (B-C) in initiating or activating the A + B -+ C mediational chain. Perhaps the first link (A-B) is more difficult for retarded individuals to utilize during test trials when it is a backward rather than a forward association. Although backward links can be used in some situations by retarded individuals to mediate PA learning, the mediational process in paradigms requiring backward links does not appear to operate in identical ways for normals and retarded persons. One possible inference from existing data might be that normal individuals are more efficient at overcoming retrieval difficulties associated with the utilization of backward links than are the mentally retarded. However, it should be noted that the extent of mediated facilitation in the retarded with the stimulus-equivalence paradigm was identical to that previously demonstrated with the chaining paradigm (Borkowski & Johnson, 1968). In both situations, one involving the utilization of forward and the other backward associations during Stage 111, retarded subjects were able to report on the average five of six possible correct responses on Trial 1, when pictorial materials, welldeveloped mediation links, and a rather long test trial interval were used. Future research with more complex three-stage paradigms, such as the backward chaining paradigm (B-A, C-B, A-B), the mediated interference paradigm (A-B, B-C,, A-C), and the equivalence paradigms, should be aimed at testing the limitations of mediational processes in the retarded when backward associations or interlist interference are operative in PA learning. In addition, research programs dealing with mediation in fourstage paradigms are needed in order to extend our knowledge of PA learning in the retarded when the mediational chains are more complex in their formation and utilization. C.

Retention and Transfer of Mediational Gains

Most research in mental retardation with three-stage paradigms has focused on a documentation or refutation of mediational activity during the acquisition of a terminal PA list. However, other important issues in three-stage research concern the maintenance of mediational gains over time and the transfer of mediational strategies to new learning tasks. These recent issues in mediation research, while being of theoretical interest, have

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developed because of their obvious applied implications. For instance, can higher-order strategies be taught to retarded children in the laboratory and transferred to classroom assignments? Can problem-solving activities in the classroom be taught in terms of multi-stage paradigms with the expectation of strategy transfer to similar tasks? Borkowski, Ahearn, and Pearson (1969a) assessed the ability of mildly retarded children to store and utilize mediational associations in the chaining paradigm (A-B, B-C, A-C). Specifically, three groups of retarded children learned an A-C list 30 seconds, 20 minutes, or 24 hours after learning Lists A-B and B-C. A single control group learned List A-C 30 seconds after learning Lists A-B and D-C. The materials and procedure were similar to those used by Borkowski and Johnson (1968). Since the pairs were common pictures and the criteria for learning Lists A-B and B-C were extremely high, it was hypothesized that the retention interval would have minimal effect on the retarded children’s utilization of mediators during A-C learning. The mean number of correct responses for chaining and control paradigms as a function of the interval between Lists B-C (or D-C) and A-C is presented in Fig. 4. Orthogonal comparisons showed that A-C learning for the three chaining groups was superior to that for the control group and that the effects of retention interval (30 seconds, 20 minutes, or 24 hours) were nonsignificant. In other words, with highly learned, pictorial materials, retarded children were able to store mediational links up to 24 hours and then utilize these A + B + C chains during Stage I11 learning. 6e

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23

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

It should be noted, however, that the overall magnitude of mediation effect was rather small; the average superiority of the mediation group over the control was about one item per trial. The magnitude of the mediation effect in the Borkowski et al. (1969a) study (about 16% improvement under mediation conditions) is similar to that reported by Penney et d. (1968b) and Borkowski and Johnson (1968). Several studies have attempted to increase the magnitude of mediated facilitation by using transfer designs in which several paradigms are learned in succession. Penney, Peters, and Willows (1968a) used a mixed list, which included chaining and control pairs, to assess the mediational ability of mildly retarded children and adolescents = 60). An analysis of A-C learning during the mediational pretest showed that chaining pairs resulted in significantly fewer errors than control pairs over the first six trials. This finding is in contrast to results reported previously by Penney et al. (1968b) which indicated no mediation in the retarded group with similar materials and procedures, including a 6-second test interval in both studies. Two weeks following the mediation pretest, Penney et al. (1968a) gave subjects training in either a learning set or operant task, and then administered a mediation posttest. The learning set activity required the children to solve 50 consecutive two-choice discrimination problems, involving picture pairs presented for six trials each, or to reach a criterion of 14 out of 15 correct for any three consecutive problems. Subjects were tested over several days on the learning set task and were reinforced with marbles which could be redeemed for stickers. It was hypothesized that the learning set task would enhance the use of spontaneous mediational processing during the intervening training activity. The operant task was designed to minimize mediational activity (by requiring subjects to guess the position, left or right, of a series of pictures presented one at a time) and to provide reinforcement to the same extent as in the learning set condition. Five minutes following the learning set or operant tasks, the mediational posttest was presented. Both chaining and control pairs were included in the four-pair PA lists (A-B; B-C and D-C; A-C). An interaction was found between type of paradigm (mediation or control) and type of intervening activity (learning set or operant task). Learning set enhanced mediation, while the operant task depressed mediation scores. Penney et al. (1968a) concluded that the learning set provided an opportunity for the subject to organize behavior verbally and to use mediators in solving the discrimination problem. The mediational activity during the intervening phase presumably transferred to the mediation posttest and enhanced the children’s ability to employ A + B + C chains during Stage I11 learning on the mediation posttest.

(m

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

24

Borkowski and Kamfonik (1972) attempted to generate transfer of verbal mediational strategies by presenting moderately and mildly retarded subjects = 62) two consecutive chaining or control paradigms separated by a 2-week interval. A major concern was whether or not the children could acquire paradigm-specific mediational habits which would later influence the learning of a second mediational task. If a subject became aware of the A-(B)-C associative strategy during the initial mediational session, would he utilize this strategy during a second mediational task? Postman (1968) has demonstrated that college students who have experience with the chaining paradigm on one occasion show improved performance on a second, unrelated chaining paradigm. In other words, exposure to successive mediational sessions results in a “learning-to-mediate’’ phenomenon. The mean number of correct responses per trial in Stage I11 (for the mediation and control groups) during both sessions is presented in Fig. 5. The main effect of the mediation-control comparison was significant, with the mediation group showing superior learning. The influence of the “learning-to-mediate” phenomenon was revealed in the significant Sessions X Groups interaction. An analysis of this interaction showed that the mediation groups were superior to their control counterparts in both sessions. In addition, the mediation groups were not different from one another during the two sessions whereas the learning for the control group during Session 1 was superior to that in Session 2, due to an increase in the difficulty of task two. In other words, the extent of the difference between the mediation and control groups increased significantly from the fist to the second session. A trials to criterion analysis yielded a similar pattern of results. Following A-C learning, presentation of the A stimuli in a modified free recall task requiring both the B and C responses indicated that B recall by mediational subjects increased from 85 to 95% from Session 1 to Ses-

(m

Session 2

TRIALS (Stage

m)

1 1 3 d 5 6 TRIALS (Stage

m)

FIG.5. Mean number of correct responses for A-C learning during two sessions by mediation and control groups. (From Borkowski & Kamfonik, 1972.)

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

25

sion 2. In addition, recall of the B items first changed from 63 to 92%, suggesting a greater use of the mediational B link in Session 2 than Session 1. Thus, several aspects of the Borkowski and Kamfonik (1972) data suggest that moderately retarded children can “learn-to-mediate” when provided with successive experiences on three-stage mediational tasks. D.

Conclusions and Future Research

Most of the research on mediational processes in the retarded, defined in terms of three-stage paradigms, provides rather clear evidence for mediated facilitation during the terminal stage of PA learning. Given that the length of the test trial is sufficient to allow for the utilization of associative chains, mediation groups almost always perform superior to control groups when the learning materials are either pictures or words. When the mediational performance of retarded individuals is compared to normal individuals of the same MA, the normal group is likely to show greater mediated facilitation, especially at lower MA levels. However, it appears that the difference between normal and retarded individuals in learning a standard nonmediated PA list is considerably larger than the difference under mediation conditions. In other words, mediational processing can be used successfully by the retarded to remedy a portion of the PA deficit commonly found when the task is difficult (cf. Denny, 1964). Some of the more promising findings based on three-stage paradigms center on the ability of the retarded person to store and utilize mediational links over a long time span and to transfer mediational strategies when confronted with successive mediational tasks. Future research should be aimed at developing tactics which enhance the acquisition of mediational strategies and at assessing the transfer of strategies to nonmediated tasks. For instance, if separate groups of subjects are presented either the chaining paradigm or control paradigm for 3 days in succession (three lists per day) and then all are given a single, nonmediated PA list on Day 4, will the strategy developed over days in the mediation group transfer to the final PA list and result in superior learning? This type of research design will enable us to understand more of the retarded person’s capacity to maintain and utilize functional mediators in a variety of learning contexts. In addition, research on three-stage paradigms should be directed at examining failures to mediate in Stage I11 as a function of production deficiencies (the inability of A to elicit the B mediator during A-C learning) or control deficiencies (the inability to utilize an available A + B + C link during A-C learning). Such research efforts need to focus more carefully on a pair-by-pair analysis of mediated learning, rather than on molar

26

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wamchura

response measures such as the number correct per trial or the trials required to reach criterion. Most likely a more microscopic assessment of Stage I11 learning would reveal that many retarded individuals consistently show mediation across trials for a portion of the items in a list, while never mediating on other items. If this is the case, techniques would then need to be devised to increase the generalization of mediational processing within a list, in terms of reducing or eliminating control and production deficiencies for retarded individuals. Ill. NATURAL LANGUAGE MEDIATION A.

An Overview of Natural Language Mediation in the Retarded

Natural language mediational processes in the mentally retarded have been actively researched only during the last decade. In an important study, Jensen and Rohwer (1963b) demonstrated that retarded adults could employ supplied sentence mediators to facilitate performance in a paired-associate (PA) task relative to control subjects who did not receive sentence mediators. This finding was contrary to the extant theoretical notion in the early 1960’s that retarded individuals were unable to use language, in its orienting, abstracting, and systematizing roles to mediate the formation of new connections (Luria, 1957). Following Jensen and Rohwer’s original report, several other studies replicated the facilitating effects of mediation on learning in the retarded, thereby restricting the generalizability of Luria’s (1957) deficit theory. More recent research has been aimed at delineating the types of mediators most easily employed by retarded individuals to aid PA learning. As we shall see in subsequent sections, sentence mediators have been compared with pictorial mediators; semantic and syntactic paragraphs have been contrasted with sentence and labeling mediators; and sentences have been examined in relation to prepositions and conjunctions in terms of their mediational effectiveness. Although most types of supplied mediators have been shown to facilitate performance, the ability of retarded individuals to generate their own mediators has been questioned. Researchers have compared learning rates with experimenter-supplied and subject-supplied mediators, and generally have found less facilitation for the latter condition, where performance sometimes fails to differ from a nonmediated control condition. Techniques and strategies have been sought to improve the production and utilization of self-generated mediators. These efforts include a fading technique with gradual removal of experimenter support, detailed instruc-

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

27

tions to the subject for generating his own mediators, and the use of mixed lists to provide contrast and opportunity for mediational practice. Although techniques for developing an effective mediational strategy, as opposed to using experimenter-supplied mediators, have met with some success in terms of immediate learning, more permanent effects of mediation, as reflected in the retention and transfer of strategy, have generally not been found. What factors contribute to the development of an effective, lasting mediational strategy which can be utilized after a week or more with new learning tasks? In a general sense, sufficiency and consistency of mediational practice seem best to describe these necessary factors. Where sufficient training coupled with a consistent mediational strategy occurs, retarded children will likely demonstrate transfer of the strategy, to some extent, up to 2 weeks after training. Indeed, such findings represent a dramatic change from the mediational deficit positions formulated by researchers in retardation in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s. B. The Development of Natural Language Mediational Strategies

1. MEDIATION AND LANGUAGE STRUCTURES Jensen and Rohwer (1963b) conducted the first mediational study with retarded individuals who were supplied natural language mediators during a PA task. Designed to examine the effects of mediated facilitation on PA and serial learning tasks, Experiment I1 established that retarded adults could utilize supplied mediators to facilitate performance relative to nonmediated control subjects. On Trial 1, mediation subjects were provided with a sentence linking the PA items (e.g., “I threw the SHOE at the CLOCK”), while control subjects were required only to name the items. All subjects then learned a list of eight pairs of colored pictures at their own pace. Although Jensen and Rohwer (1963b) failed to report the analysis of simple effects based on the interaction of tasks and instructions, they stated that mediation groups made significantly fewer total errors and took significantly less time to learn than the nonmediation groups in the PA task. In a second study, Jensen and Rohwer (1963a) again found mediated facilitation for retarded adults supplied sentences for a PA list of six familiar objects. Here, retarded individuals were first required to name and recall the response items and then were provided with mediating sentences on Trial 1. Learning proceeded at the subject’s pace, with correction for wrong responses provided. The mediation group learned very quickly and significantly faster than the nonmediation group. In agreement with Jensen

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John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

and Rohwer’s (1963a, 1963b) findings, Milgram (1968a) found that retarded adolescents learned an A-C list in the three-stage chaining paradigm (A-B, B-C, A-C) significantly better when the B-C link was learned with sentence mediators rather than with standard PA instructions. Thus, the concept of mediational deficiency can no longer be considered synonymous with mental retardation. Since mentally retarded individuals can utilize supplied mediators to facilitate performance, their cognitive functioning cannot be characterized as control deficient (cf. Kendler, 1972). However, the possibility of a production deficiency and the spontaneous use of available mediators must still be considered. 2. MEDIATOR TYPE Once the mediational ability of retarded persons was established, researchers attempted to h d the types of mediators that resulted in maximal facilitation of PA performance. This search included experimenter-supplied, syntactic mediators (e.g., prepositions, sentences, and paragraphs) as well as pictorial mediators (e.g., interacting pictures). In addition, attempts were made to categorize subject-generated associative strategies and correlate their complexity with PA performance.

a. Experirnenter-Supplied Syntactic Mediators The simplest forms of syntactic mediators are prepositions. In an early study, Davidson (1964) found that prepositional mediators were as effective as sentence mediators, and significantly better than labeling (naming pairs) and control conditions for normal second graders of low and high PA ability. These results indicate that simple prepositional connectives are sufficient to produce mediated facilitation in PA learning. In addition, Davidson ( 1964) suggested that the equivalent performance with prepositions and sentences may have been due to the complexity of the supplied, nine-word sentences. A post hoc trial-by-trial analysis indicated that pictured sentences (i.e., a fifth condition in which pairs were joined by pictures interacting in a way described by sentences in the sentence mediation condition) led to significantly more correct responses on Trial 1 than all other conditions. Wanschura and Borkowski ( 1974) have also demonstrated that retarded children can use simple prepositional mediators to facilitate PA performance. Since their subjects were lower functioning than in most previously published research (MA = 4.9, = 39.9, CA = 12.6), the less complex prepositional mediators were chosen to minimize the effects of potential language deficiencies. Moderately and severely retarded children in the mediation groups were able to utilize the prepositions “in, on, and under” to significantly improve PA performance over nonmediation controls.

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

29

Turnure and Walsh ( 1971) have extended syntactic mediation beyond simple prepositions, such as used by Wanschura and Borkowski (1974), and sentences, as employed by Jensen and Rohwer (1963a, 1963b), to two-sentence paragraphs. The EMR subjects learned a different list of four pairs of colored pictures in each of three sessions conducted at approximately 1-week intervals. Each subject learned under all three experimental conditions-Naming, Sentence, and Paragraph. On Trial 1 of each session, subjects were supplied with the appropriate mediator for the assigned condition. Learning proceeded via the anticipation method to a criterion of two consecutive perfect recitations or 20 trials. After criterion was reached, reversal of each PA association was tested by presenting the response term and asking for its associated stimulus item. Turnure and Walsh (1971) found that mediation conditions interacted with test days. On Day 1, Paragraphs required significantly fewer trials to criterion than Sentences, despite ceiling effects in the Paragraph condition. Sentences also required significantly fewer trials than the Naming control group. On Day 2, Paragraph and Sentence conditions performed similarly, although still significantly superior to controls. However, on Day 3 all groups were equal. Since only Day 1 was uncontaminated by transfer from other sessions and conditions, the superiority of Paragraphs over Sentences seems to be the most solid conclusion. That is, increasing syntactic elaboration produced greater mediated facilitation of PA learning in the retarded. The reversal data on Day 1 also indicated mediation in those conditions containing the most elaboration, since Paragraph and Sentence groups reversed well, with significantly less errors than Word mediation. Since the two-sentence paragraphs presented by Turnure and Walsh (1971) involved unbalanced placement of stimulus and response items for the various syntactic conditions, Turnure ( 1971) investigated the systematic placement of pair members within the elaboration. In one condition, Syntactic paragraph, the stimulus was embedded in the first sentence and the response term in the second. In the Semantic paragraph condition, the stimulus and response terms were both included in the first sentence, with the second sentence providing meaningful elaboration. Both Paragraph conditions were contrasted with Sentence and Word mediation (labeling) conditions. To avoid the ceiling effect present in the Turnure and Walsh (1971) study, mildly retarded subjects learned a PA list of eight pairs of colored pictures, It was found that all elaboration conditions required significantly fewer trials to criterion than the Word mediation condition. The two types of paragraphs did not differ, but they were significantly more effective than sentences. Thurlow and Turnure (1972) suggested that the equal performance of Syntactic and Semantic paragraph conditions in Turnure’s ( 1971) study

30

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

resulted from an apparent ceiling effect. Hence, they administered three list lengths (8, 12, and 16 pairs) to EMR subjects in one of three elaboration conditions (Sentence, Semantic paragraph, Syntactic paragraph). In addition to their usual procedure of administering mediation training only on Trial 1, Thurlow and Turnure (1972) employed a drop-out procedure in which each pair correctly recalled one time was dropped from the list until the final trial. After completion of learning and a single reversal trial, five subjects selected randomly from each treatment condition were asked to recall the elaboration they had used during learning. The results indicated no overall effect of conditions, with list length contributing the only significant effect. However, a priori determined comparisons performed on the eight-pair list as a replication of earlier research indicated that the Semantic paragraph group made significantly fewer errors than the Sentence group, which did not differ from the Syntactic paragraph group. There were no significant differences in the trials to criterion measures. Thurlow and Turnure (1972) made a further comparison of syntactic mediators on a list of 24 pairs and found no differences in first trial errors of Sentence (9.14), Semantic paragraph (9.71 ), and Syntactic paragraph (9.28) groups. Not only do differences in syntactic mediators disappear with longer lists, but there is also a suggestion that the relationship among them starts to reverse. Perhaps the longer, more elaborate paragraphs become more of a memory load than a facilitator with more demanding tasks. b, Subject-Produced Syntactic Mediators In order to evaluate subject-produced mediators, a method must be established to categorize the myriad productions possible. Martin, Boersma, and Cox (1965) developed such a classification scheme for associative strategies employed by college students during PA learning. Combining the data from two experiments, they found a monotonically increasing relationship between their suggested ordering of strategy complexity and correct responding. Thus, Martin et al. (1965) felt that an ordinal scale underlay their categorization of strategy complexity and supported the notion that a quantified strategy score could be generated for each subject. To determine if this strategy score could be employed with retarded subjects, it was necessary first to assess whether or not mentally retarded individuals could verbalize the mediational strategies they used during learning. Therefore, Martin, Boersma, and Bulgarella ( 1968 ) provided practice on seven pairs of low meaningful stimuli and high meaningful responses for normal = 13.8, = 112) and retarded (FA = 14.2, = 72) adolescents. The normal individuals received three learning and test trials (LT, LT, LT), with retarded individuals having six learning and

(a

31

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

three test trials (LLT, LLT, LLT). After the practice trials, during which normals made significantly more correct responses than retardates despite participating in half as many learning trials, subjects were informed of the strategies they could have used. Table I1 lists the various possible mediational strategies ranked from low to high level. A criterion task of six PA items was then presented to both groups for ten learning and five test trials (LLT, LLT, LLT, LLT, LLT). After the criterion task, subjects were asked to describe the “tricks” or “cues” they had used during learning. The results of Martin et al. (1968) indicated that the strategies described by retarded adolescents could be classified similarly by two independent judges. The reported strategies also reflected the fact that more correct responses were made by normal than the retarded subjects on the criterion task. Retarded individuals reported more low-level strategies (1 and 2 ) and fewer high-level strategies (6 and 7) than normals, with no difference TABLE I1 CLASSIFICATION OF ASSOCIATIVESTRATEQIES” Category level

Type of cue S reported using

Example of verbal report

Femur-Village: “I couldn’t think of anything here.” Flotsam-Keeper: “Just used straight memorization (repeated it over and over).” 3. Single letter S reported using a single letter Kaysen-Captain: “The second letter of both of them was cues in each of the dissyllables in an A.” making the association 4. Multiple letter S reported using multiple letWelkin-Kitchen: “Both words cues have a K and an I.” ters in each of the dissyllablea 5. Word formation S reported a word embedded Nimbus-Hunger: “I saw the word BUS and remembered in one or both of the dissylit went with Hunger.” lables and used the word in making the association. 6. Superordinate Welkin-Kitchen: “I thought of S reported selecting elements from each of the two disWeekend-Kitchen because syllables and connecting you use B kitchen a lot on them by relating them to the weekend.” each other in some way 7. Syntactical Kupod-Hewa: “Cupid is in S reported selecting elements from each of the two dissylHeaven.” lables and embedding them into a sentence, clause, or phrase. 1. No reported

associations 2. Repetition

S was not able to state how he made the association S reported rehearsing the pair

* Taken from Martin et al. (1968).

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John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

in intermediate strategies (3, 4, and 5 ) . It would seem that the poorer performance by the mentally retarded children may have resulted from their greater use of low-level strategies. However, strategy scores assigned to each subject according to Martin’s et al. (1965) procedure did not correlate with performance, although floor and ceiling effects probably influenced such a finding. Milgram ( 1 9 6 8 ~ )attempted to test the suggested relationship between strategy level or quality of subject-generated mediators and performance on PA tasks. Since he used both meaningful stimuli and responses, Milgram’s ( 1968c) strategies reflected only the higher-level syntactical strategies discussed by Martin et al. (1968) and required a different classification scheme. Milgram ( 1 9 6 8 ~ )compared sentences categorized as no response (0 pts.), nonsensical relationship ( 1 pt.), and positional relationship ( 2 pts.) with those showing functional ( 4 pts.) and novel or original relationships ( 5 pts.). There was no consistent relationship between sentence scores and learning trials. MacMillan (1972) also found no correlation between quality of sentence mediators and PA performance. Milgram and Riedel (1969) investigated the possibility that the low quality of retarded subjects’ produced mediators reflected an inability to describe the interacting pictures often used in mediation research. Both normal and retarded children were asked to describe interacting pictures, and their verbal responses linking the stimulus and response picture pairs were rated on the inclusion of both terms and context of the connection. The inclusion score included ratings for one term missing ( 1 pt.), both terms present ( 2 pts.), and both terms plus an additional element (3 pts.). The context score assigned values to position, unrelated actions, or missing terms (1 pt.); meaningful interaction (2 pts.); and novel or optimal relationship-e.g., “The TELEPHONE(R) is up in the BARN(S) so the cows can call other cows” ( 3 pts.). The data showed a significant effect of MA, with MA9 subjects receiving higher context and inclusion scores than MA7 and MA5 children, although MA7 and MA5 children did not differ from each other. In addition, normal children had significantly higher context scores than retarded children, but inclusion scores only approached significance. Since Milgram and Riedel (1969) gave only one point for positional relationships, which were shown to be effective mediators by both Davidson ( 1964) and Wanschura and Borkowski (1974), their results are difficult to interpret. The data on the utilization of experimenter-supplied sentences by the retarded also attest to the usefulness of positional relationships in improving PA learning (cf. Jensen & Rohwer, 1963b). Hohn and Martin (1970) felt there might be some effect of the quality of a subject-produced mediator on the effective use of experimenter-supplied mediators. Using normal fifth grade students, they presented 20 pairs

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

33

of low meaningful paralogs and familiar words (e.g., DAVIT-VILLAGE) . The subjects were informed of different strategy “tricks” (cf. Martin et al;, 1965) and then asked to write which trick they would use for each pair. After the production patterns were determined (Simple: 1 and 2; Complex: 6 and 7; or Variable: no pattern), the children were assigned to one of three levels of experimenter-supplied mediators (Complex, Simple, or Control). It was found that the Complex treatment defined by the experimenter’s mediators led to significantly fewer trials to criterion than the Control treatment, which in turn resulted in faster learning than the Simple mediation treatment. In addition, high-level, complex producers performed significantly better than low-level, simple producers. Strategy scores reported after acquisition correlated negatively with trials to criterion. Perhaps the superiority of the Control over Simple mediation groups indicates that complex producers, who operate effectively with no instructions, tend to abandon their complex strategies for available experimenterdefined strategies, regardless of their simplicity or effectiveness. A similar study with retarded individuals might provide useful information on the strength of preexisting mediational habits and their interaction with experimentally produced strategies in PA learning.

c. Visual and Imagery Mediation Versus Syntactic Mediation Since syntactic mediation requires at least a minimal degree of language development, its use with retarded children has been compared with nonverbal, visual and imagery mediation. However, contrary to intuitive expectations, retarded individuals do not benefit more from visual than verbal mediators. In contrast to Paivio and Yuille’s (1969) adults, who report an imagery strategy most frequently, retarded subjects seem to perform as well or better with verbal mediators for concrete items. For example, Milgram and Riedel (1969) compared sentences ( verbal context) with interacting pictures (visual compound) at three MA levels. In Experiment I, trainable (TMR5:EA = 5.2, CA = 15.0) and educable (EMR7:KA = 6.9, CA = 15.6, E M R 9 : r A = 8.9, = 17.0) mentally retarded children learned two 6-, 9-, or 12-item PA lists of pictures. Comparisons with nonmediation controls are difficult, since experimental subjects participated in two lists and control subjects in only one. With this limitation in mind, the results suggested that the verbal condition was superior to the control condition at TMRS, verbal and visual superior to control at EMR7, and verbal greater than visual which was superior to control at EMR9. A comparison of EMR performance with that of similar MA, normal subjects from an earlier study (Milgram, 1967b) indicated that retarded individuals were equivalent to normal individuals under verbal and control conditions, but inferior under the visual condition. Milgram

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John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

and Riedel (1969) assert that the exact nature of the covert encoding of verbal and visual mediators is unclear. In an earlier study, Rohwer and Lynch (1968) employed both verbal and visual mediators in a study of PA learning efficiency in retarded adults and normal children of varying grades and social strata. They modified the standard procedures of using interacting pictures as visual mediators, by presenting black and white movie film sequences of the objects engaged in a short-action episode (e.g., a sequence showing a DOG walking to a GATE and closing it). Results showed that the two levels of visual depiction (Action and Still) and two levels of verbal mediators (Sentence and Name) interacted with school strata. An analysis revealed that the interaction occurred only in the lower-strata sample, but further simple effects were not reported. In comparison to all other groups, retarded individuals performed with significantly more errors. However, the lack of two- and three-factor interactions of Depiction and Verbalization with Subject Population (Retarded and Normal) indicated that retarded adults benefit from mediators in a way similar to normals. In addition, the mean correct for the retarded group suggested that all types of mediators (Names-Action = 11.29, Sentences-Still = 10.21, Sentences-Action = 10.62) were equivalent and significantly better than controls (Names-Still = 7.71 ) . Wanschura and Borkowski (1974) also found equal facilitation for three mediator types: Visual (interacting objects), Verbal (prepositional phrase), and Visual-Verbal (interacting objects and prepositional phrase). It would seem that verbal and visual mediators supplied by the experimenter cannot be consistently differentiated in terms of PA performance. Instead of providing mediators, Taylor, Josberger, and Knowlton (1972) instructed subjects in the production of their own imagery and = 70.2, verbal mediators. Before receiving instructions, subjects CA = 12.6) participated in a single study-test trial consisting of the auditory presentation of eight pairs of concrete nouns. A three-trial practice series was then presented during which instructional aid was gradually reduced. For example, the Imagery group saw interacting pictures on Trial 1 , with instructions to imagine separate pictures interacting on Trial 2, and no aid on Trial 3. The Verbal elaboration group received an experimenter-supplied sentence on Trial 1, with instructions to generate a sentence on Trial 2, and no aid on Trial 3. The Repetitioncontrol group participated in three trials during which the experimenter repeated the noun pairs over and over. After training, a list of twelve pairs was presented for a single study-test trial. Following two more practice trials, a third list was given for a single trial. Postexperimental questioning led to the discarding of two subjects who admitted not using the strategy. Taylor et al. (1972) showed that Imagery and Verbal mediation condi-

(m

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

35

tions were significantly better than the Repetition-control on both Lists 2 and 3, but not different from each other. A subsequent study of five subjects trained in each mediation condition considered the types of elaborations given. The significantly greater use of the present tense in the Imagery condition and the past tense in the Verbal condition suggested to the authors a potential means of distinguishing between mediator types. However, no attempt was made to correlate reported elaboration and performance. Taylor et al. (1972) also discussed the fact that the tendency of Verbal mediation subjects to speak out loud may have confounded overt verbalization with elaboration training. In a study using only imagery elaboration, Yarmey and Bowen (1972) compared the effect of intentional and incidental imagery instructions in a 2 X 2 X 3 X 2 design consisting of the following variables: subjects (normal and EMR), stimulus materials (noun pairs and picture pairs), instructions (Intentional Imagery, Incidental Imagery, and Intentional Control), and presentations (one or four trials), After hearing an example, the Intentional Imagery group was instructed to make up images relating the pairs and to rate the ease of their formation on a scale from 1 to 5 . They were also told to learn the pairs for a later recall task. The Incidental Imagery group formed and rated images, but received no instructions to learn the pairs. The Intentional Control group was required to rate how recently they had heard the words or seen the pictured objects and also instructed to learn the pairs for later recall. The normal (1% = 110.5, F A = 8-13) and retarded (IQ = 71.3, CA = 8-13) children then rated a list of 16 PA items, consisting of eight noun pairs and eight picture pairs presented once or four times. Recall was tested by having subjects write the response to each stimulus. Since the response requirement of writing items was rather difficult, two scoring criteria were used: (1 ) Strict scoring-correct spelling or a close approximation; ( 2) Lenient scoring-strict scoring plus words with first two letters correct or a drawing substituted, It should be noted that since no instructions were provided concerning the Lenient system, it is possible that some subjects did not respond by guessing due to spelling difficulties, even though they had partial knowledge of the answer. In any case, with the Strict scoring system, there was a significant Subjects X Instructions X Presentation interaction. Analysis of simple effects indicated that Intentional Imagery equaled Incidental Imagery for retarded children, with both imagery conditions benefiting from four presentations. The Control group was inferior to imagery conditions and showed no effect of repeated presentations. However, floor effects in the performance of the Retarded group make interpretations difficult. In contrast, Intentional Imagery was significantly better than Incidental Imagery for normal children, and received

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

36

no additional benefit from repeated presentations. In turn, Incidental Imagery was significantly better than controls, and both groups improved with more presentations. Thus, retarded children learned more with intentional and incidental imagery instructions than with control instructions, although the facilitation was not great. In addition, the superiority of normal over retarded children was diminished with the Lenient scoring system, under which Retarded-Imagery groups performed significantly better than normal controls. This finding is consistent with Gordon and Baumeister’s (1971) data demonstrating the facilitation of PA performance when response terms are made more available to retarded individuals.

d . Limitations of Mediator Type Research One basic problem with the research conducted on different types of mediational elaboration is the restricted range of materials used. Most of the studies cited have employed pictures, drawings, or common objects as stimulus and response items, the one exception, by Yarmey and Bowen ( 1972), compared noun pairs with picture pairs under imagery conditions. They found that picture pairs led to significantly more correct responses than noun pairs, when the Lenient scoring system was employed. There was also a significant Materials x Instructions interaction, with Intentional Imagery superior to Incidental Imagery for noun pairs, but not for picture pairs. Imagery facilitated performance relative to control for both types of materials. However, there has been no comparison of noun and picture pairs with different types of verbal elaboration. In the child literature, Rohwer, Lynch, Levin, and Suzuki (1967) found an interaction between type of mediator (conjunction, preposition, verb, or label) and type of material (nouns or pictures) at various age levels. For sixth graders verbs equaled prepositions, which were significantly better than conjunctions for printed nouns; in contrast, verbs were superior to prepositions for pictures, but prepositions did not differ from conjunctions. At the third-grade level, verb, preposition, and conjunction mediators were significantly different from each other for both nouns and pictures, but only verb strings were significantly better than nonmediation (naming) controls. Thus, the degree of facilitation from verbal elaborations seems to depend upon materials, as well as type of mediator. The range of materials used in mediation research with the retarded should therefore be expanded in order to assess the effects of mediator types on PA learning. 3.

PRODUCTION OF

SUBJECT-GENERATED MEDIATORS

For normal adults, supplied mediators do not seem as effective as selfgenerated mediators in the facilitation of PA learning. However, Schwartz

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

37

( 1971) examined the possibility that experimenter-constructed sentences or yoked sentences, in which one person receives sentences generated by another (cf. Pelton, 1969), interfered with learning, because the supplied sentences are presumably unlike self-generated sentences. Schwartz ( 1971) developed PA materials (e.g., A-pie, D-cat) whose supplied mediators (e.g., apple, dog) were the most frequently generated mediators, when instructions to mediate were given. Analysis of only those items with identical mediators reported by both Supplied and Generated groups indicated that generated were indeed superior to supplied mediators. Arbuckle and Aznavour (1973) have recently noted that supplied mediators are as effective as self-generated ones for normals, if the method of presentation is auditory and the pairs contain a concrete stimulus and abstract response, together with a concrete retrieval cue. As with mediator type, materials and presentation conditions seem to limit the generalizability of a self-generated mediator superiority over experimenter-supplied mediators. In the area of retardation, Jensen (1965) suggested that the difference between retarded and normal subjects in PA learning may be due to a greater amount of spontaneous mediation by normals. In Kendler’s (1972) terms, retarded individuals would be considered to be production deficient. If this is true, it is reasonable to expect that the relationship between supplied and generated mediators in the learning of the retarded would be different from that found in normals. MacMillan (1970) compared the learning performance of EMR children (1% = 70.2) supplied sentence mediators (Experimental-Mediation) , instructed to generate mediators (Experimental-Control), or merely given verbal labels (Control). To minimize response learning during the PA task, subjects were required to name and recall the six response items prior to acquisition. During pretraining on two pairs, the experimental groups were supplied with short sentences linking the pairs. The learning session followed, with the ExperimentalMediation group receiving mediators and the Experimental-Control group instructed to generate sentences out loud on Trial 1. MacMillan’s (1970) results showed that the Experimental-Mediation group learned significantly faster than the Control group. However, the Experimental-Control group, though it did not differ significantly from Experimental-Mediation, also did not differ from the Controls in trials to criterion or errors. A floor effect was apparently operative, since 60% of control, 47% of Experimental-control, and 13 % of Experimental-Mediation subjects failed to reach criterion after 12 trials and were arbitrarily assigned a score of 13. Although the superiority of supplied over generated mediators is suggested for retarded subjects in the MacMillan (1970) study, the low level of learning limits the generality of this conclusion. In contrast, Gordon and Baumeister (1971) found no difference be-

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura tween supplied and generated mediators for EMRs learning a PA list of 16 items. MacMillan (1972) eliminated the floor effect in his 1970 study by allowing 18 trials to reach a criterion of one perfect recitation of the list. Both Experimental-Mediation and Experirnental-Control groups first learned two lists of nine pairs under mediation conditions and then one list under nonmediated, control conditions. The Control group learned three unaided lists. On Lists 1 and 2 it was found that the two mediation groups were equal and significantly better than controls on both trials to criterion and errors. However, only the Experimental-Mediation group was able to show positive transfer to an unaided list. The Experirnental-Control group equaled Control performance on List 3, for both trials to criterion and error measures. Although generated mediators operated as effectively as supplied mediators and significantly better than no mediators during training, they were still inferior to supplied mediators on a transfer task involving unaided pairs. Several techniques have been explored for enhancing the ability of retarded children to generate their own mediators. Milgram ( 1967a) has tried a fading technique in which subjects first received supplied mediators, then were required to generate mediators, and finally learned a list with only instructions to remember the earlier strategy. The retarded and normal children learned three PA lists of nine picture pairs. An analysis of trials to criterion by the retarded group on the first three lists showed a significant List x Condition interaction. That is, the Control group learned in significantly fewer trials on Lists 2 and 3 than List 1, whereas the Experimental group did not differ across lists. Since the Mediation group learned significantly faster than controls, the lack of significant change across lists implies that the training technique was successful in encouraging experimental subjects to generate their own mediators for the nonmediated List 3. In fact, normal and retarded performances were equal, with retarded individuals forming somewhat more complex sentences than normals on List 3. In another study, Milgram (1968b) spread his graduated training sequence across 8 days. On Days 1 and 2 a standard control procedure was followed. Lists on Days 3 and 4 were learned with supplied mediators, whereas self-generated mediators were used on Days 5 and 6. Days 7 and 8 involved noncommital instructions. Contrary to Milgram’s ( 1967a) earlier finding, a gradual sequence of training failed to facilitate self-mediation. In fact, Milgram suggests that his subjects may have been mediational deficient, since they benefited less from supplied mediators than normal children. However, this interpretation is tenuous since the retarded subjects did benefit from mediators relative to nonmediation controls. It would seem that low MA retarded adolescents have difficulty in developing a mediational strategy when it involves spontaneous utilization.

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

39

Detailed instructions during practice trials have also been employed as devices to elicit self-generated mediators. This procedure differs from earlier methods in that actual mediation pairs are not involved in training. Taylor et al. (1972) found that EMRs could improve performance relative to controls, by receiving graded instructions (cf. Milgram, 1967a) on three practice trials in the use of verbal and imagery mediation. Yarmey and Bowen (1972) have also demonstrated that EMRs can learn to form imagery mediators in as few as four practice trials, such that performance of experimental subjects exceeded that of controls. However, the “high” IQs of the children in both studies (70.2 and 71.3, respectively) poses problems in extending the generality of these results to the retarded population as a whole. A third technique for developing subject-generated mediators involves the use of mixed lists of experimenter-supplied and control pairs. It might be expected that the juxtaposition of aided and unaided items would encourage the transfer of generated mediators to unaided pairs. Martin (1967) supplied normal fourth, sixth, and eighth graders with strategy aids for all eight PA items, for four of eight items, or for no items. He found that Total-Aid and Half-Aid groups were both significantly better than the Control group, and no different from each other. A comparison of unaided items in the partially aided list with the same items in the control list showed a significant superiority for those items juxtaposed to aided pairs. However, Martin (1967) rejected the interpretation that aided pairs provided implicit examples for producing subject-generated mediation. For the most part, there were no significant differences between strategy scores in the Half-Aid and Control groups, leading Martin to conclude that the half-aid condition merely reduced the size of the list by allowing rapid mastery of aided items. In this way, subjects had more time to concentrate on learning unaided pairs. However, since Milgram (1968c), Martin et al. (1968), and MacMillan ( 1972) have all reported no correlation between strategy level and PA performance with retarded individuals, the facilitation of unaided items in partially aided lists as a result of “strategy generalization” should not be disregarded solely on the basis of an absence of differences in strategy scores. Perhaps a more probing technique for assessing strategy utilization is needed. Wanschura and Borkowski (1974) tested the utility of partially aided lists in producing self-generated mediators in retarded children. They provided retarded children (MA = 4.9, 1% = 39.9, F A = 12.6) with prepositional mediators for all six items (100% aid), for three of six items (50% aid), or for no items (control). Although the Half-Aid group learned aided items as easily as the Total-Aid group, they failed to learn unaided items better than the Control group. Thus, the use of mixed lists

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

40

with retarded subjects without further instructions did not facilitate subjectproduced mediators. Since these children were quite low functioning, the effect of explicit instructions to generate mediators should be examined before the mixed list techniques is discarded as a strategy for reducing possible production deficiencies. In summary, it would seem that retarded subjects who generate mediators do not surpass the performance of subjects supplied with mediators in PA learning. Indeed, retarded children sometimes fail to produce mediators and perform similarly to controls. Techniques for improving the selfgeneration of mediators have included a gradual reduction of the experimenter’s support as well as detailed instructions during practice. Although these methods have facilitated immediate performance, a long-term benefit from mediation is not evident. The use of aided and unaided pairs in the same list has also failed to improve mediational strategy. 4. MEDIATION AS

A

FUNCTION OF

INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES

a. M A Eflects Contrary to Zigler’s (1967) contention that MA determines the rate of learning in most tasks, Jensen and Rohwer (1968) assert that both MA and IQ influence performance on learning tasks. The role of MA and IQ in mediated facilitation of PA learning can be studied by comparing the performance of retarded individuals with that of equal MA and CA control subjects. The three natural language mediation studies using an equal CA control group have reported the superiority of normal over retarded children (Martin et al., 1968; Rapier, 1968; Yarmey and Bowen, 1972). These data seem to suggest a low MA-low IQ deficit. The eight natural language studies using equal MA controls have found inferior retarded performance in four instances (Jensen, 1965; Milgram, 1968b, 1968c; Rohwer & Lynch, 1968) and performance equal to MA normals in the other four studies (MacMillan, 1972; Milgram, 1967a, 1968c; Milgram & Riedel, 1969). Those studies reporting the superiority of normal over equal MA retarded individuals tend to include low MA o r h w IQ subjects. For example, Milgram ( 1 9 6 8 ~ )found that CA4 normals were superior to TMRs (MA = 5.2) in learning a PA list with self-generated mediators. Milgram (1968b) reported that normals learned in significantly fewer trials to criterion than retarded children (MA = 4.6), when supplied and generated mediation conditions were combined. Thus, retarded individuals with an MA of 5 years seem to have more difficulty than normal children in utilizing mediators in PA learning. As MA level increases to around 8 years, the difference between normal and retarded groups disappears (Milgram, 1 9 6 8 ~ ) .

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

41

To examine the influence of MA level on mediation independent of normal comparison groups, Gordon and Baumeister (1971) studied three levels of MA (6, 9, and 12). They employed a design consisting of MA level, Instructions (supplied, generated, or standard), and Response Availability (recall or recognition). Results showed that with standard PA instructions mildly retarded children (MA12) did not demonstrate a responselearning deficit, since the recognition procedure was equal to the recall procedure in terms of errors. However, MA6 and MA9 retarded children learned better with the recognition than the recall procedure. An analysis of MA and the two mediation instruction conditions showed a significant effect of MA, but no differences due to supplied or generated instructions. Thus, performance improved directly with increasing MA, although all MA levels benefited equally from supplied and generated mediators. The three MA levels showed a superiority of mediation conditions over control conditions. Contrary to Milgram’s (1968b) findings with the lowest MA group (MA = 4.5), Gordon and Baumeister’s (1971) lowest MA level ( 6 years) learned better under mediation than neutral conditions. Wanschura and Borkowski (1974) have also shown significant improvement for low functioning retarded children (MA = 4.9) receiving experimenter-supplied mediators. b . Institutionalization More than half of the studies reporting mediated facilitation in the retarded have employed noninstitutionalized subjects, usually EMR children enrolled in the public school system or adults in sheltered workshops. The remaining studies obtained subjects from institutions for the mentally retarded, often with no consideration given to length of institutionalization as a matching variable. Although Baumeister (1969) has shown that there is a significant correlation between months of institutionalization and trials to criterion on a standard PA task when IQ is statistically controlled, only one study has assessed natural language mediation in institutional and noninstitutional environments. Milgram ( 1968c) examined the sentence mediation performance of institutionalized EMR subjects (MA = 8.1, = 58, = 18.3) and noninstitutionalized EMRs (MA = 8.5, 13 = 77, CA = 11.9) enrolled in the public school system. He found that noninstitutionalized children learned in significantly fewer trials than institutionalized children. However, initial differences in IQ and age make the results difficult to interpret strictly in terms of institutionalization.

c. Socioeconomic Status In addition to MA, IQ, and institutionalization, there seems to be an interaction of IQ with socioeconomic status (SES) in mediation tasks.

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John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

Rapier (1968) has shown that normal children of high and low SES perform equally well, but that significant differences occur in the retarded population as a function of social class. It appears that low SES mentally retarded children perform as well as normal low SES children, but high SES retardates make significantly more errors than low SES retarded children. This latter result may be due to a greater homogeneity of etiology, probably organic in nature, in the upper class group.

d . Summary Mediated facilitation of PA learning in the retarded appears to be influenced by such subject characteristics as MA, IQ, SES, and perhaps length of institutionalization. Retarded children generally evidence a low MA-IQ deficit in comparison to normal CA controls, and sometimes show a low IQ deficit relative to normal MA controls. Although Milgram (1968b, 1968c) found inferior performance for low MA subjects, Gordon and Baumeister ( 197 1) and Wanschura and Borkowski ( 1974) both reported mediation effects with low MA levels. However, the range of reported IQs in the studies surveyed is restricted, with nine studies employing subjects with mean IQs of appproximately 70, four studies reporting IQs around 55, and three studies using IQs around 40. Thus, much of the mediation research using language associations has involved only mildly or moderately retarded EMR children. Little information is available on the mediation capabilities of low IQ, retarded children.

C.

Retention and Transfer of Natural Language Mediation

Although most researchers consistently report the lack of a mediational deficiency in retarded individuals, a durable mediational strategy usually fails to develop during training sessions. That is, subjects utilizing mediators during learning do not develop strategies which improve performance relative to controls on a subsequent nonmediated list presented at some future time, usually after 1 or 2 weeks. However, positive short-term effects from mediational training have been demonstrated (Milgram, 1967a; MacMillan, 1972), such that retarded children receiving mediation conditions learned significantly better than controls on a nonmediated list presented immediately after training. If the factors operating in these short-term successes can be isolated and expanded and those contributing to failure avoided, then the possibility of long-term mediational transfer can be enhanced.

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

43

1. FAILURES IN RETENTION AND TRANSFER OF MEDIATIONAL STRATEGIES The long-term effects of mediational experiences have been studied by testing recall or relearning of mediated pairs or by comparing performance of Mediation and Nonmediation groups on subsequent nonmediated test lists. Jensen and Rohwer (1963a) found no effect of mediated learning on the relearning of six pairs 1 week later. However, ceiling effects in the Mediation group limited the possibility of improvement during relearning. Jensen and Rohwer (1963b) have also demonstrated that experience with a single mediated list of eight pairs did not facilitate performance on a control list given 10 to 12 days later. Rapier ( 1968) found similar negative results 1 week after her subjects learned a mediated, nine-item list. Milgram (1967a) replicated the failure of mediation subjects to show long-term benefits in learning two lists of 12 pairs 1 week after training. However, his mediation subjects did show short-term facilitation from the three-stage training sequence (supplied mediators, generated mediators, or no instructions). The major difference between those studies reporting no mediated facilitation and those obtaining short-term effects seems to be in amount of training in the use of mediational strategies. All three negative studies provided only one mediation experience, whereas Milgram ( 1967a) and MacMillan (1972) both provided two mediated lists before testing for immediate transfer. Although Milgram (1967a) later found no long-term transfer, his changing procedures might have produced a different strategy for each phase of his three-phase procedure. As a result, neither strategy may have been strong enough, due to only one training experience, to prevail over time. It would seem that a suficient amount of training coupled with a consistent strategy are essential in leading to the long-term transfer of mediational strategies.

TRANSFER OF MEDIATIONAL STRATEGIES 2. POSITIVE Although Martin ( 1967) reported significantly better recall by mediation than control subjects 1 week after learning, the failure to equate degree of original learning makes his results difficult to interpret. Turnure and Walsh ( 1971) found significant transfer of a mediational strategy to an unaided list learned 1 week later. In point of fact, Turnure and Walsh (1971) expected no transfer, so they assigned their experimental conditions (Paragraph mediation, Sentence mediation, and Word mediation) in three different orders. The EMR subjects learned four-pair lists under all three mediation conditions, each presented a week apart. It was found that the Word

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B . Wanschura

44

mediation group was significantly better on Day 3, after having participated in Paragraph and Sentence mediation conditions, than on Day 1. Turnure and Walsh’s (1971 ) finding supports the suggestion that sufficient training facilitates transfer, since their subjects had participated in two mediated lists, both of which involved experimenter-supplied mediators. Turnure and Thurlow (1973) have followed up the earlier study by Turnure and Walsh (1971 ) with an examination of the amount of training required for transfer. The EMR subjects learned a list of eight pairs each week for three successive weeks, under one of three treatment conditions: Group I-labeling only, then reversal on the last trial of the last day (LLLR) ; Group 11-paragraph, then labeling and reversal (PLRLR) ; Group 111-paragraphs twice, then labeling and reversal (PPLR). Two additional groups included to test for the effects o€ reversal did not differ from their no-reversal counterparts. The results presented in Fig. 6 indicate that mediation conditions performed significantly better than labeling on Day 1. On Day 2, the group receiving mediators only on Day 1 (i.e., Group

-- -

GROUP

1

QROUP

I1

---- -- - GROUP

0

(No elaboration)

(One elaboration)

111 ( T w elaborations)

t Day 1

Day 2

TESTING

Day 3

DAYS

FIG.6. Mean first trial errors for three treatment groups on three testing days. (From Turnure & Thurlow, 1973.)

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

45

11) failed to differ from controls. Thus, one elaboration was not sufficient for transfer, as previous studies have also noted. On Day 3 first trial errors by the Two elaborations group (i.e., Group 111) differed significantly from the No-elaboration and One-elaboration groups, although trials to criterion did not differ. Sufficient practice (i.e., two mediated lists) together with a consistent strategy was effective in producing transfer of the strategy to an unaided list on Day 3. Ross (1971 ) has also found facilitation of PA strategy transfer through participation in a 6-week special music program. The principle and utility of mediational links were emphasized, while EMR children were presented a series of associative learning tasks (e.g., learn to clap loudly when one sees an elephant walking). Ross ( 1971 ) reported significant differences in pre- and postexperimental PA learning scores for the experimental children but no differences for children in the control, traditional music program. In postexperimental questioning, 16 of 19 experimental subjects reported using mediational links as compared to only 3 of 19 control children. Ross, Ross, and Downing (1 973) then tried to determine if intentional training was necessary for long-term strategy development, or if observational learning was equally effective. During a 5-week story, question, and table game program, Intentional-trained subjects were supplied mediational links for each game, then instructed to form their own links, and finally participated without mediational instructions. Observation learning subjects played each game with an adult model who exhibited mediational strategies, but they received no mediational instructions. Control subjects participated in the same story and PA game program, but received no direct or indirect mediational training. Ross, Ross, and Downing ( 1973) found that Intentional and Observation groups learned a posttraining PA task (adjusted for differing levels of pretraining performance) to the same number of trials to criterion, with Control subjects requiring significantly more trials. In addition, for Intentional and Observation conditions, observed and reported mediators increased from less than 1 % of the pairs in pretraining to 29% of the posttraining pairs. In contrast, control subjects frequently used a cumulative rehearsal strategy which tended to interfere with learning. Thus, a long-term mediational strategy was effectively developed by observation learning as well as intentional training programs administered over a relatively long period of time. However, several procedural and analytical problems seem to limit the interpretation of the (1973) findings of Ross et af. First, the failure to equate treatment groups on available pretraining PA scores leaves a doubt as to their actual equality before treatment, which cannot be erased through the simple expediency of adjusting posttraining scores. Second, pre-post

46

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

comparisons might have more adequately taken into account pretraining group diflerences. However, if the Ross et al. (1973) results can be replicated with these minor procedural changes, they suggest exciting possibilities for training mentally retarded children in the development of mediational strategy solely through observational learning. Although long-term transfer of a mediational strategy has been reported by four investigators, the IQ range of the subjects involved has been very restricted (@ = 67.7; 78.9; 51-80; and 69.6). Examination of those studies failing to obtain mediational transfer (Jensen & Rohwer, 1963a; Rapier, 1968; Milgram, 1967a) reveals a much lower functioning individual (with m s generally around 50 to 5 5 ) , in all but one instance estimated at 71). Thus, it is difficult to assert that retarded individuals can transfer strategies, without restricting the statement to mildly retarded EM&. Wanschura and Borkowski (1974) attempted to address this issue by demonstrating that low-functioning retarded children (MA = 4.9, = 39.9, CA = 12.6) could, in fact, develop and transfer a mediational strategy. To maximize the amount of training, Wanschura and Borkowski departed from the normal procedure of providing mediators only on Trial 1. Instead, their subjects received supplied mediators on every trial of three successive PA tasks. In addition, three degrees of aid were provided, such that some children learned mixed lists consisting of both aided and unaided items (50% aid), whereas others received aid on all items (100% aid) or no items (control). Transfer was tested 2 weeks later on a nonmediated control list. Error data as a function of degree of aid and training and test sessions are presented in Fig. 7. It was found that the Total-Aid group learned the six pairs in the transfer list with significantly fewer errors than controls. The consistent 100% aid strategy showed significant transfer effects on Task 4, resulting in fewer errors than occurred in the other two conditions. The Half-Aid group failed to differ from controls during learning or transfer. One possible reason for the performance of the Half-Aid group is the lack of a consistent strategy during learning. That is, partial-aid subjects were provided with mediators for aided items, but no instructions were given for unaided pairs. This could have led to the development of two conflicting strategies-ne rote, the other mediational in nature. Sufficient and consistent training, both within and between training sessions, seemed necessary for the development of a mediational strategy strong enough to transfer to a nonmediated list 2 weeks later. It should be noted, however, that much of the mediational gain established by Task 3 in the 100% aid group had dissipated during the assessment of transfer of mediational strategy on Task 4.

(m

47

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

Y

> a

1

2

3

4

T A S K S

FIG.7. Mean errors per trial averaged over the fist five trials as a function of degree of aid during training and transfer tasks. (From Wanschura & Borkowski, 1974.)

3. METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTSOF MEDIATEDTRANSFER One basic problem with the research on transfer of mediational strategies lies in the very definition of transfer effects. The typical paradigm provides some subjects with mediators and others with no mediators during a training period. After a retention period has elapsed, the performance of the two groups on a control list is compared. If mediation subjects perform significantly better than controls, a mediational strategy is assumed to be present. Although there are no a priori reasons to expect other factors to be operative, it would be reassuring to have additional measures of mediational activity. Postexperimental measures of mediator quality have been tried, but usually have failed to correlate with performance (Milgram, 1968c; MacMillan, 1972). Converging operations might be employed in the assessment of mediated transfer to bolster the assumption that such effects are truly operative (cf. Garner, Hake, & Eriksen, 1956). Turnure and his colleagues have tried reversal trials in which the response term is presented for recall of the

48

John G . Borkowski and Patricia B. Wanschura

stimulus item, after criterion is reached. Turnure and Walsh (1971) found that the mediation conditions were equal and significantly better than the control condition on the reversal trial. Thus, good reversal performance seemed equated with the effective use of mediators. Turnure and Thurlow (1973) showed that the reversal technique reflected the direction and significance of the transfer effects found in their study. However, Turnure (1971 ) found a significant Conditions X Sex interaction, such that the reversal technique failed to discriminate between Mediation and Control groups for male subjects. It would seem that the reversal technique has potential for discriminating the use of a mediational strategy in transfer tasks, but it needs further investigation to verify its effects over a wide range of conditions. Wanschura and Borkowski (1974) used a probe technique for determining the presence of mediators. After reaching criterion on the third list, subjects were asked to show how the pairs “go together.” Probe data reflected the significant differences between Total-, Partial-, and No-aid groups. It was found that the Total-Aid group recalled a mean of 4.8 out of 6 supplied mediators; this represents the best recall of prepositional mediators in any of the groups. A second probe required subjects to point to the picture depicting the mediational interaction. The correct picture was presented on a card with two other pictures, showing a noninteracting relationship or a touching relationship which was not explicitly positional. However, the Point probe data was not correlated with error scores during learning. In fact, a position bias developed, such that the left-bottom picture was pointed to significantly more often than either top or right-bottom ones, Unfortunately, Wanschura and Borkowski failed to employ the probes after the transfer task, so the value of the Show probe as an additional indicator of mediational transfer is yet to be determined. Thus, the current attempts at multiple measures fail to provide reliable indexes of mediational processing, beyond the traditional experimental-control comparison. The importance of mediation in cognitive functioning demands that more sophisticated and reliable methods be developed to act as converging measurement operatiops in documenting mediational processing in the retarded. The conclusion that retarded individuals can transfer a mediational strategy over time is qualified when one examines the data more carefully. Not only is the subject population extremely limited, but the degree of transfer is not large. For example, Turnure and Thurlow (1973) found approximately a 1.5 error difference between mediation and control conditions on Day 3 (the transfer task), but a 4.0 error difference between mediated conditions on Day 1 and the nonmediated control condition on Day 3 for

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES IN THE RETARDED

49

the same subjects. Wanschura and Borkowski (1974) found a dissipation of mediated facilitation when comparing the performance for the Total-Aid group on Task 3 (final training session) and Task 4 (the transfer task). When retarded individuals employ a mediational strategy on a nonmediated, transfer task, it does not approach the strength or quality of a supplied mediational strategy used during training. It would seem that the ability of retarded individuals to produce a mediational strategy, though not lacking, is nevertheless deficient to some degree. Though transfer of strategy occurs across a wide range of M A levels, much of the positive influence of mediational transfer dissipates over time. It is necessary for researchers to determine the kind and amount of training that would remedy this “limited production deficiency.” We would expect that sufficiencyand consistency in training will be dominant in this search.

IV. CONCLUSION

Although most research with three-stage and natural language paradigms has been conducted during the last decade, there already exists a sizable literature on mediational processing in the mentally retarded. Under optimal experimental conditions, retarded individuals can use mediators in a wide variety of contexts to aid PA learning. These findings limit the generality of Luria’s ( 1961 ) mediational deficiency hypothesis associated with mental retardation. Apparently, there is little evidence to support a mediation control deficiency in the retarded. When r-s mediators are available during PA learning tasks, retarded children and adults are generally able to use covert mediators to influence rate of acquisition. However, most mediational findings indicate a limited production deficiency, especially with lower functioning retarded children. Production deficiencies become more obvious when tasks are designed to assess the transfer of mediational strategies. This is especially true when the mediational strategy has not been sufficiently or consistently formed during training. Future research in mediation will probably proceed in the same general direction as much of the current research in short-term memory, namely, at delineating the conditions under which learning strategies are most easily made available to and utilized by retarded individuals. Recently, Kellas, Ashcraft, and Johnson ( 1973) have shown that an experimenter-developed rehearsal strategy, in which cultural-familial retarded individuals shadowed the experimenter’s overt, cumulative rehearsal on a pretraining task, produced a dramatic alteration of the learning strategy which was, in turn,

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correlated with accelerated rates of acquisition of the training task. Relearning measures, taken after a 2-week interval, continued to demonstrate the spontaneous use of the cumulative rehearsal strategy which appeared responsible for the retention superiority of those individuals who had been taught self-paced, rehearsal techniques. The next decade of research, in both mediation and memory, is likely to focus on the acquisition and maintenance of cognitive-structured, rehearsal and mediation strategies as means of ameliorating learning difficulties in the mentally retarded. REFERENCES Arbuckle, T. Y.,& Aznavour, L. Effectiveness of supplied mediators in relation to presentation modality and retrieval cue. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973, 98, 286-290. Balla, D., & Zigler, E. Discrimination and switching learning in normal, familial retarded, and organic retarded children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1964, 69, 664-669. Baumeister, A. A. Paired-associates learning by institutionalized and noninstitutionalized retardates and normal children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 102-104.

Baumeister, A. A., & Campbell, C. Formation of backward associations in pairedassociates learning by normal children and retardates. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971, 89, 298-305. Baumeister, A. A., & Kellas, G. Process variables in the paired-associate learning of retardates. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), Znternational review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 5. New York: Academic Press, 1971. Pp. 221-270. Berkson, G., & Cantor, G. N. A study of mediation in mentally retarded and normal school children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1960, 51, 82-86. Boat, B. M., & Clifton, C., Jr. Verbal mediation in four-year-old children. Child Development, 1968, 39, 505-514. Borkowski, J. G., Ahearn, J. P., & Pearson, J. Retention and utilization of mediators by retardates. Psychonomic Science, 1969, 15, 96-97. ( a ) Borkowski, J. G., & Johnson, L. 0. Mediation and the paired-associate learning of normals and retardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1968, 72, 610-613.

Borkowski, J. G., & Kamfonik, A. Verbal mediation in moderately retarded children: Effects of successive mediational experiences. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972, 77, 157-162. Borkowski, J. G., McGrath, R. A., & Doyle, L. T. Backward associations in the paired-associate learning of retardates. Developmental Psychology, 1969, 1, 470-473. (b) Bourne, L. E., Ekstrand, B. R., & Dominowski, R. L. The psychology of thinking. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall, 197 1. Brown, A. L., & Scott, M. S. Transfer between the oddity and relative size concepts: Reversal and extradimensional shifts. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1972, 13, 350-367.

Dallet, K. M. Implicit mediators in paired-associate learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1964, 3, 209-214.

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Davidson, R. E. Mediation and ability in paired-associate learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1964, 55, 352-356. Denny, M. R. Research in learning and performance. In H. Stevens & R. Heber (Eds.), Mental retardation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Pp. 100-142.

Flavell, J. H., Beach, D. R., & Chinsky, J. M. Spontaneous verbal rehearsal in a memory task as a function of age. Child Development, 1966, 37, 283-299. Gallagher, J. W. Mediation as a function of associative chains in normal and retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 886-889. Garner, W. R., Hake, H. W., & Eriksen, C. W. Operationism and the concept of perception. Psychological Review, 1956, 63, 3 17-329. Gordon, D. A., & Baumeister, A. A. The use of verbal mediation in the retarded as a function of developmental level and response availability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1971, 12, 95-105. Goulet, L. R. Verbal learning in children: Implications for developmental research. Psychological Bulletin, 1968, 69, 359-376. Hohn, R. L., & Martin, C. J. Mediational styles: An individual difference variable in children’s learning ability. Psychonomic Science, 1970, 18, 348-349. Horton, D. L., & Kjeldergaard, P. M. An experimental analysis of associative factors in mediated generalization. Psychological Monographs, 1961, 75, No. 11. Jenkins, J. J. Mediated associations: Paradigms and situations. In C. N. Cofer & B. S. Musgrave (Eds.), Verbal behavior and learning: Problems and processes. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Pp. 210-245. Jensen, A. R. Rote learning in retarded adults and normal children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1965, 69, 828-834. Jensen, A. R. The role of verbal mediation in mental development. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1971, 118, 39-70. Jensen, A. R., & Rohwer, W. D., Jr. The effect of verbal mediation on the learning and retention of paired-associates by retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1963, 68, 80-84. ( a ) Jensen, A. R., & Rohwer, W. D., Jr. Verbal mediation in paired-associate and serial learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1963, 1, 346-352. (b). Jensen, A. R., & Rohwer, W. D., Jr. Mental retardation, mental age, and learning rate. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1968, 59,402-403. Kellas, G., Ashcraft, M. H., & Johnson, N. S. Rehearsal processes in the short-term memory performance of mildly retarded adolescents. Anierican Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1973, 77, 670-679. Kendler, T. S. An ontogeny of mediational deficiency. Child Development, 1972, 43, 1-17.

Kendler, H. H., & Kendler, T. S. Vertical and horizontal processes in problem solving. Psychological Review, 1962, 69, 1-16. Lipman, R. S. Learning: Verbal, perceptual-motor and classical conditioning. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Pp. 391-423. Luria, A. The role of language in the formation of temporary connections. In B. Simon (Ed.), Psychology in the Soviet Union. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1957. Pp. 115-129. Luria, A. R. The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. New York: Liveright, 1961.

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MacMillan, D. L. Facilitative effect of verbal mediation on paired-associate learning by EMR children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 611-615. MacMillan, D. L. Paired-associate learning as a function of explicitness of mediational set by EMR and nonretarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972, 76, 686-691. Martin, C. J. Associative learning strategies employed by deaf, blind, retarded and normal children. Educational Research Series, 1967, 38, 1-158. Martin, C. J., Boersma, F. J., & Bulgarella, R. Verbalization of associative strategies by normal and retarded children. Journal of General Psychology, 1968, 78, 209-21 8. Martin, C. J., Boersma, F. J., & Cox, D. L. A classification of associative strategies in paired-associate learning. Psychonomic Science, 1965, 3, 455-456. Milgram, N. A. Retention of mediation set in paired-associate learning of normal children and retardates. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1967, 5, 341-349. (a) Milgram, N. A. Verbal context versus visual compound in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1967, 5 , 597-603. (b) Milgram, N. A. Effect of sentence recital on implicit mediation in paired-associate learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1968, 7 , 714-721. (a) Milgram, N. A. The effect of verbal mediation in paired-associate learning in trainable retardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1968, 72, 518-524. (b) Milgram, N. A. The effects of MA and IQ on verbal mediation in paired associate learning. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1968, 113, 129-143. (c) Milgram, N. A., & Furth, H. G. The influence of language on concept attainment in educable retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1963, 67, 733-739. Milgram, N. A., & Riedel, W. Verbal context and visual compound in paired-associate learning of mental retardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 755-761. O’Connor, N., & Hermelin, B. Discrimination and reversal learning in imbeciles. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1959, 59, 409-413. Paivio, A. Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, 1971. Paivio, A., & Yuille, J. C. Changes in associative strategies and paired-associate learning over trials as a function of word imagery and type of learning set. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969, 79, 458-463. Palermo, D. S. Mediated association in a paired-associate transfer task. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1962, 64, 234-238. Pelton, L. H. Mediational construction vs. mediational perception in paired-associate learning. Psychonomic Science, 1969, 17, 220-221. Penney, R. K., Peters, R. De V., & Willows, D. M. The mediational deficiency of mentally retarded children: 11. Learning set’s effect on mediational deficiency. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1968, 73, 262-266. (a) Penney, R. K., Seim, R., & Peters, R. De V. The mediational deficiency of mentally retarded children: I. The establishment of retardates’ mediational deficiency. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1968, 72, 626-630. (b) Penney, R.K., & Willows, D. M. Mediational deficiency of mentally retarded children: 111. Effect of length of institutionalization. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 780-783. Postman, L. Studies of learning to learn: VI. General transfer effects in three-stage mediation, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1968, 7, 659-664.

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Rapier, J. L. Learning abilities of normal and retarded children as a function of social class. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1968, 59, 102-1 10. Rieber, M. Verbal mediation in normal and retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1964, 68, 634-641. Rohwer, W. D., Jr., & Lynch, S. Retardation, school strata, and learning proficiency. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1968, 73, 91-96. Rohwer, W. D., Jr., Lynch, S., Levin, J. R., & Suzuki, N. Pictorial and verbal factors in the efficient learning of paired associates. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1967, 58, 278-284. Ross, D. Retention and transfer of mediation set in paired-associate learning of educable retarded children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1971, 62, 3 22-327.

Ross, D. M., Ross, S. A., & Downing, M. L. Intentional training vs. observational learning of mediational strategies in EMR children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1973, 78, 292-299. Schulz, R. W. Mediation. In C. P. Duncan, L. Sechrest, & A. W. Melton, Human memory: Festschrist for B. I . Underwood. New York: Appleton, 1972. Schulz, R. W., & Lovelace, E. A. Mediation. in verbal paired-associate learning: The role of temporal factors. Psychonomic Science, 1964, 1, 95-96. Schulz, R. W., & Weaver, G. E. The A-B, B-C, A-C mediation paradigm: The effects of variation in A-C study-and test-interval lengths and strength of A-B or B-C. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968, 76, 303-31 1. Schulz, R. W., Weaver, G. E., & Ginsberg, S. Mediation with pseudomediation controlled: Chaining is not an artifact! Psychonomic Science, 1965, 2, 169-1 70.

Schwartz, M. Subject-generated versus experimenter-supplied mediators in pairedassociate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971, 87, 389-395. Spreen, 0. Language functions in mental retardation, a review. 11. Language in higher level performance. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1965, 70, 351-362.

Taylor, A. M., Josberger, M., & Knowlton, J. Q. Mental elaboration and learning in EMR children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972, 77, 69-76. Thurlow, M. L., & Turnure, J. E. Elaboration structure and list length effects on verbal elaboration phenomena. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1972, 14, 184-195.

Turnure, J. E. Types of verbal elaboration in the paired-associate performance of educable mentally retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1971, 76, 306-312.

Turnure, J. E.,& Thurlow, M. L. Verbal elaboration and the promotion of transfer of training in educable mentally retarded children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1973, 15, 134-148. Turnure, J. E., & Walsh, M. K. Extended verbal mediation in the learning and reversal of paired-associates by EMR children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1971, 76, 60-67. Underwood, B. J., Runquist, W. N., & Schulz, R. W.Response learning in pairedassociate lists as a function of intralist similarity. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1959, 58, 70-78. Underwood, B. J., & Schulz, R. W . Meaningfulness and verbal learning. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1960. Wanschura, P. B., & Borkowski. J. G. The development and transfer of mediational

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strategies by retarded children in paired-associate learning. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1974, 78, 631-639. Wickelgren, W. A. Coding, retrieval, and dynamics of multitrace associative memory. In L. W . Gregg (Ed.), Cognition in learning and memory. New York: Wiley, 1972. Pp. 19-50. Yarmey, A. D., & Bowen, N. V. The role of imagery in incidental learning of educable retarded and normal children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1972, 14, 303-312. Zigler, E. F. Mental retardation: Current issues and approaches. In M. L. Hoffman & L. W. Hoffman (Eds.), Review of child development research. Vol. 2. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1966. Pp. 107-168. Zigler, E. F. Mental retardation, technical comment. Science, 1967, 157, 578. Zigler, E. F., & Balla, D. Luria’s verbal deficiency theory of mental retardation and performance on sameness, symmetry, and opposition tasks: A critique. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1971, 75, 400413.

The Role of Strategic Behavior in Retardate Memory

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ANN L BROWN UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. CHAMPAIGN.URBANA. ILLINOIS

I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 A . Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 B . Organizational Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 11. Developmental Theories of Memory and Their Implication for Retardation . . . . 56 A . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 B. Structural Features and Control Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 C. Mediational and Production Deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 D . Active and Passive Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 E . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 111. The Use of Memory Strategies by Retardates: A Brief Review . . . . . . . . . . . 66 A . Rehearsal Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 B. Organizational Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 C . Processing Task-Relevant Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 D . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 IV . Specific Background to the Present Series of Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 A . ChoiceofTasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 B. Choice of Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 C. Interaction between Task and Subject Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 V. Specific Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 79 A . The Keeping-Track Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . Recognition Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 C . Overall Summary of Specific Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 VI . Implications for Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

.

1

A

.

INTRODUCTION

Background

Efficient performance on a variety of memory tasks relies on the effective use of certain plans. schemes. or mnemonic strategies. By the appropriate 55

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exploitation of various strategies we organize and transform the random input of information into manageable information-rich units. Since it is as easy to remember a considerable amount of material in information-rich units as it is to remember a small amount of material in informationally impoverished units, it is economical to employ such strategies and plans in order to make the most effective use of a limited-capacity memory system (Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960; Smirnov & Zinchenko, 1969). An examination of theoretical and empirical developments concerning the use of plans and strategies by young and retarded children is the principal focus of this chapter. Specifically, it is argued that the developmentally young are deficient in the spontaneous use of a number of strategic devices and, to the extent that efficient performance depends on the use of strategies, retarded and young children will perform poorly in comparison with more mature subjects. The corollary to this position is that certain memory tasks which do not require the use of deliberate mnemonics may not be developmentally sensitive (Brown, 1973a, 1973b). It is further argued that not only does the immature information processor possess a limited repertoire of specific plans or strategies but that the very intention to use such systems at all may be related to developmental level. That is, the “mysterious intent to learn” or the “plan to form a plan” (Miller et al., 1960, p. 129) is inadequate or absent in the developmentally young. B.

Organizational Scheme

First a description of general and developmental theories of memory, with specific relation to retardation will be described and the place of deliberate strategies, control processes, or organization schemes within these theories discussed. This will be followed by a brief review of empirical findings implicating a strategic deficit in a wide variety of tasks and situations. Next, two programs of research from our own laboratory will be described, the first examining a memory task which places heavy emphasis on strategic control and the second which does not appear to require deliberate strategies for its efficient execution. Finally, the implications of this research for educational practice will be examined. 11.

A.

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES OF MEMORY AND THEIR IMPLICATION FOR RETARDATION

Introduction

Theories of human memory in the last decade have been strongly influenced by information-processing models with their emphasis on flow diagrams and specific memory stores. A “modal model” (Murdock, 1967)

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embodying many of the essential features of such theories (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Waugh & Norman, 1965) will be outlined here. Incoming information enters a modality specific sensory store or register. This store has a large immediate capacity but information is rapidly lost unless the subject attends to specific features. Items thus selected for further processing are transferred to a limited-capacity short-term store (STS) where they are maintained by rehearsal mechanisms. From there they can be transferred to an apparently unlimited-capacity, permanent, long-term store (LTS). Thus the model is characterized by the transferral of information from store to store as it is progressively incorporated deeper within the memory system. Such models of memory have been and still are extremely influential as the resurgence of interest in memory processes can attest. However, like most simplified schemes, the modal model has encountered problems; problems usually remedied by the addition of new stores or boxes and additional transferral pathways. The main problem with such models is that certain assumptions are implicit concerning human memory, for example, that information necessarily flows from the sensory store via STS to LTS and that the system is discontinuous from one memory compartment to another. Historically this view has been countered by the theory that memory is better thought of as a continuum (Melton, 1963; Murdock, 1972). The utility of any theory of memory, however, must be measured in terms of the questions it raises and can answer. In a recent series of papers, Craik (Craik, 1973a, 1973b; Craik & Lockhart, 1972) has demonstrated that consideration of neither capacity, coding, nor retention mechanisms would necessarily lead to the assumption of specific stores or boxes following distinct laws. As an example, it is increasingly clear that distinguishing characteristics of the sensory store, STS and LTS depend heavily on the paradigm and the materials used, particularly when visual information is considered. As a consequence, although the multi-store models have been the basis of the resurgence of recent work with memory, there is a current trend away from these models toward a “levels of analysis” approach, typified by the work of Craik (Craik, 1973a, 1973b) but reflected in other recent theoretical papers (Paivio, 1971; Shiff rin, 1973). The levels of analysis approach suggests that incoming information is subjected to original analyses of physical features which are matched against “symbolic abstract and semantic features.” There is a hierarchy of levels of analysis ranging from the original physical feature stage through the semantic stage. Craik suggests that the memory trace is a product of these various analyses and that “trace persistence is a positive function of the depth of analysis.” The more analyses, and the more complex form those analyses take, the more durable the memory trace.

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Both the modal information processing model and the levels of analysis approach are, of course, far more complex than this superficial outline would suggest. However, sufficient detail is given here to illustrate the shift from a concentration on structural features and specific transferral patterns to an emphasis on the input processes or analyses performed upon the particular material at hand. This concentration on processing, coupled with a deemphasis on specific structural features, is the approach taken in this chapter. When developmental theories of memory, and specifically retardate memory, are considered it is again apparent that the influence of information processing models has been felt. The retention section of the recent Fisher and Zeaman (1973) theory borrows heavily from the Atkinson and ShifTrin (1968) model and the theory proposed by Ellis (1970) shares many of the essential features of the Waugh and Norman (1965) model. As in the area of adult memory, these theoretical formulations have proved their utility by the extensive experimental literature they have generated. Thus, the emphasis has been on specific memory stores and in the area of retardation this has been coupled with the search for the missing or defective store. Historically it has been the case that psychologists interested in retardation have searched for the structural feature(s) which can be found wanting. In the area of memory research the most commonly indicted culprit has been STS. It is in the status of short-term memory that the main differences between information processing models and levels of analysis approaches are highlighted. This controversy over the status of STS has particular relevance for theories of retardate memory due to the well-documented shortterm memory deficiency in these subjects (Ellis, 1970; K. G. Scott & Scott, 1968). Within an information processing model, STS is a structural feature of the memory system. In a levels of analysis approach, processes subsumed under the heading STS in information processing models are seen as the result of deliberate strategic devices employed by the subject. These strategies are deliberate attempts to maintain and prolong aspects of perceptual experience by continuing to attend to some salient aspects of the stimulation. Craik uses the term in the original James (1 890) sense of continued attention to the item, or keeping the item in consciousness. As these short-term memory strategies are optional they are “off to the side in the route taken from the environment to long-term memory and whether we maintain items at the STS level is very much an optional strategy rather than a structural feature” (Craik, 1973a). Thus the distinction made by information processing models is between STS and LTS, which are characterized as discrete compartments obeying separate laws. In developmental theories it has been traditional to describe

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retardates as deficient in the use of STS (K.G. Scott & Scott, 1968) but not necessarily LTS (Belmont, 1966). Thus the prediction which follows from this approach is that STS itself is in some way deficient and all shortterm memory functioning is implicated. However, if STS mechanisms are seen as optional strategies, then the retardate short-term memory deficiency can be seen as one example of a general pattern of inadequate exploitation of strategic plans to organize, maintain, and attend to relevant materials. Thus the STS-LTS distinction is deemphasized and the distinction becomes not whether a task is one of a short- or long-term nature but whether it demands strategic transformations for its efficient execution. It is not suggested here that a levels of analysis approach should replace an information processing approach, but rather that the different emphases could lead to alternative methods of attacking the problem of retardate memory processing. Indeed, it could be that the theoretical distinction is difficult to put to an empirical test, hence making such a distinction if not meaningless, at least of questionable value. In order to separate the two approaches experimentally it would be necessary to demonstrate normal-retardate differences on a short-term memory task which requires strategic behavior but not on a short-term task where such strategies are not typically employed. Such a demonstration might be difficult to provide because of the problem of determining the nature of a short- versus long-term memory task. The distinction has always been equivocal, involving both methodological and theoretical difficulties (Belmont, 1966). Surveying the literature, the author could find only one example of a developmentally examined short-term memory task which did not appear to require exploitation of obvious strategic plans. Belmont (1967) examined a perceptual short-term memory task where a delayed brightness comparison was required. It is difficult for the author to imagine a strategy (rehearsal, organization, etc.) which could be used to facilitate such a task. Belmont reported that the task was essentially developmentally insensitive. No evidence of a normal-retardate difference or an age-related trend in normal subjects was apparent. This could be taken as support for the contention that it is not a short-term memory deficit or structural problem, but a deficiency in the use of strategic devices which characterizes immature memory systems. When a short-term task which does not demand active strategies is involved, normal-retardate differences are not implicated. It is not the purpose of the present chapter to distinguish between the two approaches, rather, the rationale underlying the levels of analysis approach will be presented together with evidence to support the view that such an approach represents a viable alternative to current information-processing models. In this chapter the levels of analysis approach, with its deemphasis on structural stores and its emphasis on strategic processes,

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has been adopted for the reasons outlined above. Additional reasons are that it is possible to incorporate much of the existing literature on retardate memory processing under such a system. Second, such an approach, as typified by the work of Flavell (1970) in this country and many Soviet investigators (reviewed by Smirnov & Zinchenko, 1969), has already proved valuable in promoting our understanding of the memory processing of young children. An outline of these approaches to the development of memory follows, beginning with the structural versus control processes distinction of information-processing models, followed by a consideration of active versus passive strategies, and mediational versus production deficiencies. B.

Structural Features and Control Processes

From information-processing models comes a theoretical distinction of particular interest: that between the structural features of the memory system and its associated control processes. The distinction is relevant to both theories of memory, in general (Atkinson & Shifin, 1968) and to theories of retardate memory, in particular (Fischer & Zeaman, 1973). Structural features of memory refer to those aspects of the system which are not “programmable,” i.e., cannot be varied or changed due to some “structural” limitation of the organism. Control processes are seen as those aspects of the system which can be “reprogrammed,” i.e., altered through training. In terms of retardation, the distinction takes on added meaning, since we can substitute the word “remediable” for “programmable.~’As such, structural differences between normal and retarded subjects would be invariant differences which could not be eliminated and would serve to define retardation. Differences attributable to deficiencies in the use of control processes would, on the other hand, be subject to remediation. Thus, structural differences would be of particular interest to the psychometrician interested in a definition of retardation, while differences in control processes would be of particular interest to the educator, since such findings would indicate areas in which remediation was both necessary and possible. It has typically been the case that structural features of the memory system have been identified with specific memory stores (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Fisher & Zeaman, 1973). In keeping with the deemphasis on specific stores in this chapter, the structural features versus control process distinction will be maintained but in the limited sense that a structural feature is seen as any limited capacity within the system rather than being identified with a specific memory store. To further clarify the usage here, it should be pointed out that the term will be used in a different sense from that of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), who viewed structural features as fixed untrainable capacities which could not be modified. However,

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Atkinson and Shiffrin were concerned exclusively with adult subjects and did not consider developmental issues which are the focus of this chapter. Here, structural features will be equated with capacity limitations which may be modified by time but not by training. In this sense, the theory is consistent with more general developmental theories (such as that of Piaget) which allow structural changes with maturation. Consequently, while a structural feature at any point in time may be a fixed untrainable capacity, it is still the case that these structural features may change as a function of age and experience.’ There appears to be a problem with establishing a valid distinction between fixed-capacity restrictions and trainable control processes in that this would require that the effectiveness of a training procedure be independently evaluated. The problem is not acute if a particular training procedure is successful since it then would be possible to conclude that a trainable control process was involved and had responded to training. However, difficulty arises when training does not alter performance. Is this due to the presence of a structural capacity limitation which can not respond to training or due to the inadequacy of the training technique itself? It would be necessary to exhaust all possible training techniques before concluding that an untrainable structural feature had been discovered, surely a logically impossible task. In addition, the subjects’ performance on any one memory task may be the result of a complex interaction between his fixed structural capacities and his adequate use of strategic control processes. One example of such an interaction can be seen when rehearsal processes are examined. There is considerable evidence that although retardates and young children do not spontaneously rehearse in a memory task they can be trained to do so relatively easily (Belmont & Butterfield, 1969, 197 1 ;Brown, Campione, Bray & Wilcox, 1973; Ellis, 1970). The suggestion is that rehearsal is under the control of the subject and is a trainable process rather than a fixed untrainable capacity or structural feature of the memory system. However, there may be a structurally determined upper limit to the efficiency of rehearsal training, with this limit related to developmental level. Indeed, it has been shown that effective rehearsal training of young children is limited to those children sufficiently mature that they can rehearse fluently when trained (Kingsley & Hagen, 1969). Similarly, with retarded subjects, McBane (1972) has shown that the total number of items that can be effiAn example of structural features which change with age would be. the underlying semantic-conceptual organizational schemata which effect all stages of the memory process (see Piaget and Inhelder, 1973). As the child matures, his semantic memory also matures such that an adult’s storage and retrieval of a certain group of words, for example, would be different from a child’s because the former’s whole semanticconceptual organization would be qualitatively as well as quantitatively different.

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ciently rehearsed is related to the developmental level of the subject. McBane’s subjects were divided into a High-Level group (mean IQ = 74, mean MA = 10.8 years) and a Low-Level group (mean IQ = 50, mean MA = 6.2). The High-Level group “rehearsed” over twice as many items (4.8) as the Low-Level group (2.3). The tentative conclusion from McBane’s study is that there is an upper limit to rehearsal capacity, even following extensive training, and that this upper limit may represent a structural feature of the memory system related to developmental level. C.

Mediational and Production Deficiencies

Flavell (1970) distinguished between two major deficits the young or retarded child may bring to a memory task. The first is a mediation deficiency, where the subject is unable to employ a potential mediator even when he is specifically instructed to do so. The hypothetical case in question refers to situations where the potential mediator is produced but fails to iduence performance. Returning to the example of rehearsal mechanisms, a mediational deficiency would be said to exist if the subject could be trained to overtly rehearse items, but that this activity failed to improve performance. The second type of deficiency is that of production. A production deficiency is said to be operating when potential mediators are not produced and hence do not aid performance. Effective mediation naturally depends on adequate prior production of the would-be mediator. Thus, in our example, the subject would perform poorly on a memory task requiring rehearsal because he does not spontaneously employ the rehearsal strategy, although he can be shown capable of doing so if he were instructed. The two types of memory deficits have some correspondence with the structural features and control processes described previously. A production deficiency refers to an inadequate use of control processes, which can be remediated by adequate training of the required strategy. Once this training is accomplished the task will be mediated by the appropriate strategy and performance will improve. A mediational deficiency, however, is said to exist when the subject is trained to produce the required strategy but this does not mediate performance. This is in some ways equivalent to a structural limitation; the subject is insufficiently mature to benefit from the induced mediational strategy, presumably due to developmentally related structural limitations of his memory system. The difficulty of distinguishing between developmentally related untrainable components of the memory system and trainable processes, discussed before, is again a problem for the distinction between mediational and production deficiencies. Only if the subject can be trained to produce the re-

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quired strategy does a finer-grained analysis of the type of memory deficiency become possible. Thus, if having produced the strategy, performance is not significantly altered, then the deficiency is said to be mediational, i.e., the child does not use the strategy to mediate performance. If, however, performance is mediated appropriately once the strategy is produced, then the initial deficiency is termed a production deficiency. Therefore, if training works, the initial deficiency was one of production. However, a problem exists in establishing the presence of a mediational deficiency, for if training does not alter performance, is this due to a mediational problem or inadequate training? Flavell ( 1970) distinguishes between various degrees of deficient production, since the extent of the original deficiency and the degree to which it responds to training are both developmentally related. At certain stages in the developmental sequence the child may exhibit a production inefficiency (Corsini, Pick, & Flavell, 1968). The original production deficiency is not complete, or does respond to training, but due to some limitation to the child’s effective use of the strategy, his ability to benefit from its use is impaired. For example, moderately retarded adolescents (mean IQ = 58) were successfully trained in an overt cumulative rehearsal strategy (Brown et al., 1973). However, rehearsal was only accomplished easily for the first three items in a four-item list. Performance indeed improved on the first three but not the fourth item. Similarly, Kingsley and Hagan (1969) attempted to train preschool children to cumulatively rehearse aloud. Although most of the subjects understood what was required, “only a few actually had much success in consistently and correctly rehearsing. Often the subjects rehearsed the first two or three items relatively well, but found rehearsal of four or five items difficult” (Kingsley & Hagan, 1969, p. 45). The “magical number three” which haunted Spitz (1973) in his studies of retardates may have some generality as a capacity limitation for the developmentally young. D. Active and Passive Strategies

A memory task can be regarded as a problem-solving situation in which attempts at mnemonic mediation are equivalent to problem-solving strategies. As children mature they become increasingly strategic in their approach to memory tasks, as indeed they do in problem-solving situations in general (Spitz & Nadler, in press). Developmental differences between older and younger children and between retarded and normal children result from differences in the voluntary strategic behaviors applied to the task. Thus, the child with a production deficiency is one who does not spontaneously employ the appropriate mediator for a specific task. However,

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the concept of active versus passive strategies extends this by suggesting that the developmentally young not only fail to produce the appropriate mediator but generally fail to produce any mnemonic mediator in memory and problem-solving situations. Their behavior is characterized by a passive acceptance of the task. Little attempt is made to transform the input or in any way to deliberately attempt to memorize. Flavell ( 1970) has stressed this deliberate intentional characteristic of mnemonic mediation and in this context has distinguished between general and specific factors which affect the child’s use of potential mediators. Specific factors refer to the efficiency and sophistication with which a child may use a given mediational strategy or memory subroutine. However, Flavell also identifies a general factor, that is the ability or intention to plan performance in advance. This skill is not related to any particular mediational activity, but rather is relevant to the effective performance of all mediational activities-hence, the term general factor. In essence, the child facing the task of memorization must evaluate the task demands (Moynahan, 1973 ) and his repertoire of mediational skills (Flavell, Friedricks, & Hoyt, 1970) and select those which he believes will facilitate subsequent performance. There is, of course, an interaction between specific and general factors. If the child has no mediational skills, or fails to appreciate the need for such skills, then planned activity is unlikely. Similarly, if the child has a limited repertoire of skills he may engage in mediational activity which is somewhat less than optimal for the task at hand. For example, he may focus on an irrelevant skill simply because this is the only one available in his repertoire or because this is the most salient skill he possesses. Thus, the general factor described by Ravel1 refers to the voluntary intention to engage in some mnemonic activity while the specific factor refers to particular subroutines which he may engage. A similar distinction has been made by Soviet investigators (Smirnov & Zinchenko, 1969), that is, between voluntary and involuntary memory. The young child is dependent on involuntary memory, memory which is largely the result of incidental learning which accompanies his active exploration of his environment. Voluntary memory develops gradually as the child matures. In the first stage the child exhibits “no purposeful behavior in remembering. The process proceeds as it were with no active participation on the child’s part so that it seems less a matter of the children’s recalling material than that the material presents itself to them for recall” (Smirnov & Zinchenko, 1969, p. 476). The second stage is reached when the child attempts to memorize and “actively tries to carry out his intention even though he lacks the appropriate means to do this.” The final stage is reached when the child possesses the necessary methods which will facilitate recall. However, the child’s “stock of methods is still very slim and

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it mostly amounts to repetitions of words which the child names to himself, only in a few cases does he actually group material in any meaningful way.” Once the child has reached the level of actively attempting some recall strategy, further improvement takes the form of “an increasingly greater mastery of rational devices or methods of recall.” When a new device is initiated it often fails to improve performance significantly as the method itself demands considerable intellectual effort and cognitive strain (a production inefficiency) but gradually the child‘s repertoire expands to include more mnemonics which he can apply with greater efficiency and flexibility. This description of the gradual development from involuntary (passive) to voluntary (active) strategies obviously has marked similarity with the outline described by Flavell (1970) and, not surprisingly, both have led to similar types of experimental tests. The active versus passive distinction is well illustrated in a recent pair of studies by Flavell and his associates (Appel, Cooper, McCarrell, SimsKnight, Yussen, & Flavell, 1972). Preschool, first, and fifth grade children were tested under conditions where they were explicitly instructed to memorize pictures, or merely asked to look at them. Older children behaved differently under the two conditions. When instructed to memorize, they introduced deliberate mnemonic techniques, such as rehearsal and categorization and subsequently recalled more than in the perceptual (look at) condition. However, the younger children did not appear to differentiate the situations but remained passive in both. They failed to study differently in the memorize condition and subsequently their recall did not improve. Deliberate memorization strategies following instructions to remember were apparent only in the older children. A similar study with retarded children by the Soviet psychologist Pinskii was reported by Shif (1969). As with much of the Russian research the experiment was conducted in a school setting. Groups of retarded adolescents were given stories to read. One-half of the subjects were warned before reading the story that they would be asked to recall the story in their own words after reading it twice. The remaining subjects were not warned that recall would be required but merely told to read it through twice in order to understand the story. Subjects warned about the impending recall reproduced 46.6% of the “composite semantic units.” However, those who received no prior warning recalled almost as much (40% ) . When the same experiment was conducted with normal adolescents of the same age, prewarned subjects recalled 30 percentage points more than the .uninformed group. Thus, it appears to be the case that not only does a child’s repertoire of specific strategies expand and grow more flexible as he matures but that the general intention of using a strategy, or the “plan to execute a plan”

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(Miller et al., 1960), depends on maturational level. Obvously, this basic intention to use a strategy must underlie effective memorization; for it is often the case that a specific strategy can be used if it occurs to the child to do so, but spontaneous exploitation of strategic devices is atypical of the developmentally young. Indeed, a case could be made that, in many instances, it is the intention to use an appropriate strategy which is absent, not necessarily the ability to do so. Thus, a primary source of the memory inefficiency of young children and retardates may lie in their passive behavior in memory task situations, for without explicit instructions they fail to produce not only the appropriate strategy but any purposeful strategy at all. E. Summary

In this section the trend away from information-processing flow diagrams toward a levels of analysis approach as a feasible alternative theoretical framework was discussed. This trend is reflected in the concentration on memory processes rather than on specific structural stores and pathways. A variety of theoretical positions, arising from a diversity of backgrounds, have been examined. From these, certain common hypotheses emerged which are thought to have generality across a variety of tasks and situations. Thus, the general consensus of opinion is that a characteristic feature of the immature memorizer should be an inadequacy in the spontaneous use of control processes, active mediational devices, and strategic transformations of the input. Although developmentally related limitations to structural capacity (maturational level) may set a limit to the extent to which these strategies can be trained, the suggestion is that under certain favorable circumstances the use of higher level mnemonics can be induced. However, there is also considerable agreement that a general intention to exploit available plans must underlie the efficiency of memorization strategies and, as such, the generalizability of training may be restricted. For the intention to use strategic behavior whenever possible is a necessary prerequisite before specific processes can be flexibly employed over a variety of tasks and situations. In the next section the generality of the phenomena proposed by these theoretical positions will be examined. The problems encountered in training specific strategies will be discussed. The problem of training the intention to use any strategy is still largely unexplored. 111.

THE USE OF MEMORY STRATEGIES BY RETARDATES: A BRIEF REVIEW

No attempt will be made in this section to give a detailed or exhaustive review of the literature concerning strategic behaviors used by retardates

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under instructions to memorize. The intention here is to summarize, with a few critical studies, the data from a variety of memory tasks in order to establish that a deficiency in the intentional use of strategies is a widespread problem for retarded children. A.

Rehearsal Mechanisms

A deficiency in the use of rehearsal is one of the most firmly established cognitive characteristics of retarded children. Rehearsal as an active acquisition strategy has been extensively studied in a variety of tasks and situations. Primary sources of evidence that retarded children do not spontaneously rehearse have been the serial position effect (Ellis, 1970) and pause patterns (Belmont & Butterfield, 1969, 1971) found in response to a serial recall task. The typical serial position curve, characteristic of retarded children, lacks the elevated primacy portion found with rehearsing adults (Ellis, 1970). Accuracy on the 6rst few serial positions is approximately equal to that for items in the middle of the list for retarded children. Adults, however, commit fewer errors in the initial serial positions, a consistent pattern of accuracy which is referred to as the primacy effect. The presence of a primacy effect has been attributed to rehearsal of the first few items (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966) so that the conspicuous absence of primacy in the retardate curves has been used as evidence for a rehearsal deficiency in these subjects. Ellis (1970), in a previous chapter in this series, marshalled additional evidence to support the rehearsal deficit hypothesis. For example, the serial position curves of retardates were not affected by an increased study period of from to 2 seconds (Ellis, 1970). Adults, however, benefit from the increased study time allowed for rehearsal (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966). A consideration of the serial position effect has been a fruitful source of retardate and normal comparative data. A second source of evidence implicating a rehearsal deficit has come from the research program of Belmont and Butterfield (1969, 1971). Using a task, similar to that of Ellis and his associates, they have concentrated on the patterning of pauses produced by subjects in the memorization period of a recall task. Specifically, Belmont and Butterfield measured the interitem pause time in a self-paced task. They found that the pause patterns of normal CA comparison subjects reflected the active acquisition strategy adopted. These patterns changed systematically in response to changes in recall response requirements (Kellas & Butterfield, 1971) , and changes in the amount of potential organizational structure of the material (Pinkus & Laughery, 1970). A typical adult pause pattern, called the “cumulative rehearsal, fast finish” strategy (Belmont & Butterfield, 1971; Pinkus & Laughery, 1970), is comprised of an initial phase, consisting of a

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series of brief pauses followed by a single long pause, and a terminal phase, consisting of a series of very brief pauses without the subsequent long pause. This modal pattern has been attributed to the two phases of the subject’s acquisition strategy when faced with a typical six-item list. For the initial positions, the subject rapidly views the items and then rehearses that set leisurely before progressing to the final series of rapid acquisitions which are followed immediately by a probe. The fast finish strategy is used consistently across lists of any length, while with increasing list length the initial phase is typically broken up into two or more sequences of short pauses followed by a long one. Belmont and Butterfield believe this typical pause pattern is a direct reflection of the strategy of filling up successive echo boxes (Waugh & Norman, 1965) or rehearsal buffers (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) and rehearsing the contents of each before proceeding to the next. In contrast to these systematic adult patterns the pause times of retarded subjects remained relatively constant across the list of to-be-remembered items, suggesting that the retardates were not systematically organizing their study time as a function of an item’s position in the list. In fact, there appeared to be a conspicuous absence of any deliberate acquisition strategy. However, Belmont and Butterfield ( 1971 ) report that forcing retardates to mimic adult pause patterns improved performance particularly in the primacy portion of the curve. Considered together, the evidence for a rehearsal deficit in retarded children is quite convincing, although the generality of the deficit may depend on the particular task and situation. Both McBane ( 1972) and Glidden (1972) report some spontaneous rehearsal in their retarded subjects. However, in general, it appears that retardates fail to attempt active acquisition patterns of rehearsing and grouping the items in to-be-remembered lists. That training rehearsal strategies have met with success (Belmont & Butterfield, 1971; Brown et al., 1973; Brown, Campione, & Murphy, 1974b) however, suggests that this is a strategic deficit on the part of retardates. Since these children readily respond to training and performance improves once they do, the deficiency is one of production rather than a true mediational problem. As McBane (1972) has concluded rehearsal capacity may be a structural feature of retardate memory, but rehearsal use is a control process. 6.

Organizational Strategies

The role of organization strategies has received considerable interest from psychologists concerned with retardation. As extensive reviews of the literature predate this chapter only a brief outline will be included here. Three main lines of investigation can be cited: studies of associative clustering, mnemonic elaboration, and the use of redundancy.

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1. ASSOCIATIVE CLUSTERING The associative clustering technique, introduced by Bousfield ( 1953), was developed to investigate organizational strategies in free recall. The task consists of presenting a list of words drawn from several conceptual categories. The subject is required to recall as many words as possible. Both the total number of items recalled and the extent to which subjects organize items in recall are recorded. There is a tendency for adults to recall words from the same category (in clusters) even when the words are presented originally in a random sequence. Furthermore, recall of material based on conceptual or associative categories is superior to recall of control lists of conceptually unrelated items (Goulet, 1968). Retarded and young children have shown relatively limited tendencies to cluster during free recall (Bousfield, Esterson, & Whitmarsh, 1958; Gerjuoy & Alvarez, 1969; Gerjuoy & Spitz, 1966; Lawrence, 1966). Spitz ( 1966) reviewed the Johnstone Laboratory investigations into the relation between clustering and free recall performance in normal and retarded subjects. Four groups of subjects were tested: (1 ) a group of institutionalized retardates (mean CA = 14 years); (2) a group of equal MA normals (mean CA = 9.8 years); (3) a group of equal CA normals (mean CA = 14 years); and (4) a group of college students (mean CA = 21 years). All subjects were tested for free recall on a list of twenty items consisting of four conceptual categories of five items each. The list was randomly ordered and presented for five trials. Recall increased over trials for all groups. College and 14-year-old normal subjects’ recall performance was superior to that of the retardates and equal MA normals. College and 14-year-old normal subjects also showed increased clustering over trials, clustering that was significantly greater than chance. The retardates and equal MA normals showed little evidence of clustering above chance level and clustering did not increase over trials for these groups. Spitz also reported significant correlations between clustering and recall for the college and 14-year-old normals (.85 and .55, respectively) but not for the retardates (.30)and equal MA normals (.28). Recent evidence suggests that there are qualitative as well as quantitative dserences between the recall organization of the developmentally young and more mature subjects. Denney and Ziobrowski (1972) have shown that first grade children tend to cluster, if at all, according to complementary groupings, i.e., words are clustered together because they share some complementary interrelationship (such as, pipe-tobacco, baby-crib) . College students, however, cluster according to criteria based on conceptual similarity (e.g., king-ruler, cribbed). Similarly, Jensen ( 1970) has suggested that while normal children cluster by supraordinate categories, retar-

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dates show more “pair-wise coordinate groupings often of a complementary relationship.” Thus, the tendency is for the developmental young to cluster, if at all, according to idiosyncratic relations. However, various training procedures can be devised to increase the tendency to cluster more frequently and to cluster according to more adult criteria. Blocked presentation of all items in a particular category has been one method successfully used to induce clustering (Bilsky & Evans, 1970; Bilsky, Evans, & Gilbert, 1972; Gerjuoy, Winters, Pullen, & Spitz, 1969). An example of this training procedure can be seen in an early study by Gerjuoy and Spitz (1966). The stimuli were twenty words in four categories of five words each. Retarded subjects were tested under one of three conditions: (1) standard randomized item presentation and standard free recall instructions; (2) standard randomized item presentation with instructions prior to recall to cluster the items (i.e., “Tell me all the animals you remember from the list.”); and (3) blocking stimuli such that the five words of each category followed one another. In terms of total recall, subjects in Groups 2 and 3 showed significantly greater recall over five trials than subjects in the control conditions. There was no difierence in total recall for subjects in the requested clustering or presented clustered conditions. For the two experimental groups, clustering was significantly above chance on all five trials. In addition, on the fifth trial, there was a significant correlation between clustering and recall for subjects in the experimental conditions. Gerjuoy and Spitz concluded that inducing retardates to cluster or organize material by whatever means, facilitates recall. While it appears to be the case that young children and retardates can be induced to use organizational strategies, there also appears to be limitations on the long-term effectiveness of such training. Moely, Olson, Halwes, and Flavell ( 1969) trained young children to organize according to conceptual categories by inducing the subjects to sort items manually into appropriate groups and to label the categories and count the items in each category. The instructions were deliberately stressed throughout the training sessions. However, when the younger subjects were no longer reminded to organize and label, they reverted to their previous nonstrategic behavior. In view of this difficulty in maintaining the induced strategy within the same task it is not surprising to find that the prognosis for transfer of organization strategies across tasks has been relatively poor. Although Bilsky and Evans (1970) found that experience with blocked word lists facilitated retardates’ spontaneous clustering on subsequent randomly organized word lists retaining the same materials, this facilitation did not generalize to lists containing new verbal materials (Bilsky et al., 1972). Some generalization to new lists has been reported when extended training (15 days) is under-

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taken but again the effect was far more pronounced for the items used

in training than for new items (Nye, McManis, & Haugen, 1972). Thus a general pattern emerges, the developmentally young do not spontaneously adopt organizational strategies and even when induced to do so, the effectiveness of such training is limited. The pattern is one of a specific production deficiency compounded by the general factor, the absence of the intent to use the strategy when not specifically instructed. 2. MNEMONIC ELABORATION

Mnemonic elaboration as an aid to recall of both information and its temporal order is a memory strategy with both ancient origins (Bower, 1970; Yates, 1966) and reported efficiency in cases of exceptional memory (Crovitz, 1970; Luria, 1968). Interest in the use of mnemonic elaboration has recently revived and studies with adults have confirmed the e5ciency of such devices as the “method of loci” (Bower & Reitman, 1972; J. Ross & Lawrence, 1968; Winograd, Karchmer, & Tucher, 1970) and “pegword mnemonic” systems (Bower & Reitman, 1972; Paivio, 1971). Interest in similar phenomena in children has been reflected in the recent series of studies on verbal elaboration (Rohwer, 1970) and vivid associations (Holyoak, Hogeterp, & Yuille, 1972; Jones, 1973; Reese, 1972) in pairedassociate learning as well as memory for actional, locational, and series scenes (Brown, 1973b; Horowitz, Lampel, & Takanishi, 1969; Lampel, 1973). Considerable attention has been directed to the use of mnemonic elaboration in paired-associate learning.2An example of such a technique would be the creation of meaningful sentences in which to embed the to-beremembered pair, or to invent meaningful connective contexts or images (Jones, 1973) so that the pair of items can be more easily associated and hence recalled. Shif (1969) suggests that retarded children require specific instructions in the identification and utilization of such associates or contexts. Even when they are produced, they tend to be “superficial,” not productive of “high-grade recall of the materials.” Similarly, American researchers have suggested that the superiority of older normal children on such a task is attributable to their propensity for engaging in meaningful self-activated elaboration of the material. Younger and retarded children do not automatically use elaboration techniques to aid recall (C. J. Martin, 1967; Rohwer, 1968). However, these subjects can be induced to construct elaborative contexts with a subsequent improvement in their performance (Taylor, Josberger, & Knowlton, 1972). Similarly, several studies have demonstrated that supplying elaborative context in the form * For a detailed discussion of mediational processes and paired-associate learning, see the chapter by Borkowski and Wanschura in this volume.

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of sentences improves the paired-associate learning of retarded subjects (Jensen & Rohwer, 1963; Milgram, 1967; Turnure & Walsh, 1971). Retarded children are clearly capable of utilizing experimentally provided elaborations to mediate associations between noun pairs ( MacMillian, 1970; C. J. Martin, 1967), indicating that the deficiency in spontaneous elaboration is a production problem rather than an inherent mediational deficiency. Again, however, the spectre of a general factor is seen, for relatively little transfer of trained elaboration techniques to new paired-associate tasks has been found (Jensen & Rohwer, 1963; Milgram, 1967). However, in a recent paper, Turnure and Thurlow (1973) have demonstrated transfer to new lists following training on more than one set of stimuli. Subjects receiving one elaboration experience showed little evidence of transfer while those receiving two elaboration experiences revealed clear transfer patterns. Again the general pattern to emerge from these studies is a production deficiency in the voluntary use of mnemonic elaboration, a deficiency which responds to training. Extensive training is required, however, before transfer to new situations is achieved. As suggested previously (Campione & Brown, in press; Stoff & Eagle, 1971) the effectiveness of such training programs would be enhanced if subjects could not only be instructed to employ a certain strategy within a specific task but could also be trained in the use of that strategy in a variety of situations.

3. THE USEOF REDUNDANCY The use of elaborative contexts and categorical relations are both methods of organizing materials for efficient acquisition and retrieval. A third method of organization that facilitates recall is recognizing and using recurring redundant patternings in the to-be-remembered materials (Zeaman, 1968). Adults quickly discover redundant patterning and use this information to improve recall (Edmonds, Evans, & Mueller, 1966). By using redundancy we reduce the demand on information processing and storage requirements in a limited-capacity memory system. The general assumption made in this chapter is that the ability to organize material effectively, thereby decreasing the memory load, is related to developmental level. As such, the capacity for discovering and using redundancy should be developmentally sensitive. In a series of recent studies Spitz and his associates have investigated the recognition and utilization of redundancy by retarded children. Spitz (1973) has used lists of digits containing various degrees of redundancy. An example of 50% redundancy is the list 1 3 5 1 3 5. The first three digits give all the information necessary to recall all six digits. Under such circumstances, retardates, unlike adults, did not readily recognize the redundancy on the initial presentation, but when the redundancy was made

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more salient their performance improved dramatically (Spitz, Goettler, & Webreck, 1972). Similarly, repeated presentations of 50% redundant digit lists led to increased utilization of the redundancy and improved recall (Spitz & Webreck, 1972). Apparently both spontaneous discovery of the redundancy and externally cued discovery had the same facilitative effects and these facilitative effects were durable at least for a period of 7 days (Spitz & Webreck, 1972). The general finding is that retardates rapidly and relatively permanently learn to use the redundancy present in materials if the redundancy level is high (50% or more) and salient. However, there is some evidence which suggests that this facility may be restricted to digit series. For example, in paired-associate learning retardates do not make effective use of secondary, redundant cues contained in the stimulus items (Baumeister & Kellas, 1971 ) . Furthermore, when a simultaneous presentation is used to enhance the saliency of the redundancy, retardates are quickly swamped by the information load and the efficacy of providing redundant patterning is lost (Spitz, 1972). Apparently retardates are overwhelmed by the simultaneous presentation of the high information material and, unlike equal CA comparison subjects, are unable to find the necessary strategy to discover the presence of the redundancy. Thus, the work on redundancy tends to follow the same general pattern as that found for other organizational strategies. Retardates are less efficient at spontaneously recognizing and using information-reducing aspects of a stimulus to organize input and hence aid recall. Emphasizing the saliency of the redundant pattern in any way leads to spontaneous recognition and the use of the organization (Spitz, 1973); however, this is accomplished more easily with digits which contain a much higher level of “constraint redundancy” than with verbal materials. Indeed, the main difference between the use of digit redundancy and other organizational features is the relative ease and permanence with which digit redundancy is recognized. Spitz and Webreck (1972) suggest that in view of their data “the hypothesis that retardates have difficulty organizing material to reduce the information processing load must be tempered by a knowledge of the structure of the material.” Considered together, studies on a variety of organizational strategies demonstrate again the generality of the problem of strategic behavior in the memory performance of the developmentally young. In a variety of tasks and situations there is a deficiency in the spontaneous or voluntary ability to reduce information load by organizing, transforming, or elaborating the to-be-remembered materials. This inadequate use of organization or redundancy leads to chaotic input and as Spitz (1973) has declared “chaotic input makes for chaotic retrieval.”

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C. Processing Task-Relevant Information

1. DIRECTED ACQUISITION Hagen and his associates have studied incidental learning and selective attention in children (Hagen, 1967; Hagen & Sabo, 1967; Maccoby & Hagen, 1965). Drucker and Hagen (1969) suggested that the ability to focus on task-relevant information is not fully developed until early adolescence. Similarly, retardates’ difficulty with selecting relevant aspects of stimulation for attention in visual (Zeaman & House, 1963) and tactile (Brown, Scott, & Urbano, 1972) discrimination tasks, as well as more complex relational problems (Brown, 1970), has been well documented. Hagen, Meacham, and Mesibov ( 1970) have incorporated incidental learning tests into their studies of memory ability in young children. The subjects viewed a series of pictures each containing a pair of line drawings of an animal and a household object. The task was to remember only the animals. With increasing CA there was an increasingly negative correlation between recall of the central (animal) compared with recall of the incidental object. Recall of the central object steadily improved with age, while recall of the incidental object either remained constant or decreased with age (Hagen, 1967; Hagen et al., 1970). Hagen also reports that the central measure correlates positively with standard IQ measures while the incidental measure shows a slightly negative correlation or no association with IQ. Smirnov and Zinchenko (1969) support this view of the relationship between mental maturity and the ability to disregard irrelevant information. In a task similar to Hagen’s using numbers and objects, they also report a higher percentage of the younger children recalling the background stimuli to the detriment of the central relevant items. Brown, Campione, & Gilliard (1974a) have recently shown that young children generally fail to appreciate the importance or “payoff value” of incoming information. If efficient performance demands that they ignore irrelevant background cues, they fail to concentrate exclusively on relevant material and hence perform poorly (Hagen et al., 1970). However, it is also the case that if performance can be improved, or memory load lessened by attending to relevant background changes, young children fail to exploit this information and again perform inefficiently in comparison to older children (Brown et al., 1974a). These data provide strong support for the contention that as children mature they attend increasingly only to those features of incoming information that are critical for task performance. With the development of increasingly flexible and efficient strategies for problem solution the older child is free to ignore or exploit information of both central and background status in response to changing task de-

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mands. He becomes, in a sense, a more efficient information processor. He can ignore irrelevancy and exploit redundancy thus reserving his limited-capacity memory system for essential operations. Although Hagen’s work has been conducted with normal children, the impressive body of literature concerning retardates’ inability to focus on relevant dimensions (Zeaman & House, 1963), or exploit redundancy (Spitz, 1973), would seem to indicate that the ability to concentrate exclusively on essential information is a characteristic feature of mature information processors, an ability which is not typical of the developmentally young. 2. DIRECTED FORGETTING Rehearsal strategies and input organization are techniques used in order to remember essential information. An equally essential feature of an efficient memory system is the ability to forget, that is to disregard material which is no longer required. Positive forgetting, in this sense, is as much a necessary control process for efficient use of a limited memory capacity as positive remembering. If the ability to disregard irrelevant material is defective, the system would become overloaded, a problem which creates difficulties even for an adult with exceptional ability such as Luria’s mnemonist (Luria, 1968). The problem would be even more acute for the retardate with his repertoire of inadequate memory processes. Recent research with adults has shown that considerable control can be exerted over what to remember and what to forget (Bjork, 1970; Block, 197 1 ) , a strategy which serves to reduce the interference caused by retaining unnecessary information. According to Bjork (1970) the strategy used by adults consists of selective rehearsal and selective retrieval. If positive forgetting is a voluntary control process dependent at least in part on the strategic use of rehearsal it might be expected that retardates would be deficient in the use of this memory strategy. Evidence concerning positive forgetting in retardates is scarce but two recent sets of studies have examined both the spontaneous use of the strategy and the efficiency of training procedures (Bray, 1973; Brown, 1971). Brown (1971) adapted a keeping-track task (for details of the task see Section V, A) in order to investigate positive forgetting. On each trial retarded subjects were presented with one instance of each of four categories. On some trials the subjects were required to give the most recent instance from one of the categories, i.e., “What was the last animal seen?” However, the tests occurred in an unpredictable sequence and following many trials there were no tests. Keeping-track accuracy decreased as the number of consecutive no-test trials increased for retarded but not for adult subjects. The most efficient strategy in a keeping-track task is to rehearse the items on each trial until a test does or does not occur and then disregard (forget)

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these items in readiness for the next set of updated information. Retardates had difficulty concentrating exclusively on the current information, a difficulty which was reflected both in their declining accuracy between tests and in the number of intrusions from previous outdated sets. In a second study retardates were trained to use a signal to forget which was presented after half of the no-test trials. When the signal was presented accuracy remained high between tests suggesting the efficient use of the forget signal. However, the training did not generalize to those remaining trials where the signal did not occur but where intentional forgetting was obviously still the best strategy. Apparently, as with positive memorization strategies, positive forgetting is a strategy which can be trained but is neither spontaneously adopted nor generalized by retarded children. A series of three studies of positive forgetting in retarded children has recently been reported by Bray ( 1973). Following considerable pretraining moderately retarded adolescents were able to use the strategy of switching from the processing of unnecessary to the processing of necessary information, In an adaptation of the task used by Bjork (1970) with adults, retarded subjects were able to use a signal to forget to reduce interference from irrelevant items. The effect of the forget signal was apparent when both group and individual data were considered. Accuracy in a condition where the subject was instructed to forget the first two and remember only the last four items in a six-item list was essentially the same as when the subject was required to remember all four items in a four-item list and considerably better than when required to remember all six in a six-item list. The overall pattern of results from these studies was that retardates could be trained to use a signal to forget to improve performance. However, the same pattern emerges for positive forgetting strategies that is characteristic of positive remembering strategies; retardates can be trained to make efficient use of the mnemonic but do not spontaneously organize their performance in this manner.

D. Summary The common theoretical predictions outlined in Section I1 were evaluated in this section with reference to a wide variety of empirical tasks. A consistent pattern emerged, for it appears to be the case that the voluntary control of what to remember and what to forget, together with the strategic use of mnemonics to aid this process, is inadequate in young normal and retarded children. Thus the use of rehearsal, organizational strategies, and intentional nonprocessing of irrelevant materials are all strategic behavior patterns under the voluntary control of the subject. They can be induced with suitable training but there is some suggestion that this

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training may be limited in its ability to produce “broad transfer,” or “broad conceptual generalization of specific learning,” both criteria of Level I1 functioning (Jensen, 1970, see Section IV, C ) . Both a specific deficiency in the production of a variety of strategies and a general deficiency in the spontaneous production of any strategy are implicated in the general inadequacy of memory performance in immature subjects. Extended practice with a specific strategy in a wide variety of tasks, coupled with careful control of the similarity of training and transfer situations may be needed before we can assess whether flexible strategies can be trained (see Campione & Brown, in press, for a relevant discussion of processes controlling the probability of effective transfer). As yet, we do not know if extended practice of this kind will lead to the establishment of flexible strategies or whether there are developmentally related limits to the extent that stategic behavior can be induced. IV.

SPECIFIC BACKGROUND TO THE PRESENT SERIES OF STUDIES

In this section a series of studies from our own laboratory will be briefly described. Greater detail concerning each study can be obtained elsewhere. The general focus of the research program has been on both the efficiencies and inefficiencies of retardate memory. The major hypotheses follow from the background material discussed so far. First, it was assumed that retardates are deficient in terms of a number of control processes, or strategies. When performance on a memory task depends upon the use of these strategies, normal-retardate difference would be expected. Second, it was assumed that when a memory task did not demand that a deliberate strategy be used for efficient performance, no normal-retardate differences would be ~ b t a i n e d .The ~ distinction is, of course, the same as reviewed in the ‘ I t should be. pointed out that this hypothesis is at best an oversimplification for there is at least one major aspect of memory which changes with age, but is not of the voluntary, potentially conscious, control process variety. This is the basic underlying semantic-conceptual structure that influences all cognitive activity (as mentioned in footnote 2 ) . Changes in the conceptual-semantic basis of memory were not considered in this chapter, however, as pointed out by Flavell (personal communication), there are at least three major forms of memory processes: ( 1 ) aspects that do not depend on strategic processes and d o not reflect underlying semanticconceptual schemata and as such are developmentally insensitive, ( 2 ) aspects that change with the maturation of the overall semantic-conceptual organization, but are neither potentially conscious nor deliberately controlled by the subject, and (3) the type of voluntary, often reportable strategic processes which develop with age. The focus of this chapter is on points ( 1 ) and ( 3 ) , but the importance of (2) should not be overlooked.

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previous sections, that is, between active and passive strategies and voluntary and involuntary memory processes. A.

Choice of Tasks

In order to put these hypotheses to the test, two basic paradigms were examined. The tasks were selected to meet the criteria that one would demand strategic behavior for adequate performance and the other could be performed without employing any of the obvious strategies so far described in this chapter. The first task selected was a keeping-track task which requires that the subject keep the current state of a number of variables or categories updated. This task was selected as it requires active cumulative rehearsal, a strategy which has been extensively examined with retardates. The advantages of this task over previous paradigms used to investigate rehearsal will be discussed later. In addition, intentional forgetting and adequate search strategies were thought to be involved in the keeping-track task. The second task selected was a recognition memory task, where it is not obvious that any organizational, search, or rehearsal strategies are used for efficient performance. In the keeping-track task the performance of mildly retarded subjects departs considerably from that of normal adults, both in terms of the overall level of performance and in terms of the pattern of results obtained. Evidence will be presented to support the hypothesis that these differences stem from an inadequate use of rehearsal mechanisms. In the recognition memory task the performance of mildly retarded children appears more comparable to that of adults. Evidence will be presented which suggests that this comes about because retarded children are able to use temporal cues and that these cues are sufficient for excellent performance. It is further suggested that temporal cues are encoded without any deliberate strategy on the part of the subject (Brown, 1973a, 1973b), thus accounting for the retardate efficiency on such tasks. Therefore, the two tasks seemed ideally suited to test the general hypothesis that it is in the deliberate use of strategic plans that a retardate memory deficit is implicated. 6. Choice of Subjects

Institutionalized children in the moderately retarded range (MA 7-9, mean IQ approximately 70) were selected, so that complex verbal instructions could be introduced in the recognition task and due to the necessity of training category responding in the keeping-track task. It was also a special feature of this program that the same children participated in both types of tasks whenever feasible so that it would be possible to determine if efficiency

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on a memory task was dependent on the extent to which deliberate strategies were required and if this effect held up within, as well as between, subjects. C.

Interaction between Task and Subject Variables

Jensen’s ( 1970) distinctions between primary and secondary retardation and Level I and Level I1 abilities were considered in selecting both the tasks and the subject population examined in the research program. Jensen described two major types of ability. Level I abilities are characterized by relatively little processing or transformation of the informational input, but higher abilities (Level 11) are said to reflect increased utilization of transformation, organization, and elaboration of the incoming information. Primary retardataion refers to a deficiency in basic Level I functioning as well as Level I1 and subjects thus characterized were not considered in this research program. Secondary retardation, however, refers to a deficiency in higher Level II-type functioning. It is Jensen’s contention that in the subject population studied in the majority of tasks reviewed here, Level I ability should be intact. That is, in the mildly to moderately retarded range of ability (IQs in the range of 50-85), children can function quite adequately on Level I-type tasks. However, for these same subjects Level I1 processing is beyond their capacity or at least requires considerable training before it can be induced. As the focus of this research program was on the use of strategies the selection of secondarily retarded subjects was clearly dictated. For these children, Level I ability, in some sense the equivalent of passive nonstrategic performance, should be intact and it is this level of functioning which was assumed to be operating in the recognition task. However, Level I1 ability, that is active strategic use of mnemonics, should be deficient, and it is this level of processing which was thought to be tapped by the keeping-track task. Thus, the choice of tasks and subjects was the deliberate outcome of a consideration of the interaction between subject and task characteristics. V.

SPECIFIC EXPERIMENTS

A. The Keeping-Track Task 1. BACKGROUND A keeping-track task requires that the subject keep track of the present state of a number of variables (Yntema & Mueser, 1960). Questions which signal the subject to recall the most recent state of a particular vari-

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able (category) are interpolated within a sequence of messages updating the states of the variables. Not only would the ability to keep track of a number of things at once appear to be an important form of memory for everyday life, but the task provides an excellent vehicle for studying memory strategies such as rehearsal and controlled forgetting, since the ability to keep constantly changing material updated would seem to require both rehearsal of the present state of a variable and erasure of previous states. Morin, Hoving, and Konick (1970) adapted the keeping-track task for use with children. Their task included a number of variables each with a set number of states (e.g., either two, four, or six states). Thus, the six states of the food variable could be: bread, milk, apple, cake, pie, and corn. On each trial the subject was presented with four items (pictures) sequentially in an inspection set. One item came from each of the four variables. The subject’s task was to remember the most recent state of each variable, e.g., that bread was the last food seen, that dog was the last animal seen. The question “What was the last food seen?” can be answered by employing one of two strategies. The subject may answer after searching his memory of the inspection set and determining which item was a food. Alternately, he may reference the states of the food variable and determine which was seen most recently. Investigations of this type of task with adults have shown that performance is not affected by the number of states of each variable (Yntema & Mueser, 1962). The functional search set for adults appears to be the inspection set and not the states of the variable in question. Searching only this set provides all the updated information and alleviates the necessity of “time tagging” (Yntema & Trask, 1963) the items of the probed variable so that recency judgments can be made. However, this optimal strategy demands that the items in the preceding inspection set be maintained in memory until the probe occurs. The most efficient method of preserving the rapidly presented and constantly changing items in memory is to actively rehearse the most recent inspection set until the probe occurs. Unlike adults, the performance of preschool children is affected by the number of states of a variable (Morin et al., 1970). The number of errors increases significantly as the number of states of a variable increase. In answering the probe, the children must consider the states of the probed variable rather than concentrating exclusively on the items in the inspection set. Apparently, young children are forced to search the probed variable because they fail to keep the information concerning the inspection set “alive” until the probe occurred, due to inadequate rehearsal. The present series of keeping-track studies was designed to examine the performance of retarded children, a subject population also characterized as deficient in the use of rehearsal strategies.

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2. STUDY 1 : KEEPING-TRACK PERFORMANCE ADOLESCENTS

IN

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The first experiment in this series (Brown, 1972b) represented an attempt to replicate the developmentally related rehearsal deficit (Morin e? al. 1970) with retarded children. The subjects were institutionalized retardates from the Mansfield State Training School, Connecticut. Their mean MA was 9 years, their mean CA was 16 years, and their IQ range was 62-85, with a mean IQ of 70. Each subject received stimulus familiarization and pretraining sessions before beginning the study. The stimulus familiarization procedure was designed to train subjects to name and categorize all states and all variables without error. The pretraining procedure familiarized the subjects with the keeping-track tasks by gradually increasing the size on an inspection set from 1 to 4 items. Both procedures, which are described in detail elsewhere (Brown, 1972b) were common to all the keeping-track experiments to be described here. The basic design of the experiments was similar to the Morin et al. (1970) study with preschool children. There were four variables: animals, vehicles, foods, and clothing. For each subject one variable had two states, two variables had four states, and the remaining variable had six states. Each trial of the experimental session consisted of the sequential presentation of four stimuli in an inspection set. The inspection series always included one state from each variable, e.g., and animal, a vehicle, a food, and an article of clothing. The last stimulus in the array was followed immediately by a probe which indicated which variable was to be recalled. The mean adjusted4 proportions correct are shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen that accuracy decreased as the number of states increased and there is a marked recency, but no primacy effect in the serial position curves. Thus, the data from the first study provided a replication and extension of the results obtained by Morin et al. (1970) and indicated that retarded children perform in a keeping-track task in a manner more similar to preschool children than to adults. Performance decreased as the number of states of the variable increased, suggesting that the states of the variable ‘As guessing probabilities vary with changes in the number of states only, the adjusted error scores were considered throughout this series of experiments. The correction for guessing is based on the assumption that the subject either knows the answer and is correct or guesses and is correct with probabilty l/n, where n = number of states. When the number of errors is above the chance expectation, the adjustment gives an error score greater than the number of trials. When this happened, the subject was assigned an error score equal to the number of trials. As this happened only in the Nonrehearsal conditions when the probed variable had six states, this procedure makes the tests of the major hypotheses somewhat conservative, since it slightly decreases the number of errors in conditions where the most errors were expected.

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were considered when the answer to the probe was required. Furthermore, inspection of the serial position curves revealed a marked recency effect but no primacy effect, again a pattern of results similar to that found with young children (Morin ef al., 1970) but not rehearsing adults (Alden, Wedell, & Kanarick, 197 1 ) .

3. STUDY 2: THE EFFECTS OF TRAINING RETARDED ADOLESCENTS TO REHEARSE The data from the initial study indicated that retardates, unlike adults, do not spontaneously adopt the appropriate strategy of cumulative rehearsal in a keeping-track task. In the second study (Brown et al., 1973, Exp. 1 ) one group of retarded adolescents ( N = 10) was given rehearsal training on a keeping-track task and another group ( N = 13) received no rehearsal training. If the rehearsal deficit hypothesis is correct, accuracy should decrease as the number of states increases in the untrained group, replicating the previous study (Brown, 1972b). An effect of number of states might also be expected when latency of response is considered for it should take longer to consider a variable with six states than one with only two, However, if training were successful, we would expect both accuracy and latency of response to be relatively constant in the trained (re-

STRATEGIC BEHAVIOR IN RETARDATE MEMORY

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hearsing) subjects who need not reference the state of a variable in answering a probe. The subjects were selected from the Lincoln State School, Lincoln, Illinois. They had a mean MA of 7 years 5 months, a mean CA of 15 years 10 months, and a mean IQ of 58. They were matched on their performance on the first 2 days of pretraining before being assigned to Rehearsal or Nonrehearsal conditions. All subjects were given two extra days of pretraining. The Rehearsal group received additional training in an overt rehearsal ~trategy,~ while Nonrehearsal subjects received no such instruction. In all other respects the procedure was identical to the previous study (Brown, 1972b). The adjusted proportions correct are shown in Fig. 2. In general, Rehearsal subjects performed better than Nonrehearsal subjects. Of greater interest, however, are the different patterns shown by the two groups. As can be seen, the performance of the Nonrehearsal subjects decreased as the number of states increased, replicating the data obtained by Brown (1972b) with MA 9 retardates, and Morin er al. (1970) with preschool children. However, the Rehearsal subjects were uninfluenced by the number of states a variable could assume. In addition, training subjects to rehearse should lead to improved performance, with the effect being greatest at the early serial positions; Fig. 2 shows that this was the obtained result. For the Nonrehearsal subjects, there was a clear serial position effect, indicating pronounced recency, whereas the Rehearsal subjects failed to show a serial position effect. Latency data were obtained for six Rehearsal and six Nonrehearsal subjects. The latency of correct responses are shown in Fig. 3. As can be seen, the Rehearsal subjects' latencies were uninfluenced by either number of states or serial position, but the Nonrehearsal subjects were influenced by both. The Nonrehearsal subjects took longer to respond to a probed variable which had many states than to one which had few. Both the accuracy and latency data provided strong support for the hypothesis that a rehearsal deficit is responsible for the poor performance of untrained retardates on a keeping-track task. Due to inadequate rehearsal, the items in the inspection set have faded from memory at the time of the probe. As a consequence, untrained subjects are required to reference the states of the variable in question in order to answer the probe, and both accuracy and latency measures reflect any increase in the number of states. However, when subjects are trained to rehearse, items can be maintained in the inspection set, enabling the subjects to search only this 'Special thanks are extended to Catherine Kolf for her patience and skill at collecting data and assisting in the development of the rehearsal training technique. (For full details of the technique, see Brown et al., 1974b.)

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set in response to the probe. As a consequence there is no need to search the states of the probed variable and the number of states a variable can assume is unimportant. As an additional point of interest, it was noted that two subjects in the Nonrehearsal group outperformed all but one subject in the Rehearsal group. One obvious suggestion is that these two subjects were rehearsing despite the fact that they were not instructed to do so. If this were the case, the latencies of these subjects should be independent of number of states. Their data (labeled Subject 15 and Subject 16) are shown in Fig. 4, along with the six subjects in the Rehearsal group and four other subjects in the Nonrehearsal group for whom complete latency data are available. As can be seen, their performance is identical to that of the Rehearsal subjects and markedly different from that of the remaining Nonrehearsal subjects. Thus, a consideration of the accuracy data suggested the likelihood that these subjects were rehearsing, and the latency data provide strong additional support. 4. STUDY 3: LONG-TERM RETENTIONOF THE REHEARSAL STRATEGY

Retardates do not spontaneously adopt a rehearsal strategy but can be induced to rehearse successfully. This suggests that rehearsal is under the control of the subject and is a trainable control process, rather than a fixed

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untrainable capacity or structural feature of the memory system (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Fisher & Zeaman, 1973). While the short-term efficiency of training retardates to rehearse was demonstrated in Study 2, the longterm efficiency of this practice is unknown. Training studies with young, normal children have shown that immature subjects abandon their rehearsal strategy when not specifically requested to continue (Keeney, Cannizzo, & Flavell, 1967). In Study 3 (Brown et al., 1974b) the retention of a rehearsal strategy over a 6-month interval was investigated. Subjects (ten trained and ten untrained) who had taken part in the original keeping-track rehearsal training study (Brown et ul., 1973) were brought back to the laboratory after an interval of 5 to 6 months and given 4 additional days of testing. They received no special instruction concerning the previously trained strategy but merely were told that they were to play the game again. In order to provide an optimal situation for the retention of the learned strategy, the similarity between the initial task situation and retention test was maximized (Campione & Brown, in press). Thus, the stimuli, procedure, location of the test suite, and the experimenter were exactly the same as in the original training study. The adjusted accuracy scores are shown in Fig. 5 . In general, Rehearsal subjects performed better than Nonrehearsal subjects. As before, the performance of the Nonrehearsal subjects decreased with increased number of

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acquire a rehearsal strategy in a keeping-track task. Retention of a trained rehearsal strategy in a serial learning task, at least over a 2-week interval, has also been reported recently (Kellas, Ashcraft, & Johnson, 1973).

5. STUDY4: REHEARSAL PREVENTION IN NORMAL ADOLESCENTS

So far in this series of studies, retardate performance has been evaluated with reference to normal adults or normal preschool children. In Study 4 (Brown et al., 1973, Exp. 2), normal comparative data were obtained from high school students of approximately the same CA as the retarded adolescents ( 15 years). The use of normal CA comparative groups has been described and defended by Ellis (1969). In addition, a second group of high school children were given the task in such a way that it would be difficult, if not impossible, for them to rehearse. This condition was included to see whether the performance of untrained retarded children was due to lack of rehearsal alone or some other combination of factors. If it were due to lack of rehearsal alone, then normal adolescents, prevented from rehearsing, should behave similarly to the retarded children. Research with normal adults (Fischler, Rundus, & Atkinson, 1970; Glanzer & Meinzer, 1967) and retardates (Bray, 1973) has shown that accuracy is substantially decreased (particularly the primacy effect) when subjects are required to repeat each item as it occurs, limiting their repetitions to the item currently displayed. This procedure was adopted in Study 4. In addition, the subjects were required to count backward by threes in the interval ( 6 seconds) between the offset of the inspection items and the probe. Thus, in Study 2 an attempt was made to train retardates to rehearse and their

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performance became more similar to adults. The aim of Study 4 was to prevent rehearsal and thereby to simulate retardation in normal adolescents. The mean adjusted proportions correct are shown in Fig. 8. The FreeStrategy subjects were not influenced by number of states but the performance of the Repetition subjects was affected by this variable. Similar patterns were revealed in the latency scores. The median correct latencies are shown in Fig. 9. As can be seen, the Free-Strategy subjects responded faster than the Repetition subjects. Furthermore, Free-Strategy subjects showed no effects due to number of states, serial position, or their interaction. However, for the Repetition subjects, the effect of number of states and serial position and their interaction were reliable. Thus, the data from the junior high school subjects are similar to those for the retardates. Those subjects allowed to use their own strategy, rehearsal, showed patterns similar to those of retardates trained to rehearse. When, however, normal subjects were prevented from rehearsing, the patterns were similar to those obtained with untrained (nonrehearsing) retardates, as performance reflected any increases in the number of states. Thus, retardates can be trained to show patterns characteristic of normal subjects, who in turn can be induced to show patterns characteristic of untrained retardates. This study demonstrated the advantages of collecting data from normal comparative subjects,

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for such data not only serve to establish that a developmental deficit is operating but help clarify the nature of that deficit. Thus, by both training a strategy in retardates and simulating the absence of that strategy in normals, we can confirm that it is the presence or absence of a particular mnemonic that governs performance in both groups.

6. SUMMARY The keeping-track experiment appears to be a particularly fruitful diagnostic test of rehearsal processes in normal and retarded children. In addition to the serial position data typically used to make inferences about rehearsal, the empirical effects of the number of states can also provide data relevant to rehearsal strategies. The keeping-track task has a number of advantages when compared to other procedures used to assess retardates’ short-term memory. The typical procedure has been the one used by Ellis (1970). Here the subjects are shown a series of digits followed by a probe requiring them to give the position of the presented digit. Hence, memory for serial position is required and the data are subject to a position response bias (Calfee, 1970). In the keeping-track task, the subject is not required to identify the serial position of an item, but is required to answer the probe with only item information which is not subject to a position response bias. In addition to the methodological advantage of eliminating position response bias, a keeping-track task also has the advantage of pro-

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viding several sources of evidence concerning the presence or absence of rehearsal strategies. Thus, while the Ellis procedure relies on the serial position curve to make inferences concerning rehearsal, the keeping-track task provides both this information and information about the effect of number of states. Subjects deficient in rehearsal should show no primacy effect and should show an effect due to number of states, both in the pattern of accuracy and latency scores. Finally, the present series of studies demonstrates that the rehearsal deficit characteristic of young children and retardates in serial recall tasks (Belmont & Butterfield, 1969; Flavell, Beach, & Chinsky, 1966; Kingsley & Hagen, 1969) is also a feature of their keeping-track performance which does not require serial information. This suggests that a rehearsal deficit is a stable characteristic of these subjects over a variety of tasks and situations. Future research with the keeping-track paradigm will focus on the influence of other strategies required by the task such as intentional forgetting and appropriate search strategies. 8. Recognition Memory

1. BACKGROUND Recognition memory for pictures has recently been the subject of a series of studies with normal populations. Adults have shown near perfect accuracy at identifying repeating pictures drawn from a stimulus pool of between 600 (Nickerson, 1956; Shepard, 1967, and 2500 items (Standing, Conezio, & Haber, 1970). This ability to correctly recognize previously seen pictures is well developed even in preschool children, although with this population, the number of pictures in the stimulus pool has been limited to between 100 (Brown & Scott, 1971) and 220 items (Brown & Campione, 1972). Within these limits, preschool children’s picture recognition performance is comparable to that of adults (Brown & Campione, 1972; Brown & Scott, 1971; Corsini, Jacobus, & Leonard, 1969). Attempts to define a limit to recognition capacity have been restricted in both populations by the feasible length of experimental sessions rather than any inferred limitation of the subjects’ ability (Standing et al., 1970). Thus, recognition memory, even for very similar pictures (Brown & Campione, 1972) repeating within a session or after extended intervals (Brown & Scott, 1971) is excellent in preschool children. There is some evidence that recognition memory in retardates may also be extremely efficient. A. S. Martin (1970) reported excellent recognition memory for pictures in moderately retarded children. His subjects viewed an inspection series of 100 pictures, followed by 100 test pairs, each consisting of an

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old and a new picture. Retardates were able to correctly identify 97% of the old pictures. Of interest is the fact that retarded children who are inferior to adults in memory tasks requiring deliberate strategies such as rehearsal, can perform like adults in a recognition memory task. One explanation of the superior performance of both preschool children and retardates is that an obvious cue for successful performance is novelty. Consider a simple recognition memory task. Items are presented for study and are then mixed with new items. The subject is required to identify the study items. Performance can be based upon a frequency daerential, the old items having a frequency of one, the new items of zero. In other words, a novelty decision is required. Studies of discrimination learning and stimulus preferences in retardates and young children have shown that novelty is extremely salient for these subjects (Fisher, Sperber, & Zeaman, 1973; Grabbe & Campione, 1969) and, therefore, performance in a recognition task could be based upon the salient novelty cue. While it is clear that frequency (in this sense of novelty) is an important factor, the concept of situational frequency (Underwood & Freund, 1970) must be introduced in an attempt to explain recognition performance. It is equally clear that the stimuli (cut from children’s books) have been seen before the experimental list is presented. Indeed, the subjects’ spontaneously indicate that they have seen an item before (“at home in my story book”) but still choose the familiar item as new within the experimental setting (Brown & Scott, 1971). In order to do this, the subjects must have some means of determining not only that an item has been seen before, but where, when, or how it occurred. As Anderson and Bower (1972) have recently pointed out, what appears to be a simple recognition memory experiment is actually “a list-differentiation experiment in disguise.” One alternative explanation is that retardates are able to use temporal cues (time tags) to mediate performance. Brown (1973a) has shown that young children can make judgments of relative recency as efficiently as adults if contextual and spatial order are not confounded with temporal succession. These data suggest that immature subjects may be able to process temporal information without any deliberate strategy. From adult studies we know that temporal information can be stored without any conscious intention on the part of the subject (Hintzman & Block, 1971). If it is only in the intentional use of strategies or conscious intention to be strategic that retardates are deficient, then there is no reason to suspect that their use of temporal cues should be inferior. The next series of studies was designed to test the hypotheses that (1) recognition memory is efficient in retarded children and ( 2 ) this efficiency is in some way related to the importance of temporal cues in the recognition task.

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2. STUDY 5 : RECOGNITION MEMORYFOR

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REPEATING

BETWEEN SESSIONS

The first study in this series (Brown, 1972a) represented an attempt to assess recognition memory in retarded subjects and to investigate the use of time tags (Yntema & TrasR, 1963) by these children. To accomplish this, a 120-item continuous recognition memory stack was given to moderately retarded subjects (MA 9 years). Replicating A. S. Martin (1970), the general level of performance was high, with a mean of 96% correct responses. Performance as a function of number of intervening items (lag) was consistently high, with 98, 98, 99, 93, and 94% correct responses for lags of 0, 5, 10, 25, and 50, respectively. The false alarm rate (where the subject incorrectly identified a new stimulus as old) was consistently low (.04). On Day 2 a second recognition task was presented to the same subjects. The main question was whether a discrimination between separate time periods within the experiment could be made. Therefore, on Day 2 the stimulus pool for the Experimental group included items that had occurred on the initial day of testing. The subjects were required to tell whether each item was “new” or “old” with respect to that particular day (Day 2). As some of the Day 1 items were re-presented on Day 2, the basic question concerned whether the subjects would correctly identify these previously seen (on Day 1) items as “new” the first time they occurred on Day 2. In order to perform efficiently at this task, it would be necessary for the subjects to identify not only items that were novel or familiar with respect to the experiment but also to distinguish between separate time periods within the experiment. If the subject could not use time tags, interference between Day 1 and Day 2 items would result. Data from Control groups indicated that items were retained over the 24-hour interval (probability correct = .94) and could, therefore, serve as a source of interference. However, the subjects in the Experimental group were able to identify the correct items on 97% of the stack. This finding, while necessary, is not sufficient support for the contention that retarded subjects were using additional temporal cues in this situation. The additional evidence necessary can be adduced from the false alarm scores obtained from the two groups. The Control group’s false alarm rate of .04 was comparable to the Experimental group’s figure of .06. While there was a tendency, in the Experimental group, for the false alarm rate to be higher with Day 1 items than with new items, the effect was minimal, reflecting a drop from 96 to 93% correct responses. This finding is crucial, since if the subjects were unable to discriminate between items occurring on Day 1 and Day 2 a large increase in the false alarm rate would be expected, since the

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subjects would call an item from Day 1 “old” on its first Day 2 occurrence. That this did not occur indicates that confusion between Day 1 and Day 2 items was not a major source of difficulty for these subjects. Thus, retarded subjects were able to distinguish between items seen within the experiment but at different times. A similar finding with normal preschool children has recently been reported (M. S. Scott, 1973). If the items within a list were time tagged (Yntema & Trask, 1963) and the subjects could distinguish between these temporal cues even in the crude sense of discriminating items “seen a long time ago” from items “seen recently,” then the excellent performance on Day 2 could be explained in terms of temporal coding. The extent to which retardates can use finer recency judgments in a recognition memory task was examined in the next study.

3. STUDY 6: RECOGNITION MEMORYFOR ITEMS REPEATING WITHIN SESSIONS In the Brown (1972a) study the efficiency of novelty as a cue was reduced by presenting the items more than once within the experimental setting. That performance remained excellent indicated that novelty cues were not the sole basis of recognition efficiency. Apparently, retardates can and do make use of other cues, such as temporal distinctions. In an unpublished Ph.D. study, A. S. Martin (1970) introduced a modified recognition memory task; the main feature was again that items were repeated within the experiment, making judgment of old and new based on novelty alone impossible. The retarded subjects viewed the target items and then received a series of test pairs each composed of one target item and one new item. The subjects’ task was to ‘‘find the old (target) one.” After all the pairs had been presented (Trial 1) the “old” and “new” stimuli were randomly repaired for the next trial (Trial 2) and again for Trials 3, 4, and 5 , the subjects’ task still being to find the “old” one. However, in all but the first trial both pictures in the test pair were old. A discrimination between these items based on novelty would demand that a fine discrimination of relative frequency be made. That is, an item seen four times must be judged more novel or less frequent than an item seen five times. However, even with multiple occurrences within a sequence the subjects were able to identify the original target item, with accuracy remaining relatively stable across trials. It is possible that fine frequency judgments are within the discriminative capacity of retarded children; if so, the excellent level of performance in Martin’s study could be explained as no discriminations between items of equal frequency were included. In the present study (Brown, 1973c, Exp. l ) , target (old) and distractor (new) items were equated for experimental frequency.

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The subjects (mean MA = 8-9) were selected from the Mansfield State Training School and carefully pretrained in a standard recognition task to choose a target item (called the candy card) or a distractor item on command. The same subjects took part in Studies 6-8, together with additional naive subjects on each experiment. No differences between experienced and naive subjects were apparent. The main feature of Study 6 was that the frequency of the distractor items on forced-choice tests was varied. Each experimental sequence consisted of an inspection series of 36 target items ( T items) followed by a test series where the subject was required to choose the T item from each pair. Frequency of the distractor item (D item) was varied in three blocks of 12 trials. On Trials 1-12, each pair of items contained a T item selected randomly from the 36 available T items of the inspection set. As it had occurred before in the inspection series it was designated T,. Each T, item was paired with a distractor item that had never occurred before, Do.Thus, the T, - Dodiscrimination on trials 1-12 was a standard recognition memory test with an old item paired with a new item. On Trials 13-24 the forced-choice pairs again consisted of T, items, randomly selected from the remaining inspection set pool. These were paired randomly with one of two types of D items, those that had occurred as distractors on Trials 1-12 (D,) or new D items (Do). Thus, in a resultant T, - D, pair, both items had occurred before, equally often. Discrimination based on frequency alone would be impossible. In the last block of trials, the T, items, consisting of the remaining 12 items not yet tested from the inspection set, were paired with one of three types of distractors. The D item was either entirely novel, Do, had occurred once before, D,, or twice before, D,, as a distractor. Thus, in the T, - D, condition, both items were old, but now the D item had occurred more frequently. If the subject chose the one occurring more frequently, he would choose the D item. The results are shown in Table I. Performance did not vary as a function of the frequency of the TABLE I OF THE RESULTS OF STUDY 6: THEMEAN SUMMARY AS A FUNCTION OF THE FREQUENCY PROPORTION CORRECT OF THE D ITEMSO Problem type

TI - Do TI - DI TI - D t

No. of observations Exp. 1 1000 500 300

From Brown (1973~).

.92 .89 .91

Exp. 3

.94 .90 .93

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distractor items. Additional control trials indicated that even when the relative recency of the T and D items last appearance was equated, performance did not decline. One explanation of the data is that the subjects used contextual cues (Anderson & Bower, 1972; Bower, 1972) to distinguish between the items. In a follow-up study (Brown, 1973c, Exp. 3) obvious contextual differences between T and D items were controlled. In the previous study (Study 6) the subject viewed the T items as they were presented to him in the inspection stack. He was seated at a table with the experimenter, and they viewed the items together. The D items occurred initially in a different context, as a member of a forced-choice pair presented on a Wisconsin General Test Apparatus (WGTA) tray. The experimenter was not visible when the D items were seen. Thus, the initial appearance of the T items (in a stack, in the presence of the experimenter) was distinct from the initial appearance of the D items (in a forced-choice pair, in the absence of the experimenter). These separate contexts could become associated with the two distinct types of items. If, when the subject retrieves an item, he also retrieves this contextual information associated with it at the time of storage, differentiation between T and D items would be possible. Thus, in the follow-up study, these obvious differences were minimized by presenting the T items initially in pairs on the WGTA followed by the forcedchoice pairs also on the WGTA. With this exception, the study was a replication of the previous one. The results can also be seen in Table I. No differences between the two presentation conditions were apparent. The replication of the first experiment is quite striking. Minimizing obvious contextual differences between the presentation of T and D items did not lower the high levels of accuracy. 4. STUDY 7: TEMPORAL SEPARATION RECOGNITION

AND

REPEATING ITEM

The outcome of the previous experiments suggested that neither frequency, nor obvious contextual cues were responsible for the excellent recognition of within-session item repetition. At this point it seemed inefficient to proceed by systematically isolating other possible contextual cues in an attempt to uncover the specific cues involved. A more economical approach would be to state that the data so far indicated that the subject can tell which items occurred in the inspection set and which ones did not. This global cue, in the inspection set, could comprise many temporal and contextual features. Therefore, in Study 7 (Brown, 1973c, Exp. 4), both T and D items were presented in the inspection set, thus, removing the global cue. As in the previous experiments the subjects viewed an inspection series

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of 36 items. However, in this study they were presented in two separate stacks of 18 cards. In Condition 1, the subject was given the first stack and told that these were the “candy cards.” Immediately after viewing the first stack, he was given the second with the instructions that these were “not the candy cards.” In order to ensure that the subject looked at the negative items, he was required to name the items in both stacks. In Condition 2, the procedure was repeated; however, the initial stack contained the negative items and the second stack consisted of the positive items. Following the viewing of both stacks, the test trials were given. The subject was always required to choose the “candy cards.” Each pair in the test series consisted of one T item, taken from the positive stack (the “candy cards”) and one D item selected from the negative stack. The average accuracy level was 70% correct compared with the above 90% levels of accuracy recorded in the preceding experiments. Presenting both types of items in the inspection set drastically reduced the level of performance. One explanation of the superiority of the global cue, in the inspection set, is that obvious temporal cues are involved. Consider the procedure of Study 6. The first occurrence of a target item was always in the inspection set and, hence, always preceded the first occurrence of the distractor which did not occur until the forced-choice trials. Differentiation between items could be based on this temporal separation. However, in Study 7, the separation between the original presentation of the target and the distractor items was reduced, with a corresponding reduction in accuracy. This would suggest that the temporal history of an item’s appearance is retained in memory (Anderson & Bower, 1972; Hintzman & Block, 1971), at least to the extent that the subject can discriminate the recency of more than one repetition of an item, its first appearance (its “birthdate”) from its subsequent appearances and that differentiation of items in memory can be based on these temporal cues. However, the “birthdate” of an item may comprise temporal and contextual features in that the item is both time and context tagged when it occurs. An initial attempt to separate context and time features associated with the birthdates was undertaken in Study 8.

5. STUDY8: TEMPORAL AND CONTEXTUAL CUESIN RECOGNITION MEMORY In this study (Brown, 1973c, Exp. 5 ) an attempt was made to examine more closely the levels of performance associated with varying degrees of temporal and contextual distinctiveness associated with the “brithdates” of the T and D items. Condition 1 represented the standard recognition memory condition (Study 6) where a clear distinction between the item’s birthdates would be made. The T items occurred alone in the inspection

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set and were followed by forced-choice trials; hence, the D items did not occur until the test trials. In Conditions 2 and 3, both T and D items occurred in the inspection set. However, in Condition 2, the items enjoyed some degree of temporal separation as they were presented in two separate sets following the procedure of Study 7. In Condition 3, the T and D items were presented simultaneously. Pairs of items were presented in the inspection set, each pair consisting of a T item and a D item. The experimenter indicated which item was the “candy card” after the subject had labeled both items in a pair. Thus, Condition 1 represented the greatest degree of temporal separation and an additional context cue (in the inspection set, not in the inspection set). Condition 2 presented a small degree of temporal separation but both items occurred in the same context. In Condition 3, both items occurred simultaneously in the same context and, thus, the temporal cue was completely removed. On the following forced-choice trials the mean proportions correct were .90, .71, and .66 for Conditions 1, 2, and 3, respectively. All pair-wise comparisons were significant; however, it is noticeable that the magnitude of the difference between Condition 1 and the other two conditions is quite large. The average accuracy level of 90% replicates preceding experiments for this condition where the T items alone are presented in the inspection set. When both items occur in the inspection set, performance drops to approximately 70% correct, again replicating preceding findings. Thus, it appears to be the case that providing distinct contextual and/or temporal cues, which can be associated with an item’s birthdate, leads to excellent performance. Of interest is the fact that the difference between 71% correct for Condition 2 and 66% correct for Condition 3 does represent a reliable difference. Thus, even a slight temporal separation provided by presenting all of one type of item first, within the same context, does help later discrimination between them, although this increase is small. 6. SUMMARY The series of studies confirm that recognition memory is efficient in retarded children and suggest that retardates are able to make efficient use of temporal and/or contextual cues to mediate performance. One weakness of the procedures used in these studies is that it is not possible to entirely separate contextual and temporal cues, for the birthdate of an item may be a combination of temporal and contextual features. Isolating the T items in the inspection set provided both the greatest degree of temporal separation between the birthdate of the T and D items and an additional set of distinct contextual associations. Recent evidence with young children, however, suggests that while judgments of recency do not necessarily involve a deliberate mnemonic (Brown, 1973a), the use of context cues does

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involve a deliberate strategy on the part of the subject (Brown, 1973b; Brown et al., 1974a). Similarly, no developmental trend is apparent for recency judgments when context cues cannot aid the discrimination (Brown, 1973a), but when deliberate use of context is required, performance improves with age (Brown, 1973b). These data suggest that it is the temporal tag which can be used effectively and that performance in the series of modified recognition tasks described here is mediated by discrimination of temporal cues. Retardates can perform extremely well on such tasks because the processing of temporal information is not necessarily a deliberate strategy which must be adopted by the subject. Temporal information can be stored even when the subjects are not warned that they will be asked for such information (Hintzman & Block, 1971 ) . Underwood (1969) suggests that temporal information about items is processed without any apparent “cost” to the memory system. A temporal code about each item is an integral part of what the subject stores about the to-beremembered material even when under instructions to process item information only. Thus, it appears that the storing of temporal information regarding items is not necessarily under the subject’s control, does not involve a deliberate mnemonic strategy, and is, therefore, not developmentally sensitive (Brown, 1973a, 1973b). Future research should concentrate on devising methods to use such cues, which retardates can employ efficiently, as “crutch” cues to mediate tasks on which they experience difficulty. C.

Overall Summary of Specific Studies

The research program described here involved two basic tasks, the keeping-track task and a modified recognition memory task. Retardate performance on the keeping-track task was inferior to that of normal CA comparison groups. The retardate deficiency was reflected in absolute levels of performance, but also in the pattern of performance which revealed the absence of a rehearsal strategy. In the recognition memory task moderately retarded adolescents performed very efficiently, with accuracy levels comparable to those found with adults. It is suggested that this efficiency stems from the fact that no deliberate mnemonic was required and, therefore, no retardate deficiency was apparent. Further support for this contention is the fact that the same subjects participated in many of the studies. The same subjects took part in Study 1 (Brown, 1972b), the original keeping-track study and in Study 5 (Brown, 1972a), the original recognition memory study. These same subjects also participated in Studies 6-8 (Brown, 1973c), together with additional naive subjects included in each experiment. Thus, the different results obtained for the keeping-track task and the recognition tasks were obtained when the same children were used as

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subjects. Thus, developmentally related memory deficiencies obvious on one task, are absent in another even when the performance of the same children is considered. This difference is assumed to be determined by whether or not deliberate strategies are required by a particular memory task. While it is also true that the keeping-track task is basically a shortterm memory task and the recognition tasks investigate long-term memory, it is not assumed that the different pattern of results reflect the long-term versus short-term distinction. Rather, the difference is assumed to lie in whether or not deliberate strategies are required. If a short-term memory task not requiring strategic behavior were investigated, it may well be the case that there would be no normal-retardate difference (Belmont, 1967). Similarly, if a long-term task requiring schemes or strategies were examined, a normal-retardate difference would be predicted. Which distinction is important, long-term versus short-term or the presence or absence of deliberate strategies, of course, can be answered only empirically. The strategy-nonstrategy distinction has been preferred in the chapter due to ( 1 ) parsimony, a great deal of data can be accommodated by this position and ( 2 ) clarity, for there would be difficulty in classifying the chosen tasks as either long- or Short-term, since the keeping-track task and the recognition task involve processes that would traditionally be regarded as both long- and short-term. As a final point it should also be noted that the subjects in these expenments were mildly or moderately retarded (IQ 60-80; MA 7-9) and could be characterized as secondarily retarded (Jensen, 1970). Whether more severely (primary) retarded children could maintan excellent levels of performance on a class of memory tasks not requiring strategic behavior remains to be demonstrated. However, for the moderately (secondary) retarded adolescents examined here, it would appear that memory deficits are predictablc to the extent that the memory tasks examined demand strategic mnemonic behavior. VI.

IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION

Traditionally there has been a division between basic and applied research in the study of developmentally related problems. The majority of research reviewed and described in this chapter would be regarded as basic research in that it is laboratory inspired and conducted. Its origins are firmly based in theoretical and empirical backgrounds rather than practical problems raised in an applied setting. While it is true that accountability, in the sense of practical application, is of more central interest for the applied or middle-road (Gold, 1973) researcher, the topic cannot alto-

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gether be avoided by those concerned with basic research. It is also true that the problem of practical application is more difficult for the basic researcher as his studies, at their inception, are rarely intended to answer directly an applied question. However, the question of application can be considered even though the inherent problems may be great. A preliminary stage in considering the potential application of basic research is to outline the necessary research steps required in order to reach the point when a plan or guide for educational practice could be proposed. As this is a chapter in an interdisciplinary volume concerned with both basic and applied research in retardation, such a preliminary plan for training strategies will be presented here. If the retarded child experiences greatest difficulty on tasks demanding strategic planning, then the first step would be to analyze any specific task into its component strategy and capacity requirements. The next stage would be to test for the spontaneous use of the necessary strategies and if deficient, deliberately train retardates in their effective use. The research reviewed in this chapter appears to provide an optimistic picture for the future of training a variety of strategies and plans, at least in mildly retarded children. Such training can be conducted in a laboratory setting, as was typically the case in the basic studies described here. However, it is also possible to conduct such training within a school setting (Shif, 1969) and in sheltered workshops (Gold, 1973). Once a specific strategy has been acquired, by whatever means, the next stage in the research plan should be to see whether that strategy can be maintained over time. Extensive training may be required for there is considerable evidence that young and retarded children tend to abandon a learned strategy when no longer instructed specifically to continue. That retarded children, given appropriate and extended training, can maintain a rehearsal strategy over a 6-month delay (Brown et al., 1974b) is encouraging, however, Borkowski and Wanschura (this volume) conclude that much of the positive influence of trained mediational strategies in a pairedassociate task dissipates over time. Perhaps the reason why the trained reheaisal strategy in the Brown, Campione, and Murphy study was retained over an extended period was that the training and retention tasks were identical and the original training extensive ( 12 days). Conditions where the tasks are similar and the strategy is well established are optimal for obtaining transfer within and across tasks (Campione & Brown, in press). Before educational applications can be considered, however, it would be necessary to show transfer to a variety of tasks, for the breadth of transfer of a learned strategy must be a criterion against which the effectiveness of a training procedure can be measured. Zinchenko (Smirnov & Zinchenko, 1969) has described the characteris-

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tic developmental progression experienced in the acquisition of a flexible strategy, a progression that ideally should be mimicked by training procedures for retardates. Initially mnemonic activities are formed as “special purposive actions and are not yet generalized; the fulfillment of these actions requires especially intensive conscious control.” This is followed by a second stage where the mnemonic is transferred to “materials of varying context; they begin to generalize.” The third stage is the result of repeated use when the mnemonic becomes “to a certain degree, automatized and acquire(s) the form of a generalized skill” (Smirnov & Zinchenko, 1969, p. 469). So far, the prognosis for training a generalized skill in retarded children is not optimistic as there is little evidence in the literature to date of generalization of an acquired strategy. Indeed, both American and Soviet investigators have suggested that one of the main difficulties in training mildly retarded children is that they tend to acquire information which is “welded” to the form in which it was acquired (Shif, 1969, p. 347), thus depriving them of an indispensible flexibility. Similarly, Spitz (1963, p. 3 3 ) concluded that “once material is learned well by retardates, it is unlikely to be serviceable in instances which are not directly related to the original learning experience.” Thus, a crucial area for future research is that of transfer or generalization of training, for it is essential that we establish the conditions (if any) which will induce a flexible generalized strategy before we can usefully consider educational implications. Thus, future research aimed at training strategies should concentrate not only on the efficiency of the induced strategy within a task but on the flexibility with which it can be applied to new situations. Given that it were possible to train an appropriate generalized strategy, then it is feasible that a limited but serviceable repertoire of such strategic operations could be gradually acquired. The next step would be to devise techniques to train retarded children to monitor their own strategy production and to evaluate realistically the interaction between the task demands and their own capacity and repertoire of specific skills. There is a growing body of evidence which suggests that young children are inadequate at such meta-memorial skills (Flavell et al., 1970; Moynahan, 1973), however, there have been no attempts to investigate these processes in retarded children or to train the developmentally young to develop such essential skills. Finally, it would be necessary to face the problem of the general fdctor or the “mysterious intent to learn” (Miller et al., 1960) which appears to be deficient in retarded children. It could be that once a strategic repertoire is acquired the problem of the general factor disappears. That is, the intention to use a strategy is automatically acquired along with a facility in the specific use of strategic solutions. However, it could also be the case

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that a production deficiency would remain a characteristic feature of the immature memorizer. He may possess the ability to use certain strategies but still not exploit these skills spontaneously. The major problem facing a hypothetical research plan such as the one described above is distinguishing between those memory control processes which can be trained and those structural features which will remain impervious to training attempts. As mentioned in Section 11, this is logically an impossible task for it would require that all possible training procedures be exhausted before a definitive conclusion could be reached. However, in practice, it should be possible to decide, with reasonable conviction, that a structural limitation had been reached. For example, if, as suspected, the lack of a general intention to use strategies (and the capacity to invent them) is a structural limitation of the immature memorizer, we should find that attempts to induce this general motivational set would be doomed to failure. Basic research is still far from a position where it can provide definitive answers to problems such as this but at least by specifying the problems and the necessary steps needed, a guide to future research can be provided. Thus, it is the author’s opinion that the crucial step needed at this point in time is convincing evidence of the establishment of a trained strategy which will show at least some breadth of transfer or generalization. Without this evidence, the outlook for educational benefits from training programs is poor. As a final point, it could be that the conditions under which training takes place are of great importance. Thus, although much basic research is needed before we can confidently provide educational guidelines, it may be that some of this research could be conducted more meaningfully in an applied setting rather than entirely in a laboratory. Much of the Soviet literature on retardate training has been generated within a school setting and there is evidence to suggest that training which takes place within a meaningful context is more beneficial. Smirnov and Zinchenko (1969) stress that material which is related to a meaningful goal or activity is recalled more effectively than the same material in a rote learning (to the subject a meaningless) situation. They emphasize the importance of the general motivational milieu in inducing planful behavior. Children sent to fetch a set of items to participate in an interesting activity have little difficulty remembering the list, the same list which presents considerable difficulty to a child of the same age who is required to rote learn the items (Smirnov & Zinchenko, 1969). Similarly, D. M. Ross (1971) has shown some initial success with retardates in both training and transfer of a complex mediational strategy, when that training took place in the context of a long-term group training situation as part of a music program within the school. In this context, it is interesting to note that although Miller

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et al. (1960) believe that the intention to execute a plan is important, they also suggest that executing a plan without deliberate intent to memorize leads to improved recall. Zinchenko (1961, quoted in Smirnov & Zinchenko, 1969) argues at length that it is in the context of meaningful activity that memory is most efficient and, for this reason, we need to use involuntary memory as an effective aid in teaching. This point may be particularly relevant for those interested in retardation for the importance of motivational factors, especially those identified with institutionalization, is well documented (Zigler, 1969). Thus, the general research plan outlined above provides an idea of what would be required before educational applications from this field can be seriously considered. It is recognized that there are more problems than answers, and that the problems are difficult. However, further basic research may benefit from a general statement of the possible applications and studies could be designed which have at least the potential of answering both basic and applied questions. The research program from our own laboratory is optimistically geared at providing basic information concerning retardates’ learning and memory strategies in the short run and possible educational application in the long run. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research was supported by Grant HD06864 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Portions of the research were conducted at the Lincoln State School, Lincoln, Illinois and supported by Grant HD05951 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. The research conducted at Lincoln was made possible by the cooperation of Lawrence A. Bussard, Superintendent, and G. William Overton, Chairman of the Research Committee. Portions of the research were conducted at the Mansfield State Training School, Mansfield Depot, Connecticut and supported by Grant M-1099 from the National Institute of Mental Health. Without the assistance of Francis P. Kelly, Superintendent, this work would not have been possible. The author would like to thank Joseph C. Campione, Betty J. House, and David Zeaman for their continued advice and support throughout the conduct of this research. The author also wishes to express her appreciation to John H. Flavell and Herman H. Spitz for their helpful comments concerning earlier versions of this manuscript. The following graduate students cooperated and collaborated at various stages of the program: Norman W. Bray, Martin D. Murphy, Richard D. Sperber, and Barbara L. Wilcox. Thanks are also due to Peggy Haldeman and Nedra Boyer for preparing stimuli and collecting data from normal comparison groups and to D. Kay Hanson for typing and correcting the manuscript through many versions. REFERENCES Alden, D. G., Wedell, J. R., & Kanarick, A. F. Redundant stimulus coding and keeping-track performance. Psychonornic Science, 1971, 22, 201-202. Anderson, J. R., & Bower, G. H. Recognition and retrieval process in free recall. Psychological Review, 1972, 79, 97-123.

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Appel, L. F., Cooper, R. G.,McCarrell, N., Sims-Knight, J., Yussen, S. R., & Flavell, J. H. The development of the distinction between perceiving and memorizing. Child Development, 1972, 43, 1365-1381. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation. Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press, 1968. Pp. 90-195. Baumeister, A. A., & Kellas, G. Process variables in the paired associate learning of retardates. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 5. New York: Academic Press, 1971. Pp. 221-270. Belmont, J. M. Long-term memory in mental retardation. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press, 1966. Pp. 219-255. Belmont, J. M. Perceptual short-term memory in children, retardates, and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1967, 5, 114-122. Belmont, J. M., & Butterfield, E. C. The relation of short-term memory to development and intelligence. In L. P. Lipsitt & H. W. Reese (Eds.), Advances in child development and behavior. Vol. 4. New York: Academic Press, 1969. Pp. 30-83. Belmont, J. M., & Butterfield, E. C. Learning strategies as determinants of memory deficiencies. Cognitive Psychology, 197 1, 2, 41 1-420. Bilsky, L., & Evans, R. A. Use of associative clustering techniques in the study of reading disability: Effects of list organization. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 771-776. Bilsky, L., Evans, R. A., & Gilbert, L. Generalization of associative clustering tendencies in mentally retarded adolescents: Effects of novel stimuli. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972, 77, 77-84. Bjork, R. A. Positive forgetting: The non-interference of items intentionally forgotten. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1970, 9, 255-268. Block, R. A. Effects of instructions to forget in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971, 89, 1-9. Bousfield, W. A. The occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology, 1953, 49, 229-240. Bousfield, W. A., Esterson, S., & Whitmarch, G. A. A study of developmental changes in perceptual associative clustering. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1958, 92, 95-102.

Bower, G.H. Analysis of a mnemonic device. American Scientist, 1970, 58, 496-510. Bower, G. H. Stimulus-sampling theory of encoding variability. In A. W. Melton & E. Martin (Eds.), Coding processes in human memory. New York: Holt, 1972.

Bower, G. H., & Reitman, J. S. Mnemonic elaboration in multilist learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1972, 11, 478-485. Bray, N. W. Controlled forgetting in the retarded. Cognitive Psychology, 1973, 59 288-309.

Brown, A. L. Subject and experimental variables in the oddity learning of normal and retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 75, 142-1 5 1.

Brown, A. L. Proactive interference in the keeping track performance of retardates. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois, 1971. Brown, A. L. Context and recency cues in the recognition memory of retarded children and adolescents. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972, 77, 54-58. (a)

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Drucker, J., & Hagen, J. Developmental trends in the processing of task-relevant and task-irrelevant information. Child Development, 1969, 40, 371-382. Edmonds, E. M., Evans, S. H., & Mueller, M. R. Learning how to learn schemata. Psychonomic Science, 1966, 6, 177-178. Ellis, N. R. A behavioral research strategy in mental retardation: Reference and critique. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 566-578. Ellis, N. R. Memory processes in retardates and normals. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 4. New York: Academic Press, 1970. Pp. 1-32. Fischler, I., Rundus, D., & Atkinson, R. C. Effects of overt rehearsal processes on free recall. Psychonomic Science, 1970, 19, 249-250. Fisher, M. A., Sperber, R., & Zeaman, D. Theory and data on developmental changes in novelty preference. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1973, 15, 509-521. Fisher, M. A., & Zeaman, D. An attention-retention theory of retardate discrimination learning. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 6. New York: Academic Press, 1973. Pp. 171-251. Flavell, J. H. Developmental studies of mediated memory. In H. W. Reese & L. P. Lipsitt (Eds.), Advances in child development and behavior. Vol. 5 . New York: Academic Press, 1970. Pp. 181-211. Flavell, 1. H., Beach, D. R., & Chinsky, J. M. Spontaneous verbal rehearsal in a memory task as a function of age. Child Development, 1966, 37, 283-299. Flavell, J. H.,Friedricks, A. G., & Hoyt, J. D. Developmental changes in memorization processes. Cognitive Psychology, 1970, 1, 324-340. Gerjuoy, I. R., & Alvarez, J. M. Transfer of learning in associative clustering of retardates and normals. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 733-738.

Gerjuoy, I. R., & Spitz, H. Associative clustering in free recall: Intellectual and developmental variables. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1966, 70, 918-927.

Gerjuoy, I. R., Winters, J. J., Pullen, M., & Spitz, H. Subjective organization by retardates and normals during forced recall of visual stimuli. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 791-797. Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1966, 5,351-360. Glanzer, M., & Meinzer, A. The effects of intralist activity on free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1967, 5, 351-360. Glidden, L. M. Meaningfulness, serial position and retention interval in recognition short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1972, 13, 154-164.

Gold, M. W. Research on the vocational habilitation of the retarded: The present, the future. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 6. New York: Academic Press, 1973. Pp. 97-147. Goulet, L. R. Verbal learning and memory research with retardates: An attempt to assess developmental trends. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press, 1968. Pp. 97-134. Grabbe, W., & Campione, J. A novelty interpretation of the Moss-Harlow effect in preschool children. Child Development, 1969, 40, 1077-1084. Hagen, J. W. A developmental study of task-relevant and task-irrelevant information

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processing under distraction and non-distraction conditions. Child Development, 1967, 38, 685-694. Hagen, J. W., Meacham, I. A., & Mesibov, G. Verbal labeling, rehearsal, and short-term memory. Cognitive Psychology, 1970, 1, 47-58. Hagen, J. W., & Sabo, R. A developmental study of selected attention. MerrillPalmer Quarterly, 1967, 13, 159-172. Hintzman, D. L., & Block. R. A. Repetition and memory: Evidence for a multipletrace hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 197 1, 88, 297-306. Holyoak, K., Hogeterp, H., & Yuille, J. C. A developmental comparison of verbal and pictorial mnemonics in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1972, 14, 53-65. Horowitz, L. M., Lampel, A. K., & Takanishi, R. N. The child's memory for unitized scenes. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1969, 8, 375-388. James, W. Principles of psychology. New York: Holt, 1890. Jensen, A. R. A theory of primary and secondary familial mental retardation. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 4. New York: Academic Press, 1970. Pp. 33-105. Jensen, A. R., & Rohwer, W. D. The effect of verbal mediation on the learning and retention of paired-associates by retarded adults. American Journal of Menfal Deficiency, 1963, 68, 80-84. Jones, H. R. The use of visual and verbal memory processes by three year olds. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1973, 15, 340-351. Keeney, T. J., Cannizzo, S. R., & Flavell, J. H. Spontaneous and induced verbal rehearsal in a recall task. Child Development, 1967, 38, 953-966. Kellas, G., Ashcraft, M. H., & Johnson, N. S. Rehearsal processes in the short-term memory performance of mildly retarded adolescents. American Journal of Menfa1 Deficiency, 1973, 77, 670-679. Kellas, G., & Butterfield, E. C. The effect of response requirement and type of material on acquisition and retention performance in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971, 88, 50-56. Kingsley, P. R., & Hagen, J. W. Induced versus spontaneous rehearsal in short-term memory in nursery school children. Developmental Psychology, 1969, 1, 40-46. Lampel, A. K. The child's memory for actional, locational, and serial scenes. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1973, 15, 266-277. Lawrence, M. W. Age differences in performance and subjective organization in the free-recall learning of pictorial material. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1966, 20, 388-399. Luria, A. R. The mind of a mnemonist. New York: Basic Books, 1968. Maccoby, E., & Hagen, J. W. Effects of distraction upon central versus incidental recall: Developmental trends. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1965, 2, 280-289. MacMillian, D. L. Facilitative effect of verbal mediation on paired-associate learning by EMR children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 61 1-615. Martin, A. S. The effect of the novelty-familiarity dimension on discrimination learning by mental retardates. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1970. Martin, C. J. Associative learning strategies employed by deaf, normal and retarded children. Educational Research Series, 1967, 38, 1-1 58. McBane, B. Short term memory capacity and parallel processing. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1972.

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Meacham, J. A. The development of memory abilities in the individual and society. Human Development, 1972, 15, 205-228. Melton, A. W. Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1963, 2, 1-21. Milgram, N. A. Verbal context versus visual compound in paired-associate learning by children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1967, 5, 597-603. Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt, 1960. Moely, B. E., Olson, F. A., Halwes, T. G., & Flavell, J. H. Production deficiency in young children’s clustered recall. Developmental Psychology, 1969, 1, 26-34. Morin, R. E., Hoving, K. L., & Konick, D. S. Short-term memory in children: Keeping track of variables with few or many states. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1970, 10, 181-188. Moynahan, E. D. The development of knowledge concerning the effect of categorization upon free recall. Child Development, 1973, 44, 238-246. Murdock, B. B., Jr. Recent developments in short-term memory. British Journal of Psychology, 1967, 58, 421-433. Murdock, B. B., Jr. Short-term memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation. Vol. 5. New York: Academic Press, 1972. Pp. 67-127.

Nickerson, R. S. Short-term memory for complex meaningful visual configurations: A demonstration of capacity. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1965, 19, 155-160.

Nye, W. C., McMannis, D. L., & Haugen, D. M. Training and transfer of categorization by retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972, 77, 199-207.

Paivio, A. Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, 1971. Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. Memory and Intelligence. New York: Basic Books, 1973. Pinkus, A. L., & Laughery, K. R. Recoding and grouping processes in short-term memory: Effects on subject-paced presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970, 85, 335-341. Reese, H. W . Imagery and multiple-list paired-associates learning in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1972, 13, 3 10-323. Rohwer, W. D. Mental mnemonics in early learning. Teachers College Record, 1968, 70, 213-216.

Rohwer, W . D. Images and pictures in children’s learning: Research results and instructional implications. In H. W. Reese (Chm.), Imagery in children’s learning: A symposium. Psychological Bulletin, 1970, 73, 383421. Ross, D. M. Retention and transfer of mediation set in paired-associate learning of educable retarded children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1971, 62, 3 22-327.

ROSS,I., & Lawrence, K. A. Some observations on memory artifice. Psychonornic Science, 1968, 13, 107-108. Scott, K. G., & Scott, M. S. Research and theory in short-term memory. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press, 1968. Pp. 135-163. Scott, M. S. The absence of interference effects in preschool children’s picture recognition. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1973, 122, 121-126. Shepard, R. N. Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 1967,6, 156-163.

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Smirnov, A. A.. & Zinchenko, P. I. Problems in the psychology of memory. In M. Cole & I. Maltzman (Eds.), A handbook of contemporary Soviet psychology. New York: Basic Books, 1969. Pp. 452-502. Spitz, H. H. Field theory in mental deficiency. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Pp. 11-40. Spitz, H. H. The role of input organization in the learning and memory of mental retardates. In N. R. Ellis (Eds.), Infernational review of research in menfal retardafion. Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press, 1966. Pp. 29-56. Spitz, H. H. Effects of redundancy level and presentation method on the pairedassociate learning of educable retardates, third graders and eighth graders. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1972, 95, 164-170. Spitz, H. H. Consolidating facts into the schematized learning and memory system of educable retardates. In N. R. Ellis (Eds.), Infernatonal review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 6 . New York: Academic Press, 1973. Pp. 149-168. Spitz, H. H., Goettler, D. R.,& Webreck, C. A. Effects of two types of redundancy on visual digit span performance of retardates and varying aged normals. Developmental Psychology, 1972, 6, 92-103. Spitz, H. H., & Nadler, B. T. Logical problem-solving by educable retarded adolescents and varying aged normal children. Developmental Psychology, in press. Spitz, H. H., & Webreck, C. A. Effects of spontaneous vs. externally-cued learning on the permanent storage of a schema by retardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972, 77, 163-168. Standing, L., Conezio, J., & Haber, R. N. Perception and memory for pictures; Single trial learning of 2500 visual stimuli. Psychonornic Science, 1970, 19, 73-74.

Stoff, D. M., & Eagle M. N. The relationship among reported strategies, presentation role, and verbal ability and their effects on free recall learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971, 87,423-428. Taylor, A. M., Josberger, M., & Knowlton, J. Q. Mental elaboration and learning in EMR children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972, 77, 69-76. Turnure, J. E., & Thurlow, M. L. Verbal elaboration and the promotion of transfer of training in educable mentally retarded children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1973, 15, 137-148. Turnure, J. E., & Walsh, M. K. Effects of varied levels of verbal mediation on the learning and reversal of paired-associates by educable mentally retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1971, 76, 60-67. Underwood, B. I. Attributes of memory. Psychological Review, 1969, 76, 559-573. Underwood, B. J., & Freund, J. S. Testing effects in the recognition of words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1970, 9, 117-125. Waugh, N. C., & Norman, D. A. Primary memory. Psychological Review, 1965, 72, 89-104.

Winograd, E., Karchmer, M. A., & Tucher, R. Strolling down memory lane with the method of locations. Paper presented at the meeting of the Psychonomic Society, San Antonio, Texas, November 1970.

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Yates, F. A. The art of memory. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966. Yntema, D. B., & Mueser, G. E. Remembering the present state of a number of variables. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1960,60, 18-22. Yntema, D. B., & Mueser, G. E. Keeping track of variables that have few or many states. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1962, 63,391-395. Yntema, D. B., & Trask, F. P. Recall as a search process. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1963,2, 65-74. Zeaman, D. The law of redundancy. Paper presented at the Gatlinburg Conference, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, March 1968. Zeaman, D., & House, B. J. An attention theory of retardate discrimination learning. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Pp. 159-223. Zigler, E. Developmental versus difference theories of mental retardation and the problem of motivation. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 536-556.

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Conservation Research with the Mentally Retarded'

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KERl M WILTON UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY. CHRISTCHURCH. NEW ZEALAND

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FREDERIC J BOERSMA UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA. EDMONTON. ALBERTA. CANADA

I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . A Definition of Retardation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . The Content-Processing Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Piaget's Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. Studies of Conservation Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Noninstitutionallzed Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . Institutionalized Subjects . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I11. Studies of Conservation Acceleration in the Mentally Retarded . . . . . . . . . . A . General Assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . Concrete versus FormalOperations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Nonverbal Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. Conservation and Other Aspects of Cognitive Functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . V . Concluding Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

114 114 114 115 118 118 124 129 130 130 131 134 135 136 139 140

'Personal research referenced by the authors was supported by the National Research Council of Canada (NRC Operating Grant APA 270) and the Donner Canadian Foundation Appreciation is also expressed to Eileen M Jackson for her help in the preparation of this manuscript

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Keri M . Wilton and Frederic J . Boersma 1.

A.

INTRODUCTION

A Definltion of Retardation

The 1961 AAMD definition of mental retardation (Heber, 1961) appears to represent a degree of consensus in current definitional thinking with respect to mental retardation. According to this definition, mental retardation is an essentially two-sided problem reflecting both a low intelligence test score, and difficulties in social adaptation. The AAMD definition, however, developed out of a long period of definitional controversy (Clausen, 1967; Doll, 1972), and as Robinson and Robinson ( 1965 ) suggest, such controversy undoubtedly illustrates the problems which have surrounded the area of definition and measurement of intelligence. Perhaps the twofold nature of the AAMD definition still reflects a persisting degree of uncertainty regarding the nature of intelligence. Accordingly, Jean Piaget’s ( 1947) ideas regarding the nature of intelligence may be particularly relevant for a better understanding of intellectual development, especially with respect to the retarded child. B. The Content-Processing

Problem

The development of mental measurement techniques since the turn of the century has yielded a vast array of intelligence tests, many of which provide highly reliable indexes that enable prediction of scholastic achievement to be made with considerable accuracy (e.g., Stanford-Binet, WISC). Modem intelligence measurement is indebted to Alfred Binet who developed intelligence tests for the identification of Parisian children requiring special class provisions. Binet’s tests served their purpose well, and with later refinements of the original scales, they are still one of the major indexes used for defining mental retardation. Since then there has been much speculation regarding the nature of intelligence, Moreover, various factor-analytic views have tended to dominate the research and theoretical literature. As Zigler (1966) has noted, however, such views have been very much concerned with the content of children’s thinking (i.e., whether or not they are able to answer particular test items) and very minimally concerned with the thinking processes which give rise to particular answers. Test items tend to be chosen because they correlate highly with total scores rather than on any clear systematic theoretical basis. Consequently, notwithstanding the predictive accuracy and usefulness of traditional intelligence tests, there is a shortage of information on the processes which underlie intelligence test performance.

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The previously discussed state of affairs is particularly noticeable with respect to the mentally retarded. Beyond the fact that such persons have low IQs and social difficulties, there is regrettably little that can be said about their intellectual functioning. While Binet’s intelligence tests represent one legacy from his laboratory, there is another which has, unfortunately, taken much longer to gain recognition in English-speaking countries. C.

Piaget’s Position

Jean Piaget, accepted a post at Binet’s laboratory school in Paris in 1920, where he began work on a standardization of some reasoning tests developed by Burt. During the standardization he became fascinated with the patterns of wrong answers shown by the children at particular ages, and more particularly with the types of reasoning by which the children arrived at their wrong answers. Since then he has continued to study developmental changes in children’s reasoning and cognitive functioning. A vast amount of data on such changes has been collected by Piaget and his collaborators. Moreover, in the many books and articles which have been published by them, a theory of intellectual development has emerged, one which is essentially concerned with processes underlying cognitive development. In addition to the writings of Piaget and his collaborators, several systematic presentations of their work have also appeared (e.g., Flavell, 1963; Ginsburg & Opper, 1969), and a number of writers have discussed the significance of Piaget’s theoretical position for research and theory in mental retardation (e.g., Bovet, 1970; Inhelder, 1943; Stephens, 1966; Wohlwill, 1966; Woodward, 1963). In that a detailed discussion of Piaget’s theory would be out of place in a review such as this, only the basic aspects of his position will be considered. According to Piaget (1947, 1970), intelligence is an organized adaptive process which an individual manifests in striving to attain equilibrium between his behavior and the demands of his environment. The process is organized in that intellectual acts never occur in isolation, but are always related to the totality of the individual’s adaptive behavioral repertoire. He distinguishes between two complementary processes involved in adaptation, viz., assimilation-which refers to the interpretation or manipulation of new environmental objects or events in terms of previously acquired responses or strategies; and accommodation-a process which arises when existing responses or strategies are inadequate, and the individual is motivated to acquire new cognitive or motor means for meeting the demands of the situation. Because adaptation to environmental demands and organization of intel-

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lectual acts are functional characteristics which endure throughout the individual's lifetime, they are referred to as functional invariants. The raw material of intellectual adaptation consists of actions which are performed by the child. Initially these are slow and overt, but gradually they become internalized and increasingly abstract. A basic underlying assumption in Piaget's theory is that the acquisition of new responses reflects changes in the individual's mode of functioning, i.e., in his structures. Specifically, it is with changes in structures or schemes, as a function of cognitive development, that Piaget and his followers have been most concerned. In discussing the parameters of intellectual development Piaget ( 1964a) avoids the traditional heredity-environment controversy by arguing that four factors operating in combination are important for the development of intelligence: ( 1 ) maturation, ( 2 ) experience (physical environmental experience), (3 ) social transmission (linguistic transmission, education, etc.) , and (4) equilibration (self-regulation of the first three factors). Furthermore, Piaget argues that none of these factors are sufficient in themselves for directing intellectual growth. At birth and during infancy, i.e., until approximately 2 years of age, the child is said to be functioning at the sensori-motor level of intellectual development. Subsequently, sensori-motor schemes become gradually coordinated and progressively internalized to form cognitive structures, which, in turn, gradually become organized into increasingly complex and integrated systems of actions known as operations. This period of development, the preoperational stage, normally lasts from approximately 2-7 years of age. Here operations have not yet acquired reversibility, and as a consequence, notions of conservation or invariance of quantities are lacking. One of the most significant features of this period is the child's beginning use of language. The development of operations continues during the period from 7 to approximately 11 years of age with this period being referred to as the stage of concrete operations. During this time, the child develops an ability to carry out simple logical operations on actual concrete objects. However, it is not until the child has reached the stage of formal operations, roughly from 11 to 12 years of age and upward, that abstract propositional reasoning becomes possible. The gradual acquisition of notions of invariance, as they relate to the growth of operations, has been extensively studied by Piaget and his collaborators (Piaget, 1947) ; Piaget & Inhelder, 1962, 1966; Piaget & Szeminska, 1941). Moreover, Piaget ( 1968) has distinguished between qualitative invariants, e.g., the belief in the continued existence of objects when they can no longer be perceived which are acquired during sensori-motor and preoperational stages of development, and quantitative invariants which develop during concrete and formal operational periods. Inhelder and

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Piaget ( 1955) have further distinguished between first-order quantitative invariants or conservations (such as number, length, distance, substance, area, and weight) which arise during the concrete operational period, and second-order quantitative invariants or conservations (such as volume, density, momentum, and rectilinear motion) which are acquired during the formal operational period (Brainerd & Allen, 1971). The present review is concerned with the acquisition of first- and second-order quantitative invariants on the part of mentally retarded children. Piagetian researchers have usually discussed the conservations of substance, weight, and volume as an ordinal scale of intellectual development. A child who has conservation of weight is supposed to have conservation of substance as well, and one who has conservation of volume is supposed to have substance and weight. There is also some evidence to support the inclusion of conservations of number, length, and area into an ordinal sequence (Piaget & Szeminska, 1941; Piaget, Inhelder, & Szeminska, 19481, although this notion does not seem to have been clearly incorporated into Piaget’s theoretical scheme (Wohlwill, 1966). In terms of the more frequently researched conservation areas, it would appear that the developmental sequence in normal children might be: number or discontinuous quantity attained at approximately ages 6-7; length, continuous quantity (substance or liquid), and area at ages 7-8; weight at ages 9-10; and volume at ages 11-12. Piaget ( 1962) maintains that nonconservation of quantity is the surest evidence of preoperational thinking, and that children at this level of development center their attention on salient perceptual characteristics, and are unable to decenter to less salient, but more significant and relevant cues. Furthermore, he argues that such children lack reversibility, and that consequently, they are only able to reason about states of stimuli (objects) , and not about their transformations (Piaget, 1964b). The transition from nonconservation to conservation follows three basic stages (Piaget, 1947, 1959). Initially, attention is focused and reasoning based on changes in a single dimension or aspect of the stimulus array (e.g., the length of the row of chips). Later, attention shifts to the complementary dimension, vacillates between dimensions, and reasoning reflects this vacillation. Finally, attention is systematically maintained on both dimensions, and an understanding is acquired of the principles of compensation, reversibility, and identity, as these relate to the transformation outcome. While Piaget has studied some aspects of cognitive functioning in atypical children, he did not develop this early work. The link between his theory and mental retardation was forged by Barbel Inhelder in her doctoral thesis completed in 1943 (Inhelder, 1943). Here she examined intellectual functioning of mentally retarded persons within the substance-

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weight-volume conservation sequence. A brief report dealing with her work appeared in English shortly after its completion (Piaget & Inhelder, 1947), but the complete work was not translated into English until 1968. Thus, the possibility of using conservation notions as a means for examining intellectual functioning in mentally retarded children was overlooked for a number of years. The emergence of Piaget’s work in English circles in the late 1950’s and early 1 9 6 0 ’ ~however, ~ has resulted in a number of such studies. The present review will attempt to examine these studies from three perspectives: ( 1) studies of conservation development in terms of the acquisition of conservation notions as a function of day-to-day experience; ( 2 ) studies of attempts to accelerate the acquisition of conservation in mentally retarded persons through conservation training procedures, and (3) studies of the relationship between conservation and other aspects of intellectual functioning in mentally retarded persons.

11.

STUDIES

OF CONSERVATION DEVELOPMENT

Research in this area is diverse, focusing on both mildly and moderately retarded subjects, institutionalized and noninstitutionalized persons, and a wide variety of conservation notions. Studies of noninstitutionalized subjects have, with one exception, been concerned with mildly retarded persons whereas those with institutionalized subjects have dealt with both mildly and moderately retarded individuals. In the present review studies of conservation development will be grouped under two major headings: ( 1) those involving noninstitutionalized subjects; and (2) those involving institutionalized subjects.

A Nonlnrtltutionalized Subjects As previously mentioned, the first recorded study of conservation acquisition with mentally retarded subjects was undertaken by Inhelder ( 1943). Here a total of 159 persons, most of whom were referred to a school psychology center, were examined. Of these, 102 were classified as mildly retarded, 55 slow learners, and 2 moderately retarded. In terms of CA, 52 were within the 7-10 year range, 78 within the 11-14 range, 16 within the 15-18 year range, and 13 were 19 years or above. Substance, weight, and volume conservation tasks were administered, and a parallel series of conservation identity tasks was then given. The most noticeable finding with normals was that the substance-weight-volume tasks yielded an ordinal scale. In line with this, Inhelder hypothesized that substance and weight conservation involve directly perceptible quantitative properties and

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thus concrete operational thought, whereas volume conservation involves a system of relations further removed from direct perception and reflects formal operational thought (Inhelder, 1963, p. 215 ) . Approximately equal numbers of subjects in this study were at Stage I (did not have conservation of substance), Stage I1 (had conservation of substance but not weight), and Stage I11 (had conservation of weight but not volume), but no mentally retarded subject ever reached Stage ZV (had conservation of volume). From her data two distinct trends were apparent. First, mentally retarded subjects passed through the same stages of development of thought as normal persons, but at a slower rate (they reached Stages I1 and I11 at later chronological ages), and second, they did not proceed as far as normals in terms of operational development (they did not acquire formal operational thought). Inhelder further extended her work by studying length and weight illusions. Here she found that the thinking of subjects at Stage I, and to a lesser extent Stage 11, was largely governed by perceptual aspects of stimuli, and that Stage I11 subjects were unable to handle Conservation of volume problems because of an inability to coordinate the various relationships among the stimulus elements in a meaningful way. In concluding, Inhelder suggested that mild mental retardation might best be regarded as an unfinished operatory construction, or perhaps more specifically, as an intermediary stage between perceptual regulation and operatory reversibility. Inhelder also formulated several statements on the basis of her findings regarding the development of conservation with retardates. Among these are: ( 1) conservation of substance is not attained by moderately retarded persons; ( 2 ) mildly retarded subjects acquire conservation of substance and weight, but at later chronological ages than normal children; and ( 3 ) mildly retarded subjects do not acquire formal operational thought. Inhelder further pointed out that her intention was not to replace IQs with developmental stages, however desirable that might be, but rather to examine the process of reasoning in mentally retarded persons, so that one could tell why mentally retarded persons persist in making the types of responses they do on cognitive tasks. The first non-Genevan conservation research with mentally retarded children that the present authors were able to locate was a study by Mannix ( 1960). This author examined developmental changes in cognitive functioning on discontinuous and continuous quantity conservation tasks, as well as six Piagetian number concept tasks (Piaget & Szeminska, 1941). The subjects were 48 educationally subnormal (mildly retarded) children matched at MA levels 5 through 9 years. No IQ or CA data were provided. Support for Piaget’s three stages of intellectual development (preconceptual, intuitive and concrete-operational) was obtained on five of the eight

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tasks. It was not clear from the report, and a subsequent account of the study (Lunzer, 1960), whether or not the three stages were found for the discontinuous and continuous conservation tasks, nor was it clear what categories subjects’ responses tended to fall into on the three nonsupportive tasks. Finally, it should be noted that subjects who acquired conservations were within the 5-8 year MA range, and that MAS at which subjects acquired conservations varied widely. Lovell, Healey, and Rowland ( 1962) examined geometrical concepts including conservation of length in educationally subnormal and normal children. The subjects were 70 normal children (10 at 5 years of age, and 15 at 6, 7, 8, and 9 years, respectively), and 50 mildly retarded (10 at 9, 10, 11, 14, and 15 years, respectively). No details of intelligence were given. Whereas approximately 53% of the normal 8-year-old and 67% of the 9-year-old subjects acquired conservation of length, only 30% of the mildly retarded subjects acquired it by the age of 15. Few subjects in either the normal or the retarded groups showed intuitive responses. While the results for the mildly retarded subjects seem to indicate a somewhat later age for length conservation acquisition than might be expected, no information is provided on MAS or IQs of the retardates. Consequently, it is not possible to relate the findings to other studies in which MA and IQ have been specified or controlled. Stevenson, Hale, Klein, and Miller (1968) studied conservation of volume in conjunction with a variety of learning tasks in mildly retarded (XrQ= 72, ZCA= 14 years 3 months) and normal children of matched MA = 104, = 9 years 10 months) and matched CA = 102, = 13 years). There were approximately 40 boys and 40 girls in each of the three groups. The subjects were shown two clay balls of equal size and weight, and required to predict the levels of water which would be displaced following various transformations of one of the balls. Retarded boys and girls showed less correct displacement predictions than their normal CA mates, retarded girls showed less correct predictions than normal girls of equivalent MA, and differences between retarded and normal boys of equivalent MA were not significant. It might appear that the results of this study contradict Inhelder’s (1943) suggestion that mentally retarded children do not acquire conservation of volume. However, the present study, involved prediction responses exclusively. Consequently, there is no way of determining whether or not some of the subjects who gave correct predictions could also explain the necessity for equivalence of posttransformation displacement levels. Nevertheless, the study raises the possibility that some mildly retarded persons may acquire volume conservation and thus formal operational thought. Gruen and Vore (1972) compared three groups (MA 5 years, MA 7

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years, MA 9 years) of 10 mildly retarded children (IQ range: 55-80) with matched MA and CA normals on number, continuous quantity (liquid), and weight conservation tasks. Both conservation of equality and inequality tasks were presented. Two types of conservation responses were used, namely, conservation judgements and explanations. Retarded and normal children of equivalent MA performed comparably on all tasks on both types of criteria. When retardates were compared with normals of equivalent CA they showed similar performance in terms of conservation judgements, however, normals were superior to the retardates at all CA levels when logical explanations were required. These findings are supportive, in a general sense, of the notion that conservation acquisition is related to MA development in both normal and retarded children. At the same time, since the authors did not include conservation of volume tasks, the findings need to be qualified. Furthermore, while performance on each task was essentially similar in normal and retarded subjects of equal MA, there were significant intertask differences for retardates although not for normals. Stephens, Manhaney, and McLaughlin ( 1972) reported interim results of an ongoing developmental study of reasoning in 75 mildly retarded (IQ range: 50-75) and 75 normal children (IQ range: 90-100). Each group contained samples from three different age levels: retardates 6-10,lO-14, and 14-18 years, and normals 8-12,12-16, and 16-20 years. Conservation tasks involving quantity (solid and liquid), length, weight, and volume, and several tasks closely related to conservation were assessed and MAS for acquisition determined. The authors took the MA at which 50% of the sample gave appropriate responses to determine task attainment level, a procedure which is consistent with that used by Piaget and Inhelder (Inhelder, 1971). Acquisition MAS in most cases were later in retardates than in normals. However, it should be noted that the normal sample did not include subjects with MAS lower than 6 years, whereas the retarded group had a number of subjects with MAS less than 5 years. Consequently, an extension of the study involving normals with lower MAS is clearly necessary. In spite of this limitation, the fact remains that on most conservation tasks retardates showed acquisition at later MA levels. The data thus indicate that mildly retarded and normal children of equivalent MA in this study should not necessarily be regarded as equivalent in terms of cognitive development. It is interesting to note that there appears to be some inconsistency between the normal-retarded comparisons on substance and weight conservation in the above study, and the results reported by Gruen and Vore (1972). However, this may not be the case. Whereas the present study was exclusively concerned with equality conservation, Gruen and Vore ex-

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amined both equality and inequality conservation. Since they presented only the results for both types of conservation combined, it is impossible to make a direct comparison between the two studies. Furthermore, the Gruen and Vore study examined the mean frequency of conservation responses and explanations at each MA level, whereas the Stephens et al. study was concerned only with locating the MAS at which 50% of the sample gave appropriate responses. Thus, the inconsistency noted above may be more apparent than real. Brown (1973) examined conservation of number and liquid quantity in mildly retarded (IQ = 74, %, = 10 years 1 month), bright = 149, = 4 years 6 months matched for MA with the retardates), and normal children [one group (XI, = 102, X,, = 6 years 7 months) matched for MA with retardates, another (XrQ= 105, = 10 years 1 month) matched for CA with retardates, and a third (XI, = 101, Xc,, = 4 years 7 months) matched for CA with bright subjects]. Each group consisted of eight boys and eight girls matched at 6 years MA, a predetermined acquisition level where 50% of the children had number and liquid conservation. The retardates and normals matched on MA showed similar performance on conservation tasks on both criteria, whereas matched CA normals showed superior conservation task performance to the retardates on both criteria. The performance of the bright = 4 years, = 6 years) was well below that of the retargroup dates and matched MA normals, and in fact did not differ significantly from that of a control group of normals of matched CA but average intelligence. The author concluded that MA as assessed from a traditional intelligence test is not a unitary index of intellectual maturity, that MA scores represent a composite of both learning processes and learning products, and that conservation task performance also depends on both of these factors. The acquisition MAS for liquid quantity conservation obtained in the present study differed somewhat from those reported by Stephens et al. (1972). Many factors could account for the differences, consequently, more definitive normative data is needed. Until such information is available, however, it seems safest to regard performance of mildly retarded children and normal children of average intelligence, equated on MAS, as roughly comparable. To date, only one study has followed up Inhelder’s (1943) suggestion that moderately retarded subjects do not acquire concrete operational thought. Klauss and Green (1972) examined conservation of number and liquid quantity in such children. Subjects were asked to make conservation judgements, but were not required to give explanations. Significant positive correlations were reported between MA and number conservation scores,

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and between IQ and number conservation scores, but no data were presented on frequencies of conservation judgements. In short, it appeared that some moderately retarded subjects gave conservation judgements. Several studies have examined perceptual/attentional factors associated with conservation acquisition. Santamaria ( 1971 ) examined perceptual activity in mildly retarded conservers and nonconservers using a battery of number tasks developed by Elkind (Elkind, Koegler, & Go, 1964; Elkind & Scott, 1962; Elkind & Weiss, 1967). Conservers, in comparison with nonconservers, showed significantly greater ability in mentally rearranging a stimulus array without physically acting upon the array; organizing parts and wholes in a meaningful way while retaining their identities; and systematically scanning an array in order to note particular features. The results support Piaget’s ( 1961) contention of differential attention, particularly with respect to the decentering of attention as a concomitant of conservation acquisition. In one of a series of studies, Wilton and Boersma (1974) examined eye-movement activity and conservation task performance in 30 mildly retarded children. Of the subjects, 15 were classified as conservers (XIQ = 73, = 9 years 11 months) and 15 as nonconservers (XIQ= 69, %, = 9 years 8 months) on the basis of number and length conservation pretests using Piaget’s criteria. Subsequently, corneally reflected eye movements were filmed during additional conservation tasks. Distinct differences in terms of amount of visual scanning and perceptual activity in relation to the transformed and nontransformed elements were observed. Specifically, nonconservers showed a distinct tendency to fixate on the element they believed was greater following transformation, whereas conservers did not. The results were interpreted as supportive of Piaget’s notions regarding the perceptual/attentional concomitants of decentrative thinking. In a continuation of the research, mildly retarded conservers and nonconservers (defined as for the above study) were presented a series of number and length conservation tasks via a movie in which conservation appeared to be violated (e.g., a row of chips increased in number following transformation, a rod became longer as it was moved). Conservers showed significantly more surprise reactions (simultaneous occurrence of a GSR conductance increase, an increase in vasomotor activity, and a heart rate decrease). The results of these two studies indicate that it may be possible to ascertain conservation acquisition in terms of eye-movement behavior and psychophysiological activity. Changes in these variables in turn may reflect differential cognitive development. In summary, studies of conservation acquisition with noninstitutionalized mentally retarded persons suggest the following tentative generalizations.

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First, moderately retarded persons do not acquire conservation of substance, i.e., do not acquire concrete operational thought. Second, mildly retarded children and normals of average intelligence and equivalent MA show roughly comparable performance on first-order conservation tasks. Third, mildly retarded children develop intellectually, at a slower rate than normals. Fourth, mildly retarded persons do not usually acquire secondorder conservations, i.e., do not acquire formal operational thought. Fifth, the acquisition of conservation in mildly retarded persons as in normals represents not only a change in verbal response patterns, but also substantial changes in perceptual/attentional behavior. B.

institutionalized Subjects

Woodward ( 1961 ) examined liquid quantity conservation and related number task performance in three groups of adults and a group of children. Of the adults, Group 1 had adequate speech and WAIS IQs 44-73, Group 2 inadequate speech and WAIS IQs 44-51, while Group 3 fell below the lower limit of the WAIS and was administered the Revised Stanford-Binet Scale (median IQ = 32). The median age of the adults was 19 years. The children’s IQs ranged between 25 and 55 on the Revised Stanford-Binet and their median age was 12.9 years. Subjects showed a pattern of responses which closely approximated that of normal children 4-7 years of age, although somewhat less evidence of an intermediate intuitive stage was observed. In addition, several subjects with IQs of less than 50 showed Conservation, possibly suggesting that the development of Piagetian number concepts (including conservation) is not as adversely affected as verbal development in institutionalized subjects. Hood (1962) replicated eight of Piaget and Szeminska’s (1941) number tasks, plus number and liquid quantity conservation, with normal children (CA range: 4 years 11 months-8 years 9 months), a group of mildly retarded children attending a residential special school (CA range: 10 years 4 months-15 years 9 months), and a group of moderately and possibly severely retarded noninstitutionalized adults (CA range: 9 years 10 months41 years). The author reported that performance on the number tasks was strongly related to MA development, and that retardates showed concrete operational reasoning at later MAS than normals. Keasey and Charles (1967) examined solid quantity conservation in mentally retarded and normal subjects of approximately equivalent MAS (MA range: 5-1 1 years). The two groups showed comparable levels of conservation acquisition in terms of both recognition and explanation criteria. The authors interpreted the results as indicating that conservation acquisition is closely related to MA development. It should also be noted that since PPVT (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) IQs of the mentally

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retarded were rather low, that a number of retardates may have been within the moderately retarded range. Stearns and Borkowski (1969) used groups of mentally retarded subjects at four MA levels to examine number, and discontinuous and liquid quantity conservation. Conservation acquisition in terms of recognition responses was found to be strongly related to MA development. The lowest MA groups (MA 4-54 years) were predominantly nonconservers and performance was consistent across tasks. In the next two groups (MA 5 years 7 months-7 years; MA 7 years 1 month-8 years 6 months) subjects were mostly at transitional stages and a significant task effect was noted. For both these groups, the liquid quantity task was more difficult than either the number or the discontinuous quantity tasks, a result which is consistent with findings of studies with normal children. In the highest MA group (MA 8 years 7 months-1 1 years 6 months) most subjects were conservers on all tasks. Moreover, no task effect was evident. Again, it is possible that some of the subjects who attained conservation were within the moderately retarded range. McManis ( 1969d) replicated a study that Elkind (1961a) had undertaken with normals. Solid quantity, weight, and volume conservation were examined in retardates (IQ range: 47-73; CA range: 7 years 8 months-21 years, 2 months) and normal elementary school children (IQ range: 85-1 15; CA range: 5 years 3 months-10 years) at six MA levels ( 5 , 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10-1 1 years). Three types of criteria were used to determine conservation status : prediction prior to transformation, judgement following transformation, and explanations. With the exception of subjects at MAS 5 and 6 years, a general trend was obtained with more conservation responses shown on the solid quantity than weight tasks, and more on the weight than volume tasks. Using all three criteria, both normal and mentally retarded groups showed quantity conservation by MA 8 years, weight by MA 10-11 years, while volume was not attained by either group. Conservation was regarded as occurring within a particular MA group when 70% of subjects showed the occurrence of the criteria, rather than 50% which most studies in this area have used to determine age placement. Consequently, the results for quantity and weight conservation are probably conservative estimates of mean acquisition ages. It should also be noted that while the tasks supposedly dealt with weight and volume conservation, subjects were neither asked to establish pretransformational equivalence nor were they shown pretransformational displacement equivalences and the volume questions did not refer to displacement. It is, therefore, moot whether all the subjects responded on the basis of quantity, weight, and volume conservation. In a subsequent study, apparently with the same groups of subjects,

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McManis ( 1969b) compared conservation and transitivity of length and weight, and found that most subjects in the normal and retarded groups acquired conservation prior to transitivity. A follow-up study (McManis, 1970) of conservation, seriation, and transitivity produced similar findings, indicating that the acquisition of seriation occurs after conservation, but prior to transitivity. It should be noted, however, that the criterion for length transitivity acquisition in both of these studies included resistance to the Mueller-Lyer illusion during the transitive inference and that this may have increased the difficulty of the transitivity task, and delayed its acquisition vis-A-vis conservation (Brainerd, 1973). In the 1970 study, McManis also found (using a 75% age group criterion) that whereas normals showed conservation at MA 5-6 years, retardates did not until MA 7 years. This differential has not been reported by other researchers. A further study by McManis ( 1969c) was undertaken, apparently, with 60 of the retarded subjects from the 1969d study, viz., the 5 , 6, 7, and 8 year MA groups. Equivalence and identity conservation were compared on solid, liquid, and discontinuous quantity tasks. In terms of conservation judgements (no explanations were sought) all subjects at each MA level who had equivalence conservation also had identity conservation, some subjects showed identity but not equivalence, and some showed neither. The author interpreted these results as indicating that identity conservation occurs developmentally prior to, and is a prerequisite for equivalence conservation. This finding has not been borne out in research with normal children (Northman & Gruen, 1970), and does not appear to be consistent with Inhelder and Piaget’s ( 1955) work. Another study by the same author (McManis, 1969a) was a replication of research conducted by Elkind (1961b) with normals. Three types of premeasurement quantity estimations (gross, intensive, and extensive) were examined. Subjects were samples from two IQ levels (30-49 and 5&69) with four MA groups ( 5 , 6, 7, and 8 years). The results indicated a hierarchically ordered developmental sequence with gross quantity preceding intensive quantity, and intensive quantity preceding extensive quantity, in terms of numbers of correct responses shown by the subjects in each of the MA groups and at both IQ levels. The results also raise the possibility that some of the 30-49 IQ group may have been capable of conservation judgements. Brogle ( 1970) examined mass, weight, and volume conservation (three transformations for each) in 30 mildly retarded (IQ range: 58-73, CA range: 12 years-23 years 11 months) and 30 normal ( I Q range: 93-1 16, no CA details provided) children of matched MAS. Following the conservation transformation on each task, subjects were required to select one of three judgements and to explain their choice. Normals showed higher

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conservation scores summed across tasks than retardates. The results also suggest that some mildly retarded subjects may acquire conservation of volume, although the method of eliciting conservation responses differed from Inhelder’s ( 1943 ) procedure. Achenbach ( 1969) examined identity conservation on length, area, and - retardates solid and liquid quantity tasks. Subjects were 59 nonorganic from special classes and state regional centers (gIa = 52, X ,,, = 6 years 1 month, - = 15 years 10 months) and 78 noninstitutionalized bright normals (XIQ= 128, = 6 years 10 months, = 5 years 4 months) attending kindergarten and first grade classes. For each task, conservation was assessed by means of illusions. Responses were scored in terms of both judgement and explanation criteria, with performance of normals and retardates being approximately equivalent. A conservation violation task developed by Mermelstein and Shulman (1967) was also used to assess liquid quantity conservation. Comparisons between surprise reaction and verbal response data suggested that surprise reactions may provide a more valid estimate of conservation status, at least in mentally retarded subjects. The relationships between MA, CA, and conservation performance were also examined (by multiple correlation analysis) in this study. Achenbach concluded that MA accounts for most of the variance here, and observed that there were no consistent differences in terms of judgements or explanations between length, area, or volume tasks. The author expressed surprise at the relative paucity of nonconserving responses shown by the experimental sample. However, an examination of the criteria used for determining logical conservation responses suggests that he may have included responses denoting empirical reversibility within the conservation response category, whereas such responses are usually not included in this classification (Piaget, 1967). In a subsequent study, Achenbach ( 1970) looked at overt surprise reactions and GSRs as indicators of identity conservation. A liquid quantity identity conservation prediction task, three conservation violation tasks (number, length, and continuous quantity), and a qualitative invariant violation task (color) were presented. Subjects were residents of a state regional center (CA range: 10-53 years). On all tasks, percentage of conservation responses increased as a function of MA level of subjects. I n fact, by MA 7 years all subjects had made correct quantity conservation predictions and showed surprise reactions on number, quantity, and color violation tasks. The results indicated that surprise reactions and GSRs could provide useful nonverbal measures of conservation acquisition. A later study by Achenbach (1974) was also concerned with the relationship between conservation violations and surprise reactions. Subjects

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were 72 (37 male and 35 female) normal nursery and elementary school children (XI,= 116, EM,= 6 years 4 months, = 5 years 6 months) and 61 retardates of approximately equivalent MA = 47, = 6 years 3 months, = 17 years 4 months) of whom 29 attended special classes and 32 were institutionalized. Two experiments were conducted. The first, basically a replication of Achenbach’s 1970 study, is relevant to this review. In terms of surprise reaction data, normals and retardates showed closely comparable conservation task performance. The author concluded that the data supported Zigler’s ( 1969) hypothesis regarding the cognitive functioning of mentally retarded persons. The author also compared the results of the Achenbach (1969) and the Gruen and Vore (1972) studies with the present results. It was observed that while the performance of normals and retardates of equivalent MA were similar in both previous studies where verbal responses were used to examine conservation status, there were nevertheless slight advantages in favor of the normals. In the present study, surprise reaction data indicated that conservation acquisition in retarded and normal subjects of matched MAS was essentially equivalent. Consequently, it may be that surprise reactions provide a more valid index of underlying cognitive structure than do verbal responses. Langley, Drew, and Watson (1972) examined the effects of visual screening and two types of questioning (judgement vs. explanations) on liquid quantity conservation, in a group of 48 moderately and mildly retarded subjects (MA range: 4 years 9 months-8 years 4 months; CA range: 9 years 7 months-18 years 5 months; IQ range: 45-72). While neither screening nor type of questioning was related to conservation status, there was a faint suggestion that liquid conservation may be acquired at a slightly later MA level in institutionalized retardates than is typically the case with noninstitutionalized retardates and normals. Unfortunately, it is not possible to determine whether or not any of the moderately retarded showed conservation. In summary, the following points seem to emerge from the preceding review. First, there is wide variation in the types of Conservation studied; the ages, ability levels, and mental retardation etiologies of the groups involved; and the definitions of conservation status used. Second, studies, to date, have neither attempted to relate institutional environmental effects to conservation development per se, nor has an adequate rationale been presented for involving institutionalized subjects. Third, institutionalized mentally retarded subjects, and noninstitutionalized normal subjects of equivalent MA tend to show comparable levels of conservation acquisition. Furthermore, when identity conservation tasks and surprise reactions to conservation violation are used the similarity between the groups appears

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to become greater. Fourth, evidence suggests that surprise reactions following apparent violations of conservation provide useful indexes of conservation acquisition. This is especially interesting in terms of research possibilities with institutionalized retardates for whom verbal development has commonly been shown to be impaired (Lyle, 1960). Fifth, few moderately retarded subjects show conservation response judgements. C. Discussion

Several additional comments deserve consideration in concluding this section. One problem which has pervaded the literature to date, and which makes comparison between studies difficult, is the variations in types of criteria used to define conservation status. Brainerd (1973) has suggested that judgements are more consistent with Piaget’s basic position than are explanations. This may be, but it is difficult to see how such a claim could be validated (Beilin, 1971), particularly in view of Piaget’s emphasis on the importance of reversibility, compensation, etc., as the bases for concrete operational thought. Perhaps it is premature to choose between these criteria on an either/or basis when both can be incorporated into a design. A number of studies have done this and closely comparable results have usually been attained. Studies may also be differentiated in terms of whether they are concerned with identity or equivalence conservation. While McManis’ ( 1 9 6 9 ~ )study has suggested that identity conservation is attained prior to equivalence conservation in retardates, in Northman and Gruen’s (1970) study with normals no such difference was found. Furthermore, as Beilin (1971 ) observes, identity and equivalence conservation tasks represent two ways of testing conservation, and it should be noted that the reduction of conservation to a single identity mechanism is an inadequate conception of Piaget’s theoretical position. A number of possible research ideas also seem to be suggested from the preceding review. In that mildly retarded subjects appear to reach concrete, but not formal thought, it seems likely that this level of function in retardates may differ in important ways from that of normals for whom concrete operations is a transitional stage. S. A. Miller ( 1971) and Smedslund (1969) have pointed out that the essence of conservation status lies in the “beliefs” that a subject has about qualities and quantities. The strength of such beliefs should bear an important relationship to the types of response a subject shows. For example, a subject who merely has a hunch that the transformed quantity remains the same following transformation should function rather differently from one who is certain that it is the same. Studies employing surprise reactions following conservation

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violations may also be of particular interest here in terms of comparisons between institutionalized and noninstitutionalized moderately retarded persons. Another promising area of research has been advocated by Woodward ( 1961 ), who suggests that Piagetian concepts including conservation may be less adversely affected by institutionalization than verbal development. Accordingly, it would be interesting to examine this supposition in terms of various types of institutional environments, experiences, and programs, controlling for such variables as time of institutionalization, age of entry, etiology, etc. 111.

A.

STUDIES OF CONSERVATION ACCELERATION IN THE MENTALLY RETARDED

General Assessments

All attempts to accelerate conservation in the mentally retarded have involved noninstitutionalized mildly retarded children. In the first reported study, Brison and Bereiter (1967) attempted to accelerate solid and liquid quantity conservation. Children were administered a ten-item conservation of quantity pretest and classified as nonconservers if they failed to give correct conservation judgements accompanied by adequate explanations, or more than three correct conservation judgements accompanied by inadequate explanations. On this basis, 37 normal (%* = 5 years 1 1 months, XI, = 108, = 6 years 4 months), 26 retarded (%,, = 8 years 8 months, XI, = 69, = 6 years 0 months), and 33 gifted = 5 years 3 months, XlQ = 129, = 6 years 8 months) nonconservers were selected. Subjects were given inequality and later equality quantity Conservation training in small groups, each of which included two children who already had conservation of quantity. Children who gave correct responses were required to explain the inequality of the transformed quantities. For each child the procedure was repeated three times on the first day of training and twice on the second day. Subjects were then administered cquality quantity conservation tasks and those who showed quantity conservation judgements were subjected to a test for stability of conservation, consisting of two further items in which quantity conservation appeared to be violated. Children who did not show quantity conservation were given an additional period of inequality training after which the posttests were readministered. The inequality and equality training procedures were very similar except for the equality comparison or substance of the two quantities. There were no differences between the normal, retarded, and gifted

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groups in terms of the number of periods of training required to induce conservation, or in terms of numbers who showed equality conservation judgements by the end of the fifth stage of training. Less than 50% of the subjects in each group showed conservation judgements at this point. Furthermore, there were no differences between conservers in the three groups in terms of the percentage of conservation judgements accompanied by adequate explanations, although retarded conservers did show a significantly higher frequency of extinction responses to violation items. It may be, as the authors concluded, that conservation notions acquired as a function of training were somewhat less stable in mentally retarded subjects, but generally it appears that training was not related to intelligence. Schmalohr and Winkelmann (1969) examined the effects of training on quantity and substance conservation in normal kindergarten children (CA 3 years 6 months-6 years 4 months) and retardates (CA 7 years 0 months-13 years 5 months) from special schools for backward children. Intelligence levels of the groups were not provided, although the experimental and control groups were matched on Goodenough Draw-a-Person MA. Posttesting on tasks directly related to training (discontinuous quantity) and on transfer tasks (number and solid quantity) indicated that training induced conservation acquisition in both normal and retarded groups, but generalization effects in both groups were relatively small.

B. Concrete versus Formal Operations A series of studies by Lister (1969, 1970, 1972) suggest that volume conservation can be accelerated by training in mildly retarded subjects. In the first study (Lister, 1969), she attempted to accelerate weight conservation in educationally subnormal children (ESN) . Weight conservation pretests were administered and two groups of six nonconservers matched on CA (range 13-15 years) and IQ (range 59-77; MA range 7-1 1 years) were selected. Experimental subjects were trained individually in a single 15- to 30-minute session on a variety of weighing activities. All subjects who received training showed conservation (both equality and inequality) judgements and explanations at completion of training, as well as 2 and 4 weeks later. Control subjects, on the other hand, consistently gave nonconservation responses on the posttests. The control group was then given the training program and all showed conservation judgements and explanations on immediate, 2, and 4 week posttests. Eight months later, 11 of the 12 subjects were readministered the posttests together with interior and occupied volume conservation transfer tasks. All subjects retained weight conservation in terms of both judgements and explanations, and in addition, all showed conservation of volume.

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In a sense, the volume findings seem to contradict Inhelder’s (1943) suggestion that concrete operations represent a developmental ceiling for retardates. However, Piaget et al. (1948) state that there are four stages of volume conservation development proceeding from concrete to formal operational thinking, and that conservation of interior volume occurs at Stage IIIa (concrete operations) whereas occupied volume occurs at Stage IV (formal operations). Since Inhelder used only displacement volume tasks, and since it is not clear from Lister’s report whether the subjects actually showed conservation on displacement tasks, there may not be substantial disagreement between the two studies. Another point worthy of consideration is that the contradiction is actually superficial since Inhelder was not concerned with the possible effects of training on development. Lister’s ( 1970) second study attempted to accelerate volume conservation in ESN children. Initially, 104 subjects were pretested on substance, weight, and volume conservation. From this sample 30 subjects were matched on the basis of CA, IQ, and pretest performance (16 showed nonconservation on substance, weight, and volume, 6 were nonconservers of weight and volume, and 8 nonconservers of volume) and assigned, respectively, to Experimental and Control groups. Experimental subjects were given both interior and displacement (the complement of occupied) volume training individually for one 30-minute session. One and two week posttests (both equality and inequality conservation) were administered, and an additional transfer test 4 weeks after training. The Control group was posttested 2 weeks after pretests, and was then also given the training program and further posttests 1, 2, and 4 weeks later. Both groups were given retention tests 5 months after training. All Experimental group subjects showed substance, weight, and volume conservation judgements on 1, 2, and 4 weeks posttests, and 14 of the 15 subjects gave “adequate” explanations for their judgements. The Control group showed consistent nonconservation judgements 2 weeks after initial pretests, but following training their performance closely resembled that of the Experimental group. Five months after training, both groups still showed conservation judgements and adequate explanations. As in the 1969 study, it is not clear precisely what aspects of training lead to conservation acquisition or even if the same factors were operative for all subjects, yet the results indicate that thcse types of volume conservation can be induced in and retained by ESN children. Moreover, it would appear that the inducement of such conservation results in the acquisition of substance and weight conservation. It is also possible, since more than one-third of original ESN children had already acquired volume conservation, that some of those pretested (and by implication some of those

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trained) may not actually have been retarded. In addition, the definition of volume conservation used by Lister may have differed from Inhelder’s. It might also be that Inhelder’s position is generally true, but not inclusive of all mildly retarded children. The third study by Lister (1972) examined further the possibility that training on a particular conservation notion would generalize to other notions. Pretests of number, quantity (solid), length, distance, area, weight, and volume conservation were administered to 115 ESN children. In terms of numbers of conservation responses and judgements given, the relative difficulty of tests from high to low were area, volume, weight, quantity (solid), and number (distance conservation results were not reported). Three groups of 17 nonconservers matched on CA, IQ, and pretest performance were selected. In each group nine were nonconservers on volume and area tasks; three on volume, area, and weight; one on volume, area, weight, and length; two on volume, area, weight, length, and quantity; and two total nonconservers (nonconservation responses on all tasks, except distance). Two groups were given conservation training while the Control group had practice in reading. One of the training groups received number, quantity (solid), length, area, weight, and volume conservation training, while the other was given area training only. In both cases, children manipulated various conservation transformations after which various types of explanations were given to the subjects, and subsequently, elicited from them. Training was given individually in a single 20 minute session. On 1 week and 2 month retention tests, 15 of the 17 subjects in both training groups showed conservation judgements and adequate explanations, whereas none of the Control group subjects showed such responses. The two subjects in each training group who did not acquire conservation were those who had been total nonconservers on the pretests. Thus, it would appear that training generalizes, and more specifically, that training on a single attribute (the most difficult in terms of the pretest results) was as effective as training on a variety of attributes. Reservations expressed with respect to the 1969 and 1970 studies also seem pertinent here. It is also somewhat puzzling that area conservation (a concrete operational notion) was more difficult than volume conservation (a formal operational notion), although again this may indicate that Lister’s volume tasks do not adequately tap formal operations. In line with this possibility, Lister notes that variation between task difficulty levels shown in the present study and those obtained in other investigations is probably attributable to variations in problem characteristics and conservation criteria, Thus, the conclusion is compelling that Inhelder’s (1943) study, and Lister’s studies, may have dealt with different cognitive phenomena or tasks. It is also possible that the experimental populations had

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different behavioral characteristics. The refinement of conservation definitional criteria also seems in need of special attention. C.

Nonverbal Assessment

In response to the criteria problem, a recent attempt has been made to use nonverbal indexes to assess conservation acquisition in mildly retarded children (Wilton and Boersma, 1974). Changes in eye-movement activity and surprise reactions in conjunction with verbal data following training were examined. Two groups of 15 nonconservers were identified on the basis of number and length pretests and randomly assigned to training or control conditions. The training program based closely on a procedure developed by Gelman (1969) and involved a series of 32 individually presented six-trial oddity learning problems (16 per session) in which number and length were relevant cues on alternate problems. All subjects reached a criterion of not more than one error in six trials on each of the last two problems. On immediate posttests, all 15 training group subjects showed number and length conservation (judgement and explanation criteria), nine solid quantity conservation and eight liquid quantity conservation. Three weeks later these same subjects all showed number conservation, 14 length, 11 solid quantity, and 13 liquid conservation. In contrast, only two subjects in the Control group showed number conservation, one length and none quantity. With respect to eye-movement data, the Training group, in comparison to the control, showed a significantly greater amount of visual exploratory behavior. Whereas the Control group showed a marked tendency to “center” their perceptual activity on the particular element (row of chips, stick, clay ball, glass of water, etc.) that they believed was greater in quantity, length or amount, the perceptual activity of Training group subjects was evenly distributed between the stimulus elements. The Training group subjects also showed significantly more verbal awareness of legerdemain and more surprise reactions (the simultaneous occurrence of a GSR conductance increase, an increase in vasomotor activity, and a decrease in heart rate) following apparent violations of conservation. In short, Training group subjects showed patterns of verbal responses, eye-movement activity, and surprise reactions which closely approximated those shown by natural conservers and contrasted markedly with similar measures from untrained nonconservers. The present findings thus provide strong support for the effectiveness of the training. Moreover, it appears that subjects who received training had changed their “beliefs” with respect to the transformation outcome. At the same time, the correspondence be-

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tween verbal and psychophysiological data suggests that verbal responses provide a reasonably adequate index or cognitive functioning.

D. Discussion The extent to which it is possible to accelerate intellectual development in the mentally retarded has been debated and researched for many years (Doll, 1972). Moreover, previous research has suggested that intellectual development (in terms of IQ test scores) may be accelerated in such subjects (S. A. Kirk, 1964; Guskin & Spicker, 1968). The present review supports this premise in that it appears that concrete operations in preoperational mildly retarded children can also be accelerated. However, it should be noted, that while various conservation training procedures “worked” with mentally retarded children, it was not at all clear why they worked, and what in fact was achieved in behavioral terms. Consequently, more research in this area is needed. A number of methodological problems (Beilin, 197 1;Brainerd & Allen, 197 1 ) also preclude straightforward interpretation of conservation acceleration studies. Prominent among such problems is the diversity of criteria used for evaluating training effects. Piaget ( 1964a) has suggested that durability (retention), generulizability (transfer) of training effects, and specification of cognitive structural changes arising from training are necessary criteria for evaluating conservation training effects. Most of the studies reviewed in this section have used the durability and generalizability criteria, and where this has been done training appears to have been effective. At the same time, Piaget’s third criterion-specification of cognitive structural changes-has proved more difficult to implement. When attempts have been made to incorporate this criterion, descriptions of cognitive structural changes have almost invariably been made exclusively on the basis of verbal data. Since, in addition, the relationship between language and cognitive functioning has proved extremely difficult to unravel (Berlyne, 1965), it is not surprising that a degree of controversy has arisen regarding the interpretation of conservation training effects with normal children (Beilin, 1971 ; Brainerd & Allen, 197 1 ) . Conservation training effects in the mentally retarded are equally susceptible to differential interpretation. Specifically, it is difficult to know whether or not cognitive structural changes actually occur when changes in verbal responses are observed. One approach to this problem has been an attempt to develop nonverbal indexes to assess conservation acquisition. If, in addition to changes in verbal responses, appropriate changes in nonverbal indexes are also observed following training, stronger evidence of structural changes would seem to be

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indicated. Wilton and Boersma’s ( 1974) study has provided some evidence of this type. With the above problems in mind, the following points seem to emerge from this section. First, it appears that it is possible to accelerate the acquisition of firstorder conservation notions (concrete operations) in noninstitutionalized mildly retarded children. This generalization, however, is derived from studies which show wide variability in terms of tasks, types of training procedures, ages and behavioral characteristics of subjects, and criteria used to define conservation status. Second, two studies indicate that secondorder conservation (formal operations) may also be accelerated. While this data appears especially interesting in light of Inhelder’s (1943) premise, several aspects of volume training studies need to be clarified before results should be generalized. Third, evaluations of training procedures incorporating retention and transfer criteria show that training effects are durable and generalize. Fourth, one study has indicated that training effects are not necessarily confined to verbal response changes, and that perceptual/attentional concomitants (nonverbal indexes) of conservation can also be induced in mildly retarded children. Fifth, to date, no attempts have been made to induce conservation acquisition in moderately retarded children.

IV.

CONSERVATION AND OTHER ASPECTS OF COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING

Studies with retarded subjects relating Conservation to other types of cognitive behavior have all involved noninstitutionalized children. W. D. Kirk (1968) examined performance on a battery of Piagetian tasks (including conservation of length, area ( continuous quantity-solid and liquid, and - weight), and arithmetic- achievement. Subjects were 23 children (XCA= 11 years 7 months, X,, = 8 years 3 months, XIQ= 72) from intermediate and junior high special classes. Moderate correlations (significance was not reported) were obtained between performance on conservation tasks and arithmetic achievement. The Piagetian battery was also found to relate more closely to MA than to CA. Stevenson, Hale, Klein, & Miller (1968) presents on movie film a variety of learning (paired associates, discrimination learning, etc. ) and problem-solving (probability concepts, anagrams, etc.) tasks, and a modified conservation of volume task to groups of average seventh graders and mildly retarded children. In addition, a group of bright children = 118, %A = 12 years 8 months) enrolled at a special school for

(xIQ

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above average children were included in the sample. Average and bright subjects were administered the Lorge Thorndike Intelligence Test from which verbal and nonverbal scores were computed while Stanford-Binet IQs were obtained for the mildly retarded. There were approximately 40 boys and 40 girls in each group. The average group attended regular classes, the bright subjects attended classes for above average students, and the mildly retarded attended special classes for below average students. Intercorrelations computed between learning, problem solving, and conservation tasks performance were presented for the three groups combined. For boys, 7 of the 11 correlations between conservation task performance and performance on the other tasks were significant, whereas for girls, 9 of 11 were significant. The correlations ranged from 0.26 to 0.57. When intercorrelations between all tasks were considered, 59% of those for boys and 56% for girls were significant. In contrast, when intercorrelations were computed separately, 35% of those for the average group were significant, 12% for bright subjects, and 20% for the mildly retarded. Correlations were also computed between conservation task performance and IQ test scores. It was found that Stanford-Binet scores of the mentally retarded subjects did not relate to their conservation task scores, and that there was no relationship between conservation scores and either verbal or nonverbal IQs in the bright subjects. For average girls significant correlations were obtained between verbal IQs and Conservation scores, and between nonverbal IQs and conservation scores, but this relationship did not hold for average boys. In short, this study seems to suggest that whatever the “modified” conservation of volume task was measuring was probably related to learning and problem-solving ability, but that it did not have much in common with conventional intelligence test measures insofar as mildly retarded children were concerned. It should be remembered, however, that the study was concerned with only one conservation task-a task which there is good reason to believe that mentally retarded children do not usually succeed with-and furthermore, that the assessment of conservation was based on prediction responses. Later studies by C. K. Miller (1969) and Marchi (1970) have reported a stronger relationship between conservation measures and IQs in mentally retarded subjects. In Miller’s study a battery of 10 concrete and formal operational conservation tasks together with the WISC and WRAT (Wide Range Achievement Tests) were administered to 75 special class children (CA range 6-18 years) and 75 regular class children. In both groups significant correlations were obtained between conservation performance and WISC IQs, and between conservation performance and WRAT measures. Marchi examined the relationship between conservation task performance

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(mass, weight, and volume) and IQ in 106 ( 5 1 boys and 5 5 girls) special class children (CA range 7 years 1 month-16 years 2 months) and found conservation ability to be significantly related to IQ, with the relationship being stronger than that between conservation performance and CA. While both of these studies report significant correlations between conservation and conventional measures of intelligence and/or achievement, it should be noted that the amount of variance accounted for was not great. Stephens and McLaughlin (1971 ) administered a battery of 29 Piagetian tasks including conservation of substance (solid and liquid), length, = 11 years 1 1 months, = 12 weight, and volume to 75 regular years 1 month, IQ range: 90-1 10) and 75 special class = 11 years 9 months, = 7 years 10 months, IQ range: 50-75) children. Two analyses of covariance were performed. In the first, WISC or WAIS vocabulary scaled scores were used as the covariate, while in the second, WISC or WAIS verbal IQ was covaried. In terms of the resultant adjustment to task means, covariance of verbal IQs had the greater effect. When vocabulary was used as the covariate there were significant differences between the groups in favor of normals on 28 of 29 tasks (and on all seven conservation tasks). However when IQ was covaried, only 13 of 29 comparisons were significant (and only three of seven on conservation tasks). The findings seem to suggest that verbal IQs are more strongly related to Piagetian tasks, including conservation, than are vocabulary scores. A more detailed examination of the relationship between Piagetian reasoning task performance and scores on conventional intelligence and achievement measures was undertaken by Stephens, McLaughlin, Miller, and Glass (1972). The subjects here were 75 regular ( W I ~ Co, WA1s) = WAIS) = 66.2) children, of whom 100.5) and 75 special class (wIsc 25 (13 male and 12 female) were 6-10 years, 25 (12 male and 13 female) were 10-14 years, and 25 (13 male and 12 female) were 14-18 years. A battery of 27 Piagetian tasks (including conservation of substance-solid and liquid, length, weight, and volume) together with the WRAT battery (reading, spelling, and arithmetic tests) were administered to the groups. Scores on these tests plus subtest and total WISC/WAIS scores, SES ratings, and CA and MA data were intercorrelated. A factor analysis (isopromax solution) was performed on the resulting 47 x 47 matrix and five factors extracted and interpreted. Two factors are of major interest here. Factor 1 was defined by sizable loadings from WISC/WAIS sub and total test and achievement test scores, and low loadings from the Piagetian measures, especially conservation tasks. Piagetian measures, and particularly conservation tasks, on the other hand, loaded highly on Factor 2, whereas intelligence and achievement test variables showed low loadings on this factor. The authors concluded

(x,,

x,,

(xIQ

x,,, (xcA

(zrQ

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that Piagetian reasoning tasks appear to involve abilities which are somewhat different from those measured by conventional intelligence and achievement tests. In summary, the studies reviewed in this section suggest that although performance on conservation tasks and conventional measures of intelligence and achievement are related, the overlap is not great. Such findings are consistent with those obtained from similar analyses with normal children (Reese & Lipsitt, 1970). At first glance, this trend might appear to suggest that conservation tasks are not very useful measures of what has traditionally been subsumed under the term intelligence. However, it is widely acknowledged, that traditional IQ tests provide indexes which are strong predictors of academic achievement, but are less adequate for prediction in other behavioral areas. It may well be that intelligence, as measured by Piagetian tasks, more closely reflects “type” or level of cognitive functioning. If this is the case, many interesting possibilities exist for development of remedial programs specifically tailored to needs of individual learners. V.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

Conservation notions occupy an important place in Piaget’s theory of intellectual development, and have been studied extensively in recent years. The first study of conservation in mentally retarded children, which was undertaken by Inhelder, raised a number of stimulating possibilities. Among these it was suggested that while mentally retarded and normal children show similar sequences of intellectual development, mentally retarded children develop intellectually at a slower rate, and have lower ceilings of intellectual development. It was also surmised that mildly retarded subjects acquire concrete but not formal operations (signified by the acquisition of conservation of volume), and that moderately and severely retarded persons do not acquire concrete operational thought (signified by the acquisition of conservation of substance). Such premises, if empirically supported, would appear to be of central importance for understanding the cognitive functioning and social adaptation processes of mentally retarded persons. Subsequent studies of conservation development in both noninstitutionalized and institutionalized mentally retarded subjects have provided s u p port for Inhelder’s claim of a slower rate of cognitive development in the mentally retarded. It was also found that noninstitutionalized and institutionalized retarded subjects show levels of conservation development which closely approximate those shown by normals of equivalent MA. At the same time, this relationship needs to be qualified since one study of non-

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institutionalized subjects suggests that conservation acquisition does not reflect exclusively MA development. Support for Inhelder’s claim that the mildly retarded do not acquire formal operational thought has also been obtained, but it is not clear whether formal operational reasoning sharply differentiates normal and mentally retarded groups. For example, the technique of utilizing 50% or more of a sample to define an acquisition MA for a conservation task does not exclude the fact that a substantial number of retardates could have acquired formal operations while many normals may not have. If this was the case, the usefulness of Piagetian tasks, particularly conservation tasks, as vehicles for better understanding cognitive functioning of mentally retarded persons would be attentuated. Similarly, Inhelder’s suggestion that moderately retarded do not acquire concrete operations has yet to be adequately investigated. Quite clearly, a more detailed examination of the acquisition level criterion problem, among others, is now needed. Of further interest is the fact that the assessment of conservation is beset with a number of methodological problems which preclude straightforward interpretation of attempts to accelerate conservation. While the studies reviewed suggest that a degree of acceleration is possible, more powerful pre- and posttraining conservation measures are needed. In an attempt to deal with this problem several researchers have incorporated surprise reactions and perceptual/attentional data in addition to verbal responses to ascertain conservation status. The results of these studies indicate that such indexes provide valuable data relative to conservation status, especially when considered in conjunction with verbal reports. Finally, research which has examined the relationship between performance of mentaIly retarded persons on conservation tasks and conventional measures of ability suggests that different aspects of cognitive functioning are involved. The predictive usefulness of conventional ability measures is well documented, but despite their usefulness, conventional IQ tests provide a somewhat unclear content-oriented foundation for understanding problems which characterize intellectual development of mentally retarded persons. Conservation research offers considerable promise as a means of examining intellectual functioning of the mentally retarded from a somewhat more process-oriented perspective. REFERENCES Achenbach, T. M. Conservation of illusion-distorted identity: Its relation to M.A. and C.A. in normals and retardates. Child Development, 1969, 40, 663-679. Achenbach, T. M. Surprise and GSR as indicators of conservation: A new approach to developmental diagnosis demonstrated with retardates. Proceedings, 78th Annual Convention, American Psychological Association, 1970. 28 1-282.

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Achenbach, T. M. Surprise and memory as indices of concrete operational development. Developmental Psychology, 1974, in press. Beilin, H. The training and acquisition of logical operations. In M. S. Rosskopf, L. P. Steffe, & S . Taback (Eds.), Piagetian cognitive-development research and mathematical education. Washington: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1971. Pp. 81-124. Berlyne, D. E. Structure and direction in thinking. New York: Wiley, 1965. Bovet, M. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, socioculture differences, and mental retardation. In H. C . Haywood (Ed.), Social-cultural aspects of mental retardation: Proceedings of the Peabody-NIMH conference. New York: Appleton, 1970. Pp. 59-69. Brainerd, C. J. Judgements and explanations as criteria for the presence of cognitive structures. Psychological Bulletin, 1973, 79, 172-179. Brainerd, C. J., & Allen, T. W. Experimental inductions of the conservation of “first-order’’ quantitative invariants. Psychological Bulletin, 197 1, 75, 128-144. Brison, D. W., & Bereiter, C. Acquisition of conservation of substance in normal, retarded and gifted children. In D. W. Brison & E. V. Sullivan (Eds.), Recent research on the acquisition of conservation of substance. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1967. Pp. 53-72. Brogle, J. F. Performance of normals and retardates on Piaget’s conservation tasks. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, 1970. No. 71-12, 736. Brown, A. L. Conservation of number and continuous quantity in normal, bright, and retarded children. Child Development, 1973, 44, 376-379. Clausen, J. Mental deficiency-Development of a concept. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1967, 71, 727-745. Doll, E. E. A historical survey of research and management of mental retardation in the United States. In E. P. Trapp & P. Himelstein (Eds.), Readings on the exceptional child. (2nd ed.) New York: Appleton, 1972. Pp. 47-97. Elkind, D. Children’s discovery of the conservation of mass, weight, and volume: Piaget replication study 11. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1961, 98, 219-227. (a) Elkind, D. The development of quantitative thinking: A systematic replication of Piaget’s studies. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1961, 98, 3 7 4 6 . (b) Elkind, D., Koegler, R., & Go, E. Studies in perceptual development 11: Part-whole perception. Child Development, 1964, 35, 81-90. Elkind, D., & Scott, L. Studies in perceptual development I: The decentering of perception. Child Development, 1962, 33, 619-630. Elkind, D., & Weiss, J. Studies in perceptual development 111: Perceptual exploration. Child Development, 1967, 38, 553-561. Flavell, J. H. The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1963. Gelman, R. Conservation acquisition: A problem of learning to attend to relevant attributes. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1969, 7 , 167-187. Ginsburg, H., & Opper, S . Piaget’s theory of intellectual development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969. Gruen, G. E., & Vore, D. A. Development of conservation in normal and retarded children. Developmental Psychology, 1972, 6 , 146-157. Guskin, S. L., & Spicker, H. H. Educational research in mental retardation. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press, 1968. Pp. 217-278.

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Lovell, K., Healey, D., & Rowland, A. D. Growth of some geometric concepts. Child Development, 1962, 33, 751-767. Lunzer, E. A. Recent studies in Britain based on the work of Jean Piaget. London: National Foundation for Educational Research, 1960. Lyle, J. G. The effect of an institution environment upon the verbal development of imbecile children: I1 Speech and language. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 1960, 4, 1-13. Mannix, J. B. The number concepts of a group of E. S . N. children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1960, 30, 180-18 1. Marchi, J. U. Comparison of selected Piagetian tasks with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children as measures of mental retardation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1970. No. 71-15, 833. McManis, D. L. Comparison of gross, intensive, and extensive quantities by retardates. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1969, 115, 229-236. ( a ) McManis, D. L. Conservation and transitivity of weight and length by normals and retardates. Developmental Psychology, 1969, 1, 373-382. (b) McManis, D. L. Conservation of identity and equivalence of quantity by retardates. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1969, 115, 63-69. (c)

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Mermelstein, E., & Shulman, L. S. Lack of formal schooling and the acquisition of conservation. Child Development, 1967, 38, 39-52. Miller, C. K. The relationship between Piaget’s conservation tasks and selected psycho-educational measures. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Temple University, 1969. No. 70-16, 697. Miller, S. A. Extinction of conservation: A methodological and theoretical analysis. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1971, 17, 3 19-334. Northman, J. E., & Gruen, G. E. Relationship between identity and equivalence conservation. Developmental Psychology, 1970, 2, 3 11. Piaget, J. La psychologie de I’intelligence. Paris: Colin, 1947. (The psychology o f intelligence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1950.) Piaget, J. The role of the concept of equilibrium in psychological explication. Acta Psychologica, 1959, 15, 51-62. In D. Elkind (Ed.), Six Crudes de psychologie, Geneva: Gonthier, 1964. (Six psychological studies. New York: Random House, 1967. Pp. 100-115.) Piaget, J. Les mecanisrnes perceptifs: modeles probabilistes, analyse genetique, relations avec I’intelligence. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1961. (The mechanisms of perception. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969.) Piaget, J. The stages of the intellectual development of the child. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 1962, 26, 120-128. Piaget, J. Development and learning. In R. E. Ripple & V. N. Rockcastle (Eds.), Piaget rediscovered: A report o f the conference on cognitive studies and curriculum development. Ithaca, N.Y.: School of Education, Cornell University, 1964. Pp. 7-20. (a) Piaget, J. The thought of the young child. Lecture given at the Institute of Education, University of London, 1963. In D. Elkind (Ed.), Six Itudes de psychologie. Geneva: Gontheir, 1964. (b) (Six psychological studies. New York: Random House, 1967. Pp. 77-86.) Piaget, I. Cognitions and conservations: Two views. A review of I. S. Bruner, R. R. Olver, P. M. Greenfield et al. Studies in cognitive growth. Contemporary Psychology, 1967, 12, 532-533. Piaget, J. On the development o f memory and identity. Barre, Mass.York University Press and Barre Publishers, 1968. Piaget, J. Piaget’s theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual o f child psychology. (3rd ed.) New York: Wiley, 1970. Pp. 703-732. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. Diagnosis of mental operations and theory of the intelligence. American Journal o f Mental Deficiency, 1947, 51,401-406. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. Le dkvelopment des quantitb physiques chez l’enfant: Conservation et atomisme. (2nd ed.) Neuchktel: Delachaux et Niestle, 1962. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. La psychologie de I’enfant. Collection “Que sais-je” No. 369. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1966. (The psychology o f the child. New York: Basic Books, 1969.) Piaget, J., Inhelder, B., & Szeminska, A. La gkome‘trie spontdnee cher l’enfant. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948. (The child’s conception of geometry. New York: Basic Books, 1960.)

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Piaget, J., & Szeminska, A. L a genZse d u nombre chez I’enfant. Neuchfitel: Delachaux et Niestle, 1941. (The child’s conception of number. New York: Humanities Press, 1952.) Reese, H. W., & Lipsitt, L. P. Experimental child psychology. New York: Academic Press, 1970. Robinson, H. B., & Robinson, N. M. The mentally retarded child: A psychological approach. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. Santamaria, R. Piagetian perceptual development in retardates. (Doctoral dissertation, Case Western Reserve University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1971. NO. 72-6331. Schmalohr, E., & Winkelmann, W. Ober den E i d u s s der Ubung auf die Entwicklung der Mengen und Substanzerhaltung beim Kinde. (On the influence of training with quantity and substance conservation in children.) Zietschrift fiir Eniwicklungspsychologie und Padagogische Psychologie, 1969, 2, 93-102. Smedslund, J. Psychological diagnostics. Psychological Bulletin, 1969, 71, 237-248. Steams, K., & Borkowski, J. G. The development of conservation and horizontalvertical space perception in mental retardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 785-790. Stephens, W. B. Piaget and Inhelder: Applications of theory and diagnostic techniques to the area of mental retardation. Educaiion and Training of the Menially Retarded, 1966, 1, 75-87. Stephens, W. B., & McLaughlin, J. A. Analysis of performances by normals and retardates on Piagetian reasoning assessments as a function of verbal ability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1971, 32, 868-870. Stephens, W. B., McLaughlin, J. A., Miller, C. K., & Glass, G. V. Factorial structure of selected psycho-educational measures and Piagetian reasoning assessments. Developmenial Psychology, 1972, 6, 343-348. Stephens, W. B., Manhaney, E. J., & McLaughlin, J. A. Mental ages for achievement of Piagetian reasoning assessments. Education and Training of ihe Mentally Reiarded, 1972, 7 , 124-128. Stevenson, H. W., Hale, G. A., Klein, R. E., & Miller, L. K. Interrelations and correlates in children’s learning and problem solving. Monographs of the Socieiy f o r Research in Child Developmeni, 1968, 33(7, Whole No. 123). Wilton, K. M., & Boersma, F. J. Eye movements, surprise reactions and cogniiive development. Rotterdam: University of Rotterdam Press, 1974. Wohlwill, J. Piaget’s theory of the development of intelligence in the concrete-operations period. American Journal of Menial Deficiency, 1966, ‘IO(Monogr. Suppl. 4), 57-78. Woodward, M. Concepts of number of the mentally subnormal studied by Piaget’s method. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1961, 2, 249-259. Woodward, M. The application of Piaget’s theory to research in mental deficiency. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), Handbook of menial deficiency. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Pp. 297-324. Zigler, E. Mental retardation: Current issues and approaches. In L. W. & M. L. Hoffman (Eds.), Review of child development research. Vol. 2. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1966. Pp. 107-168. Zigler, E. Developmental versus difference theories of mental retardation and the problem of motivation. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 536-556.

Placement of the Retaxded in the Community: Prognosis and Outcome

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RONALD B McCARVER NORTHWEST LOUISIANA STATE SCHOOL FOR THE MENTALLY RETARDED. BOSSIER CITY. LOUISIANA

AND

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ELLIS M CRAIG TEXAS DEPARTMENT OF MENTAL HEALTH AND MENTAL RETARDATION. AUSTIN. TEXAS

I . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1 . Types of Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Prognostic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . Simple Follow-up Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Comparative Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A The Preadmission Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . The Institutional Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C The Release Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D Characteristics of the Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. General Integration of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Overall Success Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . Community Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V . Suggestions for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodological Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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146 1.

INTRODUCTION

On the basis of early records, there is little evidence that there were any mentally retarded in American communities prior to 1850 (Little and Johnson, 1932). Goodfellow (1947) speculated that during these times the retarded probably subsisted upon local charity and were sent to jails or alms houses if they became problems. However, growing concern with the problem led to the establishment of several institutions around the middle of the 19th century. As reported by Baumeister (1970), the primary goal of these early institutions was to cure the mentally retarded and return them to the community as acceptable citizens. The fact that this was not accomplished resulted in a shift in opinion to extreme pessimism. By the turn of the century, institutions for the retarded were used primarily for custodial care. Although there were sporadic attempts to return some cases either to their own homes or to colonies within the community, the dominant policy was one of segregation from the community and custodial care. Nevertheless, a small number of the retarded did return to the community either by escaping or through legal pressure exerted by the parents (Goldstein, 1964). Fernald (1919) attempted to discover what was happening to such cases. His finding that a significant number were doing reasonably well was in direct opposition to commonly held opinions, including his own. These results were very influential and probably encouraged a number of institutions to increase their rate of community placements. For example, Wissman (1946) reported that, at one institution, the number of discharges from one in 1895 to a maximum of 64% of the cases admitted in 1925. Nevertheless, in the 1920's eugenic concerns were voiced with growing loudness. Even professional were advocating mass sterilization of the mentally retarded, although there was not as much emphasis upon strictly custodial care or even segregation as there had been earlier (e.g., Popenoe, 1928).

Placement of the retarded in the community did not change greatly in the 1930's, but during and directly following World War 11, placement opportunities increased substantially. Dearden ( 195 1) reported that at one institution only 14 cases were discharged for working placement during the period 1936-1940 as compared to 9 0 cases during the period 1946-1950. This change was at least partly due to the demands for labor during and immediately after World War 11. However, a survey done by Shafter (1954) indicated that the model year for the initiation of institutional placement programs was 1949. In this paper, we will describe the different types of studies done over the years concerning postinstitutional placement of the mentally retarded,

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discuss some of the many methodological problems of such studies, and critically review the overall results to date. For other reviews in this area see H. V. Cobb (1969), Eagle (1967), Shafter (1957), and Windle (1962).

II. TYPES OF STUDIES

Virtually all of the studies done concerning community placement and follow-up of the mentally retarded may be subsumed under one of three general categories. These are distinguished mainly on the basis of the experimenter’s purpose and may be designated as prognostic, including retrospective and truly predictive studies; follow-up; and comparative. Descriptions and examples of each of these follow. A.

Prognostic Studies

A prognostic study is one which was done in an attempt to arrive at variables which would predict the success of failure of released retardates. Most of these have been retrospective, i.e., the data were collected at the time of the follow-up from available records, rather than before release. A study of this type was done by Shafter (1957) at Woodward State School. He arrived at 66 possible predictor variables from the results of earlier studies, release criteria of other institutions, and his own institution. Data were collected on 75 males and 130 females who had been placed on outside jobs by the Social Service Department of the institution. The single criterion of success was complete discharge from the hospital, which yielded 1 1 1 successful and 94 unsuccessful placements. A comparison between the successes and failures on all 66 predictor variables was made and 12 variables were found to differentiate between successful and unsuccessful placements. At least 15 characteristics found to be predictive of success (or failure) in earlier studies, including IQ, age at admission, sex, and education, did not significantly differentiate between successful and unsuccessful placements. Jackson and Butler (1963) took all their measures prior to and independent of the criterion measure, which was defined as the completion of 6 months’ time on community placement without return to the institution. According to this criterion, there were 82 successful placements out of a possible 191. In a comparison of certain characteristics of successful and unsuccessful placements, significant t values were obtained on 12 of 22 variables. A number of the significant differentiators were conceptually related, so in an attempt to decrease the number of variables, a multiple

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regression analysis was performed. A multiple regression coefficient of .43 was obtained, accounting for approximately 17% of the variance.

B.

Simple Follow-up Studies

Some investigators have made no attempt to isolate predictor variables and have merely followed up discharges to see how they were faring in the outside world. The most notable example of this type of study is Edgerton’s (1967) book, The Cloak of Competence, which is an anthropological study of 48 mildly retarded subjects who had been discharged from Pacific State Hospital. Prolonged informal interviews were conducted with the patients themselves, and their neighbors, employers, relatives, and friends. Most of the follow-up programs employed by public residential facilities also fall into this category. In an attempt to determine the extent and quality of these programs, a brief questionnaire was sent to the coordinator of residential services for the mentally retarded in each of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The recipients of the questionnaire were asked to provide the following information: ( 1 ) the number of residents discharged over the last 5 years, (2) the number of readmissions during that period, (3) a brief description of established follow-up procedures, if any, and ( 4 ) any data concerning the success or failure of discharged clients. The respondent was further asked to rate his state’s program of extrainstitutional placement as a failure, poor, minimally acceptable, successful, or very successful. Thirty-four (67% ) of the questionnaires were completed and returned. These responses represented data from 148 (73%) of the 202 public residential facilities in the United States. Some responses were on a statewide basis and some were from individual residential facilities within a state. Like most questionnaire data, these data are somewhat biased because of the lack of a complete return. The rate of return is comparable to that obtained in two similar surveys by Shafter (1954) and Goldberg ( 1957), who reported 74 and 65% return rates, respectively. More than 39,000 residents have been discharged within the last 5 years from public residential facilities within states which responded to the questionnaire. Virtually all of these states (29) reported some sort of follow-up procedure. This looked quite promising on the surface; however, a closer look failed to fulfill that promise. Thirty-three percent either had no followup services at all or simply contacted local agencies who might have an interest in the client when he returned to their community. The follow-up practices of an additional 38% were minimal at best, i.e., they were either obviously understaffed or of short duration. Only 29% (10 states) de-

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scribed a follow-up program which seemed adequate to fulfill the need. Relating to this, only 26% of the responding states reported that data was available concerning the discharged clients’ adjustment in the community. This shortcoming is critical. Even if local agencies possess the initiative and the resources to provide follow-up services, programming and planning concerning residential facilities cannot profit unless there is a well-structured feedback of information to the facility. Surprisingly, only eight (24%) of the respondents rated their state’s program of placement and follow-up as being minimally acceptable or worse. This could mean nothing, but might indicate a glaring lack of emphasis on this area of service. C.

Comparative Studles

The third type of study (comparative) is distinguished by some attempt to compare the retardate’s achievement in the community to some other relevant group. Exactly what constitutes a relevant control group is a knotty issue, which likely explains the relative rarity of this type study. Skaarbrevik (1971), in a study of Norwegian retardates, compared their annual income to the national average; it was about 6 as much. Kinder, Chase, and Buck (1941 ) compared girls from a correctional institution with retarded females on work leave. Approximately one-half of each sample of 50 girls was adjusting adequately; however, more of the delinquent girls were doing well, according to the impression of a social worker. Collmann and Newlyn (1956) compared the employment success of ex-pupils of residential facilities with that of ex-pupils of special day schools and found no substantial differences. A few more examples dot the literature, but, for the most part, control groups are conspicuously absent. This is not necessarily bad; the information obtained with a control group comparison may not be relevant to the investigator’s purpose. However, if one seriously wants to evaluate a residential facility’s program, some sort of control group is mandatory.

111.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Since Fernald’s classic study in 1919, there have been at least 175 published reports concerning the postinstitutional adjustment of the mentally retarded. Any attempt to organize such a large body of literature is destined to be procrustean. In an attempt to keep such loss of information at a minimum, a variable-by-variable rather than a study-by-study approach was used, as suggested in Windle’s (1962) monograph. For the most part,

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studies conducted prior to World War I1 will be ignored unless the results are especially significant. Variables related to the preadmission years, to the institutional years, to the release process, and to characteristics of the subjects will be considered. Emphasis will be placed on those studies concerned with differences between successful and unsuccessful placements. In a later section, we will attempt to integrate these findings and give some picture of how the average retardate released from a residential facility fares in the community. A.

The Preadmission Years

Influences upon and characteristics of the mentally retarded prior to their admission to an institution could have an effect on their adjustment when they are later released. Institutional experiences almost certainly will modify some of these, but, nonetheless, many preadmission factors probably retain some prognostic value, The following section is concerned with an evaluation of the importance of such factors.

1. PREADMISSION HOMEENVIRONMENT One can find numerous statements throughout the literature to the effect that most retardates released from institutions originally came from a rather deprived background (e.g., Skaarbrevik, 1971 ; Windle, 1962; Wolfson, 1956). Recognizing that most samples were probably skewed on this variable, it is not surprising that many studies have found little or no relationship between the socioeconomic status of the preadmission home and various criteria of adjustment (e.g., Jackson & Butler, 1963; Krishef, 1959; Wolfson, 1956). Some investigators (e.g., Windle, 1962; Wolfson, 1956) have suggested that retardates who spend their early years in an orphanage or a foster home have relatively better outcomes than those from other types of early environments. However, Krishef's (1959) results did not support this suggestion, and Kraus (1972) reported that the length of time spent in foster homes was negatively related to at least one criterion of community success. No correlation between an institutional background and community success was reported in three studies (Krishef, Reynolds, and Stunkard, 1959; Madison, 1964; Shafter, 1957), and the number of institutional placements was found to be positively related to community failure in two others (Craib & Woodward, 1958; Kraus, 1972). Two researchers have speculated that an extremely adverse preadmission environment might be a favorable sign. Mundy (1957) found that the largest intelligence gains made by subjects placed in the community were

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made by those who had been separated from their mothers before the age of two. Clarke, Clarke, and Reiman (1958) also found that large gains in intelligence were more likely to occur in retardates from extremely deprived backgrounds. Both investigators interpreted this phenomenon as indicating a recovery from the influences of a negative environment. 2. PREADMISSION DELINQUENCY (NONSEXUAL)

There is little recent evidence that subjects with a history of delinquency are less successful in later community adjustment. Hartzler ( 1951) reported that female subjects who were successful on parole had been less actively delinquent prior to admission than those who failed (65 versus 100%). After a more complete follow-up of the same subjects (Hartzler, 1953), these figures shrank to 58 versus 79%. The type of preadmission delinquency was not specified in most studies. This omission could be important as indicated by Tong and MacKay’s (1959) finding that the mentally retarded with a history of violence had better outcomes than those with a history of larceny. In addition, it is likely that preadmission nonsexual delinquency was combined with sexual delinquency or institutional delinquency in some studies (e.g., Madison, 1964; Windle, Stewart, & Brown, 1961). Neither Tarjan and Benson ( 1953) nor Shafter (1957) found a relationship between preadmission delinquency and adjustment in the community. In fact, Tarjan and Benson found that those with delinquency records did slightly better. These authors also noted that offenses leading to failure in the community are not likely to be the same as those committed before admission, a point also raised by Gunzburg ( 1957), who further suggested that the delinquent retarded may have relatively greater potential. 3. PREADMISSION SEXUALBEHAVIOR

The incidence of preadmission sexual behavior was widely documented in early studies (e.g., Popenoe, 1927; Raymond, 1923; Schroeder & Bartelme, 1928). However, there has never been much evidence that sexual problems before admisson are related to success or failure on community placement. In a study of males who worked in the community during the day but returned to the institution at night, Badham (1955) reported that three of the eleven failures were sexual offenders. Since he concluded that sexual offenders have a high incidence of “reverting to type,” it might be presumed that these subjects had had preadmission sexual problems. However, Badham’s presentation was more in the form of a clinical interpretation than any type of statistical tabulation.

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Contrary to Badham, Gegenheimer (1948) argued that sexually delinquent retardates do not necessarily have a poor prognosis. This assertion was supported by Shafter (1957) who found no significant relationship between preadmission sexual behavior and adjustment after institutional release. In a more recent study, Edgerton (1967) found that while at least 20 of 48 subjects had had serious sexual problems prior t o admission, only 5 or 6 posed similar problems after return to the community. B. The Institutional Years

What are the effects of institutionalization on later community adjustment? Arguments both pro and con have been made regarding the value of the experience (e.g., Dingman, 1968; Rosen, 1967a). At least a partial answer to the question can be provided by examining the objective findings related to the relationship between variables related to institutionalization and community adjustment. 1. REASONSFOR ADMISSION Dearden (1951) estimated that only about 10% of the retarded in this country are ever institutionalized. A more recent estimate (National Association for Retarded Children, 1972) places this figure at 4 % . Whatever estimate is accepted, it seems obvious that institutionalized retardates represent a rather select group. Since the problems that these retardates presented in their homes and/or communities were sufficient to result in institutionalization, it seems likely that returning them to the community would be futile unless the presenting problems were somehow resolved. Very few of the mentally retarded studied appear to have been without preadmission problems. In one of the few studies in which this factor was quantified, Raymond (1923) reported that only 9 % of the females and 13% of the males in her sample were without significant preadmission problems. Preadmission delinquency is a relatively common problem (e.g., Edgerton, 1967; Hartzler, 1953). Wolfson (1956) noted that sexual delinquency is an especially important factor in the case of females. Only two studies have attempted to relate the reasons for admission to later community adjustment. Wolfson (1956) reported that 47% of the successful cases had been admitted for training versus only 26% of the unsuccessful cases; 8% of the successful cases were admitted because of sexual problems versus 21% of the unsuccessful cases; and 45% of the successful cases were admitted because of other behavior or personality problems versus 52% of the unsuccessful cases. Shafter (1957), on the

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other hand, found no correlation between community adjustment and type of admission, i.e., court commitment, voluntary admission, or transfer. From these reports it appears that most retardates are institutionalized either because they exhibit behavior which the community will not tolerate, their families are unable to properly care for them, or community resources are not adequate. Although adequate supporting evidence is lacking, it has been argued (e.g., Windle, 1962) that the first two groups pose problems which are more difficult to resolve than those of the latter two groups.

2. AGE AT ADMISSION If the resident comes from an adverse home environment, an institutional environment could allow for the development of more socially acceptable habits. Under these circumstances, early admission would appear preferable. On the other hand, removal from the community at an early age might make reintegration into the community difficult. When authors have expressed an opinion on this matter, it has usually been in favor of early admission. Hopwood (1946) argued that early admission benefits the home and the community by removing a troublesome element; the institution is benefited because younger retardates pose less serious problems and are more amenable to training; and the retardate himself is benefited because he can be protected within the institution and will be able to make a more satisfactory adjustment there. Similar sentiments were voiced by Macmillan ( 1962). Krishef (1959) reported the strongest evidence in favor of younger admissions. He found that the successful cases in his sample were likely to have been admitted during the latency period (ages 6-1 2), while unsuccessful cases tended to have been admitted during adolescence (ages 13-1 8 ) . A tendency for younger admissions to be more successful was reported in two additional studies. Macmillan (1962) found that later admissions (over age 12) were more likely to be returned to the institution after release than cases admitted at an earlier age. However, this relationship was confounded with age at release. Wolfson (1956) found no correlation between admission age and adjustment for males. For females, 76% of a more successful group were admitted at less than 18 years of age, while 76% of a less successful group were over age 17 at admission. In a reanalysis of Wolfson’s data, Windle (1962) discovered that there was actually a curvilinear relationship; more successful and unsuccessful subjects were admitted at a young age when compared to a borderline adjustment group. A curvilinear relationship was also reported by Tong and MacKay ( 19591, who observed a greater failure rate in a 15-29 admission age group than in either older or younger subjects. Evidence suggesting that residents admitted at older ages have better

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prognoses has been presented by Hartzler (1951) and Tavris (1964). In the Tavris study, successful subjects had a mean admission age of 16 years versus a mean of 11 years for unsuccessful subjects. Hartzler (1951) reported that the mean admission age of successful and unsuccessful placements was 22 and 20, respectively. However, in a more complete followup, involving the same subjects, she observed that the age difference had shrunk (20 versus 19), and no longer considered it a very significant finding. Most investigators have reported no relationship whatsoever between admission age and later adjustment (e.g., G. R. Clark, Kivitz, & Rosen, 1968; Edgerton, 1967; Floor, Rosen, Baxter, Horowitz, & Weber, 1971; Krishef et al., 1959; Madison, 1964; Shafter, 1957; Skaarbrevik, 1971; Sloan, 1948). 3. INSTITUTIONAL BEHAVIOR

The importance of a resident’s behavior within the institutional setting as a prognostic sign is indicated to some extent by the frequency with which it is used as a selection criterion for release (e.g., Badham, 1955; Windle, 1962). Candidates for discharge or parole who have not been behavior problems are usually given the highest priority. Experimental support for such selection is available. Hartzler ( 195 1 ) found that only 12% of a group of successful subjects as compared to 38% of a group of unsuccessful subjects had been behavior problems while in the institution. In her more complete analysis (Hartzler, 1953), the figures were 23 and 58%, respectively. She also noted that many of those with behavior problems were released because of high intellectual ability or because of a court order forcing the release. Tarjan and Benson ( 1953) reported a strong relationship between institutional behavior and community adjustment. They suggested that it should be used for selection purposes, especially if a resident exhibits a pattern of gradually improving behavior. Shafter (1957) examined a large number of specific variables related to institutional behavior. These variables were more predictive for females than for males, but successful subjects as a group had exhibited fewer behavior problems within the institution. Tong and MacKay (1959) found a significant negative relationship between success on community placement and incidents of violence toward other residents, but not for sexual behavior. A number of writers have argued that institutional behavior should not be considered important for either selection or prediction (e.g., Eagle, 1967; Goldstein, 1964; Goroff, 1967; Stanley & Gunzburg, 1956). Bower and Switzer (1962) suggested that behavior in a protective institutional setting bears little relation to less regulated community settings. A similar

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point was raised by Rosen, Kivitz, Clark, and Floor (1970) who further concluded that institutional conformity may not be the type of behavior needed to cope with the social demands of the community. Madison (1964) reported that a history of homosexuality was not predictive of failure. Song and Song (1969) noted that neither withdrawn nor aggressive behavior in the institution were good predictors of adjustment. G. R. Clark et al. (1968) observed no correlation between ratings of institutional behavior and any of their 22 criteria of community adjustment. Kraus (1972) found that subjects with better institutional records were more likely to flee from supervision in the community. In spite of statements by several investigators that institutional behavior is not a good predictor of community adjustment, the bulk of the research indicates that at least some aspects of institutional behavior may be important. Possibly, overconformity to institutional routines is as bad a sign as acting-out behavior. 4. INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING Several writers have indicated that the adequacy of institutional training should be one of the selection criteria for release (Shafter, 1954; Tarjan & Benson, 1953). Further, the literature contains numerous statements suggesting that community success is directly related to the quality of training received in the institution. Rosen (1967b) felt that the high success rate in his study was due to the multiplicity of programs offered which allowed a gradual transition from the institution to the community. Dingclan (1968) stated that recent trends toward placing the retarded in foster homes rather than institutions may not necessarily be good, since there is no evidence that the training received in such homes is as good as that which is currently available in most institutional settings. Other researchers have at least partially attributed the community success of the retarded to their institutional training. Whitney (1948) proposed that the greater success of his older subjects may have been due to the longer training they received. Wolfson (1956) stated that long institutional training is related to community success because it leads to greater maturity. Appell, Williams, and Fishell (1963) found that former residents who had been institutionalized longer had better records in the community; chronological age was not controlled, however. Hamlett and Engle (1950) stressed institutional training as a factor in the differences between their successful and unsuccessful subjects, but no clear support was given to the notion that successful subjects actually had different institutional experiences. This limitation applies to most of the studies mentioned above. Another attitude which has been commonly expressed in the literature

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is that institutions have some positive benefits, but that there are definite drawbacks. Dearden ( 195 1 ) observed that in contrast to the noninstitutionalized retarded, institutionalized cases are likely to experience little adverse competition. However, the latter cases do suffer from not having been in contact with the community. Gegenheimer (1951 ) concluded that regardless of how much training and preparation residents receive in the institution, they still have many hard lessions to learn in the community. Badham (1955) noted that amenability to discipline is important for the retarded, but there is a danger of their becoming overdisciplined in the institution. Goldstein (1964) argued that length of residence in an institution bears little relation to community adjustment unless training for adjustment is part of the program. Several writers have stressed the adverse effects of institutionalization. Stanley and Gunzburg (1956) noted that the emotional problems of the retarded are usually not handled adequately in institutions. Further, the pace of institutional life is geared toward the majority (the more severely retarded) and does not provide the social training necessary for adapting to the outside community. The authors further remarked on the absurdity of the notion that socialization results from removing the person from the very situation he i s later required to adjust to. Gunzburg (1957) echoed these sentiments and recommended that training should be oriented toward real life situations. Mundy ( 1957) argued that institutional life may actually depress intellectual functioning. J. S. Cohen (1960) noted that although the retarded need to develop a sense of responsibility, most decisions are made for them in institutional settings. Rosen’s (1967a) conclusion that most institutions can be characterized by depersonalization and regimentation seems to be a representative statement of the attitude that institutions have adverse effects on their residents. Although there has been much conflicting speculation as to the effect of institutionalization, little research has been directed toward experimentally isolating the types of institutional experiences that might facilitate or impede later community adjustment, and the little that has been done has not been very informative. In the only recent study which directly attacked this question, Madison (1964) reported that participation in various types of institutional programs was not related to later adjustment. Both Rosen (1967a) and Windle (1962) stressed that information regarding the problems that the retarded will encounter in the community should be available to thc institutions. Institutional training programs can neither be modified nor augmented, if such information is not available. 5 . INSTITUTIONAL WORKEXPERIENCES

Institutional work records have been considered one of the most important factors for the selection of release candidates. The importance of this

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variable as a selection factor is underscored by the frequency with which the job held in the community is similar to one held in the institution. For example, in Rosen’s (1967b) study, 80% of the subjects worked at similar jobs in both situations. Most of the experimental results regarding the influence of institutional work experience on later adjustment have been rather borderline in significance. Shafter’s (1957) study included an evaluation of the quality of the former resident’s work record in the institution. This rating did not distinguish successful and unsuccessful males, but successful subjects as a group had better ratings. Being rated as ambitious, obedient, or not careless were also favorable signs. Krishef (1959) reported that successful subjects were slightly more likely to have had institutional work assignments. Jackson and Butler (1963) found that successful placements had a better work record as measured by the number of institutional work certificates earned. This variable lost its significance, however, when used for prediction purposes in a multiple regression analysis. Windle (1962) concluded that, although some data do suggest that work experience is favorable for later adjustment, this relation needs both confirmation and further investigation.

6. LENGTH OF INSTITUTIONALIZATION Several writers have been of the opinion that a long period of institutional residence is beneficial for later community adjustment. For example, Tarjan and Benson (1953) suggested a period longer than 2 years, and Whitney (1948) argued that the longer the residence the better. Others have taken the opposite view. O’Brien (1952) felt that the period of residence should be reduced to the minimum which individual needs allow. She argued that the longer one is away from the community, the more difficult readjustment will be. Stanley and Gunzburg (1956) observed that cases who had been institutionalized as long as 10 years were often suitable for placement only under sheltered conditions. They felt that early release, even if it leads to failure, can be a therapeutic experience that will make the next placement easier. Tavris (1964) proposed that there might be an optimal period of institutionalization, beyond which the chances for successful community adjustment decrease. However, at least eight studies have provided suggestive evidence favoring a longer period of residence. Both Grant (1956) and Jackson and Butler (1963) reported that a longer length of residence was a favorable indicator of success in their samples. Kraus (1972) found that subjects who had longer periods of residence were more settled in their community jobs. Hiatt’s (1951 ) positive results applied primarily to elderly subjects who had been institutionalized over 20 years and placed in foster homes. Hartzler (1953) reported that successful females had a longer period of

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residence (12 versus 10 years). Krishef (1959) obtained no significant correlation between length of institutionalization and outcome for his entire sample. However, when considering only those residents who were discharged to a rural community, a longer period of residence was favorable. Tong and MacKay (1959) reported that returnees and cases convicted of criminal offenses in the community had shorter periods of residence than more successful cases. Appell et a f . (1963) found that length of institutionalization did not significantly distinguish groups that were returned to the institution, considered rehabilitated, or still in residence at a special unit in the community. Nevertheless, there was a strong tendency for the rehabilitated group to have been in residence longer than the returnees (14.2 versus 10.2 years). Song and Song (1969) obtained a significant correlation between length of institutionalization and job efficiency, but the variable lost its predictive significance when weighed with other predictors in a multiple regression analysis. Nevertheless, the authors concluded that subjects with longer stays were more likely to be successful, since they probably had worked at a variety of jobs in the institution and were likely to be more stable. The results of two studies suggest rather complex interactions between length of institutionalization and community adjustment. Shafter’s ( 1957) data showed distinct sex differences, i.e., the longer the residence for males the less successful they were, while females exhibited an opposite trend. In a study of foster home placements, S. J. Brown, Windler, and Stewart (1959) discovered that a short period of residence was favorable for subjects under 15 years of age. An opposite trend emerged for those over 14 years of age. A number of other researchers have reported no significant relationship between length of institutionalization and outcome in the community (e.g., G. R. Clark et al., 1968; Edgerton, 1967; Krishef et al., 1959; Windle, 1959, 1962; Wolfson, 1956). Windle (1962) concluded that a relatively long period of institutional residence does not appear to have the unfavorable prognostic value often attributed to it. On the contrary, even though length of institutionalization has usually been confounded with other variables, the available evidence suggests that it may be a favorable indicator for custodial types of placement. C.

The Release Process

Early in the history of institutions for the retarded, the majority of releases involved either escapes or legal pressure exerted by relatives (e.g., Fernald, 1919). In later years, however, the staffs of the institution became

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directly involved in community placement programs. When the institutions themselves became involved in community placement, the establishment of selection criteria for release quickly became important, i.e., who should be released? The determination of the optimum type of placement program and the extent of continuing supervision needed were other major issues. The following sections include a discussion of these factors, as well as a presentation of relevant experimental results.

RELEASE A common observation in the literature on postinstitutional adjustment is that it is hazardous to compare the results of different studies if different selection criteria were employed (e.g., Eagle, 1967; Elkin, 1968; Hartzler, 1951, 1953; Kolstoe, 1961; Rosen, 1967a; Windle, 1962; Windle et al., 1961). Unfortunately, it is probably impossible to even determine all the selection criteria that have been used. In spite of such limitations, it is important to know which selection criteria have been used most often. Shafter (1954) surveyed all institutions for the retarded in the United States and was able to organize the information into 19 categories. These included: ( 1 ) intelligence, ( 2 ) institutional behavior, ( 3 ) personality, (4) age, ( 5 ) training received, ( 6 ) job ability, (7) emotional stability, ( 8 ) physical condition, ( 9 ) education, (10) attitude, ( 1 1 ) sterilization, (12) use of spare time, (13) past history, (14) truthfulness, ( 15) personal appearance, ( 16) outside interests, (17) sexual problems, (18) length of institutionalization, and (19) number of institutional admissions. Criteria mentioned by other writers include family interest (Raymond, 1923), sexual problems (Dearden, 19Sl), epilepsy (Shafter, 1957), number of previous placements (Tarjan and Benson, 1953), type of admission (Goldstein, 1964), and professional staff agreement (Madison, 1964). Although many of the preceding variables have been examined as to their relationship to outcome on placement, relatively few studies have focused on the selection process itself. Krishef (1959) did report that neither the source of initiative for discharge planning nor the length of time between initiation of planning and formal discharge were significantly related to outcome. Several writers have commented on the limitations of typical selection methods. Shafter (1954) observed that there are three basic types of methods which might be used for selecting residents for release. The merit plan involves selecting those whose good behavior has allowed them to progress step-by-step through programs aimed toward release. The objective plan involves selecting residents who have the highest probability of successful community adjustment. The subjective plan was described as 1.

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a combination of the preceding two methods, along with various idiosyncratic factors considered important by whoever does the selecting. Shafter noted that the subjective method is the most common, and argued that progress would be made more rapidly by adopting the objective method. Windle (1962) also discussed limitations of the subjective approach and stressed the need for experimental placements. On the other hand, Rosen (1967a) noted that selection biases are very difficult to control, and Goldstein (1964) posited that given the present state of knowledge, the use of subjective criteria may be the only alternative to random selection. 2. FAMILY INTEREST It has sometimes been assumed that family involvement is very important to postinstitutional adjustment (e.g., Tarjan & Benson, 1953). However, some writers have argued that returning a retardate to his own home is not desirable. Harms ( 1949) noted that most institutionalized retardates have only tenuous family ties and that the residents are often closer to the institutional staff than to their own families. Nevertheless, G. R. Clark et al. (1968) and D. Cobb (1954) have observed that once a former resident demonstrates competence in community adjustment, his family tends to become more interested in his welfare. The results of three studies suggest that family interest might have an effect on community adjustment. Craib and Woodward (1958) reported that successful placements tended to have more interested families. Macmillan (1962) analyzed the pattern of home leaves during the period of institutional residence, i.e., a consistent pattern versus an inconsistent pattern of home visits, and subjects with the former pattern tended to have better outcomes. Madison (1964) reported that contact between the resident and his family during placement and consistent contact before placement were significantly related to community success. No relationship between family interest and community success was found by Krishef (1959), Shafter (1957), or Windle (1962). Windle actually found a slight, but nonsignificant, tendency for those with less than three home visits to be more successful than those with three or more visits. Perhaps the lack of evidence that support from relatives facilitates reentry into the community has been due to a biased sample, i.e., the adequacy of the parents in the above samples has been questioned. Nevertheless, the available evidence indicates that family interest is not a particularly potent variable for predicting postinstitutional adjustment.

3. NUMBEROF PRIORCOMMUNITY PLACEMENTS Most discussions regarding this variable have suggested, at least implicitly, that previous failures are a bad sign. Whitney (1948) argued against reinstitutionalization, suggesting that previous failures usually have lost

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their former level of attainment and are not mentally or emotionally suited for continued training. However, Tarjan and Benson (1953) and Stanley and Gunzberg (1957) stated that cases who had failed on earlier leaves, in contrast to earlier thinking, were worthwhile candidates for release. The results of three studies can be taken as evidence that previous placement carries a poor prognosis. In an analysis of failures, J. s. Cohen (1960) found that the mean length of stay in the community was 159 days for first placements, 128 days for second placements, and 12 days for third placements. He did note, however, that these figures do not take into account the relatively large number of cases who were successful on second and third placements. Windle (1962) stated that previous placement on vocational leave was unrelated to outcome, but that previous placement on home leave was unfavorable. In a study of returns from many different kinds of placements, Keys, Boroskin, and Ross (1973) reported that over 10% of the failures had been placed previously, although they accounted for only 1% of the placements. No relationship between previous placement and outcome was reported by Madison ( 1964) or Shafter ( 1957). 4. TYPEOF

PLACEMENT

As noted by G. R. Clark et al. (1968), any comparison of the results of studies concerning postinstitutional adjustment is hampered by the fact that different studies often involved different types of placement programs. Not only are there differences between studies, but within individual studies the subjects were often placed in different kinds of settings. Nevertheless, an attempt will be made to describe the dominant features of various types of placement programs, and where possible, make comparisons between them. Six different types of placement will be considered, including ( 1 ) vocational placement, ( 2 ) home placement, ( 3 ) foster home placement, ( 4 ) colony or halfway house placement, (5) group placement, and ( 6 ) escape. a. Vocational Placement According to Eagle (1967), working parole or vocational placements have involved more subjects than any other type of placement. Although he found little difference between the success rates of the various types of placements, others have argued that vocational placement is superior to other types for the more capable resident (e.g., Dearden, 1951). Differences between former residents on vocational placement and those on other types of placement have often been marked. Hiatt (1951) noted that vocational placements were younger and more intelligent than family care placements. Tarjan, Dingman, Eyman, and Brown (1960) ob-

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served that vocational and foster home placements were typically initiated by the institutional staff, while home placements usually resulted from requests by the family. Further, females tended to be overrepresented in vocational leaves. In a comparison between vocational, foster home, and home placements, Windle et al. (1961) and Eagle (1967) found that vocational placements tended to be older and to have been in the institution longer. Two within-study comparisons indicated that vocational placement is associated with a higher probability of success than other types of placement. Hiatt ( 1951 ) reported that 43% of foster home placements as compared to 70% of vocational placements were still in the community at the time of her follow-up. In a study of sexual problems after release, Floor et al. (1971) discovered that only one of the 15 problem cases was employed at the time of the difficulty as compared to one-fifth of a group with minimum problems. One recent study revealed a sex difference with regard to the efficacy of vocational placements. In an investigation of failure rates over time, Tarjan et al. (1960) observed a higher rate (over 70%) in vocational placements than in home or foster home placements. However, when females alone were considered, an opposite trend emerged. In at least two studies comments were made regarding the typical reasons for failure of vocational placements. Windle el al. (1961) mentioned inadequate work performance, inadequate interpersonal relations, and voluntary departure as the most prominent factors. Eagle (1967) listed unsatisfactory work, followed by personality problems, and antisocial behavior. Both authors felt that the reasons for failure of vocational placements were qualitatively different from the reasons for failure of other types of placements. b. Home Placement A commonly expressed attitude in the literature is that a resident should

not be returned to his own home if other types of placement are available. As early as 1926, however, Potter and McCollister recognized that some residents with the highest potential tend to be returned to their own homes, i.e., younger cases and those with shorter periods of institutionalization (Potter & McCollister, 1926). In his review, Eagle (1967) observed that over the years, home placements have tended to be younger than vocational placements. The evidence regarding the success of home placements versus other types of placement is not clear, although there does appear to be a trend for home placements to be less successful. Windle (1962) found no difference between the outcomes of home and vocational placements, but he did

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observe that placements of all types who had had previous home leaves were generally less successful. Eagle (1967) reported that home placements had a slightly higher failure rate. One of the few studies finding a superiority for home placements was that of Tarjan et al. (1960), who found that the majority of such placements remained out for the entire 700 day follow-up period. Four different articles contained discussions regarding the reasons for failure of home placements. Several of J. S. Cohen’s (1960) subjects were functioning adequately in the community but presented management problems at home. According to Windle et al. (1961 ), antisocial behavior was a prime reason for failure. Tavris (1964) insisted that failure might not always be due to poor interpersonal relations, but may be due to uncontrollable environmental influences. In keeping with previous results, Eagle (1967) noted that almost two-thirds of the home placement failures reported in the literature were due to antisocial behavior, with adverse environmental influences and health problems accounting for another onefourth of the failures. c. Foster Home Placement This program involves placing a resident with a family other than his own, with the institution typically providing some modicum of supervisory responsibility. Most cases placed in foster homes are not capable of selfsupport, although the program has been used for interim placement. Hiatt (195 1 ) reported that foster care cases were older and less intelligent than vocational placements. In a comparison between homes leaves, vocational leaves, and family care, Tarjan et al. (1960) found that females and very young retardates were overrepresented in family care programs. In a survey of such programs, Morrissey (1966) discovered that sex was not usually used as a criterion for selection. Age was a criterion for 38% of the programs, although the particular age group favored varied, and higher-level retardates were usually preferred over the more severely retarded. Eagle (1967) reported that family care cases represented the youngest age group of any of the types of placements he considered. Apparently, this program has typically involved the extremes in terms of age and level of retardation. According to Morrissey (1966), foster home placement was viewed with a great deal of optimism in the 1930’s and 1 9 4 0 ’ ~but ~ the program has never been as extensive as originally envisioned. Although there are some recent indications of growing popularity, Morrissey indicated that only 5700 retardates ( 3 % of the institutional population) were involved in such programs in 1966, and that 68% of these were restricted to five states. Only 26 states have ever had a foster home program. Dingman, in his

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1968 AAMD Presidential Address, argued that research evidence is not conclusive enough to support a mass exodus of residents from institutions to foster homes. An additional problem, as noted by Appell et al. (1963), is that foster homes are extremely difficult to locate, especially for the adult retarded. In spite of Dingman's warnings, the available evidence indicates that foster home placements have at least as high a chance of success as do other placements. In a review of 36 studies conducted between 1941 and 1965, Eagle (1967) found a 39.5% failure rate for family care placements as compared to 42.3% for home leaves and 42.0% for vocational leaves. Possibly because of the highly skewed samples typical of family care populations, Hiatt ( 195 1 ) reported that females over age 65 were more successful, while S . J. Brown et al. (1959) found that residents under age 15 had the best chances of success. Brown et al. also found that a young age was favorable for males and for those institutionalized less than 5 years. Windle (1962) concluded that age may be curvilinearly related to success in family care placements because young adults may be more difficult to handle than the very young or the very old. Further, a long period of institutionalization may be favorable for custodial types of placements, such as family care. The most prominent reasons for failure of foster home placements have been discussed by several authors. Meyer (1951 ) indicated that illness of the caretaker was an important reason. Bishop (1957) emphasized the importance of behavior that was unacceptable in the foster home. According to Windle et al. (1961), lack of environmental support, poor health, and intolerable behavior have been the primary culprits. Windle (1962) also mentioned as factors the physical defects and health problems which often accompany the more severe levels of retardation. Finally, Eagle (1967) noted that in the studies he reviewed, adverse environmental factors led to more than one-third of the failures, with health problems and undesirable personal conduct also causing a number of failures.

d . Colony or Halfway House Placement G . R. Clark el al. (1968) described colony placement as a training program for later parole which is useful for those residents who require closer supervision than is possible in other types of placements. However, comparisons between residents placed in halfway houses and those placed directly into the community are necessary in order to make any definite conclusions concerning the effect that such an intermediate step has on later community adjustment. A few pieces of research have provided suggestive evidence, but firm conclusions are not possible. Tong and MacKay (1959) reported that residents placed in a transitional unit

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in the community were less likely to be reinstitutionalized or to commit a criminal offense than were others who were placed directly into the community. However, the authors did not provide information on the ultimate status of the former group, and if they remained under conditions of only partial freedom, the comparison between the two groups was not valid. In the only other relevant study, Appell et al. (1963) described a program involving a residential unit located in the community and concluded that the success of the unit was questionable. e. Group Placement Discussions concerning group versus individual placements created considerable controversy in the 1940’s and 1950’s. Group placements are very similar to colony or halfway house placements, except that group placements are usually considered to be a longer-lasting, if not permanent, type of placement. The discussants in the controversy were apparently not too eager to be identified with either position, since both the advantages and disadvantages of group placements were typically presented. Wardell (1946) described a program in which former residents were employed at a county hospital and lived on the grounds. The three major advantages were listed as: ( 1 ) group placement is a learning experience which will allow for more success if the client is later placed individually, (2) such a placement can serve as a necessary intermediate step between the institution and the community, and ( 3 ) some residents who would not be able to succeed on individual placements might have a better chance in a group placement. The major problem encountered was the necessity for a group rather than individual treatment in areas such as discipline, wages, and expenditure of money. Cate and Gegenheimer (1950) noted that with group placements, the temptations of the city are not as strong, the residents are less lonely, and they are able to provide much help to each other. According to Dearden (1951), the shared leisure time of a group is especially helpful, although she did caution that if any member of the group feels inferior he may compensate by causing trouble among the others. Shafter (1954) suggested that in group placements the retardates may not feel so out of place, but at the same time such a placement may actually interfere with assimilation into the community. Chandler and Shafter ( 1955) added some administrative advantages. Former residents can be counseled in groups, supervision is less time-consuming, and various social agencies may be more willing to assist a group of retardates than scattered, individually placed ones. A rather unique alternative was offered by Harms (1949) who described a cluster placement. The residents were placed in individual homes, which were close enough for regular social contacts.

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Not unexpectedly, Goldstein (1964) concluded that there was no objective data to support either position in the group versus individual placement controversy.

.

f. Escape Windle (1962) argued that the most reliable finding with regard to the release processs is that administration sanction of the release is associated with a higher level of community success. Studies which support this relationship include those by Hartzler (195 1, 1953), Wolfson (1956), Tarjan et al. ( 1960), and Madison (1964). For example, in the Wolfson study, 92% of the best adjusted group were released under a planned program, while only 30% of the unsuccessful subjects were similarly released. In the Madison study, staff concensus about the desirability of a placement was significantly related to success. Rosen (1967b) reasoned that one of the major factors accounting for the high success rate of his subjects was the gradual transition process from the institution to the community. Most more recent studies in which an attempt was made to compare the adjustment of escapees with subjects who had been released through other means do reveal a lower rate of success for escapees. Wolfson (1956) reported that only 8% of his best-adjusted group had escaped versus 43% of a less well-adjusted group. Other studies reported more adjustment problems for escapees than for those released through other means, including Kephart and Ainsworth (1938), Krishef (1959), and Shafter (1957). The one study failing to find such a relationship was that of Madison ( 1964). Two variables which have been examined with respect to escapees are sex and age. Males escape more often (e.g., Krishef, 1959; Tarjan et al., 1960) and, although Krishef found no difference in the success rates of male and female escapees, Tarjan et al. reported a tendency for female escapees to remain out of the institution longer. Kurtz and Wolfensberger (1969) noted that the highest escape rate is found in residents admitted during their adolescent years. Windle and Dingman (1959) reported that escapees tend to be younger than those released in conventional manners. Although Tarjan et al. (1960) stated that the length of time in the community before return was not greatly influenced by age, they did note that escapees over age 18 tended to stay out longer. However, Windle (1959) found no relationship between escapees’ ages and the probability they would remain out of the institution for a month.

5. COMMUNITY ATTITUDES As noted by Goldstein (1964), the relationship between community attitudes toward retardates and postinstitutional adjustment has been virtually ignored. In fact, the only meaningful discussions of this area (and

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these have been few) are found in the recent literature. Goldstein (1964) emphasized that there is a need to determine the community’s level of tolerance for various behaviors so that institutional training programs and the entire placement process can be made more effective. Kraus (1972) argued that adjustment is a two-way process. The mentally retarded must meet the demands of society, but society must also develop greater tolerance for the mentally retarded. At least three writers have implied that society is a long way from this goal. Two of these reported considerable community resistance to foster home placements program (Justice, Bradley, and O’Connor, 1971 ; Morrissey, 1966). Further, communities are often apathetic about providing services that would allow institutionalized retardates to return to the community. Interviews with foster home caretakers by Justice et al. (1971 ) revealed that the most frequently occurring problems were concerned with public misconceptions about retardates and a lack of community acceptance of the program. In analyzing the critical incidents which led to the reinstitutionalization of vocational placements, Goroff (1967) observed that the majority of incidents involving social behavior were inconsequential, i.e., a dual standard for retardates and normals, with less tolerance for deviation in retardates.

6. COMMUNITY SUPERVISION Some mention of the quality of supervision in the community was made in practically every study concerning postinstitutional adjustment. Not only has it been assumed that supervision is crucial for success (e.g., Badham, 1955; Krishef, 1959; Matthews, 1921; O’Connor, 1957), but some have implied that most former residents of institutions for the retarded require supervision throughout their lives (e.g., Dearden, 195 1 ; Gegenheimer, 1948, 1951; Shafter, 1954). Nevertheless, a few writers have suggested that released retardates do not require as much supervision as commonly thought. Wolfson (1956) argued that many of his subjects adjusted well on the basis of their own resources, indicating that continuous supervision might not be necessary. According to Kolstoe and Shafter (1961 ), retardates who have the freedom to make their own decisions tend to do better in the community. However, the small amount of objective data pertaining to this question tend to support the notion that most releases require extended supervision. The only study not finding such a relationship was that of Shafter (1957). His successful and unsuccessful subjects could not be distinguished by the amount of assistance received from relatives. On the other hand, the results of at least five studies suggest that the quality of supervision is extremely important. Rudolf (1950) found that 34% of a group of residents who failed on parole presented problems during their leisure hours as opposed

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to only 7% of a group of colony-placed residents and interpreted this finding as indicating the need for supervision during leisure hours. Hartzler (1953) found that more successful subjects had been oil parole (68 versus 34%) and that the average length of time that successful subjects spent on parole was longer (means of 3.8 versus 2.4 years). According to Krishef et al. (1959), 66% of their successful placements had good supervision in the community as compared to 28% of the failures. Edgerton (1967) rank-ordered his subjects on an independence-dependence continuum and concluded that very few of his subjects could have survived in the community without the aid of their supervisors. In a study of sexual problems after release, Floor et al. (1971 ) discovered that only 1 of 15 problem subjects was in a live-in employment situation as compared to 1 of 5 lowproblem subjects. In addition, about twice as many of the low-problem subjects had advocate-type supervisors. A few recent articles have gone into considerable detail regarding the type of supervision that should be provided and the characteristics which supervisors should possess (e.g., G. R. Clark et d., 1968; Edgerton, 1967; Justice et al., 1971). However at this point the variable of community supervision has not been properly controlled and clear conclusions cannot be drawn regarding its importance. Perhaps, as Kraus (1972) observed, such a goal is impossible or, at least, unethical. He feels that releasing residents into the community without supervision for research purposes would be an indefensible position. D.

Characteristics of the Subjects

This section is devoted to the individual characteristics, abilities, and disabilities of the institutionalized mentally retarded and how they relate to postinstitutional adjustment. The areas covered include: (1 ) age at release, (2) diagnosis, ( 3 ) race, (4) intellectual level, ( 5 ) academic ability, (6) personality, ( 7 ) personal appearance, and ( 8 ) physical handicaps. These attributes likely play an important role in a retardate’s ability to cope with the many demands placed upon him as he reenters the community. Notably absent from the above list is the variable of sex. Since the overall results of community placement will be analyzed for sex differences later in this paper, and since the relationship between sex and other variables is outlined in other sections, it will not be examined here. 1. AGE AT RELEASE Chronological age is very likely the most useful single bit of information about people, because of its strong relationship with so many physical and cognitive variables.

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Surveys have indicated that age is a common selection criterion for community placement (e.g., Morrissey, 1966; Shafter, 1954), and Dingman, Eyman, and Tarjan (1965) demonstrated that it is significantly related to the rate of release from institutions. Edgerton (1967) maintained that age is a better predictor of community adjustment than is intelligence. At least 10 studies have reported that older subjects were more successful, 5 have suggested that younger subjects exhibit better adjustment, and 9 have found that age did not differentiate between successful and unsuccessful cases. Those studies providing evidence that older subjects are more successful include Whitney (1948), Hamlett and Engle (1950), Hartzler (1951, 1953), Solomon (1955), Krishef et al. (1959), Appell et al. (1963), Jackson and Butler (1963), Tavris (1964), Song and Song (1969), and Floor etal. (1971). A number of additional studies suggest a negative relationship between age and adjustment (e.g., A. Clark & Foster, 1970; Eagle, 1967; Goldstein, 1964; Kolstoe, 1961; Macmillan, 1962). Ten other studies revealed either no difference between age groups or complex interactions. Barrett, Relos, and Eisele (1965), Krishef (1959), Madison (1964), and Shafter (1957) all reported no relationship between age and outcome. In Stanley and Gunzburg’s (1957) study, females in the 16-20 age range had a high failure rate (73% ) as compared to 29% of the males the same age. However, in the 21-25 age range, the failure rate was about the same for both sexes (33%). The results of the S. J. Brown et al. (1959) study suggest some extremely complex interactions. Age was predictive of outcome only for those who had been institutionalized for a short period of time and for males. Under these conditions, those under age 15 had better outcomes than older subjects. Tarjan et al. (1960) stated that the length of stay in the community before return to the institution was not greatly affected by age at release, although younger age groups did best on home leaves, adolescents did best on family care, and escapees over age 18 tended to remain out longer than younger escapees. In the G. R. Clark ef al. (1968) study, age emerged from a list of predictor variables as an independent factor, but it was not significantly correlated with any of the 22 criteria of adjustment. The authors interpreted their results as indicating that young residents probably have to be exceptionally competent in order to be selected for release. Finally, Kraus (1972) found that the rate of “jobs left” increased with age, while the rate of “absconding from supervision” decreased with age. Windle (1962) concluded that for most types of placements (excepting family care), the older the retardate is, up to some as yet unspecified age, the greater are his chances of success in the community. Although he did an admirable job in pointing out the weaknesses and confounding factors

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in the studies that did not support this conclusion, he did not attempt to pick apart the studies that did support it. The end result is that the influence of age on postinstitutional adjustment remains uncertain. 2. DIAGNOSIS At the time of Windle’s (1962) review, the diagnostic labels of undiflerentiated and familial were still in fairly widespread use. These terms were later superceded by cultural-familial retardation, and this term has since been dropped (Grossman, 1973) and “Due to Environmental Influences” substituted. Most of the retarded described by these labels are mildly retarded and are without identifiable organic pathology. In all probability, they represent the bulk of those who have been examined in studies on postinstitutional adjustment (e.g., Kramer, Person, Tarjan, Morgan, & Wright, 1957). Although Doll (1946) argued that the endogenous retarded are more likely to adjust successfully in the community than exogenous cases, there has been no experimental support for this notion. Further, no studies to date have convincingly demonstrated that residents of any diagnostic category are more or less successful than those in other categories (e.g., S. J. Brown et al., 1959; J. Cohen, 1947; Krishef, 1959; Popenoe, 1927); Potter & McCollister, 1925; Shafter, 1957; Tarjan et al., 1960; Windle, 1962).

3. RACIAL AND ETHNICGROUPDIFFERENCES Surprisingly little research has been concerned with differences in the postinstitutional adjustment of various racial and ethnic groups. Even mention of their relative proportions in the samples is rare. In a comparison of a control group with former residents who were later imprisoned, Pense (1943) found that 63% of the Negroes as opposed to 47% of the Caucasians were later imprisoned. However, this finding was not statistically significant and likely reflects the general finding that blacks are more likely to be apprehended for criminal activity. Windle (1962) found no signiEcant differences in outcome for Blacks, Chicanos, and Anglos, and the differences that did exist were in favor of the minority groups. Song and Song (1969) found that Caucasians were rated as being superior in job efficiency, but this variable lost its predictive significance when weighed with other variables in a multiple regression analysis.

4. INTELLECTUAL LEVEL In practically every study concerning postinstitutional adjustment, the researchers either examined the relationship between intellectual level and outcome or made some comment as to its relative importance. Many have

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stressed that other factors such as age, personality, work skills, etc., are more important than intelligence (e.g., Badham, 1955; Collmann & Newlyn, 1956; Craib & Woodward, 1958; Edgerton, 1967; Hiatt, 1951; O’Connor, 1954; O’Connor & Tizard, 1951; Stanley & Gunzburg, 1957; Tavris, 1964). Nevertheless, intelligence (as measured by standard intelligence tests) has consistently been one of the most widely used selection criteria for release (e.g., Eagle, 1967; Goldstein, 1964; Hartzler, 1953; Kramer et al., 1957; Morrissey, 1966; Shafter, 1954; Tarjan & Benson, 1953; Windle, 1962). Over the years, researchers have warned that the typical institutional resident has a lower IQ than residents of previous years (e.g., Hopwood, 1946; Windle, 1962; Wissman, 1946; Wolfensberger, 1971) and as a result placement programs should become oriented more toward severely retarded residents. One might wonder why extensive program modification is necessary in view of the inconsistent findings with regard to intelligence and outcome. A positive relationship between level of intelligence and adjustment has been reported in at least 12 studies and suggestive evidence is provide in 7 more. However, 13 studies have reported no correlation and 1 even reported a negative relationship. The following studies indicated that residents with higher IQs exhibit superior adjustment: Hamlett and Engle (1950), Solomon (1955), Collmann and Newlyn (1956), Grant (1956), Craib and Woodward (1958), Jackson and Butler (1963), Krishef et al. (1959), Goldstein (1964), Madison (1964), Tavris (1964), G. R. Clark et al. (1968), and Shaarbrevik (1971). A number of other studies have provided suggestive evidence concerning the relationship between adjustment and intelligence, including Song and Song (1969), A. Clark and Foster (1970), Gibson and Fields (1970), Appell et d. (1963), Krishef (1959), Barrett et al. (1965), and Edgerton ( 1967). The largest number of studies concerning the effect of intelligence on community adjustment have found no meaningful relationship (e.g., Bae, 1968; D. L. Brown, 1952; S. J. Brown et al., 1959; Charles & McGrath, 1962; Elkin, 1968; Floor et al., 1971; Kolstoe, 1961; Kraus, 1972; Krishef & Hall, 1955; Shafter, 1957; Tarjan & Benson, 1953; Tarjan et d.,1960; Wolfson, 1956). Finally, at least one recent researcher has found that more successful subjects had lower IQs. In her first study, Hartzler (1951 ) found that successful females had lower IQs (means of 71 versus 80). However, in a more complete analysis (Hartzler, 1953), this difference shrank (means of 70 and 75, respectively). Windle (1962) concluded that statements concerning the effects of intelligence on adjustment are confounded because researchers have not

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Ronald B. McCarver and Ellis M . Craig

controlled other important variables. He noted particularly that higher level, institutionalized retardates arc more likely to be delinquent-prone and to have various personality problems. Were these variables held constant, it is likely that intelligence would be positively related to adjustment. Further, the terms successful and unsuccessful do not give a clear picture of the various levels of adjustment that are possible. For example, several authors have noted that the degree of supervision given may vary by level of retardation and that higher-level residents are usually expected to perform more complex types of work in the community (e.g., Kolstoe 1961; Kolstoe & Shafter, 1961; White, 1955). It should also be noted that most of the above studies involved a very restricted range of intelligence. In fact Eagle (1967) reported only about 1.3% of the subjects successfully placed in studies conducted between 1918 and 1960 were in the custodial category (IQ below 25).

5. ACADEMIC ABILITY Several writers have noted that most institutionalized retardates are especially weak in academic skills (e.g., Rosen, 1967b; Windle, 1962), and, although a few have argued that academic weaknesses are not particularly important (e.g., White, 1955), most have stressed that at least some minimal level of academic ability is necessary for assimilation into the community (e.g., Edgerton, 1967; OBrien, 1952). Gunzburg (1957) agreed that academic weaknesses can create problems in adjustment, but argued that to prolong institutionalization simply to continue educational training would create more problems than it would solve. Relatively little research has been directed toward the influence of academic ability on postinstitutional adjustment, and the little that has been done has not been extremely informative. In three studies, results were obtained suggesting that at least some aspects of academic ability are positively related to community adjustment. Krishef ( 1959) found no relationship between educational level and outcome for the entire sample. However, in an attempt to interpret the finding that rural placements did better than urban ones, he suggested that formal education may receive less emphasis in rural areas. Jackson and Butler (1963) reported that successful subjects had a higher level of educational achievement than unsuccessful ones (mean reading grade levels of 4.5 versus 4.0 and mean arithmetic grade levels of 4.5 versus 4.1 ) . However, these variables were not significant predictors in a multiple regression analysis. The only strong results were obtained by Gibson and Fields ( 1 970) ; the mean educational level of successful subjects was fifth grade while that of unsuccessful subjects was second grade.

PLACEMENT OF THE RETARDED IN THE COMMUNITY

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On the other hand, a number of studies have indicated no relationship at all between various indexes of academic ability and postinstitutional adjustment (e.g., A. Clark & Foster, 1970; G. R. Clark et al., 1968; Kolstoe, 1961; Madison, 1964; Shafter, 1957; Skaarbrevik, 1971). On the basis of the above studies, it would seem that the level of academic achievement is not strongly related to community success, if at all. However, it is still possible that some minimal level of academic skills is necessary. The available studies do not answer this question; most of the subjects represented had some academic skills due to various release criteria. 6. PERSONALITY Even the earliest researchers stressed the importance of personality factors to postinstitutional adjustment (e.g., 0. H. Cobb, 1923; McPherson, 1935; Raymond, 1923). Numerous more recent writers have emphasized that without an “adequate” personality, the chances for success are extremely limited (e.g., Badham, 1955; Coakley, 1945, Hiatt, 1951; OBrien, 1952; O’Connor, 1954). Thus, it is not surprising that the personality of a resident has consistently been an important selection criterion for release (e.g., Goldstein, 1964; Shafter, 1954; Windle, 1962). In addition, personality factors are among the most commonly mentioned reasons for failure on community placement (e.g., Appell et d., 1963; Collmann & Newlyn, 1956; Craft, 1958; Craib & Woodward, 1958; Edgerton, 1967; White, 1955; Windle et a[., 1961). Given the fact that most writers have perceived personality variables as being extremely important, it would be expected that there are ample research results to support this point. However, little objective research has been conducted concerning the relationship between personality and outcome. Windle (1962) strongly objected to a lack of adequate measures of personality and the failure of researchers to cross-validate their own findings or those of others. In view of these limitations, the following results suggesting a positive relationship between the adequacy of a resident’s personality and outcome on community placement should be considered as only suggestive findings. Hamlett and Engle (1950) administered a test called the Mental Health Analysis to their subjects and found significant differences on 4 of 10 subtests, indicating that successful placements had more adequate personalities. However, the differences were slight and the validity of the test for use with the retarded has been questioned. O’Connor and Tizard (1951) reported that measures of instability were superior to IQ in predicting occupational success. Astrachan (1955) found that only 14% of a group of retardates who had received group

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Ronald B. McCarver and Ellis M . Craig

psychotherapy had to be reinstitutionalized as opposed to 38% of a group which had not received therapy. Solomon (1955) in an analysis of performance on the Rorschach, found that the presence of “human” content significantly distinguished successful from unsuccessful placements. Fry (1956) employed a scale in which personality was measured in terms of bipolar adjectives such as pleasantness-unpleasantness and reported a trend for such ratings to distinguish between satisfactory and unsatisfactory workers (p < . l o ) . In Shafter’s (1957) study, each subject was given a psychometric examination during which the examiner rated him in terms of cooperation, affect, and autocriticism. Although successful subjects tended to receive higher ratings, such ratings were not available for 80% of the subjects. Reynolds and Stunkard (1960) used an adjective checklist with positive and negative personality qualities, as well as a behavioral rating scale, to predict adjustment. This index correctly predicted 73% of the successful and 74% of the unsuccessful cases. Skaarbrevik ( 1971 ) found that subjects with emotional handicaps were significantly less successful than others. In spite of Windle’s (1962) assertion, relatively few of the studies in which attempts were made to objectively relate personality and outcome have been negative in nature. Further, those studies not finding personality differences between successes and failures have not been extremely convincing. Sloan (1948) administered the Rorschach to subjects either after they had returned from an unsuccessful placement or during a successful placement and the results did not confirm his original seven hypotheses. Madison (1964) reported that a history of psychiatric diagnosis was not related to community success. As noted by Windle (1962) there is a need for better and more consistent definitions of personality variables before the role of this factor in community adjustment can be adequately assessed. Further, alternate approaches to the measurement of personality variables in retardates need to be developed. A potentially useful approach might be that employed by Stephens, Peck, and Veldman (1968) in which personality profiles were developed through factor analysis of a large number of personality measures. 7. PERSONAL APPEARANCE Although the personal appearance of a retardate is often considered an important factor in his community adjustment (e.g., Badham, 1955; Edgerton, 1967; O’Brien, 1952) and has sometimes been used as a selection criterion for release (e.g., Appell et al., 1963; Goldstein, 1964; Shafter, 1954), little objective research has been conducted concerning its relationship to placement outcome. Perhaps, as in Rosen’s (1967b)

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175

study, this has been due to the fact that few subjects have had major problems in this area. Nevertheless, three studies have indicated that a good personal appearance is positively related to success, while a fourth found no correlation. Craft (1958) reported that 8% of the failures in his sample were due to poor personal hygiene. In the Krishef et al. (1959) study, 72% of the successful subjects were described as being well-groomed as opposed to only 43% of the unsuccessful subjects. Kolstoe (1961) stated that the retardates in his study with a better physical appearance were more likely to be employed. On the other hand, Shafter (1957) found that neither ratings of neatness, cleanliness, nor personal appearance were significantly correlated with community success. 8. PHYSICAL HANDICAPS

There is considerable evidence that handicapped residents have been released, but they have not received much experimental attention. For example, Hartzler ( 1953 ) eliminated crippled cases because they could not possibly care for themselves and thus did not fit the purposes of her study. Shafter’s (1954) survey indicated that the physical condition of a resident is a fairly common selection criterion for release for certain types of placement programs, and Windle (1962) noted that the handicapped residents who are released probably have compensating qualities in other areas. In view of such careful selection, one might expect that the physically handicapped would be as successful, or even more so, than the nonhandicapped in their community adjustment. The results of at least seven studies support this conclusion. For example, Tarjan and Benson (1953) stated that epileptic residents, in contrast to earlier views, are suitable candidates for parole. No supporting data were presented, however. In Madison’s (1964) study, neither deformities nor physical limitations distinguished successful from unsuccessful subjects, although the author did note that only cases in relatively good health were likely to be released. Rosen (1967b) reported that 12% of his subjects had some gross physical anomaly, and that as a group, these subjects were adequately adjusted in the community. Other studies indicating that handicapped retardates are relatively successful include those of Rudolf ( 1950), Collmann and Newlyn (1956), and Stanley and Gunzburg (1957). However, the results of six other studies tentatively suggest that handicapped retardates may be less successful than their nonhandicapped peers. D. L. Brown (1952), Badham (1955), and O’Connor (1957) all listed physical problems as important reasons for failure in their sam-

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Ronald B. McCarver and Ellis M . Craig

ples. Reynolds and MacEachern (1956) reported that the presence of physical defects did not significantly distinguish between successes and failures, but that there was a tendency for succesful subjects to have fewer defects, Although the differences were not statistically significant Krishef el al. (1959) found that 84% of the successful placements had no handicaps versus 74% of the failures. Minor handicaps were present in 10% of the former and 14% of thc latter, while severe handicaps were present in 6% of the former and 11% of the latter. Finally, Skaarbrevik (1971) noted that unsuccessful cases were more likely to suffer from physical handicaps. 9. VOCATIONAL SKILLS Retardates have more frequently been indicted for their lack of proper work attitudes than for their ability per se (e.g., Collmann & Newlyn, 1956; Edgerton, 1967; Gegenheimer, 195I ). In fact, several writers have carefully pointed out that lack of competence was not a major reason for failure in thcir samples (e.g., J. S. Cohen, 1960; Craft, 1958; Edgerton, 1967; Kolstoe & Shafter, 1962; Stanley and Gunzburg, 1957). However, others have argued that lack of vocational skills is a major cause of failure (e.g., Eagle, 1967; White, 1955; Windle et d.,1961). Although vocational skills are often used as a selection criterion for release (e.g., Shafter, 1954) and there is at least partial consensus that work ability is positively correlated with outcome of community placement, there has been little research concerning the relationship between vocational ability and community success. In addition, the measures of ability employed in the few studies that have attempted to evaluate this factor have been quite variable. Nevertheless, most studies have supported the assumption that vocational ability is positively correlated with success. In an attempt to predict work success, Fry (1956) rated retarded employees on the mechanics of a given job adaptability, and initiative and was able to distinguish between satisfactory and unsatisfactory workers on this basis. Shafter (1957) found that quality of work performance significantly distinguished between successful and unsuccessful subjects. According to Kolstoe ( 1961) , his successful subjects were consistently superior on various types of performance tasks, in their understanding and quality of work, and in initiative. Barrett et al. (1965) reported that successful subjects had more adequate attitudes. Song and Song (1969) evaluated the prognostic value of 18 cognitive, work, personality, and demographic variables and found that intellectual and work habit variables were the most important predictors. Rosen et al. (1970) interpreted their results as suggesting that ratings of vocational skills and employment potential

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177

are better predictors of community adjustment than are ratings of social functioning or interpersonal relationships. 10. PSYCHOMOTOR MEASURES As noted by Windle (1962), measures of physical ability have high face validity as predictors of vocational adjustment. Although one can consider the performance IQ on the Wechsler scales or scores on various performance-oriented intelligence tests as psychomotor measures, more refined indexes of motor ability are usually absent from follow-up studies. The few studies which have attempted to relate psychomotor measures to vocational adjustment have obtained promising results, suggesting that this approach might be profitably used in future studies. O’Connor and Tizard ( 1951 ) administered a battery of intelligence aptitude, locomotor, and personality tests to their sample and obtained a multiple correlation of .67 between the test battery and employability. In a second study (O’Connor & Tizard, 1956), they reported that an instability rating and a measure of manual dexterity were the best predictors of work adjustment. In Kolstoe’s (1961) study, each subject was given 14 vocational evaluation tasks and successful workers were consistently superior in tasks involving assembly, sorting, manipulation, packaging, and the use of hand tools. However, the results of two more recent studies are less promising. G. R. Clark et al. (1968) reported that the scores on neither the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test (Turning), the Purdue Pegboard, nor the Wells Concrete Direction Test were correlated with any of the 22 criteria of adjustment. Elkin (1968) attempted to cross-validate the significant findings he had obtained in an earlier experiment involving sheltered workshop clients with community placed retardates. The measures used included the OConnor Finger Dexterity Test, the Bennett Hand Tool Dexterity Test, the Purdue Pegboard, Hand Assembly, and Tool Assembly, and only the O’Connor Finger Dexterity Test was significantly related to job performance in the second experiment. Considerably more studies have evaluated the relationship between intelligence test performance measures and community adjustment, with the primary focus of attention being the discrepancy between verbal and performance measures of intelligence. A common clinical observation, probably originated by Jastak (1934), is that high performance ability is prognostically more favorable than high verbal ability. The results of several early studies lend some credence to this assumption (e.g., Bijou, 1944; Earl, 1940; Roberts, 1945). However, at least five more recent studies (A. Clark & Foster, 1970; Jackson & Butler, 1963; Kolstoe, 1961;

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Ronald B. McCarver and Ellis M . Craig

Rosen, Floor, & Baxter, 1972; Windle, 1962) have failed to confirm the hypothesis that nonverbal skills are more important than verbal skills. All of these reported no significant relationship between performance IQ and vocational success. 11. SOCIALSKILLS Although early researchers of postinstitutional adjustment were obviously concerned with the social skills of their subjects, very few attempted to treat social skills as an independent variable, and those that did usually confounded these skills with personality factors. In recent years, however, there has been considerable research interest in the social skills of released residents. Kolstoe and Shafter (1961) pointed out that social skills are often overlooked in assessing success and failure. Rosen (1967a) also suggested that social skills can be reasonably used as a criterion of adjustment, and that there is a definite need for a test of practical social skills and information. Edgerton (1967), Rosen (1967b), Eagle (1967), and Goroff (1967) all have voiced similar sentiments. Objective data indicating that social skills are related to success in the community is provided in at least four studies. Krishef et al. (1959) compared successful and unsuccessful subjects with regard to their social relationships and found that 81% of the former were rated as being adequate in this area as compared to only 31% of the latter. Subjects receiving a poor social skills rating included 19% of the successes and 69% of the failures. Charles and McGrath (1962) compared both staff and peer rating of the social competence of successful, borderline, and unsuccessful community placements. The ratings given by both groups were significantly correlated with level of adjustment. Of all the predictor variables examined in the Gibson and Fields (1970) study, expert prediction was the most potent. However, two other variables taken together (IQ and social skill level) were just as powerful. Finally, in a Norwegian study, Skaarbrevik ( 1971 ) reported a significant negative correlation between the presence of social handicaps and success in the community. However, the fact that the exact relationship between social skills and community adjustment is not fully understood is underscored by nonsignificant findings obtained in two other studies. G. R. Clark et al. (1968) reported no significant correlations between ratings on an Interpersonal Relations Scale and any of the 22 criteria of adjustment, and Elkin (1968) found that performance on a Social Knowledge Scale was not a significant predictor variable for job performance in the community, although it was significant in a sheltered workshop setting.

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179

12. STERILIZATION

A commonly expressed concern over the years with regard to released retardates has been their potential for having children. Apprehension over this possibility was especially prevalent in the early 1900’s during the eugenic scare period (Sarason & Doris, 1969) when it was believed that the proportion of retardates in the population was on the increase. Many professionals believed that this trend could be counteracted by segregation and mass sterilization of the retarded. Although such beliefs are not as strongly held today, some remnants of this earlier attitude persist. A number of early articles included comments favoring the sterilization of retardates (e.g., Kaplun, 1935; Little & Johnson, 1932; Potter & McCollister, 1926; McPherson, 1935; Popenoe, 1927). As recently as 1954, Shafter concluded that sterilization was a very common selection criterion for release on the basis of a nationwide survey. In one of the more recent expressions of this attitude, Goldstein (1964) stated that there is little doubt that sterilization facilitates the community adjustment of retardates who tend to have sexual problems. He did acknowledge that the evangelistic fervor of some early researchers was perhaps not warranted. Other recent writers have been less than enthusiastic about the value of sterilization. Windle (1962) pointed out that both genetic and sociological research indicates that little change in the prevalence of mental retardation has resulted from sterilization practices. He also criticized many of the earlier stddies in this area for being more propagandistic than scientific, and further suggested that sterilization may only be of historical interest since it is not carried out much at present. Goldstein (1964), however, reported that it is an established procedure in 30 states. Edgerton (1967) also indicated that it was a routine procedure for his subjects before they were released, are noted that it adversely affected feelings of self-esteem. Evidently, throughout the years some institutional personnel have not been in favor of sterilization. Kurtz and Wolfensberger (1969) noted that up until 1962 Nebraska had a law prohibiting the discharge of residents unless they were sterilized or beyond the reproductive age. Rather than subjecting all residents suitable for discharge to sterilization, they were simply carried on a parole basis, indefinitely. The results of research comparing the success rates of sterilized and nonsterilized placements are not clear. The findings of two early studies (Johnson, 1946; Little & Johnson, 1932) suggest that sterilized subjects are more successful, while two more recent studies (Madison, 1964; Shafter, 1957) reveal no significant differences.

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Ronald B. McCarver and Ellis M . Craig

Windle’s (1962) conclusion that the effects of sterilization on postinstitutional adjustment have not been studied adequately enough to permit a reasonable interpretation still appears appropriate.

IV. GENERAL INTEGRATION OF FINDINGS

What are the overall results of community placement of graduates from residential facilities for the retarded? In view of the numerous methodological problems associated with research in this area, no definite answer is possible. However, in the following sections we will attempt to do two things: ( 1 ) provide an estimate of the success rate of community placements and (2) describe typical adjustment patterns in a number of critical areas. A.

Overall Success Rate

An estimate of the success rate of community placements over the years can be obtained by ignoring the numerous differences between studied and accepting the findings as they stand. However, one still must reconcile the different classifications of adjustment as reported by various researchers, e.g., successful and unsuccessful in one study versus successful, borderline, and unsuccessful in another. Popenoe’s solution in 1927 was to divide borderline groups equally, considering one-half as successful and one-half as unsuccessful. In his review, Eagle (1967) concerned himself primarily with the cases listed as definite failures. Partial successes, partial failures, and the undefined categories were not considered as failures. Although this approach appears to have some merit, it has not escaped criticism. G. R. Clark et al. (1968) argued that it leads to a biased interpretation of the data because the criteria of adjustment varied widely from study to study. As a partial resolution to this problem, the results can be analyzed on the basis of a consistent criterion. The most logical such criterion is return to an institution, which is defined as return to the rclcasing institution or any other recognized institution, e.g., another institution for the retarded, a correctional facility, and a mental hospital. Many studies included this as one of the criteria of adjustment, and several used it as the sole criterion. The results of these 44 studies are summarized in Table I. The median success rate (i.e., remaining in the community) for the 44 studies is 74%. This figure does not take into account the different

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PLACEMENT OF THE RETARDED IN THE COMMUNITY

sample sizes of the various studies. The mean success rate, based on all 9 1 16 subjects, is 69 % . Only 24 of the studies provided sufficient data to make a similar analysis for males alone. In these, both the median and mean success rates is 73%. The 22 studies which provided similar information for females yielded a median of 74% successes and a mean of 66%. The next obvious step was to analyze the results over time to determine if the success rates have changed over the years. However, taking any given unit of time, e.g., a decade, the number of studies conducted and the number of subjects involved varied markedly. For example, for the period 1930-1939, only three studies and 386 subjects are represented in Table I as compared to 15 studies and 3663 subjects for the period 1950-1959. Although not a perfect solution, some appreciation for temporal factors can be obtained by grouping the studies chronologically, and, at the same time, keeping the number of studies constant. One such classification system involves four groups of 1 1 studies each: The first group covers the period 1918-1935; the second covers 1935-1954; the third covers 1954-1960; and the last group covers the period 1960 to the present. The mean success rates for these four periods are illustrated in Figure 1 . Two different factors could be responsible for the peak success rate during the 1935-1954 period. First, this period included the war years

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FIG. 1. Mean success rate on community placement as a function of time.

Ronald B. McCarver and Ellis M . Craig

182

TABLE I

COMMUNITY SUCCESSOF RESIDENTSR E I ~ E A S EFROM D INSTITUTIONS FOR T H E RETARDED B M E D ON THE CRITERION OF RETURN TO A N INSTITUTION

Study Wallace (1918) Males Females Tot a1 Fernald (1919) Males Females Total Matthews (1921) Males Fem ales Total Raymond (1923) Males Females Total Potter and McCollister (1926) Males Females Total Popenoe (1927) Males Females Totnl Schroeder and Bartelme (1928) Males Females Total Folcy (1929) Males Females Total Town (1931) Males Females Total Little and Johnson (1932) Males Females Total

Number Number returned released and to an Number located institution not located"

Length of follow-up 2 weeks to 34 months

30 55 85

1 12 13

416 152 568

143 62 205

100

5

100

5

78 128 206

10 20 30

107 171 278

16 86 102

3

107 394 411

29 105 134

37 71 108

1 month t o 26 years 279 10 months to 5 years

Lcss than 6 years

2

Lcss than 6 years

1

A few weeks to over 10 years At lenst 1 year u p to 4 years

79

20

375 261 636

139 79 218

88 48 136

23

u p to 20 years 222

2-7 years 50 63 113

10

7

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PLACEMENT OF THE RETARDED IN THE COMMUNITY

TABLE I (Continued)

Study McPherson (193.5) Males Females Total Wearne (1942) Males Females Total F. 0. Butler (1945) Males Females Total Johnson (1946) Males Females Total Wardell (1946) Males Females Total J. Cohen (1947) Males Females Total Harms (1949) Males Females Total Hamlett and Engle

Number Number returned released and to an Number located institution not locateda

Length of follow-up u p to 11 years

34 103 137

7 27 34

15 28 43

7 2 9

145 2 147

0 0 0

100 120 220

18 21 39

12 13 25

26

6

0

26

6

0

6 7 13

u p to 10 years

10-20 years

1-10 years

Up to 15 years

33 46 79

26

10 4 14

0 1 1

17 46 63

13 14 27

0 0 0

(1950)

Males Females Total Dearden (1951) Males Females Total Hiatt (1951) Males Fernales Total D. L. Brown (1952) Males Females Total D. Cobb (1954) Males Females Total

1-5 years 78

1

12

4-6 years 105

49

184 184

26

838

10

2

(Continued

Ronald B. McCarver and Ellis M. Craig

184

TABLE I (Continued) Number Number returned to an Number released and located institution not located"

Study

Length of follow-up

~

Shachoy (1954) hlales Females Total Solomon (1955) Males Females Total White (1955) Males Females Total Stanley and Gunzburg (1957) Males Females Total Wolfson (1956) Males Females Tot a1 Bishop (1957) Males Females Total Shafter (1957) Males Females Total S. J. Brown el a/. (1959) Males Fem ales Total Krishef ( 1 959) Males Females Total Krishef et al. (1959) Males E'eirinles Total J. S. Cohen (1960) Males Females Total Tarjan el al. (1960) Males Females Total

18

2

18

2

21 31 52

10 12 22

8 months

up to 10 years

700

150

101 103 204

37 47 84

89 119 208

28 13 41

4-7 years

8 years

3 12 15 2-13 years

274

85

75 130 205

36 58 94

Up to 6 years

4 years 164

77 3-7 years

161

29 4-14 years

409

183

19s

53 20 73

82

Up to 4 years

700 days 1006

576

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PLACEMENT OF THE RETARDED IN THE COMMUNITY

TABLE I (Continued)

Study

Pense, Patton, Camp, and Kebalo (1961) Males Females Total Windle (1962) Males Females Total Appell el al. (1963) Males Females Total Jackson and Butler (1963) Males Females Total Liu (1963) Males Females Total Madison (1964) Males Females Total Tavris (1964) Males Females Total Edgerton (1967) Males Females Total G. It. Clark el al. (1968) Males Females Total Wolfson (1956) Males Females Total a

Number Number returned released and to an Number located institution not located"

22

17

Length of follow-up

25 4 years

357

211

7

Up to 2 yeara 22

22

6

98 98

16 16

60

23

21 8 29

7 5 12

44 63 107

28 47 75

0

2-11 years

20 28 48

3

12

Up to 4 y e w 53 12 65

0 0 0

66 97 163

11 10 21

63 20 yeam

Missing entries indicate no information available.

103

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Ronald B. McCarver and Ellis M . Craig

when there was an extreme labor shortage. Thus, the mentally retarded may have had an easier time vocationally than during the preceding or following years. Second, in comparison to the 1918-1935 period, there was less emphasis on eugenics. Whereas Potter and McCollister (1926) reported that some of their subjects were returned because of a normal interest in the opposite sex, society may have been more tolerant during the 1935-1954 period. The marked decrease in success rates since 1954 is open to many interpretations. Several authors have reported that the intelligence quotients of typical institutional residents have decreased over the years (e.g., Windle, 1962). Perhaps those who were followed up in these later studies had less potential than those released in earlier years. Others have noted that society has become increasingly complex in recent years (e.g., Skaarbrevik, 1971 ). Rehabilitation programs have improved, but the increased urbanization of society may have, nevertheless, resulted in a more demanding environment. Finally, we might simply be finding more failures due to increasingly more sophisticated tracking methods. Although there has been a tendency for males to be more successful than females over the years, the results are neither consistent nor very strong. These data are illustrated in Fig. 2. Twenty of the studies included in Table I included comparisons be-

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1918-1935

1936- I953

1954-1959

1960-1970

DATES OF STUDIES

FIO.2. Mean success rate for males and females on community placement as a function of time.

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PLACEMENT OF THE RETARDED IN THE COMMUNITY

tween males and females. Ten of these reported a higher success rate for males, seven reported greater success for females, and three found no difference between the sexes. A rather interesting sociological finding is reflected in Fig. 3. Male releases outnumbered female releases during the 1918-1935 period, but since that time female releases have shown an increasing tendency to outnumber males. The emphasis placed on eugenic concerns during the 1918-1935 period was probably responsible for the favoring of males. The selection bias in favor of females in more recent years may be due to the greater availability of live-in employment for females (e.g., Shafter, 1954). B.

Community Adjustment

In the previous section a successful placement was defined as one which does not require reinstitutionalization. This was done in order to compare the overall results of a large number of studies. Now, the mode of life of retardates placed into the community will be explored in a number of critical areas. Since many of these areas have been used as criteria of adjustment, comparisons between successful and unsuccessful placements and with relevant control groups will be emphasized when possi-

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MALES FEMALES

8 -----.----..‘.

‘e-

-

-L

----*

0

40-

FIG.3.

Proportion of male versus female releases over time.

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Ronald B. McCarver and Ellis M . Craig

ble. However, most of the information presented will, of necessity, simply be descriptive. 1. LIVINGENVIRONMENT A number of researchers have included the quality of the living environment as one of the criteria of adjustment. For example, Rosen (1967a) included type of residence and amount of rent as criteria, G. R. Clark et al. (1968) considered the former residents’ satisfaction with their living quarters, and Kraus (1972) used residential stability as one of his criteria. Several others have described the typical living situations of their subjects. According to Edgerton (1967), his study represented the first attempt to systematically study the everyday lives of adult retardates placed in the community from an institution. Of his 48 subjects, 10 were living in an urban commercial area or slum, 8 were in boarding houses in an urban area, 16 were in low-income residential areas, and 3 were transients. Of his subjects, 22 lived in houses, 13 in apartments, 8 in rooms at their place of employment, 2 in hotel rooms, 2 in trailers, and 2 in their parents’ homes. The furnishings in most of these quarters were described as old and inexpensive and the dwelling itself was typically run down, although most were neat and clean. Of Rosen’s (1967b) subjects, 68% were living in rented apartments, and he indicated that their housekeeping was adequate and that most were satisfied with their living arrangements. In a more comprehensive analysis involving many of the same subjects, G . R. Clark et al. (1968) described the living arrangements in detail in a manner similar to that of Edgerton ( 1967). The results of five studies have been taken as support that the living environment is an important factor in community adjustment (e.g., Windle, 1962). Abcl (1940) and Harold’s (1955) studies have often been mentioned, but their evidence is far from convincing. In fact, Harold‘s study only involved subjects who were relatively well-adjusted in the community. Camp and Waite (1932) reported that four subjects who made extreme gains in IQ were living in very adequate homes. However, these homes were not compared with those of other subjects. Finally, Hartzler (1953) reported that her successful females were more likely to have returned to a favorably rated home (82 versus 45%) . Eagle (1967) indicated that the influence of the living environment may vary as a function of the type of placement. In his review of the literature, he noted that more than one-third of the failures in foster home placements were due to adverse environmental influences. This also appeared to be an important factor in home placement failures, but

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was of little importance in vocational placements. Exactly why such a relationship might exist is not clear. 2. TYPEOF EMPLOYMENT In examining the literature on the types of jobs typically held by retardates, some historical trends become evident. Both Gegenheimer (1948) and Goldstein (1964) observed that at the time of Fernald’s (1919) classic study, society in general was not extremely complex and retardates were assimilated into the community rather easily. Fewer jobs were available in the following years because of technological advances. Most females were placed in domestic jobs in private homes or institutions and males worked on farms or did routine industrial work (e.g., Little & Johnson, 1932; Matthews, 1921; Schroeder & Bartelme, 1928). A live-in employment situation was considered ideal. The labor shortage during the war years, however, resulted in wider job opportunities (e.g., Coakley, 1945; Dearden, 1951; Hegge, 1944). Di Michael (1967) pointed out that rehabilitation programs have been growing in scope since World War 11. In spite of assertions by some authors (e.g., Goldstein, 1964) that the occupational outlook for retardates is not encouraging, both Di Michael (1967) and Nixon (1970) have argued otherwise. Both of the latter authors stressed the continuing, and possibly growing, availability of various service-oriented jobs that would be suitable for retardates. There has been relatively little research concerning possible influences that the type of job obtained in the community might have an adjustment, and the validity of the few findings which are reported is often questionable. Badham ( 1955 ) indicated that unsuitability of employment was a factor in a few failures, although it was not a common cause. OConnor (1957) stated that former residents working in a factory setting were more successful than those in other types of jobs. However, the finding was only of borderline significance, and many other factors could have influenced the results. A few researchers have used type of employment as a criteria of adjustment (e.g., Bijou, 1944; G. R. Clark et al., 1968; Coakley, 1945). Evidently, many others have considered the type of job important because they listed (sometimes in great detail) the types of jobs their subjects held (e.g., Collmann & Newlyn, 1956; Edgerton, 1967; Shafter, 1957). Unfortunately, little analysis of such information has been made. A major reason that this information has not been given more attention is likely the prevalent attitude that most retardates are incapable of holding any job above the unskilled or semi-skilled level (Goldstein, 1964; Song & Song, 1969). To many, it may have appeared that one

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unskilled job was about the same as any other. Nevertheless, a few writers have argued that progress might be made by analyzing the specific skills needed for particular jobs (e.g., Bae, 1968; Dingman, 1968; Kolstoe & Shafter, 1961). 3. JOB CHANGES

Since a steady income is basic to survival in the community, Kraus (1972) included employment stability as one of the criteria of adjustment in his study. Other researchers who used this variable as a criterion of adjustment include Barrett et al. (1965), Collmann and Newlyn ( 1956) and Rosen ( 1967a). Several writers have reported that retardates might be irresponsible in this area (e.g., J. S. Cohen, 1960; Gegenheimer, 1951; Kraus, 1972). Kraus found that 96% of his subjects had left their jobs without good prospects for another. Other researchers, however, have suggested that retardates are reasonably stable job-wise. Goldstein (1964) concluded in his review that retardates do not change jobs more frequently than normals, and Rosen (1967b) indicated that less than 25% of his subjects had made more than one job change during 1-2 years they had been in the community. In two studies, the rate of job changes was examined as a function of length of time in the community. G. R. Clark et al. (1968) discovered that 68% of a short-term group had kept their original job as compared to 52% of a middle-term and 42% of a long-term group. Kraus (1972), however, found that the rate of job changes decreased as a function of time in the community. In general, the results do not support the assumption that frequent job changes are likely to lead to community failure. In two studies in which successful and unsuccessful subjects were compared on this variable, no significant differences emerged (Shafter, 1957; Skaarbrevik, 1971). 4.

SAVINGS AND

MONEYMANAGEMENT

Several authors have indicated that retardates are especially lacking in financial skills. For example, Edgerton (1967) observed that although few of his subjects were unemployed, most were highly marginal economically and commonly were deep in debt. He considered part of the problem to be the lack of institutional training regarding the use of money. Although 85% of Rosen’s (1967b) subjects had active bank accounts, savings tended to decrease as a function of length of time in the community. Further, when they were asked about the problems they were encountering in the community, more than half indicated the spending of money impulsively and about one-third the budgeting of finances.

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In a study of married retardates, Andron and Sturm (1973) found that most of the couples relied primarily on cash because financial transactions such as credit or banking were considered to be too complicated. In only two studies (Barrett et al., 1965; Krishef et al., 1959) was there an attempt to compare successful and unsuccessful placements on this variable. In both, it appeared that successful cases were more fmancially responsible. 5 . SEXUAL PROBLEMS AFTER RELEASE

The rather easy acceptance of sterilization of the retarded probably results in part from the belief that they are incapable of sexual control. Probably because of this belief, most of the institutions surveyed by Shafter (1954) were reluctant to release any residents who had exhibited sexual problems. In addition, both Cate and Gegenheimer (1950) and Dearden ( 195 1 ) emphasized the necessity of supervising released cases very closely to prevent any such behavior. In attempting to assess how adequately this goal has been accomplished, one encounters severe criterion problems. Numerous studies made mention of the fact that some placements became “sex problems” in the community. Exactly what behavior qualified as a sex problem is less clear. A few authors listed a variety of behaviors, e.g., venereal disease, prostitution, illegitimate births. Most, however, were not much more specific than “sex offenses.” With these limitations in mind, the research related to the sexual problems of retardates after release can be more meaningfully evaluated. A rather consistent observation in the early literature is that females exhibit greater sexual problems than males (e.g., Fernald, 191 9; Johnson, 1946; Pense, 1943; Town, 1931; Wallace, 1922; Wolfson, 1956). It is likely, as suggested by both Windle (1962) and Goroff (1967), that much of this difference is to a dual standard and the criterion problem mentioned above. A few authors have indicated that sexual problems were an important factor in the failure of some subjects. Neither Thomas (1943) nor Badham (1955) indicated the extent of this problem, but Collmann and Newlyn (1956) reported that 7% of their failures had sexual problems as compared to 15% of Craft’s (1958), 33% of Appell et al.’s (1963), and 2% of Keys et al.’s (1973) failures. Probably because of its common usage as a criterion of adjustment, little research has been directed toward the relationship between sexual problems and other variables or toward a comparison between successful and unsuccessful subjects. Krishef et al. (1959) did make the latter comparison. Approximately 98% of the successful cases were reported to have had no sexual problems as compared to 82% of the failures. Floor et

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al. (1971) compared the characteristics of female subjects who became sexual problems in the community to females who did not. There were no differences between the two groups in admission age, institutional behavior ratings, or IQ, but the offenders tended to be released at an earlier age (means of 24 versus 30 years), had a higher rate of sex related infractions while in the institution, and in general received less appropriate supervision after release.

6. ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR AFTER RELEASE According to Storrs (1929), a common stereotype of the time was that all retardates are potential criminals. Obviously, this is not the case, but antisocial actions by retardates have received close attention over the years. As in the area of sexual behavior, criterion problems complicate clear interpretation. In some studies, the number of cases who were actually convicted of an offense were presented separately from those who were merely charged with an offense, while in other studies it is possible that the two groups were combined. A number of researchers listcd criminal activity as a reason for the failure of some of their community placcments. Although perhaps a chance occurrence, a remarkable degree of consistency is evident in the relevant articles. Collmann and Newlyn (1956), Stanley and Gunzburg (1957), Craft (1958), and Windle (1962) all reported that 7% of the failures could be attributed to criminal activity. In J. S. Cohen’s (1960) sample, 19% of the failures were due to this factor. In seven studies a more detailed examination of antisocial behavior in released retardates was conducted. None of Hamlett and Engle’s (1950) successful cases came into conflict with the law, while 22% of the unsuccessful cases had legal difficulties. In the Krishef et a f . (1959) study, 95% of the success had no law violations as compared to 79% of the failures. Eagle (1967) and Windle et al. (1961) reported that antisocial behavior was the most common cause of failure for residents returned to their own homes. Windle (1962), however, observed that escapees are more likely to be imprisoned at a later time than those released through the various kinds of placement programs. Kraus (1972) reported a positive relationship between IQ and the rate of court appearances, and although his subjects improved in most areas of behavior as a function of time in the community, acts of delinquency increased. Finally, in a study of married retardates, Andron and Sturm (1973) found that 9 of the 24 subjects had been in some legal trouble. Suggestibility and ignorance of the law appeared to be the major contributing factors.

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7. MARRIAGE AND CHILDREN Both positive and negative opinions with regard to the marriage of retardates may be found in the literature. However, the majority of the references, especially more recent ones, have been more positive (e.g., Abbott & Ladd 1970; Edgerton, 1967; Gegenheimer, 1951). For a detailed discussion of the marriage of the retarded see Mattison (1970). Several researchers have' stressed the influence of marriage on postinstitutional adjustment, although the data obviously were only correlational and could have been confounded with other variables. Nevertheless, the results of three studies (Hartzler, 1953; Floor et al., 1971; Wolfson, 1956) indicated that married subjects were more successful; and one study (Krishef et al., 1959) revealed no differences between married and single subjects. Because of hereditary considerations, the children of released retardates were given special attention in a number of early articles. However, relatively few recent researchers have considered this factor. According to Wolfson (1956), 9 of the 17 males (total sample = 92) in his best adjusted group were married and had one or two children. Rosen (1967b) reported that 19 of his 92 subjects had married, usually to other formerly institutionalized retardates and that seven of the couples had children. An investigation revealed that all of the children were receiving adequate medical care and that none had been diagnosed as retarded. Wolfson (1970) reported that 49 (50%) of his female subjects were married, with 30 of these having children. Of the 12 married couples studied by Andron and Sturm (1973), 7 had been sterilized, 3 were naturally sterile, 1 used birth control, and 1 had children. Most of the couples expressed a desire for children, and some were bitter about their inability to have them. 8. USE OF LEISURE TIME Many authors have mentioned that proper use of leisure time is an important factor in community adjustment (e.g., Cate & Gegenheimer, 1950; Justice et al., 1971; Kraus, 1972; O'Brien, 1952; Wardell, 1946). A commonly expressed attitude in the literature is that retardates often do not know what to do with their leisure time or that they need considerable supervision to keep them out of trouble (e.g., D. L. Brown, 1952; Dearden, 1951 ; Gegenheimer, 1948; Harms, 1949). Two other writers (Rudolf, 1950; White, 1955) listed the lack of proper leisure time activities as important causes of failure. Contrasting with such negative statements are some recent observations suggesting that the recreational activities of released retardates are not extremely different from those of

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their neighbors in the community (e.g., Andron & Sturm, 1973; G . R. Clark et al., 1968; Edgerton, 1967), although Rosen (1967b) indicated that participation in formal community groups is rare. Some research has been conducted concerning the role of leisure time activities in community adjustment. Rudolf ( 1950) reported that 34% of a group of retardates who failed on parole had significant problems with recreation as compared to only 7 % of those in a colony placement. These results were interpreted as indicating the necessity of adequate supervision during leisure hours. In Shafter’s ( 1957) study, recreational skills were defined as being a member of the institutions’ band or chorus, and membership in these organizations was not related to community adjustment. Krishef et al. (1959), however, did find that participation in social activities distinguished between successes and failures. The category of regular participation included 27% of the former and only 8 % of the latter; occasional participation was mentioned for 50% of the former versus 30% of the latter; and only 23% of the successes were described as almost never participating in social activities as compared to 62% of the failures. G. R. Clark et al. (1968) reported that participation in organized activities decreased as a function of time in the community, with 23% of a short-term group as compared to 12% of a longerterm group particpating in such activities. However, church membership increased from 23 to 45% during the same period of time. V.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The literature concerning the postinstitutional adjustment of the mentally retarded is replete with inconclusive, discrepant, and contradictory findings. In 1962, Windle concluded his monograph on the subject with a number of tentative and largely clinical, conclusions regarding the prediction of success on community placement. More recently, in another extensive review, H. W. Cobb (1969) stated that the available research does not indicate that actuarial methods of prediction are any better than those based on clinical judgement. The following remarks are an attempt to explain this state of affairs and hopefully to provide at least some partial remedies. Methodological Considerations

Perhaps the biggest reason that one cannot reliably predict who will or will not succeed on community placement is that most of the studies available are post hoc surveys rather than true experiments (Windle,

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1962). Resource limitations and ethical consideration (e.g., the denial of service to control groups) will continue to hamper the implementation of true predictive and/or comparative studies. However, there are a number of methodological problems, some more easily remedied than others that have also contributed their share to the current confusion. Most of these would be covered in a basic course on experimental design and will not be discussed here (e.g., sampling techniques, control of relevant variables, reliability of independent and dependent measures, and statistical analysis). However, certain other fundamental issues are relatively unique to research in the area of postinstitutional adjustment. Until they are resolved, meaningful analysis of the literature will be impeded. For other discussions of methodological problems, see A. J. Butler and Browning (1970), H. V. Cobb (1969), or Windle (1962). 1. CRITERIA OF SUCCESS In evaluating the outcome of community placement of the mentallyretarded, it would be desirable for there to be some consistency in the criteria on which judgement of success (or failure) are based. Unfortunately, this has not been the case for research in this area. Which criteria should be used is as much a philosophical question as an empirical one. However, a number of writers have noted that it is difficult to compare studies or cross-validate their findings when the reported results were based on different criteria (e.g., Rosen et al., 1970). Some of the more frequently reported criteria include social workers’ impressions (e.g., Hartzler, 1951; Wolfson, 1956), avoidance of legal problems (e.g., Kraus, 1972), degree of self-support (e.g., Krishef et al., 1959), vocational adjustment (e.g., Barrett et al., 1965), degree of supervision required (e.g., Edgerton, 1967), and sexual adjustment (e.g., Potter & McCollister, 1926). After evaluating the subjects on such criteria, researchers have commonly classified them as being either successful or unsuccessful. However, dichotomous classifications have been criticized by several writers (e.g., Song & Song, 1969) as being too simplistic and resulting in the loss of valuable information. Some researchers have attempted to cope with this problem by adding a borderline category (e.g., Johnson, 1946), and still others have used even large numbers of adjustment groups (e.g., Bijou, 1944). Most classification schemes have been based on the premise that the assessment of community adjustment is basically a problem of clinical judgement (e.g., Wolfson, 1956). For example, there is often some attempt to determine whether community failure was caused by intra- or extraindividual factors (e.g., Tarvis, 1964).

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A diametrically opposite approach has been advocated by others (e.g., Madison, 1964). Under this approach a subject is considered a success as long as he remains in the community and a failure in the event that he requires reinstitutionalization. Although possible relevant information may be lost through the use of this administratively defined criterion, it is at least objective and suits the design of predictive studies adequately ( Windle, 1962). A final approach is that advocated by Rosen (1967a). He argues that different researchers should adopt the same criteria for study and develop behavioral norms in a variety of areas. Windle’s (1962) discussion of the nature of adjustment suggests that this might be a fruitful approach. He noted that regardless of a retardate’s assets, his behavior has to meet some minimum standard in a number of areas in order for him to be tolerated in the community. 2. SAMPLE ATTRITION This problem may be called that of the dwindling sample. Two cases will establish the point. Muench (1944) only collected data on 8 of an original sample of 40; his optimistic conclusions can consequently be discounted. Edgerton (1967) wrote a book about 48 subjects from an original sample of 191. These are slightly extreme examples but virtually all of the studies present in the literature lost a significant number of subjects. The reasons for subject loss (inability to locate, geographical limitations, uncooperative subjects, time, money, etc. ) are many and complex. Throughout the history of the literature on postinstitutional adjustment, scattered references may be found which allude to the fact that some former residents attempt to hide their institutional background (e.g., Edgerton, 1967; Foley, 1929; Kaplun, 1935; Matthews, 1921 ; Willson, 1941; Wissman, 1946). The best account of this phenomena, known popularly as institutional paranoia, may be found in Edgerton’s (1967) book. A central theme is that one of the major problems facing released residents is how to handle the stigma of being labeled as retarded. Edgerton argued that this label is so devastating to a person’s self-esteem that it is impossible to live with. As a result, a major portion of the person’s efforts are directed toward denying any mental incompetence on his part and attempting to pass as normal. For example, when Edgerton’s subjects were asked why they had been institutionalized, none admitted that it was due to retardation. Floor, Baxter, and Rosen (1972) explored the effect of subject loss on the validity of conclusions drawn from follow-up studies. They compared interviewed subjects with lost subjects on certain demographic and

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psychometric variables. Also, subjects who willingly cooperated in a periodic interview process were compared with those who staunchly refused to be interviewed. On the basis of these comparisons, they tentatively concluded that missing subjects may have adjusted somewhat better in the community than those who were found. This conclusion even in tentative form, is unwarranted. Population attrition is certainly not a random proces and, in fact, is more likely quite selective. One does well to generalize to a population using good sampling techniques; the selected samples characteristic of most follow-up studies present in the literature make such a generalization a virtual impossibility. Virtually all subjects can be located if enough time and effort is expended. Hoffman (1969) found 98% of a sample of 571 subjects who had been discharged 4 to 10 years earlier. It would seem much more reasonable to randomly select 50 subjects out of a cohort of 500 and make an intensive effort to locate all of them than to begin with a cohort of 500 and end up with 50. 3. METHODOF DATACOLLECTION

The methods of obtaining information for assessment of the relative adjustment of retardates placed in the community have not changed much since Fernald’s study in 1919. Most investigators have used all or a combination of the following techniques: ( 1 ) requesting information by letter from whomever was supervising the subject in the community (e.g., Hartzler, 1951) ( 2 ) actually visiting the subject in his home and observing him in his natural setting (e.g., Foley, 1927) (3) interviewing relatives or other people in the community familiar with him (e.g., Bijou, 1944), (4) interviewing the subject himself (e.g., Popenoe, 1927) and (5) contacting various agencies, such as the Welfare or Police Department, who might have had some contact with the subject (e.g., Hartzler, 1953). Probably the more such techniques are used, the more valid that data. For example, Kaplun (1935) noted that information obtained solely on the basis of letters was often found to be discrepant with facts actually observed later. Hartzler (1951, 1953) observed that special care must be taken with second-party data since information regarding more successful cases might be more willingly given than that for unsuccessful cases. Wolfson ( 1956) concluded that the information typically obtained does not allow for a clear picture of the psychological and emotional adjustment of the subject. Although no definitive statement can be made, it can probably be assumed that most researchers have obtained only rather superficial information. Notable exceptions are the studies of Edgerton (1967), whose

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staff spent an average of 17 hours with each subject and the Elwyn Institute studies (e.g., G. R. Clark et al., 1968; Rosen, 1967a, 1967b) in which detailed interviews were obtained at 6-month intervals the first year and annually thereafter. 4. LENGTHOF TIME IN THE

COMMUNITY

When a subject in a follow-up study is rated as successful there is often an implicit assumption that he will not require reinstitutionalization for the remainder of his life (e.g., Storrs, 1929). However, this may not necessarily be the case. There is some evidence that most failures occur relatively soon after release (e.g., Floor et al., 1971; Madison, 1964; Potter and McCollister, 1926; Wallace, 1918) . However, the results of a number of studies indicate the need for a long-term assessment of community adjustment. Potter and McCollister (1926) noted that successful adjustment during the parole period is no guarantee of continued success and Wearne (1942) observed that some of his failures had been well adjusted for a considerable period, but that some situation developed later which resulted in failure. For example, Brown et al. (1959), in a study concerned with foster home placements, discovered that while the rate of readmission dropped sharply from the first month rate for the next few months, it was relatively stable thereafter for the 4-year study period. The trend exhibited by the readmission rate curve suggested that the subjects would continue to be readmitted at a rate of from 5 to 10% per year, although it is possible that the rate would eventually fall to some minimal level. Windle (1962) derived return curves for subjects on home leave, vocational leave, foster home placement, and escapees. This study revealed that escapees usually returned within 2 months, with a negatively accelerated return curve thereafter. The curves for home and vocational leaves over the 4-year period were negatively accelerated, with an asymptote at about 2 years. The return curve for foster home placements was much less regular. In comparison with home and vocational leaves, there was a higher rate of failure for the first 2 months, a slower rate from 2 months to 2 years, and an increasing rate for the third and fourth years. Numerous researchers have stated that comparing the results of different studies may not be valid if the sabjects in the various studies had been in the community for different lengths of time (e.g., Goldstein, 1964; Little & Johnson, 1932; Popenoe, 1927; Rosen, 1967b; Windle, 1962). Even within individual studies this can be a major problem. On the basis of the information available in the 36 studies he reviewed, Eagle (1967) reported that the mean length of time in the community before follow-up was 4.3 years. However, many subjects had been in

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the community less than 6 months, and the time of follow-up is not provided in a number of studies (e.g., D. L. Brown, 1952; F. 0. Butler, 1945; Jackson and Butler, 1963; Madison, 1964; Town, 1931). It is likely safe to discount any conclusions based on data collected less than 1 year after release.

VI.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

As a result of increasing attempts at rehabilitation and a growing trend to institutionalize only the most severely retarded, the typical institutional resident of today is more severely retarded than his counterpart in past years. It is likely, therefore, that in future years institutions will have more static populations unless they change their focus and range of programs. In fact, some (e.g., Thurman & Thiele, 1973; Wolfensberger, 1971 ) are predicting (and advocating) the ultimate demise of residential facilities as they now exist. Thus, it could be argued that studies regarding the postinstitutional adjustment of retarded populations are not worth the effort. However, between the years 1963 and 1970, over 85,000 residents were released from public institutions for the retarded (Office of Mental Retardation Coordination, 1972) and 37% of the 1972 population in residential facilities was either mildly or moderately retarded (Rosen et al. 1972). Thus, research concerning the outcome of community placement programs will continue to be relevant for some time. Furthermore, the current rapid development of alternatives to residential facilities (e.g., group homes, day facilities, etc.) also underscores the need for more and better research. Professionals need to know which of the retarded will benefit most from the available training and/or placement programs. With the present state of knowledge, placement is typically on a trial and error basis and evaluation is mainly subjective. This state of affairs could certainly be improved to the benefit of all concerned especially the retarded. REFERENCES Abel, T. M. A study of a group of subnormal girls successfully adjusted in industry and the community. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1940, 45, 66-72. Abbott, J. M., & Ladd, G . M. . . . any reason why this mentally retarded couple should not be joined together . Mental Retardation, 1970, 8, 45-48. Andron, L., & Sturm, M. L. Is “I do” in the repertoire of the retarded? A study of the functioning of married retarded couples. Mental Retardation, 1973,

..

11, 31-34.

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Appell, M. J., Williams, C. M., & Fishell, K. N. A residence program for retarded males in a community setting. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1963,

68, 104-108. Astrachan, M . Group psychotherapy with mentally retarded female adolescents and adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1955,60, 152-156. Badham, J. N. The outside employment of hospitalized mentally defective patients as a step towards resocialization. American loitrnal of Mental Deficiency, 1955, 59, 666-680. Bae, A. Y. Factors influencing vocational efficiency of institutionalized retardates in different training programs. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1968, 72, 871-874. Barrett, A. M.,Relos, R., & Eisele, J. Vocational success and attitudes of mentally retarded toward work and money. American Journal of Mental Deficiency,

1965, 70, 102-107. Baumeister, A. A. The American residential institution: Its history and character. In A. A. Baumeister & E. C. Butterfield (Eds.), Residential facilifies for the mentally retarded. Chicago: Aldine, 1970. Binou, S. W. Behavior efficiency as a determining factor in the social adjustment of mentally retarded young men. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1944, 65,

133-145. Bishop, B. E. Family care: The patients. American Journal of Mental Deficiency,

1957, 61, 583-591. Bower, W. C., & Switzer, A. Adjustment of the retarded. A research and demonstration project. Connecticut Association for Retarded Children, Inc. A Report on Project No. 33042 to Office of Vocational Rehabilitation, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1962. Brown, D. L. The working convalescent care program for female patients at Rome State School. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1962, 56, 643-654. Brown, S. J., Windle, C., & Stewart, E. Statistics on a family care program. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1959,64,535-542. Butler, A. J., & Browning, P. Methodological issues in prediction of rehabilitation outcome of the mentally retarded. Working Paper No. 42, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center in Mental Retardation, University of Oregon, Eugene, 1970. Butler, F. 0. Mental defectives in military service and wartime industries. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1945,50, 296-300. Camp, B. M.,& Waite, T. E. Report of four cases of “mental deficiency” on parole. Proceedings of the American Association for the Study of the Feebleminded, 1932,37, 381-394. Cate, H., & Gegenheimer, R. A. The community supervisor looks at parole. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1950, 55, 275-278. Chandler, C. S., & Shafter, A. J. A critique of the group placement concept. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1955,59, 517-521. Charles, D. C., & McGrath, K. The relationship of peer and staff ratings to release from institutionalization. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1962, 67,

414-4 17. Clark, A., & Foster, J. Objective measures and occupational success. Mental Retardation, 1970, a, 41-44. Clark, G . R., Kivitz, M., & Rosen, M. A transitional program for institutionalized adult retarded. Research and Demonstration Grant No. RD 1275P, Vocational

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Rehabilitation Administration, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1968. Clarke, A. D. B., Clarke, A. M., & Reiman, S. Cognitive and social changes in the feebleminded-Three further studies. British Journal of Psychology, 1958, 49, 144-157. Coakley, F. Study of feeble-minded wards employed in war industries. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1945,50, 301-306. Cobb, D. Preparing the mentally defective child for community adjustment. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1954, 58, 664-672. Cobb, H. V. The predictive assessment of the adult retarded for social and vocational adjustment: Part 11, Analysis of the literature. Department of Psychology, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota. A Research Demonstration Project (RD- 1624-P) of the Vocational Rehabilitation Administration, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1969. Cobb, 0. H. Parole of mental defectives. Proceedings of the American Association for the Study of the Feebleminded, 1923,28,145-148. Cohen, J. Survey of a school program for family care of school age children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1947.51, 5.02-509. Cohen, J. S. An analysis of vocational failures of mental retardates placed in the community after a period of institutionalization. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1960,65, 371-375. Collmann, R. D.,& Newlyn, D. Employment success of educationally subnormal expatients in England. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1956, 60, 733-743. Craft, M. Withdrawals from license in mental deficiency. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1958, 63, 47-49. Craib, M. F., & Woodward, M. A survey of 44 children admitted to the Fountain Group Hospital under the Mental Deficiency Act and subsequently accepted as educable. Journal of Mental Science, 1958, 104, 115-122. Dearden, H. M. The efforts of residential institutions to meet the problems of job-finding and employment. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1951, 56, 295-301. Di Michael, S. G. Are jobs for the retarded increasing? Mental Retardation, 1967, 5 , 40-41. Dingman, H. F. A plea for social research in mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1968, 73, 24. Dingman, H. F., Eyman, R. K., & Tarjan, G. Mathematical analysis of hospital release data. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1965, 70, 223-231. Doll, E. A. Practical implications of the endogenous-exogenous classification of mental defectives. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1946, 50, 503-51 1. Eagle, E. Prognosis and outcome of community placement of institutionalized retardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1967,72, 232-243. Earl, C. J. C. A psychograph for morons. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 1940, 35, 428-448. Edgerton, R. B. The cloak of competence: Stigma in the lives of the mentally retarded. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. Elkin, L. Predicting performance of the mentally retarded on sheltered workshop and non-institutional jobs. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1968, 72, 533-539.

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Fernald, W. E. After-care study of the patients discharged from Waverly for a period of twenty-five years. Ungraded, 1919, 5, 25-31. Floor, L., Baxter, D., & Rosen, M. Subject loss in a follow-up study. Mental Retardation, 1972, 10, 3-5. Floor, L., Rosen, M., Baxter, D., Horowitz, J., & Weber, C. Socio-sexual problems in mentally handicapped females. Training School Bulletin, 1971, 68, 106-1 12. Foley, R. W. A plan for the study of the cases discharged from the Rome State School from January 1, 1905 to December 1, 1924. Proceedings of the American Association for the Study of the Feebleminded, 1927, 32, 104-109. Foley, R. W. A study of the patients discharged from the Rome State School for the twenty year period ending December 31, 1924. Proceedings of the American Association f o r the Study of the Feebleminded, 1929, 34, 180-207. Fry, L. M. A predictive measure of work success for high grade mental defectives. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 1956, 61, 402-408. Gegenheimer, R. A. A quarter century of community supervision of mentally deficient parents. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1948, 53,92-102. Gegenheimer, R. A. Implications of discharge from supervision. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1951, 56, 433-440. Gibson, D., & Fields, D. L. Habilitation forecase in mental retardation: The configural search strategy. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 5 58-5 62.

Goldberg, I. I. A survey of the present status of vocational rehabilitation of the mentally retarded residents in state supported institutions. American Journal of Mental Deficiency. 1957, 61, 698-705. Goldstein, H. Social and occupational adjustment. In H. A. Stevens & R. Heber (Eds.), Mental retardation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Goodfellow, H. D. L. The mental defective in the community and the philosophy which has resulted in the plan for training defectives at the Ontario Hospital School, Orillia. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1947, 51, 495-501. Goroff, N. N. Research on community placement-An exploratory approach. Menial Retardation, 1967, 5, 17-19. Grant, J. R. Results of institutional treatment of juvenile mental defectives over a 30-year period. Canadian Medical Associaton Journal, 1956, 75, 918-921. Grossman, H. J. (Ed.) Manual on Terminology and Classification in Mental Retardation. Baltimore: Garamondipridemark Press, 1973. Gunzburg, H. C. Therapy and social training for the feebleminded youth. British Journal on Medical Psychology, 1957, 30, 42-48. Hamlett, I. C., & Engle, T. L. Mental health analysis of furlough patients. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1950, 55, 257-263. Harms, M. Casework in the social adjustment of adult defectives. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1949, 54, 231-243. Harold, E. C. Employment of patients discharged from the St. Louis State Training School. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1955, 60, 397-402. Hartzler, E. A follow-up study of girls discharged from the Laurelton State Village. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 195 1, 55, 612-618. Hartzler, E. A ten-year survey of girls discharged from the Laurelton State Village. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1953, 57, 5 12-518. Hegge, T. G. The occupational status of higher-grade mental defectives in the present emergency. A study of parolees from the Wayne County Training

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School at Northville, Michigan. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1944, 49, 86-98. Hiatt, M. S. Casework services in community placement of defectives. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1951, 56, 204-21 1. Hoffman, J. L. The location of missing subjects. Mental Retardation, 1969, 7 , 18-21. Hopwood, A. T. What the state school should mean to the community. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1946, 51, 110-114. Jackson, S. K., & Butler, A. J. Prediction of successful community placement of institutionalized retardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1963, 68, 211-217. Jastak, J. Variability of psychometric performances in mental diagnosis. New York, 1934. Cited in Windle, 1962. Johnson, B. S. A study of cases discharged from the Laconia State School from July 1, 1924 to July 1, 1934. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1946, 50, 437-445. Justice, R. S., Bradley, J., & O'Connor, G. Foster family care for the retarded: Management concerns of the caretaker. Mental Retardation, 1971, 9, 12-15. Kaplun, D. The high grade moron-A study of institutional admissions over a ten year period. Proceedings of the American Association f o r Mental Deficiency, 1935, 40, 69-91. Kephart, N. C., & Ainsworth, M. H. A preliminary report of community adjustment of parolees of the Wayne County Training School. Proceedings of the American Association f o r Mental Deficiency, 1938, 43, 161-166. Keys, V., Boroskin, A., & Ross, R. The revolving door in an MR hospital: A study of returns from leave. Mental Retardation, 1973, 11, 55-56. Kinder, E. F., Chase, A., & Buck, E. W. Data secured during a follow-up study of girls discharged from supervised parole from Letchworth Village. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1941, 45, 572-578. Kolstoe, 0. P. An examination of some characteristics with discrimination between employed and not employed mentally retarded males. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1961, 66, 472-482. Kolstoe, 0. P., & Shafter, A. J. Employability prediction for mentally retarded adults: A methodological note. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1961, 66, 287-289. Kramer, M., Person, P. H., Jr., Tarjan, G., Morgan, R., & Wright, S. W. A method for determination of probabilities of stay, release, and death, for patients admitted to a hospital for the mentally deficient: The experience of Pacific State Hospital during the period 1948-1952. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1957, 62, 481-495. Kraus, J. Supervised living in the community and residential and employment stability of mental retarded male juveniles. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1972, 11, 283-290. Krishef, C. H. The influence of rural-urban environment upon the adjustment of dischargees from the Owatonna State School. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1959, 63, 860-865. Krishef, C. H., & Hall, M. A. Employment of the mentally retarded in Hennepin County, Minnesota. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1955, 60, 182-189. Krishef, C. H., Reynolds, M. C., & Stunkard, C. L. A study of factors related to rating post-institutional adjustment. Minnesota Welfare, 1959, 11, 5-15.

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Kurtz, R. A., & Wolfensberger, W. Separation experiences of residents in an institution for the mentally retarded: 1910-1959. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 74, 389-396. Little, A. N., & Johnson, B. S. A study of the social and economic adjustments of one hundred thirteen discharged parolees from Laconia State School. Proceedings of the American Association for the Study of the Feebleminded, 1932, 37, 233-248. Liu, M. C. Changing trends in the care of the subnormal. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1963, 68, 345-353. Macmillan, M. B. Adjustment and process: A neglected feature of follow-up studies of retarded people. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1962, 67, 418-423. Madison, H. L. Work placement success for the mentally retarded. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1964, 69, 50-53. Matthews, M. A. One hundred institutionally trained male defectives in the community under supervision. Proceedings of the American Association f o r the Study of the Feebleminded, 1921, 26,60-70. Mattison, J. Marriage and mental handicap. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1970. McPherson, G. E. Parole of mental defectives. Proceedings of the American Association f o r Mental Deficiency, 1935, 40, 162-167. Meyer, G. A. Twelve years of family care at Belchertown State School. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1951, 55, 4 1 4 4 1 7 . Morrissey, J. A. Status of family-care programs. Mental Retardation, 1966, 4, 8-11. Muench, G. A. A follow-up of mental defectives after 18 years. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1944, 39, 407-418. Mundy, L. Environmental influence on intellectual function as measured by intelligence tests. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1957, 30, 194-201. National Association for Retarded Children. Residential programming for mentally retarded persons. Prevailing attitudes and practices in the field of mental retardation. Grant 56-P-7077 1-6-0 1 (R-1 ), Division of Developmental Disabilities, Social and Rehabilitation Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1972. Nixon, R. A. Impact of automation and technological change on the employability of the mentally retarded. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 75, 152-1 5 5. O'Brien, M. W. A vocational study of a group of institutionalized persons. American persons. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1952, 57, 56-62. OTonnor, N. Defectives working in the community. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1954, 59, 173-180. O'COMOr, N. The successful employment of the mentally handicapped. In L. T. Hilliard & B. H. Kirman (Eds.), Mental deficiency. London: Churchill. 1957. O'Connor, N., & Tizard, 1. Predicting the occupational adequacy of certified mental defectives. Occupational Psychology, 195 1, 25, 205-21 1. OConnor, N., & Tizard, J. The social problem of mental deficiency. Oxford: Pergamon, 1956. Office of Mental Retardation Coordination. Mental retardation institutional data. Programs f o r the Handicapped, 1972, 73-3 (Mar.), 2-15. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Pense, A. W. The problem of the male defective delinquent in the State School. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1943, 47, 467-472.

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Pense, A. W., Patton, R. E., Camp, J. L., & Kebalo, C. A cohort study of institutionalized young mentally retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 196 1, 66, 18-22. Popenoe, P. Success on parole after sterilization. Proceedings of the American Association for Mental Deficiency and the Study o f the Feebleminded, 1927, 32, 86-103. Popenoe, P. Marriage after eugenic sterilization. Proceedings of the American Association for Mental Deficiency and the Study of the Feebleminded, 1928, 33, 62-76.

Potter, H. W., & McCollister, C. L. A resume of parole work at Letchworth Village. Proceedings of the American Association for the Study o f the Feebleminded, 1926, 31, 165-188. Raymond, A. Observations on the placement and supervision of mental defectives in the community. Proceedings of the American Association for the Study o f the Feebleminded, 1923, 28, 100-1 18. Reynolds, M. C., & MacEachern, D. G. The prediction of the adult status of high grade mental defectives. In M. E. Wright & H. T. Croley (Eds.), Research in the management of the mentally retarded child. Winfield, Kans.: Winfield State Training School, 1956. Reynolds, M. C., & Stunkard, C. L. A comparative study of day class vs. institutionalized educable retardates. Project 192, College of Education, University of Minnesota, 1960. Cited in Kolstoe, 1961. Roberts, A. D. Intelligence and performance test patterns among older mental defectives. American Journal o f Mental Deficiency, 1945, 49, 300-303. Rosen, M. Rehabilitation, research and follow-up within the institutional setting. Mental Retardation, 1967, 5, 7-11. (a) Rosen, M. The retardate in the community: A post-institutional follow-up study. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Association for Mental Deficiency, Denver, May 1967. (b) Rosen, M., Floor, L., & Baxter, D. Prediction of community adjustment: A failure at cross-validation. American Journal o f Mental Deficiency, 1972, 77, 111-1 12. Rosen, M., Kivitz, M. S., Clark, G. R., & Floor, L. Employment and predictions of post-institutional adjustment of mentally retarded adults. American Journal o f Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 726-734. Rudolf, G. De M. Improvement in mental defectives in colonies. Journal of Mental Science, 1950, 96, 272-275. Sarason, S. B., & Doris, J. Psychological problems in mental deficiency. New York: Harper, 1969. Schroeder, P. L., & Bartelme, P. A mental health program as a juvenile court method of supervising the feebleminded. Proceedings o f the American Association for the Study o f the Feebleminded, 1928, 33, 37-58. Shachoy, G. R. Training the mentally deficient for community adjustment. American Journal o f Mental Deficiency, 1954, 59, 226-230. Shafter, A. J. The vocational placement of institutionalized mental defectives in the United States. American Journal o f Mental Deficiency, 1954,59, 279-307. Shafter, A. J. Criteria for selecting institutionalized mental defectives for vocational placement. American Journal o f Mental Deficiency, 1957, 61, 599-616. Skaarbrevik, K. J. A follow-up study of educable mentally retarded in Norway. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1971, 75, 560-565.

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Sloan, W. Prediction of extramural adjustment of mental defectives by use of the Rorschach Test. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1948, 12, 303-309. Solomon, P. Differential Rorschach scores of successfully and unsuccessfully placed mental defectives. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1955, 11, 394-397. Song, A. Y., & Song, R. H. Prediction of job efficiency of institutionalized retardates in the community. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 567-571. Stanley, R. J., & Gunzburg, H. C. A survey of residential licenses from a mental deficiency hospital. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 1957, 2, 207-21 3 . Stephens, W. B., Peck, J. R., & Veldman, D. J. Personality and success profiles characteristic of young adult male retardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1968, 73, 405-413. Storrs, H. C. A report on an investigation made of cases discharged from Letchworth Village (considering especially their adjustment in the community). Proceedings of the American Association f o r the Study of the Feehleminded, 1929, 34, 220-23 2. Tarjan, G., & Benson, F. Report on the pilot study at Pacific Colony. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1953, 57, 453-462. Tarjan, G., Dingman, H. F., Eyman, R. K., & Brown, S. J. Effectiveness of hospital release programs. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1960, 64, 609-617. Tavris, E. An attempt to distinguish between “successful” and unsuccessful separation groups in a hospital for mentally retarded patients. Training School Bulletin, 1964, 60, 184-191. Thomas, B. E. A study of the factors used to make a prognosis of social adjustment. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1943, 47, 334-336. Thurman, K. S., & Thiele, R. L. A viable role for retardation institutions: The road to self-destruction. Mental Retardation, 1973, 11, 21-23. Tong, J. E., & MacKay, G. W. A statistical follow-up of mental defectives of dangerous or violent propensities. British Journal of Development, 1959, 9, 276-284. Town, C. H. An investigation of the adjustment of the feebleminded in the community. Psychology Clinic, 193 1 , 20, 42-54. Wallace, G. L. Parole of the feebleminded. Proceedings of the American Association f o r the Study of the Feebleminded, 1918, 23, 60-81. Wallace, G. L. A report of a study of 100 feebleminded girls with a mental rating of 1 1 years or over. Proceedings of the American Association for the Study of the Feebleminded, 1922. Cited in Popenoe, 1927. Wardell, W. R. The adjustment of moron males in a group placement. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1946, 50, 425433. Wearne, R. G. A study of the first hundred consecutive admissions to Wassaic State School in the year 1935. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1942, 47, 231-235. White, W. D. Education for life adjustment. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1955, 59, 404-407. Whitney, E. A. A statistical study of children admitted and discharged from Elwyn. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1948, 53, 182-186. Willson, G. M. The Civilian Conservation Corps as an adjustment outlet for boys trained in state institutions for the mentally deficient. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1941, 46, 124-128. Windle, C. An exploratory study of unauthorized absences from Pacific State Hospital. Training School Bulletin, 1959, 55, 73-75.

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Windle, C. Prognosis of mental subnormals. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1962, 66(Monogr. Suppl.). Windle, C., & Dingman, H. F. The front and back doors of a hospital for mental defectives. Training School Bulletin, 1959, 56, 8-14. Windle, C. D., Stewart, E., & Brown, S. J. Reasons for community failure of released patients. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1961, 66, 213-217. Wissman, J. A. Analysis of the results of the Rome State School training program. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1946, 51, 329-336. Wolfensberger, W. Will there always be an institution? I: The impact of epidemiological trends. Mental Retardation, 197 1, 9, 14-20. Wolfson, I. N. Follow-up studies of 92 male and 131 female patients who were discharged from the Newark State School in 1946. American Journal of Menial Deficiency, 1956, 61, 224-238. Wolfson, I. N. Adjustment of institutionalized mildly retarded patients twenty years after return to the community. Menfal Refardation, 1970, 8, 20-23. York, R. A. The place of the feebleminded in industry. Proceedings of the American Association f o r the Study of the Feebleminded, 1930, 35, 227-237.

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Physical and Motor Development of Retarded Persons ROBERT H. BRUININKS UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA

. .... , . . . . ..... . ... .. . . . ..... . .... . .. .................. . . .. . ..... .. ...... .. IV. Comparative Studies of Gross Motor Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Physical Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Equilibrium Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Performance Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. Comparative Studies of Fine Motor Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI . Comparative Studies with the Oseretsky Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII. Training Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Effects of Physical Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Gross and Fine Motor Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Remedial Perceptual-Motor Training Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII. Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . Introduction..

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INTRODUCTION

The study of motor proficiency has long been a concern of persons interested in the development, education, and habilitation of retarded persons. Imbued with the sensationalist philosophy, early pioneers such as Itard, Seguin, and Montessori made training in sensory-motor skills a central tenet of their pedagogical theories and practices. More recent impetus has been given to providing motor training and recreational opportunities for retarded children and adults through the efforts of the Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr., Foundation and a number of other professional and lay groups (Seng209

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stock & Stein, 1967). These efforts grow out of the realization that proficiency in motor skills is a central aspect of human development and of major importance to the health, social, personal, and vocational adjustment of retarded persons. Aside from their pedagogical values, indexes of motor development define intellectual development and adaptive behavior. The manual on terminology and classification of the American Association on Mental Deficiency, for example, cites deviations in motor development as one of the criteria for defining impairment in adaptive behavior (Grossman, 1973). Moreover, the content of early measures of intellectual and social development, such as the Bayley scales and the Vineland Social Maturity Scale, as well as the experiments and theories of Piaget (Flavell, 1963), further underscore the role of movement and motor behavior in the development of intellectual and social skills. This chapter summarizes and interprets studies on the physical and motor development of retarded persons. A number of other reviews on the motor development and motor training of retarded persons have been published during the past 10 years: Malpass (1963) and Kral (1972) have reviewed various studies on the development and/or training of retarded persons, while Stein ( 1963) has evaluated extant literature relating to physical fitness of the retarded. A summary of reaction time studies with retarded subjects has been recently published by Baumeister and Kellas (1968) in an earlier volume of this series. Due to the recent publication of the latter, this chapter gives no attention to reaction time and movement time studies with retarded subjects. Excellent summaries of developmental literature on the motor development of children and adults are available in texts by Cratty (1970), Espenschade and Eckert ( 1967), and Rarick (1961). The following section introduces the basic terminology and results of selected factor analytic studies on the structure of motor abilities identified within samples of both retarded and nonretarded subjects. II. DEFINITIONS AND STRUCTURES OF MOTOR PROFICIENCY

Interpretation of literature in motor characteristics of retarded persons is made particularly difficult by the plethora of overlapping terms and concepts used to describe motor proficiency and development. Frequently, terms like motor skill, motor ability, motor proficiency and motor development are used interchangeably in published reports. Fleishman ( 1964) has suggested that motor ability describes a more general trait of an individual inferred from a consistent pattern of responses on measures related to a

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variety of performance tasks. He suggests, in contrast, that mofor skill be applied to performance of an individual on specific tasks or a limited group of tasks. Presumably, abilities contribute to a wide range of skilled performances and are less influenced by effects of training and environment. Motor development generally refers to changes in performance with increasing age (Malpass, 1963), while in this chapter motor proficiency is a generic term which refers to performance( s) on a wide variety of motor tests. Two other terms, fine motor and gross motor, are frequently used in literature on the development of motor proficiency. Fine motor acts include performance of the small muscles of the fingers, hand, and forearm, and generally involve some element of eye-hand coordination. The term fine motor skills applies ostensibly to measures of speed and/or coordination involving the upper limbs, but primarily those performances that depend on the use of fingers, hands, and lower arm. Gross motor acts are those using larger muscles of the body such as the shoulders, trunk, and legs (Espenschade, 1940). Examples of gross motor acts would be measures of physical fitness and balancing abilities in either a stationary position or while in motion. In some studies of retarded persons, the term fine motor has been used incorrectly to describe scores on factorially complex tests (e.g., Oseretsky Scales), motor performances which do not involve movement (e.g., measures of standing balance), or movement of-the entire body. It is generally recognized that fine and gross motor acts form a continuum rather than a dichotomy. Seashore ( 1942), in summarizing a number of studies, has noted that relationships between gross and fine motor skills are generally low, suggesting there may be some utility in a separate examination of studies using gross and fine motor tests with retarded persons. Although several comprehensive investigations have been made on the structure of motor skills or abilities (Fleishman, 1964), there is still no widespread consensus on the major components of motor proficiency. Reported factor analytic studies have been conducted primarily upon adults, resulting in a dearth of information on possible changes in the composition of motor abilities with age. The limited information available suggests, however, that motor abilities become increasingly differentiated and specific with age, even though there is little evidence to support the presence of a general motor proficiency factor even among young children (Fleishman, 1964; Seashore, 1942). The consensus of researchers and theorists is that motor abilities are highly specific at all ages, though the degree of differentiation of abilities undoubtedly increases with maturity and experience. In a series of comprehensive and interrelated studies, Fleishman and his associates (Fleishman, 1964) investigated the structure of motor abilities and physical fitness among adult males. Although most of their analy-

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ses were restricted to performances of male naval recruits, this work represents the most comprehensive explication of factors which may underlie motor performance. These investigations yielded the following hypothesized factors of motor abilities: 1. Control precision-fine, highly controlled adjustments involving the large muscular groups. 2. Multilimb coordination-simultaneous coordination of a number of limbs, showing some overlap with measures of control precision. 3. Response orientation-ability to respond rapidly to the correct stimulus, as in tasks of choice or discrimination reaction time. 4. Reaction time-speed with which a person can respond to a stimulus. 5. Speed of arm movement-rate of making gross, discrete arm movements where accuracy is not required. 6. Rate control-making continuous anticipatory motor adjustments relative to changes in the speed and direction of a moving target. 7. Manual dexterity-rapid and skilled arm-hand movements in manipulating relatively large objects. 8. Finger dexterity-rapid and skillful manipulation of small objects using primarily the fingers. 9. Arm-hand steadiness-precise arm-hand positioning movements which involve minimal demands for speed and strength. 10. Wrist-finger speed-ability to make rapid, repeated movements involving the wrist and fingers, as in tapping. 1 1. Aiming-precise movements involving eye-hand coordination. From their investigations, Fleishman and his associates concluded that measures of physical fitness requiring strength and cardiorespiratory endurance are somewhat independent of the hypothesized psychomotor abilities cited above (Fleishman, 1964). A review of their studies of physical fitness will be provided in a later section of this chapter. Another discussion of the structure of motor abilities was presented by Guilford (1958), following a thorough analysis and classification of extant factor analytic studies. Guilford (1958) postulated seven factors in a matrix of psychomotor abilities: 1. Impulsion-rate at which movements are initiated from a stationary position (e.g., reaction time). 2. Speed-rate of movements after they have been initiated (e.g., arm speed). 3. Strength-assessed by a variety of measures of general, trunk, and limb strength. 4. Static precision-accuracy of maintaining a stable body position (e.g., static balance and arm steadiness).

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5 . Dynamic precision-accuracy of directed movements (e.g., dynamic balance and aiming). 6. Coordination-controlled sequential and/or simultaneous movements of entire body, limbs, hands, and/or fingers. 7. Flexibility-extent to which a part of the body is capable of bending or stretching. The conceptualizations of Fleishman (1964) and Guilford ( 1958) overlap on the underlying structure of motor abilities. While there are differences between the number and specific type of factors each postulates, there is consensus among researchers in this area that no evidence exists of a general factor of motor ability among either adults or children (Cratty, 1970; Fleishman, 1964; Guilford, 1958; Seashore, 1940). Rather, there is widespread agreement that motor proficiency comprises a selected number of group factors or specific skills. Comparisons of the results of factor analytic studies suggest that effective motor performance may involve one or more of the following ingredients: control, power, speed, and timing. As an illustration, a gross motor act such as hitting a baseball requires: control to maintain body position, power to move the bat to strike the ball, and speed and timing to make accurate contact with the ball. Fine motor acts such as packaging and assembling would demand far less power and other aspects of gross motor control, but considerably more fine motor control and speed. Effective motor performance in controlled laboratory settings, athletic events, or vocational activities involves, in varying degrees, some or all of these four ingredients. Few studies have investigated the factor structure of motor abilities with samples of retarded subjects. In a study using 11 tests of motor fitness, Rarick (1968) used measures of strength, running speed, explosive leg strength, dynamic balance, etc., to compare the factor structure of educable mentally retarded students at three age levels (9, 12, and 14 years) to results of previously reported factor analytic studies with nonretarded persons ostensibly of older ages. Although some differences in results emerged by age and between boys and girls, the agreement was sufficient to suggest that a similar factor structure applied to all groups. Five factors were postulated: (1) explosive muscular force, ( 2 ) static strength (e.g., grip strength), (3) general motor coordination (also included IQ), (4) physique and body size, and ( 5 ) general maturity and experience (also included CA). Rarick concluded that the factor structure of gross motor abilities of educable mentally retarded pupils was well defined and appeared similar to the organization of abilities reported for nonretarded persons. Of special interest was the finding that the ability structure of mildly

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retarded children did not appear to change appreciably between the ages of 9 and 14. The most comprehensive study on the structure of motor abilities of retarded and nonretarded school children has been reported by Rarick and Dobbins (1972). The sample included 145 nonretarded boys and girls between 6 and 9 years, and 261 mildly retarded children between 6 and 13 years selected from schools in the San Francisco Bay area. The group of retarded subjects was further subdivided into two separate age groups: one comprising children from 6 through 9 years (N = 136), the other group from 10 through 13 years (N = 126). After a thorough review of available factor analytic work with children and adults and a pilot study with 40 children, 47 tests were identified and used as measures in the study. According to a hypothesized factor structure, measures were selected to assess static muscular strength (e.g., grip strength), explosive muscular power (e.g., standing broad jump), muscular strength and endurance (e.g., sit-ups), gross body coordination (e.g., tire run), cardiorespiratory endurance (e.g., 150-yard dash), limb-eye coordination (e.g., target throw), manual dexterity (e.g., Purdue Pegboard Test), equilibrium balance (e.g., standing on one foot), performance balance (e.g., beam walking), flexibility (e.g., toe touch), body fat (e.g., skinfold measures), and body size (e.g., measures of height and weight). Factor analyses using the method of principal components with Kaiser’s Varimax rotation were conducted for total groups and six subgroups classified by age, level of intelligence, and sex. Analyses of results yielded approximately 8 to 11 factors, fewer than the 12 initially predicted. Finding fewer factors in elementary school children than predicted from a review of studies on young adults lends some support to the hypothesis of increased ability differentiation in motor performance with age. The reduced number of factors resulted from the findings: ( 1 ) that elements of static strength, dynamic strength, and power emerged in one rather than the three anticipated factors, (2) that equilibrium and performance balance appeared on a single rather than separate factors, and (3) that no distinct factor appeared for measures of flexibility. Four factors accounted for 55 to 70% of the variance found in factor analyses with each of the six groups: (1) strength-power-body size, (2) body fat, (3) fine visual-motor coordination, and (4) gross coordination of limb and body movements. Although a well-defined factor structure appeared in all groups and there was considerable similarity among groups, the retarded samples produced a less well-defined structure than the nonretarded boys and girls. Clausen (1966) in a comprehensive study of institutionalized retarded and public school nonretarded subjects tested the hypothesis that retarded

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subjects could be divided into definable subgroups on the basis of 33 tests of sensory, perceptual, motor and complex mental abilities, as well as neurological tests and family history. The retarded subjects comprised three age groups: 8-10, 12-15, and 20-24 years. Nonretarded subjects were between 9 and 10 years of age and slightly above average in mean IQ scores. Using traditional factor analyses, seven factors were obtained for all samples of retarded and nonretarded subjects in the study. However, a general ability factor appeared more important in the retarded than nonretarded samples which, combined with results of correlational and inverse factor analyses, led Clausen to speculate that the ability structure of retarded subjects was less differentiated than that of the nonretarded comparison groups. Based upon available studies, a precise structure of motor abilities for retarded children and adults cannot yet be clearly specified. Not only have there been few studies in this area, but only one investigation (Rarick & Dobbins, 1972) employed a comprehensive battery of motor tests. No thorough study has yet been conducted using subjects across a wide age range. Except for the study of Rarick and Dobbins (1972), tests have been selected for study within a limited area (e.g., physical fitness tests) rather than on the basis of a postulated conceptualization of the structure of motor skills. There is a clear need for more thorough investigations of the structure of abilities of retarded persons across wider age ranges, using more comprehensive assessments of motor proficiency suggested by analyses of Fleishman (1964), Guilford (1958), and Rarick and Dobbins (1972). An intriguing, but as yet unsubstantiated possibility is that retarded persons exhibit less differentiation in their structure of abilities than nonretarded persons. Fleishman ( 1964) has speculated that abilities may become increasingly differentiated with age. Clausen ( 1966) and others (Kral, 1972; Malpass, 1963 ) have generally found higher correlations among various motor tests with samples of retarded subjects than among those obtained with nonretarded subjects. However, if a less distinctive differentiation in motor abilities among retarded subjects emerges in future studies, it will be difficult to determine whether this finding is a concomitant of retarded development per se, or an artifact of more restricted opportunity available to retarded persons to participate in motor activities. Rarick and Dobbins (1972), for example, found that retarded children had significantly greater body fat than nonretarded boys and girls, suggesting that the former engaged less in physical activities. Available evidence on the structure of motor abilities suggests the futility of examining studies on the motor performance of retarded persons from a perspective of general motor development. In recognition of the pre-

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sumed specificity in the development of motor proficiency, this chapter reviews findings of comparative studies with retarded and nonretarded persons classified into several categories of performance, suggested by the work of Fleishman (1964), Guilford (1958), and others (Cratty, 1970; Rarick & Dobbins, 1972) : (1 ) Research on the physical development; (2) gross motor abilities including measures of physical fitness and balance; ( 3 ) fine motor abilities including measures of arm speed, manual and finger dexterity; and (4) studies using various forms of the Oseretsky Tests of Motor Proficiency.

111.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Performance on motor tasks is influenced in large measure by the status of a person’s physical growth and development. Physical growth has been defined by Wellman (1931) as “changes of external size of various parts of the body, changes in skeletal size and condition, the development and function of the various organs, musculature, and nervous system, or the basic and intricate physico-chemical process [p. 2421.” The importance of physical growth and development to psychological development, educational achievement, and social behavior is both obvious and supported by empirical findings from a number of published studies (Clarke, 1971; Tanner, 1970; Wellman, 1931). Data from several studies reveal that children who are more physically mature score slightly higher on tests of intellectual ability, are more socially mature and emotionally stable (Jones, 1957; Mussen & Jones, 1957, 1958), score higher in scholastic achievement (Wellman, 1931), and are generally stronger and more successful on athletic teams than less physically mature children of comparable ages (Clarke, 1971). While measures of physical development generally produce positive relationships with indexes of psychological development, the correlations are generally of low to moderate value. Measures of physical development are quite varied. The most commonly used measures assess amount or changes of linear growth and bulk. Standing height, sitting height, and weight are the most frequently used measures of development, with height being considered the most useful index (Tanner, 1970). Evaluations of growth in height and weight are generally made by comparing an individual’s level of development to standardized growth charts derived from large, generally cross-sectional samples of school children. Another commonly used index of physical development is skeletal maturity, generally assessed by means of roentgenograms of the hand and wrist (Espenschade & Eckert, 1967). Emphasis is placed upon the degree to

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which particular bones have matured, defined by the shape and position relative to each other (Tanner, 1970). The extent of maturity is determined by comparing the radiograph to published standards such as the Grenlich and Pyle (1959) Radiographic Atlas of Skeletal Development of the Hand and Wrist. Other, less frequently used measures of physical development are dental age (eruption of teeth), age at onset of secondary sex characteristics, chest circumference, measures of body width, and measurements of head size and circumference. Anthropometric study of mentally retarded subjects was first reported in a classic study by Tarbell (1883), who noted that both male and female severely retarded persons were shorter and lighter than normal peers. H e cited a need to examine factors such as socioeconomic status, nutritional status and history, and presence of concomitant handicaps in comparing growth patterns of retarded and nonretarded persons. He noted that, since samples of retarded subjects frequently included disproportionate representation of persons of lower socioeconomic status, comparisons of their physical development to nonretarded, ostensibly middle class peers was frequently inappropriate. Later studies by Shuttleworth ( 1884), Goddard, (1912), Wylie (1902-1903) and Flory (1936) essentially substantiated the early findings of Tarbell. [See Flory (1936) for an excellent review of early studies and Rundle (1970) and Bailit and Whelan (1967) for discussions of more recent work.] A review of more recent literature indicates renewed interest in the comparative physical development of retarded persons. As with earlier investigations, attention has been focused upon determining ( 1 ) the relationship of intelligence test scores to indexes of physical development, (2) the relationship between degree of retarded intellectual development and deficiencies in physical growth and development, and ( 3 ) whether a relationship exists between particular etiological causes of retarded development and indexes of physical growth and development. Employing a large institutional sample (N = 2472), Mosier, Grossman, and Dingman ( 1965) assessed the relationship between anthropometric data on ten body dimensions and the degree of retardation in intellectual development, diagnostic category, age, and sex. Examples of diagnostic categories employed in the study were: undifferentiated with no apparent organicity, cultural-familial retardation, Down’s Syndrome, cases resulting from trauma and infection, cranial anomalies, and diseases of the central nervous system. Results of measurements were compared to published norms for nonretarded persons and indicated that retarded male and female subjects had significantly smaller dimensions than nonretarded subjects, with the degree of impairment related to the degree of IQ deficit. Similar findings indicating a strong trend toward more deficient physical growth

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with increased severity of intellectual impairment have been reported by Kugel and Mohr (1963), Pozsonyi and Lobb (1967), and Roberts and Clayton ( 1969). Craig (1966) and Marshall (1968) have criticized the classifications and groupings used by Mosier et al. (1965). They argue that the diagnostic categories used were poorly defined and that sample sizes in some subgroups were too small to permit valid comparisons among diagnostic subgroups. Both recommended the use of fewer, well-defined diagnostic categories involving children whose physical growth resulted from comparable genetic and neuroendocrine factors. The criticisms cited by Craig (1966) and Marshall (1968) of the study reported by Mosier et al. (1965) apply equally to other published studies which compare nonretarded and diagnostic groups of retarded persons. Other studies suggest that retardation in physical growth and development reported in samples of mentally retarded subjects may be found primarily among those whose retardation is associated with biomedical factors. Roberts and Clayton (1969) studied the physical development of 5 14 children admitted to a medical hospital for suspected intellectual retardation. Nearly 80% of the sample was classified as moderately or severely retarded. In comparing the measures of height and weight for retarded children with norms for nonretarded children, they concluded that two rather distinctive subgroups were present in their sample. The development of the first group, labeled nonspecific subnormality, conformed rather closely to the normal distribution of physical development, but those whose retardation was associated with organic factors showed rather pronounced dwarfism. Similar findings have been reported by Dutton (1959b), Pozsonyi and Lobb (1967), and Kugel and Mohr (1963). Apparently the lowest prevalence of stunted growth is found among retarded samples labeled undifferentiated or cultural-familial; the greatest deficits in physical growth and development appear among more severely retarded persons with associated organic conditions and motor impairments (Culley, Jolly, & Mertz, 1963; Van Gelderen, 1962). Several studies reported the physical growth and development in samples of Down’s Syndrome subjects. In one of the few longitudinal studies on the physical growth and development of retarded persons, Seefeldt ( 1967) compared the skeletal maturity and standing height of 37 boys and 31 girls classified as Down’s Syndrome to norms from the Grenlich-Pyle Atlas and other published norms over an 8-year period. The results revealed little difference in development between boys and girls with Down’s Syndrome, except for a slight difference in linear height favoring boys from 15 to 18 years. Generally, children with Down’s Syndrome were significantly retarded in measures of linear growth and skeletal age when com-

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pared to nonretarded children of similar age and sex. The retardation in skeletal development and/or linear growth of Down’s Syndrome persons is also reported by Benda (1960), Dutton (1959a), Mosier et al. (1965), Pozsonyi and Lobb (1967), Rarick, Rapaport, and Seeteldt (1964), Roche (1965), Rundle (1970), Thelander and Pryor (1966), and Van Gelderen (1962). Differences in standing and sitting height cited in available reports suggest that the stunting characteristic of Down’s Syndrome persons is due to failure of the legs to attain normal length. Available reports on the physical growth and development of retarded persons reveal consistent deficiencies in comparison with nonretarded persons of the same age and sex. Serious deficits in these areas are found most frequently among more severely retarded persons and among persons classified as Down’s Syndrome. Rundle (1970) has concluded in a recent summary of available studies that growth rates proceed more slowly and continue for a longer period of time among retarded than among nonretarded children, and that delay in the onset of puberty offers a possible explanation for this prolongation of the growth period. Precise conclusions regarding the physical growth and development of retarded or diagnostic subgroups among the retarded must await the findings of more controlled studies. Several important, albeit correctable, methodological flaws pervade the vast majority of published studies. For the most part, early studies and more recent reports are based upon crosssectional comparisons of retarded persons in institutions or referred to hospital clinics for testing with available developmental norms derived from noninstitutionalized, nonretarded samples. Such comparisons do not accurately describe the physical development of retarded persons per se, since significant physical and behavioral differences may exist between retarded persons in residential institutions and community settings. Moreover, such comparisons of retarded persons have been made with healthy middle class controls, with no apparent control for differences between groups in race, socioeconomic status, nutritional status and history, medical history, parity, and number of siblings (Bailit & Whelan, 1967). The poor description and diagnostic heterogeneity of samples suggests a pervasive confounding of such factors in retardate-normal comparisons, making it impossible to accurately identify the extent to which deficiencies in growth are associated with retarded intellectual development. Other factors also limit accurate interpretation of existing reports. First, the predominant strategy has been cross-sectional rather than longitudinal. Cross-sectional studies are useful to depict general status of development, but they yield distorted information on the course of development. Longitudinal studies represent the only accurate means of determining the velocity of development (Tanner, 1970).

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Second, most investigations relied upon published normative data, frequently derived from measurements obtained on samples over 15 years prior to the comparisons. Through comparisons of actual measurements on preadolescent and adolescent boys with published norms, Wear (1969) concluded that normative charts should be revised every 10 to 15 years to remain valid. His conclusion is supported by Tanner's (1970) analysis, based on a large number of surveys, that 5- to 7-year-old children in average economic circumstances have increased in height 1-2 cm each decade, while those in the 10-1 4 year age range have increased in linear growth 2-3 cm for the same time interval. Use of outdated normative charts in surveys may thus underestimate the developmental status of nonretarded comparison samples. Third, the socioeconomic composition and backgrounds of retarded samples are often ignored in comparative studies. Birch and Gussow (1970) have painstakingly constructed a web of relationships among indexes of poverty, nutrition, and cognitive development. Since retarded samples generally contain a disproportionate representation of low social status groups (Mercer, 1973), failure to control for socioeconomic status in studies of retarded persons may yield a misleading picture of their comparative growth and development. Finally, retarded subjects frequently present difficulties in measurement not present in nonretarded samples. Mosier et al. (1965) found it necessary to measure 15.4% of their total sample for height in the recumbent position. They suggest that such variation in technique results in a greater distortion in measurement among more severely handicapped subjects. IV.

COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF GROSS MOTOR ABILITIES

Gross motor abilities were defined previously as acts performed using large muscles of the body, such as the shoulders, trunk, and legs (Espenschade, 1940). The most thorough investigations into the structure of gross motor abilities have been conducted by Fleishman and his associates (Fleishman, 1964). Using a large battery of tests with adult males, Fleishman has identified six gross motor skill factors: strength, endurance, flexibility, speed, balance, and coordination. He uses the generic term physical fitness to describe these factors. Each of the six basic factors was subdivided into subfactors. The results of factor analytic studies suggested that strength comprised three subfactors-explosive, dynamic, and static. Explosive strength is the exertion of maximum force in a single explosive act (e.g., standing broad jump); dynamic strength is moving or supporting the body's weight during a

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limited period of time (e.g., pull-ups); and siatic strength requires that maximum force be exerted for a brief period of time (e.g., hand dynamometer). Although similar to tasks of strength, endurance measures require maintenance of maximum effort over extended periods of time. Flexibility was subdivided into two subfactors-extent flexibility, the ability to move and/or stretch the body, and dynamic flexibility, the ability to engage in repeated flexing and stretching movements. Speed was subdivided into three subfactors: speed of change in direction (e.g., agility runs), running speed (e.g., dashes), and speed of limb movement. The fourth area, balance, was divided into equilibrium balance, performance balance, and balancing objects. Equilibrium balance is the ability to maintain the body in a fixed position; performance balance requires the maintenance of equilibrium while engaging in tasks requiring movement; balancing objects refers to controlling the position of objects, generally in a stationary position, as in balancing a wooden rod on the index finger. Finally, coordination is subdivided into multilimb and gross body coordination. The former refers to controlled simultaneous or sequential movement patterns using apparatus measures, while the latter refers to performance in tasks such as jumping or hurdling. In the following sections, the gross motor factors explicated by Fleishman ( 1964) will be applied in interpreting comparative studies involving samples of retarded and nonretarded subjects. A.

Physical Fitness

This section discusses the results of studies on the physical fitness of retarded persons, combining the factors of strength, endurance, flexibility, gross motor speed and agility, and gross body coordination. A large number of tests assess aspects of physical fitness (Clarke, 1967). Perhaps the most frequently used test of physical fitness in this country is the Youth Fitness Test, published by the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1965). The test purports to assess arm and shoulder girdle strength, abdominal and hip flexor strength, speed and change of direction, explosive muscular power, running speed, gross motor coordination, and cardiovascular efficiency. It comprises seven different test items, including pull-ups or flexed-arm hang, sit-ups, shuttle run, standing broad jump, 50-yard dash, softball throw for distance, and the 600-yard run-walk. The Youth Fitness Test was standardized on several thousand students between the ages of 10 and 17 years. Recently, an adapted version

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of this test was developed for mildly retarded pupils and standardized on a large national sample of children between the ages of 8 and 18 years (American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1968). One of the early and most thorough studies of the physical fitness of mildly retarded children was conducted by Francis and Rarick (1959). The sample included 284 pupils attending special classes in the Milwaukee Public Schools and 24 institutionalized moderately and severely retarded children. The sample was given 11 tests of gross motor proficiency, including measures of static strength, explosive strength, dynamic strength, balance and gross motor speed, and agility. Comparisons were made between the retarded subjects and normative data available for the various tests. The findings indicated that trends for age and sex for retarded children followed approximately the same developmental pattern as that for normal children on all tests, although at a lower level at every age. The means for both retarded boys and girls on most measures were 2-4 years behind published age norms of normal children, and the performance deficit evidenced by retarded subjects increased with age. The greatest deficit between the retarded and normative samples appeared on the standing broad jump test, a more complex measure which requires explosive leg strength and gross bodily coordination to perform. Unlike Francis and Rarick ( 1959), Howe (1959) used a contrast sample to compare the performance of familial retarded children to nonretarded subjects matched on the factors of age, socioeconomic status, and sex. Eleven measures assessing explosive and static strength, gross motor speed and agility, equilibrium balance, and fine motor coordination were administered to both groups under controlled conditions. Except for grip strength among the girls, retarded boys and girls were significantly inferior to the contrast subjects on all measures of physical fitness. In a comprehensive survey, Rarick, Widdop, and Broadhead (1970) compared a national sample of over 4000 mildly retarded boys and girls to national norms for children on the Youth Fitness Test. On most measures, the retarded children were approximately one standard deviation below average attainments for nonretarded children at all age levels. Generally the differences exceeded 2 years in development and increased with age. Rarick and Dobbins (1972) obtained essentially similar results using a more comprehensive battery of tests with large samples of mildly retarded (CAs 6-1 3 years) and nonretarded children (CAs 6-9 years). The performance of boys on most fitness tests averaged almost one standard deviation below the mean for nonretarded boys; the mean performances of retarded girls was generally 1.5 or more standard deviations below the mean of nonretarded girls. On tests of flexibility and endurance, older retarded chil-

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dren (CAs 11-13 years) performed more poorly than nonretarded 6-yearold children. Comparisons of retarded and nonretarded children have also assessed the relationship of mental age to indexes of motor development. Sengstock (1966) compared mildly retarded boys between approximately 10 and 15 years of age on the Youth Fitness Battery to contrast samples matched on chronological or mental age. The three groups were comparable on a measure of socioeconomic status. Comparisons of groups indicated that retarded subjects were significantly inferior to the CA-contrast group on all measures, even when scores were statistically corrected for differences in height and weight. However, retarded boys were superior on five out of seven measures when compared to MA-matched contrast children. Using a similar research design, McClure (1970) obtained essentially the same findings using samples of retarded and nonretarded girls. A review of studies cited above suggests that retarded persons are consistently inferior to nonretarded age peers on measures of physical fitness. The more severely retarded persons tend also to be more severely impaired in the development of motor fitness. The differences between retarded and nonretarded groups range from 2 to 4 years and retarded samples tend to exhibit progressive deficits in performance with age. Proficiency on tasks requiring more complex coordination skills, muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance, and flexibility appears most impaired among retarded persons. However, there is evidence of a considerable overlap between retarded and nonretarded subjects in gross motor proficiency, indicating that a substantial number of persons classified as retarded meet or exceed average performance levels of nonretarded persons (Howe, 1959; Rarick & Dobbins, 1972). Most studies on the motor fitness of retarded persons have relied on comparisons with national norms in ascertaining the motor fitness of the retarded. Such comparisons typically lack any control for the possible confounding of differences in experience on motor development. Some evidence is available from two studies (Carter, 1966; Stein, 1965) that mildly retarded pupils who receive regular and systematic physical education are comparable to normative samples on the Youth Fitness Test. A more thorough exploration of the effects of experience in physical education upon the development of gross motor abilities is deferred until Section VII, A. B.

Equilibrium Balance

The ability to maintain the body in a state of equilibrium is generally divided into two kinds: equilibrium balance, in which the subject maintains

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a stationary body position, and performance balance, in which the subject maintains body equilibrium while engaged in activities requiring movement (Bass, 1939). Available studies suggest that samples of retarded subjects are consistently inferior to nonretarded subjects in stationary balance abilities. Howe (1959) found that mildly retarded subjects were most inferior to nonretarded peers (CAs 6-12 years) on a one-foot balance task performed to a time limit of 60 seconds. Only two out of 43 retarded children were able to maintain a stationary body position for the maximum time limit. The mean score for nonretarded boys was approximately 51 compared to about 22 seconds for retarded boys. The difference between retarded and nonretarded girls was even greater. It should be noted, however, that a time limit of 60 seconds imposed for this task may require leg strength as much as bodily equilibrium. In the study by Rarick and Dobbins (1972) cited earlier (see Section 11), large samples of mildly retarded (CAs 6-13 years) and nonretarded (CAs 6-9 years) subjects were compared on the Bass Stick Test (one-foot balance on a 1 X 1 X 12 inch block) and the Stork Test (balancing on one foot). The retarded children performed substantially below the level of nonretarded children. Furthermore, there was little evidence of improvement with age on the stick test, in direct contrast to age trends for nonretarded children. Some of the largest discrepancies between the two groups over 47 separate tests appeared on the two measures of equilibrium balance. Using items from the Oseretsky scales, Sloan ( 195 1 ) and Turnquist and Marzolf ( 1954) found retarded subjects significantly inferior to nonretarded subjects on measures of equilibrium balance. Sloan ( 195 1 ) found that retarded children perform very poorly on this task. Inferior performance of mildly retarded children in comparison with nonretarded children on stationary balance items is also reported in studies by Dempsey (1969) and Auxter ( 1965 ) . Available data indicate that retarded children are markedly inferior to nonretarded persons in equilibrium balance performance. However, since most studies have employed samples with limited age and ability ranges, little is yet known regarding the course of development among retarded persons in this area or the relationship between severity of retardation and proficiency on measures of equilibrium balance. While the effects of vision upon performance have been explored among nonretarded subjects (Bass, 1939), little is known about the effects of removing visual cues on the balance performance of subjects who vary in degrees of retardation and etiology (e.g., organic versus familial).

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Performance Balance

While little information exists on the equilibrium balance abilities of retarded persons, even less is known regarding their performance balance skills. Heath (1942, 1953) conducted two studies on the relationship between walking balance beams and MA scores with samples of institutionalized retarded boys. The first study involved 170 boys from the Vineland Training School, classified into endogenous or exogenous subgroups. In the endogenous or familial group, a correlation of 0.66 was obtained between MA and a weighted beam walking score; the correlation for the exogenous group was 0.07. Both correlations were reduced slightly when the effects of age were statistically nullified. A later replication (Heath, 1953) with a different sample yielded comparable findings. In both studies, the endogenous groups were younger and achieved higher IQ scores, which may have contributed to the disparate findings of the two samples. A later study by Distefano, Ellis, and Sloan (1958) found moderate to very low correlations between MA and beam walking scores for 76 male and female institutionalized retarded subjects. A well-controlled study of the performance balance abilities of retarded children has been reported by Rarick and Dobbins (1972). (See Section I1 for a more complete description of this study.) The performances of retarded (CAs 6-13 years) and nonretarded (CAs 6-9 years) children were contrasted on three balance beam tasks (forward, backward, and sideways) and a Stabilometer test requiring continuous adjustments to an unstable base of support. Retarded children performed appreciably below the level of nonretarded children on all tests, especially on more difficult tasks. On more difficult measures of performance balance, retarded children often achieved scores below those of nonretarded 6-year-old children. In contrast to the findings within the nonretarded sample, retarded girls were consistently below boys on all measures. Two studies discussed in greater detail in Section VI, Sloan (1951) and Turnquist and Marzolf (1954), used selected tasks of the Oseretsky tests to assess performance balance skills of retarded children. In Sloan’s study, retarded subjects were generally inferior to nonretarded subjects in jumping, hopping, and walking tasks. However, Turnquist and Marzolf (1954) reported few differences between groups on performance balance items of the Oseretsky scales. Their findings are generally supported by Francis and Rarick (1959) in a study of mildly retarded children enrolled in public school special classes. Using a beam walking task, they found retarded children evidenced the same patterns of development as nonretarded children. Furthermore, no appreciable differences were obtained between groups on this item.

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The scant evidence available prevents an accurate description of the performance balance skills of retarded persons. While there is some evidence of deficiency, retarded children appear less discrepant from nonretarded peers on simple balance skills than in other areas of gross motor skills development. On more complex tests of performance balance (e.g., backward beam walking), however, retarded children perform markedly below the levels of nonretarded peers. A most disturbing finding in Rarick and Dobbins (1972) was that mildly retarded children did not demonstrate expected growth in performance balance skills with increased age. V.

COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF FINE MOTOR ABILITIES

Due to the dearth of studies on the fine motor development of retarded persons, available information on several different fine motor abilities will be summarized briefly in this section. Fine motor acts were previously defined as those involving performance of small muscles such as the fingers, hand, and/or forearm (Espenschade, 1940). Generally, the term fine motor refers to hand speed, finger speed, arm speed, and manipulative dexterity. It may also refer to selected visual-motor tasks involving drawing with pencils or cutting with a scissors. Most available studies on the fine motor development of retarded persons have focused upon the performances of adolescent and adult populations. This focus on older persons rather than children is understandable, since skills in this area are typically considered an essential part of jobs generally assumed by many retarded and nonretarded adults. Indeed, the two most commonly used measures of manipulative (hand and finger) dexterity-the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Tests and the Purdue Pegboard-have been normed only on adults. Because of the unskilled and semi-skilled nature of many jobs assumed by retarded adults, researchers and persons interested in vocational evaluation have sought to determine the relationship of and importance of manipulative speed measures to job performance. Generally, moderate to substantial correlations have been found between measures of speed and dexterity on the Purdue Pegboard and Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Tests and measures of job performance as assessed by ratings or production rates on a variety of tasks (Elkin, 1967; Shulman, 1967; J. B. Taylor, 1964; Tobias & Gorelick, 1960). Studies on the relationship of intelligence tests scores (IQs, MAS) to scores on manipulative dexterity tasks have generally produced moderate correlations (i.e., 0.30-0.60) between the two variables (Attenborough & Farber, 1934; Distefano et al., 1958; Eyman, Dingman, & Windle, 1959;

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Heath, 1953; Tizard, OConnor, & Crawford, 1950; E. E. Wagner & Hawver, 1965). Most of these studies were conducted on samples obtained from sheltered workshops, and all studies used adolescents and adults as subjects. Comparative studies of retarded and nonretarded subjects also tend to show a relationship between measures of intelligence and manipulative dexterity. Cantor and Stacey (1951) used the Purdue Pegboard to compare 175 male mildly and moderately familial retarded institutional residents (IQs 42-82, CAs 14-18 years) to norms for industrial men and male service veterans. The retarded sample was significantly inferior on all comparisons to both nonretarded norm groups. With the sample of retarded subjects subdivided into IQ levels (high, middle, low), subjects with IQs between 42 and 59 were found to achieve scores significantly below those of subjects with higher IQ scores. Interestingly, 6 3 0 % of the sample of retarded subjects exceeded the average scores of the two nonretarded norm groups. Other studies with adolescents and young adults have also produced results documenting the inferior performance of mildly and moderately retarded subjects on measures of upper limb speed and dexterity (Holman, 1932; Tizard et al., 1950). Beaber (1960) compared adolescent mildly retarded pupils with two contrast groups equated on chronological or mental age using two measures of upper limb speed and dexterity. One measure assessed hand speed by tapping one hand in two positions separated from each other by an 8-inch space, the other task measured the speed of turning and placing pegs in a formboard. Retarded subjects were significantly inferior to nonretarded age peers on both tasks, but achieved levels of performance comparable to younger MA-matched contrast subjects. These results are similar to those obtained by Giles (1969) for retarded children between 9 and 12 years of age, by Howe (1959) for retarded pupils (CAs 6-12 years) on tapping speed and maze tracing tasks, and by Rarick and Dobbins (1972) using mildly retarded subjects between 6 and 13 years. In Giles’ study, retarded subjects were most deficient in comparisons with CA- and MAmatched controls on a design drawing task measuring visual-motor precision and control. While existing reports suggest that retarded subjects are inferior to nonretarded subjects on measures of upper limb speed and coordination, available evidence should be interpreted cautiously. Most reported studies have used samples of workshop and institutionalized retarded subjects and few studies have employed contrast groups equated on age and/or experience, relying instead on making comparisons between retarded subjects and normative samples who differ greatly in age, background, and nonmotoric abilities. No comprehensive study has yet been conducted which documents

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the development of fine motor skills of retarded persons across a wide age range (e.g., 6-2 1 years). Based upon the limited information available, it can be presumed that retarded children and adults are deficient in fine motor skills, but as yet the precise course of their development in this area is unknown. VI.

COMPARATIVE STUDIES WITH THE OSERETSKY TESTS

One of the most frequently used test instruments in studies of retarded persons has been the Oseretsky Tests of Motor Proficiency (Doll, 1946-1947) and various American adaptations of this scale. The scale was first published by Dr. N. Oseretsky, a Russian psychiatrist, in 1923. Test items in the original scale are organized into age levels, similar in structure to the original Binet-Simon Scale for measuring intelligence. According to Oseretsky, the tests assess six areas of motor performance (Doll, 1946-1947): 1. General static coordination-maintenance of equilibrium in a stationary position (e.g., standing on tiptoes). 2. Dynamic coordination of the hunds-gross and fine motor coordination of upper limbs (e.g., throwing a ball at a target, tracing mazes). 3. General dynamic coordination-maintenance of equilibrium through movement (e.g., walking, jumping, hopping). 4. Motor speed-speed of hands, fingers, and arms (e.g., sorting cards). 5. Simultaneous voluntary movements-simultaneous coordination of hands or of arms and legs (e.g., tapping feet and hands together in an alternating rhythm). 6. Asynkinesia-performance of motor acts without superfluous, associated movements (e.g., wrinkling the forehead without executing other movements). Prior to 1946, most of the research using the Oseretsky tests was conducted in European countries. Lassner (1948) has summarized much of this work on the scale. Due to deficiencies in the psychometric properties of the scale, several American psychologists have made substantial revisions in the original Oseretsky tests (Berk, 1957; Bruininks, in press; Cassel, 1949; Fredericks, Baldwin, Doughty, & Walter, 1972; Holbrook, 1953; Sloan, 1954; Stott, Moyes, & Henderson, 1972). The revision used most frequently in studies of retaded persons has been the Lincoln adaptation (Sloan, 1954). This scale consists of 36 of the original 85 scale items, arranged in an ascending order of difficulty. It was standardized on 380 boys and 369 girls, 6-14 years of age, from public schools in small towns in central Illinois. Approximately two-thirds of the test items consist of hand and arm movements

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measuring speed, dexterity, coordination, and rhythm, while the remaining items assess gross motor balance skills in a stationary position and while jumping. In separate studies, Thams (1955) and Vandenberg (1964) have conducted factor analytic studies of the Lincoln adaptation of the Oseretsky tests. Using Thurstone’s multiple factor method and Spearman’s singlecommon-factor method to analyze the performance of 211 elementary school-age boys, Thams (1955) concluded that there was no evidence to support the presence of Oseretsky’s postulated factors of motor performance. A general factor was obtained accounting for 20% of the variance of the subtests; the remaining 80% was attributable to both specific and error variance. A correlation of 0.70 was obtained between chronological age and test performance, suggesting the scale is a measure of motor development. Vandenberg (1964) analyzed test scores of samples of nonretarded and retarded subjects (institutional and community), using principal components with varimax and equamax solutions. Consistent with the results of Thams (1955), he found that it was not possible to rotate the results of the factor analysis to resemble Oseretsky’s hypothetical structure of motor components. The intercorrelations among items was low, suggesting a large amount of specific variance. While a clear factor structure did not emerge, Vandenberg concluded that the test could be interpreted as a measure of manual coordination and speed, balance, dynamic coordination of the body, and coordinated movements involving upper and lower limbs. There was some suggestion of greater clarity in the factor structure of older children in the sample. It can cautiously be concluded from a content analysis of test items and factor analytic studies that the original Oseretsky tests and the Lincoln adaptation assess primarily fine and gross motor skills development involving manual speed and coordination, equilibrium balance, coordinated movements of upper and lower limbs, and performance balance through selected tasks involving walking and jumping. A number of studies have reported comparisons of retarded and nonretarded subjects using the Oseretsky tests. Sloan (1951) compared the performance of 20 institutionalized subjects to 20 nonretarded comparison subjects matched on chronological age (mean of 10 years). The retarded sample had a mean IQ of 54, with a range of 45 to 70, and was divided into familial and undifferentiated groups. Normals were significantly better on all six subscales of the Oseretsky test, but no appreciable difference was obtained between familial and undifferentiated subjects or between boys and girls. Retarded children tended to perform most poorly in comparison to nonretarded children on complex tasks requiring simultaneous

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limb movements. This study corroborated an earlier study by Fallers (1948) with 30 mildly and moderately retarded girls. In a later study, Turnquist and Marzolf (1954) compared small samples of retarded and nonretarded children on the Lincoln-Oseretsky adaptation. The retarded subjects had a mean IQ of 69 (range of 55 to 83) and both groups had a mean age of 13 years, 6 months. Retarded subjects were significantly inferior on 20 test items, and only superior on five test items; they also performed lower on all categories of the test. Confirming the results of Fallers ( 1948 ) and Sloan ( 195 1 ) , the retarded sample performed most poorly in items requiring simultaneous movement, synkinesia, and equilibrium balance. Unlike previous studies, Malpass ( 1960) controlled for the possible effects of institutionalization by contrasting samples of institutionalized retarded children (mean IQ = 63), public school retarded children in special classes (mean IQ = 69), and nonretarded elementary school children. All groups were comparable in age (approximately 1 1.7 years). No significant differences were obtained in comparisons between boys and girls within any group. Although community subjects achieved higher scores than institutionalized subjects, the differences between the two samples did not reach statistical significance. The combined retarded group was significantly inferior to the nonretarded subjects in various motor development scores. In a similar study, Berk (1957) obtained findings comparable to those of Malpass (1960) on retarded, normal and gifted children matched on age, sex, race, and absence of motor involvement. Langan (1966) attempted to determine the relationship between motor proficiency, age, sex, and social class with 96 mildly retarded children enrolled in public school special classes (CAs between 7-6 to 10-5). There was no significant difference between the test performance of middle and lower class groups, or between boys and girls at any of the age levels. The retarded children as a group scored significantly below the normative sample on the Lincoln-Oseretsky Motor Development Scale, with evidence of progressive deficiency with advancing chronological age ( 1.5 years at 8 years, 2 years at 11 years). Analysis of studies using various adaptations of the Oseretsky tests reveals that retarded children are consistently inferior to nonretarded children in most motor proficiency areas. The findings of comparative studies are supported by studies reporting moderate to high correlations (.30to .60) between scores on IQ tests and performance on Oseretsky scales (Distefano et al., 1958; Hofmeister, 1969; Malpass, 1960; Rabin, 1957). Limited evidence indicates that the gap between retarded and nonretarded persons in motor performance widens with age. Analysis of subtest patterns reveals that the greatest deficiencies appear on items requiring bilateral coordination

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and equilibrium balance. No significant differences have been produced in comparisons of boys and girls or in comparisons involving mildly retarded institutional and community samples. Aside from limited correlational data, little evidence is available on the relationship of severity of retardation on total test performance or performance on various parts of the Oseretsky tests. VII.

TRAINING STUDIES

The weight of evidence reviewed in earlier sections of this chapter favors the conclusion that retarded persons are inferior to nonretarded persons in physical development and the development of gross and fine motor skills. Deficits in these areas are frequently cumulative with age and increase with the severity of intellectual handicap. A number of plausible hypotheses have been advanced to explain the subnormal development of motor skills (Malpass, 1963). One form of speculation looks to a genetic and constitutional basis for the deficits, although this argument has frequently been applied to describe the development of persons whose retardation is associated with organic conditions. An alternative view, supported by a considerable body of evidence, is that deficient motor proficiency results primarily from inadequate opportunities for practice. Analysis of studies cited earlier reveals many which included samples of institutionalized retarded persons whose regimen probably permitted little opportunity for practicing movement. Even among retarded children in community settings, Widdop (1967) has noted that in a national survey only 25% of the children in special classes received 60 minutes or more of physical education each week, with the majority receiving 30 minutes or less per week. Perhaps more important is the oft documented finding that many retarded children are denied access to normal play opportunities, due to lower social status among nonretarded peers (Bruininks, Rynders, & Gross, 1974; Meyerowitz, 1967). Although constitutional factors and curtailed opportunity adversely affect the development of motor abilities in retarded persons, it is impossible yet to precisely estimate their separate and interactive effect on development. Recognition of the inferior motor abilities of retarded persons and limited opportunities to develop them has led investigators to evaluate the effects on retarded subjects of planned gross motor training activities. A.

Effects of Physical Education

The first major, controlled study on the effects of physical education on the development of retarded children was conducted by Oliver (1958,

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1960) who explored whether a planned physical education program would change motor performance and intelligence test scores of mildly retarded boys. The experimental group comprised 19 boys, 13-15 years, with IQs ranging from 57 to 86 (mean = 70),from a small residential school. Boys in the control group were selected from a residential school of approximately the same size and were matched as closely as possible to the experimental group on IQ, age, size and physical condition. The control subjects had IQs between 54 and 8 1 (mean = 66). The experimental treatment consisted of a 10-week, intensive training program in which all school subjects except English and mathematics were replaced by physical education activities involving planned exercises and games. Controls remained in the regular school program and received two periods of physical education per week. Both groups were given pretest and posttest administrations of the Stanford-Binet, Goodenough, Ravens, Porteus Mazes, Goddard Form Board, selected stunt tasks from the Iowa Revision of the Brace Test, stunts from the Metheny-Johnson Test (rolls, jumps, etc.), and three items measuring physical fitness (50-yard dash, standing broad jump, and distance throw). After 10 weeks, gains of the experimental group significantly exceeded those of the control group in athletic achievement and physical fitness, although the differences for the two groups on items from the Iowa Revision of the Brace Test were not statistically significant. Significant gains for the experimental group were found on Stanford-Binet IQ, Porteus Mazes mental age, and Goodenough mental age. No significant differences between groups were obtained on mental ages from the Ravens or the Goddard Form Board. Furthermore, experimental subjects displayed no deterioration in academic achievement after release from classroom activities. Oliver attributed much of the growth of experimental boys to improvements he observed during the program in motivation, cooperation, and self-confidence. A later report (Oliver, 1960) yielded no significant gains for experimental subjects on measures of personality and peer status. A plausible, alternative explanation for Oliver’s findings is that subjects improved in intellectual tasks due to the increased attention they received rather than from the effects of the training program. Corder (1966) addressed this issue in a later study in which some attempt was made to control for possible Hawthorne effects. He divided 24 mildly retarded boys (CAs 12-0 to 16-7; IQs 50-80) in public school special classes into three groups of eight boys each, equated on age and IQ. One group received a physical education program of planned exercises and games for 20 school days. The second group, a Hawthorne contrast sample (officials), was responsible for rating the performance of boys in the experimental groups, but received no formal physical education. A control group received the usual classroom instruction. Subjects in all groups were administered pre-

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tests and posttests of the WISC, Youth Fitness Test, and the Cowell Personal Distance Scale, a measure of peer status. Equivocal results were obtained for WISC scores, with the training group achieving significantly higher full scale scores than the control group. However, differences in IQ gains between the experimental and Hawthorne contrast groups were not statistically significant. On the seven physical fitness measures, boys in the experimental group scored significantly higher than control and officials boys, with no appreciable difference between the officials and control boys. No significant differences appeared among groups on the peer status measure. Replications by Corder and Pridmore (1966) and Lowe ( 1966) in England have confirmed Corder’s (1966) results. These studies indicated that physical education activities produced positive gains on the development of gross motor abilities, but gains in IQ scores for experimental boys, although significantly greater than those of control boys, were not statistically beyond those made by Hawthorne control groups. Studies cited above contrasted training and nontraining programs with posttests immediately following the experimental treatment. However, they provided no information on the efficacy of different training strategies or on the more long-term effects of treatment. Solomon and Pangle (1966, 1967) addressed these issues in a carefully designed study with adolescent, mildly retarded boys. A sample of 42 retarded boys attending public school special classes was assigned by intact classrooms to one of four conditions: ( 1 ) physical education with immediate knowledge of results and frequent reinforcement; ( 2 ) physical education with remote, infrequent reinforcement; (3) quiet and table games (e.g., checkers) to control for possible Hawthorne effects; and ( 4 ) control. The experimental treatment included a 7-week, 45-minute per day structured physical education program of skill development exercises, games, and calisthenic drills. Subjects in the quiet and table games condition spent 45 minutes per day in various activities during the same period, but did not receive a structured physical education program. Subjects in the four groups were given pretests and immediate posttests with the Stanford-Binet, three of the seven Youth Fitness Tests (50-yard dash, sit-ups, chins, and predicted total score), and a test of grip strength. Three affective measures-the Piers and Harris Self-Concept Scale, Locus of Control and Evaluation, and a measure of aspiration level using the test of grip strength-were also used. After the training period, the two experimental groups registered significantly higher gains than the Hawthorne and control groups on subtests and the predicted total score of the Youth Fitness Test. The immediate reinforcement group gained significantly more than the delayed group on two of the four fitness measures. No appreciable differences emerged among the four conditions on

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IQ, grip strength, or affective measures. Using only the measures of fitness on the delayed posttests (after 6 weeks), the two experimental groups maintained their superiority over the two contrast groups. Solomon and Pangle (1966) acknowledge the possible contribution of other factors such as rapport with the senior author in testing, depressed pretests, and the low socioeconomic composition of the sample. Although this evidence attests to the efficacy of structured physical education activities in improving gross motor abilities of older mildly retarded boys, little is known regarding the effects of such training on younger children. Ross (1969) studied the effects of a 6-month structured program of games and activities with young, mildly retarded children. A sample of 40 mildly retarded boys and girls (CAs r l l to 10-1; IQs 50-80) was assigned to experimental and contrast samples. The study also included a sample of nonretarded contrast subjects of approximately the same age. Experimental subjects participated, in groups of four children or less, in a structured physical education program three times a week for 6 months (20- to 25-minute periods). Retarded control subjects received the standard school physical education program, and nonretarded children spent the same amount of time as experimental subjects in various activities outside their classrooms. Criterion measures were a Basic Skills Test (hitting, catching, throwing, etc.) and various Brace Test items. At the end of the treatment, experimental subjects made significantly greater gains than the retarded control group on the Basic Skills Test, but showed no difference from other groups on Brace Test items. The experimental group attained a posttest performance level comparable to the pretest level of the nonretarded control group on the Basic Skills Test, but not on items from the Brace Test. Ross felt the findings implied that the effects of the program were task specific and did not generalize to those gross motor skills given little direct practice in the training program. She also noted initial reluctance from experimental children to assume leadership roles and participate in games, a characteristic substantially conflicting with the behavior observed among nonretarded children. The efficacy of different teaching approaches in physical education was also investigated by Rarick and Broadhead (1968). They randomly assigned large samples of mildly retarded (N = 275) and minimally brain injured (N = 206) elementary school age children to one of four conditions: (1) an individualized physical activity program, (2) a grouporiented physical activity program, (3) an art program to control for possible Hawthorne effects, and (4) a nontreatment control group. All programs were taught by classroom teachers for approximately 35 minutes per day for a period of 20 weeks. Children were administered pre- and posttests of the WISC, the Youth Fitness Test, and the Cowefl Personal

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Distance Scale. Children in the three experimental programs evidenced significant gains in motor, intellectual, and emotional behavior compared to control group children. The two experimental physical education programs produced the greatest gains in motor development, with a tendency for greater gains to occur in all areas within the individualized program. The art program produced the greatest gains in emotional behavior, while all three programs were equally effective in modifying intelligence test scores. Consistent with these results, other studies have found that structured physical education programs produce some positive changes in physical fitness (Chasey & Wyrick, 1971; Gearheart, 1963; Kuklentz, 1972) and in gross and fine motor skills (Argenti, 1969). However, Chasey (1970) found little transfer of training from a physical education program to a measure of academic readiness for mildly retarded residential school children (6-12 years). Finally, Goheen (1967) produced some evidence that a skill-oriented physical education was more effective than play-oriented and free play programs among mildly retarded boys in institutions. The few studies on the effects of physical education upon the intellectual, social, and motor development of moderately and severely retarded children are generally less well designed than those conducted with mildly retarded pupils. In one of the better studies, Funk (1970) assessed the effects of a program on moderately retarded children enrolled in a community day school. Twenty children were assigned to an experimental condition and received 30-minute lessons each day for 54 days. A group of 18 contrast children had free activity or remained in their classrooms for this period. Pretest and posttest scores showed superior gains for experimental children on two out of five physical fitness measures. However, no appreciable differences were found between groups in gains on a motor development test of fine and gross motor skills, the Cain-Levine Social Competency Scale and the Draw-a-Man test. Similar mixed results regarding the effects of training in gross motor skills with moderately retarded children have been obtained by Hayden (1964), G. R. Taylor (1969), Sharpe (1968) and Widdop, Barton, Cleary, Proyer, and Wall (1969). Brown (1968) found that moderately retarded boys (10-17 years) made significant gains on three items of the Kraus-Weber Test following 6 weeks of physical education; however, no control group was used. It can be concluded from available studies, then, that mildly retarded pupils improve significantly in physical fitness following training. Some evidence indicates that some of these gains remain 6 weeks following termination of formal training, although such retention may be attributed to other, uncontrolled factors involved in the administration of criterion tests (Solomon & Pangle, 1966). When studies controlling for possible Hawthorne effects are reviewed, however, participation in structured physical education

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activities does not appear to generalize to improvements in fine motor skills, intelligence test performance, and social and emotional adjustment. Not surprisingly, the effects of training in gross motor skills are task specific, for Seashore (1942) has shown low correlations between fine and gross motor skills. Evidence on the benefits of physical education activities for more severely retarded pupils is less conclusive than that for the less retarded. Some evidence shows improvements by moderately retarded pupils in gross motor proficiency with training, but limitations in the design and execution of extant studies mandates a cautious interpretation. The methodology of reported studies in this area deserves comment. Treatments employed have been of limited duration (usually less than 6 months) and have generally involved administering the same activities to all subjects. As yet, diagnostically based interventions designed to improve specific performance deficits of pupils over more extended time periods have not been carefully researched in any study. A second limitation of reported studies is excessive concentration on mildly retarded, adolescent boys. Consequently, little is known regarding the long-term effects of structured training started early in the child's life. The effects of structured programs in physical education using younger children, girls at all ages, and more severely handicapped children need more attention. Finally, little assessment has been made of the effects of training programs on levels of arousal, attention, and aspiration among retarded subjects, although Cratty (1967) has cited evidence on the facilitating effects of mild exercise on levels of arousal and attention in nonhandicapped persons. Carefully developed criterion measures in these areas would broaden the evaluation of structured physical education training programs. '

B.

Gross and Fine Motor Abilities

A small number of training studies have been conducted on the development of motor abilities that cannot be classified either as physical education activities or remedial perceptual-motor training. Generally, these studies use eclectic training approaches involving a mixture of gross or fine motor activities, or practice in specific fine motor tasks. Howe (1958) sought to determine if systematic practice would erase initial differences between mildly retarded and nonretarded elementary school children in three selected tasks: ball throw at a target, maze tracing, and Burpee-squat thrusts (measure of agility and power). Results after 10 days of practice revealed that nonretarded children maintained their initial superiority over retarded peers on all three tasks throughout the

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training period. While both groups appeared to profit from practice, there were no differences in the amount of improvement made by the two groups. In one of the best controlled trainining studies, Lillie (1967) conducted a remedial motor training program based on an analysis of items from the Lincoln-Oseretsky Motor Development Scale with mildly retarded disadvantaged preschool children (IQs of 50 to 85; CAs of 57 to 7 0 months). Children were classified into either experimental, Hawthorne-control, or home-control groups. Experimental children were divided into two approximately equal groups based on levels of initial motor performance and received 65 sequential motor training lessons developed to remediate specific weaknesses in gross and fine motor skills. The gross motor areas included activities to develop equilibrium balance, performance balance, gross motor coordination, and flexibility. Fine motor activities emphasized finger speed, arm steadiness and arm precision, and manipulative dexterity. All lessons were taught by the child’s classroom teacher. Hawthorne-control children received a traditional kindergarten program, while the home-control children received no formal training in motor skills. At the end of the training period all three groups made significant gains on gross motor items of the Lincoln-Oseretsky test, but no group differed in amount of improvement. On fine motor skills, experimentals gained significantly in comparison to the other two groups; the kindergarten group made greater gains than the home-control children. Lillie concluded that training was effective in increasing the fine motor proficiency of young mildly retarded children, but that unstructured play was apparently as effective as structured lessons in improving gross motor skills requiring balance, flexibility, and coordination. A study of potential significance for training profoundly retarded persons was reported by Webb (1969). Based upon systematic observations and the conceptualizations of Piaget on early sensory-motor development, she used four areas of impaired development to describe the symptomatology of profoundly retarded residents in institution wards: lack of awareness and arousal, gross impairment in movement, little ability to manipulate aspects of the immediate environment, and deficient posture and locomotion. (Webb also presents a comprehensive rating scale to assess early sensory-motor development of severely handicapped children. ) A sample of 32 subjects (CAs of 2 years, 6 months to 17 years, 6 months; median Vineland social ages of 8 months) received an average of 8 months of intensive, diagnostically based instruction for 1 hour per day, 4 days a week. Subjects made noticeable improvements during the training program in all areas of an experimental sensory-motor developoment scale, especially in movement skills. Gains were found in a number of specific sensorymotor skills and a high degree of consensus was obtained among indepen-

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dent judgements of ward and therapy personnel on the extent of improvement made by children enrolled in the program ( 8 s of 0.99). Progress in the development of sensory and motor skills was particularly noticeable among younger children. Unfortunately, failure to include a control group makes it impossible to determine whether the gains from treatment exceeded those expected through maturation. Statistical data and descriptive information on the program, however, suggest to this writer that the training and evaluation procedures used by Webb are useful in planning and researching programs for persons with serious sensory and motor impairments. Aside from Lillie (1967), few controlled training studies have been designed to improve the fine motor proficiency of retarded persons. Using mildly and moderately retarded adolescents and young adults, a number of investigators have reported significant gains on standardized manipulative dexterity tests following brief periods of practice (Anderson, Siegel, Tellegren, and Fisch, 1968; Kahn & Burdett, 1967; Rotman, 1963; Tobias & Gorelick, 1960). Modest improvements in some aspects of manipulative dexterity have also been reported by Giles (1969) and Speakman (1973), using younger, mildly retarded children. Most available motor training studies with retarded persons have included assessment of the effects of training on the development of motor skills, or possible generalization of training to performance on intelligence tests or measures of social competency. In contrast to the use of traditional criterion measures, a recent study conducted by Maloney and Charrette (1970) follows the theory of attention deficit in the retarded advanced by Zeaman and House (1963) to test the efficacy of a gross-motor approach (walking balance beams) for training attention control with severely and profoundly retarded children (CAs 6-12 years). A sample of 22 subjects was randomly assigned in equal numbers to experimental and contrast groups. Experimental children received 5-minute daily sessions for a period of 4 weeks ( 5 days per week). Control subjects received an equivalent amount of attention by having the experimenter talk and play with them. Following training, the walking board group learned in significantly fewer trials than the control group on a two-choice discrimination training problem. Apparently the effects of training enhanced attentioncontrol in the experimental group, although no control was exercised over the extent and quality of inadvertent reinforcement provided subjects in the two conditions. Apparently, modest improvements in the fine motor skills of retarded persons can result from even short-term practice. However, caution should be used in interpreting available findings, since few studies have involved systematic, long-term training under carefully controlled conditions. Defini-

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tive conclusions on the effects of training fine motor skills must await more controlled studies, using a longer training period and appropriate follow-up testing to assess the permanence of treatment gains. C.

Remedial Perceptual-Motor Training Programs

Interest has been renewed in the use of structured perceptual-motor training programs with handicapped children by several theorists who maintain that such activities are an essential antidote to the serious developmental deficiencies of many handicapped children. Most prominent among modern proponents have been Barsch (1967), Kephart (1964, 1971), Doman and Delacato (Delacato, 1963, 1966), and Getman (1962). Their ideas are often reminiscent of those advanced 75-100 years ago by Itard, Seguin, and Montessori. Although a number of different motor-based theories have been recently espoused to explain serious deficits in the development of children, they are often remarkably similar in their training principles and strategies. Generic to most programs are the assumptions ( 1 ) that early learning is essentially motoric, (2) that motor learnings must precede perceptual and symbolic learning, (3) that motor abilities follow a hierarchical course of development, (4) that failure to develop satisfactory perceptual-motor patterns and generalizations leads to asynchronous development and problems in later symbolic learning, and ( 5 ) that remediation of perceptual-motor deficits must be accomplished before children can cope with the learning demands of traditional school environments. This section will focus ostensibly on the efficacy of training procedures recommended by Kephart (1964, 1971) and Doman and Delacato (Delacato, 1963, 1966), since their ideas have most stimulated research with retarded children. Other reviews of the concepts and research support for various perceptual-motor training programs can be found in Balow (1971), Cratty (1972), Goodman and Hammill (1973), and in Robbins and Glass (1968). TRAINING PROGRAM 1. KEPHART’S Kephart’s theory and perceptual-motor training program have significantly influenced current practices in special education. Over the past 20 years, Kephart has been one of the strongest proponents of the view that efficient symbolic learning depends upon the child developing an adequate orientation to basic realities of the universe, especially to the elements of space and time. He postulates that the infant’s first interactions with the environment are motoric, and that failure to develop satisfactory motor

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patterns during early childhood can seriously disrupt later perceptual and conceptual learning (Kephart, 1964, 1971 ) . A major distinction is made by Kephart between a motor skill and a motor pattern. He defines motor skills as acts performed with a high degree of precision to attain specific results which have limited application and little variability. In contrast, motor patterns involve behaviors of far less precision, but express more variability than motor skills. According to Kephart ( 1964, 1971 ) , development of adequate motor patterns is an important developmental task of early childhood. He identifies four motor patterns as integral to normal development: 1. Balance and maintenance of posture-stable, fluid relationship to gravity necessary to establish spatial relationships; 2. Locomotion-moving the body through space efficiently, essential to investigate relationships between objects in the environment; 3. Contact-exploring relationships among objects within the environment through direct manipulation as in the acts of grasping, reaching, and releasing; 4. Receipt and propulsion-investigating movements in space by making contact with moving objects and imparting movement to objects. To achieve readiness for learning, the child should develop these patterns until they can be performed without conscious attention. Consolidation of motor patterns enables the child to focus all of his attention on the purpose, rather than the process of the motor act. Each motor generalization is begun and consolidated during discernible stages of development. Another tenet central to Kephart's theory is perceptual-motor match. He maintains that perceptual data become meaningful only when they are correlated with previously accumulated motor information. This permits the child to establish stable directional relationships necessary for reading and other symbolic activities. Furthermore, the child must develop the temporal concepts of simultaneity, rhythm, and sequence. Roach and Kephart (1966) have developed a clinical survey instrument, the Purdue Perceptual-Motor Survey, to assess a child's perceptual-motor development. Kephart also formulated a comprehensive remedial training program to develop and consolidate fundamental motor patterns (Kephart, 1971). A number of studies have investigated the efficacy of training procedures recommended by Kephart with mildly retarded children. Fisher (1971 ) studied the effects of training exercises on mildly retarded children enrolled in elementary school special classes. Out of a sample OC 102 students, 54 pupils (mean CA about 9.5 years) were identified as deficient in perceptual-motor skills by the Purdue Perceptual-Motor Survey. (The method used to identify the lowest functioning children was not cited.) Children

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were randomly assigned to three groups: a perceptual-motor training group who received two sessions per week for 44 months; a Hawthorne-control group who received equivalent time from the experimenter, but participated in various table games; and a control group who received no special attention and followed the regular classroom program. Pretest and posttest comparisons on WISC-IQ scores, measures of achievement, and scores on the Purdue Perceptual-Motor Survey failed to yield any results favoring the experimental treatment. Post hoc comparisons involving a small number of children under 10 years yielded some significant differences in favor of the experimental group in perceptual-motor skills. Other studies using perceptual-motor training with mildly retarded school children have yielded conflicting results. Haring and Stables ( 1966 ) provided 30 minutes of daily instruction for 7 months to 13 children (mean age about 10 years, 7 month). The treatment was planned and administered to remedy specific perceptual-motor deficiencies of each child. During the experimental treatment, 1 1 control children followed the regular classroom program. Both groups were given an experimental perceptual-motor test before, immediately after, and 4 months after the end of the treatment. Experimental children gained significantly more than control children in perceptual-motor functioning and maintained their superiority on the follow-up test. Unfortunately, no control for the attention received by experimental children was provided for the contrast group and no information on the reliability of the experimental perceptual-motor scale was cited in the report. Using a shorter treatment period ( 2 months), Alley and Carr (1968) found no difference in the gains made by 28 experimental and 28 contrast children (mean age of 8 years, 9 months) on the Lincoln-Oseretsky Motor Development Scale, Purdue Perceptual-Motor Survey, Benton Visual Retention Test, Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception, or the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities. The most extensive and best controlled studies using Kephart’s perceptual-motor training procedures have been conducted with severely retarded subjects. Edgar, Ball, McIntyre, and Shotwell (1969) tested the effects of perceptual-motor training with 11 organically impaired, moderately, and severely retarded institutionalized children between the ages of 3 and 8 years. An attention-control group was constituted and equated with the experimental group on age, IQ, physical development, and the ability to use sensory-motor equipment. Experimental children received 1 5- to 20minute daily lessons, three times a week for a period of 6 to 8 months, while control subjects participated in games and activities for an equivalent period of time. (To control for possible incidental improvements resulting from games, experimental children were also provided one weekly 15-min-

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Ute session with similar play activities.) The results revealed that experimental children made significantly greater gains than control children on total scores and on all but one subscale of the Gesell Developmental Schedules. Experimentals displayed a mean increase of 6.0 months, while controls gained 2.2 months during the 8-month treatment period. Although Edgar et al. (1969) controlled for possible Hawthorne effects, there was no systematic control for the effects of differences in the amount and quality of inadvertent reinforcement received by the two groups. It is conceivable, for example, that the activities in the experimental perceptual-motor training program provided more opportunities for structured reinforcement than the less formal activities provided the attention-control group. Maloney, Ball, and Edgar (1970) attempted to control more carefully for the effects of interpersonal factors and inadvertent reinforcement. A sample of 59 moderately or severely retarded institutionalized males was randomly assigned to one of three conditions: a sensory-motor training group, an attention-control comparison group, and a conventional control group. Subjects in the three groups averaged approximately 14 years in age and had mean IQ scores of about 42. The training program consisted of 40-minute training sessions, 3 days a week, for 2 months. The attentioncontrol subjects spent the equivalent amount of time playing with puzzles and various table games, and experimenters tried to provide interpersonal contact and reinforcement equivalent to that given the experimental group. The sensory-motor training group made significantly greater gains than the control groups on two measures of body image, but not on a test of finger localization. Furthermore, experimental subjects gained significantly more than the other two groups on items of the Purdue Perceptual-Motor Survey. Most of the improvement occurred on test items measuring concepts of laterality. In a far less controlled study, Daw (1964) produced some evidence of improvement on the Goodenough Draw-a-Man Test following a 6-month training in Kephart exercises. To refine further the experimental procedures employed by Maloney et al. (1970), Morrison and Pothier (1972) studied structured sensory motor training with retarded children attending a community nursery school program. (No IQ data were available, but it may be assumed that most subjects were moderately retarded.) The 27 children were assigned to one of three conditions: a sensory-motor training group, a gross-motor training group, and an attention-control group. Children in the three groups received 20- to 30-minute daily individual or small group sessions for a period of 6 months. The sensory-motor condition used techniques recommended by Kephart, while children in the gross-motor training program participated in games and activities requiring large muscles (e.g., running).

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Children in the attention-control condition interacted with an experimenter in a larger room using various toys and balls. The Denver Developmental Screening Test was used to assess the effects of the treatment, a measure which purports to assess gross and fine motor performance, language development, and personal-social skills of preschool and handicapped children. Children in the sensory-motor group scored significantly higher in full-scale scores, gross motor skills, and language than other groups. No differential gains were noted in fine motor or in personal-social skills. The authors speculated that failure to find increases on fine motor skills favoring experimental treatment may have been due to a lack of readiness in this area, consistent with Kephart’s ( 197 1 ) contention that motor skills development progresses from gross to fine. The findings of Morrison and Pothier (1972) directly contrast those of Richardson ( 1970) who administered an ecelectic perceptual-motor or gross-motor training procedure to older moderately and severely retarded children. Following 17 weeks of 30-minute daily lessons, no differences in gains were made between perceptual-motor and gross-motor treatment groups on IQ, social competency, or Lincoln-Oseretsky test scores. It should be noted, however, that Richardson used a shorter treatment period and his sample was considerably older than that of Morrison and Pothier (1972), ranging in age from about 6 to 13 years. Studies using perceptual-motor training procedures recommended by Kephart (1971) have yielded conflicting evidence on the effects of such training procedures with mildly retarded pupils. Only one study reported findings supporting such structured training in improving perceptual-motor skills of mildly retarded children (Haring & Stables, 1966); however, this study presented no evidence of reliability or validity for the test instrument. Moreover, no systematic control was exercised for the increased attention and inadvertent reinforcement presumably received by children in the experimental treatment. Results supporting the efficacy of Kephart’s perceptual-motor training have been obtained with young, severely retarded children. In a number of well-controlled studies, children receiving procedures recommended by Kephart (1971 ) have evidenced gains in selected areas of perceptual-motor development (Edgar et al., 1969; Maloney et al., 1970; Morrison & Pothier, 1972). However, generalization of these results to other developmental areas-such as cognitive, social, and language development-has not yet been demonstrated with young, severely retarded children. The limited data available suggest that structured perceptual-motor training may enhance the motor development of young, severely retarded children. Reported studies suggest that structured, diagnostically based treatment approaches to specific deficits in functioning produce more substantial

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results than less structured treatments. More long-term studies, spanning 1 year or more, are needed to test the effectiveness of perceptual-motor training procedures recommended by Kephart ( 1971 ) . Such studies should identify the most appropriate ages for treatment, the characteristics of retarded children who seem to benefit most from such procedures, and the effects of training on motor development and ancillary cognitive and affective behavior. They should also determine whether the effects, if any, are maintained following termination of training. 2. THEORY OF NEUROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION The Theory of Neurological Organization advanced principally by Doman and Delacato at the Institute for the Achievement of Human Potential in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, has generated considerable debate and controversy in the last decade. Delacato (1963, 1966) and Thomas (1969) contain a more complete explication of the Theory of Neurological Organization. The central tenet of the Theory of Neurological Organization is that “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.” This means that human neurological development progresses through the same developmental stages the species undergoes in the process of evolving from simple to complex neurological organization (i.e., from spinal cord to midbrain to cortex to complex organization). It is presumed that failure to pass through an invariant sequence of development, assessed ostensibly by means of movement patterns, indicates poor neurological organization and leads to serious problems in development. Thomas (1969) outlined a number of principles of the theory: 1. The brain is organized hierarchically, with maturation of higher brain levels dependent on the functional integrity of lower levels. 2. During early stages of development, functional use increases the size and efficiency of neurological structures. 3. Systematic sensory input and motor activities are necessary for the development of symbolic learning. Learning is considered a sensory process that must be reinforced by motor functioning. 4. The neurological organization of damaged brains can often be improved by increasing the duration, intensity, and frequency of motor activities evidenced in the process of normal human development. 5 . Severely handicapped persons must retrace the hierarchical steps of normal development with motor activities and sensory inputs from the period of early infancy. Treatment procedures recommended to attain full neurological organization are designed to effect improvements in cerebral hemispheric dominance through a program of sensory-motor exercises. One of the most dis-

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cussed aspects of the approach is motor patterning, in which the arms, legs, and head of the child are simultaneously and rhythmically manipulated in a manner characteristic of crawl learning patterns typically observed in young children (Delacato, 1953, 1966; Thomas, 1969). However, patterning exercises are not used with children who can crawl well (Thomas, 1969). The program also includes a sequence of other crawling, creeping, and walking exercises, as well as activities to stimulate language development, visual perception, auditory perception, tactile perception, and ocular-motor control. A Developmental Profile designed by Institute personnel is used to diagnose initial development and progress made during the course of treatment. Few studies have systematically examined the efficacy of DomanDelacato training procedures with retarded children. Geddes ( 1968) tried to determine whether patterning exercises were more effective than a conventional physical education program in promoting gross and fine motor skills. Following approximately 3 months of daily 30-minute classes, the physical education training group achieved significantly greater improvements over the patterning group on the standing broad jump. No differences between groups emerged on an agility run, the hurdle jump, or on measures of performance balance and fine motor coordination. A number of methodological flaws were present in the design of the study. Little apparent control was exercised over the treatments; only two groups assigned as intact classes of seven students participated in the study, and no evidence was provided regarding the pretreatment motor functioning of experimental or control children. Perhaps few children in either group needed the type of training provided through the patterning or physical education programs. A study similar in design, with most of the same limitations, was conducted by Wilseck (1968) who also failed to produce findings favorable to a patterning program, as assessed by changes in performance on the LincolnOseretsky Motor Development Scale. Kershner (1968) reported an intensive study of physical education and training procedures recommended by Doman and Delacato with moderately retarded children attending community special classes. Children were assigned as intact classes to the experimental training program (N = 13) or to a contrast program in which they received a program of gross motor exercises and games. The treatment period was for 15 weeks and lasted the entire 54 hour school day. The teacher of the experimental group participated in the training conference conducted by the Institute for the Achievement of Human Potential. Results of the study revealed that experimental subjects gained significantly more on the creeping section of the Developmental Profile and on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) than those in the gross motor activities condition. However, the results on the PPVT should be interpreted cautiously since initial differ-

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ences favored control children by approximately 22 points. Even with statistical correction for pretest differences, differences in mean gains of the two groups on this test could be an artifact of regression and/or differences in subjects (motivation, etc.) uncorrectable by statistical adjustment. No differential gain in motor test performance was evidenced by the two groups on an adapted version of the Vineland-Oseretsky Development Tests. Kershner perceptively noted a number of limitations in the experimental design of study-including inadequate randomization of subjects to treatments, small samples, and possible initial differences between groups-and recommended that the findings be interpreted with caution. Since only two groups were used in the study, the enthusiasm of the teacher who attended the Institute program may have biased the study,in favor of the experimental condition. The wide age range of the sample (8-1 8 years), moreover, undoubtedly resulted in inclusion of a number of subjects in the experimental program with adequately developed basic movement patterns. Fredericks (1969) designed a well-controlled study to improve the coordination of moderately retarded, Down’s Syndrome children (CAs 7-1 2 years). Out of a sample of 72 subjects, an equal number of children was randomly assigned to one of three groups: (1 ) a Doman-Delacato program which stressed homolateral and cross-lateral patterning and crawling; (2) a training program of gross and fine motor activities (e.g., pegboard activities, beam walking) based on behavior modification principles of shaping, operant discrimination, chaining of responses and reinforcement; or (3) a nontreatment control group. Half the subjects in each condition were given pretests and periodic tests throughout the treatment, while the remaining subjects participated in the same conditions, but only received posttests. Children in experimental treatments were administered 20 minutes of daily instruction in periods of 5 minutes for a total of 9 weeks. Motor performance was assessed by means of a modified version of the Lincoln-Oseretsky Motor Development Scale and the Doman-Delacato Developmental Profile. On the modified Lincoln-Oseretsky scale, children in the behavior modification group gained significantly more than control subjects during the treatment period. No significant differences in performance were obtained between the two experimental treatments or between the DomanDelacato and control groups. These results were confirmed when test items were classified into gross and fine motor categories and on a follow-up test administered 3 months after the treatments. No differences among groups were obtained on the Developmental Profile. Analysis of performance curves revealed that children in both groups improved in motor skills throughout the 9-week training period, suggesting potential benefits of more long-term training.

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The Doman-Delacato theory and training method is not without critics.

A joint position statement of several professional and consumer organizations has cited several major criticisms of the theory and method, including these (Official Statement, 1968) : 1. Promotional methods often unfairly question the adequacy of parents if they refuse treatment. 2. Demands of the prescribed program may lead to neglect of other family members and needs. 3. It is claimed that unless therapy is rigidly followed, the child's potential will be damaged. 4. Children in the program are often restricted from engaging in spontaneous age-appropriate activities-e.g., walking and listening to musiceven though little data are offered to support curtailment of such activities. 5. No evidence is available on the reliability and validity of the primary diagnostic instrument used to assess the effects of the program, namely the Doman-Delacato Developmental Profile. 6. Undocumented claims of improvement have been made in a number of cases which extend beyond the direct treatment of neurological dysfunction (e.g., hastening the evolutionary process). 7. Criticism is made of conventional child-rearing practices without the benefit of supporting evidence, thereby potentially increasing the anxiety of parents. This statement and a review by Freeman (1967) further challenge the validity of the neurological organization theory, the central role assigned to cerebral dominance, and question the adequacy of studies advanced in support of the training methods. Both sources suggest that the approach has a tendency to ignore the natural clinical course of many persons with brain damage, many of whom demonstrate either partial or complete spontaneous recovery of functioning. Furthermore, some studies cited by the Institute in support of their procedures have been strongly criticized by Robbins and Glass (1968) for inadequate experimental design. Professional medical groups and neurological research seriously question the validity of the theory of neurological organization (Cratty, 1970; Freeman, 1967). However, procedures recommended by Doman and Delacato may have value for improving the perceptual-motor functioning and related behaviors of children with serious sensory-motor defects (Balow, 1971 ) . Evaluation of the efficacy and appropriateness of such procedures with selected children must await the findings of more rigorously controlled investigations. To date, it is impossible to specify with any confidence how or whether the procedures should be applied and for whom they are most appropriate.

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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Although serious limitations are common to the design of most reported studies, a number of tentative conclusions appear justified regarding the physical and motor development of retarded persons. 1 . A few studies suggest that the structure of motor abilities among samples of retarded persons is similar to that of nonretarded persons. However, the factor structure appears less differentiated among mildly retarded school students than among samples of nonretarded subjects. This speculation is based upon the results of selected factor analytic studies and the generally higher correlations found between intelligence test scores and measures of motor proficiency with retarded as compared to nonretarded subjects (Clausen, 1966; Kral, 1972; Malpass, 1963). 2. Retarded children and adults have been consistently found markedly inferior to nonretarded persons on measures of physical development, gross motor, and fine motor abilities. As the seventy of intellectual defect increases, motor function correspondingly decreases. Furthermore, deficits in performance of retarded compared to nonretarded subjects become progressively larger with age, although data to support this conclusion have been derived from cross-sectional rather than longitudinal studies. 3. Although little continuity exists among studies in sampling and instrumentation, deficiencies in the development of motor skills for retarded adolescents and adults appear to be of approximately the same magnitude for gross and fine motor abilities. Fine motor abilities of retarded children are probably more impaired than gross motor abilities, since motor development proceeds from gross to fine. However, the growth of fine and gross motor abilities in retarded children of widely varying ages has not been systematically explored in any single study. 4. The motor proficiency of retarded persons seems most deficient in areas of equilibrium and performance balance, locomotion, complex coordination, and in measures of manipulative dexterity. Compared to nonretarded peers, samples of retarded school-age students appear least deficient in areas of physical fitness if they are provided an ample opportunity to engage in a structured program of physical education. Analysis of these performance patterns shows that motor performance of retarded persons is most impaired on measures which require: ( a ) high incentive motivation for optimum performance; (b) conceptual understanding of movement patterns demanding a sequence of responses (e.g., as in squat thrusts); and (c) movement patterns requiring simultaneous or sequential integration of various senses and parts of the body as in activities requiring balance, locomotion, and explosive leg strength.

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5. Researchers have often concluded that retarded children are closer to chronological age peers in motor than in intellectual development (Francis & Rarick, 1959; Rarick & Dobbins, 1972; Stein, 1968). This conclusion is based ostensibly on results obtained with samples of mildly retarded children, with comparisons made to performance of normative samples on standardized tests or to samples of nonretarded subjects who are not comparable to retarded subjects in age and/or experience. Equally plausible explanations can be advanced for the appearance of less developmental deficiency in motor compared to intellectual development in studies of retarded children. This result may be partly due to effects of statistical regression, which would normally lead to a prediction of less extreme scores on motor tests for subjects initially selected for significantly subnormal performance on intelligence tests. That intelligence tests and motor tests are normed on different samples may also be an important consideration. Furthermore, the discrepancy in motor achievement between cultural-familial retarded and nonretarded subjects is much less pronounced than when comparisons are made between nonretarded and retarded children with organic impairments. Possibly some mildly retarded children are developmentally less motor impaired than intellectually impaired, whereas other mildly retarded and more severely handicapped children are equally deficient in both areas. Some support for this suspicion may be found in studies reporting greater variability in performance among mildly retarded than nonretarded subjects and overlap in the distributions of performance of the two groups on tests of motor proficiency (Howe, 1959; Rarick & Dobbins, 1972; Sloan, 1951). Adoption of the suspect conclusion that retarded children are least impaired in motor abilities may lead educational practitioners to erroneously conclude that many retarded students are less in need of training in motor skills than in academic and communication skills. A cautious interpretation is warranted for findings from studies on the physical and motor development of retarded persons, due to persistent methodological problems. First, the sampling strategies used by investigators have generally yielded unrepresentative or restricted groups of retarded subjects. Most investigators have selected small samples of subjects within narrow age ranges, and few have studied the motor development of female retarded persons. Moreover, many studies have compared institutional retarded with community nonretarded subjects, thereby confounding the results by factors of experiential history, diet, and availability of opportunity to participate in structured and unstructured motor experiences. Differences between retarded and nonretarded children in opportunity to engage in motor activities have been documented by investigators (Ross, 1969; Widdop, 1967). Second, most studies reviewed for this chapter employed a highly re-

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stricted range of instruments to assess motor proficiency. Few studies, for example, have selected tasks based on theoretical or empirically derived models of motor development, relying instead on available standardized motor performance measures. A notable exception was a study by Rarick and Dobbins (1972) which used comprehensive assessments of motor abilities. Finally, investigators have generally ignored the possible iduence of motivational and conceptual factors in assessing the motor proficiency of retarded persons. A number of studies noted that many retarded subjects exhibit higher expectancies for failure and less incentive to achieve than nonretarded children (MacMillan, 1971). Solomon (1968) and Wagner (1968) have found that retarded children performed better on motor tests when provided motivational incentives, and that various motivational incentives had different effects on retarded and nonretarded boys in performing motor tasks. Also, little attention has been given to the conceptual complexity of various motor tasks. In the case of more complex motor acts, comprehension of verbal communication and memory requirements are often hopelessly confounded with motor performance, making it difficult to determine if deficits exhibited by samples of retarded subjects have a motoric, affective, and/or intellective basis. Although Itard, Seguin, and Montessori made early efforts to improve the sensory-motor abilities of retarded persons, little scientific study of the effects of motor training upon retarded subjects was conducted prior to 1960. Most investigators have researched the effects of structured experience in physical education on measures of physical fitness, social development, and intelligence. Consistent, statistically reliable gains in measures of physical fitness are uniformly reported for retarded students following short-term experiences in physical education activities. However, more coiltrolled studies have not substantiated findings of Oliver (1958) on the generalization of training to improved performance on intellective measures. Since nothing in experimental physical education activities is designed specifically to effect changes in intelligence test performance, a plausible explanation for increases is that experimental subjects changed other behaviors which contribute to overall efficiency involved in taking tests. Increased self-confidence and achievement motivation, improvements in attention span, and rapport with examiners have been observed as concomitants of experiences in structured physical education (Oliver, 1958; Solomon & Pangle, 1967). An affective explanation for changes in IQ scores through training is given indirect support by the well-documented conclusions that motor abilities are highly specific (Fleishman, 1964), that the effects of motor training are task specific rather than general (Seashore, 1942), and that mild exercise appears to facilitate performance in learning tasks

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(Cratty, 1967). Apparently structured experiences in physical education improve the motor fitness of retarded students and may, indirectly, positively change affective and physical characteristics which contribute to improved performance on unpracticed tasks. A few studies suggest that diagnostically based training programs achieve the most substantial changes in improving the motor development of retarded subjects (Haring & Stables, 1966; Lillie, 1967; Rarick & Broadhead, 1968). In diagnostically based programs, intensive training is provided to remedy specific motor deficiencies of children, generally through individualized or small group instruction. A few well-controlled studies using activities recommended by Kephart have reported positive changes in selected perceptual-motor skills of severely retarded children (Edgar et al., 1969; Maloney et al., 1970; Morrison & Pothier, 1972). However, there is no convincing evidence from wellcontrolled studies to support claims made by Kephart (1971) or Doman and Delacato (Delacato, 1963, 1966) that structured perceptual-motor training will enhance the cognitive development and functioning of retarded children. Insufficient evidence is available to substantiate the effectiveness of training procedures recommended by Doman and Delacato for improving the motor proficiency of retarded children. Interpretation of extant literature is complicated by the relatively recent interest in the effects of motor training as well as persistent methodological design problems. One common methodological problem is that the effects of novelty and inadvertent reinforcement on treatment outcomes has been poorly controlled. Although many studies use Hawthorne-control groups who may get some amount of attention, it is quite likely that differences still exist between experimental and Hawthorne groups in extent and quality of interaction with the experimenter. Hawthome-control groups frequently engage in sedentary table games or free play, while experimental training programs emphasize controlled practice on specific tasks. The latter undoubtedly provide more frequent opportunities for inadvertent reinforcement of behavior by experimenters. Moreover, Hawthorne-control groups provide for activities which may involve considerable practice in motor skills. Thus, they represent more diffuse motor training programs and may be considered contrasting treatments rather than control conditions. Restricted sampling, inadequate methods of assigning subjects to conditions, and poor description of treatments are common to most studies. Few studies have assessed the effects of training on severely retarded children; instead, most focused on the effects of training older mildly retarded boys. Generally, investigators have administered diffuse motor activity programs to retarded pupils, assuming all children under training lack adequate motor development. Fisher (1971) used a preferred approach in which

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experimental and control groups comprised children out of a larger sample with the lowest levels of motor proficiency. Furthermore, most reports poorly describe treatments making it difficult to compare results across studies. Controlled evaluation of diagnostically based treatments would yield precise data on the effects of motor training on development of retarded persons. A number of other problems in research design are common to motor training studies. Assignment of subjects to conditions is frequently not randomized or assignment is made of intact class groups, which made it difficult to control for teacher effects or for initial differences in groups. Gain scores, often used to correct for initial differences across groups, are the least preferred of available methods of measuring change, due to the high degree of unreliability present in gain and difference scores (Thorndike, 1963). The preferred approach is to randomly assign subjects to conditions or, if necessary, to use a less preferred method of statistically removing the effects of initial differences on posttest scores through covariance adjustments. Another persistent problem is failure to control for examiner effects on test performance. Solomon and Pangle (1966) speculated that differences favoring a structured physical education program were partly due to improved rapport between the students and the principal investigator. Morrison and Pothier (1972) used a procedure in which examiners, naive about the purposes of the experiment, were assigned at random to experimental or control group subjects for both pretesting and posttesting. This is recommended to control for the potential bias of differences in examiners on the outcomes of training experiments. In any event, administration of criterion tests by experimenters should be avoided. Determining for whom various training approaches are effective is most important. The traditional paradigm used in most studies reported in this chapter assumes that children provided structured training will benefit equally, treating individual differences among them as a source of error variance. An alternative strategy would be to employ a trait-treatment or aptitude-treatment interaction strategy to evaluate programs (Berliner & Cohen, 1973; Cronbach, 1957). Under this approach, interactions between individual differences and various treatments are investigated, making it possible to assess whether treatments achieve differential effects depending upon the characteristics of participants. Application of a trait-treatment interaction approach might better identify the types of children who most benefit from the program, thereby increasing the precision for selecting and designing training programs for retarded persons. Use of a trait-treatment research strategy would undoubtedly help resolve the particularly pressing question of whether there may be optimal or critical ages for introducing various types of motor development training.

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Substantial increases and improvements have been recently evidenced in the study of physical and motor development of retarded persons. With sustained effort and improved methodology, it is anticipated that more definitive findings will emerge to support the development of viable educational and training programs. REFERENCES Alley, R., & Carr, L. Effects of systematic sensory-motor training on sensory-motor, visual perception and concept formation performance of mentally retarded children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1968, 27, 451-456. American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Youth fitness test manual. Washington, D.C.: AAHPER, 1965. American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Special fitness test manual for the mentally retarded. Washington, D.C. : National Education Association, 1968. Anderson, V. E., Siegel, F. S., Tellegren, A., & Fisch, R. 0. Manual dexterity in phenylketonuric children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1968,26, 827-834. Argenti, R. M. The effects o f systematic motor training on selected perceptual-motor attributes of mentally retarded children. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1969. No. 69-7133. Attenborough, J., & Farber, M. The relation between intelligence, mechanical ability, and manual dexterity in special school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1934, 4, Part 1, 140-161. Auxter, D. M. Proprioception among intellectually typical and differentially diagnosed educable mentally retarded boys. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1965,21, 75 1-756. Bailit, H. L., & Whelan, M. A. Some factors related to size and intelligence in an institutionalized mentally retarded population. Journal of Pediatrics, 1967, 71, 897-909. Balow, B. Motor and perceptual activities in the treatment of special learning disabilities. Reading Teacher, 1971, 24, 513-525. Barsch, R. H. Achieving perceptual motor eficiency. Seattle: Special Child Publications, 1967. Bass, R. I. An analysis of the components of test of semicircular canal function and of static and dynamic balance. Research Quarterly of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1939, 10, 33-52. Baumeister, A. A., & Kellas, G. Reaction time and mental retardation. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press, 1968. Beaber, J. D. The performance of educable mentally handicapped and intellectually normal children on selected tasks involving simple motor performance. (Doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1960.No. 61497. Benda, C. The child with Mongolism. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1960. Berk, R. L. A comparison of performance of subnormal, normal, and gifted children on the Oseretsky Tests of Motor Proficiency. (Doctoral dissertation, Boston University School of Education) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1957. No. 22-115.

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Berliner, D. C., & Cohen, L. S. Trait-treatment interaction and learning. In F. N. Kerlinger (Ed.), Review of research in education. Vol. 1. Itasca, 111.: P. F. Peacock, 1973. Birch, H. G., & Gussow, J. D. Disadvantaged children: Health, nutrition, and school failure. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1970. Brown, J. The effect of a physical education program on the muscular fitness of trainable retarded boys. American Corrective Therapy Journal, 1968, 22, 80-8 1. Bruininks, R. H. Manual for the Bruininks-Oseretsky Tests of Motor Proficiency. Circle Pines, Minn.: American Guidance Service, in press. Bruininks, R. H., Rynders, J. E., & Gross, J. C. Social acceptance of mildly retarded pupils in resource rooms and regular classes. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1974, 78, 377-383. Cantor, G. N., & Stacey, C. L. Manipulative dexterity in mental defectives. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1951, 56, 401-410. Carter, J. L. The status of educable mentally retarded boys on the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test. Journal of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1966, 34, 8. Cassel, R. H. The Vineland adaption of the Oseretsky tests. Training School Bulletin, 1949, 46, (3-4, Whole No. l ) , 1-32. Chasey, W. C. The effect of motor development on school readiness skills of educable mentally retarded children. American Corrective Therapy Journal, 1970, 24, 180-183. Chasey, W. C., & Wyrick, W. Effects of a physical developmental program on psychomotor ability of retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1971, 75, 566-570. Clarke, H. H. Application of measurement lo health and physical education. (4th ed.) Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967. Clarke, H. H. Physical and motor tests in the Medford Boys' Growth Study. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971. Clausen, J. Ability structure and subgroups in mental retardation. Washington, D.C.: Spartan Books, 1966. Corder, W. 0. Effects of physical education on the intellectual, physical and social development of educable mentally retarded boys. Exceptional Children, 1966, 32, 357-364. Corder, W. O., & Pridmore, H. Effects of physical education on the psychomotor development of educable mentally retarded boys. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 1966, 1, 163-167. Craig, J . 0. Growth of mental defectives. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1966, 8, 87-88. Cratty, B. J. Movement and the intellect. Paper presented to students and faculty of the School of Education, San Diego State College, San Diego, June 1967. Cratty, B. J. Perceptual and motor development in infants and young children. New York: Macmillan, 1970. Cratty, B. J. Physical expressions o f intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : PrenticeHall, 1972. Cronbach, L. J. The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 1957, 12, 671-684. Culley, W . J., Jolly. D. H., & Mertz, E. T. Heights and weights of mentally retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1963, 68, 203-210.

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Daw, J. F. The effect of special exercises on body image in mentally retarded children: A tentative exploration. Slow Learning Child, 1964, 11, 109-1 16. Delacato, C. H. The diagnosis and treatment of speech and reading problems. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas, 1963. Delacato, C. H. Neurological organization and reading. Springfield, 111.: Thomas, 1966.

Dempsey, Y.G. A n exploratory study of the balance performance o f EMR children in southern Illinois. (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1969. No. 69-8070. Distefano, M. K., Jr., Ellis, N. R., & Sloan, W. Motor proficiency in mental defectives. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1958, 8, 23 1-234. Doll, E. A. (Ed.) The Oseretsky tests. Training School Bulletin, 1946-1947, 13, 1-13, 27-28, 50-59, 62-74.

Dutton, G. The physical development of Mongols. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 1959, 34, 46-50. (a) Dutton, G. The size of mental defective boys. Archives o f Disease in Childhood, 1959, 34, 331-333. (b) Edgar, C. L., Ball, T. S.,McIntyre, R. B., & Shotwell, A. M. Effects of sensory-motor training on adaptive behavior. American Journal o f Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 713-720.

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Subjeot Index

Academic ability, community adjustment and, 172-173 Acquisition, directed, 74-75 Adjustment, to community, 187-194 Age, of institutionalization, 153-154 of release, 168-170 Antisocial behavior, postrelease, 192 preadmission, 151 Association, backward, 18-21 Associative clustering, 69-7 1 Attitudes, of community, 166-167 Chaining model, 7, 9-13 Children, of retardates, 193 Colony placement, 164-165 Community attitudes, 166-167 Community placement, 146-147,149-150 adjustment to, 187-194 comparative studies, 149 follow-up studies, 148-149 future research directions, 194-199 institutionalization and, 152-158 overall success rate, 180-187 preadmission period and, 150-152 prognostic studies, 147-148 release process and, 158-168 subject characteristics and, 168-1 80 Conservation, 136-140 acceleration of, 135-136 concrete vs. formal operations,

Content processing, 114-1 15 Cues, contextual, 97-98 Delinquency, community adjustment and, 151

Diagnosis, community adjustment and, 170

Education, memory strategies and, 100-104 physical, 23 1-236 Employment, community adjustment and, 161-162, 189-190 Environment, home, 150-151 living, 188-189 Equilibrium balance, 224 Escape, community adjustment and, 166 Ethnic group, community adjustment and, 170 Facilitation, boundary conditions for, 7-8 Family, release process and, 160 Forgetting, directed, 75-76 Foster home, 163-164 Group placement, 165-166 Halfway house, 164-1 65 Home environment, community adjustment and, 150-151 Home placement, 162-164

131-134

general assessments, 130-13 1 nonverbal assessment, 134-135 development of, 118, 129-130 institutionalized subjects, 124-1 29 noninstitutionalized subjects,

Individual differences, mediation as function of, 16-18, 40-42 Information, task relevant, 74-76 Institutionalization, community adjustment and, 152-158 effects on mediation, 17-18, 41

118-124 263

264 Intelligence, community adjustment and, 170-172 effects on mediation, 16-17 Job changes, 190 Keeping-track task, 79-91 Language structure, mediation and, 2728 Leisure time, 193-194 Living environment, community adjustment and, 188-189 Marriage, 193 Mediation, 49-50 deficiencies in, 13-16, 62-63 process analysis of, 3-4 definition of, 1-2 as function of individual differences, 16-18, 4 0 4 2 Luria's deficit hypothesis of, 2-3 natural language, 26-27 development of, 27-42 retention and transfer of, 4 2 4 9 overview of paradigms, 4-6 three-stage paradigms, 8 backward associations in, 18-21 boundary conditions for facilitation, 7-8 chaining paradigm, 7 future research, 25-26 interpretation, 8-9 retention and transfer in, 21-25 Memory, 55-56 developmental theories, 56-60, 66 active and passive strategies, 63-66 mediational and production deficiencies, 62-63 structural features and control processes, 60-62 education and, 100-104 recognition, 91-99 strategies in, 66-67, 76-78, 99-100 keeping-track task and, 79-91 organizational, 68-73 rehearsal mechanisms, 67-68, 82-90 subjects and, 78-79 task choice and, 78 task relevant information and, 74-76

Subject Index task-subject interaction and, 79 Mental age, effects on mediation, 17, 4 0 41 Mnemonic elaboration, 71-72 Money management, 190-191 Motor abilities, comparative studies of, 220-221 equilibrium and performance balance, 223-226 fine motor abilities, 226-228 with Oseretsky tests, 228-23 1 physical fitness, 221-223 Motor proficiency, 248-253 definitions and structures of, 210-216 Natural language mediation, see Mediation Neurological organization, 244-247 Oseretsky tests, 228-23 1 Perceptual-motor training, 239-247 Performance balance, 225-226 Personal appearance, community adjustment and, 174-175 Personality, community adjustment and, 173-174 Physical development, 216-220, 248-253 Physical education, 23 1-236 Physical fitness, 221-223 Physical handicaps, community adjustment and, 175-176 Placement, see Community placement Psychomotor ability, community adjustment and, 177-178 Race, community adjustment and, 170 Recognition, 91-99 Redundancy, memory strategies and, 72-73 Rehearsal, 67-68 long-term retention of strategy, 84-88 prevention of, 88-90 training for, 82-84 Retardation, definition of, 114 Piaget's position on, 115-1 18 Retention of mediation, 21-25, 42-49 Saving, 190-1 9 1

265

SUBJECT INDEX

Sexual behavior, community adjustment and, 151-152, 179-180, 191-192 Social skills, community adjustment and, 178 Socioeconomic status, effects on mediation, 4 1 4 2 Sterilization, 179-1 80 Strategies, see Memory Success criteria, for community placement, 195-196 Supervision, in community, 167-168 Theory of Neurological Organization, 244-247

Training, 23 1 gross and fine motor abilities and, 236-239 institutional, 155-156 physical education, 23 1-236 in rehearsal, 82-84 remedial perceptual-motor programs, 239-247 Transfer, of mediation, 21-25, 4 2 4 9 Vocational placement, 161-162, 189-190 Vocational skills, community adjustment and, 176-177 Work, institutional, 156-157

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