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EDITORIAL REVIEW COMMITTEE P.W. Taubenblat, Chairman I.E. Anderson, FAPMI T. Ando S.G. Caldwell S.C. Deevi D. Dombrowski J.J. Dunkley Z. Fang B.L. Ferguson W. Frazier K. Kulkarni, FAPMI K.S. Kumar T.F. Murphy J.W. Newkirk P.D. Nurthen J.H. Perepezko P.K. Samal H.I. Sanderow D.W. Smith, FAPMI R. Tandon T.A. Tomlin D.T. Whychell, Sr., FAPMI M. Wright, PMT A. Zavaliangos INTERNATIONAL LIAISON COMMITTEE D. Whittaker (UK) Chairman V. Arnhold (Germany) E.C. Barba (Mexico) P. Beiss (Germany) C. Blais (Canada) P. Blanchard (France) G.F. Bocchini (Italy) F. Chagnon (Canada) C-L Chu (Taiwan) O. Coube (Europe) H. Danninger (Austria) U. Engström (Sweden) O. Grinder (Sweden) S. Guo (China) F-L Han (China) K.S. Hwang (Taiwan) Y.D. Kim (Korea) G. L’Espérance, FAPMI (Canada) H. Miura (Japan) C.B. Molins (Spain) R.L. Orban (Romania) T.L. Pecanha (Brazil) F. Petzoldt (Germany) S. Saritas (Turkey) G.B. Schaffer (Australia) Y. Takeda (Japan) G.S. Upadhyaya (India) Publisher C. James Trombino, CAE
[email protected] Editor-in-Chief Alan Lawley, FAPMI
[email protected] Managing Editor James P. Adams
[email protected] Contributing Editor Peter K. Johnson
[email protected] Advertising Manager Jessica S. Tamasi
[email protected] Copy Editor Donni Magid
[email protected] Production Assistant Dora Schember
[email protected] President of APMI International Nicholas T. Mares
[email protected] Executive Director/CEO, APMI International C. James Trombino, CAE
[email protected]
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powder metallurgy Contents 2 5 9 11 15 16
44/4 July/August 2008
Editor's Note PM Industry News in Review PMT Spotlight On …Luis Bernardo Zambrano Merino Consultants’ Corner Harb S. Nayar, FAPMI 2008 APMI Fellow Awards Paul Beiss and Pierre Taubenblat 2008 Poster Awards H. Jorge and A.M. Cunha J. Martz, C. Braun and S.C. Johnson
20 Kempton H. Roll Powder Metallurgy Lifetime Achievement Award Arlan J. Clayton 21 2008 PM Design Excellence Awards Competition Winners P.K. Johnson
RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 27 Consolidation of Aluminum Powder During Extrusion V.V. Dabhade, P. Kansuwan and W.Z. Misiolek
GLOBAL REVIEW 37 Powder Metallurgy in India G.S. Upadhyaya
HISTORICAL PROFILE 43 Tungsten Filaments—The First Modern PM Product P.K. Johnson
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY 49 State of the PM Industry in North America—2008 M. Paullin
DEPARTMENTS 53 Book Review 55 Meetings and Conferences 56 Advertisers’ Index Cover: Grand Prize–winning parts from MPIF’s 2008 Design Excellence Awards Competition. The International Journal of Powder Metallurgy (ISSN No. 0888-7462) is a professional publication serving the scientific and technological needs and interests of the powder metallurgist and the metal powder producing and consuming industries. Advertising carried in the Journal is selected so as to meet these needs and interests. Unrelated advertising cannot be accepted. Published bimonthly by APMI International, 105 College Road East, Princeton, N.J. 08540-6692 USA. Telephone (609) 4527700. Periodical postage paid at Princeton, New Jersey, and at additional mailing offices. Copyright © 2008 by APMI International. Subscription rates to non-members; USA, Canada and Mexico: $95.00 individuals, $220.00 institutions; overseas: additional $40.00 postage; single issues $50.00. Printed in USA by Cadmus Communications Corporation, P.O. Box 27367, Richmond, Virginia 23261-7367. Postmaster send address changes to the International Journal of Powder Metallurgy, 105 College Road East, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 USA USPS#267-120 ADVERTISING INFORMATION Jessica Tamasi, APMI International INTERNATIONAL 105 College Road East, Princeton, New Jersey 08540-6692 USA Tel: (609) 452-7700 • Fax: (609) 987-8523 • E-mail:
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EDITOR’S NOTE
T
he 2008 World Congress on Powder Metallurgy & Particulate Materials is now history. By any yardstick this international event was a success. This post-show issue of the Journal includes the text of the “State of the PM Industry in North America—2008” address given by MPIF President Mark Paullin, and Peter Johnson’s review of the “2008 PM Design Excellence Awards” competition. Parts receiving a Grand Prize are displayed on the front cover. 2008 marks the centenary of the incandescent ductile-tungsten lamp filament. In a fascinating historical chronology, Peter Johnson traces the R&D leading to this invention by William Coolidge. Little has changed in the commercial process for fabricating ductile-tungsten filaments since they were introduced in 1908! India is experiencing a boom in its manufacturing base, including PM processing. In his “Global Review,” Gopal Upadhyaya has compiled a comprehensive update on metal powder and parts production, including cemented carbides, and advanced ceramics. Also included is a current assessment of R&D in academe, the PM industry, and government facilities. Reducing costs and increasing productivity to offset rising energy and raw material costs has become a necessary goal of PM parts producers in North America. To this end, Harb Nayar offers a simple but documented approach in the “Consultants’ Corner.” Reader reaction is encouraged. In the “Research & Development” section, Dabhade et al. examine the consolidation behavior of aluminum powder during extrusion, based on two-dimensional and three-dimensional density/porosity contour maps and attendant hardness levels. The study identifies the importance of particle shape on extrusion response. I offer congratulations to Paul Beiss and Pierre Taubenblat, the 2008 APMI Fellow Award recipients. Both are long-time professional peers and have made seminal contributions to APMI and the PM industry. Also, congratulations to Arlan Clayton, the first recipient of the Kempton H. Roll Powder Metallurgy Lifetime Achievement Award. Arlan served as a director of APMI from 1995 to 1999.
Alan Lawley Editor-in-Chief
Diran Apelian, a Fellow of APMI International, is currently serving as the 52nd president of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (TMS). He has initiated a monthly “Presidential Perspective” (PP) and, with a foot in both camps (APMI and TMS), I found the focus of a recent PP of particular interest vis-à-vis APMI. The expanding field of minerals, metals, and materials is seen by Diran as a major challenge to TMS. He notes that, compared with two or three decades ago, the “new professional” schooled in materials science and engineering (MSE) can now be found working in diverse fields such as food processing, biomaterials, fuel cells, nanotechnology, microelectromechanical systems, computational sciences, advanced polymers, drug delivery, and pharmaceutical science. How can TMS be the voice of this new professional in the broadened domain of MSE? One can readily substitute APMI for TMS in this context. How will our scientific/technological society (APMI) embrace and engage the new MSE professional?
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Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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PM INDUSTRY NEWS IN REVIEW The following items have appeared in PM Newsbytes since the previous issue of the Journal. To read a fuller treatment of any of these items, go to www.apmiinternational.org, login to the “Members Only” section, and click on “Expanded Stories from PM Newsbytes.”
Big Tungsten Deal Signed The Plansee Group, Reutte, Austria, has agreed to purchase the Global Tungsten & Powders (GTP) business unit from OSRAM GmbH, Munich, Germany, a Siemens company, for an undisclosed amount. GTP, which posted fiscal year 2007 sales of approximately 280 million euros (about $437 million), employs 1,050 people in plants in Towanda, Pa., and Bruntál, Czech Republic. Atomization Course in U.K. Atomising Systems Limited, Sheffield, U.K., will conduct a course entitled Atomisation for Metal Powders, October 20–21, 2008, at the University of Salford in Manchester, U.K. The course will cover the fundamental principles of atomization and the primary methods of spraying metals. Chinese Auto Industry Booming Last year 5.2 million passenger vehicles were sold in China, reports Automotive News in its 2008 Guide to China’s Auto Market. Overall sales jumped 21 percent compared to 2006, while sales of SUVs surged 50 percent to 357,000 units. Web Site Re-Launched The NanoSteel Company has relaunched its Web site nanosteelco. com. The new site includes a new design, easier navigation, and new content enhancements. Furnace Company’s Silver Anniversary Abbott Furnace Company, St. Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
Marys, Pa., celebrates 25 years in business with a series of special events. Incorporated in 1983, the privately held company makes mesh-belt and pusher sintering furnaces, as well as annealing, brazing, and glass-to-metal-sealing furnaces. Sales Growth at European PM Parts Maker Sales for the 2007–08 fiscal year at Miba AG, Laakirchen, Austria, rose 17.5 percent to 387.7 million euros (about $600 million). Earnings before interest and taxes increased 24.5 percent to 27.6 million euros (about $43 million). Mammoth HIP Press Installed The Northwest regional service center of Bodycote–HIP in Camas, Wash., has taken delivery of an Avure Technologies Inc. high-capacity hot isostatic press (HIP). It is identical in size to a unit installed in 1998, with the two units ranking as the largest HIP presses ever built, Avure reports. New Line of Porous Metal Spargers Mott Corporation, Farmington, Conn., offers a new line of quickchange spargers that reduce the time to replace sparger elements in bioreactors and fermentors. The porous metal element can be purchased with an adapter that allows easy assembly to the mating sparger tip and easy removal for replacement.
American Axle Strike Settlement Brings Good News for the PM Industry American Axle & Manufacturing Holdings, Inc. (AAM), Detroit, Mich., has settled the 12-week strike with the International UAW representing about 3,650 workers at five plants in Michigan and New York. AAM says it expects to have its plants onstream again during the week of May 26. New Bodycote Acquisitions Bodycote International plc in the UK has acquired three UK companies: Plasma & Thermal Coatings Ltd., Greenhey Engineering Services, and NPE Innotek Ltd. The acquired companies join the Metallurgical Coatings division of Bodycote’s Thermal Processing Group. PM2008 World Congress Draws Large International Audience Beginning with the welcoming reception and dinner on June 8, the 2008 World Congress on Powder Metallurgy & Particulate Materials was attended by more than 1,600 delegates. Powder metallurgists and industry executives from 40 countries learned about hot new PM developments and the latest company news through networking and attending technical sessions and the trade exhibition. The International Business Picture The presidents of MPIF, the European Powder Metallurgy Association (EPMA), and the ijpm Japan
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PM INDUSTRY NEWS IN REVIEW
Powder Metallurgy Association (JPMA) reviewed PM industry conditions in their respective regions at the Tuesday morning Global General Session of PM2008. Statistics they presented revealed that metal powder shipments declined in 2007 in North America while rising in Europe and Asia. SCM Enters South American Market SCM Metal Products, Inc., Research Triangle Park, N.C., has signed a joint development agreement with Metalpó Industria e Comercio Ltda., São Paulo, Brazil. The two companies will collaborate on process and product developments for Metalpó’s plant in Brazil.
PM Automotive Applications Growing New engines and six-speed transmissions contain more PM parts, reported Mark Paullin, MPIF president, in his address on the state of the North American PM industry at the recent PM2008 World Congress. The new GM HighFeature 3.6L V-6 DOHC engine contains about 36 pounds of PM parts and new six-speed transmissions contain from 18 to 26 pounds of PM parts. Miba Sales and Earnings Grow Miba AG, Laarkirchen, Austria, reports first-quarter fiscal year sales grew 20.2 percent to 102.2 million euros (about $160 million). Earnings before interest and taxes jumped by 47 percent to 13.3 million euros (about $21 million).
New Large Isostatic Press Avure Technologies, Kent, Washington, is building a very large hot isostatic press at the Bodycote plant in Surahammar, Sweden. The completion target is sometime during late 2009. New PM Main Bearing Cap Metaldyne, Plymouth, Mich., an ASAHI TEC company, is making a new powder metallurgy crankshaft main bearing cap for mediumduty diesel engines. Its customer is MWM International Motores in Brazil, a subsidiary of Navistar. Plansee Sales Rise Fiscal year 2007/2008 sales of Plansee Group, Reutte, Austria, rose 11 percent, exceeding $1 billion euros (about $1.56 billion). All three divisions—HPM, Ceratizit, and PMG—contributed to the growth, the company reports.
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[email protected]
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Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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International: powder injection molding. If you wish to produce complex ceramic and metal products using the PIM process, then come to the leading international specialists in this field: ARBURG. For you, we have the appropriate ALLROUNDER machine technology and the required know-how from our PIM laboratory. With our expertise, you will be able to manufacture efficiently and to the highest quality, prepare material, injection-mold components, debind and sinter - finished! You want to find out more about PIM processing? Simply talk to us!
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SPOTLIGHT ON ...
LUIS BERNARDO ZAMBRANO MERINO, PMT Education: Mechanical Engineer, Universidad del Bio-Bio (Concepción, Chile), 1970 Industrial Administrator, Universidade de São Paulo, USP (São Paulo, Brazil), 1987 Why did you study powder metallurgy/particulate materials? When I graduated in Chile in 1970, I wanted to work in different fields of metallurgical processing. From 1970 to 1974 I was working with processes such as machining, tube and weld profiles, production of iron sheet, and engineering design. Then I moved to São Paulo, Brazil, and began working in the area of PM processing. When did your interest in engineering/science begin? Before finishing second grade in a Catholic industrial school in 1967, I decided to go to a university and study to be a mechanical engineer. My objective was to gain knowledge, and thereby improve my professional life. What was your first job in PM? What did you do? My first job in PM was with Brassinter, from 1974 until 1977, in São Paulo. At that time this company was the primary PM parts manufacturer in Brazil; it reflected high-quality technology, equipment, and technical staff. I was involved in designing tools, devices, and equipment for the production of PM parts, ranging from self-lubricating bearings to gears and gerotors for oil pumps, multi-level structural parts, and shock absorbing parts for automotive and home appliances. Describe your career path, companies worked for, and responsibilities. At Brassinter, I started my career as a tool designer. In my second year I was promoted to design-area supervisor and the following year I became head of the design area. I am familiar with all types of equipment
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
involved in the PM process, such as compaction and sizing presses, continuous and walking-beam furnaces, machines for secondary operations, and machining. I had to understand all types of machines in order to design tooling for the production of PM parts. My second PM job was with Metalpó, in São Paulo, from 1977 until 2001. I was responsible for developing their design department, putting into practice the knowledge gained from my industrial experience. In addition to the design department, I was also manager of the tool room and engineering sector. After an interrupted period from 1992 to 1995, I worked as a factory 1 coordinator, manufacturing complex structural parts. From 2001 until the present time, I’ve worked as technical director, Termosinter, a new company in Brazil. The company develops PM parts, and designs and builds its own equipment, presses, and furnaces. What gives you the most satisfaction in your career? I enjoy working on special PM processes because they always relate to improving new PM parts, researching better process materials and applications. I also enjoy sharing my knowledge with coworkers and helping customers and suppliers to identify the best possible product for their needs. The greatest satisfaction in my career has been the opportunity to, and capability of, improving the technology in the companies I have worked for, after my Technical Director Termosinter Ind. e Com. Ltda. Milton José Nunes Fernandes, 600 Chacara Santa Maria Guaratinguetá São Paulo CEP 12500-971 Brazil Phone: 012 3122 1146 Fax: 012 3122 1146 E-mail:
[email protected]
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SPOTLIGHT ON ...LUIS BERNARDO ZAMBRANO MERINO, PMT
first experience with Brassinter. This company provided an excellent background in PM, and from that time on I have striven to continue to improve my knowledge in order to stay up-to-date with PM developments. I have worked in most areas of PM processing, from tool design, product engineering, and production to maintenance and technical support. List your MPIF/APMI activities. I have been a member of APMI since 2000, when I obtained Level I PMT certification. I have attended many conferences and seminars, and visited PM companies in Brazil, Spain, and the U.S., for the purpose of technology transfer. What major changes/trend(s) in the PM industry have you seen? Since 1974, I have seen interesting and positive trends in all activities involved in PM technology, primarily in relation to raw materials and process evolution in order to increase density and the mechanical properties of PM parts. This has resulted in tool materials with improved properties to enable higher densities, new compaction presses capable of more rapid production of parts
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with enhanced density distributions, process stability, and sintering furnaces capable of handling sinter-hardening steels. In the engineering field, CAD, CAE and CAM have replaced tedious manual design and calculation. Why did you choose to pursue PMT certification? The pursuit of PMT certification in 2000 was, to me, confirmation of the background I obtained during my years involved with the PM process. How have you benefited from PMT certification in your career? Personally, I am now recognized at seminars, conferences, and customer technical meetings. I feel confident as a PM specialist and, therefore, the pursuit of PMT certification was a sound benchmark in my career. What are your current interests, hobbies, and activities outside of work? Because I live in a small city, GuaratinguetáSão Paulo, I can spend time with my family, and visit nearby cities. Every Sunday morning I play soccer with my grandson Luis Gustavo, who is 18 years old, at a sports club in our neighborhood. ijpm
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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CONSULTANTS’ CORNER
HARB S. NAYAR, FAPMI* Q
How can powder metallurgy (PM) parts makers reduce costs and increase productivity to offset rising energy and raw materials costs? This is an important question for any industry, but critical for the well-established conventional PM parts industry. I will answer the question in the form of a very simple thought process or step-by-step methodology that can be applied to any existing PM parts manufacturing plant. The process applies only to the production unit or building of any PM parts company. For purposes of explanation, we will assume that the existing plant is small with bare minimums: building or manufacturing space, a single press and a single sintering furnace, and quality control (QC) equipment as capital items. The operation produces a variety of single-press/single-sinter iron-base PM parts requiring no secondary operations and the plant uses pre-blended powders. Another assumption is that the company’s sales department has no problem getting orders to keep the plant operating 24/7. The simple thought process includes the following key phrases and words: • Walkthru • Snapshot • Utilization factor • Standardized yardsticks such as cost per unit weight (not cost per piece) • Bottlenecks The key to this thought process is “Let us take a walkthru” the plant or a single piece of equipment such as a press or furnace, or a process such as compacting or sintering. While the “walkthru” concept is simple and easy to follow, its full and diligent practice can be potentially effective in increasing productivity (weight of PM parts shipped per month or per year) in a given manufacturing plant and decreasing total manufacturing cost per unit weight of shipped PM parts. There are a minimum of two levels of walk, namely fast and slow. If need be, a third level walk (very
A
slow) can be carried out to fine tune productivity in a given plant. Each level will have a starting point with an imaginary guard and an end point with another imaginary guard. In order to realize the benefits of the “walkthru” thought process, it is essential to take a 12-month “snapshot” (Step 1) of the PM manufacturing plant. One year is either the previous calendar year or the year just prior to the application of the “walkthru” process. This year-long “snapshot” provides reference points or benchmarks for comparison with future performance of the plant. STEP 1: One-Year “Snapshot” of the Plant Obtain the following information related to manufacturing from the purchasing and financial departments for the past 12-month period: • Total powder (by weight) received into the plant and dollars • Total labor (operators, supervisors, and managers) related to the plant in terms of employeehours and dollars • Total energy (electricity and gas) used by the plant in units and dollars • Total atmosphere (each type) used in volume and dollars • Purchase of major replacement items such as dies, belts, muffles, and heating elements in actual number and dollars for each item • Purchase of all other replacement items brought into the plant in terms of total combined dollars • Depreciation of major capital units such as the building, presses, furnaces, and QC equipment in terms of dollars for each type Ask the shipping department to provide the total amount of sintered product (by weight) shipped to customers during the same 12-month period. Using the preceding information received from the
*President, TAT Technologies, Inc., P.O. Box 1279, Summit, New Jersey 07902-1279; Phone: 908-391-9478; E-mail:
[email protected]
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CONSULTANTS’ CORNER
various departments, the following benchmarks can be calculated: Benchmark 1. Manufacturing cost per unit weight of shipped parts: Total weight shipped during the year divided by total of all the cited costs combined. Benchmark 2. Material utilization factor: Total PM parts shipped by weight divided by the total weight of powder received. Benchmark 3. Energy used per unit weight of shipped PM parts both in terms of Kw and dollars. Benchmark 4. Atmosphere used per unit weight of shipped parts in terms of volume and dollars. Benchmark 5. All labor related to manufacturing per unit weight of PM parts shipped both in terms of employee-hours and dollars. Benchmark 6. Purchased parts in each of the major replacement items in terms of dollars per unit weight of PM parts shipped. Benchmark 7. Depreciation cost per unit weight of shipped PM parts for each of the major capital units such as presses, furnaces, and the building. These seven calculated pieces of information are the benchmarks or reference points. By applying the “walkthru” thought process (steps 2 to 5) in a systematic, speedy and diligent manner, these calculated costs and units can be significantly improved—in my opinion by up to about 30% for each of the seven. STEP 2: Fast Walk The fast walk with the product is from point A (on one side of the plant where powder is received) to point B (on the other side of the plant), where finished PM parts are ready for shipment to customers. In walking from point A to point B, we break down the distance between points A and B into segments or departments. In our example of the plant, we break it down into three departments. Department #1 is compacting, Department #2 is sintering, and Department # 3 is packaging/shipping. We now assign an imaginary guard at the start of each of the three departments. The duties of the guard at the start of each department are: • Material Utilization (MU) Factor: Check the quality of the material (powder, green parts, or sintered parts) entering the guard’s department. Material that meets specifications is allowed to enter the department but the balance is rejected. The guard records the amount by weight that is allowed to enter the guard’s assigned department, compared with what was consid-
12
ered for entry. The ratio of the two numbers is called the Material Utilization (MU) factor for that department. For the compacting department it is MUc. A value of 1 is ideal; a value <1 MU c must be examined. For the sintering department it is MUs, and for the packaging/ shipping department it is MUp/s. The product utilization for the entire plant is PU which is MUc × MUs × MUp/s. If MU is <0.95, it should be examined and improved as rapidly as possible. • Equipment Utilization (EU) Factors: The guard’s other duty is to know what fraction of time the equipment in his or her assigned department is actually being utilized for production. These are the equipment utilization factors: EUc, EUs, and EUp/s for the compacting press, sintering furnace, and packaging/shipping department, respectively. Any factor <1 should be examined, analyzed, and improved to bring it as close to unity as possible. During the fast walk, in addition to the various utilization factors collected by the guards, we also must determine which department is the bottleneck as the powder moves through compacting to the sintering, and finally to packaging/shipping. This is accomplished by knowing the “theoretical” or “practical” capacities of the equipment in each department and by talking with department supervisors and managers. For example, if a press produces 59 kg/h (130 lb./h), and the furnace sinters 45.5 kg/h (100 lb./h), and packaging/shipping can handle 77.3 kg/h (170 lb./h), the bottleneck is clearly sintering. The sintering process or furnace must be improved by at least an additional 13.7 kg/h (30 lb./h) to improve all seven of the benchmarks. STEP 3: Slow Walk Upon determining which department is the bottleneck, the focus shifts to learning how to process the material faster through the bottleneck with existing equipment. This is done by taking a slow “walkthru” the equipment in the bottleneck department. In most PM companies I have visited, sintering is usually the bottleneck. As we take a mental “walkthru” the furnace, it is useful to divide the sintering process into phases such as delubrication, reduction of surface oxides on powder particles, diffusion of admixed graphite into the iron powder particles, sintering, and cooling. After some investigation, we find that delubrication is the bottleneck. Thus, the belt speed through the furnace is determined primarily by delubrication. We must find a way to delubricate faster to increase belt speed. This requires exploring
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2009 International Conference on Powder Metallurgy & Particulate Materials June 28–July 1, The Mirage Hotel, Las Vegas
• International Technical Program • Worldwide Trade Exhibition • Special Events
For complete program and registration information contact: INTERNATIONAL
METAL POWDER INDUSTRIES FEDERATION APMI INTERNATIONAL 105 College Road East Princeton, New Jersey 08540 USA Tel: 609-452-7700 ~ Fax: 609-987-8523 www.mpif.org
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CONSULTANTS’ CORNER
all the options available, both within and outside the company. Using current technologies, throughput in an existing furnace can be improved by up to 50%. This helps significantly in improving all the benchmarks cited in Step 1. STEP 4: Personnel Training In order to make significant productivity increases in manufacturing PM parts, it is desirable that all manufacturing personnel be trained in all aspects of PM including powder characteristics, blending, compacting, and sintering. In my opinion this is critical, and will go a long way towards continuous improvements in productivity, quality, and cost per unit weight of shipped PM parts. STEP 5: Upgrading Operating Practices As we move through Steps 2, 3, and 4, it is also highly desirable to upgrade current operating practices. These include loading and unloading of parts, process control, monitoring and controlling key
parameters, belt and muffle designs, and maintenance policies. STEP 6: Repeat Step 1 After Steps 2, 3, 4, and 5 have been substantially accomplished, Step 1 should be repeated, hopefully within 6 to 12 months from the start. We should see significant improvements (from 20% to 50%) in productivity and the seven benchmarks, depending upon the benchmark. STEP 7: Repeat Entire Process Repeat Steps 2 through 6 later in order to further continuously improve the seven benchmarks. This will ensure long-term survival, a competitive edge, growth, and profitability in the manufacture of PM parts. ijpm Readers are invited to send in questions for future issues. Submit your questions to: Consultants’ Corner, APMI International, 105 College Road East, Princeton, NJ 08540-6692; Fax (609) 987-8523; E-mail:
[email protected]
ijpm
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2008 FELLOW AWARD RECIPIENTS
INTERNATIONAL
A prestigious lifetime award recognizing APMI International members for their significant contributions to the society and their high level of expertise in the science, technology, practice, or business of the PM industry
PAUL BEISS Paul has distinguished himself as a leader in PM for more than 30 years. He is recognized internationally for his attention to detail and his analysis of issues based on sound technical and scientific principles. As Professor in Materials Applications in Mechanical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, his current teaching is supported by his strong academic achievements and the experience that he gained in the PM industry while working in various positions at Sintermetallwerk Krebsoge for nearly 15 years. Paul received his Dipl.-Ing. and PhD in Production Engineering from RWTH Aachen University. A member of APMI International for over 20 years, Paul is an active member of the APMI International Liaison Committee. He organizes two annual national seminars, “Introduction to Powder Metallurgy” in Aachen on behalf of DGM (German Society for Materials) and “Materials and Processes for Net or Near-Net Shape Structural Parts” on behalf of VDI (Association of German Engineers). He has participated on many technical program committees for German national, EPMA, and MPIF PM conferences. Paul has authored/co-authored 150 PM-related publications in journals and conference proceedings, and two books. He received the Skaupy Award from the German national Joint Committee for Powder Metallurgy and the Ivor Jenkins Award of the British Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining.
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
PIERRE TAUBENBLAT Pierre has made important contributions and has established an international reputation in the field of PM, wrought products, and process metallurgy. With over 50 years of PM experience focused on copper, iron, and precious metals, he has been involved in research, process and product development, design, manufacturing and production, education/teaching, and many other areas of the PM industry. He received a BS Electrochemical and Electrometallurgical Engineering from Grenoble University, an MA Industrial Management from Polytechnic University, and an MS Ceramic Engineering from Rutgers University. He is an Adjunct Professor at Middlesex College, New Jersey. He enjoyed a 30-plus-year career at AMAX before departing as president of the Base-Metals Research & Development Division. As president of Promet Associates, Pierre continues to extend his 40-plus years of active APMI membership as chairman of the APMI Editorial Review Committee, as well as having served as chairman of the Metro New York Chapter of APMI. He was the chairman of the 1976 MPIF International Powder Metallurgy Conference, and is past chairman of the MPIF Technical Board and the MPPA Standards Committee. Pierre holds four patents including new classes of infiltrants, high-strength copper-based materials, and smelting and refining of metallurgical dusts. He has published over 40 articles and technical papers and has edited four books. In 1985 Pierre received the MPIF Distinguished Service to Powder Metallurgy Award and in 1997 he was accepted as an ASM International Fellow.
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OUTSTANDING POSTER AWARDS
Presented at the PM2008 World Congress in Washington, D.C.
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OUTSTANDING POSTER AWARDS
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OUTSTANDING POSTER AWARDS
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Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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OUTSTANDING POSTER AWARDS
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KEMPTON H. ROLL POWDER METALLURGY LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT AWARD
The new Kempton H. Roll Powder Metallurgy (PM) Lifetime Achievement Award was recently established by the Board of Governors of the Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF) to recognize individuals with outstanding accomplishments and achievements who have devoted their careers and a lifetime of involvement in the field of powder metallurgy and related technologies. It honors the contributions of Kempton H. Roll, whose vision led to the establishment of MPIF as its founding executive director. Roll’s achievements made a significant impact on the growth of the PM industry and technology. He participated in the presentation of the award.
Arlan J. Clayton Recognized for Lifetime Achievements Arlan J. Clayton received the new Kempton H. Roll Powder Metallurgy (PM) Lifetime Achievement Award during the opening general session at the 2008 World Congress on Powder Metallurgy & Particulate Materials. Clayton’s career spanned 40 years in the PM industry before he retired as president of FloMet LLC, DeLand, Florida, in 2006. He held management and CEO positions in companies manufacturing refractory metals, PM parts, and metal injection molded parts. He served as chairman of the MPIF Industry Development Board, president of the Powder Metallurgy Parts Association, and president of MPIF, as well as president of the Center for Powder Metallurgy Technology (CPMT). In 1999 he donated $1 million to CPMT, establishing the Clayton Family Fund to provide annual grants for research and scholarships. He received the MPIF Distinguished Service to PM Award in 1991.
This award was presented at the PM2008 World Congress in Washington, D.C.
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DESIGN EXCELLENCE AWARD WINNERS
2008 PM DESIGN EXCELLENCE AWARDS COMPETITION WINNERS Peter K. Johnson*
GRAND PRIZE WINNERS The five parts selected as the Grand Prize winners are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Grand Prize winners.
Winners of the 2008 PM Design Excellence Awards Competition, sponsored by the Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF), were announced at the PM2008 World Congress. Receiving Grand Prizes and Awards of Distinction, the winning parts are outstanding examples of powder metallurgy’s (PM) precision, innovative design ability, superior performance, sustainable technology, and cost savings. High-density gear rolling, warm compaction, and metal injection molding (MIM) are some of the more innovative techniques and technologies used to produce the parts.
The awards were presented at the PM2008 World Congress in Washington, D.C.
* Contributing Editor, International Journal of Powder Metallurgy, APMI International, 105 College Road East, Princeton, New Jersey 08501-6692, USA; E-mail:
[email protected]
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2008 PM DESIGN EXCELLENCE AWARDS COMPETITION WINNERS
PMG Füssen GmbH, Füssen, Germany, and its customer Schaef fler Group Automotive, Hirschaid, Germany, won the Grand Prize in the Automotive—Engine category for a stator (Figure 2) used in a variable valve timing (VVT) system in a 1.4 L engine. Made from a modified iron–copper PM material, the complex part is formed to a density of 7.0 g/cm3. The stator, featuring five intricate center holes, is a one-piece design that replaced two parts. It is compacted on a 450 mt press with three upper and two lower tooling levels. Tight tolerances help to minimize any internal oil leakage between the adjoining pressurized chambers. The PM stator helps reduce fuel consumption and the formation of exhaust gases, as well as improving engine performance, especially torque at low rotational speeds. It has two functions: a spline for the timing-belt pulley and the VVT housing. The PM process offered substantial cost savings despite finishing operations such as sizing, machining, deburring, and steam treating. Burgess-Norton Mfg. Company, Geneva, Illinois, and its customer, Means Industries, Saginaw, Michigan, won the Grand Prize in the Automotive—Transmission category for a notch/ backing plate and a pocket plate (Figure 3) used in a mechanical diode (MD) one-way clutch for a sixspeed automatic transmission. Made from sinterhardened PM steel, the notch/backing plate weighs 840 g (1.85 lb.) and the pocket plate, 1,152 g (2.54 lb.). The PM plates are made to a near-net shape and assembled with steel struts, coil springs, and a snap ring, to form the one-way clutch. Both parts are made to a density of 6.7 g/cm 3 . The notch/backing plate has a tensile strength of 520 MPa (75,400 psi), and the pocket plate a tensile strength of 620 MPa (90,000 psi). By choosing the PM planar ratcheting MD design, designers were able to eliminate a backing plate and combine a costly splined sleeve into one PM part. The result was superior precision and a 70 percent cost savings over wrought steel parts. Both parts are vital to the MD clutch design by permitting drive torque to be applied to the transmission in second and sixth gears as well as torque transfer in reverse gear. It is estimated conservatively that 1.25 million assemblies will be produced annually, translating to 2.5 million PM parts. Mitsubishi Materials PMG Corporation, Tokyo, Japan, and its customer Fuji Kiko Co. Ltd., Shizuoka, Japan, won the Grand Prize in the Automotive—Chassis category for a high-
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Figure 2. VVT stator
Figure 3. Notch/backing plate and pocket plate
strength gear set (Figure 4) used in a new tilting and telescopic steering column. The gear set consists of a tooth lock and two cams. Made from diffusion-alloyed PM steel, the parts have a density Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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2008 PM DESIGN EXCELLENCE AWARDS COMPETITION WINNERS
Figure 4. High-strength gear set
Figure 5. Business machine gear set
>7.05 g/cm3 and a tensile strength >1,100 MPa (160,000 psi), 57 HRA apparent hardness, and an unnotched Charpy impact strength >14J (10·3 ft.·lb.). Replacing forged and machined parts, PM offered substantial cost savings with a net-shape design that eliminated the need for machining. Capstan Atlantic, Wrentham, Massachusetts, captured the Grand Prize in the Hardware/
Appliances category for a PM steel gear set (Figure 5) used in a high-volume business machine printer. The gear is roll densified to a surface density of 7.8 g/cm3. It has an American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) quality of precision level 10 and the pinion, an AGMA precision level of eight. The core density of the gear and pinion is 7.3 g/cm3. The gear-tooth-surface fatigue resist-
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2008 PM DESIGN EXCELLENCE AWARDS COMPETITION WINNERS
Figure 6. Stainless steel articulation gear
AWARDS OF DISTINCTION Four parts were selected for Awards of Distinction, Figure 7. Cloyes Gear & Products Inc., Paris, Arkansas, received the Award of Distinction in the Automotive—Engine category for PM low-alloy steel intake and exhaust sprockets (Figure 8) used in a variable valve timing (VVT) system in a high-performance, double-overhead cam V-6 engine. Using warm compaction, the sprockets are formed to a density of 7.25 g/cm3. The powder and tooling temperature is controlled to within 2.8°C (5°F). The 7.7 mm (0.3 in.) fine-pitch inverted sprocket teeth are compacted to a nearnet shape. The complex design provides a multifunction part, namely, a high-strength timing sprocket that performs cam-phasing functions. The teeth are induction heat treated and tempered to a 70 HRA typical apparent hardness. The overall length, slot width, and minor diameter are ground to tolerances of .012 mm (0.00047 in.). Each sprocket has a typical tensile strength of 1,169 MPa (170,000 psi), a 358 MPa (52,000 psi) fatigue limit, and a compressive strength of 1,262 MPa (183,000 psi).
ance equals that of a wrought steel 8620 carburized gear. The apparent hardness is >40 HRC and the microindentation hardness is 60 HRC. The part, which has opposing helix angles, is formed to net shape, except for hard turning the datum journals. Single pressed, the PM gear replaced two machined gears at a cost savings of >40 percent. Parmatech Corporation, Petaluma, California, won the Grand Prize in the Medical/Dental category for a 17-4 PH stainless steel articulation gear (Figure 6) used in a surgical stapling device. It functions as the drive and locking mechanism to articulate the head of the device at different angles. Made by MIM to a density >7.65 g/cm3, the part has an ultimate tensile strength of 900 MPa (130,500 psi), a yield strength of 730 MPa (106,000 psi), and a 25 HRC hardness. The complex MIM design is formed to net shape and requires no finishing operations. It has tight tolerances and provided a 70 percent cost savings, compared with machining the gear from bar stock.
Figure 7. Award of Distinction winners
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2008 PM DESIGN EXCELLENCE AWARDS COMPETITION WINNERS
Figure 9. Stainless steel bobbins
Figure 8. VVT low-alloy steel intake and exhaust sprockets
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
ASCO Sintering Company, Commerce, Califor nia, and its customer Per for mance Friction Corporation, Clover, South Carolina, won the Award of Distinction in the Automotive— Chassis category for a series of 316 stainless steel bobbins (Figure 9) used in a new braking system for race cars and high-performance vehicles. The
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2008 PM DESIGN EXCELLENCE AWARDS COMPETITION WINNERS
two-level part is available in 14 variations with eight or more bobbins used in a single brake rotor assembly. The new bobbin design aids in tripling the brake-rotor fatigue life, reducing drag at elevated temperatures, as well as reducing vibration and temperature. PM was chosen over a wrought machined design. The parts are made to a density of 7.0 g/cm3 and have a tensile strength of 480 MPa (70,000 psi), a yield strength of 310 MPa (45,000 psi), 130 MPa (19,000 psi) fatigue
Figure 10. 17-4 PH stainless steel lock-cylinder parts
Figure 11. Hearing aid receiver cans
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strength, 13 percent elongation, 65 J (48 ft.·lb.) impact strength, and HRB 65 hardness. Kinetics Climax, Inc., Wilsonville, Oregon, won the Award of Distinction in the Hardware/ Appliances category for three 17-4 PH stainless steel lock-cylinder parts (Figure 10) made by MIM for Black & Decker Hardware and Home Improvement, Lake Forest, California. The MIM parts (a locking bar, pin, and rack) operate in the Kwikset SmartKey lock cylinder, which contains one locking bar, five pins, and five racks, totaling 11 MIM parts. The high-precision parts have a typical density of 7.7 g/cm3, a tensile strength of 900 MPa (130,500 psi), and a yield strength of 730 MPa (106,000 psi). The complex PM design provides significant cost savings and allows the consumer to re-key the lock easily, without removing it or getting professional help. FloMet LLC, Deland, Florida, and its customer, Starkey Laboratories, Inc., Eden Prairie, Minnesota, won the Award of Distinction in the Electrical/Electronic Components category for a hearing aid receiver can (Figure 11) made by MIM. The thin-walled part is made from a nickel–iron–molybdenum alloy that provides the magnetic shunt effect required in the hearing aid to separate the internal receiver signal from the telecoil signal. The part was previously deep drawn and required several interim annealing steps to achieve the necessary depth, in addition to forming the internal undercuts. Choosing the MIM manufacturing process provided a 50 percent cost savings over deep drawing as well as improved performance. FloMet performs a special sizing/coining operation to maintain tolerances on the OD and ID. The awards were presented during the PM2008 World Congress held in Washington, D.C., June 8–12, sponsored by MPIF and APMI. Past winners of the MPIF PM Design Excellence Awards Competition can be viewed by visiting www.mpif.org.
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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
CONSOLIDATION OF ALUMINUM POWDER DURING EXTRUSION Vikram V. Dabhade*, Panya Kansuwan** and Wojciech Z. Misiolek***
INTRODUCTION Due to their attractive physical and mechanical properties, aluminum powder metallurgy (PM) components have found numerous applications in automotive, aerospace, power tools, and appliances, and as structural elements. Aluminum PM components exhibit low density, good corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivity, and excellent machinability, and respond well to several finishing processes. In addition they offer the ability to produce complex netor near-net-shape parts, thereby eliminating or reducing the operational and capital costs associated with intricate machining operations. 1,2 The mechanical properties of aluminum alloys can be significantly improved by forming aluminum matrix composites, including a new generation of nanocomposites.3,4 PM compacts are subjected to secondary processing techniques such as extrusion, rolling, and forging to provide the desired shape to the product, reduce the level of porosity (enhance density), and modify the microstructure to improve mechanical properties. These secondary operations are usually perfromed after sintering as the component achieves sufficient strength to withstand the forming operations.5,6 Although sintering has the beneficial role of imparting strength and improving density, it leads to grain growth (with an attendant reduction in mechanical properties), and the formation of oxides or other undesired products via reaction with the sintering atmosphere (especially for highly reactive materials). Sintering also adds to the manufacturing cost. Of the secondary forming operations applied to PM components, extrusion is particularly attractive as the three principle stresses in the deformation zone are compressive6 and the extrusion parameters can be adjusted to obtain the desired structure.7 Powder extrusion can be used to make useful shapes such as seamless tubes, wires, and complex solid and hollow sections from materials that would be difficult (or even impossible) to process by casting or other metalworking operations. The extrusion process also offers the ability to form wrought structures from powders without the need for sintering. Additionally, reduced extrusion pressures and a wider range of temperature and
The present investigation focuses on the consolidation of aluminum powder by extrusion. Three grades of aluminum powder with average particle sizes of 365 µm, 135 µm, and 89 µm were precompacted to ~73% of their pore-free density. The precompacted billets were extruded at an extrusion ratio of 2.1 for different ram displacements in the range of 12%–99% of the initial billet length. The consolidation behavior of each grade of powder was determined from two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) density/porosity contour maps and from hardness levels following extrusion.
*Post Doctoral Research Associate, ***Loewy Professor of Materials Forming and Processing, Institute for Metal Forming, Lehigh University, 5 E. Packer Avenue, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, USA; E-mail:
[email protected], **Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok, Thailand
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ram velocity are possible in powder extrusion, compared with those in the extrusion of cast billets. Powder extrusion has been used in the processing of composite materials, superalloys, dispersion-strengthened materials, ferrous alloys, and light metals.8 Ductile metal powders such as aluminum and copper can be cold consolidated to their pore-free density by extrusion without the need for sintering if plastic deformation follows the consolidation stage. 9 This leads to the retention of the microstructure of the powder particles, and achieves the desired density and mechanical properties. This is particularly useful in the case of aluminum alloys in which sintering is difficult due to the presence of an oxide layer on the powder particle surfaces and the necessity to control dew point during sintering.10 The extrusion of aluminum powders also leads to shear deformation which, in combination with pressure, ruptures the oxide film on the particle surfaces and facilitates metallurgical contact between the particles and enhanced mechanical interlocking of the particles.8 Powder extrusion has been used to consolidate/improve the mechanical properties of aluminum powders,7 aluminum alloy powders,11 and aluminum particulate composites. 12,13 In the present investigation the effects of aluminum particle size, shape, and ram displacement on densification of the precompacted billet and extrudate has been investigated. The objective was to better understand the densification behavior of aluminum powders in extrusion as a precursor to nanocomposite processing. EXPERIMENTAL Powder Characterization Air-atomized aluminum powders of three different grades (AM 603, AM 605, and AM 625) obtained from AMPAL Inc. were used in the present investigation. The chemical analyses of the three powder grades, as obtained from the supplier, are shown in Table I. These analyses were
determined using inductively coupled plasma– atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). The average particle sizes of the three grades of powder were determined using a laser particle-size analyzer. The flow rates of the three powder grades were measured using a standard Hall flow apparatus. Optical micrographs of the mounted powders (Figure 1) were used to determine the grain size and shape distribution of the powders. The epoxymounted powders were polished and etched with 50 v/o concentrated H 2 SO 4 for 3 min and observed under a light optical microscope. Precompaction of Powder Billets Precompacted powder billets were fabricated by uniaxial compaction of the aluminum powders into cylindrical billets in an extrusion container. Approximately 16 g of each grade of powder were compacted into cylindrical billets 40 mm height × 15.97 mm dia., to a green density of approximately 73% of the pore-free density of aluminum. Zinc
(a)
(b)
TABLE I. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF POWDERS (w/o) Powder Grade AM 603 AM 605 AM 625
Other Metallics Al
Si
99.7 min* 0.13 0.08 Cr <0.01, Pb <0.01, Cd <0.01, 99.7 min* 0.11 0.02 Ti <0.01, Cu <0.01, Ni <0.01, 99.7 min* 0.09 0.05 Mn <0.01, B <0.01, V <0.01
* Ingot analysis
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Fe
(c)
Figure 1. Optical micrographs of aluminum powder: (a) AM 603, (b) AM 605, and (c) AM 625
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stearate was used as a die-wall lubricant, but the aluminum powder per se was not lubricated. Powder Extrusion Extrusion tests were carried out on the 15.97 mm dia. precompacted aluminum powder billets using a die with an orifice dia. of 11.07 mm, corresponding to an extrusion ratio of 2.1. Prior to extrusion the powder billets were compacted in a die, which later was used as a container during the extrusion process. This low extrusion ratio was chosen to permit analysis of the densification of the powder billets during extrusion as a function of ram displacement and is much lower than the recommended values of 9 or higher for complete densification of spherical powders. 8 Extrusion was carried out at room temperature (25°C) at an extrusion (ram) speed of 30 mm/min. The die at the end of the extrusion container was replaced with a flat plate assembly which allowed the extrusion container to be used as a compaction die. The interparticle friction within the powder billet depends on particle size, particle shape, and surface texture. Therefore, it is important to determine at which point billet densification is complete for the different powder morphologies. Since the precompacted billets were uniaxially compacted in the extrusion container, they exhibited a region of high density (low porosity) at the ram end (at which the pressure was applied), while the other end of the billet exhibited a region of lower density (higher porosity). As a result, the end of the billet with lower density (higher porosity) was towards the extrusion die. The extrusion
Figure 2. Extent of extrusion with corresponding % ram displacement of initial billet length
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
tests were preformed with flat-face dies (halfincluded angle of 90°) with a round die orifice and a 3 mm-long bearing length. Extrusion tests were performed on a 3 MN vertical hydraulic press. The extrusion process was arrested at ram positions of 12%, 23%, 33%, 44%, 58%, 70%, 83%, and 99% of the initial billet length from the end surface of the precompacted billets (40 mm). The extent of extrusion, with respect to ram displacement, is shown schematically in Figure 2. Extrusion ram pressure and ram displacement data were collected directly from the load cell and displacement sensors. The
Figure 3. Extrusion pressure vs. ram displacement curves as a function of ram displacement. Aluminum powder grade AM 603
Figure 4. Extrusion pressure vs. ram displacement curves as a function of ram displacement. Aluminum powder grade AM 605
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three grades of powder. This was done to determine the level of densification of the billets within the extrusion container prior to extrusion (12% and 23% ram displacement) and after extrusion (33% ram displacement). Porosity measurements were also carried out on the extrudates (99% ram displacement) for the three powder grades. Because of the symmetry of the billets, porosity measurements were performed on one half of the longitudinal cross section. In the case of the extrudate samples, measurements were carried out on the entire sample. Porosity distributions for the precompacted powder billets and the partially extruded billets are shown in Figures 7–9,
Figure 5. Extrusion pressure vs. ram displacement curves as a function of ram displacement. Aluminum powder grade AM 625
resulting curves are shown in Figures 3–5 for the three powder grades. Porosity and Hardness For porosity and hardness measurements mounted samples were cut longitudinally (Figure 6) and polished. Porosity was measured by means of an image analyzer using LECO software with a Hitachi camera. Area measurements were an average of 1,640 µm × 1,300 µm per measurement. Porosity measurements were carried out on the precompacted billets and the partially extruded billets (12%, 23%, and 33% ram displacement) for the
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Mounted samples for porosity and hardness distribution measurements
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Figure 7. Porosity profiles of precompacted billet as a function of ram displacement: (a) 2D and (b) 3D. Aluminum powder grade AM 603
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while those of the extrudates are shown in Figure 10. Figures 7(a)–9(a) show the 2D porosity distributions while Figures 7(b)–9(b) show the 3D porosity distributions. The levels of porosity are presented as color/scale bars on the right-hand side of the respective figures. Red represents regions of high porosity (low density) while blue represents regions of low porosity (high density). Microindentation hardness was measured using a Knoop indentor in accordance with ASTM E 384.14 Tests were carried out on a LECO microhardness system with a load of 300 g and a dwell time of 15 s. Measurements were taken along the center line of the longitudinal section from the die
end of the extrudates (99% ram displacement) for the three powder grades. The variation of microindentation hardness along the extrudate is shown in Figure 11. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Powder Characterization The three powder grades exhibited a purity of approximately 99.7 w/o, Table I. The major impurity elements present were iron and silicon while the minor impurity elements were boron, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, manganese, nickel, titanium, and vanadium. The AM 603, AM 605, and AM 625 powder grades had average particle
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 8. Porosity profiles of precompacted billet as a function of ram displacement: (a) 2D and (b) 3D. Aluminum powder grade AM 605
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
Figure 9. Porosity profiles of precompacted billet as a function of ram displacement: (a) 2D and (b) 3D. Aluminum powder grade AM 625
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Figure 10. Porosity profiles of extrudates
Figure 11. Microindentation hardness profiles of extrudates
sizes of 365 µm, 135 µm, and 89 µm, respectively; on a relative scale, these correspond to coarse, medium, and fine particle sizes. The optical micrographs of the three powder grades confirmed the presence of both rounded and elongated morphologies, with porosity in some of the powders. Notwithstanding the variation in average particle size of the three powder grades, the grain sizes were approximately the same. The microstructure was characteristic of a cast structure with longitudinal (dendritic) and equiaxed grains. The flow rate, as measured using a Hall flow meter, indicated no flow for the AM 603 and AM 605 grade powders, while the AM 625 powder
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grade exhibited a flow rate of 49 s/50 g. In general, finer particles exhibit lower flow rates as compared with coarser particles due to interparticle friction. However, in the present case the opposite was observed, which suggests that another factor is playing a dominant role. The three powder grades exhibited both rounded and elongated particles. A detailed measurement of particle shape from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the powders confirmed a larger number of elongated particles in AM 603 and AM 605 compared with AM 625. The AM 603, AM 605, and AM 625 powder grades exhibited approximately 49%, 36%, and 27% elongated particles (remainder rounded particles). The non-flowing characteristic of the AM 603 and AM 605 powder grades is attributed to the larger number of elongated particles while the flow of the AM 625 powder is due to the lower number of elongated particles (higher number of rounded particles). Powder Extrusion Figure 2 shows a sequence of the partially extruded samples. It was observed that extrusion started between 23% and 33% of the ram displacement. Ram displacements <23% resulted in compaction of the billet but with no extrusion of the three grades of powder. The ram pressure vs, ram displacement curves for the powder billets (AM603, AM605, and AM625) extruded to various ram distances are shown in Figures 3–5. In the first stage of powder extrusion, after initial consolidation to 73% of the pore-free density, the particles undergo elastic deformation, followed by plastic deformation in the second stage. In the second stage, pressure increases with ram displacement as the billet plastically deforms, filling the interparticle pores and attendant consolidation in the die container until a maximum value (breakthrough pressure) is achieved. At this point, the precompacted billet begins to flow through the die. The breakthrough pressure, and corresponding ram position, are functions of the extrusion ratio and the extrudate cross section and can vary from process to process.15 The third stage commences with flow of the billet through the die. A steady state is achieved in the extrusion die as the ram advances, while the pressure drops as the ram displacement increases, reflecting a decrease in frictional resistance as the contact area between the billet and container decreases. The third stage Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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ends with a drop in the ram pressure as the extrusion process is terminated at a particular ram displacement. The second stage leads to densification of the precompacted billet due to localized plastic deformation in the extrusion container and to die constraint. Plastic deformation of the particles may be inferred from the distribution of porosity in the billets, as shown in Figures 7–9. Factors such as die-wall friction, interparticle friction, and boundary constraint are responsible for densification. During compaction the particles respond to the applied stress in the same way as do bulk metal samples under compressive stress. Figures 7–9 show the distribution of pores in the precompacted billet, and in the precompacted billet after 12%, 23% and 33% ram displacement for the AM 603, AM605, and AM 625 grades of powder, respectively. Since all the billets were compacted to an initial pore-free density ~73%, they exhibited similar levels of porosity. The billets also showed a higher density (lower porosity) at the ram end due to uniaxial compaction, as explained previously. The level of porosity in the three powder grades decreased with ram displacement. As shown in Figure 2, extrusion commenced between 23% and 33% ram displacement. For 33% ram displacement, the billet exhibited a pore-free microstructure while for 23% ram displacement, the billet exhibited traces of porosity. This clearly indicates that extrusion commences only after the precompacted powder billet has reached its porefree density within the constraint of the extrusion die, depending on the extrusion ratio. There is a small volume of material at the front end which is not fully consolidated during extrusion. This is true for all three powder grades, as shown in Figure 10. The breakthrough pressure can be determined from the extrusion curves and was evaluated for the samples extruded at 33% ram displacement and above; for these ram displacements, billet flow was observed through the die as explained previously. The average breakthrough pressures for the AM603, AM605, and AM625 powder grades were 652 MPa, 614 MPa, and 601 MPa, respectively. The highest value was achieved for the coarser particle size (AM 603) followed by AM 605 and AM 625 which had the finer particle sizes. According to current understanding of the compaction process, the fine particles should result in the highest breakthrough pressure due to high interparticle friction. The reverse Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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Figure 12. Representative micrographs at various locations in precompacted billet ((a), (b), and (c)), partially extrudated billet ((d), (e), and (f)) and extrudate (g). AM 605 grade aluminum powder; extrusion ratio 12.25. SEM/secondary electron images
relationship observed can be explained by the fact that the powder showed unusual flow characteristics with the fine powder (AM 625) exhibiting the best results in the Hall flow test. In light of these results, we conclude that the extrusion results are consistent with the flow characteristics of the powders, which are influenced more by particle shape than by particle size. The levels of porosity in the extruded billets (99% ram displacement) of the three powder grades are shown in Figure 10. Since extrusion takes place after significant powder densification in the extrusion container, the three grades of powders exhibited pore-free extrudates, except at the front end where some porosity was observed. Figure 11 shows the Vickers hardness data for the extrudate as a function of distance from the
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extrudate die end. The microindentation hardness values were found to increase initially, reaching a steady state value ~50 HV. As noted previously, porosity was present at the die end of the extrudate due to the absence of back pressure for consolidation. The lower values of microindentation hardness at the die end of the extrudate can be attributed to the presence of porosity, whereas the steady state values of microindentation hardness can be attributed to the absence of pores and the existence of a fully dense microstructure beyond the die end. To provide insight into the mechanism of densification and material flow during extrusion, SEM micrographs16 of the AM 605 powder grade at a higher extrusion ratio of 12.25 are presented. This more rigorous process condition was chosen Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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to better illustrate powder compaction and flow behavior. The other extrusion parameters were similar to those employed in the present work. Figure 12 shows micrographs at various locations in the precompacted billet, partially extrudated billet, and the extrudated billet at 70% ram displacement. The micrographs of the precompacted billet show aluminum powder particles with pores between the particles. Since the billet was compacted to ~73% of the pore-free density, ~27% porosity was observed which was not uniform throughout the billet due to pressure gradients. Since the precompacted powder billet was made by uniaxial compaction, the level of density was higher at the top, as compared with the lower end, hence higher densification (lower porosity) was observed at the top end as compared with the lower end. Also, the powder particles at the top end appeared to be plastically deformed while those at the lower end were only locked mechanically, due to the lower level of plastic deformation. The partially extruded billet exhibited a microstructure consisting of highly compressed and plastically deformed particles at the top end and elongated particles due to flow and plastic deformation (exhibiting flow lines) at the center and lower end. The extent of elongation and densification (lower level of porosity) was higher at the lower end of the partially extruded billet as compared with that at the center. This characterizes the level of densification occuring during extrusion in the billet as a function of distance from the die in the container for a given extrusion ratio. The micrograph of the extruded billet exhibited highly elongated particles with sharp flow lines and a highly densified structure. SUMMARY The results of this study show that it is possible to consolidate various grades of aluminum powder to pore-free density by extrusion. Consolidation of the precompacted powders occurs primarily within the constraint of the extrusion container prior to extrusion. 2D and 3D density/porosity contour maps of precompacted powder billets at various levels of extrusion, and extrudates from each powder grade, reflect similar stages of consolidation behavior, independent of the characteristics of the aluminum powder. Microindentation hardness levels of extrudates attained steady-state values at essentially the Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
same extrudate distance in the three grades of aluminum powder. However, the difference in breakthrough pressure is a result of different powder flow characteristics, which are influenced primarily by particle shape and not particle size. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors thank P. John Askeland, operation manager AMPAL, Inc., for supplying the aluminum powders and to Kai Lorcharoensery and Pawel Kazanowski, IMF, Lehigh University, for their help and guidance during the course of the work. Wojciech Z. Misiolek’s work is partially supported by the Loewy Family Foundation through an endowed professorship at Lehigh University. Vikram V. Dabhade is supported by a grant (NNXO7AB61A) from NASA. REFERENCES 1. R.W. Stevenson, “Aluminum Powder Metallurgy Technology”, Metals Handbook, Ninth Edition, Volume 7: Powder Metallurgy, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1984, pp. 741–748. 2. “Aluminum Powder Metallurgy,” Aluminum Association, Inc., http://www.aluminum.org. 3. J.M. Torralba, C.E. da Costa and F. Velasco, “P/M Aluminum Matrix Composites: an Overview,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2003, vol. 133, pp. 203–206. 4. Z.Y. Ma, Y.L. Li, Y. Liang, F. Zheng, J. Bi and S.C. Tjong, “Nanometric Si3N4 Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Composite,” Mater. Sci. Eng., 1996, vol. A219, pp. 229–231. 5. T. Senthilvelan, K. Raghukandan and A. Venkatraman, “Estimation of Extrusion Stress for Sintered P/M Preforms—Nomogram Approach,” J. Mater. Process. Technol, 2004, vol. 153–154, pp. 420–423. 6. K. Raghukandan and T. Senthilvelan, “Analysis of P/M Hollow Extrusion Using Design of Experiments,” J. Mater. Process. Technol, 2004, vol. 153–154, pp. 416–419. 7. M. Galanty, P. Kazanowski, P. Kansuwan and W.Z. Misiolek, “Consolidation of Metal Powders During the Extrusion Process,” J. Mater. Process. Technol, 2002, vol. 125–126, pp. 491–496. 8. B.L. Ferguson, “Extrusion of Metal Powders,” ASM Handbook, Volume 7: Powder Metallurgy, Technologies and Applications, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998, pp. 621–631. 9. J. Zasadzinski, J. Richert and W. Libura, “The Structure and Properties of P/M Materials Formed in a New Method Without Sintering,” Advances in Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Materials, compiled by J.M. Capus and R.M. German, Metal Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, 1992, vol. 4, pp. 353–362. 10. R.N. Lumley, T.B. Sercombe and G.B. Schaffer, “Surface Oxide and the Role of Magnesium During the Sintering of Aluminum,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 1999, vol. 30A, pp. 457–463. 11. H. So, W.C. Li and H.K. Hsieh, “Assessment of the Powder
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TRUST
12.
13.
14. 15.
must be earned
16.
Extrusion of Silicon–Aluminum Alloy,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2001, vol. 114, pp. 18–21. L. Hu, Z. Li and E. Wang, “Influence of Extrusion Ratio and Temperature on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 2024 Aluminium Alloy Consolidated From Nanocrystalline Alloy Powders via Hot Hydrostatic Extrusion,” 1999, Powder Metall., vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 153–156. K. Soma Raju, V.V. Bhanu Prasad, G.B. Rudrakshi and S.N. Ojha, “PM Processing of Al-Al2O3 Composites and Their Characterization,” Powder Metall., 2003, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 219–223. H. Chandler, Hardness Testing, Second Edition, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1999, pp. 63–90. L. Negevsky, A.R. Bandar, W.Z. Misiolek and P. Kazanowski, “Physical and Numerical Modeling of Billet Upsetting,” Proc. of the 7th International Aluminum Extrusion Technology Seminar ET 2000, The Aluminum Association & Aluminum Extruders Council, 2000, vol. 1, pp.159–166. M. Galanty, P. Kazanowksi, P. Kansuwan and W.Z. Misiolek, “Room Temperature Extrusion of Metal Powder,” Lehigh University Internal Report, 2004. ijpm
For 90 years, ACuPowder has been delivering the finest quality powders and the most conscientious service. Our customers know that serving their needs and solving their problems is our highest priority. Bring us your toughest assignments. We want to earn your trust, too. The finest powders are from ACuPowder: Copper, Tin, Bronze, Brass, Copper Infiltrant, Bronze Premixes, Antimony, Bismuth, Chromium, Manganese, MnS+, Nickel, Silicon, Graphite and P/M Lubricants.
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GLOBAL REVIEW
POWDER METALLURGY IN INDIA Gopal S. Upadhyaya*
INTRODUCTION Over the period 1975–1990, the author periodically reported1–4 on the status of PM in India. The last review by Johnson5 selectively covered some aspects of the PM industry in India. In 1990, liberalization of the Indian economy occurred and this was the end of License Raj. Many small companies became unprofitable and were closed. At the same time many new medium and large companies emerged. Entrepreneurs assumed that a small-size PM plant could be viable, but they were proved wrong. It was soon realized that small-size firms can be profitable only if they produce value-added products. In spite of all these ups and downs, the current growth rate of the Indian economy is between 8% and 9%. It is interesting to observe that the major primary metal producers in India, unlike other countries, have (historically) hesitated to enter into metal powder production. In contrast, the engineering industries have realized the potential of PM. In the present review, attention is focused on metal powder producers, PM parts fabricators, and PM equipment manufacturers. The status of PM R&D and education in India is also assessed.
India, with an annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate of 9%, is experiencing a boom in its manufacturing base, including powder metallurgy (PM) processing. This review describes the current status of metal powder and PM parts production, including cemented carbides and advanced ceramics. The boom in the automotive and information technology industries is beginning to play a major role in the Indian economy. R&D has contributed to the health of the PM industry, although much more is expected. PM education in India is meeting its responsibility in providing high-quality technical manpower. Some of the challenges to be faced by India are highlighted.
METAL POWDER PRODUCTION Historically, in the early stages the electrolytic method for metal powder production, particularly of copper and iron, was used. Later on, a number of iron powder producers ceased production by this route and switched over to water atomization. The only exception is Industrial Metal Powder, Pune, which now has an installed capacity of 1,000 mt per annum of electrolytic iron. This includes flake, commercial grade powders, and high-purity powder for chemical and food applications. The firm is in compliance with ISO 9001:2000. Höganäs India Ltd., a subsidiary of Höganäs AB, Sweden, was established in 1987. The company started production of water-atomized iron powder in 1993 after acquiring an existing plant in Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra State. It prepares different blends of reduced iron powder, including annealing, for use in various applications. Sponge iron powder is imported from Höganäs AB, Sweden. The plant has an applications engineering and development facility, where customers’ specific requirements are taken into account.
*Consultant, Plot 37, Lane 17, Ravindrapuri Colony, Varanasi 221 005, India; E-mail:
[email protected]
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Copper powder is produced by numerous firms.1–4 The initial hurdle of precise quality control for press-and-sinter grade powders has been overcome. P.P. Patel & Co., which began production in 1996, has grown considerably over recent years. The plant is located near Solapur, Maharashtra State. The product ranges from copper powder of differing compressibilities, bronze, lead, tin, zinc, and powders for cutting and grinding tools. The plant has gas-atomization capability, controlled-atmosphere furnaces, rod mills, and other facilities, and a fully equipped laboratory. Sarda Industrial Enterprises, Jaipur, Rajasthan State, has been producing nonferrous powders since 1982. Electrolytic copper powder is the major product, for which virgin copper cathodes (99.9% purity) are the starting material. The company has plans to produce atomized copper-alloy powders and gold bronze powders. Shield Alloys (India) Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, produces a variety of electrodes. These include super-low-heat-input tubular hardfacing electrode sticks, which contain chromium and complex carbide powders. The electrodes are suitable for high deposition rates (up to 4 kg/h weld metal) with minimum penetration. PRODUCTION OF PM PARTS Major PM parts produced are filters, self-lubricating bearings, and parts used in automotive, home appliance, and office equipment. The range of materials embraces ferrous and copper-base alloys. Post-sintering treatments such as steam and heat treatment are frequently carried out. Hot-worked molybdenum and tungsten alloy PM products are produced by Mishra Dhatu Nigam (MIDHANI), a plant run by the Department of Defense Production and Supplies, Ministry of Defense. A need for other hot-worked structural materials, for example, aluminum, and copperbase alloys, exists but the necessary investment for indigenous production is not yet forthcoming. The biggest PM parts producer in India is GKN Sinter Metals Ltd., Pune, previously known as Mahindra Sintered Products Ltd. In April 2002, GKN bought a minor stake (49%) of Mahindra and Mahindra. The company also manufactures custom-designed valve-train components via technical collaboration with Nippon Piston Ring Co., Japan. The plant operates a number of compacting presses (3–650 mt) served by an in-house tool room complete with a CAD/CAM facility. It also houses
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mesh-belt furnaces, high-temperature pusher furnaces, and continuous steam-treatment and hardening production lines. It has QS-9000 and ISO 14001 certification. The plant is comparable with any PM plants worldwide. The long history of production from this company has indirectly helped various smaller PM players in India in terms of technical manpower. There is a general concern in the local PM community that multinational companies have become too inward looking. The second major PM parts producer in India is Sundaram Fasteners Limited, Metal For m Division, Hosur, Tamil Nadu State (40 km south of Bangalore). It is part of the TV Sundaram group of companies, the largest automotive component manufacturing group in India. PM accounts for 21% of the division’s output. The company also has an iron powder plant at Hyderabad with ~5,400 mt annual capacity. The main PM plant in Hosur has 25 compacting presses up to 500 mt capacity, 12 sizing presses up to 630 mt capacity, and seven sintering furnaces (maximum temperature 1,130°C). The group formed a joint venture, Sundaram Bleistahl Private Ltd., with Bleistahl GmbH, Germany, in 2004 to make PM valve-train parts, in which Sundaram has a 76% equity stake. Federal Mogul Goetze (India) Limited–Sintered Products Division, established in 1996, is a joint venture between Federal–Mogul Sintered Products Limited, U.K. (formerly Brico), and Goetze India Ltd. The plant specializes in PM engine and transmission components for automotive applications and is situated about 100 km south of Delhi. The plant has 12 compacting presses and two sintering furnaces. Specialty Sintered Products Ltd., near Pune, is a relatively new addition. The plant has compacting press capacity of 5–200 mt. The maximum density of the parts is 7.4 g/cm 3 . Sinter hardening and carbonitriding facilities are also available. Precision Sintered Products Ltd., located in Rajkot, Gujarat State, has produced sintered parts since 1997. Primary products are bushes, outer inner rotors, and gears. Star Sintered Group has three production plants in Noida near Delhi, namely Star Sintered Products Ltd., Standard Sintered Products Pvt. Ltd., and Gold Star Filters Pvt. Ltd. Recently the group acquired Sinter Kings Virmani, a Delhi PM company. Production capacity has increased from 3 mt/day to 10 mt/day in one year. In all, the group has 30 compacting presses up to 400 mt capacity, 10 sizing presses, and six sintering furnaces. Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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One of the recent PM manufacturing plants initiating production in May 2008 is Maxtech Sintered Product Pvt. Ltd., Pune. The products are to be based on plain iron (600 mt per annum) and stainless steel (150 mt per annum) powders. The stainless steel grades are 409, 304, 316 , and 434L. The company envisages that 49% of its products will be exported. Although India’s market growth for cast and wrought stainless steel was double the world’s average, no one (so far) has embraced PM stainless steel production. Bimetal bearings are produced in India by existing plants1–4 and no new additional unit has emerged. India is not lagging in refractory metal-base PM product fabrication. The heavy alloy (HA) penetrator project at Tiruchirapalli, set up in 1988 as one of the ordnance factories, produces a wide range of products. The smallest product is a 2.8 mm cube and the largest product is a 50 mm dia. HA bar. The plant is ISO 9001:2000 accredited and has a capacity of 400 mt per annum for tungsten alloys. Metal injection molding (MIM) parts production in India has not yet established a firm footing. The problems appear to be twofold: lack of a sufficient demand for MIM products, and little or no viable R&D activity. The coming big boom in laptops and cell phone production facilities within the country is expected to bring forth a significant change in the situation. CEMENTED CARBIDE AND DIAMOND TOOL PRODUCTION Major cemented carbide industries are based on foreign collaboration, mainly Sandvik of Sweden, Kennametal (earlier Widia GmbH), Germany, Ceratizit of the Plansee Group, Austria, and TaeguTec of South Korea. There are a number of small indigenous plants, but their product ranges are rather limited. The big players do export their products. Ceratizit India (formerly India Hard Metals Ltd.), Kolkata, manufactures both cutting tools and wear parts. It has an annual capacity of 40 mt, which is growing at an annual rate >35%. The raw materials are both imported and procured locally. Exports from this plant are negligible. Stay Sharp Diamond Tools Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, has been in the PM business since 1983. The company produces diamond tools for stone processing and the construction industry. With the increase in real estate, the use of diamond tools is much in Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
demand. The company produces circular saws for cutting (maximum saw dia. 300 cm, segment length 24 mm, depth of diamond impregnation 20 mm, and cutting width 11.5 mm) and core drills (maximum dia. 400 mm, segment length 24 mm, thickness 5 mm, and height 8 mm, 32 segments). ADVANCED CERAMIC PRODUCTION The Indian PM community has made significant inroads in the field of advanced ceramics. Many traditional ceramic manufacturers have ventured into the area of advanced ceramics. One of the major manufacturers is Carborundum Universal Ltd. The company produces coated and bonded abrasives in addition to the manufacture of super refractories, electrominerals, industrial ceramics, and ceramic fibers. Presently, the company’s range of 20,000 different varieties of abrasives, refractory products, and electrominerals are manufactured in ten different locations in India. Almost all the facilities have received ISO 9001:2000 accreditation for quality standards. The export market has registered a growth of 20%. Nuclear Fuel Complex, Hyderabad, an ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 14001:2004 organization, is an industrial unit of the Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India, manufacturing natural and enriched uranium oxide fuels and structural materials from zirconium and stainless steel for all the nuclear power reactors in India. The production cycle of the uranium oxide pellets starts with the concentrate and requires sophisticated quality control. PM operations play a critical part. PM PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT New Met Pvt. Ltd. is a PM press manufacturing company and situated in Mohali, Punjab State. It produces ejection-type presses in the capacity range 5–50 mt. To date they have delivered more than 300 such presses. The firm also manufactures withdrawal-type presses in the range 20–100 mt, but in limited quantities. The main market for this type of press is the cemented carbide industry. The firm also produces sizing presses of up to 40 mt capacity. Reconditioning of existing Dorst presses, as well as of other imported hydraulic presses, such as Bussmann and Alpha, is also carried out by this company. Foreign PM press suppliers, particularly Dorst, Germany, have a clear presence in India. Among sintering fur nace manufacturers, Fluidther m Technology Ltd., Chennai, has
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become a leader. The company manufacturers pusher -tray (T max 1,700°C), mesh-belt (T max 1,150°C), walking-beam (T max 1,700°C), and graphite tube-resistance (Tmax 2,000°C) furnaces. The mesh-belt furnaces also incorporate rapidcooling and sinter-hardening modules. The firm has gained significant exposure at various international PM exhibitions. PM AND THE INDIAN AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY The growth of the Indian PM industry is directly linked to the automotive industry. For continued growth, there remains scope for diversification. India is the second largest two-wheeler producer, the 11th largest passenger-car producer, and the fifth largest commercial-vehicle producer in the world. The government’s Automotive Mission Plan 2006–2016 aims to make India a global automotive hub, accounting for 10% of the GDP, creating 25 million additional jobs by 2016. 6 In its Technology Roadmap,7 this core group on automotive R&D pays special attention to new advanced materials. Unfortunately, there is no serious attempt by the PM parts producers to initiate R&D in this area. However, academic, government research institutes, and some private independent R&D centers, are active in such research. The Planning Commission, Government of India, through the Ministry of Human Resource Development, awarded a large grant to this author to direct a Technology Development Mission Project on “Ferrous PM Materials for Automobiles.” The project was completed successfully in 2001; investigations were carried out on sintered stainless steels.8 With car manufacturers expanding capacity, it is expected that India could end up producing a
Figure 1. Current and projected PM automotive parts production in Asian countries (Courtesy S. Ashok, Sundaram Bleistahl, Hosur). 1 st = 0.9078 mt
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million cars by 2010. The breakthrough came in 1983–84 with the entry of Maruti Udyog Limited, now renamed Maruti Suzuki India Ltd. At present there is no major car producer in the world (except from the former USSR) that has not opened assembly or manufacturing facilities in India. Among Asian countries, apart from Japan, South Korea has emerged as a major player. There is an outward movement of Indian car manufacturers too. In March 2008, Tata Motors announced the acquisition of luxury automotive brands Jaguar and Land Rover, produced in the U.K. for the Ford Motor Company, for $2.3 billion. Ford has committed to providing engineering support, including R&D and other services. It is hoped that such acquisition will help in upgrading the quality of local manufacturers. This is a major event in bringing India to the global automotive scene. A recent development in car production in India by Tata Motors is the introduction of a small car, the 4-door 2-cylinder engine “people’s car” named Nano with an initial selling price of $2,200. It is intended to wean away two-wheeler riders, who exist in large numbers. Figure 1 illustrates the Asian automotive PM parts production trend through 2015. It is evident that PM growth in China is greater than in India, and may even overtake Japanese production by 2015. Indian producers must take a hard look at this trend. Currently, on average, automotive PM part usage in Asia is ~7.0 kg per vehicle, which is expected to rise to 10 kg per vehicle by the year 2020. Figure 2 shows the breakdown of PM parts applications by weight per vehicle in engine,
Figure 2. Use of PM parts per automobile (by weight) worldwide and in India. (Courtesy S. Ponkshe, Mahindra & Mahindra R & D Center, Nashik)
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transmission, and suspension systems. It is obvious that in India the penetration is 40% to 60% less than the world average. PM RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PM research is being carried out in academe (universities and institutes of technology (IIT)), and government research institutes (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Atomic Energy Establishments, Defense Research and Development Organization Laboratories). The Indian Space Research Organization also does R&D, but only for its specific needs. If one looks at the open literature, major contributions in terms of publications are derived from academic institutes. The Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, founded the Advanced Research Center in Powder Metallurgy (ARC) in 1995 in Hyderabad. The concept was to transfer appropriate PM technology to industry in India. Of late, the center has added two new words to the name, “International” and “New Materials.” To some extent, the center has moved from its original mandate and is now more engaged in basic research. Research on nanostructured materials has become so fashionable that many laboratories have become involved, without realistically assessing the budgetary demand for meaningful research. The science and technology planners in the government of India appear to lack control with the result that the Indian PM industry is confused in relation to what to pursue and what to reject. However, the picture is not all negative. Mahindra and Mahindra, a premier automotive manufacturer in India, has developed partnerships with powder manufacturers for property data and manufacturing analysis for cost-effective powder chemistry and high-density PM parts. Ongoing projects are related to synchronizer hubs, injection clamps, cam lobes, and sensor rings. Future technology exploration with global PM parts manufacturers focuses on powder-forged conrods and surface-densified gears. In academe, the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, is most active in PM research.9 Focus areas are tungsten-base heavy alloys, stainless steels and their particulate composites, sinterhardened PM steels, 6000 series sintered aluminum alloys, copper–chromium contact materials, and microwave sintering. Their PM laboratory actively participates in various national and inter national conferences. The Indian Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
Institute of Technology, Mumbai, is engaged in research on cost-effective alumina powders and their sintering behavior. The Nonferrous Materials Technology Development Center, Hyderabad, an autonomous R&D institution (established via a one-time contribution from the premier nonferrous metal industries) is active in research on rare earth alloys and products, high-purity cobalt and its alloys, and refractory metals. The Powder Metallurgy Division of the Defense Metallurgical Research Laboratory is engaged in research on hot isostatically pressed (HIPed) superalloys, oxide dispersion-strengthened 303 stainless steels, and microwave sintering of tungsten. The Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, is concentrating on nanostructured PM materials. ARCI, Hyderabad, has initiated research on the production of nanocrystalline titania using chemical vapor synthesis. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, has begun work on thorium powder, primarily to develop fuels based on thorium–uranium. Among the PM industries, the Crompton Greaves Global R&D Center, Mumbai, has reported significant developments on Cu-Cr (25 and 50 w/o) contact materials for vacuum interrupters. One of the major fur nace manufacturers, Fluidther m Technology Ltd., Chennai, is collaborating with the Gas Research Institute of the Ukraine, Kiev, in producing reduced iron powder from blue dust, which is abundantly available in India. A fir m in Hyderabad, Akhilesh Engineering, is developing metallic disc-brake pads for automobiles by compacting the back plate and friction pad together and sintering in a reducing atmosphere. One of the latest PM research facilities has been added by Metform Research, Bangalore. It provides engineering solutions including product and tool design (CAD), analysis simulation and process simulation of metal working processes, including PM. Recently, it has become involved in the development of products such as bearing caps, gears, and automotive filters. The company has also developed premix alloy combinations for diverse applications. Recently, many foreign multinational companies have opened R&D centers in India. Some of these centers support production units. Late entrants are now opening dedicated independent centers to pursue studies in new and emerging high-tech areas. GE has set a goal of $8.0 billion in revenues and $8.0 billion in assets in India by
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POWDER METALLURGY IN INDIA
2010. Automotive firms such as Ford India and Honda Siel, along with domestic firms such as Ashok Leyland and Maruti Suzuki, have spent a total of $80 million.10 PM EDUCATION PM courses are taught in engineering schools having a Metallurgical/Materials Engineering branch. In other disciplines, PM is included as a part of manufacturing processes courses. The rigor of structure/properties/performance relationships in PM processing is invariably dealt with in the metallurgical/materials engineering discipline. The latest publication of the author,11 based on these a relationships, has received favorable reaction. From the beginning, the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, contributed to the teaching of PM in a quantitative and design-oriented mode. Elective courses were also developed at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels; these include Sintering and Sintered Products; Sintered Tool Materials, and Advances in Powder Metallurgy. The Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, which was active in PM education, is of late emphasizing ceramics. The Information Technology (IT) boom in India has been somewhat of a detriment to the “hard core” engineering disciplines. Students migrate to the IT industries because of lucrative salaries, and neither the manufacturing industries nor the government have any clear plan to mitigate the challenge this poses. PMAI The Powder Metallurgy Association of India (PMAI), founded in 1973 at the initiative of R.V. Tamhankar, organizes annual technical meetings and refresher courses for personnel from the PM industry. In early 2008, the 34th Annual Technical Meeting was held in Chennai. Of late, the established PM companies appear to show less enthusiasm for these professional events. The cemented carbide industries find an improved kinship with the Machine Tool Manufacturing Associations. The situation appears similar to that described by K.H. Roll in his extensive review of the first 50 years of the Metal Powder Industries Federation during the 1950s.12 Other organizations such as the Indian Ceramic Society and the Materials Research Society of India also offer scope and flexibility for participation from the PM community.
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CONCLUSIONS PM in India is developing at a steady rate, but one would like to see a quantum jump. There is enough scope to diversify into non-automotive PM parts, but this requires a vigorous campaign. In brief, the PM industry must strive for: • Alliances with strategic partners • Development of specialized products for key customers through enhanced application engineering • Improvement in supply capacity and a reduction in lead times • Improvement in consistency of quality through total quality management (TQM) and Six Sigma programs • Strengthening marketing initiatives • Comprehensive branding exercise • Training of technical manpower, particularly at the middle level • Interaction with global vendors REFERENCES 1. G.S. Upadhyaya, “Status of Powder Metallurgy in India,” Powder Metall. Int., 1975, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 197–200. 2. G.S. Upadhyaya, “Powder Metallurgy in India,” Powder Metall. Int., 1986, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 223–224. 3. G.S. Upadhyaya, “Powder Metallurgy in India,” Int. J. of Powder Metall., 1988, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 259–262. 4. G.S. Upadhyaya, “Powder Metallurgy in India,” Int. J. of Powder Metall., 1990, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 391–395. 5. P.K. Johnson, “Growth Opportunities for Growth in India”, Int. J. of Powder Metall., 2007, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 9–13. 6. D. Chenoy, Hindustan Times, February 26, 2008. 7. Technology Roadmap by the Core Group on Automotive R&D, Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser, New Delhi, March 2006. 8. P. Datta and G.S. Upadhyaya, “Sintered Duplex Stainless Steels from Premixes of 316L and 434L Powders,” Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2001, vol. 67, no. 1–3, p. 234–242. 9. G.S. Upadhyaya, “Powder Metallurgy at Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur,” Int. J. of Powder Metall., 1991, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 59–64. 10. N. Mrinalini and S. Wakdian, “Foreign R&D Centres in India,: Is there any Positive Impact?”, Current Science, 2008, vol. 94, no. 4, p. 452–458. 11. G.S. Upadhyaya and A. Upadhyaya, Materials Science and Engineering, Anshan Ltd., Tunbridge Wells, Kent, U.K., 2007. 12. K.H. Roll, “The First Fifty: A History of the First Half Century of the Metal Powder Industries Federation”, Fifty Years of Service to Powder Metallurgy 1944–1994, Metal Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, 1994. ijpm
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HISTORICAL PROFILE
TUNGSTEN FILAMENTS— THE FIRST MODERN PM PRODUCT Peter K. Johnson*
2008 marks the centenary of the ductile-tungsten incandescent lamp filament, the first successful massproduced powder metallurgy (PM) product. This chronology traces William Coolidge’s R&D leading to the invention, and looks at his personal notes, letters, and patents. Other tungsten developments and current PM filament processing are reviewed.
The ductile-tungsten lamp filament, introduced 100 years ago in 1908, is really the first commercially successful mass-produced PM product. It can be said that this single product thrust PM onto the industrial stage and opened the door to many other developments and products still in use today. However, the story of the tungsten filament includes, more importantly, the story of a man, William D. Coolidge, former director of General Electric Corporation’s (GE) R&D laboratory in Schenectady, New York. His inquiring spirit and perseverance led to the commercial process of making ductile tungsten. I had the privilege of meeting him at his home in 1970 when he was a spry 97, Figure 1. We talked at length about his early work and many inventions. The occasion was in conjunction with the Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF) giving him the Powder Metallurgy Pioneer Award along with another GE man, Burnie L. Benbow, who was instrumental in manufacturing tungsten wire commercially at GE’s Cleveland, Ohio, Wire Works. Coolidge was gracious, remarkably alert, and low-key about his accomplishments. He wore regular glasses and his hair was just start-
Figure 1. William D. Coolidge and the author, 1970
This article is based on a presentation given at the 2008 International Conference on Tungsten, Refractory & Hardmaterials VII, Washington, D.C.
*Contributing Editor, International Journal of Powder Metallurgy, APMI International, 105 College Road East, Princeton, New Jersey 08501-6692, USA; E-mail:
[email protected]
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TUNGSTEN FILAMENTS—THE FIRST MODERN PM PRODUCT
ing to turn gray. Hearing was his only impairment, for which he wore a hearing aid. He remembered working with Thomas Edison and meeting many world-renowned scientists like Charles Kettering and Charles Steinmetz. Marie Curie was a guest at his home. Rudy Dehn, a retired GE laboratory staffer, recalls being interviewed by Coolidge for a laboratory position in 1945. “He was friendly and laid-back and unpretentious. He was concerned for his people.” WILLIAM D. COOLIDGE Born in Hudson, Massachusetts, in 1873, Coolidge died in 1975 at the age of 101. He was raised in modest circumstances on a seven-acre farm. His father worked in a shoe factory and his mother was a dressmaker. With no expectations of higher education, he left high school to work in a rubber factory to augment the family’s finances. But fate intervened. The rubber business did not excite him so he returned to high school and won a scholarship to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) studying electrical engineering as one of 1,200 students. Illness forced him to drop out of college for a year. He graduated in 1896, loaded with debt and with no hope of attending graduate school. He stayed at MIT as an assistant in physics. Again fate intervened when he won a fellowship to the University of Leipzig in Germany where he met the famous Professor Wilhelm Roentgen, discoverer of X-rays. After earning a PhD in physics in 1899, summa cum laude, he returned to MIT working in the physics and chemistry departments for five years at an annual salary of $1,500. Still in debt, he accepted an offer to work at the GE Electrical Research Laboratory in Schenectady in 1905. GE had deep pockets then and doubled his annual salary to $3,000. After many accomplishments, including the “Coolidge X-ray tube,” he was named director of the GE Research Laboratory in 1932 and a GE vice president in 1940. Finally retiring in 1944, while holding 83 patents, he continued to work as a consultant. The inventor Thomas Alva Edison demonstrated his incandescent light bulb publicly in December 1879 using a carbon filament that burned for 45 hours, Figure 2. Contrary to popular opinion, he did not invent the light bulb but only improved on it. His designs were based on a patent he purchased in 1875. In 1892 he merged
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Figure 2. Thomas Edison’s light bulb
the Edison General Electric Company with another company to form General Electric Corporation. The first electric light was invented in 1809 by Humphry Davy, an English chemist who also invented the miner’s safety lamp. Heinrich Göbel invented the first light bulb in 1854 using a carbonized filament inside a glass bulb. In 1878 Sir Joseph Wilson Swan, another Englishman, invented the first longer-lasting electric light bulb (13.5 h) with a carbon-fiber filament. FILAMENT MATERIALS Edison and others experimented with a variety of filament materials including osmium, boron, molybdenum, and tantalum. European researchers were also working on osmium, tungsten, and tantalum filaments and produced non-ductile tungsten. Alexander Just and Franz Hanaman began working on boron and tungsten filaments in Vienna in 1902 and developed processes for making non-ductile tungsten wire. The material was brittle and fragile and could not withstand rough handling. A GE Lamp Department publication noted “In spite of all the attention placed on tungsten between 1900 and 1908, all of the processes that were developed left it brittle and fragile. It could not be drawn into wire, it could not be coiled, and non-ductile tungsten filaments were hard to meet voltage requirements.” NON-DUCTILE TUNGSTEN FILAMENT INTRODUCED IN U.S. IN 1907 GE invested hundreds of thousands of dollars acquiring patents and manufacturing rights for Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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TUNGSTEN FILAMENTS—THE FIRST MODERN PM PRODUCT
making non-ductile tungsten and actually produced lamp bulbs with tungsten filaments beginning in 1907. About 500,000 lamp bulbs were sold during the first year at the original price of $1.50 for a 40 watt bulb and $1.75 for a 60 watt bulb. Before that, carbon lamps sold for $1.50 to $3.25 each. COOLIDGE’S RESEARCH Coolidge began his filament research at GE working with tantalum powder before switching to tungsten. Working diligently for three years, he concluded that the high temperature used to sinter tungsten brought about a fully crystalline structure which caused the brittleness. He developed an amalgam filament consisting of mercury, cadmium, and bismuth as a binder for the tungsten. The mixture was squirted through a die, after which the binder was removed by applying high heat and then bonding the tungsten particles
Figure 3. Coolidge demonstrating his process to Thomas Edison
Figure 4. Drawing die
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
by passing a current through the filament. However, the filament was still too brittle. Coolidge reasoned that it might be possible to break up the crystals through mechanical working such as hammering or rolling. He discovered that sound filaments made by his amalgam process could be flattened by pressing them between hot blocks of steel or by passing them through a mill with heated steel rolls at a temperature of red hot or lower. It was determined that the resulting flattened tungsten filaments had been somewhat strengthened by these operations as a result of the local pressure and the metal flow, resulting in the change from a fully crystalline structure to a somewhat fibrous condition. Temperature was very important to tungsten’s ductility, created by working it below its annealing temperature, Figure 3. DRAWING DIE FOR TUNGSTEN The first tungsten filament to exhibit permanent deformation at room temperature was a 9.8 × 10-3 in. (0.249 mm) amalgam process filament hot drawn through a series of five diamond dies. Tungsten lost its brittleness and even became ductile when cold. After three years of concentrated R&D, Coolidge and his colleagues finally succeeded in making ductile tungsten that could be drawn through diamond dies, Figure 4. In 1910 he succeeded in rolling tungsten wire down to 5.7 × 10-3 in. (0.145 mm) square. COOLIDGE’S LABORATORY NOTES AND LETTERS Let us look at how the man operated and slowly refined his process. On November 11, 1906, Coolidge wrote in his laboratory book: “I am getting more and more confident, personally every day that tungsten lamps for the world will be made by my methods. And it pleases me because my method is so different in every way from others.” Coolidge kept close ties to his mother, whom he wrote often about his experiments. On November 18, 1906, he wrote: “Dear Mother, I have spent a very busy but very satisfactory week. We have got the production of my filaments up to 500 per day and I hope we can raise that this week to 1,000 per day. I have got it to 19 feet per minute. You see I have to count on the production of enormous quantities because the company will probably make later as many as 200,000 lamps per
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TUNGSTEN FILAMENTS—THE FIRST MODERN PM PRODUCT
day, and one lamp calls for four feet of my wire.” On March 11, 1907, he wrote: “Dear Mother, it looks now as though I have made a great improvement in my filament method. Unless a bug develops (and I don’t expect it now) my improved method will be very hard to beat, and for the large filaments at any rate I very much doubt whether anything can touch it. The improvement consists in the addition of a small quantity of another metal, bismuth, to my mixture. It cuts the time per filament from minutes down to four seconds.” One month later he wrote, “I am also pleased to see that I am getting the credit for my recent discovery that tungsten is a ductile metal below red heat. I found that these filaments which are so brittle cold can readily be bent into any shape by heating slightly.” EARLY COOLIDGE BULB AND MAZDA BULBS GE made the first public announcement of ductile tungsten wire in 1910 but changed over to the Coolidge process during late 1910. The company scrapped about $500,000 worth of equipment as well as another $500,000 worth of unsold filament lamps. In 1907, 90 percent of domestic incandescent lamp sales were carbon. By 1916 an estimated 85 percent were made from tungsten. Lamps made with ductile tungsten filaments were marketed by GE in 1911 under the Mazda brand in 25, 40, 60, 100, and 150 watt levels, lasting up to 1,000 h, Figure 5 and Figure 6. A GE advertisement for Edison Mazda Lamps said: “For the same money that you now pay for the old-style carbon lamp, you can have your choice of three times as much light in each room.” COOLIDGE PATENTS Coolidge began filing patents in 1909 on dies and die supports, and was awarded the patent for ductile tungsten (U.S. Patent 1,082,933) on December 30, 1913, Figure 7. GE granted licenses to several companies to make ductile-tungsten wire for incandescent electric lamps. However, Coolidge’s 1913 patent was challenged by the Independent Lamp & Wire Co., Weehawken, New Jersey, and invalidated in 1927 because it was not an invention as defined by patent law. Many competitors joined the business including the Independent Lamp & Wire Company producing wire for Sylvania bulbs. Callite Tungsten Corporation followed, as well as Westinghouse,
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Mallory Metallurgical, and GTE Sylvania, Inc. OTHER TUNGSTEN DEVELOPMENTS Coolidge’s seminal work on tungsten filaments opened the door to inventing a vacuum tube for generating X-rays known as the “Coolidge tube.” It became the first stable and controllable X-ray generator for medical and dental use and replaced gas-filled tubes with platinum targets. Another well-known GE researcher, Irving Langmuir, found that he could obtain a controllable electron emission from one of Coolidge’s hot tungsten filaments in a high vacuum instead of a gas. Coolidge installed a heated tungsten filament in an X-ray tube with a tungsten filament cathode and a tungsten target. He also developed tungsten contacts for electrical switches used in automotive ignition systems. Many other commercially successful tungsten products followed.
Figure 5. Early Coolidge bulb
Figure 6. Mazda brand GE light bulbs, 1911–1913
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TUNGSTEN FILAMENTS—THE FIRST MODERN PM PRODUCT
ingot weighing 1.85 kg, which makes 27,000 to 28,000 m (16.7 to 17.3 miles) of wire, produces enough wire for 27,000 to 28,000 bulbs. PM PIONEERS The PM industry and the tungsten industry owe a great debt to William Coolidge, Burnie Benbow, and their colleagues for their early research and development work on, and production processes for, the first commercially successful PM product, Figure 9.
Figure 8. Wire drawing at Elmet Technologies
Figure 7. 1913 Coolidge patent
CURRENT FILAMENT PROCESS SIMILAR TO COOLIDGE PROCESS In the 2006 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy (vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 11–12) I reported on Elmet Technologies’ process, which is very similar to the Coolidge process, Figure 8. The company compacts tungsten powder into ingots via mechanical or cold isostatic pressing which are then sintered in hydrogen in a bank of cylindrical or bottle resistance-heated furnaces at about 2,400°C. Sintered ingots weighing up to 22 kg are hot rolled into sheet and bar that undergo a series of swaging and annealing steps, followed by wire drawing. The wire is further processed via a coiling or winding step on molybdenum mandrels. One lamp bulb uses about 1 m of wire. So, an Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
Figure 9. PM pioneer, Burnie L. Benbow, right, receives recognition by GE co-workers at 1970 International PM Conference
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TUNGSTEN FILAMENTS—THE FIRST MODERN PM PRODUCT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author thanks Anthony Scalise, archivist, Schenectady Museum & Suits-Bueche Planetarium, which houses the Coolidge collection and his personal notes and documents, for his invaluable assistance. BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Schroeder, The Incandescent Lamp—Its History, Edison Lamp Works of GE Co., Bulletin L.D., vol. 118A, 1923. W.P. Sykes, Modern Uses of Nonferrous Metals, A.I.M.E., NY, 1935. L.G. Leighton, A History of the Incandescent Lamp, GE Lamp Department, 1958. J.A. Miller, Yankee Scientist: William David Coolidge, 1963, Mohawk Development Service, Schenectady, NY. C.G. Suits, National Academy of Sciences Memorial Biography, Washington, DC, 1982. J.E. Britain, “William D. Coolidge and Ductile Tungsten”, Industry Applications Magazine, IEEE, 2004, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 9–10. ijpm
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ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
STATE OF THE PM INDUSTRY IN NORTH AMERICA—2008 Mark Paullin*
CHALLENGES TO GROWTH Despite facing a “perfect storm” of challenges in 2007, the PM industry in North America remains the world’s largest and most innovative market. The shrinking market share of domestic original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) or the Detroit 3 (as they are now called), the shift away from full-size sport utility vehicles (SUVs) and light trucks, spiraling energy costs, and volatile commodity prices have all hit the industry at the same time. These challenges are continuing to confront the industry in 2008. However, there is still some good news. The weaker dollar has made PM parts relatively competitive in the international marketplace and in this environment, U.S. PM manufacturers are reporting a 66% reduction in PM parts lost to overseas companies. The weaker dollar has also resulted in a strengthening in demand for export-driven companies like Caterpillar and others.
The powder metallurgy (PM) industry in North America faces many challenges, particularly from the declining U.S. automotive market and volatile commodity prices. Metal powder shipments softened in 2007 and the outlook for the balance of 2008 remains somewhat negative. However, new automotive engines and transmissions contain an increasing number of PM parts. The industry, through the Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF) and the Center for PM Technology (CPMT) continues to invest in programs to improve materials’ properties and provide designers with more information about PM’s capabilities.
METAL POWDER TRENDS Iron powder demand in North America reached a peak of 430,000 mt (473,000 st) in 2004 and has declined steadily since that time, falling 8% in 2005, 6% in 2006, and an additional 3% in 2007 (Figure 1). Demand for iron powder is forecasted to fall an additional 8%–10% for 2008 due to weakened automotive production, especially SUVs and
Figure 1. North American iron powder shipments. (1 st = 0.9078 mt)
Presented at the PM2008 World Congress in Washington, D.C.
*President, MPIF, and President, Capstan, 16100 S. Figueroa Street, Gardena, California 90248, USA;
[email protected]
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STATE OF THE PM INDUSTRY IN NORTH AMERICA—2008
Figure 2. North American shipments of copper and copper base powders.
Figure 3. North American metal powder shipments.
light trucks which contain up to 29.5 kg (65 lb.) of PM parts per vehicle. Overall, the North American PM demand for powders will fall 25% between 2004 and 2008. Copper powder shipments have also fared poorly, declining by 8.2% to approximately 18,065 mt (19,900 st), Figure 2. Tin powder shipments plunged 19.4% in 2007 to 713 mt (785 st). Early reports for 2008 show a continued decline in consumption of copper and tin with both markets negatively impacted by the softening PM parts market and high commodity prices. These high prices have certainly opened the gates for substitution. Stainless steel and nickel demand in 2007 declined an estimated 5% to 8,783 mt (9,675 st) and 8,315 mt (9,160 st), respectively. On the bright side, tungsten and tungsten carbide powder shipments increase an estimated 3% to 4,221 mt (4,650 st) and 6,681 mt (7,360 st), Figure 3. VOLATILE COMMODITIES IMPACT PM MATERIALS During the past two years volatile commodity
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prices have played havoc with metal powder manufacturers and their customers, the PM parts makers. Roller-coaster prices of steel, copper, nickel, tin, and molybdenum have all impacted the PM marketplace. Steel scrap prices rose 33% in 2007 from $243/st to $322/st. The buzz in every hallway of this conference is the skyrocketing price to over $800/st in June of 2008, a 150% price increase over the past 6 months. Nickel is another story. The average price in 2006 was $6.68/lb., in 2007 it jumped to $16.88/lb., and in 2006 it had fallen to $13.13/lb. All PM companies are faced with surging utility prices. Over the past 12 months through June of 2008, natural gas prices have increased 54%, coal for electrical generating plants is up 210%, and crude oil is up 200%. We must, however, remember that most substitute materials and competing technologies face similar dramatic material and utility price increases leaving PM producers with their fundamental pricing advantage intact. HOPE IN THE AUTOMOTIVE MARKET While PM has suffered because of structural changes in the automotive market, production cuts, and the negative impact of the American Axle strike, there is still cause for optimism. Despite the many challenges, North America continues to lead the world in consumption of iron and steel powders, approximately 363,120 mt (400,000 st) compared with 272,340 mt (300,000 st) for Asia, and 181,560 mt (200,000 st) for Europe. As a near net-shape technology, PM’s cost savings benefits are second to none. High-visibility products like powder -forged connecting rods, main bearing caps, and transmission carriers are still manufactured in high volumes and used by both the domestic OEMs and transplants. Industry insiders tell us that Japanese automotive transplant companies are opening their doors wider to new PM applications as they seek to reduce costs. It may be a slow process to get a purchase order but it is sustainable long-term business. Most design decisions, though, are still made in Japan, especially for the powertrain parts; North American parts makers must develop relationships with engineering departments there. New engines and six-speed transmissions contain more PM parts. For example, six-speed transVolume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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missions contain 8.2 to 11.8 kg (18 to 26 lb.) of PM parts. The new GM High-Feature 3.6 L V-6 DOHC engine contains about 16.3 kg (36 lb.), which is more than the total PM parts content was in the average U.S.-built vehicle in 1998. It is a world engine made in Australia, Canada, Japan, and the U.S. Another new product is the dual-clutch transmission, a growing product that contains about 7.2 to 8.2 kg (16 to 18 lb.) of PM parts. The next generation of North American-built diesel engines, scheduled for introduction during the 2009 to 2011 timeframe, is another bright spot. Applications include PM cam-gear drives, idler gears, timing-system sprockets, and fuelinjector gears. In addition, powder-forged connecting rods and PM bearing caps are currently undergoing validation testing. The outlook for acceptance looks promising. Observers are forecasting that diesels could capture 20 percent of the North American engine market within the next 10 years. Because of the shift away from full-size SUVs and light trucks to crossover vehicles and cars, the average PM content per vehicle has stabilized in 2008 at 19.5 kg (43 lb.), the same as in 2007. This number will improve when production volumes are expected to normalize at an annual rate of 15 million to 15.5 million light vehicles after the second quarter of next year. In contrast, the average European-built vehicle contains 10 kg (22 lb.) of PM parts, and the average car built in Japan about 8.6 kg (19 lb.) of PM parts, Figure 4. Over the past year, in an effort to determine
Figure 4. Estimated weight of PM parts/components in a typical vehicle. (1 lb. = 0.455 kg)
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
more than just the weight of PM parts in a typical vehicle, MPIF has been working with its member companies to assess the total number of actual applications and total parts in a typical vehicle. Although this extensive study is not yet finalized, at a minimum, a typical North American car has more than 230 different applications containing over 750 total PM parts. Since we are still gathering data, these numbers are conservative and will undoubtedly increase when additional data are collected. THE MIM MARKET The North American MIM market is expected to grow in the range of 10 to 15 percent this year. The market in 2007 is estimated at about $155 million in sales from 20 to 25 job shops. Medical products, firearms, and hand tools are the top three domestic markets. Only a handful of MIM parts makers produce automotive applications, the most important of these being turbocharger vanes. Injection molding has been successful in making hardmetal twist blades with a uniform helical twist. While iron–nickel alloys and stainless steels dominate the MIM materials mix, specialty materials are finding applications too. These include copper, titanium, hardmetals, soft magnetic alloys, and superalloys. THE PM PARTS INDUSTRY Major acquisitions and plant closings have pruned the PM parts business in the period since 1990 when MPIF began collecting acquisition statistics, during which time 129 acquisitions have been documented, Figure 5. Large multinational corporations and various private equity groups have purchased many entrepreneurial companies in a consolidation trend. Less-efficient operations have been closed or folded into larger plants. Rationalization of products has occurred where specific long-run parts are fed into dedicated plants with automated production lines. Companies have also relinquished marginally profitable parts. Industry companies can be grouped into four categories: Tier 1—annual sales >$200 million; Tier 2—annual sales of $75 to $200 million; Tier 3—annual sales of $25 to $75 million; and Tier 4—annual sales <$25 million. The North American PM parts market in 2007 is estimated at $2.3 billion, with the top 20 companies accounting for about 80 percent of the market.
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Figure 5. PM acquisitions since 1990
TECHNOLOGY TRENDS Faced with macroeconomic and marketplace challenges, the PM industry continues to invest in new technology. Developments in metal powders, equipment, and processes are leading the way to higher-performance materials and new applications. Metal powder suppliers are developing new materials to achieve higher densities and improved properties. One manufacturer is promoting a material to achieve a density of 7.5 g/cm3 by single pressing and sintering. The company has completed a project on surface densification of gears to pore-free density with a core density of 7.5 g/cm3. A PM parts maker has improved its surface-densification technology from single-level parts to complex multilevel gears and sprockets. Another powder maker has developed a new material that increases the fatigue limit of powder-forged connecting rods by 30 percent. Soft magnetic composite powders are finding application in new three-dimensional (3D) designs for electrical applications. While copper-powder usage has declined for
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traditional PM applications, thermal management and bioscience markets offer attractive growth opportunities. Copper’s antimicrobial properties could open up new applications in healthcare. Compacting-press makers are developing new technology. Some examples are presses offering up to 11 levels, enabling more net-shape parts, tonnages up to 2,450 mt (2,700 st), hybrid servo systems, and new warm-compaction heating and delivery systems. MPIF and the PM industry have been investing in new technology through the MPIF Technical Board and the CPMT. The MPIF Technical Board has taken over the PM Roadmap Committee, which has assessed the 6-year progress of the PM Vision & Technology Roadmap. The committee is currently assessing the status and use of high-temperature sintering and PM compacting presses. As cited earlier, another project, the PM Automotive Parts Catalog, is almost completed. It is a living document to assess the total number of PM parts in a typical automobile and will be used to expand the use of PM technologies by determining what new applications can be developed. The CPMT will have spent >$200,000 since 2006 for studies on single pressing to full density and in developing new fatigue data for PM materials. The new fatigue data will engender more confidence in selecting PM materials among design engineers. Investment in new technologies is vital to the success and future growth of the PM industry. Our industry has been through many up-anddown cycles over its history, and has always survived into the next growth phase. We are still a relatively young industry with a great potential. Innovation will prevail, as witnessed by the powerful technical program at this massive World Congress and Tungsten Conference with nearly 500 formal technical presentations. Yes, despite the challenges in adjusting to an ever-changing North American automotive marketplace, our industry’s future remains bright indeed. ijpm
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BOOK REVIEW
Powder Metallurgy Stainless Steels: Processing, Microstructures and Properties Erhard Klar and Prasan Samal ISBN 13: 978-0-87170-848-9 ASM International Materials Park, OH 2007, 256 pages As the title implies, this book reviews the mechanical properties and corrosion response of PM stainless steels and how they can be modified by processing. The authors argue that growth of the stainless powder metallurgy (PM) market can be extended if an improved understanding of the processing factors that lead to improved corrosion resistance of PM stainless steels can be developed. Both authors have extensive experience in the field and augment their narrative with a comprehensive compilation of references from current sources relevant to the PM industry. These references include both theoretical and practical examples in support of the authors’ dialogue. The metallurgy of PM stainless steels is reviewed by detailing the various classes of stainless steel (i.e., austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, etc.) and their corresponding chemistries. This knowledge can be generalized by the reader for PM, metal injection molding (MIM), and wrought grades of stainless steel. The combined effects of the chemistry (via microstructure) and thermal processing are reviewed as they relate to both mechanical properties and corrosion resistance in various environments. The authors also review the grades of stainless steel that are not covered by current MPIF standards, but are generally accepted by PM parts makers and end users. These grades include products common to the wrought industry and others that are viable by virtue of the unique attributes of PM processing. The several manufacturing methods for stainless steel powders and their effects on the characteristics of the powder (particle-size distribution, compactability, flow properties, sinterability) are reviewed. This is followed by a brief review of powder-processing techniques such as water and gas atomization, drying, screening, and Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
annealing, which allows the reader to understand the various methods of powder manufacturing. Although this section is brief, extensive references are available for the reader needing to explore this topic in more detail. The section covering compaction gives an extensive yet practical review of the role of commercial lubricants on the physical properties of stainless steel, such as green density and green strength. Non-traditional methods of compacting stainless steel powders such as warm compaction and double pressing are also covered. Compaction in MIM, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), and extrusion as applied to stainless steels are reviewed as well. Sintering, and its role on corrosion resistance, receives extensive treatment by the authors since, in their opinion, most aspects of sintering have a direct bearing on corrosion resistance. The various sintering atmospheres used all have “peculiarities with regard to stainless steels” since they interact with carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. For this reason the authors review the fundamental interactions between these elements, the sintering atmosphere, and temperature. Furthermore, some of these relationships, as presented by the authors, are not intuitive and must be considered by the processor. In this chapter, various methods of measuring corrosion resistance are introduced and related to variables in the sintering process and the types of stainless steel. A review of vacuum and liquid-phase sintering is also included. Subsequent chapters in the book provide extensive reviews of mechanical, magnetic, and corrosion testing of the various grades of stainless steel. These chapters are an excellent resource since they contain data for stainless powders at various densities processed under diverse conditions. The chapter on magnetics provides the reader with a basic understanding of magnetism and reviews the factors affecting the magnetic properties of PM stainless steels. Similarly, the chapter on corrosion reviews testing procedures in relation to PM stainless steels, with accompanying data for the various classes of PM stainless steels. The final two chapters of the book cover secondary operations (such as machining, welding, brazing, and impregnation) and applications of PM stainless steels. The chapter on applications
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BOOK REVIEW
introduces case histories illustrating the development of several significant PM stainless steel parts. These case studies highlight the many potential uses for PM stainless steel and their competitive advantages over the wrought grades. This chapter highlights the authors’ premise that as the corrosion resistance of PM stainless steels is increased through a fundamental knowledge of processing, opportunities for the use of PM stainless steel will grow. Finally, this book is an excellent resource on PM stainless steels. For the individual exposed to PM stainless steels for the first time, it provides a fundamental understanding of the factors impacting the successful production of stainless steel PM parts, from powder manufacturing to process-
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ing conditions in compaction and sintering. For the more experienced user of PM stainless steels, it provides a wealth of references with which to explore specific topics in a more detailed fashion. The compilation of properties (mechanical and corrosion) and the atlas of microstructures make this an excellent reference book for anyone utilizing PM stainless steels. For more information on this title, contact the MPIF Publications Department at 609-452-7700; E-mail:
[email protected]; www.mpif.org. Christopher T. Schade Manager–Pilot Plants Hoeganaes Corporation 1001 Taylors Lane Cinnaminson, NJ 08077
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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MEETINGS AND CONFERENCES
2008 PM SINTERING SEMINAR September 23–24 Cleveland, OH MPIF* 5TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ADVANCED MATERIALS AND PROCESSING September 3–6 Harbin, China icamp.hit.edu.cn/ SUPERALLOYS 2008 September 14–18 Champion, PA www.tms.org/Meetings/ specialty/superalloys2008/ home.html INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ALUMINUM ALLOYS September 22–26 Aachen, Germany www.dgm.de EURO PM2008 September 29–October 1 Mannheim, Germany www.epma.com/pm2008 MATERIALS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2008 CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION October 5–9 Pittsburgh, PA www.matscitech.org/2008/ home.html 5TH INTERNATIONAL POWDER METALLURGY CONFERENCE October 8–12 Ankara, Turkey www.turkishpm.org/5pm2008 GUANGZHOUMART FAIR 2008 APM AUTO, CYCLE, TUNING TECHNOLOGY, AUTO MANUFACTURING, PARTS & ACCESSORIES EXHIBITION October 14–18 Guangzhou, China www.worldtradeexpo.com.hk
Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
2008 CHINA (SHANGHAI) INTERNATIONAL POWDER METALLURGY EXHIBITION & CONGRESS October 25–26 Shanghai, China www.china-pmexpo.com/en SINTERING 2008 November 16–20 La Jolla, CA www.ceramics.org/ sintering2008 PMP III THIRD INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE—PROCESSING MATERIALS FOR PROPERTIES December 7–10 Bangkok, Thailand www.tms.org/meetings/ specialty/pmp08
2009 PM-09 5TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION February 16–18 Goa, India www.pmai.in/ PIM2009 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON POWDER INJECTION MOLDING & WORKSHOP ON MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF MICRO POWDER INJECTION MOLDING March 2–5 Lake Buena Vista (Orlando), FL MPIF* MATERIAIS 2009 5TH INTERNATIONAL MATERIALS SYMPOSIUM April 5–8 Lisbon, Portugal http://www.demat.ist.utl.pt/ materiais2009/ 17TH PLANSEE SEMINAR ON HIGH-PERFORMANCE PM MATERIALS May 25–29 Reutte, Austria www.plansee.com
TOOL 09—TOOL STEELS June 2–4 Aachen, Germany www.tool09.rwth-aachen.de POWDERMET2009: MPIF/APMI INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON POWDER METALLURGY & PARTICULATE MATERIALS June 28–July 1 Las Vegas, NV MPIF* THERMEC 2009: SIXTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ADVANCED MATERIALS AND PROCESSES August 25–29 Berlin, Germany SDMA 2009/ICSF VII—4TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SPRAY DEPOSITION AND MELT ATOMIZATION/7TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SPRAY FORMING September 7–9 Bremen, Germany www.sdma-conference.de/
2010 POWDERMET2010: MPIF/APMI INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON POWDER METALLURGY & PARTICULATE MATERIALS June 27–30 Hollywood (Ft. Lauderdale), FL MPIF* PM2010 WORLD CONGRESS October 10–14 Florence, Italy
*Metal Powder Industries Federation 105 College Road East, Princeton, New Jersey 08540-6692 USA (609) 452-7700 Fax (609) 987-8523 Visit www.mpif.org for updates and registration. Dates and locations may change
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ADVERTISERS’ INDEX
ADVERTISER
FAX
WEB SITE
PAGE
ACE IRON & METAL CO. INC.______________________(269) 342-0185 ______________________________________________________6 ACUPOWDER INTERNATIONAL, LLC ________________(908) 851-4597 ________www.acupowder.com ___________________________36 AMETEK SPECIALTY METAL PRODUCTS _____________(724) 225-6622 ________www.ametekmetals.com _________________________3 ARBURG GmbH + Co KG _________________________(860) 667-6522 ________www.arburg.com _______________________________7 BÖHLER UDDEHOLM ____________________________(603) 883-3101 ________www.bucorp.com ______________________________23 CENTORR _____________________________________(603) 595-9220 ________www.centorr.com ______________________________48 CM FURNACES, INC. ____________________________(973) 338-1625 ________www.cmfurnaces.com __________________________14 ELNIK SYSTEMS ________________________________(973) 239-6066 ________www.elnik.com ________________________________33 HOEGANAES CORPORATION ______________________(856) 786-2574 ________www.hoeganaes.com ___________INSIDE FRONT COVER NORILSK NICKEL _______________________________(+ 7 495) 785 58 08 ____www.norilsknickel.com __________________________8 NORTH AMERICAN HÖGANÄS INC. _________________(814) 479-2003 ________www.nah.com __________________INSIDE BACK COVER SCM METAL PRODUCTS, INC. _____________________(919) 544-7996 ________www.scmmetals.com ____________________________4 TIMCAL _______________________________________+41 91 873 2009 _______www.timcal.com_______________________________25 QMP _________________________________________(734) 953-0082 ________www.qmp-powders.com ________________BACK COVER
ADVERTISER’S REQUEST FOR INFORMATION FAX FORM Need more information on products or services seen in this issue? Complete the form below and fax to the advertiser(s) of your choice. Fax numbers are listed in the advertisers’ index above.
international journal of
powder metallurgy
To:___________________________________ Fax #: ____________________________________________________________________ Company: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Please send me more information on: __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ as advertised in the __________ issue of the International Journal of Powder Metallurgy. Please send information to: Name: Title:______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Company: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Address: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ City:____________________________ State:_______________ Postal Code: ____________________________________________ Country: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Phone:___________________ Fax:___________________ E-Mail: ______________________________________________________
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ADVERTISERS’ INDEX
ADVERTISER
FAX
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PAGE
ACE IRON & METAL CO. INC.______________________(269) 342-0185 ______________________________________________________6 ACUPOWDER INTERNATIONAL, LLC ________________(908) 851-4597 ________www.acupowder.com ___________________________36 AMETEK SPECIALTY METAL PRODUCTS _____________(724) 225-6622 ________www.ametekmetals.com _________________________3 ARBURG GmbH + Co KG _________________________(860) 667-6522 ________www.arburg.com _______________________________7 BÖHLER UDDEHOLM ____________________________(603) 883-3101 ________www.bucorp.com ______________________________23 CENTORR _____________________________________(603) 595-9220 ________www.centorr.com ______________________________48 CM FURNACES, INC. ____________________________(973) 338-1625 ________www.cmfurnaces.com __________________________14 ELNIK SYSTEMS ________________________________(973) 239-6066 ________www.elnik.com ________________________________33 HOEGANAES CORPORATION ______________________(856) 786-2574 ________www.hoeganaes.com ___________INSIDE FRONT COVER NORILSK NICKEL _______________________________(+ 7 495) 785 58 08 ____www.norilsknickel.com __________________________8 NORTH AMERICAN HÖGANÄS INC. _________________(814) 479-2003 ________www.nah.com __________________INSIDE BACK COVER SCM METAL PRODUCTS, INC. _____________________(919) 544-7996 ________www.scmmetals.com ____________________________4 TIMCAL _______________________________________+41 91 873 2009 _______www.timcal.com_______________________________25 QMP _________________________________________(734) 953-0082 ________www.qmp-powders.com ________________BACK COVER
ADVERTISER’S REQUEST FOR INFORMATION FAX FORM Need more information on products or services seen in this issue? Complete the form below and fax to the advertiser(s) of your choice. Fax numbers are listed in the advertisers’ index above.
international journal of
powder metallurgy
To:___________________________________ Fax #: ____________________________________________________________________ Company: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Please send me more information on: __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ as advertised in the __________ issue of the International Journal of Powder Metallurgy. Please send information to: Name: Title:______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Company: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Address: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ City:____________________________ State:_______________ Postal Code: ____________________________________________ Country: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Phone:___________________ Fax:___________________ E-Mail: ______________________________________________________
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Volume 44, Issue 4, 2008 International Journal of Powder Metallurgy
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