Instructional Design Frameworks and Intercultural Models
Patricia A. Young University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA
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[email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com/reference and in the United Kingdom by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 3 Henrietta Street Covent Garden London WC2E 8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Web site: http://www.eurospanbookstore.com Copyright © 2009 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identi.cation purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Young, Patricia A., 1964Instructional design frameworks and intercultural models / by Patricia A. Young. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-60566-426-2 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-427-9 (ebook) 1. Instructional systems--Design. 2. Educational technology--Social aspects. 3. Distance education--Social aspects. I. Title. LB1028.38.Y68 2009 371.33--dc22 2008043211 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. If a library purchased a print copy of this publication, please go to http://www.igi-global.com/agreement for information on activating the library's complimentary electronic access to this publication.
For Daddy Frank and Mother Minnie
Table of Contents
Foreword.............................................................................................................. ix Preface ................................................................................................................ xii Acknowledgment........................................................................................... xxviii Section I: Building Culture in Design Chapter I Beginnings in Instructional Design and Culture............................................... 1 Pioneers in Learning, Learning Theory, & Psychology ....................................... 1 Early Instructional Design Models........................................................................ 4 Assessing Learners and Learning.......................................................................... 6 ISD......................................................................................................................... 7 Transforming Theories........................................................................................... 7 Perspectives and Concepts of Culture................................................................... 9 Mapping Culture to Instructional Design and ICTs............................................ 13 References............................................................................................................ 14 Endnotes............................................................................................................... 24 Chapter II The Nature of Culture in Design...................................................................... 25 Culture as a Design Construct............................................................................. 26 Qualifying Culture in Design............................................................................... 27 Culture in Perspective.......................................................................................... 28
What Models of Culture Do................................................................................. 30 The Polaric Dimension of Culture....................................................................... 31 References............................................................................................................ 33 Endnote................................................................................................................ 36 Chapter III The Culture-Based Model Framework............................................................ 37 What is CBM?...................................................................................................... 37 Where Did CBM Come from?.............................................................................. 39 What can CBM Do?............................................................................................. 39 Who Would use CBM?......................................................................................... 40 What are CBMs Components?............................................................................. 40 How Does CBM Work?........................................................................................ 45 How do You Manage CBM?................................................................................. 50 Why is CBM Intercultural?.................................................................................. 52 References............................................................................................................ 52 Section II: The Culture-Based Model: ID TABLET Chapter IV CBM Inquiry, Development.............................................................................. 55 CBM Inquiry........................................................................................................ 55 CBM Development............................................................................................... 65 References............................................................................................................ 71 Endnote................................................................................................................ 72 Chapter V CBM Team, Assessments, Brainstorming........................................................ 73 CBM Team............................................................................................................ 73 CBM Assessments................................................................................................ 76 CBM Brainstorming............................................................................................. 80 References............................................................................................................ 86 Endnotes............................................................................................................... 87 Chapter VI CBM Learners.................................................................................................... 88 CBM Learners...................................................................................................... 88 References............................................................................................................ 98 Endnotes............................................................................................................... 99
Chapter VII CBM Elements I............................................................................................... 100 CBM Elements................................................................................................... 100 The Anthropology of Culture.............................................................................. 103 Cultural Aesthetics............................................................................................. 104 Cultural Artifacts............................................................................................... 107 Cultural Capital..................................................................................................115 Cultural Classi.cation ....................................................................................... 120 References.......................................................................................................... 122 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 125 Chapter VIII CBM Elements II............................................................................................. 126 Cultural Communications.................................................................................. 126 References.......................................................................................................... 139 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 140 Chapter IX CBM Elements III............................................................................................ 142 Cultural Demographics..................................................................................... 142 Cultural Environment........................................................................................ 160 References.......................................................................................................... 169 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 173 Chapter X CBM Elements IV............................................................................................ 174 Cultural History................................................................................................. 174 References...........................................................................................................211 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 214 Chapter XI CBM Elements V.............................................................................................. 215 Cultural Knowledge........................................................................................... 215 Cultural Language............................................................................................. 217 Cultural Physiology........................................................................................... 220 Cultural Relations . ........................................................................................... 223 Cultural Resources............................................................................................. 225 References.......................................................................................................... 229 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 230
Chapter XII CBM Elements VI............................................................................................ 232 The Psychology of Culture................................................................................. 232 Cultural Beliefs and Values................................................................................ 234 Cultural Experiences......................................................................................... 236 Cultural Ideas.................................................................................................... 238 Cultural Identity................................................................................................. 239 Cultural Interests............................................................................................... 241 Cultural Misconceptions.................................................................................... 242 Cultural Ways..................................................................................................... 244 References.......................................................................................................... 249 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 253 Chapter XIII CBM Elements VII.......................................................................................... 254 The Science of Culture....................................................................................... 254 Cultural Anomalies............................................................................................ 255 Cultural Cultures............................................................................................... 261 Cultural Futures................................................................................................. 271 References.......................................................................................................... 275 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 278 Chapter XIV CBM Elements VIII & Training..................................................................... 279 Cultural In.nities ............................................................................................... 279 Cultural Nature ................................................................................................. 291 CBM Training.................................................................................................... 293 References.......................................................................................................... 294 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 296
Section III: Case Studies Using The Culture-Based Model Chapter XV Case Study of an Educational Product.......................................................... 298 References.......................................................................................................... 314 Endnote.............................................................................................................. 315 Chapter XVI Case Study in Game Design............................................................................ 316 CBM Guide—Video Game Entries: Preproduction—July 3, 2008.................... 323 References.......................................................................................................... 329 Endnotes............................................................................................................. 330
Chapter XVII Case Study in E-Learning............................................................................... 331 CBM Guide—E-Learning Entries: Preproduction............................................ 335 References.......................................................................................................... 340 Endnote.............................................................................................................. 341 Chapter XVIII Case Study in Research................................................................................... 342 Example 1: Research Design Speci.cations . .................................................... 342 Example 2: Ethnographic Instrument................................................................ 355 References.......................................................................................................... 358 Chapter XIX Conclusion........................................................................................................ 359 References.......................................................................................................... 362
About the Author............................................................................................. 365 Index.................................................................................................................. 366
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Foreword
Instructional design (ID) theory currently reflects increasingly diverse points of view, but the array of design and instructional strategies used are typically dependent upon an understanding of how people learn and how their backgrounds impinge the learning process. On the other hand, ID practitioners, while not disagreeing with this fundamental way of thinking, routinely are confronted with a multitude of other issues. They are required to produce high-quality instruction delivered through a wide variety of new technologies in a short period of time and with decreasing resources. The instruction must be motivating and technologically sophisticated. In addition, corporate designers are frequently dealing with global markets, and educators are faced with students of wildly diverse ethnic backgrounds. Patricia Young tackles this set of conditions through an exploration of how to design instruction by emphasizing the culture of the learners. Instructional Design Frameworks and Intercultural Models presents a culture-based design model which aims to make instruction more accessible for diverse groups of people. Some might call it an over-lay model, one which adds the cultural component to a somewhat traditional ID model. It is a model geared toward product design with a special emphasis on computer-based technologies. It is a model, however, that is supported by rock-solid research. While few would dispute the importance of learner culture, many have difficulties in providing a concrete explanation of precisely what this means after dealing with the obvious issues of language and clear differences in values and customs. Culture is explicated here in detail. It is explained from an anthropological point of view, a psychological point of view, and a scientific point of view. Twenty-five elements of culture are described and explained with examples from throughout the world. These are not elements that designers typically address. For example, Young speaks to the role of: • • •
Conceptions of what is beautiful; Class and status in a society; Non-verbal communication traditions;
• • • •
Behavior norms; Emotional patterns; Orientations toward time; and Conceptions of intimate, personal, social and public space.
Culture impacts many ID procedures. It is critical to the needs assessment and analysis processes, especially learner, context and at times content analysis. Culture impacts the selection of instructional strategies and often plays a role in media selection as well. Product development is affected by cultural considerations, particularly with respect to the use of visuals. It is also a key consideration in the design of assessment and evaluation instruments. In addition, Young shows how culture factors can influence ID project management from team formation to trainthe-trainer activities. Knowledgeable and creative use of culture data greatly enhances any instructional product, and understanding the effects of learner diversity is an essential instructional design competency. Nonetheless, a careful reading of the Young book seems to suggest that taking full advantage of the culture-based model is dependent upon including either design experts or culture experts on the project team. However, I suspect that the problem that will be raised by many is not the expertise required to deal with culture, but rather the additional time required to meaningfully address it, especially as culture is broadly described in this book. It’s a part of the resistance to needs assessment in general that many designers routinely confront. Young addresses this in part by viewing her book as a workbook or a handbook that designers will use by selectively attending to only those elements that are pertinent to a given project. She further facilitates the process by providing the range of questions that could be asked to gather data related to each culture element. This will not totally meet the concerns of skeptics. Fundamentally, designers will need to agree with Young that culture is critical to design and instruction. ID scholars and theorists are beginning to recognize this issue, and culture is beginning to be the focus of some ID research agendas. Hopefully, this body of research will provide results that support the logic and faith many designers now have in the power of cultural influences on the learning process. The impact of culture on ID is a timely topic. It not only meets the needs of those designing globalized and localized instruction, but it addresses a number of current theoretical issues confronted by ID scholars today that were not previously considered. In much of the twentieth century behavioral scientists commonly supported the tenets of logical empiricism or logical positivism. This thinking relies upon the value of sensory data as a means of determining truth, and rejects any view of reality that was not based upon empirical observation and verification. The products of this type of inquiry were universal generalizations. During this same
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period the fundamental structure of our instructional design models was established and they too tended to initially reflect such empiricist thinking. As a consequence, these ID models were not only rooted in research, but they were presented as being environmentally neutral and applicable to all education and training settings. The positivist orientation, however, ultimately lost its broad base of support to a great extent because it discounted the impact of culture, history, and individual characteristics. Instructional Design Frameworks and Intercultural Models presents a postpositivist examination of culture. This is a book that would not likely have been written in the 1960’s or 1970’s. The current dominance of constructivist and other learner-centered theories provides an intellectual foundation for this book today. Young’s culture-based ID model is compatible with current theory which views learning as a social process and knowledge construction as being unique to each individual. It is compatible with views of communication as less of a transmission process and more of an interaction process. It is compatible with a systemic (rather than a systematic) view of the world. Of equal importance, however, this book speaks to the problems of today’s instructional designers, even as it expands the field’s conception of all that instructional design entails. Rita C. Richey, Professor Emeritus Instructional Technology Wayne State University Detroit, MI Rita C. Richey is Professor Emeritus of Instructional Technology at Wayne State University. She was at Wayne State for thirty-seven years and has extensive experience in program design and development, teaching and in education and training research. She is widely published in the area of instructional design and technology. She has written or edited ten books, and published over 40 articles and books chapters. She has two Outstanding Book Awards from the Association of Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) Division of Design and Development and also the AECT Brown Publication Award. While at Wayne State University, she coordinated the Instructional Technology program for over 20 years and received five major University awards, including induction into the Academy of Scholars. In recognition of her career’s work, in 2000 she received the AECT Distinguished Service Award.
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Preface
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) saturate the daily lives of most human beings on Earth. Those in technologically advanced societies live with computers, radios, televisions, print technology, and so forth. As of 2008, one and a half billion people access the Internet (Internet World Stats, 2008). Video games have captured the attention of youth and adults, with sales expected to reach US $48.9 billion worldwide by 2011 (Scanlon, 2007). Employers are developing serious online games to train, recruit, and better communicate with employees (McConnon, 2007). In 2008, sales in mobile phones worldwide surpassed the US $1 billion mark because of industry expansions in untapped emerging markets (Gartner, Inc., 2008). College and university students access knowledge through distance education; this continues to be a high-growth area for education and training (Waits & Lewis, 2003). E-learning has exploded across industry, government, business, and education. The need to know, retrain, and acquire knowledge is at an all-time high. These statistics and facts define the growth and impact of ICTs on the global imprint of humanity, but how can technology serve the needs of many while serving the needs of a few? Here are several true scenarios where the needs of a few specialized target audiences have been considered. Elsa Evers wanted a dual undergraduate degree in communication (i.e., media production) and international studies. As part of her studies, she spent her fourth academic year in Xalapa, Mexico, where she took the remainder of her courses through distance education; in this situation, Elsa would access course content at a place and time of her choosing. Elsa welcomed the opportunity to explore another culture that differed from her own. She immersed herself in the Spanish language, focused on understanding the lifestyle, and reflected on her own cultural predispositions and their influence on her experience (Bhandari, 2007). Elsa is embarking upon an enriching international relations learning experience that is culture-specific. China and India are experiencing a surge in the video game industry. Game developers from North America want in on these international markets, realizing that games are a culture within themselves. The dilemma for North American video game companies is how to make games culture-specific (Vlessing, 2008).
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In Illinois and Pennsylvania, researchers developed computer-mediated mathematics games that focused on the culturally relevant learning and the ethnic histories of their student populations. These educational games served as interventions to help improve the academic achievement of African American students and better meet mainstream educational standards. These are cases in which culture-specific design was implemented out of desperation and disappointment with mainstream educational practices (Gilbert et al., 2008; Leonard, Davis, & Sidler, 2005). E-learning broadly serves many masters from telecommunications to the Internet. In pockets of the world, the potential of mobile e-learning is being explored with handheld devices such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and pocket personal computers. The digitization of Maori, an indigenous language of New Zealand, is being explored by university students through media players that run podcasts (Tahana, 2008). Innovators in Tokyo, Japan explore text messaging with cell phones that have the same writing system in the native tongues of Bengali, Myanmarese, and Nepalese (Shimbun, 2008). In these cases, e-learning is made more culture-specific through a focus language. In Uganda, Deogracious Kiganira Kijambu, a 23-year-old entrepreneur wants to access the Internet in his native language—Lusoga. Accessing the Internet in his own language would help him grow his e-commerce agribusiness and it would enable other Bantu speakers of Lusoga to participate in information and communication features of the Internet. Kijambu knows that there are few people, in the Mayuge district, who have acquired computer knowledge and skills; however, those few cannot access the Internet because of the dominance of English. Speakers of Lusoga are the customers for Kijambu’s business. The localization of the Lusoga language is needed in terms of computer user interface, content, language, and other cultural design preferences (Musinguzi, 2008). These examples demonstrate scenarios in which culture-specific designs were considered for the few. For Elsa, the distance education program was specialized to her interest in Spanish culture, but can culture-specific educational experiences be replicated throughout distance education programs?1 North American game companies desire to create culture-specific video games to broaden their market, but how can other companies create culture-specific entertainment games? Researchers in Illinois and Pennsylvania designed culturally relevant computer-mediated environments for African American children; can culture-specific educational products be designed for other specialized groups of people? In several examples, e-learning is made culture-specific through the infusion of language, but what other design specifications can make a product more culture-specific? For Kijambu in Uganda, there is a need to localize, specialize, or make more culture-specific user interfaces that address content, language, and other cultural considerations; how can other indigenous languages be included in this Internet revolution? These scenarios dem-
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onstrate that, worldwide, there is a need to better understand the impact of culture on design and development. In designing for societies, culture, or people, culture is considered. When we design for people, we should design with culture in mind. When it is unclear why a group of people rejected a product, culture should be considered. When a product does not sell, culture should be considered. Culture should be considered: • • • • • • • • • • • • •
When learners fail to communicate in a distance education environment. When learners fail to learn. When users fail to understand the intricacies of user interfaces. When a culture fails to learn from its previous historical mistakes. When rulers overthrow a country. When government officials kill themselves. When consumers fail to buy products. When users fail to communicate. When technologies are not used by consumers. When the design of a product fails learners or users. When we do not understand our target audience. When indigenous cultures reject technology or appropriate technology. When an entertainment game fails to entertain.
When we cannot figure out where to begin, begin with culture, because culture is everything. Questions this book seeks to answer include: Is culture important to the design of ICTs? What does it mean to create a culture-based product? How can research help product development and understanding the target audience? How can integrating culture better meet the needs of the target audience? How do you plan and design with culture in mind? How do you analyze ICTs for culture? How do you create an unbiased product? Is it possible to create a culture-specific product for one target audience? Is it possible to make the design process more explicit? How does culture impact design decisions? This book details the culture-based model (CBM), a model of culture that assists designers, researchers, and practitioners in building a framework for culture-based ICTs. CBM is an intercultural, instructional design framework that guides designers through the management, design, development, and assessment process while taking into account explicit culture-based considerations. The model is intercultural because it operates inside, outside, and across cultures and cultural contexts. This book defines the entire model. Relevant case studies of how to use the model in instructional design, e-learning, game design and as a diagnostic tool are provided.
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CBM is adaptive in that it can be used in conjunction with traditional instructional design models or on its own. The designer prescribes methods on the basis of the preproduction analysis and research, the ongoing production, and the postproduction (Reigeluth, 1983). The model, as with any instructional design model, should be modified on the basis of the context of the processes (Bates, 1995; Gustafson & Branch, 2002; Seels & Glasgow, 1998; Tessmer & Wedman, 1995). Traditional instructional design models are “blueprint[s] of the instruction itself,” and they focus on “what the instruction should be like” (Reigeluth, 1983, p. 24). However, CBM focuses much more broadly. It is a blueprint of the management and design processes, and it focuses on what the content should be. CBM brings the human element into design-related disciplines (Douglas, 2006). A complete analysis of the empirical study, where CBM is derived can be found in Young (1999). Within the context of this book, instructional design maintains its traditional definition and meaning. Instructional design proposes that learning occurs in a systematic-oriented manner, producing measurable outcomes, and that there is a process to facilitate this learning (Reigeluth, 1983; Richey, 1986). This process is grounded in a generic system of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation—the ADDIE model. Instructional design translates principles of learning theory and instruction into a plan for the design of instructional products, activities, and evaluations (Smith & Ragan, 2005). This process approach is significant for the design of ICTs because it provides a systematic or structured methodology that all practitioners can follow in the design process. By systematizing or organizing the design of products or online environments, they are more apt to be well built and researched instruction. This type of “designed instruction” is integral to meeting the needs of learners (Gagné, Briggs, & Wager, 1992, p. 4). Culture is a core construct of all design decisions; however, its potential to improve the design process has been mostly ignored in the field of instructional design (Subramony 2004; Young, 2008b). This is exemplified in key texts on instructional design where culture is described in its environmental context or from a cultural historical perspective—not in terms of designing instruction (Dijkstra, Seel, Schott, Tennyson, 1997; Reigeluth, 1983; Tennyson, Schott, Seel & Dijkstra, 1997). This lack of interest in culture as a design construct may be prevalent for various reasons. First, designers are not sure how to represent culture in the design process, what to look for, or what to include. Second, there may be conflicts between the culture of the target audience and the technology, and many designers are grappling with how to bridge these communication connections (Chu & Reeves, 2000). Third, a comprehensive framework in which to align culture with the ADDIE model has not been available. Finally, the inclusion of “cultural frames of reference” may not have been seriously considered (Gay, 2000, p. xix). This book crosses academic and disciplinary camps, and national and international waters, to obtain balanced perspectives. Knowledge is knowledge, and it is
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there for one to freely learn from and make one’s own scholarship. Interdisciplinary work like this is not an easy task, but it has been an education I hope worth the time and effort. CBM brings something old, something new, something borrowed and something blue to the discussion of culture; this work positions culture as a design construct. Culture as conceptualized here is real and imaginary. Culture is real when designers design with real people in mind. Culture is imaginary when designers build fictionalized worlds and design with real people in mind (Plotkin, 2003). The human element is always present when designing with culture in mind. Design allows the freedom to be multidimensional in one’s thinking and doing.
From Designers to Researchers In general, this book is for anyone who is attempting to design with culture in mind. It is also for anyone who seeks to analyze culture in anything from printed documents to Web-based environments. The content of this book provides the tools for building, evaluating, and designing a society, culture, or target audience. Next, I have defined how this book can help people with different roles and interests.
Designers For the novice/professional instructional designer and e-learning designer who has interests in incorporating culture into the design of instructional products, user interfaces and other on-line environments, this book assists in building a framework for the design of a culture-based product. It provides the tools to tailor instructional content to a particular target audience. It aids in addressing the communication and miscommunication issues that are prevalent in online environments. In terms of user interfaces, this book provides the features for creating for generic or specialized interfaces.
Professors Professors could use this text to define culture, provide a background to the fields of culture and instructional design, conceptualize culture as a design construct, exemplify the aspects that make up a culture, and demonstrate how students might integrate CBM in their designs. This book can be used as a resource in understanding the dynamic complexity of culture and what should be considered when designing with culture in mind. For a course in design, this could be one of the primary texts or workbooks. Section I provides all the research and theory. Sections II and III
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are designed to be used as a workbook. With Section II, students are not expected to read through all the areas of CBM but to use these areas as guides in the design process. Section III provides case studies and students may read through these chapters when formulating their thoughts to begin designing.
Sudents Graduate and undergraduates who have interests in designing ICTs should find this handbook helpful. In terms of research, students will find the book a resource for research references and a tool to analyze societies, cultures, and groups/individuals. The practical examples throughout the model provide students with guidance in understanding design factors and making design decisions. The guiding questions throughout give students the support needed to work on their own or in small groups. The guiding questions support design and research efforts; they help students ask the right questions and choose the best direction. Section III provides four chapters of case studies that detail the design process using CBM. Students should find these chapters accessible and comprehensive. The problem for students may be limiting the number of design factors, given the amount of options offered in CBM.
Rsearchers This text can be used as a handbook for researchers who seek to define anthropological, psychological, or scientific concepts in relation to ancient and existing cultures, contemporary or indigenous groups, instructional products, on-line environments, printed documents, or any other ICTs. The design factors in CBM Elements enable researchers to collect data, analyze information, assess cultures, and define target audiences. CBM Learners allow researchers to evaluate the connections between learning and culture. Section I provides the theory, research, and concepts for further in-depth research. Researchers who are interested in the empirical path to this model of culture may begin with Young’s (1999) work, continue with subsequent articles and chapters (Young, 2001, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c, 2008d, in press-a), and end with this book.
More on the Book This book seeks to appeal to national and international audiences. Although a Westerner has written this book, there are examples throughout from people, cultures, and societies around the world. As the author, I have tried to provide a culturally sensitive text that has cross-cultural applications. This is a difficult task nonetheless; however, I ask readers to be open-minded in rediscovering how to reconceptualize culture.
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The bibliographic references are used throughout to support the writing and provide the reader with additional data on how some ideas were developed. The book is thoroughly researched to provide authenticity to each section, and examples are offered to guide the design process. This is a book to be used, not just read. This means that a researcher who wants to analyze a culture may read the entire book but only use the chapters related to CBM Elements for the analysis. Any designers of instructional ICTs could read and use the design factors throughout the entire book. Game designers might read and use design factors throughout the entire book. ICTs, as defined in this book, follow the description adopted in the field of education. ICTs include a broad range of technological and resource tools that communicate, store, transmit, produce, manage, and disseminate information. These technologies include the following: Internet, World Wide Web, computers, cameras, CD-ROMs, DVDs, audiotapes, videotapes, radio, television, films, telephones, and print technologies (Blurton, 1999). Two other terms that need defining are society and culture. A society is a group of people who share commonalities that are understood by all and who collectively inhabit a particular physical area (Germain & Bloom, 1999; Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1999). Every society has a culture or ways of being, doing, and thinking. This culture shapes the society’s behavior (Ember & Ember, 1996; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). In understanding a culture, there must also be an understanding of its past and present histories and the histories of its people (Kim & Park, 2006). This book does not claim to incorporate all factors consistent with culture-based designs. It provides a comprehensive set of design factors that, when implemented, can best serve to authenticate a culture-based design. As designers, researchers, and educators, it is important to understand the impact of culture on design. This book provides guidance in making explicit those aspects of human nature and Mother Nature that make cultures valid.
The Instructional Designer andd Instruction is shaped by the instructional designer. Instructional designers create physical and virtual environments where learning is facilitated, incentives offered, and rewards earned (Johnson, 1989). These designs can comprise a single set of instructional materials, one course, or an entire program or curriculum. The instructional designer differs from the curriculum specialist in that the curriculum specialist is usually an expert in a particular subject matter; however the instructional designer works through a process whereby he or she designs projects in a number of disciplines. Although instructional designers are usually not teachers, they base
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their knowledge on what they know about how people learn (Richey, 1986; Smith & Ragan, 2005). It is assumed that their designs will foster learning. Instructional designers proceed through a process type approach when they design solutions. The design process has several stages: “[I]dentify the problem, design a solution, implement the solution” (Van Patten, 1989, p. 18). Identifying the problem means finding out as much as possible through observations; the analysis of artifacts; and discussions with clients, sponsors, subject matter specialists, producers, actors, teachers, and learners (Rowland, 1993; Van Patten, 1989). This needs assessment should include the impact of a problem or need, and it should be recorded. Designing a solution that efficiently meets the needs of the project is the next step. This solution must be financially doable. Instructional designers then create a number of design solutions or products that address the problem or need, its impact, and the expense (Van Patten, 1989). Then, instructional designers use three types of information: “what they know, what they observe and what they feel” (Van Patten, 1989, p. 18). Designers use their wisdom, observational skills, and intuition to ascertain the problem. Thereafter, they design and implement a solution specific to the needs of the learner (Van Patten, 1989). Anne-Marie Armstrong (2004), a practicing instructional designer argues that, in the real world of instructional design frequently there is limited time for preparation and long-term contemplation. Production is quickly followed by assessment, revisions, and then piloting the product. The instructional designer must be flexible, efficient, and creative. Jillian Rickertt (2004), an instructional designer, described an assignment in Asia where her limited understanding of a particular Asian culture conflicted with her job of designing and delivering a “Train the Trainer” course to a group of Asian customer service representatives. During and after the job, Rickertt (2004) reflected on her response to situations and her beliefs. For example, the classroom environment in which Rickertt would “train the trainers” was cramped with rickety chairs, and only 3 of 20 computers were operational. Rickertt had higher expectations, being from Australia. On the morning of the first day of training, technicians were working on the room; in hours, the chairs were fixed and all the computers were working. In this example, Rickertt’s perception of the quality of the environment was based on her own cultural experience. Rickertt also reflected on how she could have created better formative evaluations had she known that taking tests and achieving high scores motivated the target audience in this culture. There is a tendency for designers to impose their ideologies upon the target audiences who will use their products or implement their designs (Taylor, 1992). By considering the culture of the target audience in the design process, the designer might be more inclined, for example, to have text in multiple languages, consider the relevancy of graphic images, explore gender issues, design appropriate tests, exhibit cultural consciousness and sensitivity, and consider the cultural context.
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Taylor (1992) examined how software designers could aid companies in acquiring an international market share for their computer technology. To acquire these foreign markets, he found that operating systems needed to function in a language conducive to the learner, not the designer. Doing this is “just good business (p. 10).” Software products needed to incorporate the language and culture of the target audience—what Taylor described as internationalization (foreign) or localization (domestic). This is prevalent in that some operating systems function in many languages and incorporate cultural concepts.2 Like the software programmer, the instructional designer needs to acknowledge his or her own culture, language, ideologies, and standards. Instructional designers need to provide a “cultural context” and culture-specific design specifications. A cultural context means examining situations from the point of view of the target audience (Taylor, 1992). Culture-specifc design specifications can be applied based on models of culture—like CBM.. Interacting in a world of diverse peoples requires that individuals have their own cultural identity (Hofstede, 1991) and understand their cultural values. These skills translate into an understanding of others. The instructional designer might begin with these seven steps: Develop a deeper understanding of your own culture. Ask family members about your ethnic heritage. Become proactive in learning about your ancestry. 2. Wipe out any preconceived notions about the target audience 3. Start with a basic slate of what you know about human beings and social interaction. 4. Apply only the coloring that is there, not what you have come to believe. 5. Situate the design in context. Build the cultural and instructional context around the target audience. 6. Go with what you know about ADDIE! 7. Be creative! 1.
To limit cultural bias, an individual needs to de-center themselves3. De-centering is the process in which members of a team reject the focus on Western ideologies and try to promote a focus on the target audience’s culture and learning needs (Hofstede, 1991). Designs and designers are not equitable; therefore, the assumption that, if one thinks culture, one does culture is not true (Scheel & Branch, 1993). Integrating culture in design must be an explicit act.
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Otline of the Book Section I provides background research to all areas covered in the book—namely instructional design and culture. The nature of culture as a design construct is defined and explored. CBM is introduced and an overview of the components of the model. Chapter I provides the theoretical, methodological, and conceptual background to understanding the role of culture in instructional design. It begins with an overview of learning theories to the development of instructional design theories. Then the chapter reviews some early perspectives on culture. Last, connections are made between culture, design, and ICTs. This chapter provides international and national perspectives in instructional design. Chapter II is a conceptual chapter that explores perspectives on the nature of culture in design. This chapter looks at the many facets of culture. Chapter III provides an overview of CBM. It uses a question-and-answer format to address basic questions about the model, such as the following: What is CBM? Where did CBM come from? What can CBM do? Who would use CBM? What are CBMs components? How does CBM work? How do you manage CBM? Why is CBM intercultural? Section II should be used as a handbook or reference resource. These chapters cover all components of CBM. The areas are defined, described, and illustrated with relevant examples. Guiding questions that direct the designer in creating a generic or specialized product are provided. Generic products are guided by culture guiding questions (culture GQ). Specialized products are guided by target audience guiding questions (target audience GQ). Given the comprehensiveness of CBM’s ID-TABLET, it is best covered over several chapters. Therefore, the areas of the model are covered in Chapters IV-XIV. The areas are ordered according to CBM’s management and design system—the ID-TABLET. Chapter IV covers CBM Inquiry and Development. Inquiry acts as a monitoring system for the design process. Development controls issues related to problem solving. Chapter V includes CBM Team, Assessments, and Brainstorming. Team handles all the decision making for the project. Assessments cover several forms of evaluation, and Brainstorming is the primary planning area for the project. Chapter VI focuses on the area CBM Learners that manages most of the instructional goals of the project. Chapter VII begins CBM Elements I; Elements is divided over eight chapters. The focus of CBM Elements is content development. This first section of CBM is devoted to Elements specific to the anthropology of culture. This chapter continues with design factors Cultural aesthetics, Cultural artifacts, Cultural capital, and Cultural classification.
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Chapter VIII covers CBM Elements II. This chapter focuses on the design factor Cultural communications. Chapter IX covers CBM Elements III. This chapter outlines the design factors Cultural demographics and Cultural environment. Chapter X covers CBM Elements IV. Cultural history is covered in its entirety. Chapter XI focuses on CBM Elements V. This chapter covers several design factors that include: Cultural knowledge, Cultural language, Cultural physiology, Cultural relations, and Cultural resources. Chapter XII covers CBM Elements VI, and begins with the section the psychology of culture. The design factors covered include: Cultural beliefs & values, Cultural experiences, Cultural ideas, Cultural identity, Cultural interests, Cultural misconceptions, and Cultural ways. Chapter XIII covers CBM Elements VII, and begins with the section the science of culture. The design factors covered include: Cultural anomalies, Cultural cultures, and Cultural futures. Chapter XIV completes the final parts of CBM Elements VIII and the area Training. The design factors covered include Cultural infinities and Cultural nature. Training is another area under the management of the project. This is where education about the product takes place. Section III provides 4 realistic case studies using CBM and the concluding chapter. These chapters align with CBM’s framework. Chapter XV examines CBM’s ID-TABLET and how it functions in building an educational product. Specifically, this example demonstrates the basics of a custom development or building a project from scratch. Chapter XVI connects CBM’s ID-TABLET to a case study in game design. This example illustrates an Add-on or adding on to an existing video game. Chapter XVII connects CBM’s ID-TABLET to a case study in e-Learning. This example demonstrates how to use the ID-TABLET for re-engineering an e-learning environment. Chapter XVIII connects CBM’s ID-TABLET to a case study in Research. This example presents the use of the ID-TABLET as a diagnostic evaluation tool. The conclusion, Chapter XIX, offers some thoughts on the future of culturebased designs, the field of instructional design, learners and designers of the future, and other ideas. The significance of culture in the design ICTs will be important as business, industry, government, and educational institutions that seek to meet the needs of target audiences, diversify the designs of products and services, and capture larger markets. This globalization in design practices is the future of instructional design and design practices in general.
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References Armstrong, A. (2004). Preface. In A. Armstrong (Ed.), Instructional design in the real world: A view from the trenches (pp. vii-xvi). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education. London: Routledge. Bhandari, N. (2007, August 9). Home and away: Tertiary study 2008. Sydney Morning Herald, p. 5. Blurton, C. (1999, August 18). New directions in education. World communication and information report 1999-2000. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.unesco.org/webworld/wcir/en/report.html Chu, G., & Reeves, T. C. (2000, April 24-28). The relationship between cultural differences among American and Chinese university students and the design of personal pages on the World Wide Web. New Orleans, LA: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Dijkstra, S., Seel, N. M., Schott, F., & Tennyson, R. D. (Eds.). (1997). Instructional design: International perspectives. Vol 2: Solving instructional design problems (Vol. 2). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Douglas, I. (2006). Issues in software engineering of relevance to instructional design. Tech Trends, 50(5), 28-35. Ember, C. R., & Ember, M. (1996). Cultural anthropology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of instructional design. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Gartner, Inc. (2008). Gartner says worldwide mobile phone sales increased 16 per cent in 2007 [electronic version]. Stamford, CT: Author. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=612207 Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Germain, C. B., & Bloom, M. (1999). Human behavior in the social environment: An ecological view (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Gilbert, J., Arbuthnot, K., Hood, S., Grant, M. M., West, M. L., McMillian, Y., et al. (2008). Teaching algebra using culturally relevant virtual instructors. The international journal of virtual reality, 7(1), 21-30.
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Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Internet World Stats. (2008). Internet usage statistics. The Internet big picture: World Internet users and population stats. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from http://www. Internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Johnson, K. A. (1989). The foundations of instructional design. In K. A. Johnson & L. J. Foa (Eds.), Instructional design: New alternatives for effective education and training (pp. 3-13). New York: National University Continuing Education Association. Kim, U., & Park, Y. S. (2006). The scientific foundation of indigenous and cultural psychology: The transactional approach. In U. Kim, K. S. Yang, & K. K. Hwang (Eds.), Indigenous and cultural psychology: Understanding people in context (pp. 27-48). New York, NY: Springer. Leonard, J., Davis, J. E., & Sidler, J. L. (2005). Cultural relevance and computerassisted instruction. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 37(3), 263284. McConnon, A. (2007, August 13). The name of the game is work [electronic version]. Business Week. Retrieved June 1, 2008 from http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/aug2007/id20070813_467743.htm?chan=innovation_special+report+-+the+power+of+gaming_the+power+of+gaming Musinguzi, B. (2008, April 9). African languages absent in cyberspace. Daily Monitor Online. Retrieved June 12, 2008, from http://www.monitor.co.ug/artman/ publish/features/African_languages_absent_in_cyberspace.shtml Plotkin, H. (2003). The imagined world made real: Towards a natural science of culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Reigeluth, C. M. (1983). Instructional design: What is it and why is it? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status (pp. 3-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Richey, R. (1986). The theoretical and conceptual bases of instructional design. London: Kogan Page.
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Rickertt, J. (2004). Cultural wisdom and hindsight: Instructional design and delivery on the run. In A. Armstrong (Ed.), Instructional design in the real world: A view from the trenches (pp. 53-67). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Rowland, G. (1993). Designing and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Design, 41(1), 79-91. Scanlon, J. (2008, August 13). Getting serious about gaming [electronic version]. Business Week. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/aug2007/id20070813_756874.htm Scheel, N. P., & Branch, R. C. (August 1993). The role of conversation and culture in the systematic design of instruction. Educational Technology, 33, 7-18. Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education. Shimbun, K. (2008). Mobile phones as language learning tool. The Daily Yomiuri. Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2005). Instructional design (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Subramony, D. P. (2004, July/August). Instructional technologists’ inattention to issues of cultural diversity among learners. Educational Technology, 19-24. Tahana, Y. (2008, February 26). Maori learning plugs into media players. The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://www.nzherald.co.nz/topic/story. cfm?c_id=252&objectid=10494565&ref=rss Taylor, D. (1992). Global software: Developing applications for the international market. New York, NY: Springer. Tennyson, R. D., Schott, F., Seel, N., & Dijkstra, S. (Eds.). (1997). Instructional design: International perspectives. Vol. 1: Theory, research, and models. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Tessmer, M., & Wedman, J. (1995). Context-sensitive instructional design models: A response to design research studies and criticism. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(3), 38-54.
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Van Patten, J. (1989). What is instructional design? In K. A. Johnson & L. J. Foa (Eds.), Instructional design: New alternatives for effective education and training (pp. 16-31). New York, NY: National University Continuing Education Association. Vlessing, E. (2008, January 19). Game market boom daunting for developers. The Hollywood Reporter, p. 1. Waits, T., & Lewis, L. (2003). Distance education at degree-granting postsecondary institutions: 2000-2001 (No. NCES 2003-017). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education: National Center for Education Statistics. Young, P. A. (1999). Roads to travel: A historical look at African American contributions to instructional technology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA. Young, P. A. (2001). Roads to travel: A historical look at The Freedman’s Torchlight—An African American contribution to 19th-century instructional technologies. Journal of Black Studies, 31(5), 671-698. Young, P. A. (2008a). Exploring culture in the design of new technologies of literacy. In J. Coiro, M. Knobel, C. Lankshear & D. J. Leu (Eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies (pp. 325-358). London, England: Routledge. Young, P. A. (2008b). Integrating culture in the design of ICTs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), 6-17. Young, P. A. (2008c). The culture-based model: A framework for designers and visual ID languages. In L. Botturi & T. Stubbs (Eds.), Handbook of visual languages for instructional design: Theories and practices (pp. 52-75). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Young, P. A. (2008d). The culture-based model: Constructing a model of culture. Journal of Educational, Technology & Society, 11(2), 107-118. Young, P. A. (in press-a). The Brownies’ book: Exploring the past to elucidate the future of instructional design. Journal of Language Identity and Education.
Ed
1
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Entertainment games include any of the following: educational, serious, massivemultiplayer online, video, etc. Taylor (1992) found that software must address the cultural context of the learner. He identified several concepts related to language, notational conven-
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tions, and other features of hardware and software interfaces. (a) Transliteration means translating concepts from one language to another. For example, shifting cases on American keyboards does not translate into other languages that do not have capital letters, such as Arabic and Hebrew. (b) Hyphenation rules differ from one language to another. Words in some languages are not hyphenated, and some languages lend themselves to hyphenation rules. (c) Spelling checkers in software programs are difficult to adapt to the cultural contexts and idiomatic expressions of languages. For example, a spell checker fails to function with slang and colloquialisms such as “sho nuf.” (d) Collation or sorting is associated with languages. For example, the letter n is added to the Spanish language, and in Japanese, sorting is not done alphabetically but by proper names. (e) Notational conventions are concepts such as time, date, numbers, currency, and so forth that vary from one culture to another. Although Hofstede (1991) is referring to research, the idea of decentering oneself from cultural bias is also applicable in this example.
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Acknowledgment
If you come out of a design background, when asked why do you design?: the answer would be “because I have to.” Creating, designing, and producing are part of who I am—my being and existing. I need to create. However in academia, the creative side is not as valued. There is room for innovation in the work we do as educators. Finding that creativity again is part of what designing for and about culture is all about. Being creative is something I thought I had lost in the process of buckling down and becoming an academic; however the culture-based model builds on theory, methodology, practice, design and creativity beyond my scope of reasoning. This is truly a constructed model. That said, there are many who I would like to thank for supporting this creative process. At the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC), Deans John Jefferies and Kathy O’Dell directly participated in the support of this scholarship. During the two years of concentrated writing and revisions, I utilized the help of many UMBC Department of Education graduate assistants and I extend a warm thanks to them. I would like to thank the IGI Global team and Jan Travers (Vice President of Editorial) for their help through this journey. I appreciate their patience. My development as a professor/researcher can be accredited to a variety of individuals in addition to those who encouraged me along the way. They include the following professors: Michael Banks, New York Institute of Technology, USA Renee Clift, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Ann DeVaney, Emeritus, University of Wisconsin at Madison, USA Anne Haas Dyson, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Patricia Edwards, Michigan State University, USA Lily Wong Fillmore, Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley, USA Sarah Warshauer Freedman, University of California at Berkeley, USA Michele Foster, Claremont Graduate University, USA Bernard R. Gifford, University of California at Berkeley, USA
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Etta R. Hollins, University of Southern California, USA Jean Lave, Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley, USA Donald J. Leu, University of Connecticut, USA Jabari Mahiri, University of California at Berkeley, USA Pedro Noguera, New York University, USA A special thanks to colleagues who reviewed drafts offering constructive feedback and suggestions on how to improve this manuscript. In addition, I would like to thank Rita Richey for writing the forward and acknowledge her valuable contributions to the fields of instructional design and technology. I would like to send a big hug to my family and friends. In particular, my mother Minnie listened tirelessly to my anguish, fears and surprises. My sister Debbie continued to provide me with supportive jokes. My sister Angel lent many an ear over the years and did so again in this process. My sister Brenda, brother Johnnie, and sister-in-law Anna, gave me individual support in their own special ways. Thanks to my friend and colleague Dr. Tryphenia Peele-Eady who listened and offered advice to my ideas even when they were out of her field of study. Cheryl Blackwell-Johnson is a friend and colleague who supported me in the collection of data and soothed me through this time. Finally, a special thanks to Frank James Eagles who talked me through many of these ideas, supported my professional development and designed some of the graphic figures. This has been an informative journey.
Section I
Building Culture in Design
Building culture in design looks broadly at the building blocks of documented knowledge and how this knowledge has shaped the field of instructional design and what we know about culture. It further looks to the future of what culture could and should be as we move forward in the 21st century. This section provides historical, theoretical, and conceptual research in the areas of learning theory, instructional design, constructivism, and culture. These chapters outline one of many possible paths to the history of instructional design and its connection to culture. The meaning and multicontexts of culture are defined and explored. Specifically, the reasoning behind situating culture as a design construct is explained. The culture-based model (CBM) is introduced and an overview of the components of the model. The foundation of the model is revealed through a series of questions.
Beginnings in Instructional Design and Culture
Chapter I
Beginnings in Instructional Design and Culture
Pioneers in Learning, Learning Theory, & Psychology If the history of the world is properly searched, the birth of innovation in learning theory as a practice and psychology as a science can be found in the literature of scholars across nations. In Germany, Wilheim A. Lay (1903) studied the relationship between psychology (i.e., memory, perception, muscle response) and the practice of teaching subject matter (i.e., reading, writing, and arithmetic). Lay believed that educational topics could benefit from an experimental approach that explored “not only the psychological but also the biological, anthropological, hygienic, economic, logical, ethical, aesthetic, and religious experiences of the pupil and his community by means of observation, statistics and the experiment (Lay, 1936, p. 139).” In Geneva, Edouard Claparède (1905) argued that the type of teaching should be dependent on the knowledge the child brings with them. Claparède believed that the learner needed to know how to learn in order to learn. Ernst Meumann (1907), in Germany, continued with this line of inquiry into experimental psychology and experimental pedagogy examining the application of psychology methods to pedagogical problems. Given the increased demands on children to learn more information, Meumann sought to develop psychologically based methods to improve Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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teaching and learning. Meumann (1913) wrote in the introduction of the book The Psychology of Learning: In the traditional pedagogy we read a great deal about methods of teaching; but in most cases, the pedagogical text-books can tell us nothing about methods of learning. And yet we find ourselves confronted by the very serious question as to whether the efficiency of school-room management may not be increased by systematically improving the pupil’s procedure in the act of learning in such a fashion that his learning may be perfected in its technical aspects and accomplished more economically (p. xiv). In the United States, early examples of the scientific approach to the child study movement can be found in the works of psychologists G. Stanley Hall (e.g., The Contents of Children’s Minds on Entering School - 1893) and James M. Cattell (e.g., Mental Tests and Measurements -1890). Furthering the research in child psychology, John Dewey and Edward Lee Thorndike explored the psychology of schooling and the child. Dewey (1897) theorized that, to educate an individual, one must know about their “psychological structure and activities” and their “social conditions” (p. 4). This knowledge aided in determining where the child came from and where they were headed. Specifically, Dewey sought to understand how socialization influenced learning and how it could aid in educating the individual. Edward Lee Thorndike (1903, 1906) contributed several textbooks on the psychology of education, teaching, and learning. In the textbook Educational Psychology, Thorndike (1903) examined the influences of mental development, environment, and genetics. In formulating a theory of education, Thorndike (1903) hypothesized the following: To know the original natures of the beings to be educated and to know the influence of the forces of nature, human lives and all the paraphernalia of civilization upon these original natures is to know how to control their education in the interest of the aim we have chosen (p. 163). Thorndike proposed that, through knowing humankind, it is possible to control the quantity and quality of our knowledge. This possibility, like the theorizing of Thorndike’s predecessors, had great implications for the design of instruction and, further, in educating the human race. The contributions of Marxist psychologists should be added to the history of instructional design. This work contributed to the research conducted during the 1920-1940s on child study, teaching, and learning. In the United Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Lev Vygotsky’s research with the Institute of Psychology at Moscow University produced a manual on the practical applications of teaching. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Beginnings in Instructional Design and Culture
This 1926 teachers’ manual, titled Educational Psychology (Pedagogical Psychology), sought to provide teachers with insight on the psychology of children and the process of instruction (Vygotsky, 1926). Vygotsky wrote extensively in the area of child development. By example, the publication of The Problem of the Cultural Development of the Child (1929) provided insight into the natural and the cultural psychological development of a child. Alexander R. Luria, Vygotsky’s colleague, collaborated in writing Ape, Primitive Man, and Child: Essays in the History of Behaviour (1930). In this text, Luria and Vygotsky (1930) presented a theory of psychological development from ape to cultured child. Another notable psychologist who contributed to child study is Henri Wallon [The Origins of Thought in the Child (1947) and The Psychological and Sociological Study of the Child (1947)]. By the start of World War II, the beginnings of the process approach were clearly defined as psychologists and educators conducted research and developed training materials to help war efforts. Robert Gagné, Leslie Briggs, John Flanagan, and others used the research on learning, instruction, and behavior to inform instructional strategies that they developed for the military. The systematic design procedures aided in the management of military projects (Johnson, 1989; Richey, 1986; Seels, 1989). For example, the development process of the atomic bomb was an application of the systems approach. Instructional systems development (ISD) was the military’s version of instructional design. Industry used ISD in its training films. These instructional films taught large groups of people skills such as aircraft maintenance, nursing, and woodworking, as these jobs were needed during wartime (Saettler, 1990). By the 1950s, the pioneering work of behaviorists and cognitivists further defined the field of instructional design. B. F. Skinner examined the behavior of organisms and how these organisms learned (Skinner, 1954). Specifically, Skinner’s work on programmed instruction and his development of teaching machines1 provided methods and devices to scientifically investigate instruction and learning (Reigeluth, 1988; Seels, 1989; Skinner, 1954; Tennyson & Schott, 1997). Skinner’s (1954) programmed instruction is based on operant conditioning where the learner’s responses are followed by a reinforcing stimulus. Through the use of teaching machines, Skinner shaped the learner’s responses by offering information in small increments through a mechanical device. The learner proceeded through a series of stimulus-response-reinforcement cycles where they were provided with a stimulus, prompted to initiate a response, and then received feedback or reinforcement as to the correctness of the response. Cognitive learning theory flourished throughout the world. In Switzerland, psychologist Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development explored the development of intelligence in a child (Piaget, 1954). Hans Aebli’s (1951) foundational work in “psychological didactics” led to instructional innovations in Austria, Germany, and Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Switzerland. Aebli transformed Piaget’s work in developmental psychology into an instructional theory. Specifically, in this work Aebli used a didactical method consisting of “active methods,” “learning by acting,” and “searching and inquiring.” These methods aided in constructing mental operations and helped with “exterior operations and step-by-step symbolizations” (as cited in Einsiedler, 1997, p. 272). In the 1960s, behaviorist approaches to learning transitioned into cognitive approaches. Learning theories gave way to theories pertinent to the design of instruction. Jerome Bruner (1966) developed a theory of instruction that supported both learning and development. Bruner’s theory of instruction proposes that (a) the learner’s environmental experiences should foster a predisposition to learn; (b) there must be a structure to the acquisition of knowledge; (c) materials for learning should be presented in a sequence; and (d) rewards and punishments must be paced. Bruner believed that obtaining knowledge is a process. David Ausubel (1960) developed a theory of cognitive structures that emphasized the subsumption of knowledge—meaning how one increases and reorganizes one’s knowledge. His instructional theory proposed the use of advance organizers to arrange information from the general to the more specific. The work of Robert Gagné for the next two decades strongly influenced the field of instructional design because of its focus on learning, learning outcomes, design, instruction, systems development, and the needs of learners or users. Gagné’s (1962b) “theory of knowledge acquisition” proposed that knowledge can be acquired through a systematic means (p. 357). Learners must first perform simple tasks to acquire subordinate knowledges. These subordinate knowledges once recalled create a hierarchy to the more complex tasks or superordinate knowledges. Then in 1965, Gagné’s publication Conditions of Learning provided descriptions of learning conditions that could be observed and therefore experimentally studied. Gagné argued that the design of a “learning situation” determines its effectiveness (p. 250). Therefore, if instruction is programmed it allows for the creation of an adaptive design that meets the needs of learners and provides indicators for assessment.
Early IIodels From the research in task analysis, systems development and instructional systems came some of the earliest examples of instructional design models (Gagné, 1962a; Silvern, 1967). Most instructional design models are represented by some form of visual language (i.e., flowchart, venn diagram or graphic shapes) (Botturi & Stubbs, 2008). Gagne (1962a) designed a flowchart to represent his model of systems development. Figure 1.1 demonstrates that in the systems development of machines there must be a simultaneous development of the human functions. The model plans Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Beginnings in Instructional Design and Culture
Figure 1.1. A systems development model
Note: Data derived from Gagné’s (1962a)
the human interaction with the machine. The goal is to achieve the highest level of efficiency as the human and machine engage. Other models of the 1960s included those of Leonard C. Silvern, Bela H. Banathy, and John Barson. Silvern (1967) created a “cybernetic model” that examined the multiple paths from outside the high school that supply real-life employment information to the occupational teacher who would, in turn, make curriculum adjustments on the basis of this information (p. 82). Banathy’s (1968) model demonstrated how to apply the systems approach to curriculum development and specifically focused on learners in a school environment. Barson (1967) designed a decision-making model for higher education institutions that used the systems approach to improve teaching and instruction and further implement new communications media. These early models laid the foundation to a framework for design and development. By Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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the 1970s, many more instructional design models were created with a focus on the systematic design of instruction (Dick & Carey, 1978; Gagné & Briggs, 1974; Gerlach & Ely, 1971; Kemp, 1971). Several histories of instructional design models have been written in 70s, 80s, 90s and 2000s to demonstrate their continued proliferation and evolution (Andrews & Goodson, 1980; Edmonds, Branch, & Mukherjee, 1994; Gustafson, 1991; Gustafson & Branch, 1997, 2002; Salisbury, 1990; Stamas, 1973; Twelker, Urbach, & Buck, 1972). This evolution is marked by diversity in the types of models, purpose, origin, function, audience, plan of instruction, and learning goal. Further, many of these instructional design models consistently maintain components of ADDIE. During the ADDIE process, all areas (i.e., analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation) interact with each other at different stages of the process. The most prevalent change from the early models to the more contemporary is that the design and development of instruction is multifaceted; this is demonstrated through the variety of visual languages that have moved from linear to “concurrent or recursive” design procedures (Gustafson & Branch, 2002, p. 5).
Asessing Learners and Learning Testing and evaluation research from the 1960s-1970s also documents a shift from behavioral to cognitive objectives in techniques such as: criterion referenced measures, norm-referenced measures and task analysis. Criterion referenced measures evaluate an individual’s proficiency at any designated level of performance. Normreferenced measures evaluate an individual’s performance, compared with others in the group. Consistent with the need to design instruction for learners, there is a need to determine whether the instructional design caused some level of achievement in the learner. Criterion and norm referenced measures aid in providing behavioral characteristics of the learner and determining the instructional conditions or treatment in which the behavior of achievement lies (Glaser, 1963; Glaser & Klaus, 1962). Earlier examinations of criterion and norm referenced measures can be found in the works of Flanagan (1951) and Ryans and Frederiksen (1951). Task analysis provides information about human functions that are performance specific, observable, and measurable (Glaser & Klaus, 1962; Miller, 1962). For example, what is the difference between a proficient reader versus a struggling reader? What is the difference between a skilled versus less skilled learner of mathematics? Task analysis is a technique to describe the cognitive demands of psychological processes such as memory, attention, perception, and language; it also identifies knowledge and skill when sequencing instruction (Glaser, 1978). In Europe, as cited by Tennyson and Schott (1997), researchers examined task analyses that focused on content (i.e., the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Beginnings in Instructional Design and Culture
situation) and behavior (i.e., mental procedures). These task analyses were designed around criterion-referenced tests (Klauer, 1974; Klauer, Fricke, Herbig, Rupprecht, & Schott, 1972; Schott, 1975, 1992).
IS The systems approach to instructional design was fully established by the 1970s. This is evident by the creation of graduate educational programs in instructional systems at colleges and universities and teacher and university faculty training devoted to the use of media and the implementation of instructional design (Merrill, 1971; Patridge & Tennyson, 1979). Instructional systems design found a place in business and industry in the area of training. The military continued to use ISD to streamline its training and improve efficiency (Mager, 1977).
Transforming Theories Learning theory flourished both internationally and nationally in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Europe, Hans Aebli’s (1978, 1980, 1981) work on constructivist learning investigated knowledge construction. Aebli experimented with how the mind constructs and acquires knowledge and the relationship of this knowledge to schema construction (as cited by Steiner, 1997). In North America, Robert Gagné and Leslie Briggs formulated a theory of learning specific to instructional design. Gagné and Briggs (1974) argued that to design instruction, it is best to work from the end (i.e., outcomes) to the beginning, thereby setting up the educational goal. The framework proposed by Gagné and Briggs consisted of five categories of learning outcomes: attitude, cognitive strategies, intellectual skills, motor skills, and verbal information. These five categories are acquired through human learning and can be observed and analyzed to design instruction based on human performance. Joseph M. Scandura’s (1971, 1977) structural learning theory provided a framework for explaining and predicting cognitive behavior as it pertains to certain learning situations. This theory deals with three perspectives of a theory of knowledge that include determining (a) the characterization of knowledge; (b) the ideal cognitive behavior of how knowledge is learned, selected, and used; and (c) cognitive capacity as it relates to information processing and memory. By the 1980s, learning theories transformed into integrated instructional design theories of learning that focused on the methods of instruction versus learning processes (Merrill, 1983; Reigeluth, 1979; Reigeluth & Stein, 1983; Tennyson & Cocchiarella, 1986). M. David Merrill’s (1983) component display theory guides the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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design of learning activities (i.e., events that the learner must acquire to achieve objectives) through a set of prescriptive relationships related to content and performance. It specifically deals with the development of microstrategies in the management of instruction, whereas Reigeluth and Stein’s “The Elaboration Theory of Instruction” (1979) offers methods of sequencing and organizing instruction on the macrolevel across the areas of sequencing, selection, summarizing, and synthesizing. Tennyson and Cocchiarella’s (1986) theory of concept teaching proposes that the design of instructional strategies is contingent on how information or content is structured. Content can be structured as relational or attribute characteristics; thereafter, the appropriate instructional strategy can be determined. Constructivist theories of learning dominated the 1990s as methodologies to improve learning and instruction. Although constructivist theories hold a diversity of perspectives, consistency is held on the following points: (a) Learners actively construct knowledge in their mind, and (b) instruction supports the construction of knowledge. Therefore, knowledge is socially constructed (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). Constructivists are interested in connecting the learner to their environment by authentic or real world situations. Cognitive experiences are situated in authentic or real world activities (i.e., cognitive apprenticeship) (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy & Perry, 1992). Authentic activities include those that involve the task and the environment (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Resnick, 1987). These authentic learning environments should be adaptable in complexity and should reflect the learner’s experience and knowledge base (Bednar et al., 1992). Cognitive apprenticeship, by example, focuses on developing, acquiring, and using cognitive skills in authentic tasks. This methodology assists in improving teaching and learning. Teaching becomes a process used by experts to manage complicated tasks and guide a learning experience (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989). The 1990s mark a period of new approaches to the process of design, systems of information delivery, and innovations in technology. New approaches to the process of design included rapid prototyping and concurrent engineering. Rapid prototyping is a design methodology, usually used in software engineering, whereby workable prototypes are built, tested, and refined before final production. In instructional design, rapid prototyping has been used to quickly evaluate an instructional product (Jones & Richey, 2000; Tripp & Bichelmeyer, 1990). Concurrent engineering is an approach to product development where team members work concurrently on different features of a product. This engineering process improves communication among team members, thereby making a better product to best meet the needs of the target audience. Typically, instructional design models focus on sequential versus concurrent engineering (Doré & Basque, 2000). The 1990s also introduced new approaches to systems of information delivery such as knowledge manage-
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ment systems and performance support systems. Knowledge management systems, like databases in the early days, are information technology applications that make available the “collective knowledge” of organizations (Alavi & Leidner, 2005, p. 171). These applications may provide instructional design with a common repository for the collection of learning outcomes and evaluating instructional designs (Spector, 2002). Performance support systems are computer-based applications that improve human performance and productivity through on-line access to information, instruction, and other materials to be learned. Within ID, performance support systems might provide asynchronous instructional materials that support work-related activities and functions (Milheim, 1997). Innovations of the 1990s in interactive technology include distance education and e-learning. Distance education is a method where the technology allows learners to interact with instructors and obtain information at a place and time of their choosing. Technologies of third-generation distance education include videoconferencing and the Internet. E-learning, similarly, is a method that allows the learner to interact with the instructor through technologies. Technologies specific to e-learning include the many forms of telecommunications, as well as the Internet and its capabilities of e-mail, Wiki’s bulletin boards, and digital videoconferencing. Instructional design remains integral to the project management and design involved in e-learning and distance education approaches (Bates, 2005).
Perspectives and Concepts of Culture Consistent across perspectives on culture is the desire to explain, understand, and explore human behavior and the world we inhabit. This inquiry has taken theorists and researchers into qualitative and quantitative examinations of individuals, groups, cultures, and societies, and it has defined traditional disciplines such as psychology, sociology2, anthropology, education, biology, chemistry, economics, and political science. This section provides a glimpse into the origins of traditional theories of culture to provide insight into the discourse on culture as it relates to several disciplines—sociology, anthropology and psychology. It further looks at concepts related to culture. Specifically, what does it mean to take a sociological view of culture? What is an anthropological view of culture? What is a psychological view of culture? How do these perspectives and concepts aid in understanding culture? This review is not comprehensive, given the enormous amount of data, but its goal is to provide insight into the nature of culture.
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Sciological Perspectives Sociological perspectives on culture may focus on social tradition (the process) or social heritage (the product). The product or social heritage is that which is acquired (handed down), and the process or social tradition is the course in which the acquisition takes place. Sociologists describe their perspectives on culture in the following ways: patterned behavior of a group; life history of a group; customs of a group; social relationships of the individual as it pertains to the whole group; social heritage of a group (i.e., art, beliefs, knowledge, morals, tools and tool use, and law); and socially shared group habits (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). One of the earliest examples of this sociological perspective on culture comes from the empirical work of French sociologist and founding contributor to modern sociology Émile Durkheim, who believed that society must be understood as a whole or through its “collective consciousness” (Durkheim, 1984, p. 84). A collective consciousness meant that the society, culture, or group responds with shared beliefs, ideas, values, and norms. These characteristics define the social aspects of a society or culture. Durkheim’s work disclosed the sociological nature of culture through an examination of the different layers, levels, and structures of the “social phenomenon” enacted through beliefs, practices, and predispositions (Durkheim, 1938, p. 7). This is evident in Durkheim’s classic sociology text, The Division of Labor in Society (1893) that analyzed the impact of the environment on social relations and how morals and norms formed within these social relations.
Anthropological Perspectives Anthropological perspectives on culture emphasize learned ways acquired throughout one’s life experiences. Culture is not innate, instinctive, or biologically transmitted. Culture examines the actions and interactions of individuals or groups and the tangible or crystallized products of human behavior. Anthropologists describe their perspectives on culture as: ways of life; ways of thinking, acting, doing, and feeling; social interaction; behavior that is learned, taught, shared, and transferred to other persons; patterns or forms of behavior or thinking; symbols; the making and use of objects or tools; interactions among groups; attitudes; language use; language articulation; and thoughts. All of these can be sanctioned or unsanctioned by society (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). Franz Boas (1911), a pioneer in the field of anthropology, viewed culture from a whole-versus-parts interpretation, meaning that “all” social behavior of an individual, an individual in a group, or the group itself is characterized through mental and physical activities. These activities enable the production of products that serve a function in the society or culture. The elements of culture are dependent on other Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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elements, and collectively, these elements create the structure of culture. Boas’s research and practice lead to the division of anthropology into four distinct fields: archaeology, linguistic anthropology, physical anthropology, and cultural anthropology. These four fields of research cover “the whole of humanity beyond time and space” (Boas, 1938, p.1). Archaeology is the study of past ways of life through analyses of material remains. Research in this field may include the collection of data such as building remains, stone tools, skeletons, pottery, and other artifacts. Linguistic anthropology originally was the study of undiscovered written language; however, now it broadly covers human language and speech. The history of languages; the relationship of language to societies, cultures, and people; and the sound, meaning, and grammar of a language are research areas in this field (Ferraro, 2004; Miller, 2002). Physical or biological anthropology is the study of biological organisms such as humans and, specifically, human behavior and biology. Research in this field includes understanding, studying or replicating the evolutionary growth, and the organic/inorganic distinctions of organism(s). Cultural anthropology examines the ways of life in a society or culture. This type of study entails a detailed or ethnographic description of the people gained through observations, conversations, and living with the people being studied (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987).
Psychological Perspectives Psychological perspectives on culture focus on learning and habit. In this case, culture is the culminating total of learning and recognized habits that are acquired by people and transferred for generations to come. Psychologists describe their perspectives on culture as: the total of all learned; learned behavior; a focus on the individual; or a mental activity (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). Lev Vygotsky (1929), a pioneer in the field of psychology, viewed culture as a product of nature, meaning that human behavior only developed to the point in which it was influenced by culture and not beyond. Culture alters nature to meet the needs of human beings; it is a reciprocal process. Vygotsky further formulated his ideas into the cultural historical approach to psychology, proposing that higher mental functions are found in humans social interaction with their environment. Humans actively create their environment. Culturally, society organizes tasks and tools for a young child to master that are structured in social ways. By example, language is a tool3 invented by humankind that aids children in the organized development of higher mental processes. Historically, humans have created and perfected tools that facilitate interaction with the physical environment, control mental and physical behavior, and carry human’s social history (Luria, 1979; Vygotsky, 1978).
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Conceptual Perspectives Other perspectives on culture move beyond disciplinary focuses into concepts such as modification, structure, and heredity. Similarly, concepts may deal with ideas or hypotheses about culture. Modification concepts propose that culture is created and recreated. Through modifications to society, culture is manifested. These modifications are based out of need. For example, overcrowding in a city might create the demand for the expansion of the city, acquisition of land, construction of housing, and so forth. Structure concepts propose that culture is organized and arranged. Culture becomes structured when connections are made between institutions or systems across time. Examples of culture focused on the merger of inventions, both tangible and intangible, within a society and the acceptance of these inventions by groups. Heredity concepts propose that culture is tangible (i.e., artifacts or products) or intangible (i.e., ideas or symbols). All inventions or tools of use created and recreated are, themselves, culture. Culture is not the human body. The tangible and intangible products of man’s inventiveness has transcended through history (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). The production, implementation, and distribution of ideas are culture at work. The culmination of all that humans have made is culture. These interpretations, perceptions, and conceptions consistently use qualitative and quantitative analyses to examine cultures and societies. Researching cultures and societies requires these methodologies and procedures. Qualitative analyses generate accounts of individuals, environments, and dialogues that focus on understanding individuals or groups from their perspectives. Both historical and ethnographic (i.e., ethnography) analyses are included under the area of qualitative research. Ethnography has traditionally been used to describe cultures. The techniques of qualitative research method include the following: observation, participant observation, open-ended interviews, and the collection and review of documents and artifacts. Quantitative analyses generate statistical relationships between numbers; the data collected are translated into variables (i.e., numbers or letters), analyzed, and plotted on a table or graph. Techniques of this research method include surveys, structured observations and interviews, data sets, and experiments (Alasuutari, 1995; Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). The different perceptions of culture are not neatly packaged. The blending into another field or practice is a natural part of the nature of culture. Culture is more than a layered, leveled, fixed, or transfixed phenomenon. As a theory, method, or concept, culture is everything known and yet to be known. Culture is all that there is or could be.
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pplture to Instructional Design and ICTs Culture is significant to how learners learn. It is the way learners see the world and themselves in it. The theory and research on learning (Brown & Duguid, 1996) and culture assists in building ICTs and further understanding how culture affects learners interactions with technology (Collis, 1999). Researchers have examined culture as a factor in helping learners bridge their understanding and adapt to the academic needs of learning environments (Banks & Banks, 2003; Gutiérrez & Rogoff, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Lee, 2003; Nieto, 1996). This adaptation has been both educational and technological as the integration of culture would situate learners in their “cultural frame of reference” when learning (Branch, 1997; Gay, 2000, p. xix; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Mazyck, 2002; Powell, 1997; Thomas, Mitchell & Joseph, 2002; Young, 2001, 2002, 2008). In some cases, researchers and practitioners have created ICTs to meet the academic needs of ethnically diverse learners (Chascas & Cummins, 2004; Eglash, Bennett, O’Donnell, Jennings, & Cintorino, 2008; Gilbert et al., 2008; Pinkard, 1996, 1998). Without an existing framework, they have found ways to integrate culture in their designs, and they have done so through the use of technology. However, these culture-specific creations have been few in number. Theorists have proposed that learning is influenced by culture (Bruner, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978), and culture is significant to how learners acquire new understandings (DuBois, 1903). Learning takes place in a context that is specific to the environment and content information (Bednar et al., 1992; Brown et al., 1989; Bruner, 1985; Resnick, 1987; Rogoff & Lave, 1984). Therefore, learning should be situated from the learner’s perspective (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978). In Bruner’s (1985) examination of the relationship between learner and learning, he understood that learning is acquired in a variety of ways and that learning happens in a variety of ways. Further, Bruner argued that learning is “context sensitive” (1985, p. 6). It follows that learning takes place in a context situated from the learner’s cultural perspective or a cultural context. The literature mapped to support a cultural context in instructional design has been articulated as culturally responsive, culturally relevant, culturally mediated, cultural accommodation, cultural compatibility, cultural congruence (Au & Kawakami, 1994; Gay, 2000; Hollins, 1996; Jordan, 1984; Ladson-Billings, 1994), and multiculturalism (Banks & Banks, 2003; Bennett, 2001; Sleeter & Grant, 1988). Gay (2000) argued that culturally responsive pedagogy focuses on the needs of ethnically diverse learners by allowing them to use their prior knowledge; situates learning from the learners’ cultural frames of reference; incorporates learners’ ways of being, seeing, and doing; and integrates learners’ histories, language, and learning styles while affirming and validating them. Hollins (1996) contended Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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that culturally mediated instruction is characterized by the homogeneity of the curriculum, instruction, teacher, and learner; this means that all share the same culture. However, in cultural accommodation, the teacher and learner do not share the same culture; academic learning is facilitated through the moderate integration of the student’s culture. Ladson-Billings (1994) proposed that culturally relevant teaching assists in sustaining the culture of the learner and transcending norms of the dominant culture; this pedagogy empowers learners through the use of cultural referents that bridge home and school cultures. Cultural compatibility, as defined by Jordan (1984) assumes that there are relationships between the culture of the school and the culture of ethnically diverse learners and that those connections need to be identified, developed within a cultural context, and used to promote academic achievement. Au and Kawakami (1994) hypothesized that cultural congruence happens when ethnically diverse learners perform poorly in school on the basis of the mismatch between school culture and home culture. Banks’ (1995) definition of multiculturalism dvocates providing learners from diverse racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic levels with an equitable educational experience and opportunities for academic achievement and socioeconomic advancement. Collectively, these theories and methods focus on the needs of a target audience, integrate culture, and situate learning from and through the learner (Young, 2008). This research suggests that culture influences learning and learners. To better meet the needs of learners, culture must be considered when designing ICTs. This means that the business as usual ways of design need to be transformative in globalizing learning.
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Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Lay, W. A. (1903). Experimentelle didaktik ihre grundlegung mit besondere rucksicht auf muskelshen, wille und tat [Experimental didactics: Its foundations, with some considerations of muscle sense, will and action]. Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Nemnich. Lay, W. A. (1936). Experimental pedagogy: With particular reference to education through activity (A. Weil & E. K. Schwartz, Trans.). New York: Prentice Hall, Inc. Lee, C. D. (2003). Toward a framework for culturally responsive design in multimedia computer environments: Cultural modeling as a case. Mind, Culture and Activity, 10(1), 42-61. Luria, A. R. (1979). The making of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Luria, A. R., & Vygotsky, L. S. (1930). Ape, primitive man, and child: Essays in the history of behaviour (E. Rossiter, Trans.). London: Harvester & Wheatsheaf. Mager, R. F. (1977). The “winds of change.” Training and Development Journal, 31(10), 12-15. Mazyck, M. (2002, March/April). Integrated learning systems and students of color. Tech Trends, 46(2), 33-39. Merrill, M. D. (1971). Instructional design in teacher training. In M. D. Merrill (Ed.), Instructional design: Readings (pp. 55-71). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Merrill, M. D. (1983). Component display theory. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status,1, 279-333. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Meumann, E. (1907). Vorlesungen zur eiffuhrung in die experimentelle pedagogik (Lectures on the introduction to experimental pedagogy). Leipzig, Germany: Engelmann. Meumann, E. (1913). The psychology of learning: An experimental investigation of the economy and technique of memory (J. W. Baird, Trans.). New York: D. Appleton and Co.
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Milheim, W. (1997). Instructional design issues for electronic performance support systems. British Journal of Educational Technology, 28(2), 103-110. Miller, B. D. (2002). Cultural anthropology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Miller, R. B. (1962). Task description and analysis. In R. M. Gagné (Ed.), Psychological principles in system development (pp. 187-228). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Nieto, S. (1996). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers. Patridge, M. I., & Tennyson, R. D. (1979). Graduate education in instructional systems: A review of selected programs. Journal of Instructional Development, 2(2), 18-26. Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books. Pinkard, N. (1996). Rappin’ reader [Computer software]. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University. Pinkard, N. (1998). Say say oh playmate [Computer software]. Ann Arbor: MI: University of Michigan. Powell, G. (1997). On being a culturally sensitive instructional designer and educator. Educational Technology, 37(2), 6-14. Reigeluth, C. M. (1979). In search of a better way to organize instruction: The elaboration theory. Journal of Instructional Development, 2(3), 8-15. Reigeluth, C. M., & Stein, F. S. (1983). The elaboration theory of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status,1, 335-381. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Resnick, L. (1987). Education and learning to think. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Richey, R. (1986). The theoretical and conceptual bases of instructional design. London: Kogan Page. Rogoff, B., & Lave, J. (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Ryans, D. G., & Frederiksen, N. (1951). Performance tests of educational achievement. In E. F. Lindquist (Ed.), Educational measurement (pp. 455-494). Washington DC: American Council on Education. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Salisbury, D. (1990). General systems theory and instructional systems design. Performance and Instruction, 29(2), 1-11. Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Seels, B. (1989). The instructional design movement in educational technology. Educational Technology, 29(5), 11-15. Silvern, L. C. (1967). Systems analysis and synthesis applied to occupational instruction in secondary schools. Los Angeles, CA: Education & Training Consultants, Co. Skinner, B. F. (1954). The science of teaching and the art of learning. Harvard Education Review, 24(1), 86-97. Scandura, J. M. (1971). Deterministic theorizing in structural learning: Three levels of empiricism. Journal of Structural Learning, 3, 21-53. Scandura, J. M. (1977). Structural approach to instructional problems. American Psychologist, 32(1), 33-53. Schott, F. (1975). Lehrstoffanalyse. Ein Beschreibungssystem fur Analyse von Inhalt und Verhalten fei Lehrtielen [Analysis of teaching material. A description system for the analysis of content and behavior concerning instructional goals]. Dùsseldorf, Germany: Schwann. Schott, F. (1992). The useful representation of instructional objectives: A task analysis of task analysis. In S. Dijkstra, H. P. M. Krammer & J. J. G. van Merriënboer (Eds.), Instructional models in computer-based learning environments (pp. 43-59). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Sleeter, C. E., & Grant, C. A. (1988). Making choices for multicultural education. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Spector, J. M. (2002). Knowledge management tools for instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Design, 50(4), 37-46. Stamas, T. S. (1973). A descriptive study of a synthesized operational instructional development model, reporting its effectiveness, efficiency and the cognitive and affective influence of the developmental process on a client. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. Steiner, G. (1997). Educational learning theory. In R. D. Tennyson, F. Schott, N. M. Seel, & S. Dijkstra (Eds.), Instructional design, international perspectives, 1, 79-112. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Tennyson, R. D., & Cocchiarella, M. J. (1986). An empirically based instructional design theory for teaching concepts. Review of Educational Research, 56(1), 4071. Tennyson, R. D., & Schott, F. (1997). Instructional design theory, research, and models. In R. D. Tennyson, F. Schott, N. M. Seel, & S. Dijkstra (Eds.), Instructional design, international perspectives, 1, 1-16. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Thomas, M., Mitchell, M., & Joseph, R. (2002). The third dimension of ADDIE: A cultural experience. Tech Trends, 46(2), 40-45. Thorndike, E. L. (1906). The principles of teaching: Based on psychology. New York: A. G. Seiler. Thorndike, E. L. (1903). Educational psychology. New York: Lemchke and Buechner. Tripp, S. D., & Bichelmeyer, B. (1990). Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional design strategy. Educational Technology Research and Design, 38(1), 31-44. Twelker, P. A., Urbach, F. D., & Buck, J. E. (1972). The systematic development of instruction: An overview and basic guide to the literature. Stanford, CA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Media and Technology. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 059 629) Vygotsky, L. S. (1926). Pedagogical psychology. Moscow, USSR: The Worker of Education Publishing House. Vygotsky, L. S. (1929). The problem of the cultural development of the child. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 36, 415-434. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wallon, H. (1945). Les origines de la pensée chez l’efant [The Origins of Thought in the Child] (1 ed.). Paris, France: Presses universitaires de France. Wallon, H. (1984). L ‘etude psychologique et sociologique de l’efant (1947) [The psychological and sociological study of the child] (D. Nicholson-Smith, Trans.). In G. Voyat (Ed.), The world of henri wallon. New York: Jason Aaronson. Young, P. A. (2001). Roads to travel: A historical look at The Freedman’s Torchlight—An African American contribution to 19th-century instructional technologies. Journal of Black Studies, 31(5), 671-698.
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Young, P. A. (2002). Empowering minority students through tech talk. Tech Trends, 46(2), 46-49. Young, P. A. (2008). Exploring culture in the design of new technologies of literacy. In J. Coiro, M. Knobel, C. Lankshear, & D. J. Leu (Eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies (pp. 325-358). London: Routledge.
Endd
1 2
3
Small mechanical devices used for individualized instruction. See the work of Maximillian Webber for a sociological examination of theories of culture. In Cole and Scribner’s (1978) introduction to the book Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes by L. S. Vygotsky, language is viewed as a sign not a tool. Given the context, language can be a sign or tool.
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Chapter II
The Nature of Culture in Design
There have been many definitions of culture hypothesized by theorists and scholars as a way to understand human beings, other species and entities; human nature; Mother Nature, and artifacts (Giles & Middleton, 1999; Hall, 1996; Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966; Williams, 1958). Culture has been characterized as being descriptive, historical, normative, psychological, structural, and genetic (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966). Kroeber (1948) theorized culture as “how it comes to be” versus “what it is” (p. 253). Therefore, culture is socially constructed. Geertz (1973) interpreted culture as a “historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” (p. 89). Hofstede (1991) proposed that culture is learned; it is not part of one’s genetic makeup. In the area of cultural studies, culture is concerned with how meanings are interpreted and created in a society (Gray & McGuigan, 1997; Hall, 1997). Williams (1958), a cultural theorist, believes that “culture is ordinary” (p. 74). It is made in the human mind, making possible effort, examination, and explication. This means culture is what is known (tradition) and what comes to be known through investigation and invention (creativity). Baumeister (2005) argued that culture is not innately human. Other species (e.g., monkeys and chimpanzees) Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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show patterns of learned behavior that is passed on from generation to generation. Culture is artificial; it is civilization. (Kroeber, 1948). A simple question-and-answer scenario about culture might proceed as follows: What is culture? Culture is everything human made and nature made. What is the purpose of culture? The purpose of culture is to serve humans. How does culture function? Culture functions as directed by humans. When will culture end? When humankind ends, culture will end. Where is culture? Culture is everywhere. Why do we need culture? We need culture to tell our history.
Culture as a Design Construct Design is about creating something that does not already exist; it is a deliberate action (Banathy, 1996). Design has an intention. This purpose may be what a product, process, or program may do; how it is used; or how it is perceived. Design functions by centering on the concerns of human beings. It is a conscious act, influenced by the interactive or iterative process between the designer and the medium. Design is creative; it requires knowing what humans need and recognizing what they should have. The act of design generates meaning; these meanings are up for interpretation by the designer, user, learner, consumer, or observer. Design becomes a social act because of the focus on human needs (Winograd, 1996). Specifically, design may concern the culture of the workplace, home, or school; this signals a focus on environmental or ways of life aspects of a culture. Design may also concern the culture of employee relations, family connections, student learning, or user interactions; this signals a focus on the individual/group or the human behavior aspects of a culture. Design is a disciplined, selective, and evaluative process that is concerned with finding solutions for what is and what should be (Banathy, 1996). Design frameworks, such as CBM, look at solutions or guidelines to design (van de Akker, 1999). Design theories are broadly constructed based on evidence. Design constructs function to explain, predict and interpret design related data. As a design construct, culture takes on the properties of design. Culture functions as an explicit act, focuses on the needs of human beings, promotes creativity, supports social acts, maintains meaning and order, and manages the design and evaluation process. “Culture is a design” (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966, p. 120). As a design, culture takes on the properties of design such as the process to develop a plan for a product, system, or service. This semiotic relationship is managed by the designer. Culture Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Nature of Culture in Design 27
is a plan for living. It seeks out human behavior for enactment but not the act itself. The infusion of culture as a system of designs for living conveys that there is a “purpose or end” (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1966, p. 120). Culture has a purpose. Culture is a means to an end. Culture works, moves, builds, creates, and processes as a system. It is not static, fixed, or fossilized.
Qualifying Culture in Design The nature of culture in design moves beyond petrified interpretations. Culture is not tied to a discipline, theory, or controversy. The transformation is like moving culture from theory to practice, and in this sense, the pieces of culture must be deconstructed and transferred from a theoretical dimension to a practical dimension. In a practical dimension; culture maintains both physical and virtual properties, and the properties of culture are free to be transported, reinvented, mixed, and coagulated in the space of design. Culture is dynamic, malleable, fluid, and always in motion.1 Therefore, culture can take on any form, fashion or feline. Culture exists freely in the space of design. This emulsion is the space in which design should exist and designers should work. In the design of ICTs, the goal is to recreate or represent culture. As a design construct, culture takes on properties that make it visible and invisible, dynamic and static, virtual and physical. Like the paint an artist applies to canvas, the nature of culture in design maintains an infinite number of possibilities and properties. Culture does not have physical or virtual properties in design until the designer assigns those properties. Culture is not real until designers make it real. The nature of culture in design is creative. This creativity is derived through the implementation of the design process. However, some innate creative ability is required of designers and the design. Should creativity be a prerequisite for designers, or can anyone be a designer? An inventive spirit requires the ability to see beyond the obvious and to design new ways to envision one’s physical and virtual reality. So yes, creativity is highly desirable. Because culture has to be recreated, simulated, virtualized in the space of design, it must contain dynamic, free-flowing properties. These properties are assigned by designers, programmers and other members of the design team. The assignment of property gives functionality and purpose. The nature of culture in design maintains fluid properties that are managed by its creators. To think about culture in design, the mind must be free of preexisting notions of what culture means. Therefore, one’s personal dispositions and biases must not taint the creative work necessary to integrate culture in design. It is about making choices—changing, moving, executing, creating, producing, devising, contriving, Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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planning, and inventing things—products This movement is mental, physical, and even virtual; it is unique and looks different for every designer. In that, it is the art of design. The nature of culture in design can take on any variation of humanity that a designer sees fit to create or recreate. Creativity is limitless; therefore, design thinking and doing should take on this same freedom.
Culture in Perspective The last decade of research on culture and design has focused on internationalization and localization (Aykin, 2005; Hall & Hudson, 1997; Taylor, 1992) or the inclusion of multicultural theories and methods in the design of products and services (Scheel & Branch, 1993). Internationalization centers on globalizing the design process or making it accessible to cross-cultural target audiences (Aykin, 2005). Localization seeks to specialize products or services making them acceptable to target groups through “culture-specific” designs (Aykin, 2005; Degen, Lubin, Pedell, & Zheng,
Figure 2.1. Culture-based circumference for use when designing ICTs (Young, 2008)
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The Nature of Culture in Design 29
Figure 2.2. Generic symbol for turning or going right
Figure 2.3. The hamsa, a Judaic symbol for protection
2005, p. 314). Multiculturalism is added to designs in forms such as cultural diversity, cultural pluralism and cultural sensitivity (Scheel & Branch, 1993). However, these perspectives of designing through internationalization, localization, and multiculturalism serve a limited scope of what it means to integrate culture into design (Aykin, 2005; Hall & Hudson, 1997; Scheel & Branch, 1993; Taylor, 1992). A much broader interpretation that is supported in this work is that all designs are based in culture; however, some are culture neutral and others culture-specific. This means that all designs are culture-based, but the degree to which one is more neutral and the other more specific is based on the goals of the project and the final product. The culture-based circumference (see Figure 2.1) displays the space in which design happens, and this space is occupied by design specifications that meet generic and specialized target audiences (Young, 2008).
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Generic features can be generalized across cultures, but they are still culturebased. Specialized features focus on meeting the needs of the target audience, and they are also culture-based (Horton, 2005). For example, graphic symbols can be generic or specialized. Figure 2.2 is a generic symbol for turning or going right. Figure 2.3 is specialized; it is the hamsa, a Judaic symbol regarded as a sign of protection warding off evil and leading to good fortune and personal well-being. If the goal of the project is to internationalize, then the design specifications are generic and culture neutral (see Figure 2.1). If the goal of the project is to localize, then the design specifications are specialized and culture-specific. Internationalization focuses on globalizing the design process or making it accessible to cross-cultural target audiences (Aykin, 2005). The point of internationalization is to eliminate culture (e.g., cultural symbols, religious references, etc.), making the product one that can be used by all or a universal design (Horton, 2005). Therefore, internationalization seeks to create a homogenous technological product that can be used across cultures. Localization seeks to specialize products or services, making them acceptable to target groups through culture-specific design (Aykin, 2005; Degen et al., 2005). Localization tailors products to the needs of a target audience (Horton, 2005). For designers, this means that culture-based design specifications exist within a circumference of the generic to specialized; therefore, there is a much broader palette in which to design (Young, 2008). This research advocates that if the purpose is to internationalize then focus on internationalizing the product. If the focus is on localization, then focus on localization of the product. It does not advocate designing for internationalization with localization in mind. Designers should design with the goal of adaptation. This means that products are always subject to adaptations in technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, or target audience features. The best product will be one for which the team pays attention to the task at hand. If a product has been internationalized using CBM, then its framework allows for the retooling and rethinking needed to later create a localized product.
What Models of Culture Do Models of culture have traditionally been constructed to explain humankind and our existence in the world; to explore diverse learning and learners; and to provide a framework for cross-cultural research, analysis, and design. These models of culture can be found across disciplines and conceptualized in a variety of forms and formats. In the field of psychology, researchers formulated models of culture to explain processes of the mind (D’Andrade, 1990; Quinn, 1987; Schank & Abelson, 1977). In anthropology, models of culture examine the shared behavior and knowledge of an entire culture (Hall, 1976). Researchers in intercultural communications have designed models of culture to explain value systems and orientations and how Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Nature of Culture in Design 31
values differ across cultures (Condon & Yousef, 1975; Hofstede, 1980). The field of business has also participated in this discourse with models of culture that assist business personnel in understanding the effects of culture on management and how cultural values and practices are similar or different (Javidan & House, 2001; Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). In the field of instructional design, models of culture focus on the integration of culture in the design process and enhancing learning through the incorporation of culture-based design specifications (Edmundson, 2007; Henderson, 1996, 2007; Kim, 1999; Lee, 2003; Thomas, Mitchell, & Joseph, 2002). This multidisciplinary inquiry into models of culture suggests a need for frameworks grounded in culture that can deconstruct the complexity of cultures and provide guidance in cross-cultural designs, relations, meanings, and communications. The perception of what a model of culture can be used for is limited by the present state of available models. In examining the importance of models, Hoft (1996) argued that models of culture act as databases for the gathering of information pertinent to the needs of a target audience; therefore, designers need to understand the cultures and cultural context of their users or learners. The implementation of a model of culture in the design of instruction aids designers in the following: distinguishing between generic and specialized design specifications; internationalizing or localizing designs; identifying cultural biases; minimizing culture-based mistakes; evaluating designs; and better meeting the learning needs of their target audience. If models of culture act as databases or repositories, then they house data until designers are ready to use these data to build ICTs. Data come in many forms, such as text, graphics, and multimedia formats. As a repository, the model of culture can have a limitless (or limited) input of information. With any database, the information and the system itself may periodically need updating. A database contains only the information that has been inputted into it. The Internet, for example, only contains data that people have stored in it. CBM is a repository for the gathering of data about societies, cultures, and target audiences. Once the data has been collected, it can be organized into a CBM guide of the target audience. The CBM guide is used to begin thinking about how to design, develop, and evaluate products or services for the target audience. This database can be shared with others. However, the beauty of the database is that it allows for multiple product developments.
The Polaric Dimension of Culture The world operates by a universal law of communal balance that constitutes a polaric dimension. The polaric dimension refers to the need for equilibrium within and among all that exists in the universe. This equilibrium is manifested through Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 2.4. The sun, moon, and Earth
opposites or interdependence. Opposites operate complementary in the polaric dimension. They are not in opposition to one another; rather, they need one another. Interdependence translates as a semiotic relationship in which the energy of one entity is sustained by the energy of another. The energy can decrease or increase in either entity; however, through interdependence they remain in balance (Chungyuan, 1975; Maciocia, 1989). This harmonizing relation creates and maintains equilibrium. When there is equilibrium, the polaric dimension functions properly. All is well. The polaric dimension is not human made; it is an entity of the universe. It is what it is. It has no tangible parts for touching, holding or feeling. It is pure energy—intangible—just as human’s belief in God is pure faith. The question is: How do we know it exists? The polaric dimension is a natural balance of the universe. As demonstrated in Figure 2.4, the sun and moon bring balance to Earth. Earth tilts on its polar axis through the North and South poles. If this polarity, or polaric dimension, exists in the galaxy and around Earth, then it also exists on Earth. The polaric dimension is a natural part of life’s force. It is all around us, in the words we speak and in the books we read. It haunts our lives. It plagues us daily. The polaric dimension is part of this earthly world, as there is day and night and cause Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Nature of Culture in Design 33
and effect. The words we speak can be good or bad and make us happy or sad. Books are structured with a beginning and end. For many individuals, our lives are haunted by beliefs of a God and Devil or good and evil. Daily, we are faced with the reality of life and living versus death and dying. Therefore, the polaric dimension is a force between everything that is; as such, it holds together all that humans call culture. The polaric dimension of culture is the alpha and omega, energy and matter, feminine and masculine. Therefore, proposing culture as a design construct means that culture-based designs require divergent constructions—opposites. This means to examine life, the designer must examine death. To examine freedom, the designer must also examine incarceration; poverty—wealth; joy—pain; past—present, or macro—micro. These oppositional or complementary qualities make up the polaric dimension of culture. Human nature can not be explained through just one perspective. If a book described a society of people who all looked the same, acted the same, ate the same food and had the same emotions, it would make for a very boring story. Adding something different that is totally opposite than the norm, the story becomes more interesting or real. Applying the polaric dimension to design should be done carefully and sparingly. There should be a limited number of things in which the polaric dimension is applied. In design, the goal is to make the real—believable and the imaginary—real. This means that good design is seamless as the contents of its construction are not overtly apparent. For example in designing an instructional product, error messages may display a pop up window indicating “wrong answer” that is accompanied by a sound. Instead of the learner receiving only negative responses, wrong answer feedback can provide hints or clues to getting the answer correct. Therefore, when the error message indicates “wrong answer: it should also provide options for getting the answer correct. An e-learning site on children’s literature could include those books that won children’s book honors and awards, as well as those books that were banned. In video game design, representations of weapons of mass destruction can be paralleled with weapons that, when used for good, make a positive impact on the society or culture. In a diagnostic evaluation of an educational software program, the analysis should determine what is there and also what is not there in the design.
References Aykin, N. (2005). Overview: Where to start and what to consider. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of information technology (pp. 3-20). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Banathy, B. H. (1996). Designing social systems in a changing world. New York: Plenum Press. Baumeister, R. F. (2005). The cultural animal: Human nature, meaning and social life. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. Chung-yuan, C. (1975). Tao: A new way of thinking. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. Condon, J. C., & Yousef, F. S. (1975). An introduction to intercultural communication. Indianapolis, MN: Bobbs-Merrill Educational Publishing. D’Andrade, R. (1990). Some propositions about the relations between culture and human cognition. In J. W. Stigler, R. A. Shweder & G. Herdt (Eds.), Cultural psychology: Essays on comparative human development (pp. 65-129). New York: Cambridge University Press. Degen, H., Lubin, K. L., Pedell, S., & Zheng, J. (2005). Travel planning on the Web: A cross-cultural case study. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of Information Technology (pp. 313-343). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Edmundson, A. (2007). The cultural adaptation process (CAP) model: Designing E-Learning for another culture. In A. Edmundson (Ed.), Globalized E-Learning cultural challenges (pp. 267-290). Hershey, PA: Idea Group, Inc. Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books. Giles, J., & Middleton, T. (1999). Studying culture: A practical introduction. Malden, MS: Blackwell Publishers. Gray, A., & McGuigan, J. (Eds.). (1997). Introduction. In A. Gray & J. McGuigan (Eds.), Studying culture: An introductory reader (pp. xi-xv). New York: Arnold. Hall, E. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Doubleday. Hall, S. (1996). Cultural studies and its theoretical legacies. In D. Morley & K. H. Chen (Eds.), Critical dialogues in cultural studies (pp. 262-275). London: Routledge. Hall, S. (Ed.). (1997). The work of representation. In S. Hall (Ed.), Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices (pp. 15-64). London: Sage Publications. Hall, P. A. V., & Hudson, R. (1997). Software without frontiers: A multi-platform, multi-cultural, multi-nation approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Henderson, L. (1996). Instructional design of interactive multimedia: A cultural critique. Education Technology Research and Development, 44(4), 85-104. Henderson, L. (2007). Theorizing a multiple cultures instructional design model for e-learning and e-teaching. In A. Edmundson (Ed.), Globalized e-learning cultural challenges (pp. 130-153). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in workrelated values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Hoft, N. L. (1995). International technical communication: How to export information about high technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Horton, W. (2005). Graphics: The not quite universal language. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of information technology (pp. 157-188). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates Publishers. Kim, H. (1999). Transcultural customization of international training programs. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. Kroeber, A. L. (1948). Anthropology: Race, language, culture, psychology, prehistory. New York: Harcourt Brace. Kroeber, A. L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1966). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. New York: Vintage Books. Javidan, M., & House, R. J. (2001). Cultural acumen for the global manager: Lessons from Project GLOBE. Organizational Dynamics, 29(4), 289-305. Lee, C. D. (2003). Toward a framework for culturally responsive design in multimedia computer environments: Cultural modeling as a case. Mind, Culture and Activity, 10(1), 42-61. Maciocia, G. (1989). The foundations of Chinese medicine: A comprehensive text for acupuncturists and herbalists. Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingstone. Quinn, N. (1987). Convergent evidence for a cultural model of American marriage. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language & thought (pp. 173192). New York: Cambridge University Press. Schank, R., & Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Scheel, N. P., & Branch, R. C. (1993, August). The role of conversation and culture in the systematic design of instruction. Educational Technology, 33, 7-18. Taylor, D. (1992). Global software: Developing applications for the international market. New York: Springer. Thomas, M., Mitchell, M., & Joseph, R. (2002). The third dimension of ADDIE: A cultural experience. Tech Trends, 46(2), 40-45. Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1998). Riding the waves of culture. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. van den Akker, J. (1999). Principles and methods of development research. In J. van den Akker, R. M. Branch, K. Gustafson, N. Nieveen & T. Plomp (Eds.), Design approaches and tools in education and training (pp. 1-14). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Williams, R. (1958). Culture is ordinary. In N. McKenzie (Ed.), Convictions (pp. 74-92). London: MacGibbon and Kee. Winograd, T. (1996). Introduction. In T. Winograd (Ed.), Bringing design to software (pp. xiii-xxv). New York: ACM Press. Young, P. A. (2001). Roads to travel: A historical look at The Freedman’s Torchlight—An African American contribution to 19th-century instructional technologies. Journal of Black Studies, 31(5), 671-698. Young, P. A. (2008). Integrating culture in the design of ICTs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), 6-17.
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This definition of culture is informed by the works of Giles and Middleton (1999), Hall (1996), Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1966), Scheel and Branch (1993), and Williams (1958).
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Chapter III
The Culture-Based Model Framework
The incorporation of culture in the design process is not a simple task. It is one with multiple layers of depth and complexity. But it is also not impossible. CBM captures the nature of culture in design by providing designers with guidance in creating, replicating, modeling, planning, understanding, monitoring, researching, analyzing, integrating, enhancing, communicating, managing, and assessing culture in ICTs.
What is CBM? CBM is an intercultural instructional design framework that guides designers through the management, design, development, and assessment process while taking into account explicit culture-based considerations. The framework provides design guidance from the inception of an idea to its completion and beyond. Guidance is approached from the target audience’s perspective. This type of situatedness is consistent with constructivist theories and research that, to build ICTs for individuals or groups, the design must be situated from the target audience’s perspective (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy, & Perry, 1992; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Bruner, 1985; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Resnick, 1987; Rogoff & Lave, 1984; Vygotsky, 1978). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 3.1. The culture-based model: ID-TABLET—A model of culture
CBM represents a contemporary example of a model of culture (Young, 2008). It is symbolized by the graphic representation of a circle encased by other circles to demonstrate its iterative functioning and self-selection process (see Figure 3.1). The functioning symbolizes how the model continues to work like a machine with each active component responding to the next. The self-selection allows designers to choose which areas best meet the needs of the project. CBM comprises eight areas consistent with the acronym ID-TABLET: Inquiry, Development, Team, Assessments, Brainstorming, Learners, Elements, and Training. In classifying CBM in the field of instructional design, it might be referred to as a product-oriented model versus a classroom or systems oriented model. Productoriented models focus on the development of products. These models have been developed by researchers in the fields of computer-aided software engineering (de Hoog, de Jong, & de Vries, 1994), video production (Bergman & Moore, 1990), distance education, e-learning (Bates, 1995), curriculum development, computerassisted design (Nieveen, 1997) and instructional design (Seels & Glasgow, 1998). This line of research exemplifies the complex process of product development and the multifaceted needs across disciplines. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Product-oriented models usually serve a need, involve the production of a product, require analysis and re-analysis, and enable individualized instruction (Gustafson & Branch, 2002). Product-oriented models: • • • • • • • • • •
Focus on the production of a product; Typically the production is a few hours or days; Are usually well financed; Involves a team of highly skilled people; Is high quality, original, technologically stylish, and marketable; Requires more time in preproduction analysis; Must be self-instructional and intuitive requiring little human facilitation; Provide comprehensive testing and modifications; Use mass distribution; and Provide an aesthetically pleasing product (Gustafson & Branch, 2002).
The use of product-oriented models should be contingent on the context of the instructional design project. CBM, as with any instructional design model, should be modified on the basis of the context of the processes (Bates, 1995; Gustafson & Branch, 2002; Seels & Glasgow, 1998; Tessmer & Wedman, 1995).
Where did CBM come from? Traditionally, instructional design models have been based on learning theories. However, CBM evolved from an empirical study of instructional products designed by and for African Americans. A treasure of themes and concepts related to culture were found in these materials and were classified as cultural remnants. Cultural remnants are the racial, ethnic, cultural, linguistic, political, social, historical, educational, and economic artifacts embedded in discourses. The cultural remnants found in these instructional products were generalized to meet the design needs of cross-cultural audiences, and this translation resulted in CBM (Young, 1999; Young, 2008).
What can CBM do? CBM can help designers: • •
Create a fictitious virtual world; Recreate a culture using ICTs;
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• • • • • • • • • •
Model an instructional strategy, task, or activity; Plan the entire design process; Understand people and societies; Monitor product development; Research the qualities of a society, culture or target audience; Assess and assess ICTs. Integrate features of culture throughout ICTs; Enhance existing ICTs; Communicate across cultural contexts and; Manage the design and development process. CBM has the following features:
• • • •
It works in a variety of contexts (e.g., education, business, industry, government). It addresses instructional issues. It addresses management, process, and content issues. It is a multidimensional and dynamic processing system.
Who would use CBM? CBM can be used by instructional designers, e-learning designers, Web designers, usability practitioners, researchers, curriculum developers, professors, students, and other practitioners.
WHATAREs COMONENTS ? CBM’s ID-Tablet The ID-TABLET focuses on project management and design. Project management entails problem solving, planning, educating, evaluating, learning, and decision making. The areas under project management include: Brainstorming (B1-B10), Team (T1-T3), Development (D1-D10), Learners (L1-L10), Assessments (A1-A4), and Training (Tr1-Tr2). The project design focuses on monitoring and content development. The areas under project design include: Inquiry (I1-I6) and Elements (E1-E25). These areas operate simultaneously; they maintain an interactive relation in that certain steps are repeated or referred back to throughout the design process. Therefore, the process is always in motion—something is always happening. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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The following description provides an overview of the areas and design factors in CBM’s ID-TABLET. Section II details the 70 design factors in the model. Each area is sequentially numbered so that additional design factors can be added as the model continues to develop. Organizationally, each area has a letter followed by a corresponding number—for example, Assessment (A1) and Brainstorming (B1).
I Inquiry (I1-I6) monitors development, automates the internal flow of the design process and functions as internal sensors. It provides a series of questions to be asked and answered during pre-production, production and post production. I1. Genre – aids in the selection of ICTs. (preproduction & production) I1a. What ICTs are being used and why? I1b. Which ICTs are more effective given the content? I1c. Is the project affordable to the target audience, given the ICTs used? I1d. How have ICTs influenced the design of the product?
I2. Framing assists in maintaining the target audiences perspective. (preproduction, production & postproduction) I2a. I2b. I2c. I2d. I2e. I2f.
Who is the target audience? How is the content presented to the target audience? What is the content presented? Is the content appropriate for the target audience and why? Where, within the products design, is this content most appropriate? Why is this content appropriate?
I3. Omission helps in assessing a design. (production & postproduction) I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why? I3b. What has been unintentionally omitted and why? I3c. What has not been considered? I3d. Will these omissions be detrimental to the project and why?
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I4. Backgrounding helps in providing a balanced design. (production & postproduction) I4a. What has been backgrounded? I4b. Is the backgrounding intentional or unintentional and why? I4c. Will this backgrounding be detrimental to the project?
I5. Foregrounding helps in providing an objective design. (production & postproduction) I5a. What is emphasized and why? I5b. Is this what should be emphasized? I5c. How does this emphasis influence the overall design?
I6. Visual Representations assists in conveying meaning. (preproduction, production & postproduction) I6a. I6b. I6c. I6d. I6e. I6f. I6g. I6h.
How do the visual representations frame the product? How do visual representations assist in the instructional process? Who is portrayed in these visual representations? What is portrayed in these visual representations? What purpose do the visual representations serve? Are inappropriate visual representations in the design? Where are these visual representations placed in the product? Why were these visual representations selected?
Development Development (D1-D10) provides the management structure for problem solving. It considers those features that are important in the overall development of the product. D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience (TACCT) design specifications. Technical design specifications focus on function; aesthetic—visual, content—subject matter, culture-based—generic or specialized, and target audience—people. D2. Mass distribution formats. Produce in formats for mass distribution that allow access and equity. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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D3. Effective technology. Use the most efficient and effective technology available to produce the product. D4. Diversify ICT format. Provide multiple forms of information and communication technologies or manipulatives to meet the needs of the target audience. D5. Understand target audience. Know your audience. Focus on that audience throughout the design. D6. Explore environmental & Individual/group cultures. Environmental cultures explore societies and cultures ways of life (e.g., workplace). Individual/group cultures explore people (e.g., Japanese culture). D7. Quality design. Create a good product for other people who desire to create similar products. D8. Authenticate product. Authentic representations of target audiences are needed to validate the product. D9. Control for interference. Provide products that limit bias, attitudes, and prejudices. Try to control for human, machine, and environmental interference. D10. Model the product or process. Create prototypes, sketches, storyboards, or visual languages.
Tam Team (T1-T3) focuses on the recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team that includes a cultural expert, an educator, and other culturally informed members. This is where much of the decision making happens. T1. Cultural expert. The cultural expert is the insider who acts as a liaison with the target audience and community representative. T2. Enlist educators. Educators with expertise in subject matter and/or educating the target audience must be on the team (professors, teacher educators, etc.). T3. Culturally informed team. Have an educated creative team with valid interests in the target audience.
Assessments The area of Assessments (A1–A4) covers multiple evaluation options. These evaluations provide evidence of the products effectiveness and evaluate the goals set for the target audience. A1. Multiple evaluation options. Provide internal and external evaluation opportunities. A2. Assess the assessment. Evaluate the evaluation tools. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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A3. External review. Implement other evaluations of the product. A4. Culture-specific assessments. Create specialized evaluations.
Brainstorming Brainstorming (B1-B10) determines the direction to proceed and serves as an initial review of the design process. It is the first step in planning. B1. Financial support. Obtain comprehensive funding for the project. B2. Pilot studies/Field tests of product. Engage in assessments throughout project. B3. Assess community’s response. Get the public’s response to the product. B4. Community representative on team. The community representative is a person versed in the cultural nuances of the target audience, and they have been designated as an integral part of the team. B5. Investigate target audience to authenticate product. Provide the team with an ethnographic portrait of the target audience. B6. Reflect and assess learning goals. Engage in ongoing reflections and assessments of the product. B7. Affordable design. Provide an affordable design and ICTs that are financially accessible to the target audience. B8. Meet needs of target audience. Determine how the product meets the instructional and/or cultural needs of the target audience. B9. Discuss and consider cultural context. Discuss and consider historical, social, political, economic, and educational reasons for implementing this project. B10. Present and consider outcomes. Throughout the design process, present and consider learner outcomes or the user goals.
Learners Learners (L1–L10) centers on the needs of learners and learning. These design factors assist in providing a dynamic learning environment that is supportive of the learner’s cultural frame of reference. L1. Extend learning. Provide opportunities for extended learning. L2. Differentiate opportunities to learn. Provide a variety of learning options. L3. Empower and engage learners. Provide opportunities for empowering learners and engaging instruction. L4. Teach proactive learning. Help learners to be proactive in improving their own learning. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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L5. Identify educational objectives. Have an underlying educational and/or learning objective. L6. Culture-specific instructional strategies. Consider instructional strategies that are individual or group specific. L7. Enrich instructional content. Expand instructional content beyond subject matter. L8. Adapt instruction to learner. Provide adaptable instruction that is not too grade level or age level specific. L9. Plan for instruction. Focus on the short- and long-term instructional needs of the target audience. L10. Enculturate the learner. Use the product to enculturate the learner into the culture.
Elements Elements (E1–E25) facilitate content development. These Elements seek to be comprehensive in providing the fundamental total of which all culture is composed (see Table 3.1).
Training Training (Tr1–Tr2) is the education of individuals. This is another phase in providing full management of a project. Tr1. Product training. Provide training of the product as needed. Tr2. Culture-based Training. Provide training that is culture-based incorporating CBM Elements and interactions with cultural expert and target audience.
How does CBM work? CBM builds a framework for the design, development, management, and assessment of products. This framework begins with identifying the goal of the design. These goals can be classified in one of the following categories: C: A: R: D:
Custom development Add-on Re-engineer Diagnostic evaluation
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Table 3.1. CBM elements Elements
Tangibles and Intangibles
The anthropology of culture: E1. Cultural aesthetics
That which is considered beautiful
E2. Cultural artifacts
Products that exist or remain
E3. Cultural capital
Economics and material wealth
E4. Cultural classification
Divisions in a culture or society
E5. Cultural communications
The exchange or transmission of information
E6. Cultural demographics
Characteristics of a population
E7. Cultural environment
Physical and social conditions in which a human being, other species or entity lives and develops
E8. Cultural history
Narrative representation of historical events
E9. Cultural knowledge
What is known and what one comes to know
E10. Cultural language
Language form, content, use and meaning
E11. Cultural physiology
The physiological characteristics of a human being, other species or entity
E12. Cultural relations
The relationship of one being to another being
E13. Cultural resources
The use and cultivation of resources
The psychology of culture: E14. Cultural beliefs & values
Beliefs (shared truths); Values (shared ideas)
E15. Cultural experiences
The interpretation of the world from inside and out
E16. Cultural ideas
The use and meaning of ideas and perceptions
E17. Cultural identity
Distinguishing qualities of a human being, other species or entity
E18. Cultural interests
Deeply personal desires, wants, wishes
E19. Cultural misconceptions
Untruths, myths, stereotypes
E20. Cultural ways
Behaviors, norms, feelings
The science of culture: E21. Cultural anomalies
Happenings that promote, initiate, or force cultural change
E22. Cultural cultures
The scientific identification of cultures, worlds, ecosystems
E23. Cultural futures
That which is to come
E24. Cultural infinities
Those things without limits: time, space, distance
E25. Cultural nature
Intrinsic characteristics of a human being, other species or entity
Custom Development Custom development is suitable for a multi-tiered project that requires the design of a variety of products for a particular target audience. This type of project requires the use of all or most of the components of the model. Using CBM for custom developCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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ment will initially take considerably longer than most instructional design models. However, the proper incorporation of culture-based design specifications requires this type of in-depth design processing and management. This should not be seen as a weakness of the model but an opportunity to provide as authentic a product as possible. Once the CBM guide is created, many products and services for the target audience can be quickly built. The CBM guide houses information about the target audience. The guide can be continuously updated as needed or shared with other designers. Chapter XV provides a case study of custom development. Custom development is for the construction of a project from scratch. The project is totally new in that it is still in the idea phase. Projects that require custom development use all the areas of CBMs ID-TABLET. Each area of the ID-TABLET serves a particular function in custom development. In Table 3.2, CARD Functions serves as an example of how the needs of the project can be quickly assessed. Inquiry monitors development, automates the internal flow of the design process, and functions as an internal sensor. This monitoring checks and rechecks that the design process is executing properly. The development area is where problem solving happens for the overall development of the product. The team area is where the decision making happens by the team leader to recruit a culturally sensitive group of people; once selected, the team collaborates and continues with the decision making. Assessments serve as the area for evaluating the product, target audience, and the general public. Brainstorming functions as the planning area where most of the initial design and development decisions are formulated. The Learning serves those projects where the needs of learners are part of the project’s goals. Elements functions as the major component for content development. Educating the team and trainer happens in the area of Training.
Add-O An add-on is suitable for existing ICTs where the goal is to make the ICT more culture-specific. The objective here is to evaluate what exists in the design and use CBM as a guide in adding on to the pre-existing design. Add-ons may be applied to save money, avoid reinventing the wheel, update content, or better meet the needs of the target audience. Chapter XVI provides a case study of an add-on. A quick assessment to determine what is missing from the ICT is to conduct the TACCT evaluation which is under CBM DEVELOPMENT D1 (TACCT design specifications). This will determine whether the product or online environment has any design specifications in the following areas: technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience. The extent of the add-on needs to be determined on the basis of the project’s limitations and the investment in using CBM. Depending on the needs of the project, the team selects those areas of CBM ID-TABLET that are most appropriate for Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Table 3.2. CARD functions I
Custom Development
Add-on
Re-engineer
Diagnostic Evaluation
Monitoring
Monitoring
Monitoring
Exploring
D
Problem solving
Problem solving
Problem solving
Exploring
T
Decision making
Decision making
Decision making
?
A
Evaluating
Evaluating
Evaluating
Exploring
B
Planning
Planning
Planning
?
L
Learning
Learning
Learning
Exploring
E
Content development
Content development
Content development
Exploring
T
Educating
Educating
Educating
?
the project. The following ID-TABLET guiding questions should aid in assessing which areas are needed: Inquiry Development Team Assessments Brainstorming Learners Elements Training
Does the project need monitoring for design and development issues? Have all the problems been solved? Will the team have to be trained or replaced? Does the project need evaluating or re-evaluating? Does the project require more planning? Does the project require meeting the needs of learners? Does the content need to be revised, reviewed or recreated? Will training be needed for the team or trainers?
For any question for which the answer is yes, this area is needed for adding on to an existing design. Compare the projects budget and any other limitations with how much time it might take to implement components of CBM. The most timeconsuming component of the model is CBM Elements. Determine the extent to which CBM Elements will be used. If some or most of the data needed for CBM Elements are accessible, then the management of the data and the re-evaluation of the project need to be considered. If none of the data from the CBM guide are available, then it will take time to gather the data; however, if certain areas are selected and others are eliminated, data collection will take less time.
Re-E ngineer Re-engineering a product or online environment means that part or most of the design can be revamped. Re-engineering requires making major changes to the software codes, restructuring, and rebuilding. For this task, the budget must be Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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fully considered and the design re-evaluated. The same guiding questions can determine which areas of CBM should be used in the redesign. Chapter 17 provides a case study of re-engineering.
Diagnostic Evaluation A diagnostic evaluation serves as a means of measurement. CBM’s ID-TABLET functions in an exploring mode when it is used as an evaluation tool. CBM aids in researching design specifications of existing ICTs and can serve as an ethnographic instrument. Chapter XVIII provides a case study of a diagnostic evaluation.
Research Design Specifications CBM’s ID-TABLET meters pre-existing design specifications to determine aspects such as: culture neutral, culture-specific, technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, target audience focused, assessments, learning, and bias. The ID-TABLET can evaluate ICTs from print to electronic formats determining the status as culture neutral or culture-specific. This means that the ID-TABLET can evaluate ICTs from a children’s book to an e-learning Web site. The areas of CBM’s ID-TABLET which are most appropriate for a diagnostic evaluation depends on the goals of the project. Use the ID-TABLET’s guiding questions to determine which areas are most relevant.
Ethnographic Instrument Ethnographic research describes people’s ways of life. This research uses methods such as participant observation, interviewing, and data collection (e.g., field notes, videotapes, audiotapes, photography, personal documents, official documents; Fetterman, 1998). The design factors in CBM Elements serve as an ethnographic guide in analyzing a society, culture, or target audience. A designer or researcher who is conducting an evaluation can begin with CBM Elements. As an example, a society can be examined for its aesthetics, artifacts, capital, classification system, demographics, or history; these are all design factors under CBM Elements. Each design factor has guiding questions or (GQ). The Culture GQ directs the designer in disclosing details of a society or culture. The Target Audience (GQ) directs the designer in discovering the characteristics of human beings in this society or culture. Through this analysis, the data collection is comprehensive in covering anthropological, psychological, and scientific perspectives related to the society, culture, or target audience.
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Howwou manage CBM? Using Knowledge Management Sstems Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) are information technology applications that make available the “collective knowledge” of organizations (Alavi & Leidner, 2005, p. 171). In the early days this type of system was called a database. Databases allowed the collection of information into specific fields. The information retrieved contained subsets of the data inputted. Database functions included adding, browsing, deleting, modifying, and searching. Then databases integrated more functions such as exporting files, linking the database to other applications, and personalized log-ons. Databases evolved into information management systems, which have progressed into KMS. KMS support features such as communication (e.g., threaded discussions, e-mails), collaboration (e.g., electronic group-shared calendars), coordination (e.g., shared documents & images), and control (e.g., locking documents, accessing past versions of documents) (Spector, 2002). For example, Spector (2002) argued that KMS might aid the field of instructional design by providing a common repository where learning outcomes and the instructional design can be more readily evaluated. The implementation of CBM requires a place that can serve as a common repository where information about the project can be easily stored, accessed, retrieved, updated, corrected, transferred, applied, shared, and evaluated across the design team. An existing KMS could house the collective knowledge from the design team, the information about the target audience, and aid in the data management of the project. KMS have been criticized as being slanted toward an American business perspective. Mason’s (2003) analysis of six KMS reports indicated a focus on technical and content standardization, organizational knowledge, and the implementation of incentives to follow a business culture. Considerations of a national culture and ethnic background of employees was only measured in one report. The findings of Mason’s study indicate that these KMS promoted a generic organizational culture and disregarded the contributions of employee’s national cultures and ethnic backgrounds. This is something to consider with generic KMS.
CBM Guide The CBM guide is a repository of the data gathered in relation to the society, culture, or target audience, and it aligns with the areas and design factors of CBM. The CBM guide can be housed in KMS or a Wiki, Web site, or database. The collection of this information is important for the following reasons: 1.
It creates a common repository of information that all team members can access and keep updated.
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The data may be used by multiple clients. It minimizes bias, stereotypes, and other misinformation about a society, culture, or target audience, because all of the collected data is authentic. It speeds the process when updating or adding on to an existing product. It allows for an organized and managed design process.
The primary goal of cultural models is to act as repositories for data. The collection and input of accurate data are imperative for a comprehensive portrait of the target audience and the ultimate design of the product. The CBM guide should house print and electronic forms of information. This collection should be fully accessible to all persons on the design team. However, the number of persons inputting data should be limited. Depending on the schedule for project development, the database could be a preproduction project that is completed before the design team comes on board. However, depending on the team, they may want feedback as to what goes into the overall digitally managed system. The collection of data is valued by designers and researchers. Both are interested in the performance of the learner, instructor, or user and the product. From this repository of data, the designer or researcher draws conclusions about the design process. These conclusions are integrated it the product and process (Richey & Klein, 2007).
Table 3.3. Product development of Japanese video games Society
Culture
Target Audience
Inside
Define Japans video game industry.
Determine who buys and plays video games.
Japans target audience is Japanese males ages 13-35. Determine what this population likes about video games.
Outside
Define Japan’s economy. Determine the types of entertainment people buy and where video games fit.
Determine the type of video games that are produced (e.g., console, online, mobile, arcade).
Japanese males play video games. Japanese females play other types of games (e.g. online puzzles, card games, arcade games, trivia, etc). Determine the differences in male and female perspectives on games.
Across
Define Japan’s video game production and distribution of hardware and software in comparison to the U.S. and China.
Determine the quality and content of Japan’s video game industry in comparison to the U.S. and China.
Across cultures those target audiences that do play video games include: US males 18-35, US females 18-35, Chinese males 18-35, Chinese females 18-35, Japanese males 18-35, Japanese females 18-35. Compare and contrast beliefs and feelings about video games amongst these groups.
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Why is CBM Intercultural? The model is intercultural because it operates inside, outside and across cultures. Cross-cultural implies a comparison across cultures. Intracultural refers to happenings within a distinct culture. However, intercultural means happenings from, between and across different cultures. Given these definitions, intercultural seemed the more appropriate. As part of CBM, the term intercultural is not tied to any particular discipline. It exists freely to be used and manipulated. This flexibility allows intercultural to operate inside, outside and across a society, culture or target audience. Within the design process, CBM guides the collection of data such as that illustrated in Table 3.3.
References Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. E. (2005). Review: Knowledge management and knowledge management systems: Conceptual foundations and research issues. In I. Nonaka (Ed.), Knowledge management: Critical perspectives on business and management (pp. 163-202). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education. London: Routledge. Bednar, A. K., Cunningham, D., Duffy, T. M., & Perry, J. D. (1992). Theory into practice: How do we link? In T. M. Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation (pp. 17-34). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Bergman, R. E., & Moore, T. V. (1990). Managing interactive video/multimedia projects. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42. Bruner, J. (1985). Models of the learner. Educational Researcher, 14(6), 5-8. de Hoog, R., de Jong, T., & de Vries, F. (1994). Constraint-driven software design: An escape from the waterfall model. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 7(3), 48-63. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology.
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Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Mason, R. M. (2003). Culture-free or culture-bound? A boundary-spanning perspective on learning in knowledge management systems. Journal of Global Information Management, 11(4), 20-36. Nieveen, N. M. (1997). Computer support for curriculum developers: A study on the potential of computer support in the domain of formative curriculum evaluation. Unpublished dissertation, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands. Richey, R. C., & Klein, J. D. (2007). Design and development research: Methods, strategies and issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Spector, J. M. (2002). Knowledge management tools for instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Design, 50(4), 37-46. Tessmer, M., & Wedman, J. (1995). Context-sensitive instructional design models: A response to design research studies and criticism. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(3), 38-54. Resnick, L. (1987). Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20. Rogoff, B., & Lave, J. (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Young, P. A. (2008). The Culture-based Model: Constructing a model of culture. Journal of Educational, Technology & Society, 11(2), 107-118. Young, P. A. (1999). Roads to travel: A historical look at African American contributions to instructional technology. Unpublished dissertation, University of California, Berkeley: Berkeley, CA.
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Section II
The Culture-Based Model: ID TABLET
This section outlines in detail the 70 design factors of the culture-based model’s (CBM’s) management and design system: the ID-TABLET. This outline is intended to guide the designer or researcher in better understanding the intricacies of a society, culture, or target audience. Designing and analyzing are in-depth processes; however, the degree of detail is contingent upon the needs of the project. CBM comprises eight areas: Inquiry, Development, Team, Assessments, Brainstorming, Learners, Elements, and Training. Certain situations may not require all eight areas of the ID-TABLET. It is up to the designer to select those areas that best represent the project. Then, within an area, the designer selects those design factors that are most appropriate for the project. The chapters in this section outline each area of the ID-TABLET and its subsequent design factors. Each area is defined. Then each design factor within that area is provided with a definition and described in terms of the definition; some design factors are illustrated through an example or offer guiding questions. The guiding questions break down the design factors and help to provide an in-depth portrait of a society, culture or target audience. The guiding questions direct the designer in creating a generic or specialized product. Generic products are guided by culture guiding questions or Culture GQ. Specialized products are guided by target audience guiding questions or Target Audience GQ. Given the comprehensiveness of CBM’s ID-TABLET, it is covered in Chapters IV–XIV. These chapters should be viewed as a workbook in that they guide the design or research process. The model is reviewed in the order of the acronym, not in the workflow order, because each workflow is different. The areas under project management include Brainstorming (Chapter V), Team (Chapter V), Development (Chapter. IV), Learners (Chapter VI), Assessments (Chapter V), and Training (Chapter XIV). The areas under project design include Inquiry (Chapter IV), and Elements (Chapters. VII–XIV).
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Chapter IV
CBM Inquiry, Development
CBM II Inquiry (11-16) monitors development, automates the internal flow of the design process, and functions as internal sensors. This monitoring checks and rechecks that the process is executing properly1. It is interactive and always operational if used by the design team. Inquiry provides a series of questions to be asked and answered during preproduction, production and postproduction. These questions outline the design of the product and allow for a review of the product before, during, and after production; this is a surface assessment. The list of questions is not exhaustive, but they provide a broad selection of questions meant to focus on the needs of the target audience, enable the design process, and screen for bias. These questions are reviewed and reiterated throughout the design process to keep it active. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Inquiry is divided into six design factors that provide a foundation for design applications in any form of information and communication technologies (ICTs). I1. I2. I3. I4. I5. I6.
Genre: Aids in the selection of ICTs Framing: Assists in maintaining the target audiences perspective Omission: Helps in assessing a design Backgrounding: Helps in providing a balanced design Foregrounding: Helps in providing an objective design Visual representations: Assists in conveying meaning
I1. Genre (Preproduction & Production) Genre refers to the type of ICTs (e.g., Internet, World Wide Web, newspaper, magazine, video, software, television) through which groups communicate (Berkenkotter & Huckin, 1995). Determine the type of ICTs to be used in the project. This format is referred to as the genre. The questions related to genre focus on determining the format of the ICT, influence of other technologies and the affordability of the product. As a product evolves, changes in design can influence the format, the price of the product and other product considerations. Therefore, reiteration is necessary. Inquiry questions for this category can be asked and answered during preproduction and production. These questions can be asked at any point in the preproduction or production process and reiterated when needed. The reiteration of these questions throughout the design process is to control for bias. The questions related to genre focus on determining the format of the ICTs and the affordability of the product. As a product evolves, the changes in design can influence the format and the price of the product; therefore, reiteration is necessary. Seels and Glasgow (1998) argued that the design process necessitates that questions are asked throughout the process.
I1a. What ICTs Are Being Used and Why? This question is specific to the genre of the product. These ICTs might include Webbased, software, DVD, video, audiotape, print, or other formats. Determine which ICT best represents the project. Determine why one ICT is being used over all others by providing specific evidence. Evidence can be supported through a detailed physical description of the technology, its functions, and the designer’s rationale.
I1b. Which ICTs Are More Effective Given the Content? The design team or client considers the most effective format to present the content. This is a collaborative decision. Determine if the content would be effectively deCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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livered through the technologies chosen. Considerations should be made in terms of the target audience’s expertise with the technology. If the target audience cannot operate the technology, then the product will not be effective. Access is another area to consider in determining the most effective technology. Determine the target audience’s ability to access the ICTs. Access means that the target audience lives near a location where the product can be purchased or accessed. Determine whether the target audience can afford to purchase the product or if there are other free or nominal means to access the product’s content. There should be evidence to support the viability and validity of the content and the ICT. Examples of other similar but effective products could be supporting evidence. The chosen ICTs should be able to store the content, provide the most effective access, and exhibit the best representation of the product’s content.
I1c. Is the Project Affordable to the Target Audience, Given the ICTs Used? Producing a product that the target audience can afford is the goal. To do the opposite is to bring bias into the design—favor is given to those who have the financial means to afford the product, and those without such means are not considered. Preliminary evaluations of the target audience should reveal their financial means to purchase, rent, or obtain the product for a nominal fee. Complementary access to the product is an option.
I1d. How Have ICTs Influenced the Design of the Product? Choosing one ICT over another can influence the design of a product. These choices may be made on the basis of monies available, the novelty of the technology, or other reasons. Determine how the ICT influences the design of the product. Make a list of the pros and cons of using this ICT. Determine the limitations and strengths of using the chosen ICT. The ICT should enhance the content and the product’s design. In focus groups, obtain the target audience’s feelings as to whether the ICT influenced their decision to purchase the product. Determine other influences in the product’s design.
I2. Framing (Preproduction, Production & Production) Framing refers to how the content is presented or the point of view (Huckin, 1995). The presentation of the content could have an angle or a slant. The frame could be manipulative (Fairclough, 1995).This means that framing can point users toward a particular interpretation. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Therefore, the frame should represent the perspective of the target audience. Throughout the design process, the frame may change based on design decisions. Focusing on the target audience as the main frame through which to make decisions limits bias in the overall design. Framing questions should be asked and answered throughout all production time schedules.
I2a. Who Is the Target Audience? The target audience is the focus of the overall design process. Most design decisions should revolve around meeting the needs of the target audience and then, where applicable, exceeding their expectations. Be specific in determining the target audience. Obtain demographic data consistent with that in CBM Elements. In whatever way possible, get to know the target audience. Although CBM provides a framework for the collection of data about the target audience, personal interactions provide confirmation and support for the data.
I2b. How Is the Content Presented to the Target Audience? The presentation of the content is important in capturing the attention of the target audience. The target audience must be interested enough to engage the product for education, work, or pleasure. Determine how the content is presented to the target audience. For example, an online children’s literature educational Web site could display the books in a virtual library, where children access the book by clicking on the book of their choice. The content of the book is opened, and the child can access the content by turning the pages virtually. In a similar situation, the content of the children’s literature could be presented by an avatar. The animated character might touch a virtual book and give a synopsis of each book he or she touches to spark an interest in the child. Once the child chooses a book, the avatar can read the book to the child, or the child could choose to read the book on screen themselves. Be specific or provide as much detail of how the content is presented visually, textually, kinesthetically, and so forth. The design of ICTs can adapt to the needs of the target audience versus the target audience adapting to the needs of the technology. Therefore, there can be multiple scenarios of how to present the content. A focus group might assist in providing some insight into the preferred ways to present content.
I2c. What Is the Content Presented? The content should appeal to the target audience in many ways; in particular, it should address their culture including learning styles, interests, language, etc. Determine Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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what content should be presented, what should not be presented, and why. Resist inputting one’s personal reasons for including content. The inclusion of all content must be purposeful and, above all, must support the needs of the target audience. Use CBM Elements to guide what is included in the content.
I2d. Is the Content Appropriate for the Target Audience and Why? Avoid content that is culturally inappropriate to the target audience. Know when it is appropriate to present or include certain content information. Knowing the culture of the target audience helps to limit inappropriate content. A certain level comfort should be provided. This comfort refers to both the target audience’s interaction with the technology and its content. Use CBM Elements to guide the team in culturally appropriate content decisions. Thereafter, pilot studies and focus groups should provide other authentic examples of when the content works.
I2e. Where, Within the Products Design, Is This Content Most Appropriate? A review of the content most appropriate within the product design begins with an examination of the placement of objects and functionality. Examine the design of the product to ensure all objects are properly placed within the product’s design. The content, when strategically placed, can be more effective. Objects should be in logical order, deliberately placed, and accessible. The placement is most effective if the target audience’s expectations of functionality are met.
I2f. Why Is This Content Appropriate? The design team should have research or other evidence as to why the content presented is the most appropriate. Inappropriate content presents bias in the design. Use CBM Elements to support appropriate of content.
I3. Omission (Production & Postproduction) Omission is what has been intentionally or unintentionally omitted. Omission refers to items that are not present, not stated and not implied. Omitted items are knowingly excluded; however the exclusion may have unknowingly occurred if it was never considered (Fairclough, 1995). Omission questions should be asked and answered throughout production and post production time schedules.
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I3a. What Has Been Intentionally Omitted and Why? Examine the product’s design. Determine those items that have been intentionally omitted. Decide whether the omission is significant in a positive or negative way to the project. The team’s personal ideologies should be intentionally omitted. By focusing on the target audience rather than one’s own beliefs and values, bias is minimized. Consult others who can identify omissions and seek their overall opinion. This might require input from individuals outside the project but who can act as community representatives.
I3b. What Has Been Unintentionally Omitted and Why? Omitted items are absent, not stated and not implied (Fairclough, 1995). Examine the design. Determine those items that have been unintentionally omitted. Determine why these items were unintentionally omitted. Decide what adjustments can be made to compensate for these unintentional omissions, or what can be done to include them in the design. Determining what has been unintentionally omitted might require input from individuals outside the project but who can act as community representatives. Alternatively, there are pilot studies and focus groups that can offer insight into omissions.
I3c. What Has Not Been Considered? Determine what has not been considered. The reasoning can be that it was not thought of, considered or deemed important. If what has been considered is known, then what has not been considered runs in opposition. Although it is difficult to consider everything, if well reviewed or researched, the team can feel comfortable in that they tried to limit bias throughout the design process. The design team should engage in ongoing brainstorming, and this includes discussions about what has not been considered. Identifying those things not considered requires input from a community representative or other expert. This insight should be directly related to the design of the product or the target audience.
I3d. Will These Omissions Be Detrimental to the Project and Why? These omissions should be examined to determine whether they may be detrimental to the project. If an important design specification has been omitted, determine how Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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it will be integrated back into the project. Determine whether its omission will be noticed by the client, the target audience, or others. Then, consider the costs involved to include the omissions. Determine why the omission should remain omitted.
I4. Backgrounding (Production & Postproduction) Backgrounding refers to what lies in the background and is de-emphasized (Fairclough, 1995). Backgrounded items can be implicit or explicit. Implicit items are implied. They are not stated or present, but it is understood in what is expressed. Backgrounded items can also be explicit. Explicit items are clear and obvious and leave no doubt of their meaning. However, explicit backgrounded items are usually de-emphasized or perceived to be de-emphasized in the design. Backgrounding questions should be asked and answered throughout production and post production time schedules.
I4a. What Has Been Backgrounded? Examine the product’s design. Identify backgrounded items that are implicit. These items can be implied in the product’s design. If implied, the items may not be stated in text or images, but the message is clearly expressed. Examine the product’s design. Identify backgrounded items that are explicit. Explicit items are visually noticeable. If it is explicit, the item should be stated in text, images, or objects. The message is clearly expressed but de-emphasized. Input from a community representative can provide insight into what they perceive to be backgrounded in the design.
I4b. Is the Backgrounding Intentional or Unintentional and Why? Determine whether implied items have been intentionally or unintentionally backgrounded. Give reasons for this backgrounding. Determine whether explicit items have been intentionally or unintentionally backgrounded. Give reasons for this backgrounding.
I4c. Will this Backgrounding Be Detrimental to the Project? Once a number of items have been identified as backgrounded, determine whether this backgrounding will be significant in a positive or negative way to the project. Identify whether the backgrounded items are positive, negative, neutral, or biased. Determine how the specific backgrounded items might be received by the target audience, outside audiences, client, and so forth. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Consult someone who can give their interpretation of the backgrounded items as positive, negative, neutral, or biased. This might require input from individuals outside the project but who can act as community representatives.
I5. Foregrounding (Production & Postproduction) Foregrounded items are present and absolute (Fairclough, 1995). Foregrounding means determining those items that are emphasized. Usually, foregrounded items receive more distinction and are perceived to be emphasized (Huckin, 1995). Foregrounding questions should be asked and answered throughout production and post production time schedules. Determine what things were foregrounded. Those things foregrounded may not be readily apparent to the design team. Consider an outside community representative, focus group etc. who can offer genuine feedback. Take this feedback as an opportunity to improve the design before its completion. It is best to obtain feedback more than once throughout the design process.
I5a. What Is Emphasized and Why? Determine which aspects of the design seem to be emphasized. This emphasis may be apparent based on size, content, color, text, image, numbers, or other aspects. Determine how the specific foregrounded items might be received by the target audience, outside audiences, client, and so forth. Decide whether the foregrounded items are positive, negative, neutral, or biased. The design team should be in agreement on what is emphasized and why. If there are discrepancies with the team’s vision, discuss and make adjustments. Then decide which direction the project should proceed.
I5b. Is This What Should Be Emphasized? Given the items emphasized, determine whether they should be emphasized. Decide whether there is too much emphasis on these items. Determine whether changes are needed to de-emphasize the items and emphasize other aspects of the design.
I5c. How Does This Emphasis Influence the Overall Design? The concepts emphasized can influence the overall design. Determine how this foregrounding influences the overall design. Decide whether the emphasis slants the project in one direction or another. Determine if there is bias in the design. If the design is slanted in favor of the target audience, then this is the correct direction. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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I6. Visual Representations (Preproduction, Production & Post Production) Visual representations frame the design of the product (Fairclough, 1995). Types of visual representations include text, diagrams, tables, sketches, film, video, photography, graphics, icons, and so forth. Kress and van Leeuwen (1992) describe the dynamics of text and images as complementary to the other, or a “visual semiotic” (p. 92). This visual semiotic creates a relationship between text and images. Images do more than just “illustrate”; they are an essential part of the text and often “convey contents—meanings, values, attitudes”—that may not be a part of the text or in contradiction to the text (p. 92). Visual representations carry content and other data. The questions for visual representations should be asked and answered throughout all production time schedules.
I6a. How Do the Visual Representations Frame the Product? Examine the product. Identify the visual representations. Determine how the visual representations frame the product. Examine how text frames the graphics and how the graphics frame the text. Decide if the visual representation of graphics to text is the overall intent. For example, the size of a graphic could overshadow important text. Determine whether graphics or text dominate the design. The layout should be purposeful, maneuverable, and understandable. Determine if the amount of content is sufficient and if this was the intent. The design should provide a balance of visual representations with the goal of meeting the needs of the target audience. CBM Elements should provide data to support what works for this target audience.
I6b. How Do Visual Representations Assist in the Instructional Process? Examine the design of the product. Determine whether the visual representations assist in the instructional process. Use a variety of methods to determine whether the visual representations aid or prohibit the transfer of information. This can include an internal validity check within the design of the program or through external feedback. The transfer of information from technology to individual or from individual to technology must be measured by some means or instrument.
I6c. Who is Portrayed in these Visual Representations? Pay attention to the visual representations portrayed in the project. Determine who is portrayed in the visual representations. Determine whether these are the images the project wanted to communicate. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Enlist the help of the community representative in providing feedback about the visuals. Seek additional input from focus groups about the visual representations. Use this feedback as an opportunity to improve the design.
I6d. What Is Portrayed in these Visual Representations? Pay attention to the visual representations portrayed in the project. Determine what objects and things are portrayed in the visual representations. Determine if these are the images the project intended to communicate. Enlist the help of the community representative in providing feedback about the visuals. Seek additional input from focus groups about the visual representations. Use this feedback as an opportunity to improve the design.
I6e. What Purpose Do the Visual Representations Serve? Determine the purpose of the visual representations in the project and whether this purpose is consistent with the overall goals of the project. Determine whether using one visual representation instead of another better serves the needs of the target audience. Purposeful visual representations have a function in the design process. Visual representations may serve one or more of the TACCT (technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and the target audience) features; therefore, the purpose should be tied to one of the TACCT features or some other function. Guard against using inappropriate or biased visual representations. One way to forego this is to determine the purpose of all visuals. Determine how the visual representations contribute to the design of the product.
I6f. Are Inappropriate Visual Representations in the Design? Identify the visual representations. Determine whether the visual representations are inappropriate to the design. For example, visuals could misrepresent or be stereotypical of a target audience. Discuss and resolve any inappropriateness of the visual representations. Consider the bad and good in the design of the product. The recruitment of other community representatives or engaging a focus group can provide objective perspectives on the design of the product.
I6g. Where Are Visual Representations Placed in the Product? Placement of visual representations can inhibit or enhance the design. Examine the location of the visual representations in the product. Determine whether every object is as it should be, given the target audience’s expectations. Decide if the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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placement of the visual representations benefits the target audience. The recruitment of other community representatives or engaging a focus group can provide objective perspectives.
I6h. Why Were These Visual Representations Selected? The selection of visual representations should benefit the target audience. The design team determines the validity of each example and how it enhances the project. If adjustments have to be made that are not in favor of the target audience, consider the ramifications of this as a design specification. Determine what adjustments will be made to make the design more equitable. Determine the consequences for these actions.
CBM Development Development (D1-D10) provides the management structure for problem solving. It considers those features that are important in the overall development of the product. This area supports both new and existing products. Design specifications focus on determining features of a design that are technical, aesthetic, content, culturebased and target audience (TACCT) related. Then, the ICT format of the product Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based and target audience (TACCT) design specifications. Technical design specifications focus on function, Aesthetic – visual, Content – subject matter, Culture-based -Generic or Specialized, and Target audience – people. D2. Mass distribution formats. Produce in formats for mass distribution that allow access and equity. D3. Effective technology. Use the most efficient and effective technology available to produce the product. D4. Diversify ICT format. Provide multiple forms of information and communication technologies or manipulatives to meet the needs of the target audience. D5. Understand target audience. Know your audience. Focus on that audience throughout the design. D6. Explore environmental & individual/group cultures. Environmental cultures explore societies and cultures ways of life (e.g., workplace). Individual/group cultures explore people (e.g., Japanese culture). D7. Quality design. Create a good product for other people who desire to create similar products. D8. Authenticate product. Authentic representations of target audiences are needed to validate the product. D9. Control for interference. Provide products that limit bias, attitudes and prejudices. Try to control for human, machine and environmental interference. D10. Model the product or process. Create prototypes, sketches, storyboards or visual languages. is determined based on the design of the project; format options could include: Web based format, print, audio, software, video, and so forth. Other development considerations are to build a product that promotes efficiency, accessibility, and versatility. Multiple representations of culture are considered in particular environmental and individual/group cultures. Development focuses on creating a quality design that authentically represents the target audience and limits interference in the form of bias and misrepresentations. Throughout, the production process is supported by modeling. D1. Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based and target audience (TACCT) design speci. cations. Technical design specifications focus on function, aesthetic – visual, content – subject matter, culture-based—generic or specialized, and target audience – people. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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TACCT stands for technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based and/or target audience features. This design factor provides a way of categorizing and assessing large data sets specific to product design. TACCT is not useful in organizing project management; therefore project management design factors should be excluded from this assessment. (For example, TACCT can not assist in determining the types of field tests for a project; this is a project management decision). Technical features focus on function; specifically making the technology work or work better. Aesthetic features are visual; they improve the appearance of the design or the technology. Content features incorporate subject matter; this is information stored in the technology. Culture-based features are generic or specialized; most design specifications can be categorized as culture neutral or culture-specific. Target audience features focus on a specific group of people; this is a very specialized design that seeks to meet the needs of a target audience in relation to the design and technology. When the product incorporates all aspects of TACCT then the design is closer to being more specialized than generic. The steps in using TACCT are to identify the products design specifications, categorize the design specifications in relation to the TACCT table and make decisions or evaluations based on the categorization. The TACCT Table has the following design specifications: T=Technical, A=Aesthetic, C=Content, CB=Culture-based, T=Target Audience. TACCT is a quick way of assessing an ICT. It is meant to provide some preliminary data to improve the design of the ICT and determine the direction to proceed. It is not an in-depth evaluation tool. The categories should be seen as self-sustaining and as providing a surface evaluation of ICTs. D2. Mass distribution formats. Produce in formats for mass distribution that allow access and equity. Economics, access, and equity should be considered in the overall packaging of the product. Mass versus limited distribution formats are important issues to consider. A product with limited distribution may cost more to produce. A product with a larger distribution may cost less to produce. If the product is a generic design, then distribution for a larger audience is feasible. If the product is a specialized design, then distribution to a smaller audience may be required. Mass distribution considerations allows for more people to interact with new technologies, become consumers of these technologies, and consider producing these technologies. The more informed, equitable, and accessible new technologies, the more likely there can be reductions in phobias and aversions to technology. This is imperative because inhabitants of the future must be technologically savvy. On the other hand, meeting
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the needs of specialized audiences also allows technology to penetrate new markets and brings technological innovations to everyone’s door. Accessibility and equity should be considered in the target audience’s ability to purchase and afford the product. The distribution of the product to locations near the target audience allows them access to purchase the product. Equity means that the target audience can afford the product given the purchase price. Information about the target audience’s purchasing practices of such products has to be considered. These data should be gathered in the pre-production stage. Accessibility and equity should be considered in the target audience’s ability to use the product. Accessibility to the product provides the target audience with the freedom to engage and learn about the product and technology. Accessibility means access to the product either through schools, home or local community centers. Equity means the target audience has an equal number of chances to interact with the product, therefore the more interaction, the more opportunitiesthe target audience has to master the content. To consider the needs of the target audience, format, accessibility, and equity must be considered and included in the overall design. D3. Effective technology. Use the most efficient and effective technology available to produce the product. Providing an efficient and effective product is important to meeting market demands and more important to the needs of the target audience. An efficient product is one that provides much content. The product is effective if knowledge is successfully facilitated from machine to human. Plan to stay with or ahead of the competition. Having a competitive product means that there is no compromising on quality. Quality has been considered and invested in the product. Possible technologies include: audiotapes, cable, computers, CD-ROM, fiber-optics, internet, print, radio, satellite, telephone, video cassettes, video discs, or video conferencing. The type of technology (Bates, 2005) should be driven by the needs of the target audience not its novelty. D4. Diversify ICT format. Provide multiple forms of information and communication technologies or manipulatives to meet the needs of the target audience. The target audience may need more than a textual representation; therefore, providing a variety of ICTs (printed materials, video, audiotapes, computer software, DVDs, etc.) can better meet the learning modality of the target audience. Through visuals, the individual who understands graphic signs and symbols may best learn
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the content. For the acoustic individual, the auditory components may best meet their needs. For the tactile individual, manipulatives help them to understand content. Meeting the diverse learning modalities of the individual may require multiple representations of the product. For example, entertainment games2 are produced in video formats; however there are magazines and game guides that support the video formats. This diversification in formats allows users to educate themselves about the history behind the game, characters and their functions, and technical features of the game. The needs of users are met by video and printed formats. D5. Understand target audience. Know your audience. Focus on that audience throughout the design. The goals of every project should be to know your audience, focus on that audience throughout the design, and meet the needs of the audience. Gather preliminary research about the target audience; this information assists the entire design and development process. Use CBM Elements to gather preliminary and extensive data. Determine what is known about the target audience and how the design process should proceed given what is known. Specifically address how the needs of the target audience are going to be met. D6. Explore environmental & individual/group cultures. Environmental cultures explore societies and cultures ways of life (e.g., workplace). Individual/ group cultures explore people (e.g., Japanese culture). The most commonly described representations of culture propose that culture is ones environment or the culture of an individual or group. When these two perspectives come together as a whole they provide a more holistic interpretation of cultures. Environmental cultures include representations such as the workplace culture, school culture, or popular culture. This perspective on culture is consistent with that of the cultural anthropologist who examines a society’s ways of life (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987). For example, an examination of environmental cultures could include understanding, studying or replicating a society’s way of life. Individual/group cultures are tied to people such as Native American culture, Japanese culture, Haitian culture. This perspective on culture is consistent with that of physical anthropologists who study biological organisms such as humans and specifically human behavior and biology (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987). For example, an examination of a group culture could include understanding, studying, or replicating the evolutionary growth and the organic/inorganic distinctions of organisms.
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The inclusion of both environmental and individual/group perceptions of culture is needed in the design process to balance the structure of designs. Without this balance, designs are subject to bias, inequities, and misrepresentations. CBM Elements provides a more in-depth examination of the dynamics of culture. D7. Quality design. Create a good product for other people who desire to create similar products. A good product is one that others want to imitate. The creation of a good product requires focusing on the best interests of the target audience in the design. Brainstorm the steps to a good design. Implement those steps with creativity and a vision for something unique. Determine whether the team has taken the steps to a good design. D8. Authenticate product. Authentic representations of target audiences are needed to validate the product. Authentic representations mean true to life. In this case, products need to be true to the life of target audiences to validate the product. By following CBM Elements, authentic representations of culture can be manifested throughout the design. CBM Elements provides the tools for a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of societies, cultures, groups and individuals. D9. Control for interference. Provide products that limit bias, attitudes and prejudices. Try to control for human, machine and environmental interference. The dispositions of the team and client seep into all designs. This can be seen through the inclusion and exclusion of content, text, images, objects, people, cultures and societies. By following CBM for management and design decisions, the designer’s personal dispositions can be greatly reduced. The collaborative effort of the cultural expert, community representative, pilot studies participants, focus groups, and design team members should minimize bias, attitudes and prejudice throughout the management process. CBM Inquiry aids in limiting bias, attitudes and prejudices during the design and development process. If implemented, CBM Elements provides data for the authentic representation of the target audience throughout the design process. The collective implementation of multiple components of CBM offers a comprehensive framework to control for interference by way of humans, machines, or the environment.
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D10. Model the product or process. Create prototypes, sketches, storyboards or visual languages. Modeling in design means to bring something to life as a product or process. Prototypes can be physical representations of the product. Sketches can be detailed drawings. Storyboards may illustrate still images of a product. Visual languages can be notation systems, maps, diagrams, or drawings of processes. Modeling provides the tools to actualize the product or process. Modeling should be assessed by the team, cultural expert, and community representative. When ready, a more target audience friendly version can be field tested. Modeling should be performed throughout the preproduction and production stages to best meet the needs of the client and the project. Prototyping and sketching are often used in game design. Storyboarding is used in video and film making. Visual languages are often used in engineering and computer science. When creating visual languages, care should be taken in the presumptions designers, developers and engineers bring to the design process. The designer might draw a diagram of the path that the user will travel in navigating a web site; however this path is the presumed path. It is only through careful observation of the target audience that the multiple paths taken can be revealed. With this in mind, field work might consider collecting data of the users behavior when interacting with the product.
References Bates, A. W. (2005). Technology, E-Learning and distance education. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Berkenkotter, C., & Huckin, T. N. (1995). Genre knowledge in disciplinary communication. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Douglas, I. (2006). Issues in software engineering of relevance to instructional design. Tech Trends, 50(5), 28-35. Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. London: Edward Arnold. Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Haviland, W. A. (1987). Cultural anthropology (5th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Huckin, T. N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis. Functional approaches to written text: Classroom applications. TESOL–France Journal, 2(2), 95–111.
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Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (1992, August). Structures of visual representation. Journal of literary semantics, XXI(2), 91-117. Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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In software engineering, this would be similar to the concept of refactoring meaning that the design structure is reviewed continuously (Douglas, 2000).
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Chapter V
CBM Team, Assessments, Brainstorming
C Team Team (T1–T3) focuses on the recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team that includes a cultural expert, an educator, and other culturally informed members. These experts become a united team who seek to fulfill the needs of the target audience as a central goal. This is where much of the decision making happens. T1. Cultural expert(s). The cultural expert is the insider who acts as a liaison with the target audience and community representative. T2. Enlist educators. Educators with expertise in subject matter and/or educating the target audience must be on the team (e.g., professors, teacher educators). T3. Culturally informed team. Have an educated creative team with valid interests in the target audience. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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T1. Cultural Expert(s). The cultural expert I acts as a liaison with the target audience and community Rpresentative. The cultural expert is the target audience’s representative. (The community representative and the cultural expert can be the same person). The cultural expert has the best interests of the target audience at heart, and their role is to ensure that the design team remains focused on the needs of the target audience as the primary focus of the design process. The cultural expert has established relationships with the target audience, and they engage in maintaining this complementary relationship. In this role, they establish and maintain relationships with the community before, during and after production. If the target audience is unhappy with the cultural expert; this may mean that one or more experts might be needed. The target audience is viewed as customer or consumer and their desires and wants are important. Before the project begins, the cultural expert visits community members to get their feedback on the proposed design. This can be in the form of focus groups, informal meetings or face to face short surveys/interviews. This data collection becomes an integral part of how the design process proceeds. In particular, design decisions are altered or adjusted based on this information. In most cases, the cultural expert can be recruited from the community. The cultural expert might live in this community or they could have lived in this community or a similar community. They need to vibe with the target audience in terms of their personal or professional experiences, class identification, social experiences, economic identification and community involvement. A high level of comfort should be apparent in the cultural expert’s interactions with the target audience and vice versa. The target audience must feel that the cultural expert is someone they can trust. Assessing this human factor is important because, if the target audience lacks trust in the cultural expert, the quality of data collection will be tainted and inauthentic.
T2. Enlist Educators. Educators with expertise in subject Matter or educating the target audience Must be on the team (e.g., professors, teacher educators, etc.).
Educators with expertise in educating the target audience should be on the team (e.g., professors, teacher educators, instructors, curriculum specialists, trainers, subject matter specialists). These educators could be experts in content area, language, or any needed discipline. Subject matter specialists have expertise in the discipline that is specific to the design. They can contribute to the bulk of the content and provide valuable inforCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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mation. However, traditional thinking and designs that have not worked with the target audience should be reconsidered. Language educators who have expertise in the language of the target audience can aid in validating the written or spoken aspects of the design. These linguistic factors are important in addressing the target audience’s ability to grasp the content. The language educator provides clarification so that the language of the target audience is authentically represented without stereotypes, exaggerations or misrepresentations. The responsibility to transfer information from ICT to learner rests on the collaborative efforts of the team with great input from educators who understand the use of technology in constructing knowledge. Finding the combination of content area and technology skills may be difficult among all team members; therefore this is an area where collective creativity is required.
T. Culturally Informed TIucated creative team with Valid Interests in the target audience. The selection of the appropriate team is key to the successful management, development and implementation of the project. Finding people who can work together in a culturally diverse environment is important to culture-based designs. It is easy to gather a team of people to whom one likes to work. However, it may seem a burden to let outsiders into ones circle. Designing for ethnically diverse learners and users requires designers to step outside of their normal comfort zone and challenge themselves to hear from others and listen to others outside their social circle. All team members regardless of race or ethnicity need to have strong interests in meeting the learning needs of the target audience and a strong belief in the effectiveness of the product. In this scenario, people from the designers to educational experts, are valuable to the project (Cockburn, 1999; Fowler, 2001). The culturally informed team receives training in the cultural elements of the target audience, derived from CBM Elements. This training is supportive, informative, participatory, and complementary to the needs of the target audience. The instructional design process is a complex multilayered process. Fostering a team of highly skilled individuals (Gustafson & Branch, 2002) is extremely beneficial to the success of a project.
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CBM Assessments The area of Assessments (A1–A4) proposes several design factors for implementing assessments. With multiple evaluation options, assessments can include internal and external evaluations that measure the learner’s acquisition of knowledge or the effectiveness of a product’s design. Assess the assessment examines the extent of bias and determines the best assessment to support the target audience. External review focuses on the hiring of an outside agency. Then, culture-specific assessments provide guidance on the building of culture-specific evaluations and measurements. A1. Multiple evaluation options. Provide internal and external evaluation opportunities. A2. Assess the assessment. Evaluate the evaluation tools. A3. External review. Implement other evaluations of the product. A4. Culture-specific assessments. Create specialized evaluations.
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A1. Multiple Evaluation Options. Provide Internal and ExI Evaluation Opportunities. Multiple evaluation options require assessments to have more than one measurement to affirm validity. These evaluations can be internal or external and should focus on measuring the learner’s acquisition of knowledge or the effectiveness of a product’s design. If assessment is part of the product’s design, then internal and external options should be considered during preproduction. Internal evaluations provide learners with opportunities to check their work and reinforce skills and knowledge. An adaptive design provides the learner with multiple opportunities to be successful and to master the skills needed. Learner-supported evaluations versus those that penalize should be carefully designed and woven throughout the product. Internal evaluations may also serve as databases or feedback of the target audience’s interactions with the product. A database can be hidden within the product’s structure and function as a resource to enhance the product in later versions. The database may collect a variety of information such as task completion, product errors, learner progress, and so forth. Internal evaluations can also provide feedback. This is exemplified with popular operating systems that display a popup window asking if the software company should be notified of this error. The software company monitors the performance of its computer application through the public’s feedback to these error messages. External evaluations can come in many forms (e.g., pilot studies, field tests, prepackaged exams, or standardized tests). The needs of the project dictate the assessment that will be used. Pilot studies are small-scale studies (Gay & Airasian, 2003) and are conducted in the actual environment and with users of the product. Pilot studies are usually short (e.g., days or weeks) in comparison to the long term intended use of the product. This method of inquiry often reveals problems, issues or design flaws. Pilot studies are usually conducted on products or online environments where there are learning outcomes that need to be measured or where learning is expected to happen. A pilot study may be conducted in a classroom setting for an educational program that will be used in schools. Field tests may be conducted in a variety of settings, given that the focus is on the product and that the product may be used in a variety of environments. Field tests are usually short in length (e.g., minutes, hours). Types of field tests can include surveys (e.g., in person, mail, telephone, Internet), focus groups, and interviews. Prepackaged exams may be found in a local bookstore. These exams provide reinforcement of materials learned in an educational setting. The content areas vary according to the subject. These materials are usually made by private companies and are normed for the mainstream population. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Standardized tests are created by testing agencies and are usually administered by schools, colleges and universities. Examples include the Standardized Assessment Test (SAT) or Graduate Records Exam (GRE). Standardized tests are administered, interpreted, and scored in the same way. The standardization provides a way to compare test takers across the nation (Gay & Airasian, 2003).
A2. Assess the Assessment. Evaluate the Evaluation Tools. Evaluate the internal and external evaluation tools. Determine the learning outcomes that are being measured. Evaluate the testing methods (e.g., short answer, multiple choice, essay) and whether the testing methods can measure the learning outcomes. Go through each question carefully to determine whether learning will be achieved through these methods of assessment. Determine whether the evaluation fairly assesses the learning outcomes that are directly related to the target audience. Establish whether the evaluation is culturally biased. Determine how bias may affect the learning outcomes. Determine the user outcomes that are being measured. Evaluate the measurement methods and whether these methods properly assess the desired outcome. For example, in a video game, the reloading of ammunition, time, or money indicates that the player is advancing to the next stage or that the player has acquired a certain level of skill that merits the increase in ammunition, time, or money. In a serious online game designed by an insurance company, the employer may create a game that measures a new employee’s knowledge of insurance policies and practices. The software may assess success in the task by the number of reasonably answered questions. Review each measurement carefully to determine whether the outcomes are achievable through these methods. Determine whether the measurement fairly assesses the user outcomes. Determine how the target audience has been addressed. Establish whether the measurements are culturally biased. Determine how bias may affect the learning outcomes. Assessing the assessment can rely on the learners’ or users’ opinions of the product. This may require a brief survey or online evaluation of the assessment. A balanced product allows for learner and user input to improving product development.
A3. External Review. Implement Other Evaluations of the Product. If an external review agency is needed, their involvement should be a part of initial brainstorming discussions. Most of these agencies charge a fee, so their services need to become a part of the overall budget. Be specific about what the external agency should assess and how long they will be involved. Then determine how the external agency’s report will be used to enhance the product or as evidence of the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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product’s effectiveness. The goal of the external review is to achieve summative (i.e., summary of learning) evaluations of the learner’s progress and/or the effectiveness of the product.
A4. Culture-Specific Assessments. Create Specialized Evaluations. Culture-specific assessments focus on the needs of the target audience through culturally aligned content. The content of the assessment is specific to the frame of reference of the target audience. These assessments are specific to one group and cannot be generalized across audiences or learners. Culture-specific assessments can replace generic assessments. These assessments are unique in that they are creative and not tied to traditional evaluations that focus on multiple-choice questions, fill-ins, or true/false. If the goal is to get the target audience to move from culture-specific to culture-neutral assessments, then multiple assessments should be designed to move from the specialized to the generic. Culture-specific assessments can also address auditory, kinesthetic, visual, taste, or smell aspects; teach through the discipline of choice such as mathematics, art, science, dance; or focus on abstract and concrete operations. B1. Financial support. Obtain comprehensive funding for the project. B2. Pilot studies/field tests of product. Engage in assessments throughout project. B3. Assess community’s response. Get the public’s response to the product. B4. Community representative on team. The community representative is a person versed in the cultural nuances of the target audience, and they have been designated as an integral part of the team. B5. Investigate target audience to authenticate product. Provide the team with an ethnographic portrait of the target audience. B6. Reflect and assess learning goals. Engage in ongoing reflections and assessments of the product. B7. Affordable design. Provide an affordable design and ICTs that are financially accessible to the target audience. B8. Meet needs of target audience. Determine how the product meets the instructional and/or cultural needs of the target audience. B9. Discuss and consider cultural context. Discuss and consider historical, social, political, economic and educational reasons for implementing this project. B10. Present and consider outcomes. Throughout the design process, present and consider learner outcomes or the user goals. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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CBM Brainstorming Brainstorming (B1–B10) is conducted to align the project with its design team, assess the financial status of the project from conception and beyond its completion, discuss the overall design, implement preliminary assessments, and determine learning outcomes. This preproduction period can determine what parts of the project receive more emphasis or less, given the financial situation and project due date. The design factors associated with Brainstorming determines the direction to proceed and serves as an initial review of the design process. This is the first step in planning.
B1. Financial Support. Obtain Comprehensive Funding for the Project. Obtaining reliable financial support from preproduction to postproduction is imperative to the completion of any project. This is even more important in the creation of products intended to meet the needs of diverse populations. Given the intricacies of the design, the creativeness needed, and the cultural wherewithal, funding these initial projects can cost considerably more than designs that meet a mainstream or a generic audience. Proper financing of initial costs will save money in producing the design. Culture-specific designs require more focused monies. Those requirements may include specialized research, additional planning and preparation, recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team, assessments, training, and innovative designing.
B2. Pilot Studies/Field Tests of Product. Engage in Asessments throughout Project. Pilot studies or field tests are needed of the target audience interacting with the product. Pilot studies are small-scale studies (Gay & Airasian, 2003). Field tests vary according to the project; however, they may consist of public opinion surveys, focus groups, and so forth (see CBM Assessments for more). Pilot studies and field tests should be conducted throughout the design process; thereby designs are monitored, manipulated, adjusted, or discarded if necessary. If preliminary evaluations reveal that the target audience is unsatisfied with the design, then products should be altered to meet the needs of the target audience. Assessments of the target audience throughout the design process can save time and costs. These assessments provide authenticity and benefit the target audience. Providing a high caliber of products is the point of these tests. In essence, the target audience is guarded against becoming casualties of failed experiments; the goal is to reduce or eliminate victimization. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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B3. Assess Community’s Response. Get the Public’s Response to the Product. Assessment of the community and the public’s responses to the creation of the product during preproduction is important to the development process. First steps include assessing the community’s and the public’s response to the development of the product. This assessment may be in the form of focus groups, surveys, or public opinion polls (i.e., in-person, telephone, or online). However, the method of assessment should match the target audience. For example, if the target audience does not use computers, then an online public opinion poll would not work. Creativity in obtaining an authentic assessment method and an accurate sample size of the community or public is beneficial before moving forward with the project. Negative responses from the public or community can stifle production and any subsequent distribution of the product. These initial evaluations should provide insight into the target audience and their needs.
B4. Community Representative on Team. The Community Representative Iltural Nuances of the Target Audience, and They Have Been Designated as an Integral Part of the Team. The community representative knows the cultural nuances of the target audience, and they are considered part of the team. In particular, the community representative should have qualifications as someone of the same ethnic background and history. The racial/ethnic background of the community representative aids in providing an authentic representation of the target audience. Second, the community representative should have knowledge of the social class of the target audience. Just relying on the racial/ethnic identity of the community representative is not enough. This person must have personal knowledge and/or experience in the culture and social class of the target audience. This knowledge aids in authentically representing the target audience. The community representative maintains creative input or control in all stages of the production process. This person is well versed in the language, culture, and norms of that community and has sensitivity toward the target audience regardless of race, ethnicity, social class, economic status, and so forth. The community representative is connected with the community so that he or she can remain in the midst of current issues (e.g., political, economic, social) affecting these people. This person guides the design team in connecting the content described in CBM Elements to the design of the product. CBM Elements incorporates the concepts and themes to be integrated throughout. These Elements ensure a specialized product Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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and guards against homogenous technological designs. The use of these Elements aids in authenticating designs that seek to be culture-specific, because all designs are culture-based.
B5. Investigate Target Audience to Authenticate Product. Provide the Team with an Ethnographic Portrait of the Target Audience. Time permitting, information about the target audience can be gathered through ethnographic methods. Data collection may begin with the following: research articles, commissioned reports and studies, newspapers, magazines, television and film documentaries, cultural informants, and other ethnographic research methods (i.e., observations; interviews, artifact collection (photographs, videotaping and/or film)]. All of these methods of data collection should be viewed as multiple opportunities to triangulate fact from fiction. Current educational research can provide insight into the target audience as learners. Specifically, the data may indicate what instructional methods are preferred, how learning is best acquired, and other cultural considerations. Issues such as communication and interactions with technology are a growing part of research in all fields. This source provides peer-reviewed research that is, in many cases, authentic. Although this process may be arduous, the intricacies of understanding learning and the learner begin with a review of research (see also CBM Learners). Ethnographic studies may come in the form of books by researchers or professors who have spent considerable time in the community of the target audience. This hands-on insight is an intellectual perspective and a comprehensive case study of the target audience. Ethnographic studies tease out details that the untrained eye may not capture; therefore, the reviews of these studies are very insightful. Research studies support the notion that qualitative research methods are needed in creating culture-based designs (Dray & Siegel, 2005). Often, reports or studies are commissioned by the government or social service agencies to better understand the social needs of groups. These reports provide knowledge and background into the cultural nuances of a group. Many of these reports are housed on the Web sites of large agencies that oversee educational and social services, grants, or the dissemination of information (e.g., institutes, bureaus). Newspapers and magazines contain brief reports on groups and may provide personal anecdotes and quotes; in addition, reporters usually have to confirm sources and authenticate stories. Stories are only as valid as their source. Additional data should be used to substantiate any media reports. Television and film documentaries provide glimpses into the lives of people. They are good resources because filmmakers seek to provide factual versus fictional Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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information. The viewer becomes knowledgeable about a group based on what can be gleamed from the video or film. This type of anthropological data can be valuable in understanding a society, culture, or group. Cultural informants are members of the target audience. These cultural informants provide authentic insight into all aspects of the target audience. Only through interactions with cultural informants can the product be authenticated. Authentic products emanate from information and feedback obtained from the cultural informants. The collection of ethnographic data can aid in obtaining authentic products. Ethnographic research seeks to describe people’s ways of life or culture. Ethnography uses research methods such as participant observation, interviewing and data collection (eg, field notes, videotapes, audiotapes, photography, etc) (Fetterman, 1998). Ethnographic research1 methods can be helpful in obtaining data from cultural informants (i.e., observations, interviews, artifact collection). This consists of observations of the cultural informants engaging in daily activities or activities specific to the project. Observations gathered over a period of time provide rich authentic examples that can be simulated in designs. Time periods for observations can range from days to weeks to months. Interviews with cultural informants assist in authenticating designs. The interview questions can be scripted so that the questions are consistent for each interviewee or given the situation, questions can be informally asked. If there are many participants, prepared interview questions work best; consistency across interviews makes data analysis more consistent and true. The collection of artifacts is important in triangulating the data; interviews, observations, and artifacts all communicate information relevant to the society, culture, or target audience. Digital photography, videotaping and field notes are good resources in the collection of artifacts. Types of artifacts collected or documents via photography or videotape may include: clothing, family heirlooms, family photographs, and so forth. A thorough investigation of the target audience is key to authenticating the design and the design process. The product is derived from this investigative data. Thereby, misrepresentations and bias are limited because the design of the product is built from “real” people, real artifacts, and real data. Although this type of research is not traditionally, an aspect of instructional design, some degree of it should be considered to authenticate the designs2. Remember to choose those components of CBM that best fit the specifications of the project.
B6. Reflect & Assess Learning Goals. Engage in Ongoing Reflections and Assessments of the Product. By participating in ongoing reflections and assessments of the product, the focus remains on producing a product where learning goals are achieved. Ask and answer Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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questions that are relevant to the target audience, the product, and the design team. Determine what are the learning objectives. Then determine how the learning objectives will be met. Decide what learners will know once they have completed the product. Examine and assess the skills learned and determine if learners have met the learning goals. Determine how learning will be maximized. Establish with the client and the team whether the project is intended to be culture neutral or culturespecific. CBM Inquiry questions assist in this reflection and assessment process. These questions can be seen as a reflective way of assessing the process, product, and participants. This assessment assists in making the product authentic because the checks and balances are internal and external.
B7. Affordable Design. Provide an Affordable Design and ICTs that are Financially Accessible to the Target Audience. Provide an affordable design that is financially accessible to the target audience. Thinking about affordability begins with the design specifications themselves. The technology format, content, and costs of production all influence the cost of the product. The product should be affordable for the target audience. The target audience should always be able to use the product even if they choose not to purchase the product. If possible, the product needs to be made available through rentals, libraries, or other nominal costs or free enterprise services. The target audience should have access to the technology. This accessibility can be on-going through the life of the product. Issues of access should be at the forefront of thinking and designing for diverse populations. If possible, provide alternative ICT formats that contain the same content; multimedia (e.g., printed material, cd-rom, audiotapes, videotape, etc.) formats may best serve to provide access to the target audience. This may not be the way of big business; however, needs of the target audience are the priority. If possible, extend the longevity of the product without giving up on the quality of the product. For example, instructional products typically provide content that is particular to the grade level of the learner. However, a product that is intended to maintain longevity may provide instructional materials that are more developmental, meaning that the materials may span prekindergarten, kindergarten, and first grade. The contents of the instructional materials provide more to the target audience for their money. The product maintains longevity on the market because it is multigraded and an affordable instructional product.
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B8. Meet Needs of Target Audience. Determine how the Product Meets the Instructional and/or Cultural Neds of the Target Audience. Determine how the product meets the instructional and/or cultural needs of the target audience. By meeting the needs of the target audience, designers support what the individual brings to the product and use the technology to adapt to the individual while the individual learns the technology. Thereby, the target audience becomes an integral part of the design process. Cultural contexts are met by addressing the needs of the target audience and by acknowledging problems and challenges as design issues versus issues of the target audience (e.g., communication, language, access, usability). It is important not to blame the target audience for issues that could be altered by the design or the product. This type of proactive design thinking limits the development of deficit designs.
B9. Discuss & Consider Cultural Context. Discuss and Consider Historical, Social, Political, Economic and Educational Reasons for Implementing this Project. The design of nonbiased products requires much discussion about the target audience in terms of their history, social interactions, politics, economic status, religious affiliations and other factors in CBM Elements. Discuss how this cultural knowledge changes the direction of the project. Determine the pros and cons of this direction. The objective of these discussions should be to educate the design team and move all of its members toward cultural consciousness and cultural sensitivity in the design process. To create culture-based products, the design team assumes the status of cultural expert of the target audience.
B10. Present & Consider Outcomes. Throughout the Design Process, Present and Consider Learner Outcomes or the User Goals. Depending on the focus of the project, the target audience will be either the learner or user. For the learner, there is a need to present and consider the learning outcomes throughout the design. For the user, there is a need to present and consider user goals throughout the design. For the learner: Define the learning outcomes that the product is expected to produce. Determine the goals that the learner hopes to accomplish through engagement with the product. Define how these outcomes will be measured by the learner. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Determine through what stages, clues, or measures learners know they have been successful. Determine what the learner is expected to do with this new knowledge. Establish how help is provided. How does the learner know they have accomplished the intended learner outcomes? For the user: Define the user goals that the product is expected to provide. Define the goals that the user hopes to accomplish through engagement with the product. Determine if these goals are achievable. Decide the steps, procedures, or paths the user must implement to accomplish these goals. Establish how the user knows they have been successful. Determine what the user is expected to do with this new knowledge. Establish how help is provided. How does the user know they have accomplished the intended goals?
References Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Cockburn, A. (1999, October 21). Characterizing people as non-linear, first-order components in software development (Technical Report No. 1999.3). Salt Lake City, UT: Humans and Technology. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://alistair.cockburn. us/index.php/Characterizing_people_as_non-linear%2C_first-order_components_ in_software_development Dray, S. M., & Siegel, D. A. (2005). “Sunday in Shanghai, Monday in Madrid?!” Key issues and decisions in planning international user studies. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of information technology (pp. 189-212). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Fetterman, D. M. (1998). Ethnography: Step by step. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Forsythe, D. E. (1999). “It’s just a matter of common sense”: Ethnography as invisible work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 8, 127-145. Fowler, M. (2001, June 29). Put your process on a diet. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://www.ddj.com/dept/architect/184414675 Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2003). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Endnotes
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2
See Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative Research for Education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. The use of ethnography in technology design is not new; it has been developing since the 1980s to assist in software design and evaluation. The computersupported collaborative work community has been using anthropologists as part of design teams to engage in ethnographic work. However, according to Forsythe (1999), many non-ethnographers have been borrowing these ethnographic methods and interpreting them unsuccessfully. Forsythe (1999) argued that non-ethnographers should not engage in ethnographic research because of their lack of formal training as ethnographic researchers, lackadaisical perceptions of the research methods, and lack of respect for the ethnographic process. Should anthropologists be a part of all design teams that seek to integrate culture in the design of ICTs? What is clear is that using ethnographic research methods cannot be the only design specification in authenticating a design.
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Chapter VI
CBM Learners
CBM Learners The Learners (L1-L10) area centers on the needs of learners and learning. These design factors assist in providing a dynamic learning environment that is supportive of the learner’s cultural frames of reference and seeks to meet the learning outcomes of the project. The design factors are adaptive to learners on multiple levels including intellectual, motivational, and educational, thereby providing opportunities for individualized instruction. Other design factors in this area focus on meeting the needs of the target audience through a variety of strategies including providing opportunities to extend learning beyond design requirements; differentiating learning opportunities; empowering and engaging learners; instilling proactive learning; identifying educational objectives; enculturating the learner; and incorporating culture-based instructional strategies.
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To design instructional products for human beings means knowing how learners learn. This design process is more inquiry based. Determine what methods of learning are most appropriate for a learner. This suggests asking the learner, observing the learner, analyzing situations where the learner learns, or reviewing relevant research (Gagne & Briggs, 1974). Designing instruction without knowledge of the learner means making assumptions about the learner. This imposes upon the learner ones own values and dispositions versus allowing the learner to reveal their learning styles or ways of understanding and knowing. In terms of applying a theory of learning, this step should not be done without first knowing the learner. Once the learner is understood; then a theory of learning can be applied or applications designed based on the needs of the learner. The selection and design of instruction should be based on what is known about learners not that assumed to be known. L1. Extend learning. Provide opportunities for extended learning. L2. Differentiate opportunities to learn. Provide a variety of learning options. L3. Empower and engage learners. Provide opportunities for empowering learners and engaging instruction. L4. Teach proactive learning. Help learners to be proactive in improving their own learning. L5. Identify educational objectives. Have an underlying educational and/or learning objective. L6. Culture-specific instructional strategies. Consider instructional strategies that are individual or group specific. L7. Enrich instructional content. Expand instructional content beyond subject matter. L8. Adapt instruction to learner. Provide adaptable instruction that is not too grade level or age level specific. L9. Plan for instruction. Focus on the short and long term instructional needs of the target audience. L10. Enculturate the learner. Use the product to enculturate the learner into the culture.
L 1. E xtend Learning. Provide Opportunities for Extended L Extended learning opportunities provide an adaptive design that meets learners where they are in terms of knowing and understanding; these opportunities should Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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extend or advance instruction as needed. The proficient learner needs challenging tasks and situations. The struggling learner needs opportunities to work at their own pace. If the product is intended to meet a varied range of learners, then these types of extended learning opportunities should be embedded in the overall design. Extended learning opportunities provide proficient learners with complex opportunities that are multitiered in difficulty and struggling learners with opportunities to review, reinforce, and progress (see Figure 6.1).1 Extended learning opportunities can be constructed laterally, which means that the opportunities for learning are similar in complexity but basically on the same level or plane. Vertically constructed advanced learning opportunities provide instruction that increases in complexity and difficulty. This extended or “staircase” learning is constructivist as the learner continues to build on knowledge they already possess. The learner is also provided with opportunities to remain in the lateral position for as long as needed. This strategy supports learner’s where they are in skill level versus where someone thinks they should be in skill level. This self monitoring means that learners take responsibility for their own learning by moving up in complexity as they have mastered skills. Ultimately, learners increase their metacognitive skills of knowing what they know and when they know what they know. Learners learn at different rates (speed) and ranges (distance/length). Include extended learning opportunities that adapt to learners cognitive and sensory load and consider the multi-modalities of learners. When using ICTs as the vehicle through Figure 6.1. Extended learning
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which learning happens, the learning is considered multimodal. This means that the design of instruction must interact with the multi-modalities of the learner. Multimodalities means that information is delivered via the different sensory modalities of the human being; this can be through auditory, tactile, visual, taste, or smell (Hempel & Altinsoy, 2005). Research supporting the use of multimodalities in technology research indicates that it may be better to allow the learner to choose their own level of sensory input during the learning process (Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Tuovinen, 2002). Therefore, there is a need to provide designs that adapt to a variety of learners and learning styles.
L 2. Differentiate Opportunities to Learn. Provide a Variety of Learning Options. By borrowing from the educational concept of differentiated instruction that provides learners with options in instruction (Dewey, 1897; Gagné, 1962) and applying these ideas more broadly to the design of ICTs means that there can be differentiation 2 in hardware, software, teaching and instruction, and learning. Basically, learning does not have to be limited by traditional instructional practices of direct instruction, standardized curricula, or student in chair and instructor at the head of the classroom. Examples of differentiated opportunities to learn can be inclusive in media technology, teaching and instruction, and learning.
Media Technology Providing multiple forms of media technology is one place to begin in differentiating opportunities to learn. Variations of the same instructional content can be made available through various forms of media. These media should include electronic and print forms such as: Electronic: computers, video game consoles, personal data assistants, mobile phones, wearable microcomputers, video cameras, digital cameras, televisions, film, overhead projectors, etc. Print: books, magazines, newspapers, board games, flash cards). The Internet presents itself as a combination of electronic and print media. Multiple forms offer better opportunities to impact and interact with learners. By example, educators experimented with creating a customized instructional program that used wearable microcomputers and the Internet to teach project-based science curricula to eighth-grade students in Detroit, MI. The findings indicated that students began talking about science as a precursor to using scientific terms; made connections between science and their personal lives; exhibited interest in the technology-related activities; and were engaged in reading, writing, and critical inquiry (Hug, Krajcik, & Marx, 2005).
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Teaching and Instruction
Provide differentiation in teaching and instruction. Teaching is defined as the act or practice of what instructors do. Instruction refers to the knowledge and information taught. Differentiation in teaching and instruction means many things: •
•
•
•
•
•
Differentiation means that instruction should present a concept in multiple ways or methods. For example, vocabulary can be taught in isolation (i.e., a word and its meaning) or within the context of a story. Differentiation means that instruction should provide learners with opportunities to use what they have learned. For example, learners may use vocabulary words in their journal writing and when making an oral presentation. Differentiation means that the culture of the learner is considered integral to teaching practices and instructional content. The instructor learns about the culture of the learner and makes adjustments to teaching and instruction. Differentiation requires making available a diversity of instructional products to teach the subject matter or content. These instructional products should vary in media technology, subject matter or content, reading levels, interests, and intellect. Differentiation provides opportunities for all learners to be successful through challenging tasks. The tasks should provide opportunities for the learner to see and experience intellectual growth. Differentiation in teaching and instruction requires the instructor to reflect on, review, and change how they perceive learners. Negative perceptions of learners diminish the quality and efforts that instructors put forth.
Learning
Provide differentiation in learning. There are many theories of learning and instructional design theories to choose from in designing ICTs. Theories of learning have proposed description-oriented perspectives that include behaviorist, cognitive, constructivist, and humanist. Instructional design theories of learning have proposed design-oriented perspectives that include: multiple intelligences (Gardner, 2000); conditions of learning (Gagné, 1965), and cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989). Broadly examining these theories can aid in the design of learning ICTs. However, the selection of theory should be based on the goals of the project and the needs of the target audience. Designs that differentiate learning opportunities work best at meeting the educational needs of learners.
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L 3. Empower & Engage Learners. Provide Opportunities for Empowering Learners and Engaging Instruction Within the design process, there are many ways to empower and engage learners. First, there is a need to spark interest and facilitate the acquisition of knowledge. The creativity involved in this process is the interesting part of the design process. Imagination is all that is needed. The same inventiveness that is a part of the design of entertainment games, films, and other such products can be brought into the design of all products. The task is to provide learners with empowering and engaging content. This can be done through the alignment of intrinsic stimulus and extrinsic rewards. Empowerment suggests an intrinsic stimulus that motivates the learner. The stimulus, if generated through technology, is something that arouses interest, and this enthusiasm motivates the learner. In translating this into design, decisions are made on the kinds of things that would be an intrinsic stimulus given the product’s design. For example, in a video game, a digital time clock might appear on screen every 3 minutes, indicating how much time is left before the “end of the world.” The digital time clock becomes the intrinsic stimulus that propels the user to speed forward with their task before the world ends. This intrinsic stimulus is embedded throughout the game. In an educational game that focuses on algebra, a learner who is working on a problem such as [x2 + 5x – 24 = __] could be prompted with a single-digit multiplication problem (e.g., 3 × 8 = __) as a challenge incentive. The learner could choose from a choice of challenges in this multitasked learning opportunity. In this case, the intrinsic stimulus is a challenge multiplication problem chosen by the learner. Next, focus on how the intrinsic stimuli can be embedded throughout the design, locate the points where the stimuli are to be placed, and offer explanations of why these placements are most appropriate. Again, the stimuli are meant to generate a positive reaction and peek the interest the learner. The strategic embedding of stimuli lays a mine field for motivation. The explicit documentation of the stimuli should be recorded in the initial brainstorming plans. Therefore, there is a blueprint of how each stimulus was embedded and its actual representation in the product. This record is needed for when there are corrections, revisions, or other design matters. Extrinsic rewards in the design of technology are most likely not concrete. Virtual examples are feedback such as a text message or a sound indicating that an action is correct. In an entertainment game, the user might receive points, more ammunition for an assault weapon, and an opportunity to advance to the next challenge. In translating this into design, the designer decides on the kinds of items that would be an extrinsic reward given the product’s design. The placement of these extrinsic Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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rewards should be documented as part of the design process. These extrinsic rewards can be seen as another aspect that assists in engaging learners. Through the use of both intrinsic stimulus and extrinsic rewards, learners can be motivated to use and continue to use products. Intrinsic learners understand the value and worth of engaging the product. They do not have to be convinced that the product can benefit them. Extrinsically, the product gives back or responds positively to the learner. This feedback or response creates a reciprocal relation between learner and technology.3 Determine how the product addresses the need to motivate the learners. Determine how the product captures and maintains the attention of the learner.
L 4. Teach Proactive Learning. Help Learners to be Proactive in Improving Their Own Learning. Proactive learning requires building mechanisms into ICTs that provide incentives to learners to improve their learning. Create multiple pathways for the learner to improve, build, or develop skills, abilities, and experiences. Proactive learning strategies may consist of opportunities to review, restart, go back, skip forward, or have the problem resolved. For example, an online mathematics program that teaches fractions could provide multiple ways to solve a problem. The learner could have the choice to review previous lessons that led to this lesson on fractions. The online program could allow the learner to restart the lesson from the beginning, go back a step or two, or skip forward. Another option is to have computer simulated examples of steps the learner could have taken to solve the problem. Multiple pathways and diverse examples of how to solve the mathematical problem could be offered. Providing this type of online support limits learners need for outside assistance, helps them to see other pathways to learning and prepares them to take responsibility for their own learning. Proactive learning helps learners to use their metacognitive skills to control their learning environment. Learners take into consideration their learning modalities (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic), and they use the technology to assist in the acquisition of knowledge. In a science lesson, the technology could offer three different representations of how a caterpillar transforms into a butterfly. The first representation could be abstract—only in words. Abstract learning focuses on thinking. The second representation could be concrete. The learner must click on images or text to see the transformation in controlled stages. Concrete learning focuses on feelings or hands-on activities. The third example could be a simulated representation in which the caterpillar’s transformation is fully animated and continuous with audio, visuals, and interactively engaging features. Providing choices in solving problems and understanding content can be a beneficial way of engaging learners in proactive learning. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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The goal of proactive learning is for the learner to take responsibility for their own learning; therefore learners become more self-sufficient and independent.
L 5. IIucational Objectives. Have an Underlying Educational and/or Learning Objective Decide on the learning or educational objectives of the product. Begin with this outcomes-based view of learning and the learner. It is a way of beginning at the end and working backward. It is also a great start to the learning process if learners know the objectives before engaging a task or activity. This is similar to how instructors present the daily agenda to the class. Objectives let the learner know what is expected of them and hopefully aids them in achieving these goals. Therefore, the learner is expected to acquire knowledge. A second reason to identify educational objectives is to measure or assess the learning outcomes. The success or failure of the objectives can be determined by assessing the learning outcomes.4
L 6. Culture-Specific Instructional Strategies. Consider Instructional Strategies that are Individual or Group Specific. Culture-specific instructional strategies are specialized to a particular individual or group. These instructional strategies take into consideration how the target audience learns and the best way of approaching this learning. Research is the first step in better understanding the educational needs of the target audience. Gather relevant educational research (e.g., journal articles) on educating the target audience. These studies should be supported by qualitative or quantitative data. Use the findings as a guide to determine what works best in educating the target audience. Gather relevant academic books on educating the target audience. Many of these books are based on research data and have proven to be beneficial in educating the target audience. Based on the information gathered through CBM Elements (E1–E20) and other research, determine what instructional strategies should be considered in the overall design. Include those instructional strategies that would best meet the needs of the target audience. The instructional strategies will depend on the content, context, technology, and purpose of the product.
L 7. Erich Instructional Content. Expand Instructional Content Beyond Subject Matter. Instructional content is unlimited in the information age, as there is so much information. However, the packaging of this information and the selection of appropriate Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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content are the challenges of design. In addition to the basic instructional content, connections can be made to other culture-specific elements of learners such as topics related to politics, morality, ethics, beliefs, language, identity, and social actions (see CBM Elements). In doing so, a more holistic picture of learners is presented. Products that meet the needs of learners encompass a variety of content. This content is not limited if it seeks to consider all aspects of the learners’ lives in the design process. Incorporate all aspects of the lives of the individual, group, or community (e.g., politics, morality, ethics, beliefs, language, identity, social actions). This holistic account of learners provides a more authentic representation.
L 8. Aapt Instruction to Learner. Provide Adaptable Instruction that is not too Grade Level or Age Level Specific. Adapting instruction to the learner means that the product incorporates multilevels of instruction that translate beyond grade and age to cognitive ability. Design materials that offer several ranges above and below the median point. Learning, in this sense, is contingent upon the learner’s intellectual ability. Learners are not penalized for struggling in the task or advancing in a learning task. Multileveled learning opportunities benefit the learner in that they receive more content for their money. (This may mean less money for businesses; however, the goal of CBM is to provide more equity for learners as learners and as consumers). The amount of content found in three non culture-based commercial products are offered in a single multileveled products. This move to meet the needs of the learner offers a wider market in terms of age, grade, and skill level. For example, a biology educational program might provide instruction in the basic, intermediate and an introduction to advanced levels of biology versus only one level.
L 9. Plan for IIort and Long Term Instructional Needs of the Target Audience. A plan for instruction is not a lesson plan but a plan of action that will be implemented over a period of time. This plan should begin with long-term considerations of the instructional needs of the target audience. (Long-term could mean several years or several months.) This plan considers the long-term ramifications of the instructional aspects of the design. The long-term goal of any instructional project probably focuses on improving learning, building knowledge, or fostering understanding. Determine the long-term actions that should be taken to improve learning, build knowledge, or foster understanding. Decide in what ways the target audience benefits from this long-term plan. Determine whether an equitable plan has been put into place. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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A short-term plan could cover several weeks or days. This plan of action considers the short-term ramifications of the instructional aspects of the design. The shortterm goals of projects may provide brief assessments to measure effectiveness or efficiency to prepare for the long-term plan. Short-term plans provide results quickly and may move projects forward quickly toward the long-term goals. Decide on the short-term actions to improve learning, build knowledge, or foster understanding. Determine how the short-term plans work toward making the long-term plan happen. Examine whether the plan is equitable to the target audience. A plan for instruction should consider an equitable design that meets the needs of the target audience. Equitable factors include cost, access, and cumulative content.
L 10. Eculturate the Learner. Use the Product to E nculturate the Larner into the Culture
Products can be used as social tools to acclimate versus alienate learners. Enculturation versus assimilation makes instructional designs more accessible for diverse populations. Designs that enculturate—integrate the culture of the learner into the design process. Assimilationist designs make the learner adhere to the cultural nuances of the dominant culture. The learner struggles through even though the process is culturally incompatible. For some learners, they cannot access the content without connections to their own culture. Bridging the connections between the learner, content, and technology are the goals of enculturating the learner. This balancing act can be achieved in a variety of ways: 1. Offer support for technological aspects of the product. 2. Incorporate culture-specific design specifications of the learner. This type of instruction indicates to the target audience that the designers value them, their language, history, and so forth. Basically, validate the target audience as an integral part of the design process. 3. Inform learners of what must be learned that is consistent with the dominant ideologies. Help the learner feel comfortable and buy into this learning. For example, a statement such as the following could accompany a product: ‘there are some factors consistent with Western culture that is important in interacting with this product. They include (a) the use of icons that begin on the left has been side of the screen and move to the right; (b) the following icon tested with cross-cultural audiences as an acceptable symbol for writing. These factors have been incorporated to make future versions of this product consistent across groups of people.”
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This type of informed marketing lets consumers know that their needs have been considered in the design process and that businesses are working toward bridging the lines of communication between learner, content, and technology. Some creativity is required, but it is possible. The design team should brainstorm ways of enculturating learners that cost less in time and money.
References Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 453494). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001, Spring). Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: Reconsidered once again. Review of Educational Research, 71(1), 1-27. Dewey, J. (1897). My pedagogic creed. New York: E. L. Kellogg & Co. Gagné, R. M. (Ed.). (1962). Introduction. In R. M. Gagne (Ed.), Psychological principles in system development (pp. 1-10). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Gagné, R. M. (1965). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Gagné, R. M., & Briggs, L. J. (1974). Principles of instructional design. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Hempel, T., & Altinsoy, E. (2005). Multimodal user interfaces: Designing media for the auditory and the tactile channel. In R. W. Proctor & K.-P. L. Vu (Eds.), Handbook of human factors in web design (pp. 134-155). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Hug, B., Krajcik, J. S., & Marx, R. W. (2005). Using innovative learning technologies to promote learning and engagement in an urban science classroom. Urban Education, 40(4), 446-472. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (1999). Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 358-368. Tuovinen, J. E. (2002). Cognition research basis for instructional multimedia. In S. M. Rahman (Ed.), Interactive multimedia systems (pp. 146-162). Hershey, PA: IRM Press. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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E ndd
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The idea of extended learning possesses some of the qualities of Robert Gagné’s (1962) hierarchial analysis in that the learner performs simpler tasks first before moving on to more complex tasks. The term differentiation can be found in the work of learning theorists who sought answers to teaching and learning (Dewey, 1897; Gagné, 1962). For more on the benefits of intrinsic motivation and the detriment of extrinsic rewards for learners, see Deci, Koestner, & Ryan (2001). Gagné (1965b) has written extensively on the importance of instructional objectives. His ideas on measuring the objectives have been adapted here.
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Chapter VII
CBM Elements I
CBM Elements Elements (E1-E25) facilitate content development. These Elements are intended to be comprehensive in providing the fundamental total of which all culture is composed. Most of those things that formulate a culture are included in the 25 Elements. The tangibles and intangibles define the Elements. Tangibles have material qualities and intangibles nonmaterial qualities (see Table 7.1). The meanings of the terms culture and society can overlap, but they should be viewed separately within the space of design. A society is a group of people who share commonalities that are understood by all and collectively inhabit a particular physical area (Germain & Bloom, 1999; Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1999). Every society has a culture or ways of being, doing and thinking. This culture Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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shapes societies behavior (Ember & Ember, 1996; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). In understanding a culture, there must also be an understanding of its past and present histories and the histories of its people (Kim & Park, 2006). The Elements are divided into three sections: the anthropology of culture, the psychology of culture, and the science of culture. These divisions are consistent with research in the disciplines of cultural anthropology, cultural psychology, and science; however, there are modifications to provide application of these concepts as design constructs. An overview of each section is provided as context for the Elements. Then each design factor is defined, described, and illustrated through relevant cross-cultural examples. A set of guiding questions for the design process are offered that are specific to the culture and the target audience.
Guiding Questions Guiding questions support design and research efforts. These questions are not meant to be comprehensive, but they are a starting point in better accessing and understanding human beings and the world in which we live. Creating guiding questions specific to one’s project is encouraged. Guiding questions that address the society and culture are broadly based allowing for a general review of societies and cultures. These questions are labeled as culture guiding questions or culture GQ. Culture GQ makes inquiries from the designer/researcher’s perspective or an objective interpretation of the data (e.g., What is the style of the object?) Answers may come from the designer/researcher’s personal perspective based on data gathered through a museum visit, government documents, and so forth. Or data can be gathered from an art historian’s interpretation of the object; alternatively, this information may be found in a textbook or magazine article. Target audience guiding questions are specific to the group or individuals in the group. These questions are labeled as target audience GQ because if these questions were listed separately it would be impossible to tell if a question was for the society/culture or the target audience. As an example, a Culture GQ might read: What products or goods are made, and the Target Audience GQ reads: What products or goods are made by the target audience? This was also done because the handbook may be used by a designer who reviews only questions related to society and culture, and a researcher may only look at the questions related to the target audience. Therefore, there is some overlap in the wording of questions. Dealing with living and non-living target audiences is important to consider. If the target audience is living, as much data as possible should be obtained from living human beings. Target audience GQ makes inquiries from the designer/researcher’s perspective of the data or directly from the target audience (e.g., What is the style Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Table 7.1. CBM elements Elements
Tangibles and Intangibles
The anthropology of culture: E1.
Cultural aesthetics
That which is considered beautiful
E2.
Cultural artifacts
Products that exist or remain
E3.
Cultural capital
Economics and material wealth
E4.
Cultural classification
Divisions in a culture or society
E5.
Cultural communications
The exchange or transmission of information
E6.
Cultural demographics
Characteristics of a population
E7.
Cultural environment
Physical and social conditions in which a human being, other species or entity lives and develops
E8.
Cultural history
Narrative representation of historical events
E9.
Cultural knowledge
What is known and what one comes to know
E10.
Cultural language
Language form, content, use and meaning
E11.
Cultural physiology
The physiological characteristics of a human being, other species or entity
E12.
Cultural relations
The relationship of one being to another being
E13.
Cultural resources
The use and cultivation of resources
The psychology of culture: E14.
Cultural beliefs & values
Beliefs (shared truths); values (shared ideas)
E15.
Cultural experiences
The interpretation of the world from inside and out
E16.
Cultural ideas
The use and meaning of ideas and perceptions
E17.
Cultural identity
Distinguishing qualities of a human being, other species or entity
E18.
Cultural interests
Deeply personal desires, wants, wishes
E19.
Cultural misconceptions
Untruths, myths, stereotypes
E20.
Cultural ways
Behaviors, norms, feelings
The science of culture: E21.
Cultural anomalies
Happenings that promote, initiate, or force cultural change
E22.
Cultural cultures
The scientific identification of cultures, worlds, ecosystems
E23.
Cultural futures
That which is to come
E24.
Cultural infinities
Those things without limits: time, space, distance
E25.
Cultural nature
Intrinsic characteristics of a human being, other species or entity
of the object created by the target audience?) In the case of a non-living or inaccessible audience, this question would be appropriate. This information can be found in a textbook, documentary, journal, and so forth. In the case of a living and readily accessible audience, the following target audience question may be more appropriate: Do Mayans believe they have an artistic style? One way to find out the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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answer to this question is to ask the living members of the target audience? There are fewer target audience GQ that address the living audience, but questions should be adapted to match the needs of the project.
The Anthropology of Culture Cultural aesthetics Cultural artifacts Cultural capital Cultural classification Cultural communications Cultural demographics Cultural environment Cultural history Cultural knowledge Cultural language Cultural physiology Cultural relations Cultural resources This section is entitled the anthropology of culture because it draws from key concepts in the fields of anthropology, language, history, economics, demography, communications, and the physical and environmental sciences to explore the depth of culture. The anthropology of culture takes into consideration that human beings, other species and entities have various ways of being and seeing the world (Ember & Ember, 2001). Therefore, a broad examination of the humanities and sciences are required to meet these needs. Anthropological models of culture examine the whole culture looking at the shared behavior and knowledge of an entire culture (Hall, 1976). Similarly, the anthropology of culture is a comprehensive examination of societies, cultures, groups and individuals that build and participate in a culture. The Elements allow the deconstruction of the range of human existence through an examination of its human made architecture, artifacts, economic system, social classification, living conditions, history, acquired intelligence, language dominance, physical structure and cultural resources. The Elements are defined, described, illustrated and addressed in terms of society, culture and the target audience. There are 25 design factors under CBM Elements. This chapter covers the first four that include: Cultural aesthetics; Cultural artifacts; Cultural capital; and Cultural classification. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Cultural Aesthetics E1. Cultural Aesthetics - That which is considered beautiful. Cultural aesthetics is an awareness of beauty or art in a culture. Determining what is beautiful or artistic is subjective. An understanding of the aesthetic nature of a culture or society helps to understand the things that are valued, individual and group interactions, social practices, and the level of technological advancement. Cultural aesthetics can be defined, articulated, produced, represented, celebrated, valued, expressed, or sublimed (Ruhl, 2006).
Art Art is the core of human existence (Preble & Preble, 2002); it defines societies past and present (Fumerton, 1991; Ruhl, 2006). The arts are represented through many forms such as dance, literature, music, visual arts, carving, painting and dramatic arts. Art serves to express the values of a culture; it provides pleasure, entertainment, and decoration for a society (Preble & Preble, 2002; Ruhl, 2006). The purposes that art serves may include: educational, social, political, spiritual, and daily functionality. Art communicates, educates or preserves information. The stained glass window The Tree Of Jesse (c. 1150-1170) at Chartres Cathedral, outside of Paris, portrays the genealogy of Jesus Christ. This artistic artifact serves to communicate a religious message, educate people about Jesus Christ’s family history and preserve this information in a historical monument (Preble & Preble, 2002). Art may represent a social or political purpose. Artists may use their art to criticize society or to influence public opinion. Representations of social and political acts are also prevalent in architecture, sculpture, painting, television and film (Preble & Preble, 2002). American producer and writer Michael Moore’s documentaries have impacted the social and political discourse and changed public opinion with his exposé documentaries Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004) and Bowling for Columbine (2002). Fahrenheit 9/11 mocks the failures of President George W. Bush and his War on Terrorism after the 9/11/2001 attack on the United States. Bowling for Columbine examines American gun violence. Art serves a spiritual or magical purpose in societies. One of the well known scientific examples celebrating art and religion is Stonehenge, a configuration of boulders located in England (see Figure 7.1). The boulders are believed to have some religious significance. When viewed from above the boulders make a creative pattern and appear to be artistically or strategically placed (Preble & Preble, 2002). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 7.1. Stonehenge (part of the Sarsen circle)
When art serves useful functions it becomes a valued artifact of a society. Many objects used in everyday living provide enjoyment and utility from the moccasin to the sports car (Preble & Preble, 2002). A chair for example, provides the functionality of an object for sitting and resting. A bowl acts as a container for food. An automobile offers the ability to travel to distant places, the comfort of sitting, and protection from the weather.
Culture GQ What purpose does art serve in this society or culture? Who determines what is art? Who is allowed to create art? What forms of art are most prevalent? Does art provide emotional satisfaction? Does art serve as a form of entertainment? How does art adorn the society or culture? Does art serve an educational purpose? Does art convey messages or communicate? How does art express the values of the culture? Does art serve a social or political agenda? Does art serve a spiritual or religious agenda? Is art used in functional ways? Is public opinion changed by artistic expression? How has art influenced human behavior?
Target Audience GQ How does the target audience view art? Does the target audience maintain their own artistic style and if so what is this style?1 How does the target audience perceive Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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art? What motivates the target audience to create (e.g., survival, recording events, religious reasons, spirituality, desire to create)? What purpose does art serve in the lives of the target audience? Who, in the target audience, determines what is art? Who, in the target audience, is allowed to create art? What forms of art are most common in the culture of the target audience? Does art provide emotional satisfaction for the target audience? Does art serve as a form of entertainment for the target audience? How does art adorn the culture of the target audience? Does art serve an educational purpose for the target audience? Does art convey messages or communicate to the target audience? How does art express the values of the target audience’s culture? Does art serve a social or political agenda for the target audience? Does art serve a spiritual or religious agenda for the target audience? Is art used in functional ways by the target audience? Is public opinion changed by the artistic expression of the target audience? How has art influenced the behavior of the target audience?
Beauty Beauty is subjectively simple. Those things considered aesthetically beautiful can become icons within a culture. Cultural icons2 are persons, places or things considered to be sublime. Sublime means that the object or organism is awe-inspiring, captivating, arousing, impressive, and emotionally uplifting. It can be symbolic, religious, architectural, technological, or natural. Cultural icons bring together a diversity of groups and provide an extraordinary experience for people. Technological or human-made cultural icons considered sublime may appear as bridges, railways, skyscrapers, airplanes, factories, dams, or space vehicles. Natural examples of cultural icons include those created by the earth such as the Grand Canyon and Niagara Falls in the United States. People considered to be sublimed might include: Jesus Christ, Mahatma Ghandi, or Mother Teresa. What is sublime to one individual is not to another (Nye, 1999). Cultural icons of the 21st century include the Akashi-Kaiko Bridge built in 2005 connecting Kobe, Japan with the Awaji Island; at 3,991 meters, this is the world’s longest suspension bridge. Taipai 101 is a 101 floor skyscraper located in Taipei City, Taiwan; as of 2004, it has the world’s fastest elevator in what is now the world’s tallest building (Newsweek, April, 2006).
Culture GQ How is beauty defined in this society or culture? What objects or things are considered aesthetically beautiful? Are any human beings considered cultural icons? What technological or human-made objects are considered cultural icons? What natural Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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wonders are considered cultural icons? How have these cultural icons shaped the social structure of this society or culture? How have these cultural icons shaped the environmental structure of this society or culture? Have these cultural icons altered the future?
Target Audience GQ How does the target audience define beauty? Does the target audience consider a person to be a cultural icon? Does the target audience consider any technological artifact to be a cultural icon? Does the target audience consider any natural phenomenon to be a cultural icon? What has been the target audiences experience with these cultural icons? Has the target audience met, visited, seen, touched or experienced these cultural icons? What are the target audience’s impressions of cultural icons? Are the values of the target audience tied to any cultural icon and if so in what way?
Cultural Artifacts E2. Cultural Artifacts - Products that exist or remain. Cultural artifacts are products that exist or remain that can be made by human beings, other species or entities. These artifacts are usually tangible objects created specifically for a practical use or purpose (Fleming, 1974; Rieth, 2006; Ruhl, 2006). All cultures are dependent on the artifacts of its creation to represent its existence, survival, or demonstrate an extension of their humanity. To understand and know a culture requires a study of those things made (Fleming, 1974). There are five classifications, proposed by Fleming (1974), in which to link the properties of an artifact; they include: history, design, material, construction and function3.
History Cultural artifacts carry a history (Hitz, 1994). This history is embedded in objects like those gathered by archeologists who seek to examine the remains of a society. The archeologist’s search may lead to ancient or contemporary tools, food, cooking utensils, personal effects, pottery, or debris (Rieth, 2006). The linguist examines language through written documentation or recorded oral stories. The anthropologist studies artifacts such as cave paintings, photographs, or other graphic and text representations. They also record data using videotapes or films; collect public and personal artifacts such as tax records, transcripts, wills, property acquisitions, letCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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ters, diaries; and use and explore technological artifacts (Brettell, 1998; El Guindi, 1998). The art historian examines drawings; paintings; printmaking; sculpture; art made of clay, glass, metal, wood, and fiber; photography; computer imaging; graphic design and illustration; and architecture and environmental design (Preble & Preble, 2002).4 Within all of these ethnographers is a desire to discover the meanings and the stories that these artifacts tell. Fleming (1974) described the relationship of the artifact to its culture in the following excerpt: One might interpret the significance of the Model T Ford to be the pioneering application of the assembly line to mass production, its improvements on the internal combustion engine, or its provision of cheap transportation. On the other hand, its significance might be found in the fact that it was a particular instance of the general democratization of technological benefits, or that it created a revolution in the life-style of rural America. Or its significance might be found in its effects and consequences, such as the increased mobility of the American people, the liberalized sexual ethics of the middle class, or air pollution (p. 161). Authenticating an artifacts history begins with the collection of primary and secondary sources. Primary source documents include bills of sale, media advertisements, probate reports, family records, books on design, architecture, (Fleming, 1974) department store catalogs, and so forth. A more extensive history of an artifact may include information on its creator or manufacturer, details about its purchaser or owner, origins and characteristics of the construction materials, chronology of functioning, cultural meaning, and style modifications (Fleming, 1974).
Culture GQ What is the history of cultural artifacts in this society or culture? What are some facts about the object in relation to this society or culture (e.g., year of creation/built; place of origin; biographical information on the designer, creator, builder or manufacturer; biographical information on the owner and purchaser of the artifact; who was it designed for; why was it designed; chronology of the passage of ownership, history of its design, material, construction and function, etc.)? Does the object have any specific meaning to the society or culture? Does the object have any particular significance or relevance to any group or individual? How has the object changed this society or culture? Does the object have any religious or artistic significance to the society or culture? Does the object have any significance to the beliefs and values of the society or culture?5
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Target Audience GQ What is the history of cultural artifacts designed by the target audience? What are some facts about the object in relation to the target audience? Does the object have any specific meaning to the target audience? Does the object have any particular significance or relevance to the target audience? How has the object changed the target audience? Does the object have any religious or artistic significance to the target audience? Does the object have any significance to the beliefs and values of the target audience?
Design The design of an artifact refers to its form, style, and content (Fleming, 1974).6 Form, style and content address the characteristics and meaning of an artifact. Form: Form refers to the physical characteristics of an artifact. The physical characteristics include all external descriptors (Preble & Preble, 2002).
Culture GQ7 What does the object look like? What is the object’s shape? What is the object’s color or range of colors? What is the objects texture? What is the objects measurement (e.g., dimensions, weight)? How much space does the object occupy? Does the object indicate the passage of time (e.g., a painting representing the life cycle)? Does the object manipulate time (e.g., film, video)? Does the object move? Does the object occupy space in its movement? Does the object reflect light? Does the object absorb light?8
Target Audience GQ If the target audience is living, these questions may be asked. How does the target audience describe what the object looks like? How does the target audience describe the object’s shape? How does the target audience describe the object’s color or range of colors? How does the target audience describe the object’s texture? How does the target audience describe the object’s measurements (e.g., dimensions, weight)? How does the target audience characterize the space occupied by the object? To the target audience, does the object indicate the passage of time? To the target audience, does the object manipulate time (e.g., film, video)? To the target audience, does the object move or occupy space in its movement? To the target audience, does the object reflect or absorb light? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Style: Style refers to the characteristics of an artifact that identify it as an object of a particular society, culture, time period, location, group, or individual (Preble & Preble, 2002). The style of an artifact can be unique to the individual, group, community, culture, or society.
Culture GQ What is the style of the object? How does the object reflect the beliefs, values, or identity of the society or culture? How are style changes reflected, over a time period, in objects (e.g., women’s dresses in 1807 to women’s dresses in 2007)? Is there a definable period of style? [For example, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Art Nouveau period, an international decorative style, flourished in Europe (Preble & Preble, 2002). This style was reflected in architecture, furniture, art, murals, mosaics, glassware, and other artifacts]. Is there a geographic style exhibited in the object in present day or across time periods? Is there a group style that exists in the creation of objects? [For example, impressionism is a style of painting developed by the French in the late 19th century. Several well-known artists, such as Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, adapted this style as their own and publicized their work through exhibits (Preble & Preble, 2002). Other examples of Western design movements include art deco, postmodernism, minimalism and pop art]. Is there a personal style that exists in individuals who create objects and artifacts? How is the artist, creator, or builder’s individual style affected by the culture?
Target Audience GQ
What is the style of the object created by the target audience? How does the object reflect the beliefs, values, or identity of the target audience? How are style changes reflected over time in objects created by the target audience? Is there a definable period of style for the target audience? Is there a regional style exhibited in the object created by the target audience? Is there a group style that exists in objects created by the target audience? Is there a personal style that exists in individuals, in the target audience, who create objects and artifacts? What does the target audience believe to be their style? Content: Content contains the message or meanings communicated by an artifact. This includes symbolic, thematic, narrative, emotional and intellectual. The content of an artifact is expressed through its form (Preble & Preble, 2002).9 For example, symbolism is represented in signs and images within artifacts and captures the messages and meanings related to its culture.
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Culture GQ What symbols or symbolic meanings are present in the artifact? What images are present in the artifact? What icons are present in the artifact? How do the symbols or symbolic meanings connect to some aspect of the society or culture (e.g., religion, politics)? How do the images connect to some aspect of the society or culture? How do the icons connect to some aspect of the society or culture?10
Target Audience GQ What symbols or symbolic meanings are present in the artifact that relate to the target audience? What images are present in the artifact that relate to the target audience? What icons are present in the artifact? How do the symbols or symbolic meanings connect to some aspect of the target audience? How do the images connect to some aspect of the target audience? How do the icons connect to some aspect of the target audience? What does the target audience believe to be the symbols or symbolic meaning in their artifacts?
Material Artifacts are also made from materials such as metal, wood, plastic, glass, fiberglass, fabric, rubber, stone, clay, concrete, foam, and so forth (Fleming, 1974). Materials are particular to time periods and geographic locations.
Culture GQ What material is the object made from in this society or culture? What are the characteristics of this material? Has the object been made in other kinds of materials and why? What makes this material suitable to the design of the object? What is the texture of this material?
Target Audience GQ What material is the object made from and what is its significance to the target audience? Why did the target audience use this material? From the target audience’s point of view, what makes this material suitable to the design of the object? Did the target audience view the texture of the material as important in the overall design?
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Construction The construction of artifacts can involve automated mechanical, manual mechanical or handmade techniques (Fleming, 1974). The techniques of construction are related to the type of society or culture and time period.
Culture GQ Through what techniques was the object made (e.g., automated mechanical, manual mechanical, handmade techniques) in this society or culture? Given the techniques, what was the process of its construction? How many of these objects were constructed? How often were these objects constructed? How has the construction of this object influenced the society or culture?11
Target Audience GQ Through what techniques was the object made by the target audience? Given the techniques, what was the process of construction used by the target audience? How many of these objects were constructed by the target audience? How often were these objects constructed by the target audience? How has the construction of this object influenced the target audience? What perspective did the target audience have related to the construction of the object?
Function Function includes the uses (planned functions) and the roles (unplanned functions) of the artifact (Fleming, 1974). Planned functions refer to the intended use of the artifact; unplanned functions refer to the unintended role of an artifact. This shift from use to role is exemplified in the reinvention of phonographic or vinyl records. Vinyl records are devices that store sound and have been traditionally used to playback music. However, African American hip hop DJs appropriated the turntable and used vinyl records to do scratching. Scratching means to physically create friction between a phonograph needle and the grooves of a vinyl record. Hip hop DJs scratched the vinyl record creating new sounds, rhythms, and meanings. The original use of vinyl records as playback devices shifted to the new role of sound maker (Eglash, 2004; Goldberg, 2004); thereby reinventing the technology. Artifacts may be used in a variety of ways. If an artifact is a tool, it serves a usefulness. An artifact can influence human behavior; in this case, human beings may act with or be influenced by the utility of the object. As an example, the invention of the handgun enabled humans to defend themselves, hunt for game, and acquire Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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feelings of empowerment. However, the handgun has also influenced others to use it for sinister purposes. Artifacts may also function to communicate messages, meanings, beliefs, values, or ideas. In this sense, artifacts that communicate carry information and messages about their history and the culture that designed, built or manufactured them (Fleming, 1974). Artifacts can be things such as a table, chair, knife, lamp, house, utensils, container, painting, sculpture, and so forth.
Culture GQ What is the object? How is the object used in this society or culture? Are there other roles in which the object is used that were unplanned from its original purpose? Has the object’s use changed human behavior? Does the object communicate any messages, meanings, values, beliefs, or ideas? Has the object’s use changed the society or culture? 12
Target Audience GQ What is the object created by the target audience? How is the object used by the target audience? Are there other roles in which the target audience uses the object that were unplanned from its original purpose? Has the object’s use changed the behavior of the target audience? Does the object communicate any messages, meanings, values, beliefs, or ideas related to the target audience? Has the object’s use changed the target audience? What does the target audience believe to be the function of the object(s)?
More on Artifacts There can be great depth in understanding artifacts, their role in history, and their impact on human existence. The classification of artifacts begins to tell the stories behind a culture and get at the essence of its existence. Table 7.2 illustrates how cultural artifacts can be classified and the data collected and organized.
Culture GQ What human-made products exist? What human-made products have been left by other human beings, species or entities? How do the cultural artifacts illustrate history? How do the cultural artifacts represent the existence of human beings, other species or entities? What is the design of the cultural artifacts? From what materials are the cultural artifacts made? How are the cultural artifacts constructed? What
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Table 7.2. Soban–Cultural Artifacts13 History: A soban is a small table and a tray used by Koreans. Early examples of this furniture were found in the 1st Choson B.C.–7th Choson A.D. (Park, 1996). Sobans were used by royal families and the upper class as status symbols and signs of economic prosperity. By the 18th and 19th centuries, the soban became more commonly used and produced. Design: Form-The soban usually measures 60 inches in length. The legs are finely carved and are a unique characteristic of sobans. The top panels come in different shapes. There are a variety of sobans some named based the region that manufactured the table (e.g., Haeju-ban, Tongyong-ban, and Naju-ban). Other sobans are named based on shape of the top panel (e.g., Dagak-ban [8-, 10- or 12sided]) or the shape of the legs (e.g., hojok-ban [tiger’s paw]) Style- Early sobans were plain in design. By the 18th and 19th centuries, the soban contained more decorative designs. It was mass produced and used by commoners and servants. In the late 19th century, the Haeju-ban was characterized by its two trestles instead of legs and its rectangular top panel. Content-The form and style of sobans contained many meanings. Some sobans were sculpted with symbols like the Chinese character for longevity ⮌ or the
Buddhist emblem ◜. Material: Sobans are usually made of light weight durable wood (e.g., pine, gingko, or paulownia). The legs are made out of hardwood. Construction: The basic construction consisted of the top panel or chonpan and the supports (legs, trestles, or bases). The top panel overhangs the supports. Most legs were joined by aprons and stretchers and reinforced by bamboo nails or pegs. Function: Sobans functioned as a cutting board, serving tray for food and eating table. Some other practical uses include: tea tray, desk, table for “memorable rites.”
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function do the cultural artifacts serve? How have the cultural artifacts changed the behavior of human beings or other species or entities?
Target Audience GQ What cultural artifacts were made or produced by the target audience? What purpose do cultural artifacts serve in the lives of the target audience? Does a style exist in the cultural artifacts that are unique to the target audience? How have the cultural artifacts changed the target audience’s behavior? What does the target audience believe about the cultural artifacts in their society or culture?
Cultural Capital E3. Cultural Capital - Economics and material wealth. Cultural capital refers to the economics of a society or culture. Economics relates to how individuals, groups, institutions, societies, or cultures cope when there is a scarcity of resources (McConnell & Brue, 2008). Economic histories capture historical time periods, institutions, changes and instability, or systems. These histories may reveal trends in an economy and patterns of economic systems such as feudalism, slavery, imperialism, or capitalism. Economic histories may also reveal phases of an economic system such as “‘competitive,’ ‘monopoly’ and ‘transnational’ capitalism” (O’Hara, 1999, p. 862). This history is also interdisciplinary as it is difficult to study poverty without examining the social issues that lead to this condition. Other important roles in an economic history are class, gender, and race/ethnicity, and these roles should be considered as part of the analysis of economic history (O’Hara, 1999). This section provides an anthropological interpretation of economics in focusing on production, distribution, and consumption (Ferraro, 2004). This interpretation is more inclusive of market and nonmarket societies and thereby provides a broad examination of societies and cultures.
Production Production is the process of acquiring natural resources from the environment and transforming these goods into usable products. Some groups may choose to procure goods through hunting and gathering, others may live by their livestock alone, and others may have sophisticated technological processing systems. Societies vary in what they produce based on the accessibility of natural resources, availability of Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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technological processing, and quantity of energy resources. However, the values of a culture also impact production. The Hindus in India, as an example, believe the cow to be a sacred animal; therefore, the cow is not slaughtered for its beef or consumed for food (Ferraro, 2004). Every society divides its people into productive units with specific duties to perform. The household and a business are examples of units of production. The household may be made up of family members (e.g., wife, husband, and children) or of extended family members. In a horticultural society, members of the family produce the products they consume through harvesting crops, building shelters, obtaining firewood and fuels, tending livestock, making weapons and tools, and crafting utensils and cookware. In more industrialized societies, the business or private company as a unit of production produces goods or services. Employees are the workers who produce the goods or provide services that are sold. They usually receive compensation or a salary so that they can, in turn, buy goods and services (Ferraro, 2004). In addition to units of production, a society may divide people by labor. Divisions of labor are usually based on gender and age, but there are exceptions.
Culture GQ What type of society or culture is it (e.g., horticultural, pastoral)? (See Cultural History: Agricultural for more examples.) What goods are acquired from the natural resources of the environment? How are resources acquired (e.g., hunting, machines)? What natural resources are accessible and why? What natural resources are inaccessible and why? Are there units of production? What groups of people make up the units of production? What duties are performed by the units of production? How are goods produced? Who produces these goods? What services are provided? How are people compensated or not? What are the most apparent divisions of labor? How do these divisions of labor separate what people do? How do these divisions of labor help the society or culture?
Target Audience GQ How does the target audience participate in the production process? What values of the target audience impact production? What does the target audience produce in terms of goods and services? How do the goods produced by the target audience impact the society or culture? What does the target audience believe about the production process?
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Distribution Distribution is the sharing, giving, or exchanging of goods that have been acquired from the natural resources of an environment or produced by machines or human beings. Exchange systems allow for the disposal of surplus goods; examples include markets, gift giving, theft, and exploitation (Ferraro, 2004). Markets serve as places of exchange where commodities are brought and sold. Usually, the people engaging in exchange do not know one another, nor do they have any other relationships. Their social classes may not be equal, and this exchange will most likely not yield any social connection. Contemporary market places include shopping malls and the Internet. However, there are exceptions to this where the market becomes a place of social activity (Miller, 2002). Gifts, true gifts, are freely given without expectation of return. Examples include donations of money, blood, and tithes. The gain is immaterial but personally rewarding (Miller, 2002). Theft is the taking of property that belongs to someone else. This behavior, in some cases, is an attempt to alter an inequitable economic system or human oppression (Miller, 2002). Exploitation involves the mistreatment of something or someone for personal gain; this may be considered an extreme form of exchange. The most prevalent form of exploitation is slavery where a human being is forced to work, act, or engage in activities without their consent or compensation (Miller, 2002).
Culture GQ What exchange system exists or is in place in this society or culture? What goods are brought? What goods are sold? Who are the vendors in this market? Who are the customers in this market? How is the class of the vendor similar to or different from that of the customer? Is this the type of market where social relationships are cultivated? Is the distribution of goods and services equitable? What goods are given, stolen, or exploited? What true gifts are given without expectation of return? Who gives these gifts and why? How do gifts benefit the individual, group, or society? Is theft part of this exchange system? Who participates in theft and why? Who profits from theft? Are there penalties for theft? Is exploitation part of this exchange system? Who participates in this exploitation? Who profits from exploitation? Are there penalties for exploitation? What are the unspoken rules for the exchange of goods and services? Is the overall exchange system equitable?
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Target Audience GQ How does the target audience participate in the distribution process? What values of the target audience impact distribution? How does the distribution process impact the target audience? Is the target audience involved in the exchange system in terms of markets, and if so, in what way? Is the target audience involved in gift giving, and if so, in what way? Is the target audience involved in theft, and if so, in what way? Is the target audience involved in exploitation, and if so, in what way? What does the target audience believe about the distribution process?
Consumption Consumption refers to a person’s intake and output. A person consumes and uses food, clothing, shelter, fuel, transportation, books, tools, communication devices, art, luxury goods, and so forth. Consumption requires that there is something to consume (Miller, 2002). Societies vary in the type of economies that exist. There are market economies and non-market economies. In market economies, consumption is dependent on money. Goods must be purchased. Market economies are consumer driven, with a focus on creating a supply to meet the demand. Depending on how much income a person makes or has available, expenditures on basic-needs items decrease as the income increases. For example, a person who makes $2,000 a month and spends $1,500 on food and shelter is using 75% of their budget. A person who makes $10,000 a month and spends $3,000 on food and shelter is using 30% of their budget. More expenditures are set aside for entertainment and events. Another item of exchange used in mostly market economies is money. Money can be exchanged for a diversity of goods (e.g., clothing, food, shelter) and services (e.g., car repair, carpet cleaning). Human beings are another item of exchange. This exchange may manifest in the form of institutionalized slavery and other criminal activities based on the abduction and selling of human beings (Miller, 2002). Credit cards, as another form of exchange, are an electronic form of credit that provides buyers a certain amount of credit in which to buy goods. Credit cards enable the massive purchasing of goods (Miller, 2002). In nonmarket economies, consumption takes the form of work, goods, and time. The largest percentage of expenditures is allocated to basic needs. This is followed by those items that have recurring costs, such as maintenance of weapons, tools and shelter. Even fewer expenditures are set aside for entertainment and events. Also, there are usually no taxes or monies paid to property owners, cities, or governments (Miller, 2002).
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In nonmarket economies, consumption is also referred to as exchange. A common item for the exchange of goods is food. Food and beverages may be exchanged between families as part of a wedding ceremony and in social situations between friends. Other goods for exchange may be symbolic such as sacred rituals, myths, dances, attire, and body decoration. This type of symbolic exchange is consistent with the love–magic ritual called Tjarada that is performed by women in the Balgo Hills region of Australia. The women collect narratives, and then in the ritual pass the narratives on to others (Miller, 2002; Poirier, 2005). In the exchange of labor, people contribute to work as needed. This type of labor sharing is consistent among Amish communities in the United States. Families contribute to the building of housing structures as needed within the community (Miller, 2002).
Culture GQ Is this a market or nonmarket economy? For market economies: What items are consumables? What is the monetary system? What is the purpose of the monetary system? Is the income of individuals monitored or restricted by the society or culture, and if so, in what way? Is an income tax or other form of allocation deducted by those who run the society? For nonmarket economies: What form of exchange takes place in this society or culture (e.g., work, goods, time, symbolic)? What items are consumables (e.g., food, drink)?
Target Audience GQ For market economies: What is the individual or target audience’s economic level within this society? If economic levels vary across the target audience, what do these delineations look like in terms of numbers? Is the target audience economically self-sufficient? How are things brought, sold, or bartered by the target audience? Who has the most material wealth in the target audience? How is the income of individuals in the target audience useful in understanding this market system? What part of an individual’s income, in the target audience, goes to basic needs? Are there any reoccurring costs for the target audience? What part of individual’s income, in the target audience, goes to entertainment and events? Does the individual, in the target audience, pay taxes or some form of allocation and to whom? For nonmarket economies: What item receives the largest percentage of expenses allocated by the target audience? What items are consumables for the target audience? Are there any re-occurring exchanges for the target audience (e.g., weapons, tools, shelter, food)?
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Cultural Classification E4. Cultural Classification - Divisions in a culture or society. Cultural classification is the construction of divisions in a society, usually based on the social or economic levels of its groups. Wealth, power, and prestige are criteria that measure the social and economic levels of individuals14 . Wealth distinguishes one individual from another, and what constitutes wealth varies across societies (e.g., income earned, land ownership, animal ownership). Power varies across societies and can be based on knowledge, a democratic electoral system, or elite groups within a society. Prestige also varies across societies and can be based on criteria such as being the elder of a group or holding a position in a certain profession (e.g., physician; Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ What social classifications exist in this society or culture? What economic classifications exist in this society or culture? How is wealth measured in this society or culture? Who are the wealthy? How is power measured? Who has the power in this society or culture? How is prestige measured in this society or culture? Who has the prestige in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ Is the target audience classified based on a social or economic classification? Does the target audience have wealth? Is the target audience considered wealthy? Does the target audience have power? Is the target audience considered powerful? Does the target audience have prestige? Is the target audience considered prestigious? What does the target audience believe to be their classification within this society or culture?
Stratification In many societies, stratification serves to separate groups. Two basic forms of stratification are class and status. Class is attributed to individuals who may share similar financial wealth and life opportunities. In a class society, individuals have social mobility, and within a lifetime they can move their social status up or down the economic scale. With class come restrictions, whether implicit or explicit, on social interactions. Typical measures of class in a society include power, income,
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and wealth. For example, the United States is a class society that has social classes ranging from the underclass, working poor, working class, middle class, upper middle class, to the wealthy (Ferraro, 2004; Hytrek & Zentgraf, 2008). Stratification by social status is based on those characteristics most valued by a society or culture. These characteristics can include heritage, location, ethnicity, race, age, sex, and education level. Some valued characteristics individuals may have no control over such as race, ethnicity, age and sex (Hytrek & Zentgraf, 2008). In a caste society, social status is tied to one’s birthright. There is little or no social mobility. Individuals are born into a caste and remain in this status throughout their lifetime. Hindu India has a caste system based on the sacred texts of the Hindu religion. People are categorized into varnas (social castes) based on birth; they include Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), Shudras (servants), and Dalits (untouchables; Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ What forms of stratification exist in this society or culture? Are these stratifications based on class or status (i.e., caste, race, ethnicity, nationality, creed, geographical, location, educational level)? How did this system of stratification come into existence? How are individuals or groups labeled within this stratification? Is there social mobility within the stratification? Is the stratification connected to the values of individuals or groups? What values in this society or culture support stratification? Does this stratification make one group superior to the other? Does this stratification make one group inferior to the other? What do the social interactions of groups look like based on class and those based on status?
Target Audience GQ Is the stratification of the target audience based on class or status? What values of the target audience are impacted by stratification? Is this stratification accepted by the target audience? If so, what behaviors indicate the acceptance or acknowledgement of the individuals or groups place in the society or culture? If not, what behaviors indicate the denial of an individual or groups place in the society or culture? How do individuals in the target audience classify themselves? How does society classify individuals in the target audience? How do the target audience’s race or ethnicity situate them in this classification? What are the various social classifications within the target audience? What are the various economic classifications? With what social groups do individuals in the target audience associate? What does the target audience believe about the stratification of their society or culture?
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Soups A social group refers to a body of people outside one’s domestic grouping. Social groups can be informal or formal. Members of both formal and informal groups may meet in person. However, there may be members of the formal group whom one has never met. Informal groups usually do not have a hierarchical or legal structure (Miller, 2002). Some social groups may be defined based on a shared identity such as ethnicity, religion, gender, profession, or political agenda. Clubs, fraternities and sororities define themselves based on a shared identity. Members of these groups may engage in initiation rituals; support a hierarchical structure; sustain and promote the group through symbols, emblems, or clothing; and engage in activities for and through the social groups. The agendas of social groups are varied and significant to economics, politics, or race.
Culture GQ Do social groups exist in this society or culture? If so, what types of social groups exist? Who participates in these groups? How can these social groups be categorized? (e.g., gang, work related, clubs, fraternities, sororities, activists). What language is used to describe people in the social groups (e.g., comrade, brother, sister)? What rites of passage are parts of the social group? What purpose does the group serve (e.g., entertainment, community service, collective task, education, labor, socialization, economic, political)? Does the social group serve the society or culture in any specific way?
Target Audience GQ With which social groups do individuals in the target audience associate? Can individuals choose their social groups, or are they chosen for them in the target audience? Can individuals join a social group in the target audience? For the target audience, what is the length of time an individual can be involved in a social group? In what categories of social groups is the target audience most likely to participate? In relation to the target audience, are social groups stratified? What does the target audience believe about social groups in their society or culture?
References Brettell, C. B. (1998). Fieldwork in the archives: Methods and sources in historical anthropology. In H. R. Bernard (Ed.), Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology (pp. 513-546). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Czarnecki, J. (Producer), & Moore, M. (Writer/Director). (2004). Fahrenheit 9/11 [Motion picture]. United States: Lions Gate Films. Eglash, R. (2004). Appropriating technology: An introduction. In R. Eglash, J. L. Croissant, G. DiChiro & R. Fouche (Eds.), Appropriating technology: Vernacular science and social power (pp. vii–xxi). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. El Guindi, F. (1998). From pictorializing to visual anthropology. In H. R. Bernard (Ed.), Handbook of methods in cultural anthroplogy (pp. 459-511). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Ember, C. R., & Ember, M. (1996). Cultural anthroplogy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Ember, M., & Ember, C. R. (Eds.). (2001). Preface. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and their cultures (Vol. 1, pp. vii-ix). New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Fleming, E. M. (1974). Artifact study: A proposed model. Winterthur Portfolio 9, 153-173. Fumerton, P. (1991). Cultural aesthetics: Renaissance literature and the practice of social ornament. Chicago: University of Chicago. Germain, C. B., & Bloom, M. (1999). Human behavior in the social environment: An ecological view (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Goldberg, D. A. M. (2004). The scratch is hip-hop: Appropriating the phonographic medium. In R. Eglash, J. L. Croissant, G. DiChiro, & R. Fouche (Eds.), Appropriating technology: Vernacular science and social power (pp. 107-144). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Hall, E. (1976). Beyond culture. New York: Double Day. Hitz, E. (1994). Material culture. In P. N. Stearns (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social history: Garland reference library of social science, 780, 453-455. New York: Garland. Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hytrek, G., & Zentgraf, K. M. (2008). America transformed: Globalization, inequality and power. New York: Oxford University Press. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Kim, U., & Park, Y. S. (2006). The scientific foundation of indigenous and cultural psychology: The transactional approach. In U. Kim, K. S. Yang, & K. K. Hwang (Eds.), Indigenous and cultural psychology: Understanding people in context (pp. 27-48). New York: Springer. McConnell, C. R., & Brue, S. L. (2008). Macroeconomics (17th ed.). Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Miller, B. D. (2002). Cultural anthropology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Moore, M. (Producer/Writer/Director). (2002). Bowling for Columbine [Motion picture]. United States: Alliance Atlantis Communications. Newsweek. (2006). 7 New wonders of the world [Electronic Version]. Newsweek: International Edition. Retrieved April 10-17 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/ id/12115754/site/newsweek/ Nye, D. E. (1999). American technological sublime. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. O’Hara, P. A. (1999). Political economy: Major contemporary themes. In P. A. O’Hara (Ed.), Encyclopedia of political economy, 2, 861-868. London: Routledge. Park, H. H. (1996). Soban: A traditional Korean furniture form for dining. Unpublished thesis, New York: SUNY Fashion Institute of Technology. Poirier, S. (2005). A world of relationships: Itineraries, dreams and events in the Australian western desert Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press Incorporated. Preble, D., & Preble, S. (2002). Artforms (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Rieth, C. B. (2006). Archaeology. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology (Vol. 1, pp. 236-244). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Ruhl, E. (2006). Aesthetic appreciation. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology (Vol. 1, pp. 19-22). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education Company. Weber, M. (1946). From Max Webber: Essays in Sociology (H. Girth & C. W. Mills, Trans.). New York: Oxford University Press.
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For example, some aboriginal art is defined by dotted patterns of color Cultural icons are extensions of what the inventor envisions in their mind. See Edward Hall’s (1976) research on the “extension transference” (p. 28). Fleming (1974) provided further areas for the in-depth study of an artifact that includes: identification, cultural analysis, evaluation and interpretation. Some aspects of these areas have been incorporated into the five classifications presented. Sowell (1994) sees art, music, literature and philosophy as evidence of a higher culture (p. xii). These questions have been informed by Fleming, 1974. Excluded from the list of design classifications is decoration, structure, symbols and images. These questions have been informed by the work of Preble & Preble, 2002. Preble & Preble (2002) believe that light can be manipulated in, through and by objects; the terms used to describe light include reflected, directed, refracted, diffused and diffracted. These questions have been informed by Fleming, 1974. These questions have been informed by Preble & Preble, 2002. These questions have been informed by Fleming, 1974. These questions have been informed by Fleming, 1974. Facts were gleamed from an article entitled Beauty of Korea in Koreana magazine, Vol. 20, No. 4, 2006, p. 3. The image of the soban is a recreated drawing. Most of the data about the artifact was derived from Park, 1996. Ferraro (2004) found support for these ideas in the work of Max Weber, 1946.
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Chapter VIII
CBM Elements II
This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the anthropology of culture. Cultural communications is covered in its entirety.
Cural Communications E5. Cultural communications - The exchange or transmission of information. Cultural communications is the exchange or transmission of information. This exchange can be between human beings, other species or entities. Cultural communications serves a purpose; these purposes maybe to report, inform, persuade, warn, direct, or induce a response. However the ultimate goal is to convey meaning from the information source to destination or sender to receiver (Meadow, 2002). Cultural communications can be applied to cultures, target audiences, and other species. In terms of societies and cultures, cultural communications looks at the forms of communications or communication systems that exist. Cultural communications in relation to a target audience looks at language (nonverbal, verbal); writing; spatial, temporal, and visual cues; and semiotics (signs & symbols). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Communications for Cultures The medium of communications across cultures is very much dependent on the culture. Whether the culture is agrarian or a metropolis dictates its use, means, and access to communication technologies. The most rudimentary form of sound transmission from distance to distance is the human voice (Meadow, 2002, p. 33). The human voice is amplified and modified through artifacts such as horns. Besides variations of horns, other instruments have also assisted in sound transmission such as drums, bugles, and bagpipes. Communicating across longer distances has been aided through signaling with the use of fire and smoke. Flags have been useful in identifying locations, tribes, the military, schools, countries, corporations, and esteemed individuals (Meadow, 2002). Many cultures use various symbolic forms of written communication. These written systems are often characterized by symbols, pictographs, drawings, carvings, paintings, letters, numbers, punctuation, graphics, musical notes,1 and characters. Pictorial writing usually represents an idea or object, and alphabetic writing usually represents a sound. Distinctive of all these characteristics is that written systems translate into meaning, preserve thoughts and ideas, require someone who has knowledge of the system to translate, and communicates messages over time (Meadow, 2002). It can be argued that mathematics, music, physics, chemistry and computing are also forms of written communication. Mathematics is characterized by symbols, alphabetic writing, and numbers that form a notation system.2 Mathematical concepts can be expressed in written form and, in some cases, graphical forms; the written communication system of mathematics is understood by those who understand its notation system. Figure 8.1 represents the mathematical symbols of the normal frequency distribution, and the graphic representation is the bell curve (Meadow, 2002).
Figure 8.1. Frequency Distribution3
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Similarly, music has a notation system that is characterized by symbols (notes, flats, sharp), letters, and numbers. Physics and chemistry use symbols, letters, numbers, and graphics to describe chemical elements, classify matter, and demonstrate results. As computing continues to evolve, forms of written communication allow the hardware to interact with the software and, ultimately, to be used by the user. Computer programming languages are characterized by symbols, letters, and numbers. Java script and C++ exemplify programming languages (Meadow, 2002). Cultures that seek to maintain their history through written communication have used a variety of tools to record this information. Writing surfaces have included those that are natural and human made. Writing surfaces consisted of cave walls, clay, parchment (animal skins), papyrus (plant paper), and paper (plant fibers). Writing instruments have evolved from the stylus (for writing on clay) to quill pens, steel point pens, fountain pens, ballpoint pens, and to fiber (e.g., magic markers). Originally, another writing instrument—the pencil—was wood encased by graphite with a sharpened tip; later, lead replaced the graphite (Meadow, 2002; Panati, 1984). Writing machines brought standardization to printing. The movable-type printing press and subsequent models enabled the mass production of information. The typewriter allowed the individual access to a high-quality printable type and the use of this machine in the home and office. Computers have brought an ease of use, the ability to mass print and produce, superior print quality, and simplicity in correcting text and sending text to others (Meadow, 2002). With these advances in writing machines came the demand for the masses to know how to read and write. Therefore, the advancement in technologies of written communication became instruments of social change (Eisenstein, 1979). Communicating with people across distances has been aided by culture’s ability to provide transportation. Animals, such as horses, donkeys, camels, and pigeons, have been trained as messengers and carriers of communication. Societies that developed roads enabled the ease of animal-drawn transportation such as the stage coach and later motor cars. The development of roads gave people accessible ways to travel; this led to the building of highways, a quicker and more efficient way to travel. The telegraph line ended the need for men on horseback to carry mail and enabled the transmission of long-distance communications through Morse code4. Messages were transmitted at a high speed through electric telegraph wires. Boats hauled cargo long distances. The various types of boats evolved from oarpowered boats (or humans pulling the oars) to sail ships with navigation devices. Later came steam-powered engines propelled ships, railroad trains, and automobiles5. Railway systems advanced from steam-powered engines to those supported by electric power. Travel by aircrafts allowed for even quicker delivery of mail. Aircrafts evolved from the hot air balloons, to propeller planes, to jet engine planes that made possible communications flexibility through air mail. Steam-powered Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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automobiles quickly disappeared. Automobiles operated by internal combustion engines that were powered by fossil fuel. The car enabled the delivery of mail at great distances (Meadow, 2002). The need to physically travel from location to location decreased with the invention of the telegraph and telephone. The telephone moved telecommunications forward in that it allowed easy accessibility, could be used in businesses and homes, transported the human voice, permitted ease of use, and allowed for spontaneous interactivity of human beings. Wireless radio served a variety of uses such as broadcasting; radar; telegraphy; and a carrier for televisions, telephones, and computers (Meadow, 2002). Television, as a communications device, transmitted and received visual images and sound. Initially, televisions provided black and white display and 30 lines per picture; however, this technical feature evolved into color displays with over 1,080 lines. The picture tube quickly became a memory with plasma and liquid crystal displays. Computers enabled higher speeds and longer distances of transmission. The Internet allowed for the interconnection of networks. Businesses and individuals easily access and participate in a virtually instantaneous communications system through electronic mail. The World Wide Web, a network of programs and documents, allowed for the pinpointing of data (Meadow, 2002).
Culture GQ What forms of communications exist in this society or culture? Have these communication technologies affected the society or culture? How are messages communicated (e.g., gesture, pantomime, speech, written communication)? How are messages communicated from one point to another (e.g., voice; instruments [horns, drums, bugles, bagpipes]; smoke signals; travel by foot, animals, ship, car, plane)?6 What forms of written communication exists? If written communication exists, how have these data been recorded (e.g., paper, parchment, papyrus, stone, magnetic media [e.g., floppy disc, compact disc/CD-ROM, DVD, e-books])? Has transportation assisted in the society’s or culture’s ability to communicate, and if so, in what way? How have these communication technologies influenced human beings? How have these communication technologies impacted other species or entities?
Target Audience GQ What forms of communication technologies are used by the target audience? How has the target audience been affected by these communication technologies? How are messages communicated by the target audience? What forms of written communication are used by the target audience? Has the target audience been involved in inventing any communication technologies? What does the target audience Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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believe about the communication technologies that exist in their culture? Has the communication technologies benefited the target audience in any way? How have these communication technologies impacted the target audience?
Communications for Target Audiences Language
Nonverbal: Non-verbal communication does not involve words. To communicate in a non-verbal way can be found in all societies and cultures. Nonverbal communication serves many functions, such as defining behavior. If an individual walks into a dimly lit room where other people are moving slowly and are calm in their behavior, the individual should know to be quiet in voice and behavior. Nonverbal communication acts as a monitor for verbal communication. When someone is speaking, the other individual may smile, nod, blink, or make eye contact to acknowledge that the message conveyed is being communicated. Nonverbal communication can also convey messages. If an individual is happy, she may smile. If an individual is sad, he may frown, look down or hang his head. Nonverbal communication is culture-specific (Frank, 2002). This means that gestures, posture, body stance; touching (Ferraro, 2004); facial expressions and body language are culture-based. Nonverbal communication is a learned behavior and it is different from culture to culture (Ferraro, 2004). Silence, as a nonverbal form of communication, is used by Western Apaches in their initial greeting of strangers; this is perceived as a form of respect (Basso, 1990; Miller, 2002). Nonverbal communication is also conveyed through the physical features, looks or smell and the environment. The physical features of an individual include everything on a person’s exterior (e.g., face, lips, eyes, nose, legs, shoulders). The way one dresses and looks sends a message. The design of clothing, marks and body piercings, and hairstyles can convey messages about ethnicity, age, gender, and so forth. For Americans, gender differentiation begins at birth when boys are color coded with blue attire and girls pink. The odor of an individual communicates messages again based on culture. The smell of loved ones can be comforting to an individual. Loud perfume can be offensive to an individual who suffers from allergies. The environment where one lives or works conveys messages. Whether the environment is dark and gloomy or bright and colorful, each situation transmits a different message (Frank, 2002). What that message is will be different for each receiver based on their own cultural experiences. For example, a teenage boy arrives to pick up his date, who lives in a dilapidated 12-story high rise. He may or may not be judgmental depending on his own life experiences. Her environment will convey what the receiver has been conditioned to believe.
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Culture GQ What forms of nonverbal communication exist in this society or culture? What functions does nonverbal communication serve in this society or culture? How does nonverbal communication act as a monitor for verbal communication? How does nonverbal communication convey messages? How is nonverbal communication culture-specific? What meanings are conveyed by an individual’s physical features, look, or smell? What meanings or messages are conveyed by an individual’s living environment?
Target Audience GQ How does the target audience use nonverbal communication? What forms of nonverbal communication are consistent with the target audience? How are these forms of nonverbal communication culture-specific? What meanings are conveyed by the target audience’s physical features, look, and smell? What meanings or messages are conveyed by the target audience’s living environment? Verbal: Verbal communication, or the language of communication, is a system of organized symbols that transmit and convey meaning. To communicate through words is a human trait. Languages have been studied to determine its meaning, decipher the code of language, and to understand the people behind the language. Language is shaped by culture, and culture is shaped by language (Mandelbaum, 2002). This means that, within a society, language functions as the society or culture dictates. Individuals are the pawns in this linguistic dance as they create, use, exploit, and manipulate the language to communicate how they feel, what they believe, or communicate just to be heard. Language is tied to power. This specifically relates to who can speak or who are allowed to speak. Language is tied to faith. Those with the language of religion are taken as leaders to a higher power. Language is also political. The dominance of the English language worldwide is an indication of the desire for a lingua franca (i.e., common language), but also English is seen as the superior language in many political and social situations. Language is also gender related. Men and woman are said to have different ways of communicating, and these ways carry meanings specific to culture. Language is also valued. Those with the ability to use the language well and convey meaning across contexts and groups may be given praise or financial rewards. Verbal communication serves many functions; however, all its uses and misuses are generated by the culture. (For more on language form, content, use and meaning. See Cultural language).
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Culture GQ How has language shaped this society or culture? What is the dominant form of language? What are the subordinate forms of language? What function does language serve in this society or culture? How is language political, social, religious, or gender related? How is language created, used, exploited, and manipulated?
Target Audience GQ How has language been shaped by the target audience? How has the target audience shaped language? What is the dominant form of language for the target audience? What are the target audience’s other spoken languages? What function does language serve for the target audience? For the target audience, how is language, political, social, religious, or gender related? How has the target audience created, used, exploited, and manipulated language? Given their culture, what are the target audience’s beliefs about language?
Writing Writing is the symbols that represent ideas or sounds. The presence of a pictorial or alphabetic system in a culture provides a written record that can be preserved to communicate with others in the future. A writing system communicates the meanings of individuals in that society or culture. Writing systems are restrictive in that they are characterized by a linear structure, text directionality (right to left, left to right, top to bottom, and from center to the edge), and grammar. Writing is used to convey messages. To communicate through writing serves a purpose and function (Bruce, 2002; Marcus, 2006).
Culture GQ How did the writing system develop in this society or culture? Does the writing system consist of signs, pictographs, or alphabets; bidirectional or unidirectional? What other features are significant to the writing system (e.g., punctuation, layout, typography)? Does the writing system contain a grammar or a system of rules for the language? If a written system of communication exists, on what materials is information recorded (e.g., walls, rocks, trees, sand, the human body, clay, papyrus, manufactured paper)? Why did the writing system develop? When did the writing system appear? How has it changed in content, form, or function through time? What is the purpose of the writing system? Does the writing system convey a specific subject matter (e.g., data related to economics, politics, and genealogy)? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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What percentage of the population is literate in the writing system? Who knows how to read the writing system? Who knows how to write the writing system? Are individuals or groups not allowed to read or write? Whose knowledge is conveyed in the writing system? How does this writing system function in this society? How is written communication maintained (e.g., writing courses in schools, libraries)? Who has access to written communication? How is the writing system distributed to others? Through what forms of communication technologies is the writing system conveyed?7
Target Audience GQ Does the target audience have their own writing system? How did the writing system of the target audience develop? Does the writing system of the target audience consist of signs, pictographs, alphabetic, bidirectional or unidirectional? What other features are significant to the writing system of the target audience? Does the writing system of the target audience contain a grammar or a system of rules for the language? For the target audience, on what materials is information recorded? Why did the target audience’s writing system develop? When did the writing system of the target audience appear? How has the target audience’s writing system changed in content, form or function through time? What is the purpose of the target audience’s separate system of writing? Does the writing system convey a specific subject matter (e.g., religion)? What percentage of the target audience is literate in the writing system? Who in the target audience knows how to read the writing system? Who in the target audience knows how to write the writing system? Are individuals in the target audience not allowed to read or write? Whose knowledge is conveyed in the target audience’s writing system? How does the target writing system function in this society or culture? How is written communication maintained and distributed by the target audience? How is the writing system of the target audience distributed to others? Through what forms of communication technologies, does the target audience use to convey their messages? Does the target audience read and write in the writing system of the dominant culture? What percentage of the target audience is literate in the dominant writing system? For what purposes does the target audience use the dominant writing system? Can the target audience read and write in the dominant language? What does the target audience believe about the dominant cultures writing system?
Temporal Temporal communications refers to the variety of ways to communicate over distances and over time. The idea is to create a message at one period in time and Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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the message is received at another period in time (Meadow, 2002). All forms of written communication (e.g., carving, drawing and writing) if preserved can provide examples of how groups communicate over distances and over time. A letter is written at one time and it is mailed. Then the letter is received at another time maybe a day or several days later. Temporal communications can be condensed or extended depending on the medium. With electronic mail, the time it takes to email individuals who live over 3000 miles away may take 5, 10 or 20 seconds to transmit. However, mailing a letter to someone 3000 miles away may take 3 days. Communicating over time is much more complicated; however it has been done in many ways. Some people have planted time capsules to tell about their history. Ancient societies bury their dead with artifacts of their histories thereby stopping time. The artifacts, that document written and spoken communication, exemplify a moment in time. Temporal communications refers to measured time in this world. It does not refer to the after life or the spirit world or other conceptions of time (King, 2006). Every culture understands time differently and every culture is influenced by time. Time can be perceived in three ways: What is time? How is time experienced? How is time measured? What is time? Within a culture, time may have a beginning. Time might be considered linear or cyclic. Time may even be considered something in itself, meaning that it exists separately from events. How is time experienced? Time is experienced differently by individuals in each culture. How is time measured? Time is measured differently in each culture. Typically, time has been linked to natural phenomena, such as the rotation of the earth around the sun, varying phases of the moon, changing weather conditions, shifting tides, and the exodus of birds and animals during migration season. Within a culture, time may serve multiple functions. For example in Western secular societies, the solar calendar is used for day-to-day functions; however, the lunar calendar is used for religious fasting and feasts (King, 2006). Humans are fascinated by time. They are hooked on temporal communications. There are many movies about time travel like Terminator (1984); Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003); Back to the Future (1985); Star Trek: The Voyage Home (1986); and First Contact (1996). Those set in more contemporary modern day settings include: Déjà Vu (2006) and Click (2006). The mysteriousness of time and humans’ inability to manipulate it in the physical world makes time a commodity for future explorations and creative interpretations. (See Cultural infinities for more on the concept of time).
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Culture GQ How do individuals in this society or culture communicate over distances and time? How is time measured by this society or culture? What is time to this society or culture? How is time experienced by this society or culture? How is time used or manipulated in this society or culture? Does time serve any religious purpose in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ How does the target audience communicate over distances and time? How is time measured by the target audience? What is time to the target audience? How is time experienced by the target audience? Does time serve a specific function for the target audience?
Visual Visual communications refers to the meanings or production of meanings from images. The visual images of a society, or those represented by mass media,8 reflect a visual language of communication, and this visual language is not understood universally. The visual language of a society is culture-specific. Those things expressed through visual communications are represented through multiple “compositional structures,” or through variations in color. These differences influence the meaning of and the meanings behind visuals (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 2). The color white is worn by women in America when they are getting married. In India, the wearing of a white sari by women indicates widowhood (Miller, 2002)
Culture GQ What forms of visual communications exist in this society or culture? What meanings do the visual images in this society or culture communicate? How are these forms of visual communications culture-specific? What visual images are portrayed through communication technologies? Are these visual images valid or invalid representations of the society or culture and why?
Target Audience GQ What forms of visual images represent the target audience? What meanings do the visual images in this society or culture communicate about the target audience? How are these visual communications specific to the culture of the target audience? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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What visual images are portrayed through communication technologies about the target audience? Are these visual images of the target audience valid or invalid representations and why? What does the target audience think about visual images represented in their society or culture?
Semiotics (Signs & Symbols) Semiotics is the study of the use, meanings, messages, and production of signs. Signs and symbols are semiotic properties. Signs: Signs are everywhere within societies and cultures. Humans create signs. A sign can be anything as long as an individual gives it meaning. Therefore, a sign can be a word, sound, image, behavior, object, odor, or flavor. Signs have no meaning until it is interpreted to have meaning. To organize signs, there are codes or coding systems (Chandler, 2007; Klyukanov, 2002). In Figure 8.2, these objects are used to house women’s personal belongings. Each object has the same use or function. However, over time they have been assigned different meanings. Figure 8.3 represents a sign or object that has multiple messages. The object is called a pail if you live in one region of the United States, and it is called a bucket if you live in another region. In Figure 8.4, the meanings assigned to all of these vowels are the same; they all represent the written form of the letter ‘a’ and the sound of the letter “a.” However the capital letter “A” has different meanings attached to it when it is at the beginning of a sentence or a name. The fonts represent different productions of the letter “a” and may serve different uses.
Culture GQ What signs are in this society or culture? What meanings have been given to these signs? Who assigns meaning to these signs? How have signs changed this society or Figure 8.2. Handbag, purse, pocketbook
This is a handbag.
This is a purse.
This is a pocketbook.
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Figure 8.3. Pail or Bucket
This is a pail.
Figure 8.4. The Letter “A
a
This is the letter “a.”
This is a bucket.
A
This is the letter “a.”
a This is the letter “a.”
culture? Are some signs considered valid and others invalid and why? Who deems what signs are valid or invalid? What social, political or religious significance is given to signs?
Target Audience GQ What signs are specific to representations of the target audience? What meanings of interpretation does the target audience assign to signs? Does the target audience assign meaning to signs? How have signs changed the lives of the target audience? Have signs created by the target audience been considered valid or invalid and why? What signs, that represent the target audience, maintain social, political, or religious significance?
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Figure 8.5. Pedestrian Crossing Ahead
Symbols: Symbols represent things other than themselves. They come in many forms: actions, characters, icons, letters, numbers, objects, and people. The written and spoken language used by humans exemplifies a sophisticated symbol system. Other languages also have symbol systems such as Morse code, computer languages, and braille (Ruben, 2002). Through communications media, symbols are stored, retrieved, duplicated, transmitted, and amplified. A speech can be recorded on CD-ROM, audio recordings, or video recordings (e.g., DVD). It can be transferred to print and e-mailed from one place to another, published in a book, posted on a Web page, stored and retrieved on a computer, duplicated with a copy machine, and amplified through text to speech software (Ruben, 2002). Symbols are created by humans and humans give meaning to symbols. It is the collective agreement of humans that allow symbols to function as communication devices. Humans create symbols and learn the meanings of these symbols in their interactions with members of their society or culture. In Figure 8.5, the meaning assigned to this object is that a pedestrian cross walk is ahead (Ruben, 2002).
Culture GQ What symbols exist in this society or culture? Categorize the symbols in terms of actions, characters, icons, letters, numbers, objects, and people. What meanings have been given to these symbols? Who assigns meaning to symbols? How have symbols changed this society or culture? Are some symbols considered valid and others invalid and why? Who deems what symbols are valid or invalid? What social, political, or religious significance is given to symbols?
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Target Audience GQ What symbols are specific to the target audience? What meanings have been given to the symbols that represent the target audience? What meanings of interpretation does the target audience assign to symbols? Has the target audience created any symbols? How have symbols changed the lives of the target audience? Have symbols created by the target audience been considered valid or invalid and why? What symbols, that represent the target audience, maintain a social, political, or religious significance?
References Basso, K. H. (1990). Western Apache language and culture: Essays in linguistic anthropology. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press. Botturi, L., & Stubbs, S. T. (2008). Handbook of visual languages for instructional design: Theories and practices. Hershey, PA: IGI Global Publishing. Bruce, B. C. (2002). Alphabets and writing. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information, 1, 21-25. New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Bruckheimer, J. (Executive Producer), & Scott, T. (Director). (2006). Déjà vu [Motion picture]. United States: Touchstone Pictures. Chandler, D. (2007). Semiotics: The basics. New York: Routledge. Bernardi, B. (Executive Producer), Herlihy, T. (Executive Producer), & Coraci, F. (Director). (2006). Click [Motion picture]. United States: Columbia Pictures. Daly, J. (Executive Producer), Gibson, D. (Executive Producer), Hurd, G. A. (Producer), & Cameron, J. (Director). (1984). The terminator [Motion picture]. United States: Orion Pictures. Eisenstein, E. L. (1979). The printing press as an agent of change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning. Frank, M. G. (2002). Nonverbal communication. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information, 2, 669-677. New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Hall, P. A. V., & Hudson, R. (1997). Software without frontiers: A multi-platform, multi-cultural, multi-nation approach. New York: John: Wiley & Sons. Kennedy, K. (Executive Producer), Marshall, F. (Executive Producer), Spielberg, S. (Executive Producer), & Zemeckis, R. (Director). (1985). Back to the future [Motion picture]. United States: Amblin Entertainment. King, P. J. (2006). Time. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 5, 21962197. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Klyukanov, I. E. (2002). Semiotics. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information, 3, 916-918. New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual design (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. Mandelbaum, J. (2002). Language and communication. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information, 2, 514-519. New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Marcus, J. (2006). Writing systems. In D. Levinson & M. Ember (Eds.), Encyclopedia of cultural anthropology, 4, 1387-1391. New York: Henry Holt and company. Meadow, C. T. (2002). Making connections: Communication through the ages. Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Miller, B. D. (2002). Cultural anthropology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Panati, C. (1984). Panati’s browser’s book of beginnings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Ruben, B. D. (2002). Symbols. In J. R. Schement (Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information (Vol. 3, pp. 974-975). New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Winter, R. (Executive Producer), Bennett, H. (Producer), & Nimoy, L. (Director). (1986). Star trek IV: The voyage home [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
Endnotes
1
African drums have been used to communicate a language or a message (Meadow, 2002).
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4 2 3
5
6 7
8
For more information on notation systems see Botturi & Stubbs ( 2008). Frequency distribution figures adapted from a variety of sources. Morse code is a coded system of dots and dashes that represent alphabetic letters. The transmission of Morse code happens over a wire where a pulse of electricity travels from one place to another. In France around 1769, the first steam powered automobile was built (Meadow, 2002). These questions have been informed by Meadow, 2002. The questions in this section have been informed by the works of Bruce (2002); Hall and Hudson (1997); and Marcus (1996). Mass media are print or any form of electronic media such as “newspapers, magazines, CD-ROMs or websites” (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 17).”
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Chapter IX
CBM Elements III
This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the anthropology of culture. Cultural demographics and Cultural environment are covered in their entirety.
Cultural Demographics E6. Cultural Demographics - Characteristics of a population. Cultural demographics provide the characteristics of a population for a geographic area. Geographic areas are identified by levels such as nation, state, city, county, tracks, blocks, province, and so forth (U.S. Census Bureau [USCB], 2005). This information is usually statistical. Demographic data provide mostly a quantitative picture of a population and aid in predicting economic or market trends. Through the use of demographic data, predictions about populations can be made in reference to increases in the demand for food, clothing, educational achievement, entertainment, housing, insurance, investments, health services, and so forth. Examples of Westernized demographic trends include: baby boom years, single parent families, two income families, and nuclear families. Demographic data are also culture-speCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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cific and can not be generalized to other populations. A culture-specific example is data from Japan’s 2000 census that calculated the total population of males at 62,110,764 males to 64,815,079 females. The number of females outnumbers males by 2,704,315 (Statistics Bureau of Japan, 2000). The collection of demographic data is unique to each society or culture. What works for one culture may not work for another. Or the collection of such data may not be operational due to other social, political, or economic factors. The characteristics of a population might include data based on the following: age, assets, birth, death, density, disease, educational achievement, ethnicity, family, growth, housing, incarceration, income, language, marital status, migration, mobility, occupation, race, sex, and size (USCB, 2005). All of these characteristics are described in this chapter. The collection of demographic data could begin with an examination of characteristics in a population such as “age” and multiple characteristics of a population, such as sex, income, household, geographic areas, disease, marriage, and so forth. Therefore, the data collection might look at age and its relation to sex, or age and income, or age and household. The guiding questions, in this section, focus on human beings; however they can be adapted to other species and entities.
Age Age demographics record the length of time in existence, duration of life, or life expectancy. This could include the stages of life (e.g., infant, child, adult, elder) and the month, day and year of birth (Meyer, 2001). These data provide many sources of understanding how age impacts a society or culture and its classification with other characteristics of a population (e.g., age and disease, age and death) (USCB, 2005). According to the 2007 U.S. Census Bureau International Database, the country with the longest life expectancy is Andorra, a small nation located in the Pyrénées Mountains nestled between France and Spain. People are said to live an average of 84 years (USCB, 2007a).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the age of a population (e.g., age and race)? What are the ages of people in this population? What are the month, day, and year of births and self reported ages? What is the average age of life expectancy? What are the stages of life? Is the population divided according to age? What are the total number of births within a given time period? What is the total number of people in each age category? How are age demographics perceived in this society or culture? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Target Audience GQ What characteristics should be considered with the age of the target audience? What are the ages within the target audience? What are the month, day, and year of births for the target audience? What is the average life expectancy for the target audience? What is the total number of the target audience members in each age category?
Assets Assets demographics are statistics on owned items, effects, or property. These data might classify assets with other characteristics of a population (e.g., assets and households). A household balance sheet from Singapore categorized assets as nonfinancial assets and financial assets. Nonfinancial assets are considered residential properties. Financial assets include currency, deposits, shares, securities, pension funds with equity, or life insurance with equity. In 2005, the assets of Singapore grew $820 billion or a 5.4% growth from 2004. Non-financial assets saw an increase of $5.3 billion, and financial assets increased $36 billion (Singapore Department of Statistics, 2006).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the assets of a population (e.g., assets and age)? What things or items are considered assets? Who has acquired these assets? What assets are most owned by which populations? How do their assets position them in this society or culture? How are assets demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are total numbers of people in each asset classification?
Target Audience GQ What assets do the target audience or individuals in the target audience own? Who has acquired these assets in the target audience? How do the assets of the target audience position them in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each assets classification?
Birth Birth demographics are statistics that provide a place of birth and date of birth. These data may measure a variety of factors such as live births, expected number of children, rates of birth and fertility rates (Lazer, 1994). These data also classify Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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birth with other characteristics of a population (e.g., birth and sex). According to the United Nations’ 2003 World Fertility Report, birth rates have decreased since the 1970s. This may be due to behavioral changes such as increased contraceptive use and knowledge, family planning, population programs and policies, and the universality of nuptials or some form of union. By example, China estimates a birth reduction of 4 children per child bearing woman (United Nations, 2003).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the birth of a population (e.g., sex, age, race)? What is the birthplace of individuals in this society or culture? What is the time of birth? In a society, it is important to document who is born to whom and the frequency of these births? Are individuals, groups, animals, and/or organisms limited in the number of births? If so, how? If not, why? What is the purpose of procreation in this society? How are birth demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of births in each classification?
Target Audience GQ What is the place or places of birth of individuals in the target audience? What is the frequency of births for the target audience? Are births limited for the target audience? What is the purpose of procreation for the target audience? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each birth classification?
Death Death demographics are statistics of the termination of life. It provides data on the number of deaths in a particular area or at a given time. These data classify death with other characteristics of a population (e.g., death and age). The Democratic Republic of the Congos 10 year war (1996-2006) between militia armed forces and Rwandians left 3 million people dead and 3.5 million people displaced from their homes (Kimani, 2007). This type of demographic data provided striking evidence of the devastation of war and the unfathomable death toll.
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with death in a population (e.g., death and age)? What are the ways in which individuals die in this society or culture? Is one way or method of death more prominent than another and if so why? What are the number of deaths within a given time period? How are death demographCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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ics perceived in this society or culture? What are total numbers of people in each death classification?
Target Audience GQ What are the ways in which the target audience dies? Is one way or method of death more prominent than another for the target audience and why? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each death classification?
Density The density is the concentration of a population in an area and in relation to the size of the area. These data classify density with other characteristics of a population (e.g., density and housing, density and population). China is the most highly populated country in the world, with an estimated 1.3 billion people by midyear 2007 (USCB, 2007b). In determining whether China can maintain its population growth, researchers have examined agriculture, water supply, consumption, climate, grain production, and population density. Predictions about population growth and population density will determine the amount of food needed in corresponding provinces by 2025, the turn of the century. In 2000, Tianjin’s total population was 8.9 million with a population density of 787 people per kilometer (Heilig, Fischer, & van Velthuizen, 2000).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the density of a population (e.g., race, housing)? What is the density population across designated areas? What is the density population in relation to the size of the area? What numbers of the population live in these spaces? How are density demographics perceived in this society or culture? Are there social, economic, environmental, financial, or political issues prevalent because of population density?
Target Audience GQ Does the target audience occupy a large or small density of space? What number of the target audience live in this space? What other characteristics of the target audience can be considered (e.g., density and income, density and age) in gathering data estimates or projections? Why does the target audience choose to live in a densely populated area or not? How has the target audience been impacted by density issues? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Disease Disease demographics are statistics on disorders of function, usually in an animal or plant. These data classify disease with other characteristics of a population (e.g., disease and age). The most deadly disease of the 21st century might be reported as HIV/AIDS. Worldwide, the prevention and treatment of this disease, as well as the support and care of people with HIV/AIDS, is of global concern. Through the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), there is a desire to end and reverse this epidemic by 2015. As of 2005, worldwide figures estimate that there are 38.6 million people infected with HIV, 4.1 million people contracted HIV, and 2.8 million people died from AIDS-related causes (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS [UNAIDS], 2006).
Culture GQ1 What characteristics should be considered with disease and a population (e.g., disease and households)? What diseases exist that affect human? What diseases exist that affect other species? How are humans, animals, and insects predisposed to certain diseases? Are these diseases curable or treatable? What percentage of the population is infected with diseases? How are disease demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of the people in each disease classification?
Target Audience GQ What diseases affect the health of the target audience? How is the target audience predisposed to certain diseases? What percentage of the target audience is infected with disease? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each disease classification?
Educational Achievement Education achievement demographics measure the highest educational degree or highest level of school attended (Bauman & Graf, 2003). The educational achievement of a society or culture can be classified based on grade level or age level. The total number of individuals in that classification would then be calculated (USCB, 2005). Every society or culture has different perceptions on how education is acquired, how much information is acquired, and the materials and tools for learning. Educational achievement demographics focus on the numbers in relation to each Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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group’s educational classification system. These data classify educational achievement with other characteristics of a population (e.g., educational achievement and income). The educational attainment from the Census 2000 U.S. Census reports that out, of 182.2 million Americans, aged 25 and over, 80% earned a high school diploma or higher education (Bauman & Graf, 2003).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the educational achievement of a population (e.g., educational achievement and occupation)? How is educational achievement classified in this society or culture? What is the highest level of schooling or academic degree of individuals and/or groups (e.g., no school to doctoral degree) in this society or culture? How is educational achievement perceived in this society or culture? What are the numbers in terms of educational achievement across classifications such as, age, sex, income, and so forth? How are educational achievement demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ How is educational achievement perceived by the target audience? What is the highest level of schooling or academic degree of individuals in the target audience? What are the numbers in terms of educational achievement across classifications such as age, sex, and race for the target audience? How does the target audience perceive educational achievement data?
Ethnicity Ethnicity refers to the belonging or distinctiveness of a person of ethnic origin. Ethnic groups share historical and cultural traditions that include racial, national, linguistic, and religious associations. Ethnicity demographics record the diversity of a society either through formal (e.g., census) or informal data collection. These data classify ethnicity with other characteristics of a population (e.g., ethnicity and households, ethnicity and age). England’s Department for Education and Skills published a research topic paper titled “Ethnicity and Education: The Evidence on Minority Ethnic Pupils aged 5–16” (2006). In this 2006 paper, minority ethnic groups in schools are defined as: Bangladeshi, Black African, Black Caribbean, Black Other, Chinese, Indian, Mixed White & Black Caribbean, Mixed White & Black African and White Other. This ethnic minority makes up 21% of the primary school and 17% of the secondary school population (Department for Education and Skills, 2006). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the ethnicity of a population (e.g., sex, age, race, housing)? Does ethnicity exist in this society or culture? How are ethnic groups classified? What common features exist amongst people of a particular ethnicity? What are the total numbers of people in each ethnic classification? How are ethnic demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What is the ethnicity of the target audience? Are there subdivisions within ethnic groups of the target audience? For the target audience, what characteristics do the ethnic groups share? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each ethnic classification?
Family A family is a household with two or more related persons (USCB, 2005); other nonrelated persons who are living in the housing unit are also considered part of the household. Family demographics usually consist of family composition, size, and type. These data assist with defining family structures of a population and classifying family with other characteristics of a population (e.g., family and households, family and income). The Central Statistical Office of Swaziland collected provisional data in a 2007 Population and Housing Census, and they estimated that the Kingdom of Swaziland has a total population of 953,524 people. This is based on the collection of data such as the number of residents present and absent from a household, the number of visitors present and absent, and the sex of the residents (United Nations Statistics Division, 2007). In this case, the number of residents in the housing unit defined the household.
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the family of a population (e.g., family and households; family and income)? What is the structure of families (e.g., single parent with two children; married couple with no children; presence of elders, adult children, grandchildren)? What is the number of households in each family structure? How are family demographics perceived in this society or culture?
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Target Audience GQ What is the structure of the target audience’s family or families? For the target audience, what is the number of households in each family structure?
Growth Growth demographics are the increases in numbers of a population. These data assist with defining the growth of a population and classifying growth with other characteristics of a population (e.g., growth and migration). Uganda has one of the highest population growth rates in the world. As of 2006, the countries population was estimated at close to 29 million people with an estimated growth rate of 3.4% each year (UNAIDS, 2006). This population growth is fueling poverty as Uganda ranks 159 out of 175 of the world’s poorest countries. The rise in population and poverty presents economic, social and health challenges (Republic of Uganda, 2002).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the growth of a population (e.g., sex, age, race, housing)? Is there growth in the population? Does the growth of one population over another matter in this society or culture, and if so, why? What are the total numbers of growth in the population over a period of time? How are growth demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What is the growth of the target audience’s population over designated periods of time? Does the growth in population have an effect on the target audience? What are the total numbers of growth in the target audience over a period of time? How does the target audience perceive growth in their society or culture?
Husing Housing demographics are specific to housing units and households. Housing units can be a room or group of rooms, mobile home, apartment, or house. Quarters for groups are also housing; this can include: prisons, dormitories, military quarters, detention centers, nursing homes, mental (psychiatric) hospitals, juvenile institutions, and group homes (USCB, 2005). Housing units can be rented, owned, or being bought (Simmons & O’Neil, 2001). These data determine the housing ocCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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cupancy, housing vacancy and tenure (renter occupied or owner occupied), and classify housing with other characteristics of a population (e.g., housing and age; housing and density). In addition to the housing unit itself, there is a need to know who lives in the household and the relationship to the householder. These data provide information about the individuals and composition of the household (Simmons & O’Neill, 2001). Individuals in the household may be labeled as follows: natural born son/daughter, adopted son/daughter, grandmother, grandfather, stepson, stepdaughter, brother, parent in law, son in law, daughter in law, niece, nephew, uncle, aunt, roomer, boarder, roommate, housemate, unmarried partner, or foster child (USCB, 2005). These data determine the applicability of households with other characteristics of a population (e.g., households and age). The Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística collected information related to population count on December 21, 2007. The data revealed 11,422 persons who were 100 years of age or older. Of the 7,950 women aged 100 years or older, 19.7% headed households, 30.4% had a husband, 30% were stepdaughters or daughters, and 11.1% were other types of relatives. Of 3,472 men aged 100 years or older, 36.6% headed households, 43.6% were stepsons or sons, and 10.3% were other types of relatives (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, 2007).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the housing of a population (e.g., sex, age, race, mobility)? How many housing units exist? How many classifications of housing units exist (e.g., apartment, house, prison, dormitory)? How many people live in these housing units? How many people, rent, own, or buy these housing units? Who lives in the household? What are the relationships of people living in the household? How much does it cost to rent homes, apartments, or space in this society or culture? How much does it cost to purchase housing units? How much does it cost to maintain a typical household that needs heating fuel and lighting? How old are the homes, apartments, and dwellings in which individuals live? What is the condition of these homes, apartments, and dwellings? How are housing demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of people in each housing classification?
Target Audience GQ What type of housing units do the target audience reside in (e.g., shack, apartment, house)? How much does the target audience pay for housing? How many people live in the typical homes of the target audience? Does the target audience rent, own, or Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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buy housing units? Who lives in the households of the target audience? What are the relationships of people living in the households of the target audience? How much does it cost to rent homes, apartments, or space for the target audience? How much does it cost to purchase housing units for the target audience? How much does it cost to maintain a typical household for the target audience that needs heating fuel and lighting? How old are the homes, apartments, and dwellings in which the target audience lives? What is the condition of the homes, apartments, and dwellings in which the target audience lives? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each housing classification?
Incarceration Incarceration demographics report data on those persons imprisoned or confined. These data classify incarceration with other characteristics of a population (e.g., sex or age). In 2005, the United States led all other countries in the world in number of people incarcerated, with 2.2 million people incarcerated in state and federal prisons or local jails. China ranked second with 1.5 million people incarcerated. Estimates predict an increase of 200,000 more incarcerated men and women in the United States by 2011 (Pew Charitable Trusts, 2007).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the incarceration of individuals in a population (e.g., incarceration and race)? Classify the acts that cause persons to be incarcerated. What types of places are used to incarcerate people (e.g., jails, prisons, internment camps)? How many people are incarcerated? What types of people are incarcerated (e.g., women, men, youth)? Are there limitations, such as age or gender, in terms of who can be incarcerated? What percentage of the population is incarcerated? What are the ages, sex and length of time for incarcerated individuals? How are incarceration demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are total numbers of people in each incarceration classification?
Target Audience GQ What percentage of the target audience is incarcerated? What crimes did individuals in the target audience commit that resulted in incarceration? What are the ages, sex and length of time for incarcerated individuals in the target audience? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each incarceration classification?
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Income Internationally, the term may be referred to as earnings or revenue. Income demographics are monies or assets received for work, goods, services, and/or investments (Trumble & Stevenson, 2002a). Income or household income usually reflects all income earned by members of a household (USCB, 2005). Additional income in a household can come from alimony, social security, government subsidized monies, or retirement income. These data may classify income with other characteristics of a population (e.g., income and age). In Ireland, the average weekly earnings vary based on profession. In 2006, the average weekly earnings indicated the following salary trend: Prison officers earned $1,149.12; primary education, $831.11; secondary education, $998.67; banking and insurance workers, $829.25; manufacturing industry male, $624.45; manufacturing industry female, $451.12; and business, $644.70. Based on these earnings, it is apparent that women in the manufacturing industry are some of the lowest paid workers (Central Statistics Office Ireland, 2007). Wealth demographics can be determined by income and net worth. The complete picture of economic well-being may be calculated in the difference between assets and liabilities. Examples of assets include interest-earning accounts (savings, money market, certificate of deposit, checking, securities, bonds, etc.); stocks and mutual fund shares; rental property; mortgages for sale; business property; regular checking account; home ownership; other real estate; retirement accounts; and motor vehicles. Examples of liabilities include: secured Liabilities (broker accounts, mortgages on one’s own home, rental property or other real estate, debt on profession or business, vehicle loans, etc.), unsecured liabilities, credit cards, bills (doctor, dentist, hospital, nursing home), and loans (e.g., personal, educational; Orzechowski & Sepielli, 2003). Poverty demographics typically can be determined by income or total family income. For example in the United States, poverty is determined by poverty thresholds or income cutoffs; this means that if the total family income falls below the poverty threshold, the family is “considered to be in poverty” (Bishaw, 2005, p. 2). In the report of Participatory Poverty Assessment in Rwanda, Africa, poverty demographics are categorized as poverty and extreme poverty. Poverty is determined across social characteristics such as Umutindi nyakujya (those in abject poverty), Umutindi (the very poor), Umukene (the poor), Umukene wifashije (the resourceful poor), Umukungu (the food rich), and Umukire (the money rich; Howe & McKay, 2005).
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Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the income of a population (e.g., income and age)? What is the income or revenue earned (e.g., <$1,000, $1,000– $1,999)? Who works in the household? What is the median household income? What percentage of income or revenue is earned from work? How are income demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the wealth demographics of this society or culture? How is wealth determined? How many people are considered wealthy? What assets determine economic wealth? How many people own these assets? What types of liabilities exist in this society or culture? What are the poverty demographics of this society or culture? How is poverty determined? How many people are considered in poverty? Is poverty classified across social characteristics, and if so, what are these characteristics? How many people are in poverty across social characteristics?
Target Audience GQ What is the income or revenue earned by individuals in the target audience? Who works in the household of the target audience? What is the median household income of the target audience? What percentage of income or revenue is earned from work by the target audience? What are the wealth demographics for the target audience? How is wealth determined for the target audience? How many people are considered wealthy in the target audience? What assets determine the economic wealth of the target audience? How many people in the target audience own these assets? What types of liabilities exist in the culture of the target audience? What are the poverty demographics for the target audience? How is poverty determined by the target audience? How many of the target audience are considered in poverty? Is poverty classified across social characteristics by the target audience, and if so, what are these characteristics? What are the numbers of the target audience in poverty across social characteristics?
Lnguage Language demographics usually report the language or languages spoken at home, ability to speak the native language, and language competence (Shin & Bruno, 2003). These data help classify language with other characteristics of a population (e.g., language and race). The Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 Census reported that, other than English, there are five top languages spoken at home by Australians: Arabic, Cantonese, Italian, Greek, and Mandarin (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the language of a population (e.g., language and age)? What is the dominant language of the society or culture? What is the subordinate language or languages of the society or culture? What total of the population is fluent in the dominant language? What total of the population is fluent in the subordinate language or languages? How is fluency measured in this society (i.e., the ability to read, write, or speak)? How are language demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What is the native language of the target audience? How is fluency measured by the target audience (i.e., the ability to read, write, or speak)? What total of the target audience is fluent in the native language? What total of the target audience is fluent in the dominant language? How does the target audience feel about the number of people who know the dominant language versus their own language?
Marital Status Marital status demographics relate to an individual’s status or relationship to others. Classifications that define marital status may include: single, married, divorced, separated, engaged, widowed, never married, and living common-law (Kreider & Simmons, 2003). These classifications can be calculated based on the population for a society or culture. These data classify marital status with other characteristics of a population (e.g., marital status and mortality). In a study of 94,062 Japanese men and women aged 40–79, higher mortality rates were associated with those who were married versus those who were single, divorced, or widowed. These findings suggest that marriage provides social support and security and potentially leads to a healthier well-being for both partners (Ikeda et al., 2007).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the marital status of a population (e.g., marital status and household)? What are the numbers of people in each type of marital status? Is there a classification for marital status in this society or culture? What is the marital status of individuals in this society or culture? What do these figures mean in terms of number of individuals in this society or culture (e.g., only 10 % of the population is married)? How are marital demographics perceived in this society or culture? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Target Audience GQ Is there a classification of marital status for the target audience? What is the marital status of individuals in the target audience? What do these figures mean, for the target audience, in terms of number of individuals in this society or culture? What numbers of the target audience have a certain marital status or union?
Migration Migration demographics provide statistics on movement that crosses boundaries with jurisdictions. Population growth or decline is affected by migration. Locally and nationally, migration patterns are influenced by residential, domestic, or international migration patterns. Individuals migrate to improve economic levels or living conditions (Schachter, Franklin, & Perry, 2003). These data classify migration with other characteristics of a population (e.g., migration and race). In the United States, on the individual level, migrations may improve quality of living or increase economic opportunities (Schachter et al., 2003). In Canada, Canadian Aboriginal people have been leaving cities and migrating back to urban life since the 1980s. Their reasons for leaving are not based on economics alone but other social and political conditions. Canadian Aboriginal people have left for reasons such as the lack of affordable housing, stark contrasts between city life and the reserve communities, issues related to racism and discrimination, and the lack of a social network (Cooke, 2006).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the migration of a population (e.g., migration and age)? What are the migration patterns of people? What groups of people are migrating? What caused the migration? From what locations did people migrate? What were the reasons behind the migration? How many people in this society or culture are migrating? How are migration demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What are the migration patterns of the target audience? What caused the migrations of the target audience? From what locations did the target audience migrate? What were the reasons the target audience's migration? What are the total numbers of the target audience who have migrated?
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Mobility Mobility demographics refer to a person’s journey to work and the available number of paths to work. Those paths can be vehicles, public transportation, biking, walking, etc. These numbers provide an indication of what form of transportation is most used, least used, developing, and where transportation access is needed by a society or culture. These data classify mobility with other characteristics of a population (e.g., mobility and race). Improving mobility means enabling trade and easing travel. The effort to improve mobility is exemplified by the building of a 4,560-km trans-West African coastal highway that spans 15 nations from Nouakchott, Mauritania, to Lagos, Nigeria. This project links a unifying highway through West African countries (Madamombe, 2006).2
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the mobility of a population (e.g., sex, age, race, housing)? How do people travel? How many ways can they get to work, school, and so forth? What are the numbers of people who travel? How are mobility demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ How does the target audience travel? How many ways can they get to work, school, etc? What are the numbers of the target audience who travel by walking, bike, car, boat, etc? How does the target audience perceive their mobility in this society or culture?
Occupation Occupation demographics refer to activities in that an individual spends their time in employment. Some classifications of occupations include: management, professional, service, sales, office, farming, fishing, forestry, construction, and transportation (Fronczek & Johnson, 2003). These data determine the applicability of occupation with other characteristics of a population (e.g., occupation and age). In 2007, youth (ages 15–24) employment in developing countries became a critical issue for economic performance. Haiti’s employment data indicated that 47.4% of the youth were unemployed and that half were not enrolled in school (Justesen & Verner, 2007). Youth in sub-Saharan Africa make up 63% of the unemployed. The challenges for these countries consist of creating employment for youth amid Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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other issues such as poverty, teen pregnancy, violence, migration, illiteracy, and gender bias (Justesen & Verner, 2007; Mutume, 2006).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the occupation of a population (e.g., occupation and age)? What work do individuals perform in this society or culture? What duties and activities do individuals perform in their work? How are these positions viewed by the society? Is there a status level in terms of occupations in this society? At what age are people employable? Does having an occupation matter? How are occupation demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of people in each occupation classification?
Target Audience GQ What work do individuals in the target audience perform? What duties and activities do individuals in the target audience perform in their work? How are these positions viewed by the target audience? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each occupation classification?
Race Race demographics refer to data from a group of people who may share common features (Trumble & Stevenson, 2002b). Individuals self identify their race based on their most closely identified race or races. These data classify race with other characteristics of a population (e.g., race and mobility). The 2000 U.S. Census has defined seven categories of race: White, Black or African American, Hispanic or Latino, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, and other race. The 2000 U.S. Census refers to people having origins with any of the original peoples of Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East as White. This racial group includes people who indicated their race or races as White or wrote in entries such as Irish, Italian, German, Arab, Lebanese, Near Easterner, or Polish (Grieco & Cassidy, 2001).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the race of a population (e.g., race and housing)? Are there defined categories of race? What common features exist among groups of people from the same race? How are racial demographics perceived
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in this society or culture? What is the number of people in each racial category? What total of the population is in each racial category?
Target Audience GQ Are all individuals in the target audience from the same race? What common racial features exist in the target audience? What are the defined categories of race in the target audience? How are racial classifications perceived in the target audience? What are the numbers of the target audience in each race classification? What total of the target audience is in each racial category?
Sex Sex demographics usually refer to female or male. These demographics may focus on reproductive abilities. These data classify sex with other characteristics of a population (e.g., sex and households, sex and income). The Philippine 2000 Census-Based Population Projections estimate that the Philippine population will grow from 76.5 million in 2000 to 141.7 million by 2040. This growth would result in an older aging population, improved health across the nation and decreases in the number of childbearing women (National Statistics Office, 2007).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the sex of a population (e.g., sex and income)? What are the reproductive characteristics of males (e.g., fertile, infertile, sterile)? What are the reproductive characteristics of females? Is one sex more dominant than the other, or are they equal, and why? How many sexes exist? What are the total numbers of people in each sex category (e.g., sex and marriage)? How are sex demographics perceived in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What are the reproductive characteristics of males in the target audience? What are the reproductive characteristics of females in the target audience? Is one sex, of the target audience, more dominant than another or are they equal and why? What are the total numbers of target audience in each sex category?
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Size Size demographics relates to the number of individuals in a population. These data assist with defining the overall size of a population and classifying size with other characteristics of a population (e.g., size and growth). As reported in 2006, by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the size of the population of Australians with citizenship amounted to 86.1% or 17,095,569 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007).
Culture GQ What characteristics should be considered with the size of a population (e.g., size and family, size and household? What are the sizes of the various populations? Does the size of the population matter in the growth of the society? How are size demographics perceived in this society or culture? What are the total numbers of people in each sex classification?
Target Audience GQ What is the size of the target population? What is the size of the target audience in relation to others? Does the size of the target audience impact social, political, or economic conditions? What are the total numbers of the target audience in each size classification?
Cultural Environment E7. Cultural Environment - Physical and social conditions in which a human being, or other species or entity lives and develops. Cultural environment is the physical and social conditions in which a human being, other species or entity lives and develops. It is a functioning unit.
Types of Physical Environments The physical environment is the space in which societies and cultures exist and grow (Robinson-Caskie, 2006). It is usually comprised of two worlds: the natural and human made. The natural world includes land, water, climate, plants, animals, insects, other species, and entities of the planet’s biosphere. The human-made Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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world includes buildings, houses, dwellings, roadways, technologies, mechanical systems, transportation systems, communication systems, and so forth. The world of natural and human-made environments is vast, and it can be complex given the level of development of a society or culture (Germain & Bloom, 1999). The physical environment impacts the organisms that exist within its natural and human-made worlds. Habitats within the environment must maintain equilibrium to best serve its inhabitants (Germain & Bloom, 1999)
Natural World • • • • • •
Climate Air Landforms Water Plants Populations
The natural world includes the climate, air, land, water, plants, and populations (animals, human beings, other species, and entities) of the planet’s biosphere (Germain & Bloom, 1999). These features of a planet are linked to create a dynamic environmental system. •
•
Climate: Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their natural world (Robinson-Caskie, 2006). Typical types of ecological environments on the planet Earth include: tropical rain forest, savanna, desert, temperate, and arctic region/tundra. The tropical rainforest is characterized by year-round rainfall and excessive plant growth. Extreme rain in the summer and dry winters characterize the savanna. The desert is marked by an excessively hot climate with no rain or rain up to 12 inches. Temperature zones have cold winters and warm summers. The artic/tundra is known for its cold temperatures that do not exceed 50° Fahrenheit and permanently frozen land also called permafrost (Robinson-Caskie, 2006). The weather or physical features of the atmosphere can be observed from elements such as clouds, humidity, pressure, precipitation, temperature, visibility, and wind. Other physical features of a planet’s atmosphere may include dust, smoke, rain, dew, frost, fog, hail, lightning, and snow (McGraw-Hill, 2005). Air: Air is a “predominately mechanical mixture of a variety of individual gases enveloping the terrestrial globe to form the atmosphere” (McGraw-Hill, 2005, p.10). The life zone, at the face of the planet Earth is formed by three components: air (atmosphere), water (hydrosphere), and land (lithosphere; McGraw-Hill, 2005).
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•
•
•
•
Landforms: Landforms are the surface formations and landscape of a planet. Capes, elevations, islands, plateau, and soil types are examples of landforms (Hutchinson, 2004). Water: Water is a liquid substance. On the planet earth, water covers 73% of the Earth’s surface. These water surfaces consist of oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers. Over 97% of this water is found in oceans and connecting seas. There are four ocean basins on the planet – Pacific, Atlantic, Indian & Artic. A lake is body of water located inland. Lakes range in size; smaller lakes may be called ponds, pools, meres, or tarns (located in mountains). Rivers are streams of fresh water; they are much larger in volume than their tributaries that are called branches, brooks, creeks or forks. Rivers capture the runoff from land; serve as main stems of drainage; and act as mouths for lakes, oceans, and desert basin discharges (McGraw-Hill, 2005). Plants: Plants or vegetation are the green mantle of plants. Vegetation is absent in very dry or cold areas. Plants may be arranged in a small or large geographic area, depending on ecological conditions. The varieties of plant species found on a planet are known as the flora of a region. Plants need water, light and the appropriate climate temperature. The normal growth cycle of plants happens through temporal changes related to changes in the season (DeVasconcelos, 2006). Populations: Populations refer to animals, human beings, other species, and entities. The population of a society or culture is important to its sustainability. For human beings, considerations of a population may examine those living, deceased, and yet to be born. A historical account of a population may look at the population of an area at a particular period in history. Then projections may need to be made to determine population growth in particular areas paralleled against those who are or who will be deceased (Mebratu, 2006).
Culture GQ What are the physical features of this natural world? Specifically, describe the climate, air, land, water, plants, and populations of the planet’s biosphere? How do these physical features interact and exist in the environment?
Target Audience GQ What are the physical features of the natural world that directly impacts the target audience? How does the target audience interact with the planet’s biosphere (i.e., climate, air, land, water, plants, and populations)? Is the target audience connected in any way to the natural world (e.g., physically or spiritually)? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Merging the Natural and Human-Made Worlds Conditions of the physical environment intersect with those that are natural made and human made worlds. The physical environment can experience global environmental change based on human activities. The planet earth is experiencing changes that influence physical, chemical and biological worlds. Climate changes are one of the most prevalent physical changes to the planet earth. Global temperatures are increasingly warming the earth; this is causing the disappearance of glaciers on every continent. The loss of glaciers could worsen water supplies in water-deprived areas. Chemical changes are caused by a variety of “persistent organic pollutants” and “toxic synthetic chemicals” (Cunningham, W. P., 2003, p. 457-8). Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are an organic compound composed of fluorine, carbon, hydrogen and chlorine; they were used as aerosol propellants, cleaning solvents, refrigerants, and foam-blowing agents. CFCs replaced the more toxic chemicals; however in the mid 1970s, CFCs were found to cause depletion of the ozone layer that protects the earth from ultraviolet rays (Bortman, Brimblecombe, Cunningham, Cunningham, & Freedman, 2003). One of the most important biological changes on the planet earth is the loss of species due to conditions such as pollution, destruction of habitats and the harvesting of commercially desired species. The extinction of ¼ of the world’s species is taxomonists greatest fear and could result in an ecological disaster (Bortman et al., 2003). Other examples of physical environmental conditions that affect the planet earth include:
air and water pollution; glacial ice melts; rising ocean levels; changes in animal behavior and migration patterns; species extinction, habitat destruction and degradation; new species introduced into environment; depletion of clean water, energy, fertile soil, and living organisms; (Bortman et al., 2003); urbanization, deforestation; industrialization (Rounsevell, 2006); and population explosion (Mebratu, 2006).
Culture GQ What environmental conditions are prevalent in this society or culture? How are these environmental conditions specific to physical, chemical, or biological changes in the planet? Which environmental conditions are most detrimental to the planet? What is being done about the environmental conditions? Have physical environmental conditions caused changes in human beings? Have chemical environmental conditions caused changes in human beings? Have biological environmental conditions caused changes in human beings? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 9.1. China’s administrative structure in 2003 (Adapted from Structure of the State, 2008)
Target Audience GQ What environmental conditions are prevalent in this society or culture that directly affect the target audience? How are these environmental conditions specific to physical, chemical, or biological changes in the planet? Have physical environmental conditions caused changes in the target audience? Have chemical environmental conditions caused changes in the target audience? Have biological environmental conditions caused changes in the target audience? Which environmental conditions are most detrimental to the target audience? What has the target audience done about these environmental conditions?
Human-Made World • • •
Structures Technology Social
The human-made world consists of structures, technology, and social environments; it is a society. A society is a group of people who share commonalities that are understood by all and collectively inhabit a particular physical area (Germain & Bloom, 1999; Segall, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Every society has a culture or ways of being, doing and thinking. This culture shapes societies behavior (Ember & Ember, 1996; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Sructures To function in a society, individuals must engage its structure, and most societies have a known structure. Structures are composed of multilevels and lateral areas of complexity. Structures that form societies include legal, political, economic, educational, or religious. An example of a Western legal structure is the combination of federal level, state level, and local levels of government with corresponding courts and legal officials (lawyers, judges, sheriffs, police officers, probation officers, etc.; Germain & Bloom, 1999). Figure 9.1 illustrates a flowchart of the Central Organizations of the Communist Party of China in 2003 (Structure of the State, 2008).
Culture GQ What structures exist in this society or culture? How do these structures form this society? Who created these structures? How are these structures organized and by whom?
Target Audience GQ What structures in this society or culture were created by the target audience? What structures directly affect the lives of the target audience?
Technology All societies and cultures construct forms of technology. These technologies vary according to the development of the society. Technologies in a human-made society are multileveled and have multidimensional levels of complexity. The human-made world includes technologies of: engineering, health and safety, industry, information, science, and transportation. For example, in any given metropolis, there are highways, roads, and streets that intersect; the transportation roadways represent human ingenuity. Another example is the global Internet structure interconnected by computer networks used for data transmission; here, human ingenuity becomes multileveled and multidimensional. Figure 9.2 simulates a snapshot of the internets structure of computer networks. In 2008, the technologies of modern society could be classified as disciplines of human-made technologies. Table 9.1 provides a quick overview of the technological innovation and capabilities of this world. A similar table might be created by designers who are building fictionalized worlds or for researchers who are projecting into the future the structure of society in the year 2100. This table answers the question: What technologies does this society possess? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 9.2. Visualization of Internet structure
Table 9.1. Disciplines of human-made technologies Disciplines Engineering
Technology Aerospace, agricultural, architectural, audio, automotive, biochemical, biological, biomedical, broadcast, ceramic, chemical, civil, computer, construction, cryogenic, electrical, electronic, environmental, financial, fire safety, food, industrial, marine, materials, mechanical, metallurgical, mining, naval, nuclear, optical, petroleum, safety, sanitary, software, structural, systems, textile, tissue, transportation
Health and safety
Bioinformatics, biotechnology, fire protection, health, nutrition, pharmaceutical
Industry
Construction, manufacturing, machinery, mining
Information
Communication, graphics, music technology, speech recognition, visual technology
Science
Artificial intelligence, ceramic engineering, computer, electronics, energy, environmental, fisheries, microtechnology, nanotechnology, nuclear, optics, zoography
Transportation
Aerospace, motor vehicle, space
Culture GQ What technologies have been developed by this society or culture? Who created these technologies? What is the purpose of these technologies? How have humans benefited from the development of these technologies? How have humans been harmed by the development of these technologies? Has the environment been harmed by these technologies? How have other species benefited or have been harmed by these technologies? How are these technologies used by humans? What does the development of these technologies say about this society or culture?
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Target Audience GQ What technologies have been developed by the target audience? Has the target audience created any of these technologies? What is the purpose of the technologies created by the target audience? How has the target audience benefited from the development of technologies? How has the target audience been harmed by the development of technologies? Has the environment been harmed by technologies the target audience developed? How have other species benefited or been harmed by technologies the target audience developed? How are these technologies used by the target audience? What does the development of these technologies say about the target audience?
Social The social environment is the space in which human beings exist and interact. It is made up of dyads, pairs, small groups, families, neighborhoods, enclaves, communities, organizations, support structures, social space and time, and formal structures (e.g., workplaces, religious affiliations, health care systems, education systems, political structures, economic structures, military systems). For humans, the social environment is composed of other human beings, not just themselves. This means that social environments are contingent upon human beings interacting with other human beings. Physical environments aid in shaping social environments (Germain & Bloom, 1999). Humans are social beings; therefore, characterizing the human-made world in social contexts must be considered. Socialization aids human development and growth. There are various types of groups and groupings and a few are explained in these examples (Germain & Bloom, 1999). Dyads/pairs consist of a two-person group. This could be a married couple, parent and child, two friends, client-workers, tutor tutee, and so forth. Within dyad/pairs, there is ongoing communication. Knowledge of the other is known. Expectations are present; however they may or may not be explicit. Each is aware of their part in the relationship (Germain & Bloom, 1999). Small groups are characterized as a group of people who interact over a period of time. The group structure consists of behaviors that are interpersonal and expected group behaviors. They may often accomplish a goal or meet for a particular purpose. Small groups receive and provide support to its members. Typical examples are families, peer groups, small enclaves, or small work groups (Germain & Bloom, 1999).
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Communities in this context are those specific to place; this may include a neighborhood, village, enclave, or district. The people who live and participate in these communities have common values, beliefs, interests, behaviors, and social networks. They may also share a sense of belonging to the community (Germain & Bloom, 1999). Support structures serve as support networks. Relatives, friends, and neighbors serve as an initial group for support networks. These support networks may provide long- or short -term resources or services, guidance, tangible assistance (e.g., loan a car), emotional support, or feedback. Self-help groups may also serve as support structures for individuals who have a specialized topic to share and who need emotional support (e.g., Mothers Against Drunk Drivers;, Alcoholics Anonymous). Formal structures serve to solve physical and social environmental problems and to handle internal and external challenges of the organization. The complexity and challenges of the organization warrants the hiring of an administrative team and support personnel. Formal organizations usually have a set of rules, policies, procedures, or regulations that aid in quality control of operations, management, service, and personnel. Modern societies are dominated by formal organizations. Informal groupings develop within formal organizations (Germain & Bloom, 1999). Types of social environmental conditions that develop from social environments include racism, oppression, humiliation, genocide, segregation (e.g., employment and housing), sexism, and homophobia.
Culture GQ What is the social environment of this society or culture? What types of social groups are prevalent in this society or culture? How has the physical environment aided in shaping the social environment? How do these social groups aid this society or culture? What social environmental conditions exist in this society or culture? How have these social environmental conditions been addressed or resolved?
Target Audience GQ What is the social environment of the target audience? What types of social groups are prevalent in the target audience’s community? How has the physical environment aided in shaping the target audience? How do these social groups assist the target audience? What social environmental conditions exist that affect the target audience? What are the target audience’s beliefs about their social environment?
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References Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2007). Selected 2006 census facts and figures. Sydney, Australia: Author. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from the World Wide Web: http:// www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/d3310114.nsf/4a256353001af3ed4b2562bb00121564/ 5d3cc840c7bcef0bca2573410017db9a!OpenDocument Bauman, K. I., & Graf, K. L. (2003, August). Educational attainment: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief No. 24). Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/index.html Bishaw, A. (2005, July). Areas with concentrated poverty: 1999. Census 2000 special reports. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/censr16.pdf Bortman, M., Brimblecombe, P., Cunningham, M. A., Cunningham, W. P., & Freedman, W. (2003). Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed., Vol. 1). Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group. Central Statistics Office Ireland. (2007). Principal CSO statistics. Cork, Ireland: Author. Retrieved December 30, 2007, from http://www.cso.ie/statistics/earnings. htm Cooke, M., & Bélanger, D. (2006, May). Migration theories and first nations mobility: Towards a systems perspective. Canadian Review of Sociology & Anthropology, 43(2), 141-164. Cunningham, W. P. (2003). Energy and the environment. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed.), 1, 457-458. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group. Department for Education and Skills. (2006). Ethnicity and education: The evidence on minority ethnic pupils aged 5–16. (Research Topic Paper, 2006 ed.). Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/ethnicminorities/ DeVasconcelos, M. P. (2006). Vegetation. In H. Geist (Ed.), Our earth’s changing land: An encyclopedia of land-use and land-cover change, 2, 638-642. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Ember, C. R., & Ember, M. (1996). Cultural anthropology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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Fronczek, P., & Johnson, P. (2003, August). Occupations: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief No. 25). Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www. census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-25.pdf Germain, C. B., & Bloom, M. (1999). Human behavior in the social environment: An ecological view (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Grieco, E. M., & Cassidy, R. C. (2001, March). Overview of race and Hispanic origin (Census2000 Brief No. 01-1). Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/index.html Heilig, G., Fischer, G., & van Velthuizen, H. (2000). Can China feed itself? An analysis of China’s food prospects with special reference to water resources, 7, 153-172. Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. Howe, G., & McKay, A. (2007). Combining quantitative and qualitative methods in assessing chronic poverty: The case of Rwanda. World Development, 35(2), 197-211. Hutchinson. (2004). The Huchinson dictionary of science. Abingdon, England: Helicon Publishing Limited. Ikeda, A., Iso, H., Toyoshima, H., Fujino, Y., Mizoue, T., Yoshimura, T., et al. (2007). Marital status and mortality among Japanese men and women: The Japan Collaborative Cohort Study [electronic version]. BMC Public Health, 7(73). Retrieved December 4, 2007, from http://www.biomedicalcentral.com/1471-2458/7/73 Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. (2007, December 21). Population count: IBGE finds 11.4 thousand persons aged 100 or over in the municipalities surveyed. Brasilia, Brazil: Author. Retrieved December 28, 2007, from http://www1. ibge.gov.br/english/ Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). (2006). 2006 Report of the global AIDS epidemic: A UNAIDS 10th anniversary special edition. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.unaids.org/en/HIV_data/2006GlobalReport/default. asp Justesen, M., & Verner, D. (2007). Factors impacting youth development in Haiti. (World Bank Policy Research Paper No. 4110). Washington, DC: The World Bank. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://econ.worldbank.org Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Kimani, M. (2007, January). Congolese women confront legacy of rape. Africa Renewal, 20(4), 4-7. Kreider, R. M., & Simmons, T. (2003, October). Marital status: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief No. 30). Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www. census.gov/prod/cen2000/index.html Lazer, W. (1994). Handbook of demographics for marketing & advertising: New trends in the American marketplace. New York: Lexington Books. Madamombe, I. (2006, October). Highways link 15 West African countries. Africa Renewal, 20(3), 14-15. Marcelin, L. H. (2006). Diseases. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 2, 750–751. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. McGraw-Hill. (2005). McGraw-Hill concise encylopedia of earth science. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Mebratu, B. K. (2006). Population explosion. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 4, 1901-1907. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Meyer, J. (2001, October). Age: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief No. 01-12). Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/ index.html Mutume, G. (2006, October). Wanted: jobs for Africa’s youth. Africa Renewal, 20(3), 6-9. National Statistics Office. (2007). Table 4: Projected populations by five-year age group and sex, by region and province, and by five-calendar years: 2000–2040. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov.ph/data/sectordata/popproj_tab4r.html Orzechowski, S., & Sepielli, P. (2003, May). Net worth and asset ownership of households: 1998 and 2000. Household economic studies (Current Population Report No. P70-88). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p70-88.pdf Pew Charitable Trusts. (2007, June). Public safety, public spending: Forecasting America’s prison population 2007–2011. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www. pewcenteronthestates.org/report_detail.aspx?id=32076
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Republic of Uganda. (2002, December). Uganda participatory poverty assessment process: Second participatory poverty assessment report—Deepening the understanding of poverty. Retrieved December 4, 2007, from www.w1.co.ug/uppap/index.php Robinson-Caskie, E. E. (2006). Environments. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 2, 822-826. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Rounsevell, M. (2006). Global environmental change. In H. Geist (Ed.), Our earth’s changing land: An encyclopedia of land-use and land-cover change, 1, 254-256). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education Company. Schachter, J. P., Franklin, R. S., & Perry, M. J. (2003, August). Migration and geographic mobility in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan America: 1995 to 2000 (Census 2000 Special Reports No. CENSR-9). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/censr-9.pdf Shin, H. B., & Bruno, R. (2003, August). Language use and English-speaking ability: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief No. 29). Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdf Simmons, T., & O’Neill, G. (2001, September). Households and families: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief No. 01-8). Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/index.html Singapore Department of Statistics. (2006, June). Singapore household balance sheet: 2005 Update and recent trends. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www. singstat.gov.sg/pubn/papers/economy.html Structure of the State (2008). Chart of the Central Organizations of the CPC. Retrieved July 11, 2008, 2008, from http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/ state_structure/64404.htm Statistics Bureau of Japan. (2000). 2000 population census of Japan. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/ Trumble, W. R., & Stevenson, A. (2002a). Shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles (5th ed., Vol. 1). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Trumble, W. R., & Stevenson, A. (2002b). Shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles (5th ed. Vol. 2). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. United Nations. (2003). World fertility report: 2003. New York: Author. Retrieved December 27, 2007, from the World Wide Web at http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/worldfertility/World_Fertility_Report.htm United Nations Statistics Division. (2007, September 28). 2007 Swaziland population and housing census. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/2010_PHC/Swaziland/Swaziland_more.htm United States Census Bureau. (2005). Summary file 1: 2000 Census of population and housing—Technical documentation. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DatasetMainPageServlet United States Census Bureau. (2007a). International data base. Country summary: Andorra. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/country/anportal.html United States Census Bureau. (2007b). International data base. Country summary: China. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/country/chportal.html
Endnotes
1 2
These questions were informed by Marcelin, 2006. This transportation system is the vision of Africans for Africa and supported by the New Partnership for Africa’s Development.
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Chapter X
CBM Elements IV
This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the anthropology of culture. Cultural history is covered in its entirety.
Cultural History E8. Cultural History - Narrative representation of historical events. Cultural history covers these types of history: artistic, agricultural, crime, disease, economic, educational, ethnic, familial, gender, geographic, health, legal, linguistic, political, racial, religious, reproduction, science, sexual intercourse, social, time periods. Cultural history is a narrative representation of events. This history is comprehensive in that it includes many of the histories that have been written by or about a population. Histories serve to preserve the past, tell the stories of human beings, record information, and chronicle a legacy. The point of building or researching a cultural history, according to Burke (2004), is to explore new facets of history and re-evaluate the old.1 Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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A cultural history is a universal history that includes all information that is discovered. This information can be gathered from a variety of sources including primary source documents, secondary source documents, oral histories, interviews, artifacts, and other forms of media. Within the larger society, histories may be recorded or chronicled by historians, writers, scribes, or other persons who are known to possess knowledge or who can interpret knowledge. Other histories may be documented by local inhabitants. Locate histories written about the population from people who live in and outside of the society or culture. Oral histories, that are recorded personal narratives of everyday people, may also be acquired. These histories aid in obtaining a balanced representation and can further authenticate historical representations. If these histories do not exist, then this weakness may become evident in the design. Access multiple media formats (pamphlets [e.g., religious, fraternal], radio, newspapers, magazines, books, television, documentaries, local historical societies, etc.) to compile these histories. There are also other methods for gathering historical data such as chronology, cliometrics, demographics, genealogy, and historiography.
Artistic An artistic history is represented through the creative expression evident in a society, culture or a particular target audience. These forms of creative expression manifest in a variety of forms such as dance, painting, music, theatre, and sculpture) that are aesthetically pleasing to others. Art can serve a variety of functions in a society. It is a form of artistic expression for the artist. The observer of the art receives personal satisfaction. For example, many Westerners receive personal satisfaction from attending musical concerts, dramatic plays and museum exhibits. (See Cultural Aesthetics for more on art). A society’s longevity is represented in its art. Art serves to communicate the ideologies of a society. This is exemplified in many cultures where art is integral to religion and politics. Artwork serves many religious and social themes, as it is represented in temples, churches, and synagogues. Art may also serve as a form of social control. In many ancient societies, the construction of ziggurats, pyramids, temples and cathedrals were visual representations of God’s power and the power of the society’s rulers (Ferraro, 2004). Art may preserve or challenge the status quo. In many societies, the ownership of art is a symbol of high status and thereby preserves the status quo of art as something that is owned by the elite. When art challenges the status quo, other dynamics of that society merge, such as political strife and social reform. In Jiddah, Saudi Arabia, male youth engaged in spray painting the city with graffiti. The youths’ outrage was that they did not have anything to do in their spare time, and they were not allowed in the malls without a female Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 10.1 Aborigine artwork
companion. Saudi Arabia regulates a strict form of Islam. The graffiti represented protest for more of what youth in the West had in terms of basketball courts, soccer fields, and the freedom to dress as they please. The most notorious of the taggers, Abdullah Al-Alwani, a young man who calls himself “X5,” said in an interview that he wanted to stand out from his friends. The youth regularly communicated through chat rooms on the Internet and shared other photographs from graffiti work they admired (Ambah, 2007). Stylistic conventions, as a form of artistic expression, can include significance in colors, geometric designs, or abstract designs (Proimos, 2006). The use of geometric designs is readily apparent in the traditional artwork of Australian aborigines, as they use dots that are configured into geometric shapes. Figure 10.1 depicts a computer generated example of this art work. Art may represent any social, moral or religious values. “Polynesian chiefs adorn themselves with tattoos; these tattoos symbolize their status level and birth right position ” (Ferraro, 2004). Examples of styles and other artistic representations include: body decoration (e.g., tattooing, painting and adorning the body with jewelry, scarification); painting; weaving; basket making carving (with wood, ivory, soapstone, bone, horn, marble, etc.); ceramic art; sculpting (e.g., metal glass, clay); architecture; printmaking. Clothing and weapons are other examples of artistic artifacts (Ferraro, 2004). Other art forms include: verbal arts (folklore, myths, legends); visual arts (film, video); performance arts (theatre, dance, music). Writing may also be seen as a form of art in a society. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Culture GQ What is the history of art in this society or culture? What are examples of art in this society or culture? Does art serve as a form of personal satisfaction? Does art serve as a form of social control? Does art preserve or challenge the status quo? How do artists perceive their art? How does society perceive the artist? Who decides what is or isn’t art (e.g., a professional art organization, general public, other artists)? Whose interests does art serve in this society? Does a style of art exist? Does this style represent any social, moral, or religious values? Who has access to art? Who owns the artwork? Who creates the artwork? Is art an integral part of this society, and if so, in what way? From what class level does the artist or artisan come? What purpose does art serve in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What examples of art made by the target audience exist? Does art serve a form of personal satisfaction for the target audience? Does art serve as a form of social control for the target audience? Does the target audience’s artwork preserve or challenge the status quo? How does the target audience perceive their art? How does the target audience perceive the artist? Does the target audience possess a style of art? Does the artistic style of the target audience represent any social, moral, or religious values? Does the target audience have access to art? Does the target audience own the artwork? Who in the target audience creates the artwork? Is art an integral part of the target audiences culture and if so, in what way?
Agricultural An agricultural history records the way of life that involves agriculture. Farming consists of the cultivation of land, growing of crops, and tending of cattle. There are five categories for food procurement: •
Food collection involves the hunting of animals and gathering of wild plants in the natural environment. Generally, societies that engage in food collecting have a low population density (i.e., the concentration of people within a specific portion of a defined or per unit area) because increasing food collection methods could result in destroying food sources. Food-collecting societies are referred to as nomadic or semi-nomadic, meaning that they frequently move to different locations to hunt for game and acquire vegetation (Ferraro, 2004). In contrast, food producers are more sedentary.
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•
•
•
•
Horticulture involves the use of hand tools for farming (i.e., no machines or animal-driven machinery), small land plots, and human labor. This type of farming is the simplest, and it is usually characterized by the technique of manually cutting down anything growing on the land, burning the land, and then planting on the burned land. The types of crops attended to by horticultural societies tend to be seed crops (e.g., barley, wheat, corn, rice oats), tree crops (e.g., plantains, dates, figs, bananas, coconuts), and root crops (e.g., potatoes, yams, arrowroots, taro). However, horticulturalists may also supplement their crops by engaging in hunting and gathering, raising domesticated animals (e.g., pigs, goats, cows, donkeys, horses), and fishing (Ferraro, 2004). Pastoralism, as a method of food production, involves raising domesticated herd animals (e.g., cattle, yaks, goats, sheep) and using their products as a source of food (e.g., milk, blood, meat). However, pastoralists may supplement their crops with agriculture or grains. They may produce crafts for sale or trade to obtain the foods they need. Livestock serves multiple functions in that they provide bone (for tools and artifacts), skin (for clothing), urine (as an antiseptic), and dung (for fuel, house building, and fertilizer). Livestock may play many roles in a culture related to marriage, religion, and social control; livestock may be exchanged as part of a marriage commitment or sacrificed to gods. (Ferraro, 2004). Agriculture is a more efficient form of cultivation because it uses animal power (e.g., oxen, horses), mechanical power (e.g., tractors, reapers), and irrigation methods to bring water to crops. Tending to agriculture requires a large investment in human labor and the purchase and maintenance of livestock and machines (e.g., plows, mechanical pumps) (Ferraro, 2004). Industrialization, in terms of food production, refers to the sources of energy generated by technology. Early forms of these machines were waterwheels and windmills. However, today, motorized equipment such as combines and tractors are used. Modern agriculture has been influenced by the science of chemistry—that has increased productivity through the use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers (Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ What land is used for the cultivation of agriculture in this society or culture? What crops are planted, grown, or harvested? What animals are tended? Do animals serve a purpose in this society or culture (e.g., food, protection, skin used for shelter, recreation, worship)? What method of food procurement best describes this society or culture? What foods are produced for mass consumption?
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Target Audience GQ What land is used for the cultivation of agriculture by the target audience? What crops are planted, grown, or harvested by the target audience? Does the target audience tend any animals? What purpose do animals serve for the target audience (e.g., food, protection, skin used for shelter, recreation, worship)? What foods are eaten by the target audience? What method of food procurement is used by the target audience?
Crime Crime history chronicles actions that are prohibited by laws, rules, or codes governing a society, culture or particular target audience. Crime is a deliberate act to commit an unlawful or unacceptable offense usually against an individual, group, community, or state. These acts typically have consequences. Within a society, crime or any system of criminal justice is included in an examination of its crime history. The history of crime should be chronological and should accurately represent data gathered through a variety of sources (Seklecki, 2006). In organizing a crime history, there is a need to determine the chronological period and the geographical area. A crime history may examine crime patterns, crimes against person or property, characteristics of criminals, administers of the law, law enforcement, court systems, indictments, trials, or punishments (Gibson, 1994). Blogging became a criminal offense in Egypt because it allowed the open and critical discourse of the country’s political structure and religious ideals. In 2007, Egyptian bloggers were jailed for what were considered criminal acts, such as insulting the regime of President Hosni Mubarak, criticizing the Islamic religion, and reporting on sexual assaults against women (Lynfield, 2007).
Culture GQ (Individual, System, Deviancy) Individual2: Who commits crimes in this society or culture? Why do certain human beings commit crimes? What is the reasoning behind criminal acts committed by individuals? Are acts of crime gender specific? What crimes are committed by males? What crimes are committed by females? Are the penalties for crimes the same for men and women? What crimes are committed by juveniles or teenage youth? What punishments are specific to youth who commit crimes? What groups commit most of the crimes or deviant acts, and why might this be so? What is the history of crime in this society or culture? What behavior is considered a crime? What behavior is considered illegal (e.g., practicing witchcraft)? Who determines what behavior is a deviant act or a crime? What structure is in place to Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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deal with offenders of crimes? Are some crimes more offensive than others, and how is this determined? How does the society, culture, community, or nation view a person with a criminal history? What terms are used to describe criminal acts (e.g., homicide, theft, larceny, drug trafficking, assault, rape) What is the penalty for crimes? What terms are used to classify crimes (e.g., misdemeanor, felony)? What punishments are given for specific crimes? What crimes are considered less offensive? What crimes are stigmatized? How does this society or culture determine innocence or guilt? In what facilities, are those accused of crimes held or kept captive (e.g., prisons, jails, internment camps, etc.)? Are there separate facilities for men, women, youth, and children? Is there a means or system of repentance or reform? Is race a variable in determining those who commit crimes, those who are accused of crimes, or those held in captivity? Is ethnicity a variable? Is class a variable? Are criminal trials part of this system? Who administers the penal law? Who enforces law and how? Deviancy: What is believed to be the cause of deviancy in this society or culture? Does social class determine deviancy? Does social interaction determine deviancy (e.g., socialization with gangs or other deviant groups)? Does biology determine deviancy (e.g., issues of mental health, genetic predisposition)? Does intelligence determine deviancy? Are supernatural entities responsible for deviancy?
Target Audience GQ What is the history of crime for the target audience? What criminal acts have been committed by the target audience? What penalties have been inflicted upon the target audience for committing crimes? Are acts of crime specific to gender for the target audience? What is believed to be the cause of the target audience’s deviancy, if any? How has the target audience been victims of crime? What does committing a criminal act mean to the target audience? What does the target audience believe to be the reason for criminal acts? What does the target audience believe about crime in their society or culture?
Disease Disease develops when there are new environments for contagion and exposure. Contagion and exposure are increased with humans’ ability to travel intercontinentally, migration to different parts of the world, destruction of forests for land appropriation, unprotected sexual activity, congested cities, and technological developments. The medical technological development of soft contact lenses for corrective vision caused an increase in eye infections attributed by the virus acanthamebiasis (Miller, 2002). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Other types of infectious diseases prevalent in the history of diseases across the planet Earth include: measles, typhus, smallpox, syphilis, leprosy, malaria, cholera, and HIV/AIDS. Of note, cholera was spread through contaminated food and water. Some diseases are caused or increased through construction and urban renewal; for example, tuberculosis, schistosomiasis. Schistosomiasis is a disease where a parasitic worm invades the blood system. It is known to crop up in environments where new dam projects have been constructed (Miller, 2002). Sickle cell disease (SCD) has traditionally been known as a disease that affects only people of African descent. However, it is less a disease of race than geography. This genetic mutation originally developed as a “defense against malaria,” and it is found in climates that are tropical or subtropical (Whitsett, 2006, p. 7). Corsicans, Greeks, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Sardinians, Sicilians, and Turks have also been affected by SCD. The disease is contracted through both parents who are carriers of the sickle cell trait. Modern treatments help to prolong the life of SCD sufferers well into middle age (Whitsett, 2006).
Culture GQ3 What is the history of disease in this society or culture? What diseases are most prevalent or those that have caused the most destruction? What new infectious diseases exist? How did these diseases develop? What were the causes of these diseases? What social patterns contribute to the spread of disease? What cultural practices contribute to the spread of disease? What environmental practices contribute to the spread of disease? How has disease contributed to depopulation? Has social inequality contributed to the spread of diseases? Have power differentials between the wealthy and the poor contributed to the spread of diseases? Has human error contributed to diseases of other humans and/or animals? What global health programs are in place to curtail the worldwide spread of diseases? What local health programs are in place to curtail the worldwide spread of disease? What health care is available for those in need of medical services related to disease? Have certain ethnic groups become targets of diseases? Are there natural, supernatural, or mystical causes of disease? How is sickness and disease diagnosed by the society or culture? Who are responsible for the containment of disease? Who are responsible for the treatment of disease? Who are responsible for the spread of disease?
Target Audience GQ What is the history of disease for the target audience? What diseases most affect the target audience? How is disease perceived and treated by the target audience? What health care is available for the target audience in relation to the treatment of Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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disease? What does the target audience believe to be the reason for the spread of disease in their community?
Economic An economic history4 examines the path taken by the economy of a society or culture. Inquiry into the economic history of a society or culture can focus on the origins of economic development and periods of growth and development. This examination should be an objective inquiry, meaning that personal perspectives should be limited (Cameron & Neal, 2003). Origins of Economic Development: The origins of economic development are a history of the beginnings of an economy. Historical analyses give insight into solving contemporary economic problems. Knowledge of the past serves as a guide in avoiding similar mistakes in the present and future. This inquiry provides further insight into the nature of human behavior and social institutions (Cameron & Neal, 2003). Exploring human behavior looks specifically at how individuals use their limited resources. Human beings make decisions on what to buy and how much to invest based on their limited resources. Societies have generally been concerned with what commodities (i.e., goods and services) to produce and how much; how to produce these commodities; and for whom these commodities should be produced. Individuals, businesses, organizations, states, nations, and communities make decisions about what to produce and in what quantity. How to produce these commodities is dependent on the level of industrialization and technological resources of the society or culture. A more technological and industrialized society may use mechanical and automated machines to produce products. Whereas in a less machine-oriented society, production is human-made through human labor. For whom to produce, refers to the distribution of commodities to the consumers (O’Connor & Faille, 2000). Growth and Development: An economy can be measured by its growth and development. Growth is the increase in total economy size or the total production and consumption of goods and services. Development looks at how changes affect the form and type of economic organization and production (Edwards-Jones, Davies, & Hussain, 2000). This is exemplified in a society that changes from trading locally to exporting out of their country, or from an agricultural society to a mechanically industrialized nation. Issues related to development are interdisciplinary as they intersect social and political contexts (Edwards-Jones et al., 2000). “The economy of the Roman Empire, for example, grew substantially through both internal expansion and conquest, but it did not develop significantly beyond an agriculture-based Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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system centered on private land ownership amongst smallholders” (Edwards-Jones et al., 2000, p. 10). Creating a timeline can guide the organization of the economic history narrative. The timeline should document the economy of the society in terms of economic growth and development. Table 10.1 illustrates the amounts and locations of India’s gold reserve as recorded on March 31 of each year from 1891 through 1912 (Keynes, 1913).
Culture GQ Select a historical period, historical event, or pattern in economic development. What is the economic history of the society or culture? How old is the society or culture? Create a timeline that represents the time and the year. The time category represents the time period by age, period, empire, kingdom, era, or state (e.g., stone age, Roman empire). The year category represents the year that the time period covers historically (745 AD; 300 BC). Describe each time period and its path of economic growth and development. What type of economy exists? What type of society or culture exists (e.g., agricultural, pastoral, industrial)? What animals are wild, domesticated, or harvested for economic gain? What goods are made? What goods are sold? What goods are traded? What goods are bartered? How is land used or allocated? Is there evidence
Table 10.1. Locations of India’s Gold Reserve (liers in million) £60.00 £50.00 £40.00 t otal in l ondon in india
£30.00 £20.00 £10.00 £0.00 1897
1901
Note: Data are from Keynes (1913)
1905
1909
1913
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of streets, roads, drainage systems, water supply, electricity, telephone wiring, and so forth? Is there evidence of housing, and if so, what type of housing? What cities exist? How many inhabitants occupy the land? Where do most of the inhabitants populate (e.g., village, town, city)? Is the economy self-sustaining? •
•
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Issues: Does religion factor into the economic system? Did industrialization impact the society or culture? Did war impact the society or culture? Did any social movements impact the society or culture? Business: What types of businesses exist (e.g., family, corporations)? What types of economic organizations exist? Select one type of business: How are financial resources distributed in the business? How does the business function in terms of production, distribution, or service? Is there an economic system in place? Monetary: What type of coinage exists? What type of monetary system exists? What are the historical origins of the monetary system? Who created the monetary system? What materials were the coins or monies made from, and in what year? How is coinage or the monetary system used? Goods: What products or goods are handmade? What products or goods are manufactured? What products or goods are exported? What products or goods are imported?
Target Audience GQ What is the economic history of the target audience? How has the target audience contributed to the economy in terms of land, labor, or capital? In what type of society or culture does the target audience live? Does the target audience use animals for economic gain? What goods are made by the target audience? What goods are sold by the target audience? What goods are traded by the target audience? What goods are bartered by the target audience? How is land used or allocated by the target audience? Is there evidence of streets, roads, drainage system, water supply, electricity, telephone wiring, etc. where the target audience lives? Is there evidence of housing where the target audience lives, and if so, what type of housing? What cities exist that are occupied only by the target audience? How many inhabitants occupy the land where the target audience lives? Where do most of the target audience populate? Is the economy where the target audience resides self sustaining? How does the target audience feel about their economic condition? •
Issues: Does the target audience contribute monies goods or services to religious institutions? Did industrialization impact the target audience? Did war impact the target audience? Was the target audience involved in any social movements that impacted the society or culture?
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Business: What types of businesses are owned by the target audience? What types of business do the target audience frequent and exchange monies, goods and services? What types of economic organizations exist that assist the target audience? How does the target audience acquire monies, or goods? Is there an economic system in place within the communities of the target audience? Monetary: What type of coinage or monetary system is acquired by the target audience? How does the target audience use the coinage or the monetary system? Goods: What products or goods are handmade by the target audience? What products or goods are manufactured by the target audience? What products or goods are exported by the target audience? What products or goods are imported by the target audience?
Educational An educational history describes the system of teaching, training, schooling, or learning of a society, culture or target audience. References to formal and informal schooling count as an educational history. A formal education means that there is a structured system of education supported by the governing society or culture. Informal schooling means that learning happens in a variety of semi-structured settings such as home schooling; learning from home, family, friends, community; organizations; businesses; and clubs. For technological and industrialized societies, the education of its people is an important element to sustain economic growth (Guthrie, 2003).
Culture GQ What is the history of education in this society or culture? How are people educated? What system of formal education is prevalent? What is the structure of the formal education system? What forms of informal education are prevalent? What does education mean in this society or culture? Who can participate in this education? How is instruction delivered? What is the instructional content? What instructional materials are used to educate the masses? What are the outcomes of formal education (e.g., degree)? What are the outcomes of informal education (e.g., social recognition)? In what location does learning take place? Is an education accessible to all? What factors inhibit individuals from an education (e.g., class, race, ethnicity, and gender)? What type of formal system of education exists? (e.g., public schools, private schools, parochial/faith-based schools, military schools, boarding schools, charter schools, alternative schools, race-based schools)? Who runs this formal system of education? What type of informal system of education exists (e.g., home Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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schooling)? What type of schooling exists for children at the various ages? What type of schooling exists for adults? How is a formal education acquired? How is education perceived by the society or culture? Is education influenced by religion, politics, social, moral, or other issues? Is training an educational path in this society or culture? Is apprenticeship an educational path in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What is the history of education for the target audience? Does the target audience participate in a formal system of education? Does the target audience participate in an informal system of education?What does education mean to the target audience? Who from the target audience can participate in this education? How does the target audience feel about their educational opportunities? How is instruction delivered to the target audience? What instructional content is used with the target audience? What instructional materials are used to educate the target audience? What are the outcomes of formal education (e.g., degree) for the target audience? What are the outcomes of informal education (e.g., social recognition) for the target audience? In what location does learning take place for the target audience? What factors inhibit education for the target audience (e.g., class, race, ethnicity, and gender)? What type of schooling is available for children at various ages? What type of schooling is available for adults in the target audience? How is education perceived by the target audience? Is apprenticeship an educational path for the target audience?
Ehnic An ethnic history documents the common characteristics, shared history, and identity of groups. These characteristics include national origin, language or religion. Ethnic histories aid in building an accurate representation of a group. Takaki (1993) examined the merging of ethnic histories from the perspective of minority people to determine the multidimensionality and intersections of these histories. This means that an ethnic history recounts history from the people, by the people, and for the people. Yanow (1998) recounts the ethnic history of the Melungeons, who were initially excluded from the category of White on the U.S. Census. The Melungeons are descendents of the Moors—North African Arabs who settled in Portugal and Spain and were subsequently expelled from these countries in 1492, 1497, and the early 1500s. Around 1580, a small group of Moors settled off the coast of South Carolina and later migrated to the Virginia–Tennessee border, where they have continued to live for the past 200 years. The Melungeons intermarried with the Cherokee Indians and other immigrants. The census originally listed them as “free persons Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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of color” (The Herndon [VA] Observer, January 29, 1993, pp. 1, 4); however, by the 1990 Census, they were reclassified as White. In this example, Yanow connected the political fluctuations of racial and ethnic categories on the U.S. Census with the right to choose one’s ethnic identity.
Culture GQ
What ethnic groups are present in this society or culture? What is the population within each of these ethnic groups? What common characteristics exist among these ethnic groups? Which ethnic group is the most dominant? What is the ethnic history of the dominant ethnic group? Are groups’ ethnic histories tied to race, religion, politics, or social issues? Has there been any ethnic conflict?
Target Audience GQ How does the target audience identify themselves as an ethnic group and if so what group and why? What are the common characteristics of the target audience’s ethnic group? Is the target audience’s ethnic history tied to race, religion, politics or social issues? What does the target audience believe about their ethnic history?
Familial A family history is an account of the family ancestry and human relations in their society or culture. This history is constructed with basic genealogical data and histories about marriages, family, and kinships. •
Genealogies: Genealogies offer a visual map of relationships that are usually bound by blood or marriage. These relationships are more social than biological. Genealogies include relationships of relatives on both sides of the family (Barnard, 2004). A genealogy can include a variety of data and detail about the ancestral lineage, births, deaths, marriage, divorce; widowed, spouses, siblings, cousins, nieces/nephews, and other kinships. Some basic information may include complete birth name (e.g., first, middle, last, titles), birthplace (e.g., hospital, city, state, town, county, date of birth), death (e.g., city, state, town, county, date deceased, burial place), parents (e.g., mother, father, or guardian’s full name), spouses (e.g., full names) and spouses’ children (e.g., full names, dates of birth). Figure 10.2 provides an example of a genealogical map for Charles Dickens. The genealogical data can be plotted on a visual map of ancestry lineage. The family is a social group that live a common residence, maintain economic ties, and may raise a child or children. Members of this
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Figure 10.2. Charles Dickens genealogy
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family may be bound by blood, rights, obligations, or commitments. For an understanding of family relations or behavior, there needs to be an examination of demographic data and social and cultural contexts. A demographic inquiry allows a survey of a large number of family members in the past and across generations. These demographic data provide an understanding of family organization, structure and behavior. A family history includes a broad array of subjects (e.g., marriage, childrearing, sexual behavior, intergenerational relations, gender roles, emotions, interactions with kin, and interactions with individuals outside the family/kinship circle). This inquiry extends to other sociocultural contexts where the role of the family becomes significant such as the workplace, school, or church. Likewise, the family is also impacted by other macro-issues, such as urbanization and industrialization; these issues could lead to increases in the household numbers as families are left with the need to share housing with kin for affordability. A family history can extend through the life process of a human being or human development from birth to childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and to old age. The reconstruction of the family history may require an examination of macro-socioeconomic issues such as migration patterns, mortality, fertility, marriages, property ownership, religion, inheritance, and community (Hareven, 1994). Alternative families: Other types of familial or social organizations are adoptions and fostering of children. Adoption is a legal procedure for obtaining a child. Individuals may adopt because of ones inability to have a child, to obtain a male child or for a personal desire to have a child. The birth parent may also choose to give up a child. The reasons vary across cultures. Examples include a child conceived through premarital sex in a family that condones such behavior. In other cultures, a Maasai woman who has many children may give one of her children to an elder with no children, neighbor or friend (Miller,
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2002). Fostering a child, is not as legally formal as an adoption; however it requires the care of a child on a temporary or permanent basis. Marriage: Marriage, broadly defined, is a socially permitted union between two people (Ferraro, 2004). All societies have rules or familial norms for uniting with a partner. Most societies have rules for marrying outside a certain group and these rules are known as exogamy. In the US, it is inadvisable and illegal to marry a first cousin; beyond that, marriage can occur with other distant relatives. There are also rules of endogamy where a person chooses to marry within one’s own group. In traditional India, Hindu castes believed “ritual pollution” would result if a person married below one’s caste (Ferraro, 2004, p. 201). Kinships: Kinships are social relationships that may or may not be defined by marriage or blood (Ferraro, 2004); individuals defined kinships as valued relationships. Given this perception, kinships are open for interpretation and application within a society or culture. Kinships are important to social, economic and political structures (Schweitzer, 2004). The depth of kinship relationships is that they can be defined across blood and marriage to gender, generation, lineality, age, or family status.
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Birth: Who delivers the baby, during the birth of a child, in this society or culture? Who is present during the birth? Who assists the mother after the child is born? Who nurses the child? What roles did other family members play in the birth of the child? Describe the birthing scene. Is there a period of bonding between mother and child? Marriage: Is there a union, ritual or joining of two people in this society? Describe this ceremony, ritual or joining. (The term marriage is used throughout, replace with union if needed). What marriage relationships are accepted in this society (e.g., male to female, same sex partners)? What are the social benefits of marriage? Is age a factor in allowing marriage? Once married, where does the married couple live (e.g., with husbands parents, near or with relatives)? Marriage implies that there is a sexual relationship. Specify, the sexual relationship or union between two people? When is sexual intercourse allowed? When is sexual intercourse prohibited? Is marriage permanent in this society? Mates: What types of mate selections exist (e.g., arranged marriages)? How many mates may a person have? The different types of marriage include monogamy (marriage of one man to one woman), polygyny (marriage by a man to two or more women at the same time), and polyandry (marriage
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by a woman to two or more men at the same time). Does any type of action result in the dissolution of a marriage (e.g., divorce)? Is remarriage allowed and under what conditions? What is the selection process for a mate? Who makes the selection of a mate? How are physical features (e.g., skin color, hair texture/length, height, weight) significant or not in mate selection? Is love a prerequisite to marriage? How is mating regulated? How is reproduction monitored and regulated? What prohibitions of mating with family members exist? What rules exist that restrict marriages? Family relations: Describe the family relations. Who does the childrearing? What is involved in childrearing? Does childrearing involve the adult providing nourishment, shelter, and protection? If so, how is this provided? How does the family provide support (e.g., emotional, shelter, education) to children? What tasks do men perform in this family? What tasks do women perform in this family? What forms of family structure exist (e.g., nuclear family [husband, wife, children based on marital ties]). What forms of extended family exist (two or more adults from different generations of a family who share a household—based on blood ties)? Kinship: What kinships exist? In what ways are kinships categorized in this society or culture (e.g., friends, partners, mother, daughter, foster parent)? What is the purpose of adoption and fostering children in this society or culture? What forms of adoption exist? Who are involved in the adoption of a child? Who are allowed to adopt children? What forms of fostering children exist? Who are allowed to foster children? What other forms of social bonding exist (e.g., between child and godparent)?
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Birth: For the target audience, who assists in the birth of the child, and who is present during the birth? For the target audience, who assists the mother after the child is born, and who nurses the child? For the target audience, what roles do other family members play in the birth of the child? Describe the birthing scene. Is there a period of bonding between mother and child in the culture of the target audience? Marriage: Is there a union, ritual, or joining of two people in the culture of the target audience? Describe this ceremony, ritual, or joining in the culture of the target audience. (The term marriage is used throughout; replace with union if needed). What marriage relationships are accepted in the target audience’s culture? For the target audience, what are the social benefits of marriage? For the target audience, is age a factor in allowing marriage? For the target audience, once married, where does the married couple live (e.g., with husband’s
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parents, near or with relatives)? Marriage implies that there is a sexual relationship. Specify the sexual relationship or union between two people in the target audience. For the target audience, when is sexual intercourse allowed? For the target audience, when is sexual intercourse prohibited? Is marriage permanent in the culture of the target audience? How does the target audience feel about marriage? Mates: What types of mate selections exist for the target audience?) How many mates may a person have in the target audience? Does any type of action result in the dissolution of a marriage for the target audience (e.g., divorce)? For the target audience, is remarriage allowed and under what conditions? For the target audience, what is the selection process for a mate? Who makes the selection of a mate for the target audience? Are physical features significant or not in mate selection for the target audience? Is love a prerequisite to marriage for the target audience? How is mating regulated for the target audience? How is reproduction monitored and regulated for the target audience? What prohibitions of mating with family members exist for the target audience? What rules exist that restrict marriages for the target audience? How does the target audience feel about mating? Family relations: Describe the family relations of the target audience. Who does the childrearing in the target audience? What is involved in the rearing of children in the target audience? For the target audience, does childrearing involve the adult providing nourishment, shelter, and protection; if so, how is this provided? In the target audience, how does the family provide support to children? Within the target audience, what tasks do men perform in the family? Within the target audience, what tasks do women perform in the family? What forms of family structure exist in the target audience? What forms of extended family exist in the target audience? How does the target audience feel about their roles in family relations? Kinship: What kinships exist in the target audience? In what ways are kinships categorized within the target audience? What forms of adoption exist within the target audience? In the target audience, who are involved in the adoption of children? In the target audience, who are allowed to adopt children? What forms of fostering children exist for the target audience? Who are allowed to foster children in the target audience? What other forms of social bonding exist in the target audience?
Gnder A gender history is a record of the sex of a human, animal, organism, or entity. The gender of human beings is usually classified as male and female. Typically, men Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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and women differ based on biology. Some of those biological differences include sex organs, body hair, body fat, muscle, and breast size. Men and women also differ genetically; men have X and Y chromosomes, and women have two X chromosomes (Ferraro, 2004). Gender categories are specific to each culture. In Thailand, genders have been categorized as phuuchai (male), phuuyung (female) and kathoey (transgender [male to female]; Miller, 2002; Winter & Udomsak, 2002). Gender histories document social relations. These social relations are best captured through examinations of the interactions between genders (e.g., male to female, female to female) (Withers, 2006). Gender roles should be defined and articulated Examples of extreme forms of gender bias may manifest as infanticide, abuse, mutilation, physical violence, or death (Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ What genders are prevalent in this society or culture (e.g., male, female, hermaphrodites, androgynous)? How is gender classified and by whom? Is gender neutral (i.e., there is no consideration for one gender or another)? How do the genders perceive each other? Who is assigned what roles? Are there social norms specific to a gender? Who assigns gender roles to whom? Is one gender dominant over another? Is one gender exploited in any way; if so, how and why? What behavioral differences exist between the genders? What behavior is similar between the genders? •
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Gender roles: If male and female are the gender roles, what work are men expected to perform? What work are women expected to do (e.g., child care, cooking, fight wars, clean house, hunt)? What roles do females typically perform? What roles do males typically perform? What roles do children (male & female) typically perform? Does any type of gender stratification (i.e., one sex plays a subordinate role to the other sex) exist in the roles of men and women? Gender bias: Does gender bias exist in social interactions? Does gender bias exist in health care, employment, or other professions? Does gender bias play a role in language use? Does gender bias exist in religion, politics, or any other area of the society or culture? Does gender bias exist in terms of the birth of a boy versus girl child? Human sexuality: In terms of human sexuality, what sexual behaviors are accepted before marriage or union and within the marriage or union? What sexual behaviors are considered taboo? Under what conditions should a person abstain from sex? What perceptions exist about heterosexual (opposite-sex) versus homosexual (same-sex) activity? Is heterosexuality openly discussed? Is homosexuality openly discussed?
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Target Audience GQ What genders are prevalent in the target audience? How is gender classified for the target audience and by whom? Is gender neutral for the target audience? How do the genders perceive each other within the target audience? Who is assigned what roles in the target audience? Are there social norms specific to a gender for the target audience? Who in the target audience assigns gender roles to whom? Is one gender dominant over another in the target audience? Is one gender, in the target audience, exploited in any way; if so, how and why? What behavioral differences exist between the genders in the target audience? What behavior is similar between the genders of the target audience? •
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Gender roles: If males and females are the gender roles in the target audience, what work are men expected to perform? What work are women expected to do in the target audience? What roles do females typically perform in the target audience? What roles do males typically perform in the target audience? What roles do children (male & female) typically perform in the target audience? Does any type of gender stratification exist in the roles of men and women in the target audience? Gender bias: Does gender bias exist in the social interactions of the target audience? Does gender bias play a role in the way the target audience uses language? Does gender bias exist in terms of the birth of a boy versus a girl child for the target audience? Does gender bias influence any other aspect of the lives of the target audience? Human sexuality: In terms of human sexuality, what sexual behaviors are accepted before marriage or union and within the marriage or union for the target audience? What sexual behaviors are considered taboo for the target audience? For the target audience, under what conditions should a person abstain from sex? What perceptions exist about heterosexual (opposite-sex) versus homosexual (same-sex) activity for the target audience? Is heterosexuality openly discussed by the target audience? Is homosexuality openly discussed by the target audience?
G Geographic history is the study of the physical features of a planet’s surface. The physical features include land, climate, rocks, air, water, sunlight, and geological features. The biological features of the planet are living things such as humans, plants, animals, and other species (Cooper, 2003).
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Land: Land is the solid crust of a planet. Land can provide food, shelter, and cultivate plants and animals (Cooper, 2003). Typical examples of land surfaces include desert, grassland, polar region, mountain habitats, tropical forests, and temperate forests. Land can be measured in square miles and kilometers, and its location can be recorded in terms of north, east, south, or west. Measures of the miles, length, width, highest elevation, and lowest elevation can be provided as part of land data. The use and value of land varies according to its location. If land is a significant part of this society or culture, then the land will be named. It could be named after someone or something significant to the society. The history behind the naming of the land could be an important historical fact. Land can be used for a variety of purposes, and this varies based on the soil, space, utility, access, and so forth. Climate: Climate is the cumulative weather patterns of a planet. The aspects of a climate include air, temperature, wind, humidity, and precipitation. The climate can be categorized in weather patterns such as rain, fog, snow, aridness, sunshine, and ice. Planet Earth’s climate can be further defined according to temperatures measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit (Cunningham, 2003). Water: Water is the surplus of liquid that occupies a planet. Planet Earth’s surface is covered by 71% water that comes from the world’s oceans and seas. Other water formations include streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and ice from the Arctic and Antarctic (Naseri, 2003). The geographic history of Anguilla can be compiled with a focus on land, climate, water, and culture. Anguilla is an island east of the Caribbean Sea and it is known as one of the United Kingdom’s territories. Anguilla covers 35 square miles and measures 3½ miles wide and 16 miles long. The Crocus Hill measures as the highest elevation point on the island at 213 feet. The climate of Anguilla is sunny and very dry, and temperatures average 80° Fahrenheit year-round. The vegetation is scarce on Auguilla; this island is known for its natural resources of limestone and coral. Although surrounded by water, the island has no rivers; there are a few salt ponds that serve as producers of commercial salt (Arnold, 2001). (See also Cultural Environment and Cultural Resources)
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Geographic: What is the geographic history of the planet? What are the land surfaces throughout the planet? What are the measurements of the planet? What are the physical features of the planet? What are the biological features of the planet? How much land covers the planet? How much of other liquid or solid surfaces cover the planet? Is the planet inhabitable? What species inhabit the planet?
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Land: Select a time period and land mass. What is the history of the land? Is there a history of how the land was named? To whom does the land belong? What are the physical features of the land? What are the biological features of the land? What are the measurements of the land (square miles, length, width, and highest & lowest points)? Where is the land located in terms of north, east, south, and west? How is the land and its inhabitants (e.g., human beings, species and other entities) connected? Does the land serve any social, political, religious, or economic purpose? Climate: Select a time period. What is the history of the climate for the planet or sections of the planet? What is the history of weather for the planet or sections of the planet? What is the history of the climate in terms of temperature? How does the climate affect its inhabitants? Does the climate affect the land’s natural resources? Does the climate serve any social, political, religious, or economic purpose? Water: Select a time period. What is the history of water for the planet or sections of the planet? Is water delivered through climate changes (e.g., rainfall, snow)? How does the supply or lack of water affect inhabitants of the planet or sections of the planet? Does water serve any social, political, religious, or economic purpose?
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Land: What is the history of the target audience to the land? Does the target audience own any land? Does the target audience covet any land? On what types of land surface can the target audience be found inhabiting? How has the land influenced the target audience and their behavior? Does the land serve any social, political, religious, or economic purpose for the target audience? What are the target audience’s beliefs about the land they inhabit? Climate: What is the history of climate conditions on the planet inhabited by the target audience? What is the history of weather for the planet or sections of the planet inhabited by the target audience? How has the climate influenced target audience members and their behavior? Does the climate serve any social, political, religious, or economic purpose for the target audience? What are the target audience’s beliefs about their planet’s climate? Water: What is the history of water in the area the target audience inhabits? How has water influenced the target audience and their behavior? Does water serve any social, political, religious, or economic purpose for the target audience? What are the target audience’s beliefs about the water that exists on their planet?
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Health Health history is the history of wellness, illness, disease, therapy, healing, and the medicinal and restorative health needs of a society, culture or target audience. It encompasses social, political, religious, and economic narratives. To determine health history in a society or culture, there are many areas of inquiry that may provide a more accurate picture of health and health care. They include examining: the occurrence of disease and poverty; the occurrence of disease and social class; death by disease and poverty; social health programs and wellness; urbanization and health; economics and health; job related illnesses; poor environmental conditions and health; substandard housing and health problems; wealth and health; epidemics (e.g., plague, cholera, small pox, yellow fever, HIV/AIDS); colonization and the spread of infectious disease; immigration and disease; rural and city healthcare; the politics of health; and mental illness. The history of health can address other issues pertinent to the infant, child, mothers, fathers, aging, school wellness, and the physically challenged (Mayne, 1994). The wellness of individuals, families, and communities in industrialized and technologically advanced societies has been aided by public health programs, policies and procedures, governmental or authority interventions, and improved medical professionalism. These are areas for further examination. Another social health issue is the examination of ethnicity and health. This history is tied specifically to groups. The data may be undocumented; therefore, creative data-gathering methods may be needed. Health histories can be gathered through hospital records, insurance databases and archives, oral histories, legal documents, and community newspapers (Mayne, 1994). A society’s health history can be captured in a variety of ways. Ethnomedicine, as an example, is the study of a cultural group’s perceptions of health and illness. Each group has their own ways of how they understand and perceive the body in relation to health and illness. The World Health Organization, through its publications and continued research, captures the health histories of wealthy and developing countries. As of 2008, some of those health issues of global concern include the following: maternal, neonatal, and child mortality; HIV infections and deaths; prevention and treatment of malaria; tobacco-related deaths and prevention; health care inequities; and risk factors (World Health Organization, 2008).
Culture GQ Select a time period. What is the health history of the society or culture? What health issues exist in the society or culture? What health issues are most common? What health crises have affected or continue to affect the society or culture? Is there Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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evidence of genetically transferred health issues? Is there a health care system? Who is allowed health care in this society? What are the costs of health care? What are the society’s or culture’s perceptions about health and illness? What other secular or religious practices are performed for the sake of health and wellness? What health fears or phobias exist? Who are the healers (e.g., shamans, midwives, herbalists, psychiatrists, or medical doctors)? What ways or systems of healing exist? Who performs this healing on whom? What are the criteria needed for becoming a healer? What drugs, medicines or medicinals are available in this society? What substances are used for healing? What healing substances are natural? What healing substances are artificial? What public health programs, policies or procedures have been implemented in this society or culture, and what is the effectiveness? Have health interventions been implemented in this society or culture, and what is the effectiveness? What other health interventions have been implemented? Have the health issues of women been addressed, and if so, in what way? Have the health issues of children been addressed, and if so, in what way? Have the health issues of the working class been addressed, and if so, in what way? How have health care and medicine become tools of economic empowerment or self-sufficiency? How has history addressed the subject of ethnicity and health? Are the medical needs of ethnic groups properly addressed? Do all ethnic groups receive equal health services? How have ethnic groups been portrayed in these histories? How does the health of this society or culture intersect with social, political, religious, and economic issues?
Target Audience GQ What health problems or issues exist for the target audience? How is the target audience treated in terms of their health? Are the health issues of this target audience of concern to the dominant group? How are the health needs of the target audience being addressed or articulated by the dominant culture? Determine the healthiness of the target audience in relation to others in the society. Is there a health care system available to the target audience? How many people in the target audience participate in a health care system or receive health services? What health care or health services are available for the target audience? What are the costs of health care or health services for the target audience? What are the target audience’s perceptions about health and illness? What illnesses (mental or physical) are specific to the target audience? What other secular or religious practices are performed for the sake of health and wellness for the target audience? What health fears or phobias exist in the target audience? Who are the healers in the target audience? What ways or systems of healing exist for Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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the target audience? With the target audience, who performs this healing on whom? For the target audience, what are the criteria needed for becoming a healer in the community of the target audience? What substances are used for healing by the target audience? How does the health of the target audience intersect with social, political, religious, and economic issues?
Legal A legal history relates to the law and captures the ideology that legal precedent and formal doctrine results from the law (Knapp, 1994). “Law is not simply an institutionalized system of jurisprudence; it is a process that both reflects and shapes the arrangement of power relations in a society (Bardaglio, 1995, p. xvi).” Legal histories often intersect with political, economic, and social histories. These histories are contained in primary documents relating to any and all courtordered situations. Data can be collected through the evaluation of statues, appellate court opinions, law journals, legal treatises, bar association journals, and so forth. (Bardaglio, 1995). Capturing a legal history requires a focus on the social effects of the law; the social influences of the law; attitudes, beliefs, and ideas about the law; and the legitimacy of law within a society or culture (Knapp, 1994). The history of the death penalty can be found in codes and laws dating back before the birth of Jesus Christ. The punishments included beheading, stoning, disembowelment, and to being eaten alive by wild animals. The crimes were varied from cutting down trees to petty theft to murder. The death penalty was brought to the United States during European colonization in the early 1600s. From this point forward begins the documented history of crime and punishment of North America (Phelps, 2003). One instrument of execution was the guillotine—used in the beheading of its victims. This device was used extensively by France during the French Revolution (1789-1799), and in early periods of European history (see Figure 10.3).
Culture GQ What is the legal history of this society or culture? What law or legal systems exist in the society or culture? How is the law or legal system structured and organized? How do social issues shape the law? How do political issues shape the law? How do economic issues shape the law? What events caused changes in the law to occur? Who creates the law? Who enforces the law? What formal laws exist? What informal laws exist? Whom do these laws benefit? Whom do these laws repress? How do these laws benefit the society or culture? How does law affect other institutions or organizations (e.g., education, religion)? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 10.3. Guillotine
Target Audience GQ What is the legal history of the target audience? How has the target audience been affected by law? How has law protected the target audience? How has law repressed the target audience? Does the target audience benefit from law? Has the target audience created law, and if so, in what way? Has the target audience enforced law, and if so, in what way? What laws are specifically addressed to the needs or behavior of the target audience? What events specific to the target audience caused law to change?
Linguistic A linguistic history relates to the study of language or languages. Specifically, it examines the study of human speech. A linguistic history may also contain data of how language was acquired, maintained, or lost. This history is usually recorded in a timeline such as that demonstrated in Table 10.2. Determining the linguistic history of a target audience means to understand how language is power. The lingua franca, a common language of communication, may be the language of power. The dominant group who are speakers of the lingua franca may control communication, trade, wealth, and so forth. The history of linguistic diversity has been one where the number of languages worldwide has seen a decrease. In 2007, estimates indicate that approximately Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Table 10.2. Selected dates in the history of English Dates
Stages of English
Dates and events in English history
449–1100 AD
Old English
449 - Saxons invade Britain
1066–1500
Middle English
1066 - Normandy Conquest
1500–1800
Early modern English
1564 - Birth of Shakespeare
1800–Present
Late modern English
1800 - Scientific and industrial revolution
6,700 languages were still in use (Gordon, 2005). The Internet enables language maintenance through chat rooms, blogs, and e-mails. However, the maintenance of a linguistic history requires speakers of that language to interact, communicate, share, and spread their language. Maintenance can be achieved through the collective documentation of the syntax, semantics, and meanings of a language in its written and spoken forms (Furness, 2007). (See Cultural Language for more on language.)
Culture GQ What is the linguistic history of the society or culture? What languages are spoken? How long have these languages been in existence? What is the lingua franca or language of the dominant society? What is the level of fluency in reading, writing, and speaking of the dominant culture? How is language acquired or lost? What level of fluency is the group? What linguistic differences and/or similarities exist in the society or culture? How does linguistic difference influence the society or culture? How are languages learned and taught? What languages are at risk of being lost? What languages are people struggling to maintain?
Target Audience GQ What is the history of the target audience’s language? How is language acquired or lost for the target audience? What is the target audience’s level of fluency, in reading, writing and speaking? Is the target audience proficient in reading, writing, and speaking? What linguistic differences and/or similarities exist in the society and among members of the target audience? How does linguistic difference influence the target audience? What are the language needs of the target audience? Is the target audience at risk of losing their language?
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Political Political histories relate to the maintenance of social order. This social order is sustained through the development of rules or customs that control behavior, resolve disputes, and enforce order. However, each political system is distinct. Political histories capture historical time periods, institutions, changes and instability, or systems. These histories may reveal trends in an economy or patterns of economic systems (e.g., feudalism, slavery, imperialism, or capitalism). Political histories may also reveal phases of an economic system such as “‘competitive,’ ‘monopoly’ and ‘transnational’ capitalism” (O’Hara, 1999, p. 862). This history is also interdisciplinary, as it is difficult to study unemployment without examining the social issues that lead to joblessness. Important roles in a political history are class, gender, and race/ethnicity and should be considered as part of any analysis (O’Hara, 1999). Political histories capture conditions such as unemployment, underemployment, inflation, poverty, and pollution.
Culture GQ What political system is operating in this society or culture (e.g., democracy, socialism, communism, nationalism)? Who runs this society or culture (e.g., president, king/queen, governor, legislator, prime minister, chief)? How is social order maintained? What individual institutions are important in this history? How do institutions operate and change? What is the structure of the political economy? How did this political economy evolve? What policies were recommended? What political strategies were taken? How are the politics of this society or culture related to status, rank, power, prestige, wealth, or authority? How are political roles allocated? To what degree is the political structure integrated with the social structure? How does the political structure work? Is leadership formal or informal? Are there local leaders? What qualities does the leader possess (e.g., honor, knowledge , hereditary prestige)? What affairs does the leader manage? How is the leadership acquired (e.g., selected, elected, inherited)? What is the political structure? How much power does the leader or leadership possess? What is the extent of the leader’s authority? How much wealth does the leader/leadership possess? Is the leader believed to possess supernatural powers? Are taxes or any form of revenue collected? Is labor recruited for armies? Does the ruling power have a right to use force? Is the society a large or small bureaucratic organization? Are there institutions with administrative, legislative, or judicial functions? Does the ruling power make laws? Does the ruling power administer laws through multiple levels of bureaucracy? Does the ruling power enforce laws Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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through police forces, militia, armies, rebels or national guards? What is the ideology of the ruling powers? Do groups understand the role of the ruling society? Is the ruling power characterized by many specialized political positions? What roles or offices in these political positions carry out the task of law enforcement and why? What roles or offices carry out tax collection? What roles carry out labor recruitment? What roles or offices carry out tax collection? What roles carry out protection from outside forces? What forms of social control exist to curtail behavior (e.g., laws, prisons, police, military, courts)? What are the society’s or culture’s social norms (e.g., rules of etiquette, rules of behavior)? What interactions exist between groups? Who are the group leaders? How are groups engaged in the political process? How are groups invested in the politics of this society or culture? Whose politics are valued or devalued and why?
Target Audience GQ Is the target audience involved in the politics of this society or culture, and if so, in what way? How does the politics of this society or culture affect the target audience? Does the target audience have a leader? Does the target audience follow a different political system than that of the society or culture? What institutions are important to the target audience? How has the structure of the political economy affected the target audience? What are the politics of the target audience? How are the politics of the target audience related to status, rank, power, prestige, wealth, and authority? Are political roles allocated to members of the target audience? Is there a political structure at work among the target audience? Is leadership formal or informal among the target audience? What qualities does the leader of the target audience possess? What affairs does the leader of the target audience manage? How is leadership acquired among the target audience? What is the political structure among the target audience? How much power does the leader/leadership of the target audience possess? What is the extent of the leader’s authority for the target audience? Based on the target audience, how much wealth does the leader/leadership possess? Does the leader of the target audience possess supernatural powers? How has the political structure integrated with the social world of the target audience? What does the target audience think about their political leader and the political structure? Are taxes or any form of revenue collected among the target audience for their issues? Is labor recruited for armies among the target audience? Does the ruling power of the target audience have a right to use force? Is the target audience a large or small bureaucratic organization or community? What are the functions of members of the target audience in the organization? Does the leader of the target Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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audience make laws? Does the leader the target audience administer laws through multiple levels of bureaucracy? Does the leader of the target audience enforce laws through police forces, militia, armies, rebels, or insurgents? Who among the target audience are members of this law enforcement (e.g., men, women, youth, children, trained or untrained)? What is the ideology of the leader of the target audience? Does the target audience understand the role of the ruling society? Is everyone in the target audience in agreement with their internal leader? Is the leadership of the target audience characterized by specialized positions? Who in the target audience carries out the task of murder, bombings, or other tasks against humanity? Who in the target audience carries out the collection of monies, revenue or other items? Who in the target audience carries out protection from outside forces? Within the target audience, what forms of social control exist to curtail behavior (e.g., codes, rules)? What are the target audience’s social norms (e.g., rules of etiquette, rules of behavior)? What political interactions exist between target audience members? From the target audience’s perspective, whose politics are valued or devalued and why?
Racial Racial histories are of or pertaining to race. These histories are specific to groups that have common attributes. Certain groups are defined by their racial histories. The infusion of race into a society or culture is meant to support some groups and divide others. Race can suggest difference and maintain inequality. Racial categories serve to provide or deny access to education, housing, jobs, health care, public or private goods and services, and so forth (Omi & Winant, 1994). Adolf Hitler perpetuated the superiority of the German race as part of his racial agenda. His ideas were documented in his 1924 manifesto Mein Kampf (My Struggle). Hitler’s beliefs of racial superiority continued as he became leader of Germany’s Third Reich in 1933. At Nazi rallies, supporters shouted “Seig Heil (hail victory)!” The swastika was put on German flags, badges, and armbands (Fuchs, 2000). These symbols became signs of Nazism and the racial history of Germany.
Culture GQ What is the racial history of this society or culture? Is this racial history more politically, socially, or economically centered? Are individuals categorized based on race? What is the relationship between the races? Is one race of people considered more superior than another and why? What racial group is considered to be inferior and why? How is racial superiority perpetuated in this society or culture? Are there artifacts, structures, environments, ideas, literature, languages, values, or behavior Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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that supports racial superiority? What is the content of the written or spoken racial histories of the dominant racial group?
Target Audience GQ What is the racial history of the target audience? Is the racial history, of the target audience, more politically, socially or economically centered? Is the target audience classified based on race? What is the relationship between the target audience and the “superior” race? Within the target audience are there other racial divisions, and what is the history of these divisions? Is the target audience considered superior or inferior and why? How is racial superiority supported by the target audience? How is racial inferiority supported by the target audience? How is racial superiority resisted by the target audience? How is racial inferiority resisted by the target audience? What is the content of the written or spoken racial histories of the target audience?
Religious Religious histories chronicle the practices of religion. There are many forms of religion; however they all originate from a supernatural belief. Religion is a set of beliefs in forces and beings that are supernatural. Religion assists in a variety of functions including social and psychological. As a form of social function, religion serves as a system of social control as it regulates acceptable and unacceptable behavior (Ferraro, 2004). For example, in the King James version of the Bible, the Ten Commandants advocate rules for proper behavior by humanity. Religion can also serve the social function of group unity. It helps people to see the commonalities that exist between them; these commonalities are also shared through the bonding practices, beliefs, and rituals associated with the religion. Group unity through religion is exemplified in ethnically ordered places of worship, such as Korean Christian churches, Jewish synagogues, or Muslim mosques. Religion can also serve psychological functions such as providing intellectual and emotional support. Intellectually, religion functions as a source to answer the mysteries of life. (e.g., What is my purpose in this life?) Emotionally, religion functions as a source of comfort and way of coping with the challenges of life that we don’t totally understand (e.g., death, accidents, illness, adversity; Ferraro, 2004).
Culture GQ6 What is the history of religion in this society or culture? What religions are most prevalent in this society? Which groups practice what religions? Can religious beliefs Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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be separated from the functioning of society? Is religion inextricably connected to social reform or politics? What religions are most prevalent in this society? What religious beliefs are held by the society or culture? How does religion, or religious beliefs, function in this society or culture? What social functions does religion serve? What psychological functions does religion serve? How do these religious beliefs influence human behavior? How do other supernatural elements function in this society? What does “supernatural” mean in this society or culture? How are these supernatural acts or events perceived? Who is involved with these supernatural elements (e.g., magic, voodoo, sorcery, witchcraft, myths)? Can these religious activities be classified in another way (e.g., cult, ancestor worship, religious nationalism)? What categories or systems of worship exist? How are these religions significant to groups and the society or culture? What beliefs and practices are consistent with these religions? Do other species or entities hold any significance in the religious practices of this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What is the history of religion for the target audience? How does religion or religious beliefs function for the target audience? What social functions does religion serve for the target audience? What psychological functions does religion serve for the target audience? How do these religious beliefs influence the behavior of the target audience? Are supernatural elements consistent with the target audiences religious beliefs? How are these supernatural acts or events perceived by the target audience? Who, in the target audience, is involved with these supernatural elements? What does the target audience believe to be the purpose of religious worship? Do other species or entities hold any significance in the religious practices of the target audience?
Reproduction Reproduction patterns are highly correlated to physical environment, time period in history, and the habits of a society. Basically, one cause affects something else. Take for example, three generalized society types. In society A, where members hunt and gather food and migrate frequently, population growth is low. This may be attributed to the following factors: the heavy manual labor caused women to spontaneously abort; the inconsistent diets of women caused stress, extended periods of breastfeeding stopped ovulation, infanticide, and induced abortions. Early prehistoric groups whose population growth remained low for millions of years provide evidence of such societies (Miller, 2002). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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In society B, the economic need to maintain an agricultural environment necessitates the need for a large family. Additional labor is needed to tend the land and animals, prepare food and market products. Therefore, population growth is high (Miller, 2002). A 2006 example are the Hutterites, a communal people living in the prairies of the United States. The Hutterites operate an agricultural society where they raise livestock and produce crops (see http://www.hutterites.org). In society C, a more industrialized culture, there is a decreased need for labor. Therefore, these societies reduced population growth in a number of ways: Government-regulated and -sponsored programs such as family planning; fewer children are desired by middle- and upper-class people in a stratified society; fertility and mortality rates are higher among poorer people; and advances have been made in medical science and technology related to birth control, fertility, and termination (Miller, 2002). Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, China’s population has doubled from 540 million to 1.3 billion people. From 1985 to 1990, there were an estimated 23,000 live births in China each day. This rapid population growth persuaded authorities that there was a need to reduce the population. In 1982, the policy of a single child per couple was instituted, with incentives for those who abided by the law and penalties for those who did not. The Single Child Policy brought dramatic changes to the social, familial, and financial structure of Chinese communities (McLoughlin, 2005).
Culture GQ What type of reproduction patterns exist? How is reproduction patterns correlated with the physical environment, time period in history, and the habits of a society? What causes population growth? What causes a population to decline? Do women have choices in terms of reproductive decisions? What choices do families have in reproductive decisions? Is one gender preferred over another in terms of child birth? For stratified societies, how does the government influence increases or decreases in population growth? How is fertility controlled (e.g., family planning programs; herbs that induce abortion; medicine that induces abortion; sterilization; self induced abortions; infanticide; medically prescribed birth control pills, injections or devices)?
Target Audience GQ What type of reproduction patterns exist among the target audience? Do women in the target audience have choices in terms of reproductive decisions? What choices do families, within the target audience, have in terms of reproductive decisions? Within the target audience, is one gender preferred over another in terms of child Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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birth? How is reproduction controlled among the target audience (e.g., birth control, sterilization, abstinence)? What are the target audience’s beliefs about reproduction?
Science A science history is that studied or performed in the material world. Science history gets at the development of knowledge, skills, and disciplines. It might cover the natural sciences including astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth sciences, and physics, in addition to archeology, mathematics, medicine, paleoanthropology and psychology. Technology might be defined per society or culture as that related to the advancement of science such as the wagon wheel or the telescope. Men and women can be credited as inventors or innovators of scientific information or machines. Science prefers inventions, innovations, philosophies, theories, techniques, systems, methods and practices that advance inquiry, change dispositions, and alter our world view. Scientific discoveries are marked by denials, misunderstandings, rejections and finally acceptance. Some innovations remain failed and unknown. A science history is made up of the knowledge and achievements of a society or culture. The collection of this history is not linear but one intertwined into, through and beyond the histories of human beings, other species and entities (Tallack, 2006). A science history of the 21st century might be one marked by the invention of cloned animals and plants for the purpose of human food consumption. In cloning, the genetic material of one living organism is duplicated. The cloning of food for human consumption remains taboo and a controversial subject in 2008. Advocates see cloning as a way to mass produce the best quality farm animals such as goats, pigs and cattle. Opponents view cloning as morally wrong and feel that scientists are fooling with God’s creations (BBC News, 2006).
Culture GQ How did science develop in this society or culture? What is the chronology of scientific developments? Are there branches of science in this society or culture that further defines a science history? What scientific evidence exists? Who are the scientists? Through what man or means is science created (e.g., medicine, medicine men, concoctions, doctors, scientists, researchers)? What is categorized as science? What advances in science exist in this society or culture (e.g., herbal medicine, weapons, genetically engineered of food, gene therapy, and genetically modified organisms)? In what ways, is this society or culture influenced by science? Identify individual discoveries and the invention? Identify group discoveries and the inventions? How have individual personalities influenced the designs of innovations? What challenges did these scientific discoveries create? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Target Audience GQ How did science develop within the culture of the target audience? What is the chronology of scientific developments for the target audience? What scientific evidence exists related to the target audience? Who are the scientists among the target audience? Through what man or means is science created for the target audience? What is categorized as science for the target audience? What advances in science can be credited to the target audience? In what ways, is the target audience influenced by science? Identify individual discoveries and the invention of the target audience? Identify group discoveries and the inventions of the target audience? How have individual personalities influenced the design of innovations made by the target audience? What challenges did these scientific discoveries create for the target audience?
Sexual Intercourse Sexual intercourse refers to the biological act of human reproduction between a man and a woman. However, other artificial means of insemination are available. Females are fertile from the beginning of menstruation (typically occurring at 12–14 years of age) to menopause (40–60 years of age, depending on environment). Sexual intercourse is dictated by each group; when intercourse should happen varies based on age, class, ethnicity, race, and gender (Miller, 2002). The frequency of sexual intercourse is also dictated by each group’s culture.
Culture GQ7 Through what means are women impregnated (e.g., sexual intercourse, artificial insemination)? What are the reasons a woman would be infertile? What are the ramifications if a woman is infertile? What are the reasons a man would be infertile? What are the ramifications if a man is infertile? At what age should females engage in sexual intercourse? Under what conditions should females engage in sexual intercourse? At what age should males engage in sexual intercourse? Under what conditions should males engage in sexual intercourse? How does class influence sexual intercourse? How does race/ethnicity influence sexual intercourse? How does gender influence sexual intercourse? What is the frequency of sexual intercourse? Does the culture limit or prohibit sexual intercourse? If there are limits to sexual intercourse, what are the reasons behind this limitation? Is there any relationship between the frequency of sexual intercourse and fertility? How is reproduction controlled (e.g., birth control, sterilization, abstinence)?
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Target Audience GQ Through what means are women impregnated (e.g., sexual intercourse, artificial insemination) in the target audience? What are the reasons a woman may be infertile in the target audience? What are the ramifications if a woman is infertile in the target audience? What are the reasons a man would be infertile in the target audience? What are the ramifications if a man is infertile in the target audience? At what age should females engage in sexual intercourse in the target audience? Under what conditions should females engage in sexual intercourse in the target audience? At what age should males engage in sexual intercourse in the target audience? Under what conditions should males engage in sexual intercourse in the target audience? How does class influence sexual intercourse for the target audience? How does race/ethnicity influence sexual intercourse for the target audience? How does gender influence sexual intercourse for the target audience? Is there a frequency of sexual intercourse allowed by the culture of the target audience? Does the culture of the target audience limit or prohibit sexual intercourse? If there are limits to sexual intercourse for the target audience, what are the reasons behind this limitation? Is there any relationship between the frequency of sexual intercourse and fertility for the target audience?
Social Social histories examine the social aspects of human behavior. It broadly covers groups of people from all areas of life, including social class, race/ethnicity, age, and gender. Social histories may focus on how the activities, beliefs, values, and behaviors of groups affect history. This history targets macro-forces within a society or culture and how the macro forces cause change. Macro- issues may look at population growth, revolutions, wars, social mobility, religion, politics, or social structure. The focus is an examination of processes rather than individual events or people (Stearns, 1994).
Culture GQ What is the social history of this society or culture? What groups of people live in this society? What is the history of these groups in terms of social class, race/ethnicity, age, and gender? How has the society or culture been affected by these social histories? What macro-forces have affected this society or culture? How have these macro-forces caused changes to the society or culture? How have the activities, beliefs, values, and behaviors of groups influenced history?
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What role do pets play in this society or culture? How do other species and entities fit into this social environment? What pets exist in this society or culture? How do pets (e.g., cats, dogs, birds) fit into the social environment?
Target Audience GQ What is the social history of the target audience? Where does the target audience live, and what is the target audience’s social history in this society or culture? What is the history of the target audience in terms of social class, race/ethnicity, age, and gender? How has the target audience been affected by these social histories? What macro-forces have affected the target audience? How have these macro-forces caused changes in the target audience? How have the activities, beliefs, values, and behaviors of other groups influenced the target audience? What pets exist in the social environment of the target audience? What role do pets play in the lives of the target audience?
Tme Periods Each period in history holds a space in time. A timeline can be plotted along a continuum to accurately document moments in history, providing a quick analysis of data. The kinds of data gathered about histories may include ages (e.g., Paleolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze), movements (e.g. antiglobalization civil rights, international human rights, labor), events (e.g., wars, apartheid, genocides, famines), natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes), or acts (e.g., conquests, subjugations, colonizations). Table 10.3 provides a brief timeline of worldwide earthquakes; each one holds a space in time.
Table 10.3. Deadly worldwide earthquakes from 2004 to 20088 Date
Location
Earthquake magnitude
Casualties
May 12, 2008
Sichuan, a province of China
7.9
69,000+
August 15, 2007
Ica, a coastal province of Peru
7.9
519
July 17, 2006
Undersea, the southern coast of Java
7.7
650
May 27, 2006
Java, the Indonesian island
6.2
5,782
April 1, 2006
Western Iran
6.0
70
June 8, 2005
Kashmir and southern Pakistan
7.6
74,000+
March 28, 2005
Nias, an Indonesian island
8.7
1,300
December 26, 2004
Indian Ocean
9.3
229,000+
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Culture GQ What time periods are significant in the history of this society or culture? What ages, movements, events, acts, or natural disasters are significant to the history of this society or culture? How does this history change the future? What does this history mean to the future?
Target Audience GQ What time periods are significant in the history of the target audience? What ages, movements, events, acts, or natural disasters are significant to the history of the target audience? How does this history change the future for the target audience? What does this history mean to the future of the target audience?
References Ambah, F. S. (2007, September 23). Frustrations drive Saudi youth to the graffiti wall. The Washington Post, pp. A1, A19. Arnold, M. C. (2001). Anguilla. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and their cultures, 1, 63-69. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Bardaglio, P. W. (1995). Reconstructing the household: Families, sex and the law in the nineteenth-century South. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Barnard, A. (2004). Genealogies. In A. Kuper & J. Kuper (Eds.), The social science encyclopedia, 1, 404). New York: Routledge. BBC News. (July 5, 2006). Quick guide: Cloning [Electronic Version]. BBC News. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5098286. stm Burke, P. (2004). What is cultural history? Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, Ltd. Cameron, R., & Neal, L. (2003). A concise economic history of the world: From paleolithic times to the present. New York: Oxford University Press. Cooper, T. H. (2003). Land use. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham, & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed., p. 814). Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group.
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Cunningham, M. A. (2003). Climate. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed.), 1, 266-268). Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group. Edwards-Jones, G., Davies, B., & Hussain, S. (2000). Ecological economics: An introduction. Oxford, England: Blackwell Science, Ltd. Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Fuchs, T. (2000). A concise biography of Adolf Hitler. New York: The Berkeley Publishing Group. Furness, C. (2007, April). Modern languages. Geographical, 79(4), 53-61. Gibson, M. (1994). Crime. In P. N. Stearns (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social history (pp. 178-182). New York: Garland. Gordon, R. G. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. Guthrie, J. W. (2003). Encyclopedia of education (2nd ed.), 1. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Hareven, T. K. (1994). Family. In P. N. Sterns (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social history (pp. 257-263). New York: Garland Publishing. Hutterites.org [Electronic (2006). Version]. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http:// www.hutterites.org/ Keynes, J. M. (1913). Indian currency and finance. New York, NY: Burt Franklin. Knapp, M. T. (1994). Law/legal history. In P. N. Stearns (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social history (pp. 410413). New York: Garland. Lynfield, B. (2007, April, 2). Deleting dissent. The Jerusalem Report, (pp. 54-55). Mayne, A. (1994). Health. In P. N. Sterns (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social history (pp. 317-319). New York: Garland Publishing. McLoughlin, C. S. (2005). The coming of age of China’s single-child policy. Psychology in the Schools, 42(3), 305-313. Miller, B. D. (2002). Cultural anthropology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
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Naseri, M. (2003). Water conservation. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed.), 2, 1473-1475. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group. O’Connor, D. E., & Faille, C. (2000). Basic economics principles: A guide for students. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. O’Hara, P. A. (1999). Political economy: Major contemporary themes. In P. A. O’Hara (Ed.), Encyclopedia of political economy, 2, 861-868. London: Routledge. Omi, M., & Winant, H. (1994). Racial formation in the United States. New York: Routledge. Pearce, D. (Ed.). (1992). The MIT dictionary of modern economics: Fourth Edition. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Phelps, S. (Ed.). (2003). Criminal law: Death penalty, 1. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group Inc. Proimos, C. V. (2006). Universals in art. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 1, 277-281. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Schweitzer, P. P. (2004). Kinship. In A. Kuper & J. Kuper (Eds.), The social science encyclopedia, 1, 543-545. New York: Routledge. Seklecki, R. M. (2006). Civil disobedience. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 2, 513-514). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Stearns, P. N. (1994). Introduction. In P. N. Stearns (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social history (pp. vii-x). New York: Garland. Takaki, R. (1993). A different mirror: A history of multicultural America. Boston: Back Bay Books. Tallack, P. (2006). The science book. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson. Whitsett, N. (2006, Winter). Coming out of the dark ages. Healthcare Advantage, 7. Winter, S., & Udomsak, N. (2002, January–March). Male, female and transgender: Stereotypes and self in Thailand. International Journal of Transgenderism, 6(1). World Health Organization. (2008). World health statistics. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from http://www.who.int/publications/en/
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Yanow, D. (1998). American ethnogenesis and the 1990 census. In C. J. Greenhouse (Ed.), Democracy and ethnography: Constructing identities in multicultural liberal states (pp. 105-120). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Endnotes 3 4 1 2
7 8 5 6
There questions were informed by Miller, 2002. These questions were informed by Gibson, 1994. These questions were informed by Marcelin, 2006. Cliometrics is the quantitative study of economic history that applies econometric and statistics to studying economic history (Pearce, 1994). Many of these questions were informed by Miller, 2002 and Ferraro, 2004. Many of these questions were informed by Ferraro, 2004. Theres questions were informed by Miller, 2002. Data gathered from electronic newspaper articles in the BBC News. (2007). Deadly history of earthquakes [Electronic Version]. BBC News. Retrieved September 3, 2007 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/2059330.stm and other online newspaper sources.
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Chapter XI
CBM Elements V
This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the anthropology of culture. Cultural knowledge, Cultural language, Cultural physiology, Cultural relations and Cultural resources are covered.
Cultural Knowledge E9. Cultural Knowledge - What is known and what one comes to know. Cultural knowledge examines what is known and what one comes to know (Thomas, 2001). It is the acquisition, learning, translation, transfer, teaching, recording, documentation, preservation, creation, accessibility, use, and application of knowledge “Most of what anyone knows is cultural knowledge (D’Andrade, 1995, p. xiv).” Over the course of a human’s life, they learn a wealth of knowledge. Humans store and pass on this knowledge from generation to generation. This cultural knowledge is contained in words, narratives, artifacts, and human experiences (Dougherty, 1985).1
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Knowledge can be thought of as that which is known or acquired. Known knowledge can be innately a part of an individual. For example, Confucius’s followers believed that certain exceptional individuals possessed “intrinsic knowledge” and that they were born with this knowledge (Thomas, 2001, p. 54). Acquired knowledge is learned through a variety of sources; however, it varies from culture to culture. Some common examples of acquired knowledge are lived experience, modeling others, and instruction (e.g., schooling, apprenticeship). In some cultures, dreams are believed to be a source of knowledge because dreams can reveal the future and guide life choices. Visions are considered a way of acquiring knowledge. For example, many Great Plains Indian tribes practice the ritual of vision quest. In this ritual, information is sought to determine an individual’s sacred name, guiding spirit, and other knowledge (Thomas, 2001).
Culture GQ What is the history of knowledge in this society or culture? How does a human being acquire knowledge? How is knowledge learned by human beings? How is knowledge translated to the human being? How is knowledge transferred from one human being to another human being? How is knowledge taught to the human being? Through what means is knowledge recorded? Through what means is knowledge documented? Through what means is knowledge preserved? Through what means is knowledge created? How is knowledge made accessible? How is knowledge preserved by the human being? How is knowledge learned by human beings? Who within the society or culture creates this knowledge? How is this knowledge validated? Who has access to this knowledge? How is this knowledge used and applied? What is the logic or reasoning behind this knowledge? When does knowledge become information? How do individuals know what they know? What forms of technology have been used to acquire, learn, translate, transfer, teach, record, document, preserve, create, access, use, and apply knowledge? How is knowledge used as power in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What is the history of knowledge as it pertains to the target audience? How is knowledge acquired by the target audience? How is knowledge learned by the target audience? How is knowledge translated to the target audience? How is knowledge transferred from one target audience member to another? How is knowledge taught to the target audience? Through what means is knowledge recorded by the target audience? Through what means is knowledge documented by the target audience? Through what means is knowledge preserved for the target audience? Through Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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what means is knowledge created by the target audience? How is knowledge made accessible to the target audience? How is knowledge preserved by the target audience? How is knowledge learned by the target audience? Who within the target audience creates this knowledge? How is this knowledge validated by the target audience? Who has access to the knowledge generated by the target audience? How is knowledge used and applied by the target audience? What is the logic or reasoning behind this knowledge? How does the target audience know what they know? For the target audience, what forms of technology have been used to acquire, learn, translate, transfer, teach, record, document, preserve, create, access, use and apply knowledge? How has the target audience participated as producers of theories, recipients of theories, or participants in the formulation of knowledge? Is knowledge used to empower or control the target audience, and if so, in what way? How does the target audience feel about their ability to access, create, or acquire knowledge?
Cultural Language E10. Cultural Language - Language form, content, use, and meaning. Cultural language refers to the system used to communicate the spoken sounds of humans. Humans can create language, use language, and communicate through symbolic forms (Ferraro, 2004; Haviland, 1987). All languages have a system of grammar. Grammar comprises the sounds, sound patterns, words, word units, word meanings, and the rule systems of a language. If a human being speaks a language, then they know the grammar of that language. No language is superior to another language (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2003). The study of language provides the tools to deconstruct and reconstruct a language. The components of a language can be divided into three areas: form (phonology, morphology, & syntax), content (semantics), and use/meaning (pragmatics). Form includes those parts specific to sounds and symbols such as phonology (speech sounds), morphology (word structures), and syntax (word order). Phonology is the study of speech sounds or phonemes in a language, and phonemes are the smallest unit of sound that has meaning. Morphology is the study of the structure of words in a language and to study the structure of words means to examine its morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest unit of meaningful speech. Syntax refers to the rules of word order and sentence structure of a language (Owens, 2005). Content examines semantics or word meanings and the meanings of words in the context of other words (Fromkin et al., 2003). Use refers to pragmatics; this means the multiple Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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ways in which language is communicated (Owens, 2005). Pragmatics also refers to the context and circumstances that can affect the meaning a language conveys (Fromkin et al., 2003). The role of language in societies is important to the landscape of culture. Languages influence people, places, commerce, globalization, ideologies; therefore, it serves as a building block of societies. By example, as of 2007, Singapore’s Speak Good English Movement2 demonstrates a move to restrict and, in some ways, eliminate Singlish, a language mixture of English, Tamil, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, and other Chinese dialects. In 1999, then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong believed that the use of Singlish would jeopardize Singapore’s goal of being a first-world economy. This ongoing literacy movement to speak “good English” is directed at all members of the community, from children to retail sales clerks (Almenoar, 2006; Mydans, 2001). A comparison of Singlish and English is offered to exemplify this language movement, followed by a brief overview of how the components of language can aid in deconstructing and reconstructing but ultimately understanding a language: Singlish: English:
What time start? What time does the event begin?
In looking at the phonemes in the Singlish question, the sounds would be phonetically written as follows in English: e.g., /hw/ /ä/ /t/ /t/ /ī/ /m/ /st/ /är/ /t/. The morphemes in the Singlish sentence are the words what time start. The syntax of the Singlish sentence may be correct for Singlish, but it is incorrect for English, because it does not follow the rules of syntax or word order. In English, sentences must contain a noun phrase and a verb phrase. The sentence “What time start?” does not have a verb phrase. If the purpose of semantics is to determine the meanings of words and the relationships of words, then the Singlish sentence does convey meaning. In this example, the speaker of Singlish wants to know the time in which something starts. The meaning becomes unclear as to what that “something” is referring to given the question. The semantics of the Singlish sentence breaks the English rule system. In the Singlish sentence, the pragmatics of the sentence does not fully communicate its meaning in English, because the meaning is incomplete. Singlish may be perceived as an informal dialect that should be spoken in one’s personal circles; however, in a formal English-speaking situation, a person may misinterpret the meaning and will need to know specifically what “what” references. With pragmatics, as described by Fromkin et al. (2003), the context and circumstances can affect the meaning that a language conveys.
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•
•
•
Dialects. The variations in a language are called dialects, and dialects are classified as languages. Dialects vary based on factors such as geographical location, class, race, accent, pronunciation, and syntax. In China, for example, Cantonese and Mandarin are classified as dialects of Chinese because of their mutual writing system, and both dialects are spoken in the same country (Fromkin et al., 2003; Haviland, 1987). Codeswitching. Codeswitching is also very much a part of human interaction and communicating across cultures and contexts. To codeswitch means to consciously or unconsciously change dialects or language in the same conversation (Fromkin et al., 2003; Haviland, 1987). Examples of language use. In Hong Kong as of 2007, the characteristics and activities of men remain the dominant norm for language practices. Linguistic sexism is prevalent in youth who speak Hong Kong English. Males prefer to use “he” as the generic term. Females tend to use the pronouns “he” and “she” more than men. However, youth in general agree with moving toward the use of the nonsexist, inclusive “they.” This change in language practices is seen as a way to neutralize linguistic sexism (Lee, 2007). African Americans created semantic terms and concepts (e.g., hip, cool, dig, cat, and rap) that became part of mainstream American culture in the 1970s (Smitherman, 1977). When the hip hop music revolution came around, African Americans again creatively used language to express who they were and what they were doing. They created a form of music called Hip Hop and they engaged in an act called “rapping.” Prior to this, these terms were not part of American popular culture.
Culture GQ What is the history of language in this society or culture? What language(s) is(are) used to communicate? Where is this language derived from? How is this language formed? What is the phonology of this language? What is the morphology of this language? What is the syntax structure of this language? Is there anything significant about the form, content, or use of this language? How is this language usually acquired? Is language deeply rooted in this society or culture, and if so, in what ways? What is the native language? What is the lingua franca (i.e., a common language for speakers of different languages that is used internationally for commerce and communication)? Have any languages been banned or restricted? Are there words that are taboo or unacceptable to speak? Are there words that are taboo or unacceptable to write? Is there a concern about language loss or losing a language due to lack of speakers of a language? How important is multilingualism? What dialects of the language are spoken? Who speaks these dialects? How are individuCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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als who speak these dialects perceived? Do individuals engage in codeswitching? What languages are used in codeswitching? How are individuals who codeswitch perceived? How is language used? How is the language connected to other social, political, economic, or religious issues?
Target Audience GQ What is the history of language for the target audience? What language(s) is(are) used by the target audience to communicate? Where is the target audience’s language derived from? How is the target audience’s language formed? What is the phonology of the target audience’s language? What is the morphology of the target audience’s language? What is the syntax of the target audience’s language? Is the target audience concerned about losing their language? Has the target audience produced words or other language forms that became part of the culture? What ways are used by the target audience to communicate with each other? Does a common language exist between the target audience, and if so, what is this language? How is this language viewed by the dominant culture or society? How does the society or culture classify the language (e.g., language, dialect, pidgin, slang, colloquialism)? What is the perception of the language spoken by the target audience? How is the language of the target audience connected to other social, political, economic, or religious issues?
Cultural Physiology E11. Cultural Physiology - The physiological characteristics of a human being, other species or entity. Cultural physiology is the physiological characteristics of a human being, other species or entity. These characteristics are the features or qualities that make things distinguishable from other things. The cultural physiology of the target audience should be expressed in physical terms (e.g., human; female; 5 feet, 8 inches tall; blue eyes; olive skin). Also, any distinguishing features (e.g., tattoo of a rose on right shoulder, one eye), movements (e.g., limp, sway), sounds, and smells can be added if important to the overall physiology. The human composition can be defined based on measurements. Measurements consistent with humans should measure the size, composition, and proportions of the body (e.g., height, weight, circumference of the chest, head, waist, lower and upper Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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abdomen, forearms, wrists, hips, thighs, calves, and ankles; lengths of the arm, leg, torso, and foot; skin folds on the forehead, torso, thighs, and arms (McLorg, 2006). The physiology of humans can be used to determine the percentage of body fat and body density; and to examine nutrition, infections, disease patterns, mortality, and physical activity. For example, the physiology of an individual may change when migrating from a cold climate to a warm climate (McLorg, 2006).3 The characteristics of a human being are one section of a much more comprehensive classification. Table 11.1 provides a physical classification example to define the physical structure of human beings or other human like species. This table can be adapted to include other species and entities. A more comprehensive
Table 11.1. Physical Classification
Classification
Description
Species
Android
Gender
male
Age
28
Skin shade
pearly tan
Skin texture
synthetic rubber
continued on following page
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Table 11.1. continued Hair
manufactured nylon
Color
Dark Brown
Texture (straight, kinky, curly)
straight
Length
2 inches
Growth
none
Density (thick, thin)
thin
Style (bangs, ponytail, bob)
short crew cut
Face Skeletal structure
humanoid
Eyes (width apart, color)
4 inches, green
Mouth (shape)
oval
Nose (shape)
long, low nostrils
Forehead
one crease
Torso
muscular
Thighs
muscular
Arms
average muscular
Smells
very acute
Sounds
human like, very acute
Movements
human like, but highly adaptable
Garments Type (pants, shirt, blouse, etc.)
jeans, fashionable
Color
blue
Fabric (cotton, wool, synthetic)
cotton
Style (conservative, uniform)
modern chic
Distinguishing marks
hart tattoo on right hip. branding of model
Other
speaks top 50 languages
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taxonomy could include the physiological, emotional, cognitive/intellectual, social, geographic, linguistic, environmental, and psychological. All of these areas are design factors in CBM Elements. However, Cultural physiology is specific to physical characteristics only.
Culture GQ What groups are in this society or culture? What are the physiological characteristics of specific individuals in these groups? What are the measurements of these physiological characteristics? What species are in this society or culture? What are the physiological characteristics of these species? Describe the physiology of individuals, species, organisms, plants, and so forth that contribute to the cultural physiology of the planet.
Target Audience GQ What are the physiological characteristics of the target audience? What measurements identify the physiological characteristics of the target audience? What physiological characteristics distinguish the target audience from other groups? Are the measurements of the target audience in any way biased or stereotypical? Describe or illustrate the differences in physiological characteristics of individuals within the target audience. How would the target audience describe themselves physiologically?
Cultural Relations E12. Cultural Relations - The relationship of one being to another being. Cultural relations refer to the relationship of one being to another being. These relations cut across societies and cultures; groups and individuals; and humans, other species and entities. Cultural relations across societies and cultures have involved fostering relations related to economic, scientific, technological, artistic, and political developments. Cultural relations across groups and individuals gets at how one being relates to another being. Cultural relations involves the study of human beings and their relationships among and between organisms. This means, man’s relationship to man; mans relationship to womwn, children, etc. and humans relationship to the other animals and organisms. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Culture GQ •
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Society/culture: What forms of cultural relations exist between this society and other societies? What forms of cultural relations exist between this culture and other cultures? How do economic relations with other societies or cultures assist in cultivating cultural relations? How do political relations with other societies or cultures assist in cultivating cultural relations? How do technological and scientific relations with other societies or cultures assist in cultivating cultural relations? Dominant group4: How does the dominant group in this society or culture relate or interact with other groups? Does the dominant group trust other groups—why or why not? Does the dominant group have conflicts with any other groups—why or why not? Does the dominant group like any other group—why or why not? Does the dominant group dislike any other group—why or why not? Does the dominant group admire any other group—why or why not? Does the dominant group disrespect any other group—why or why not? Who does the dominant group interact with on a daily basis and in what way? Does the dominant group interact with the target audience, and if so, in what way? Does the dominant group interact with individuals who are minority group members, and if so, in what way? Has the dominant group committed aggressive acts against any group, and if so, why? Has the dominant group committed violent acts against any group, and if so, why? How has ethnocentrism impacted cross-cultural relations? How are cross-cultural relations cultivated in this society or culture? Species: How do humans relate to other species on the planet? Do humans worship other species; if so, why? Do humans consume other species; if so, why? Do humans hunt their own species and why? Under what conditions have humans consumed their own species? What species are considered pets for humans and why?
Target Audience GQ •
•
Society/culture: What forms of cultural relations exist between the target audience and other societies? What forms of cultural relations exist between the target audience and other cultures? Dominant group: How does the dominant group relate or interact with the target audience? Does the target audience trust other groups—why or why not? Does the target audience have conflicts with any other groups—why or why not? Does the target audience like any other group—why or why not? Does the target audience dislike any other group—why or why not? Does the
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•
target audience admire any other group—why or why not? Does the target audience disrespect any other group—why or why not? Who does the target audience interact with on a daily basis and in what way? Does the target audience interact with individuals from other minority groups, and if so, in what way? Has the target audience committed aggressive acts against any group and why? Has the target audience committed violent acts against any group and why? How are cross-cultural relations cultivated by the target audience? Species: How does the target audience relate to other species on the planet? Does the target audience worship other species and why? Does the target audience consume other species and why? Does the target audience hunt their own species and why? Under what conditions has the target audience consumed their own species? What species are considered pets by the target audience and why? What species are considered consumable by the target audience?
Cultural Resources E13. Cultural Resources - The use and cultivation of resources. Natural resources are non-human-made resources that come from the planet Earth. These resources are limited and are considered nonrenewable. Nonrenewable resources cannot be replenished; once they are completely used up, they cannot be replaced (Cooper, 2003). Examples of nonrenewable resources include oil, coal, natural gas, and other minerals. Renewable resources can be renewed or renew themselves as long as they are not completely destroyed (e.g., forests, soil, and fish; Cooper, 2003).
Agriculture Agriculture serves as a source of fiber and food production. Traditionally, agriculture accounted for much of the economic development and wealth. However, more industrialized and technological societies rely less on agriculture for economic growth (Brouwer, 2006). Less industrialized countries view agriculture as a source of food, capital, trade, and labor (Taylor, 2004). The demand by Western societies for cash crops such as sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, and heroin have led to the global destruction of ecosystems (Ferraro, 2004, p. 142). Other examples that have led to the demise of ecosystems and environmental degradation are the demands of hardwood, drillings for fossil fuels (i.e., coal and oil), and metals (Ferraro, 2004). As reported by the New Partnership for Africa’s Development, in 2007, poor soil is noted as one of the major reasons Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Africa cannot meet its demand for food. As a result, 204 million people suffer from malnutrition and hunger (Madamombe, 2007).
Forestry Forestry involves the growing, maintenance, and harvesting of trees. The removal of trees can cause changes to the ecosystem (Ritchie, 2003).
Minerals Mineral extraction (mining) is the removal from the environment of nonliving/ nonrenewable resources. The more industrialized the society or culture, the more likely the demand for minerals. Minerals that come from the earth offer some type of social purpose or financial value; however, they remain scarce resources. Examples of minerals derived from the earth’s crust include: oil, natural gas, nickel, coal, aluminum, helium, methane, zinc, copper, gravel, stone, sand, jade, diamonds, and rubies (Bridge, 2006).
Energy Industrialized societies are dependent on energy. On the planet Earth, that energy in many cases is generated by fossil fuel (i.e., gas, oil, and coal) sources that are nonrenewable. Therefore, there is a need for a clean, environmentally safe, inexhaustible energy that can replace nonrenewable sources. By example, the United States relies on fossil fuels for 85% of their commercial energy. The long-term demand for fossil fuels by world markets will not meet the supply. It is estimated that given the Earth’s demand for natural sources of energy that supply will run out within “a century or so” (Cunningham, 2003, p. 458). Additionally, these fuels have become environmental pollutants. Coal emits greenhouse gases that have resulted in global warming (Cunningham, 2003). Oil spillage into oceans results in biological and property damage (Canevari, 2006). Natural gas used in car engines contributes to air pollution (Ziegler, 2006). Cleaner and sustainable sources of energy can be developed using existing technologies. This is exemplified in wind power, wave power, ocean tidal, solar heating and heaters, photovoltaic energy (produces electricity from sunlight), hydropower (generates electricity from moving water) and biomass (recycles renewable sources into energy). The main problem with these alternative forms of energy is that they disperse and are not instantly available sources of energy (Cunningham, 2003). The use of solar power energy is supplying electricity to rural parts of Africa. This move to solar power began in the 1990s and was further supported through a Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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2001 framework initiative titled The New Partnership for Africa’s Development. For homes that are too far away from electrical grids, solar power is one alternative to providing electricity. Solar power is a renewable and clean source of energy and can prove a valuable economic resource in rural parts of Africa (Madamombe, 2006). Russia covers 13.1% of the Earth’s surface and is considered the largest country on the planet. Size alone makes Russia an important natural resource, as it houses large quantities of diamonds, wood, coal, oil, and natural gas. Untouched wild forests cover 23% of Russia’s landscape. The climate is mild to cold in most of the country. Russia produces few agricultural products, according to 2000 figures; those products grown include sugar beets, vegetables, potatoes, and grain crops (Shvidenko, 2006).
Culture GQ5 •
•
•
•
•
Agriculture: What agriculture exists in this society or culture? How is agriculture used? Does agriculture serve an economic, political, or social purpose? What problems related to agriculture exist? How is the society or culture resolving these problems? Forestry: Do forests exist in this society or culture? How is forestry used? Does forestry serve an economic, political, or social purpose? What problems related to forestry exist? How is the society or culture resolving these problems? Minerals: What minerals are extracted from the planet? What minerals are used? How are minerals used? Do minerals serve an economic, political, or social purpose? What minerals are used for economic value? What problems related to minerals exist? How is the society or culture resolving these problems? Energy: What sources of energy are used in this society or culture? How is energy used? Does energy serve an economic, political, or social purpose? What problems related to energy sources exist? How is the society or culture resolving these problems? Natural resources: Identify and define the natural resources. How are these resources used and applied? How has this population adapted to their natural environment? How has the natural environment been impacted by human beings’ behavior and activities? How has the culture influenced the natural environment? For example, people who live in colder climates may engage in certain behaviors specific to the climate, such as eating larger amounts of food and engaging in more physical activity (Ferraro, 2004). Are humans and nature living harmoniously? Are humans abusing nature, and if so, in what
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way? How has nature responded to humans’ abuse? What natural disasters exist? Were these human-made disasters (e.g., oil spills in ocean) or natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, tornadoes). How has the demand for natural resources influenced this society or culture? What global environmental changes are affecting human life? What global environmental changes are affecting plant life? What global environmental changes are affecting the planet’s life?
Target Audience GQ What is the target audience’s role in the preservation of cultural resources? How has the target audience contributed to the problems associated with the cultural resources? •
•
•
•
•
Agriculture: How is agriculture used by the target audience? Does agriculture serve an economic, political, or social purpose for the target audience? What problems related to agriculture exist for the target audience? How is the target audience resolving agriculture problems? Forestry: How is forestry used by the target audience? Does forestry serve an economic, political, or social purpose for the target audience? What problems related to forestry exist for the target audience? How is the target audience resolving forestry problems? Minerals: What minerals are extracted from the planet by the target audience? How are minerals used by the target audience? Do minerals serve an economic, political, or social purpose for the target audience? What minerals are used for economic value by the target audience? What problems related to minerals exist for the target audience? How is the target audience resolving mineral extraction problems? Energy: What sources of energy are used by the target audience? Does energy serve an economic, political, or social purpose for the target audience? What problems related to energy sources exist for the target audience? How is the target audience resolving energy problems? Natural resources: How are natural resources used by the target audience? How has the target audience adapted to their natural environment? How has the natural environment been affected by the target audience and their behavior/activities? How has the target audience been affected by the natural environment? Are the target audience and nature living harmoniously? Is the target audience abusing nature, and if so, in what way? How has nature responded to any abuse by the target audience? What human-made or natural disasters were the results of errors made by the target audience? How has the
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demand for natural resources influenced the target audience? What global environmental changes are affecting the target audience?
References Almenoar, M. (2006, July 19). Wrong: Can fit or not? Right: Is that the correct size? Straits Times, p. H7. Bridge, G. (2006). Mineral Extraction. In H. Geist (Ed.), Our earth’s changing land: An encyclopedia of land-use and land-cover change, 2, 410-416. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Brouwer, F. (2006). Agriculture. In H. Geist (Ed.), Our earth’s changing land: An encyclopedia of land-use and land-cover change, 1, 27-33. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Canevari, G. P. (2006). Oil spillage into water--treatment. In J. R. Pfafflin & E. N. Ziegler (Eds.), Encyclopedia of environmental science and engineering, 2, 802-816. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Cooper, T. H. (2003). Land use. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed., 814). Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group. Cunningham, W. P. (2003). Introduction. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed.), 1, xxix–xxxii. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group. D’Andrade, R. (1995). The development of cognitive anthropology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Dougherty, J. W. D. (1985). Directions in cognitive anthropology. Urbana, CH: University of Illinois Press. Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2003). An introduction to language (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Thomson Heinle. Haviland, W. A. (1987). Cultural anthropology (5th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
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Lee, J. F. K. (2007). Acceptability of sexist language among young people in Hong Kong. Sex Roles, 56, 285-295. Madamombe, I. (2006, October). Solar power: Cheap energy source for Africa. Africa Renewal, 20(3), 10-11. Madamombe, I. (2007, January). Woman storekeeper boosts Malawi farming. Africa Renewal, 20(4), 13-16. McLorg, P. A. (2006). Anthropometry. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 1, 196-197. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Mydans, S. (2001, July 1). Nations in Asia give English their own flavorful quirks. New York Times, p. 1. Owens, R. E. (2005). Language development: An introduction. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Ritchie, L. C. (2003). Forest management. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham, & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed.), 1, 589-599. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. Shvidenko, A. (2006). Russia. In H. Geist (Ed.), Our earth’s changing land: An encyclopedia of land-use and land-cover change, 2, 515-520. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Smitherman, G. (1977). Talkin and testifyin: The language of Black America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Taylor, J. E. (2004). Agricultural economics. In A. Kuper & J. Kuper (Eds.), The social science encyclopedia, 1, 18-19. New York: Routledge. Thomas, R. M. (2001). Folk psychologies across cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Ziegler, E. N. (2006). Mobile source pollution. In J. R. Pfafflin & E. N. Ziegler (Eds.), Encyclopedia of environmental science and engineering (5th ed.), 2, 701-713. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Endnotes
1
See the work of cognitive anthropologists for more on how cultural knowledge is acquired through experience and implemented based on this acquisition (Dougherty, 1985).
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2
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4
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For more information access the web page of the “Speak Good English Movement “http://www.goodenglish.org.sg/SGEM/. The definition of cultural physiology for humans is borrowed from the anthropological term anthropometry which means measuring the size and proportions of the human body. The questions in this dominant group section are informed by the work of Segall, et al., 1999). Some of these questions were informed by Bortman et al. (2003) and Ferraro, (2004).
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Chapter XII
CBM Elements VI
This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the psychology of culture. All of the design factors related to psychology are covered.
The Psychology of Culture Cultural beliefs & values Cultural experiences Cultural ideas Cultural identity Cultural interests Cultural misconceptions Cultural ways This section, the psychology of culture, draws from cognitive anthropology and cultural psychology that focus on cognitive, psychological, and social realms. Culture affects the psychology of human existence (D’Andrade, 1995) in its ability to configure the mind of human beings. Human beings use their minds to negotiate and make sense of the world. Whether part of a society, culture, or group, human beings search for shared meanings with others and an understanding of self. These Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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meanings are best understood in their cultural contexts; therefore, culture is at the core of creating, understanding, and being human (Bruner, 1996). In psychology, models of culture focus on explaining processes of the mind (D’Andrade, 1990; Quinn, 1987; Schank & Abelson, 1977). Similarly, the psychology of culture examines what is going on in individuals’ mind that influences their actions (D’Andrade, 1995). Exploring the psychology and cognition of individuals assists in framing experiences, providing meaning to experiences, exploring the reasoning process, and understanding the outcomes of behavior (Quinn & Holland, 1987). The psychology of culture also presupposes that the individual is a transporter of culture. (D’Andrade, 1990). This means that, among individuals, there is great variability in terms of how they function psychologically. In measuring these items, those with the most frequent consistency can be treated as representative of the group’s culture. Therefore, items can be determined to be shared by the group or unique to the individual or group (D’Andrade, 1990). Schema is shared knowledge. Among groups, there are shared cognitive schemas or understandings. These shared cognitive schemas are obvious but only to members of the group. For example a television announcer yells, “Touchdown!” This means that a football team has scored, except this has little meaning to individuals who do not understand football. Information shared among a group is not made explicit because the knowledge is already known (D’Andrade, 1990, 1987). This means that target audiences will have shared knowledge and information that is understood only by members of their group. D’Andrade’s (1990, 1995) folk model of the mind proposes that humans notice their mental states and processes; this, in turn, influences behavior. One of the characteristics of a mental state is the principle of cause; this means “certain events are thought to bring about other events” (D’Andrade, 1987, p. 117). This means that what a human sees, hears, tastes, smells, and feels is caused by events and things outside the mind. Inside the mind of a human what they believe, remember, or know is processed in the mind. Therefore, mental states and processes happen internally (inside) and/or externally (outside) of the mind. In looking at CBM Elements, several design factors could be categorized as having properties of a mental state or process.
CBM Element Cultural beliefs Cultural values Cultural experiences Cultural ideas Cultural identity
Inside/outside of the mind Inside the mind Inside & outside the mind Inside the mind Inside the mind Inside the mind
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Cultural interests Cultural misconceptions Cultural ways
Inside the mind Inside the mind Inside & outside the mind
These elements are defined, described, illustrated, and addressed in terms of society, culture and the target audience. Guiding questions that address the society and culture are broadly based, allowing for a surface review of the psychology of societies and cultures. Target Audience GQ are specific to the group or individuals in the group.
Cultural Beliefs and Values E14. Cultural Beliefs and Values - Beliefs (shared truths); Values (shared ideas). Cultural beliefs are those shared truths of a society, culture, or group. Cultural values are those shared ideas of a society, culture, or group. Belief is related to “what is,” and value is related to “what should be” (Pepitone, 1994, p. 141). These ideologies inform thinking, acting, and understanding.
Cultural Beliefs Beliefs are formed through personal experience, secondary sources, and inferring information (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). To believe is a human function (Pepitone, 1994). Beliefs are concepts about persons, places, things, and processes. The believer legitimizes the belief. Therefore, belief is a significant variable in predicting human behavior. Supernatural beliefs have had the greatest impact on the human species. These beliefs are nonmaterial or nontangible because they cannot be verified through methods of social and physical science. Supernatural beliefs are embedded in an individual’s concepts about society, race, ethnicity, morality, religion, secularity, or paranormality (Pepitone, 1994). An example of a “religious belief system” is Shamanism; it is practiced throughout the world (Fridman, 2004, p. xi). Shamanism originated in Eurasia, Siberia and Mongolia. Shamanism is not a fixed religion. This spiritual practice is guided by an omniscient specialist or shaman who aids in connecting the spirit world with believers for the good of all (Fridman, 2004). In Mongolia, the Buryats practice shamanism. This spiritual practice also manifests as a way of dealing with the changing economy and the fall of socialism. Buryats attribute the turmoil in their culture with the return of angry spirits who seek retribution for their social, political, and religious sins (Buyandelgeriyn, 2007). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Cultural Values Values are the ideals, principles, or standards of an individual, group, or society. Values evolved historically from the various social and economic contexts in a society (Segall, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Those planned and unplanned life experiences of human beings help to shape ones values. Values are learned and internalized early in the life of a human being (Germain & Bloom, 1999). Values are learned through teachings from family and instructors, preached from religious figures, conveyed by political figures, and communicated through media. The ethics and morals of a society or culture are expressed through the value-driven behavior of individuals and groups (Segall et al., 1999). In 2000, Hong Kong published curriculum reform papers listing over 100 values of importance in educating children in schools. Now this number has dwindled down to 5 key values: commitment, national identity, perseverance, respect for others and responsibility. The goal of instilling values education is to further develop children’s sense of national identity and their global connectedness (South China Morning Post, 2008).
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Cultural beliefs: How are beliefs formed in this society or culture? What are the beliefs of this society or culture? How do beliefs influence human behavior? Are beliefs connected to religion or spirituality? Are beliefs connected to social interactions? Are beliefs connected to political or economic issues? Whose beliefs are more dominant? Does gender influence beliefs? Cultural values: How are values developed in this society or culture? What are the values of this society or culture? How do values influence human behavior? Are values connected to religion or spirituality? Are values connected to social interactions? Are values connected to political or economic issues? Whose values are more dominant? Does gender influence values?
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Cultural beliefs: What are the beliefs of the target audience in regards to religion, spirituality, social interaction, politics, economics, and so forth? How did the target audience come to these beliefs? How have beliefs influence the behavior of the target audience? Whose beliefs are more dominant in the target audience? Does gender influence the beliefs of the target audience? Cultural values: What are the values of the target audience in regards to religion, spirituality, social interaction, politics, economics, and so forth? How
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did the target audience come to these values? How do values influence the behavior of the target audience? Does gender influence the values of the target audience? How are the beliefs and values of the target audience different than the dominant culture?
Cultural Experiences E15. Cultural Experiences - The interpretation of the world from inside and out. Cultural experiences are the interpretation of one’s world from inside and outside. This interpretation is inside the community (e.g., family life, social gatherings) and outside the community (e.g., freedom, racism, discrimination, politics, housing, education, work). Our cultural experiences shape and are shaped by “our worldviews, the way we perceive our lives, our experiences and those of others” (Vasquez, Han, De Las Fuentes, 2006, p. 443). Cultural experiences are guided by what people say about their experiences. Information about cultural experiences can be attained through personal narratives, reports, or oral histories. These narratives can be used to understand the: who, what, why, and how of the individual or group experiences and align these interpretations to macro-social, political, cultural, and economic issues. These narratives must be considered in terms of the social setting or social context in which the event, situation, or telling happens (Hollan, 2001). For every cultural experience, there is a story or storyteller, and such stories are situated in a context or setting that is influenced by macro-conditions. Narratives are also influenced by “who is telling what to whom and under what circumstances” (Hollan, 2001, p. 54); therefore, multiple methods of capturing psychological experiences are needed. Individuals or groups are asked about their experiences versus the experiences inferred from artifacts and observations. This approach can be conducted through interviews, focus groups, or any person-centered method. Cultural experiences are guided by what people do in their everyday lives and their interpretation of these actions. It is those experiences specific to their living and existence (Hollan, 2001) that are of interest. To obtain these data, requires following the individual or group as they engage in actions and activities that formulate their daily lived experiences. This means to capture, feelings, thoughts, and intentions requires documentation through recordings (audio, video, photography), observations (fieldnote collection), and asking the individual or group. In essence, the active engagement of the individual or group is needed (Hollan, 2001). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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As an example, the Toraja of South Sulawesi, Indonesia engage in a funeral ceremony where waterbuffalo are slaughtered competitively by the adult men. The ceremony improves the status of men in the community. Hollan (2001) observed Nene’na Tandi, one of his informants, engaging in behavior that he believed indicated that Nene’na was monitoring portions of the buffalo distributed to each family. However upon interviewing Nene’na, Hollan and Wellenkamp (1994) found Nene’na angry about the ceremonial process because Nene’na believed the ceremony no longer yielded the financial gains the adult men expected and that the adult men were foolish to believe they would get rich. Through conducting the interview, Hollan and Wellenkamp (1994) obtained a more accurate interpretation of this cultural experience as one where men’s status was not improved, which reflected negatively on the status of men in the community.
Culture GQ What are the cultural experiences of individuals or groups in this society or culture? What issues outside the community shape how individuals or groups interpret their world? What social issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world? What economic issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world? What religious or spiritual issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world? What political issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world? What environmental issues shape how individuals or groups interpret their world? How do other issues (e.g., sexism, poverty, racism, housing, discrimination) shape how individuals or groups interpret their world?
Target Audience GQ What are the cultural experiences of the target audience? What issues outside the community shape how the target audience interprets their world? What social issues shape how the target audience interprets their world? What economic issues shape how the target audience interprets their world? What religious or spiritual issues shape how the target audience interprets their world? What political issues shape how the target audience interprets their world? What environmental issues shape how the target audience interprets their world? How do other issues (e.g., sexism, poverty, racism, housing, discrimination, etc.) shape how the target audience interprets their world? What does the target audience say about their cultural experiences? What actions does the target audience take that shapes their cultural experience? How does the target audience interpret their cultural experience? What are the target audiences feelings and thoughts about their lives?
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Cultural Ideas E16. Cultural Ideas - The use and meaning of ideas and perceptions. Cultural ideas refer to the use and meaning of ideas and perceptions. John Locke proposed that ideas and perceptions are the same things (Locke, 1805). Ideas and perceptions come from the mind as in a thought. An idea is a thought initiated by any external or internal stimulus. A perception is a thought initiated by the physical senses of what one sees, smells, feels, tastes and hears (D’Andrade, 1987). Therefore, cultural ideas and perceptions can be thought of as those which are created and taken in by the mind. Cultural ideas can have form and content. These ideas can take the form of printed matter or hypertext. The content of cultural ideas is as diverse as the societies, groups, and individuals that use and create meaning from these ideas. Cultural ideas can be shared patterns of thinking, or schemas. Cultural ideas can be both “universal and culturally specific” (D’Andrade, 1990, p. 110).13 When repeatedly used, cultural ideas can become part of the way individuals or groups think and thereby influence their actions (Carpenter, 2005). In creating the theme park Universal Studios Japan, in Osaka, Japan, considerations for combining American and Japanese business cultures were paramount. All departments in Universal Studios Japan had to consider the cultural implications of making an American company pleasing to Japanese tastes. To accomplish this task, the company held focus groups to obtain cultural ideas in making an American theme park more Japanese. The cultural ideas included changing the language of the Wild, Wild, Wild West stunt show from English to Japanese. The majority of the food items would come from Japan, and food portions decreased; however, American foods such as pizzas and hot dogs were in larger proportions. Souvenirs included more household items, stationary products, and candy. The goal of using cultural ideas was to obtain “the Japanese idea of the American product” (Emmons, 2001, p. 113).
Culture GQ What are the cultural ideas in this society or culture? Are there shared patterns of thinking? What cultural ideas are universal? What cultural ideas are culturally specific? Through what form are cultural ideas mediated (e.g., radio, television, Internet, print, etc.)? How are cultural ideas generated within this culture? Does gender influence whose ideas are valued and accepted? What biases exist or not in
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the use and application of ideas? For example, are women’s ideas valued; if so in what contexts (e.g., childrearing) and if not in what contexts? Are men’s ideas valued; if so in what contexts (e.g., sport s) and if not in what contexts? Are children’s ideas valued? Are children allowed to voice their opinions in conversations with adults? What happens to the best ideas?
Target Audience GQ What are the cultural ideas of the target audience? Are there shared patterns of thinking for the target audience? What cultural ideas are culturally specific to the target audience? How are cultural ideas generated by the target audience? Does gender influence whose ideas are valued and accepted in the target audience? What biases exist, if any, in the use and application of ideas? Within the target audience, are women’s ideas valued? Within the target audience, are men’s ideas valued? Within the target audience, are children’s ideas valued? What is the target audience’s perception about life? How did the target audience come to these ideas? What continues to influence these ideas for the target audience? How have the ideas of individuals in the target audience influenced their behavior?
Cultural IdId E17. Cultural Identity - Distinguishing qualities of a human being, other species or entity. Cultural identity refers to the distinguishing qualities of a human being, other species or entity. Within the social and cultural contexts of a society or culture, human beings embrace identities as a way to define self, individuality, or other uniqueness. Identity is also defined in terms of sameness. Individuals who share a sameness or commonalities are associated with or by societies, cultures, communities, or group identities (Byron, 1998). In the Folona region of Mali, West Africa, women participate in the family tradition of making pots out of wet clay.1 Each potter marks their pot with a sign; this signature and the tools of the pottery trade are handed down from mother to daughter. This sign identifies the individual potter and has come to be seen as a mark of artistry, identity, and heritage (Frank, 2007). The maintenance of a cultural identity begins with the strengthening of cultural traditions and boundaries and prohibiting of borrowing elements from other cultures. This can be seen in the maintenance of language, clothing, and eating customs (e.g.,
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food taboos; Ferraro, 2004). Language serves as a form of national identity when it is chosen as the exclusive language of a people and excludes all other languages. National language guides legal and political discourse (Ferraro, 2004). Clothing is also significant to group identity. Groups may wear the same garb to signify their allegiance (Ferraro, 2004). Although there are many sects, male followers of Hassidic Judaism, a religious movement, typically wear black suits with long jackets called a rekel during the Jewish work week of Sunday through Friday (Cohn-Sherbok & Cohn-Sherbok, 1997). Across cultures eating customs aid groups in maintaining ethnic identities in the kinds of food eaten, manner in which food is eaten and how often food is eaten. The sharing of food supports group unity and social relations. Thit Cho or dog meat is a kind of food found eaten by some Vietnamese in Hanoi, Vietnam; thit cho is believed to bring good luck. It is considered a delicacy by some and only eaten during the lunar month. Restaurants serve thit cho as a sausage; in thighs or legs; grilled, stewed, fried; and sandwiched between sliced bread (The Nation, 2004).
Culture GQ Define the cultural identity of this society or culture. How do individuals define their identities? Within individuals, is there the presence of self, individuality, or uniqueness? How does the society or culture define its cultural identity? What societies share a cultural identity, and how is it defined? What groups share a cultural identity, and how is it defined? What communities share a cultural identity, and how it is defined?
Target Audience GQ Define the cultural identity of the target audience. How do individuals within the target audience define their identities? How is self, individuality, or uniqueness expressed in the target audience? How does the target audience define its cultural identity? What other groups or communities share a sameness with the target audience, and how are they defined? What conclusions can be drawn about the individuals in the target audience? How do individuals characterize themselves in the target audience? How do individuals characterize themselves in comparison to others in the target audience? How do individuals characterize themselves in relation to others outside the target audience?
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Cultural Interests E18. Cultural Interests - Deeply personal desires, wants, wishes. Cultural interests are deeply personal desires, wants, or wishes (D’Andrade, 1990). Desires, wants and wishes are not controllable. There can be a few or many. Desires, wants and wishes can be held in the mind and acted upon immediately or never (D’Andrade, 1987). Human behavior is motivated by deeply held personal desires, wants, and wishes. What motivates one individual to act on a cultural interest and another to just dream is the mystery of human nature. Cultural interests may run counter to values, family, group, community, or society. However, they are strongly held, deeply personal, private, and even secret. Cultural interests can be something done during recreational time, free time, private time or that is of general interest. The individual acquires this desire by exposure to something within their life experiences, an innate ability, or their human curiosity for the unknown. These cultural interests define the individual. They are learned through their exposure to cultures and personal experiences. Cultural interests must be examined through human behavior or individualized interviews that get at psychological and cognitive processing. Cultural interests are more likely to be implicit than explicit. A Chinese girl who grows up in China may want to know what it is like to live in America. This is an unspoken interest; nevertheless, it exists for her.
Culture GQ What are the cultural interests of the society or culture? What is the society or culture’s view of individuals with secretly held cultural interests? Is there a punishment for holding cultural interests that counter to those of the society or culture?
Target Audience GQ What are the desires, wants, or wishes of the target audience? What are the personal desires, wants, or wishes of individuals in the target audience? Are the cultural interests of the target audience publicly known? Are the cultural interests of individuals in the target audience private or secretly held? Is there a penalty for harboring cultural interests that run counter to the target audience, culture or society?
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Cultural Misconceptions E19. Cultural Misconceptions - Untruths, myths, stereotypes. Cultural misconceptions are untruths, myths, or stereotypes about an individual, group, community or culture. These misconceptions take on a life of their own as they are translated and passed on to others for amusement, out of fear, lack of knowledge, to record a historical moment, or maintain an oral history. Most fall between an intentional lie and the truth. Untruths are lies, fabrications, or other falsehoods that sound like truth because of its retellings. These are based on real people and real events, but the content of the conversation becomes exaggerated or distorted, given its retellings. Spreading untruths, like gossip, rumors, or hearsay, is an act that an individual performs for the benefit of self. It is based on information that becomes distorted through “idle talk” (Trumble & Stevenson, 2002a, p. 1129). Engaging in untruths is a social act that requires the benefit of an audience, and it is performed daily. Participating in untruths forms the social milieu of the group, affirms group behavior and membership, maintains the group’s history and morality, controls rival cliques and competing individuals. Partaking in untruths is about the promotion of one’s self-interests, aspirations, and idle talk about others. Untruths, enacted by individuals, define the group and serves to promote social control by setting parameters for the group and boundaries of group membership.2 Lies and liars can be found in ancient to contemporary texts. There are four ancient texts of Hinduism (Atharva Veda, Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda). The Vedas contain rituals, hymns, and incantations from ancient India. The Artharva Veda is estimated to have been written around 1000 B.C.; this Veda contains prayers, charms, hymns, and spells. In Book 8 Hymn III, A Prayer for the Destruction of Demons, they describe the fate of a liar as follows: “Let arrows pierce the lair in his vitals (Griffith, 1895).” Myths are traditional stories about persons, actions, or events that may involve nature, heroes, heroines, ancestors, or supernatural beings. Societies have used myths to rationalize traditions, customs, and beliefs; maintain values and behaviors; explain the unexplainable; define the relationship between humans and their gods; and curtail human fears of failure, death, and the unknown. Myths validate and explain the origins of human existence (D’Amato, 2006). The myth of creation or how the world began can be found in literature, art and oral stories of many cultures. Theories, hypotheses and ideas of creation have been created by groups like the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Sumarians, Babylonian, Hawaiian, Asian, African, Native American, Mayan and others. Commonly known myths of creation are published in religious texts like the Quŕan (Koran) that states god created the universe and all of humanity, and there is only one creator. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Stereotypes are predetermined, oversimplified ideas or images of the characteristics that exemplify an individual, group, or situation; these beliefs are often shared by members of a group or a society. Stereotypes complicate the behavioral disparities among all groups (Sowell, 1994). These perceptions are speculative and usually used to describe racial and ethnic minorities. Stereotypes attached to a group of people usually reference derogatory issues such as hygiene (e.g., dirty), intelligence (e.g., stupidity), behavior (e.g., loud, violent), language (e.g., broken English), race (e.g., inferiority), ability and skills (e.g., lazy, late), genetic (e.g., mental performance, physical structure, intellectual potential, skin color), or environmental (e.g., people who live in ghettos are poor and stupid; Sowell, 1994). A 21st-century stereotype of Arab women relates to the perception that they are submissive, silent, and veiled. This stereotype is being challenged by Egyptian women who are dedicated to advancing the roles of women in all aspects of the culture. Egyptain women are battling to eliminate stereotypes; this is evident by the 16,000 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Egypt that seek to improve women’s health, legal and religious rights, and education (Golia, 2007).
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Untruths: What untruths exist in this society or culture? Do individuals engage in untruths? How does the engagement in untruths support group dynamics? Does the society or culture promote the behavior of engaging in untruths in any way? In what ways does engaging in untruths benefit the individual and group? Myths: What myths exist in this society or culture? How do these myths validate or explain the origins of human existence? Are these myths specific to any group or culture? How do these myths promote, maintain, support, or validate the society or culture? Stereotypes: What stereotypes exist in this society or culture? What stereotypes are specific to individuals, groups, or situations? How have stereotypes complicated the behavioral disparities among all groups? How do these stereotypes describe racial and ethnic minorities? Are these stereotypes derogatory, and if so, in what ways? How does the society or culture support stereotypes?
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Untruths: What untruths exist about the target audience? Have these untruths affected individuals within the target audience or the target audience? Do individuals from the target audience engage in untruths? How does the engagement in untruths support or hurt the target audience? Does the target
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•
•
audience promote the behavior of engaging in untruths in any way? In what ways does engaging in untruths benefit the target audience? What does the target audience think about these untruths? Myths: What myths exist about the target audience? Have these myths affected individuals within the target audience or the target audience? Are these myths specific to any individual in the target audience or the target audience? How do these myths promote, maintain, support, or validate the target audience? What does the target audience think about these myths? Stereotypes: What stereotypes exist about the target audience? What stereotypes are specific to individuals in the target audience or the target audience? How have stereotypes complicated the behavior of the target audience? Are these stereotypes derogatory, and if so, in what ways? How does the target audience support these stereotypes? What does the target audience think about these stereotypes?
Cltural Ways E20. Cultural Ways - Behaviors, norms, feelings. Cultural ways refers to an individual’s or group’s ways of life, thinking, acting, feeling, and seeing. These ways are labeled terms such as behaviors, norms, practices, habits, activities, feelings, skills, techniques, or methods Cultural ways of life can be learned, inherited, taught, shared, or passed down. Human beings learn the patterns or ways of thinking, feeling, acting, doing, and seeing early in life (Hofstede, 1991). This cultural programming begins from birth and continues as humans interact with their environment (Hofstede, 1991, p. 235). To change one’s ways of doing, takes much deprogramming. There is some crossover in the definitions of these terms. However, provided are generic descriptions and relevant examples of behaviors, folkways, norms, habits, activities, and feelings/emotions.
Behaviors Human behavior is shaped by culture (Shweder, 1990), and culture influences human behavior (Segall et al., 1999). Behaviors follow the debate of nature versus nurture. In nurture, behaviors are learned through the environment. For the human child, this socialization starts with exchanges between family, interactions with peers, and through modeling the behavior of others (Seklecki, 2006). In nature, behaviors are based on biology. The hypothesis that boys are more aggressive than girls because Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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of their biological make-up or chromosome variation supports the reasoning as to why there are differences in behavior. Therefore, it has been argued that behavior can be influenced by nature (biology) and nurture (environment; Seklecki, 2006). In Japan, the act of committing suicide is a long-held behavior intended to save face amid public humiliation. Toshikatsu Matsuoka, Japan’s minister of agriculture allegedly hanged himself by a door hinge in his home. Matsuoka was scheduled to address Parliament and answer to charges of misappropriation of monies and poor management (Fackler, 2007). The behavior of committing suicide has been shaped and influenced by Japanese culture.
Folkways Folkways are those things handed down from one generation to the next. This may be in the form of traditions. Traditions include the transmission—most often, verbal transmission—of customs and beliefs. Folkways refer to the traditional behavior or ways of life of a group. These customs and actions are characterized by the ways people act, eat, dress, bathe, and so on. Folkways maintain the cultural values and behaviors of a group because they are passed down from generation to generation. Deviations from the folkways do have repercussions, but they are usually considered minor and can be corrected. Examples of folkways include the way we save money, the methods used for preserving food, the way a preacher orates a sermon, the games we play, the sharing of recipes, the names given to children, and the way we mourn our dead (Dilly, 2006). In Finland, Christmas has become a time of celebration and feast. Christmas replaces kekri, which is a traditional feast celebrated at the end of farming season. An old kekri tradition, that is now a part of the Christmas celebration, is tin casting, a method of foretelling the future (Jarvenpa, 2001)
Norms Norms are expected rules or standards of behavior. They provide order to a society in that they restrain and control behavior. Norms vary to some degree from society to society and group to group (Myers, 1999; Siegetsleitner, 2006). For example, rules of etiquette vary across cultures, a foreigner visiting Japan may feel uncomfortable when asked to remove their shoes at the door or are shown how to pour tea (Myers, 1999). Individuals comply with these norms in order to be accepted and not viewed negatively. Violation of norms depends on the norms importance in the society or culture; character of the individual violating the norm; and the degree of the discrepancy. Depending on the society or culture, violations may result in punishments, hostility, demands to change, or other negative penalties (Forsyth, 1999). By example, for many Lao, the act of cremation is the norm. Burials are Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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reserved for persons with whom death happens by an unnatural manner. Through cremation, there is a rebirth of the spirit (Evans, 2001).
Habits Habits are behaviors that are done frequently and repeatedly and are often unconscious. The act of grooming can be considered a habit because it is a behavior replicated by human beings, domestic animals and wild animals. Primates engage in the act of self-grooming for the purpose of cleaning their fur (Paciulli & Lawson, 2006). Humans engage in the habitual act of self-grooming to clean their bodies. Another common habit influencing children, teens, adults and the elderly is cigarette smoking. The World Health Organization estimates that the number of smokers will increase because the world’s population is expected to increase 2 billion people by 2030. Humans engage in this pandemic habit 15 billion times a day (Mackey & Eriksen, 2007).
Activities Activities include a variety of “collective activities” such as ceremonies, events, and rituals (Hofstede, 1991, p. 8). The act of burying the human body in a grave is a ritual practiced in many cultures. Burials serve to demonstrate a shared social behavior, a belief in the afterlife and finalize the human connection between the living and dead (Happe, 2006). Another example of a ritual is the Salah or ritual prayer. After a person becomes a Muslim and declares their Shahadah (testimony of faith), the Salah must be performed at a specific moment five times a day. The Salah should be performed at a mosque in congregation. However, if no mosque is nearby the prayer may take place at home, school, work, or other location (Monsutti, 2001).
Feelings/Eotions Emotions are the primary motivators of human behavior. Human life is driven by emotions and feelings (Matsumoto, 1994). Feelings are in many ways connected to sensations of the body (e.g., hunger, pain, or anger; Ryle, 1949). Feelings are not under an individual’s complete control. They can cause an individual to do irrational things. Feelings are triggered by outside events (D’Andrade, 1987). Researchers have examined three aspects that may influence emotions: (a) physiological, (b) cognitive, and (c) social and cultural.16 Physiologically, this perspective implies that there are as many physiological changes as there are emotional states. For example, the stimulus of a hand touching a hot pan from the oven should elicit the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 12.1. Face of a child
emotional reaction of pain, heart racing, sweating, and the physical sign of the hand turning red or blistering. Cognitively, this perspective implies that an individual considers their physical circumstances and based on this determination elicits the appropriate emotion. For example, anger may be elicited when an individual is held responsible for someone else’s actions, or anxiety may be elicited when a negative situation holds an uncertain outcome. The social and cultural perspective seeks to determine whether basic emotions (i.e., happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, fear) are universal or culture-specific. For example, does the facial expression of a child smiling translate into the emotion of happiness cross culturally (see Figure 12.1)?
Culture GQ •
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Behaviors: What are the behaviors of this society or culture? What behaviors are considered acceptable? What behaviors are considered unacceptable? How are behaviors learned? Does biology influence behavior? Does the environment influence behavior? How are these behaviors viewed by other cultures? Folkways: What are the folkways of this society or culture? What folkways are handed down from generation to generation? How do the folkways maintain the cultural values and behaviors of the dominant group? How are these folkways viewed by other cultures? Norms: What are the norms of this society or culture? How do the norms provide order to this society or culture? How do norms restrain or control behavior? Are there violations for breaking norms? How are norms supported (or not) by individuals in this society or culture? How are these norms viewed by other cultures?
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• • •
Habits: What are the habits of individuals in this society or culture? How do these habits maintain order or control behavior? Are there violations for breaking habits? How are these habits viewed by other cultures? Activities: What are the activities of this society or culture? How do these activities maintain order or control behavior? Are there violations for not engaging in these activities? How are these activities viewed by other cultures? Feelings/emotions: What are the feelings of individuals in this society or culture? What are the emotions of individuals in this society or culture? Describe the individual’s emotional disposition. How are emotions affected by social relations? How are these emotions viewed by other cultures? What terms are used to describe feelings in this society or culture? What terms are used to describe emotions in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ •
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Behaviors: What are the typical behaviors of the target audience? What behaviors are considered acceptable to the target audience? What behaviors are considered unacceptable to the target audience? How are behaviors of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down? Are there consistent patterns or forms in the behavior of the target audience? Does biology influence the behavior of the target audience? Does the environment influence the behavior of the target audience? Are the behaviors of the target audience individualistic?3 What behaviors of the target audience are collective, meaning that individuals gather in groups (e.g., rally, protest)? How are the behaviors of the target audience viewed by other cultures? Folkways: What are the folkways of the target audience? What folkways are handed down from generation to generation for the target audience? How do the folkways of the target audience maintain the cultural values and behaviors of the dominant group? How are the folkways of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down? Are there consistent patterns or forms in the folkways of the target audience? How are the folkways of the target audience viewed by other cultures? Norms: What are the norms of the target audience? How do the norms provide order for the target audience? How do norms restrain or control the behavior of the target audience? Are there violations for breaking norms for the target audience? How are norms supported or not by individuals in the target audience? How are norms of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down? Are there consistent patterns or forms in the norms of the target audience? How are the norms of the target audience viewed by other cultures?
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Habits: What are the habits of individuals in the target audience? How do these habits maintain order or control behavior for the target audience? Are there violations for breaking habits within the target audience? How are the habits of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down? Are there consistent patterns or forms in the habits of the target audience? How are the habits of the target audience viewed by other cultures? Activities: What are the activities of the target audience? How do these activities maintain order or control the behavior of the target audience? Are there violations for not engaging in these activities for the target audience? How are the activities of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down? Are there consistent patterns or forms in the activities of the target audience? How are the activities of the target audience viewed by other cultures? Feelings/emotions: What are the feelings of individuals in the target audience? Describe individuals within the target audience’s emotional disposition. How are the emotions of the target audience affected by social relations? How are the emotions of the target audience viewed by other cultures? How are the emotions of the target audience learned, taught, shared, or passed down? Are there consistent patterns or forms in the feelings or emotions of the target audience? What terms are used to describe the feelings of the target audience? What terms are used to describe emotions in the target audience?
References Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Buyandelgeriyn, M. (2007). Dealing with uncertainty: Shamans, marginal capitalism, and the remaking of history in postsocialist Mongolia. American Ethnologist, 34(1), 127-147. Byron, R. (1998). Identity. In A. Barnard & J. Spencer (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social and cultural anthropology (pp. 292). New York: Routledge. Cannon, W. B. (1927, December). The James–Lange theory of emotions: A critical examination and an alternative theory. American Journal of Psychology, 39, 106-124. Carpenter, R. C. (2005). Women, children and other vulnerable groups: Gender, strategic frames and the protection of civilians as a transnational issue. International Studies Quarterly, 49, 295-334.
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Cohn-Sherbok, L., & Cohn-Sherbok, D. (1997). A short introduction to Judaism. Oxford,England: One World Publications. D’Amato, S. E. (2006). Myths and mythology. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 4, 1657-1661. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. D’Andrade, R. (1987). A folk model of the mind. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language & thought (pp. 112-148). New York: Cambridge University Press. D’Andrade, R. (1990). Some propositions about the relations between culture and human cognition. In J. W. Stigler, R. A. Shweder, & G. Herdt (Eds.), Cultural psychology: Essays on comparative human development (pp. 65-129). New York: Cambridge University Press. D’Andrade, R. (1995). The development of cognitive anthropology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Dilly, B. J. (2006). Folkways. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Anthropology, 3, 974-975). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ekman, P. (1982). Emotion in the human face (2nd ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Emler, N. (1999). Gossip. In A. S. R. Manstead & M. Hewstone (Eds.), The Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology (pp. 260). Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Emmons, N. (2001, March 26). Universal Studios Japan employs aid of focus groups for cultural ideas. Amusement Business Magazine, 113. Evans, G. (2001). Laos. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and their cultures, 3, 1247-1258. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Fackler, M. (2007, May 29). Japan cabinet minister, facing scandal, hangs himself [Electronic version]. The New York Times. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http:// www.nytimes.com/2007/05/29/world/asia/29japan.html?_r=1&oref=slogin Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to the theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Forsyth, D. R. (1999). Norms. In A. S. R. Manstead & M. Hewstone (Eds.), The Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology (pp. 412-417). Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Frank, B. E. (2007, Spring). Marks of identity: Potters of the Folona (Mali) and their “mothers.” African Arts, 40(1), 30-38. Fridman, E. J. N. (2004). Preface. In M. N. Walter & E. J. N. Fridman (Eds.), Shamanism: An encyclopedia of world beliefs, practices and culture (pp. xi–xiii). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc. Germain, C. B., & Bloom, M. (1999). Human behavior in the social environment: An ecological view (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Golia, M. (2007, February). Waiting for the gender renaissance. The Middle East, 375, 57-59. Griffith, R. T. H. (1895). The hymns of the Atharvaveda: Book VIII. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.sacred-texts.com Happe, B. (2006). Graves. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 3, 1108-1110. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Hollan, D. (2001). Developments in person-centered ethnography. In C. C. Moore & H. F. Mathews (Eds.), The psychology of cultural experience (pp. 48-67). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Hollan, D. W., & Wellenkamp, J. C. (1994). Contentment and suffering: Culture and experience in Toraja. New York: Columbia University Press. James, W. (1884). What is emotion? Mind, 5, 188-205. Jarvenpa, R. (2001). Finland. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and their cultures (Vol. 2, pp. 779-790). New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Locke, J. (1805). An essay concerning human understanding (21st ed.). London: Bye and Law. Mackay, J., & Eriksen, M. (2002). The tobacco atlas. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241562099.pdf Matsumoto, D. (1994). Culture and emotion. In L. L. Adler & U. P. Gielen (Eds.), Cross-cultural topics in psychology (pp. 139-152). Westport, CT: Praeger. Monsutti, A. (2001). Afghanistan. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and their cultures, 1, 1-11. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Myers, D. G. (1999). Social psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill College. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Paciulli, L. M., & Lawson, J. M. (2006). Grooming. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 3, 1111-1112. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Pepitone, A. (1994). Beliefs and cultural social psychology. In L. L. Adler & U. P. Gielen (Eds.), Cross-cultural topics in psychology (pp. 139-152). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. South China Morning Post (May 31, 2008). Value-added studies 'help build character'. South China Morning Post, p. 4. Rapport, N., & Overing, J. (2000). Social and cultural anthropology. London: Routledge. Ryle, G. (1949). The concept of mind. London: Barnes & Noble. Quinn, N. (1987). Convergent evidence for a cultural model of American marriage. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language & thought (pp. 173-192). New York: Cambridge University Press. Quinn, N., & Holland, D. (1987). Culture and cognition. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), (pp. 3-40). New York: Cambridge University Press. Schachter, S. (1964). The interaction of cognitive and physiological determinants of emotional state. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, 1, 49-81. New York: Academic Press. Schank, R., & Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Seklecki, R. M. (2006). Aggression. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 1, 31–32. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education Company. Shweder, R. A. (1990). Cultural psychology—What is it? In J. W. Stigler, R. A. Shweder, & G. Herdt (Eds.), Cultural psychology: Essays on comparative human development (pp. 1-43). New York: Cambridge University Press. Siegetsleitner, A. (2006). Norms. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Anthropology, 4, 1750-1753. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Sowell, T. (1994). Race and culture: A world view. New York: Basic Books. The Nation. (September 13, 2004). Of toilet paper, puppy meat and the Vietnamese media. The Nation. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Trumble, W. R., & Stevenson, A. (2002). Shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles (5th ed., Vol. 1). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Vasquez, M. J. T., Han, A. L., & de las Fuentes, C. (2006). Adaptation of immigrant girls and women. In J. Worell & C. D. Goodheart (Eds.), Handbook of girls’ and women’s psychological health (pp. 439-446). New York: Oxford University Press.
Ed
1
2 3
The pots serve a variety of functions such as jars for storing and cooling water, cooking, dishes, and incense holders/burners (Frank, 2007). Adapted from research on Gossip (Rapport & Overing, 2000; Emler, 1999). Hofstede (1991) describes 4 areas to identify the “dimensions of culture;” they include power distance, collectivism versus individualism, femininity versus masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance.
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Chapter XIII
CBM Elements VII
This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the science of culture. The following design factors are covered in this chapter: Cultural anomalies, Cultural cultures, and Cultural futures.
The Science of Culture Cultural anomalies Cultural cultures Cultural futures Cultural infinities Cultural nature This section, the science of culture, draws from key concepts in the fields of physical science, biological science, earth science, ecology, futures research, and crosscultural studies to explore the scientific nature of humanity and the possibilities of cultural futures. The science of culture seeks to assist human beings in adapting to their environment so that living can be achieved. This scientific way of thinking cuts across the natural, cultural, social, physical, and biological. Science is one of many ways of interpreting human reality (White, 1949). Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Scientific models of culture focus on theorizing about the anthropology of science (Darwin, 1859). Similarly, the science of culture examines anthropological topics within the context of science. This move to study the anthropology of science is presented in the contemporary works of Strathern (1992) and Traweek (1988). Strathern (1992) examined the nature and social conditions of reproductive technologies as it relates to kinships. Traweek (1988) offered an ethnographic study of science and scientists by examining the life and culture of particle physicists. This developing research in the anthropology of science brings with it an examination of “cultural practice[s]” that are needed in the design of ICTs (Franklin, 1995, p. 179). This means that scientific inquiry is not limited to the sciences, as there are social aspects of science that also need further exploration (Plotkin, 2003). The Elements are defined, described, illustrated and addressed in terms of society, culture and the target audience. Guiding questions that address the society and culture are broadly based, allowing for a surface review of the science of societies and cultures. Target audience GQ are specific to the group or individuals within the group.
Cultural Anomalies E21. Cultural Anomalies - Happenings that promote, initiate, or force cultural change. Cultural anomalies refer to happenings that promote, initiate, or force cultural change. All societies change and are changed by cultural anomalies. Forces of nature and humanity have brought about cultural changes (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005).
Forces of Nture Forces of nature contribute to cultural change. These forces can be human made or nature made. Forces of nature change both the physical and environmental nature of cultures. Plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms, and people are changed. The physical structure of the planet is changed. Forces of nature permanently, in many cases, alter the future of humankind. Human-made forces are many times intersected by nature, and nature intersects with humans; this cross of forces explodes, forever changing history. Humans’ need for space, food, shelter, and wealth is forcing environmental changes to the planet Earth; the long-term results of these changes are unknown. Deforestation has transformed the natural structure of habitats. Almost half of tropical Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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forests have disappeared. The excessive harvesting of trees alters the “taxonomic composition and structure of forests” (Ehrlich & Kremen, 2001, p. 384). The clearing of forests for crop production decimates ecosystems, in that plants and animals are subject to extinction. The conversion of forests to human-made infrastructures such as roads, highways, malls and housing serves as another source of transformation of habitats. The building of dams changes the temperature of water and its flow pattern. The Aswan High Dam built in Bilharzia, Egypt made possible the production of irrigation canals; these canals became breeding grounds for disease causing parasites. The toxification of water ways such as oceans, streams and lakes interferes with marine life and the production of fish for human consumption. Similarly, the dumping of sewage into oceans has created dead zones where marine life can no longer live because of low oxygen levels (Ehrlich & Kremen, 2001). Irrigation has increased in order to cultivate wet rice, burn biomass; reclaim wetlands, and reuse landfills; however, these increases in irrigation account for rising emissions of methane into the atmosphere, resulting in greenhouse gas emissions that affect the heat balance of the earth (Geist, 2006). The mystery of Earth is evident by the host of natural and what seems like unnatural phenomena that plague the planet. Tornadoes, hurricanes, tsunamis, and earthquakes have become commonly known natural disasters. The 2005 tsunami in Sri Lanka, Colombo killed an estimated 30,000 people. In 2005, an earthquake, registering 7.6 on the Richter scale, killed 73,000 in Kashmir and southern Pakistan. A twister hit Dhaka, Bangladesh, in 1996, killing an estimated 400 people and injuring 33,000. Other forces of nature include those characterized as natural, biological, chemical, nuclear, and radiological. Asbestos is a natural mineral that occurs in fibrous form; long-term exposure to asbestos causes cancer and other asbestos-related diseases and illnesses. The Ebola virus, found in the Republic of Congo in 2005, incubates for 2 to 21 days, causing illness or death in humans and other species who become infected (World Health Organization, 2007). Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning remains a killer of humans who accidentally or intentionally inhale CO fumes from car or houseboat exhausts (Greenberg, 2006). In 1986, the Chernobyl nuclear explosion in Ukraine sent a radioactive cloud into the air, contaminating an area where 400,000 people lived; besides the immediate deaths, radiation-related illnesses like thyroid cancer and circulatory diseases remain evident amongst children and adults in 2002 (Kinley, 2006). In the year 2000 in Samut Prakarn, Thailand (3 dead and 7 injured) and 1996 San Jose, Costa Rica (up to 17 dead), reported cases of contact with Cobalt 60 a radioactive material illustrates that these materials were deadly even with short term exposure (Greenberg, 2006).
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Forces of Humanity Cultural anomalies attributed to the forces of humanity are human-made. These might include cultural diffusion (borrowing, acculturation, appropriation) and invention.
Diffusion Diffusion refers to the proliferation of technology, products, ideas, or behavior patterns from one culture into another. Cultural diffusion happens when two cultures come in contact with each other (Ferraro, 2004). This diffusion is prevalent in both physical and electronic forms. The physical form of diffusion happens in face-toface interactions of individuals and groups. The sharing of cultures also takes place through the electronic forms of mass media. Individuals who interact with radio, television, books, magazines, films, electronic news groups, or arcades share a culture. Individuals or groups who follow the same movie stars, televangelists, or religious leaders (e.g., the Roman Catholic Pope) share a culture without meeting face to face (Fiske, 1999). The three commonly known classifications of cultural diffusion include borrowing, acculturation, and appropriation. •
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Borrowing: Borrowing is the mutual exchange of cultural elements. The exchange is very selective in that only items that provide some type of function or harmony with a society would be accepted. For example, men’s hair dye would not be accepted in a society that views aging as a status symbol (Ferraro, 2004). Acculturation: Acculturation occurs when there is contact between a dominant and subordinate culture. The diffusion involves the complete restructuring of a culture, usually with the most dramatic changes to the subordinate culture. This process can occur through force or subtly through the implementation of education or economic programs that support the adoption of the dominant culture’s beliefs and practices (Ferraro, 2004; Miller, 2002). Acculturation impacts both the group and the individual. The group may experience changes that are biological, physical, economic, social, or political. Psychologically, the individual may experience changes in identity, values, behavior, emotions, pathology, or adaptation (Graves, 1967). The experience of acculturation may be significant to the group; however, individuals vary in their perceptions and participation of this change (Segall, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). This means some individuals may choose to quickly acculturate into a culture because they believe it will improve their society (Ferraro, 2004; Miller, 2002). The end result of acculturation is cultural pluralism, meaning that groups from
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•
a diversity of backgrounds learn to live together. However, there is inequality in power, numbers of groups, economic wealth, and political authority (Segall et al., 1999). Appropriation: The term appropriation is used in many contexts to describe the taking or acquisition of cultural resources as one’s own. Within societies and cultures, appropriation1 is usually the taking of technology and science for economic or military gain (Smelser, 1992). Appropriation has been broadly defined across social, political, economic, gender-related, and historical contexts. Korea’s B-Boys have captured international attention and fame and are credited with the spread of Korea’s popular culture in Asia. These youth perform break dancing, dance movements originating with African American and Latino youth in New York City. The appropriation of this dance has come to redefine youth culture and performance art (Ju-yeon, 2006).
Invention Invention refers to any new product, idea, or pattern of behavior that comes from a society or culture (Ferraro, 2004). New inventions promote cultural change. The creative wherewithal of a society of culture comes from its human capital; who are the core of its natural resources. Human beings are the designers who create the inventions or innovations that move a society or culture forward in terms of technological advancement. Inventions and innovations can be found across disciplines from the sciences to social sciences. In 1990, French biochemist and endocrinologist Étienne-Émile Baulieu, Georges Teutsch (a French chemist), Alain Bélanger (a French chemist), and Daniel Philibert (a French physicist and pharmacologist) engineered and innovated the use of RU-486 as the first abortion pill. RU-486 prevents a fertilized egg from attaching to the womb of the human female uterus. Although RU-486 was the first commercially available drug of its type, the use of an abortion pill was opposed by right-to-life advocates. The drug has been approved for use by China and France. RU-486 is believed to be a potential drug for other health conditions such as breast cancer, tumors, and glaucoma (Smith, 2002). In the social sciences, invention is seen as innovation. In the late 1950s, Stanford University educators Dwight W. Allen, Robert Bush, and Kim Romney invented microteaching as a “simulated teaching” practice for preservice and in-service teachers. Microteaching provided teachers with a safe laboratory environment in which to practice a variety of instructional methods and techniques and obtain feedback to improve instruction. This professional training has been implemented worldwide (Allen & Wang, 2003).
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Culture GQ •
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Diffusion: What forms of diffusion exist in this society or culture? Which group is considered the dominant group? Which group is considered the subordinate group? Did the diffusion take place by force or was it subtle? How did diffusion take place (e.g., education, colonization, economic)? Is it possible to determine where one culture started and the other ended? What beliefs of the dominant culture were adopted by the subordinate culture? What practices of the dominant culture were adopted by the subordinate culture? Has diffusion changed the society or culture? How do individuals and groups react to cultural diffusion? What similarities among cultures can be attributed to cultural diffusion? Who decides what things are diffused into a culture? Borrowing: What artifacts have been borrowed from other cultures? What ideas have been borrowed from other cultures? Is this borrowing mutual between the two cultures? Acculturation: How did acculturation impact the society or culture in terms of the biological, physical, economic, social or political? How did acculturation impact the individual in terms of identity, values, behavior, emotions, pathology, or adaptation? Which individuals were able to adapt quickly and why? Which individuals had difficulty with the adaptation and why? What aspects of the culture illustrate the inequalities that exist between the dominant and subordinate groups? Appropriation: What has been appropriated by other cultures from this society? What has this society appropriated from other cultures? Has any technology been appropriated? Has any science been appropriated? Has this appropriation crossed social, political, economic, gender, artistic, or historical contexts, and if so, in what way? Has appropriation benefited the society, and if so, in what way? Has appropriation been a negative to the society, and if so, in what way? Invention: What new products have been invented by human beings in this society or culture? What innovative ideas have been created by human beings in this society or culture? Is there a new pattern of behavior that has developed in this society or culture? Have these inventions benefited or conflicted with this society or culture? Have these innovations benefited or conflicted with this culture? Has this new pattern of behavior benefited or conflicted with this society or culture?
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Target Audience GQ •
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Diffusion: What forms of diffusion are most prevalent in the culture of the target audience? Is the target audience considered a dominant or subordinate group? For the target audience, did the diffusion take place by force or was it subtle, and how did diffusion take place (e.g., education, colonization, economic)? Is it possible to determine where the dominant culture started and the target audience’s culture ended? What beliefs and practices of the dominant culture were adopted by the target audience? Has diffusion changed the target audience’ and if so, in what way? How do individuals in the target audience respond to the cultural diffusion? Borrowing: What have other cultures borrowed from the target audience? What artifacts have been borrowed by the target audience from other cultures? What ideas have been borrowed by the target audience from other cultures? Is this borrowing mutual between the other culture and the target audience? Acculturation: Did acculturation impact the target audience biologically, physically, economically, socially or politically? Did acculturation impact individuals in terms of identity, values, behavior, emotions, pathology, or adaptation? Which individuals in the target audience were able to adapt quickly and why? Which individuals in the target audience had difficulty with the adaptation and why? What aspects of the culture illustrate the inequalities that exist between the dominant culture and the target audience? Appropriation: What has been appropriated by other cultures from the target audience? What has the target audience appropriated from other cultures? Has any technology been appropriated by the target audience? Has any science been appropriated by the target audience? For the target audience, has this appropriation crossed social, political, economic, gender, artistic, or historical contexts, and if so, in what way? Has appropriation benefited the target audience, and if so, in what way? Has appropriation been a negative to the target audience, and if so, in what way? Invention: What new products have been invented by the target audience? What innovative ideas have been created by the target audience? Is there a new pattern of behavior that has developed by the target audience? Have these inventions benefited or conflicted with the target audience’s culture? Have these innovations benefited or conflicted with the target audience’s culture? Has this new pattern of behavior benefited or conflicted with the target audience’s culture?
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Cultural Cultures E22. Cultural Cultures - The scientific identification of cultures, worlds, ecosystems. Cultural cultures is the scientific identification of cultures, societies, worlds, and ecosystems. In understanding the existence of human beings, other species, or entities, it requires the broad examination of galaxies; solar systems; planets; land, water, and air masses; and other known and unknown habitats. Cultural cultures can begin with identifications based on the physical sciences, biological sciences, and ecology. In the study of physical and biological sciences, there are overlapping concepts and ideas. The following provides a general overview of these disciplines for extended research and investigation. Throughout, various forms of visual languages have been used as examples to demonstrate methods of displaying and recording data (Botturi & Stubbs, 2008).
Physical Science The physical sciences2 typically include astronomy, chemistry, physics, and earth (McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005).
Astronomy Astronomy is the scientific study of the cosmos or universe and all of its objects. This may include the study of planets, comets, the sun, moon, stars, interstellar clouds, asteroids, and unknown objects (McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005). The astronomical findings of societies and cultures vary greatly depending on agrarian versus industrialized cultures and the time period in history. The Skidi Pawnee Indians of Nebraska, USA followed a religious system based on observations of their physical environment. The Skidi created star charts that documented 17 constellations, 26 stars, and 5 planets (Frazier, 1979). Similary, scientists all over the world continue to document the nearest planets and our evolving solar system. Figure 13.1 illustrates the relationships of the planets to the sun. There are nine known planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (although Pluto has recently been reclassified as a dwarf planet, here it is included among the planets)—and other small bodies. Table 13.1 provides a planet profile of the Earth and Saturn to demonstrate one way to study Earth in comparison with another planet.
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Figure 13.1. Sun to planet relationship
Table 13.1. Planet profile Earth Mass (in kilograms)
Saturn
5.98 × 1024
5.69 × 1026
Diameter (in kilometers)
12756
120660
Average distance from Sun (in kilometers)
149,597,890
1,426,725,200
Rotation period (length of day in Earth days)
23.93 hours
10.2 Earth hours
Revolution period (length of year in Earth days)
365.26
29.46
Mean surface temperature (K)
281
88
Atmospheric components
78% nitrogen 21% oxygen 1% argon
97% hydrogen 3% helium 0.05% methane
Surface materials
Basaltic and granitic rock and altered materials
Not known
Rings
None
270,000-km diameter
Note. Data are from NASA (2007). K = Kelvin scale.
Culture GQ Has this society or culture participated in the study of astronomy in any way? What is the history of this society or cultures involvement with astronomy? What are the findings of this society or culture in terms of astronomy? What new technologies have been discovered and used? Are these astrological findings significant to the functioning of the society or culture, and if so, in what way? How has this astrological data become a part of the society or culture? In what ways are this astrological data Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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used? Who uses this astrological data and for what purpose? What is the significance of advances in astronomy in terms of global economics and power? What is the significance of astronomy in terms of social, political, or religious considerations? How does astronomy impact the lives of human beings?
Target Audience GQ Has the target audience participated in the study of astronomy in any way? What is the history of the target audience’s involvement with astronomy? What are the findings of the target audience in terms of astronomy? Are these astrological findings significant to the larger society or culture? How have the astrological data of the target audience become a part of the society or culture? In what way and for what purpose is this astrological data used by the target audience? How does astronomy impact the lives of the target audience?
Chemistry Chemistry is a science that deals with matter and its composition, structure, and properties. It specifically examines the changes in matter and its energy. This definition refers to chemical changes and physical changes. A physical change is a change from a liquid to solid, like the change from water to ice. The water is unchanged. The process of rusting iron is a chemical change in that the “metal is consumed as it reacts with air in the presence of water to form the new substance, iron oxide” (McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005, p. 431). Between 400 and 1400 A.D, Alchemists practiced alchemy an early form of modern chemistry. Alchemy was both an experimental and philosophical science (Redgrove, 1922). Alchemists sought to change base metals (e.g., lead) into gold, discover The Elixir of Life to extend life or prolong death, and create cures for diseases (Redgrove, 1922). The beginning of the field of chemistry is credited to innovators just before the French Revolution. In the late 1770s, French Chemist Antoine Lavoisier experimented with theories about the chemical reactions of oxygen and was one of the authors in naming chemical substances (McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005; Redgrove, 1922).
Culture GQ Has this society or culture participated in the study of chemistry or alchemy? What is the history of this society or culture’s involvement with chemistry or alchemy? What are the findings of this society or culture in terms of chemistry or alchemy? What new technologies have been discovered and used in relation to chemistry Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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or alchemy? Have the findings from chemistry or alchemy been significant to the functioning of the society or culture, and if so, in what way? How has the chemistry or alchemy data become a part of the society or culture? Who uses the chemistry or alchemy data and for what purpose? What is the significance of advances in chemistry or alchemy in terms of economics and power? What is the significance of chemistry or alchemy in terms of social, political, or religious considerations? How does chemistry affect the lives of human beings?
Target Audience GQ Has the target audience participated in the study of chemistry or Alchemy? What is the history of the target audience’s involvement with chemistry or alchemy? What are the findings of the target audience in terms of chemistry or alchemy? What new technologies have been discovered by the target audience in relation to chemistry or alchemy? Have the findings from chemistry or alchemy been significant to the target audience, and if so, in what way? In what ways and for what purpose is chemistry or alchemy used by the target audience? How does chemistry affect the lives of the target audience?
Physics Physics concerns an understanding of how the natural world is structured and offers explanations for natural phenomena. Specifically, physics examines motion, matter, force, energy, and their relations to each other. Motion means the movement of objects. Everything in the universe is affected by motion. Motion can determine distance (how far) and speed (how fast). Motion can be described in terms of position, distance, velocity, speed, time, and acceleration. Matter refers to substance. Fluids, for example, are considered matter (e.g., water, honey, oil, tar, air). Gas takes the shape of its container. Liquids maintain a volume and also take on the space of its container. Solids maintain a fixed volume and shape. Plasma, a gas, maintains an electrical charge. Force means the push or pull. Force can be described in terms of mass, weight, or friction. Energy means an object can “produce a change in itself or in its surroundings” (Zitzewitz & Neff, 1995, p. 197). Energy can be described in terms of power (Zitzewitz & Neff, 1995). Types of energy include: kinetic (object in motion), potential (stored energy), heat, thermal, nuclear, and nature (wind, ocean). Other considerations in the field of physics are sound and light. When thinking about physics and culture, the following questions could be asked:
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• • • • • •
How does motion function in this society or culture? How does matter function in this society or culture? How does force function in this society or culture? How does energy function in this society or culture? How does sound function in this society or culture? How does light function in this society or culture?
In this sense, physics plays a part in the construction of a virtual world or the analysis of an existing world. The depth of knowledge of the area of physics depends on the project. Given its complexity, this overview cannot take on all that physics is and can be. However, consider the futuristic science-fiction film, The Matrix: Revolutions (2003): Zion, a human city below ground, is under attack by octopus-like robotic machines. Neo, the main character, battles with himself and Mr. Smith, a computer virus, to discover a way to end the war between humans and machines. In this film, motion is altered in both the virtual world and in the physical world. In the virtual world, motion seems to slow down and speed up; characters fight, move, and operate at different speeds. In the perceived physical world, motion seems “normal.” Matter is redefined as characters use a telephone to dial into and out of the digital matrix. Upon picking up a specified telephone, the consciousness of the characters is uploaded through the computer system. The characters’ consciousness changes matter in the uploading and downloading process. Characters are physically stronger in the matrix; the hand-to-hand combat demonstrates the manipulation of force. The space ships operate off of electromagnetic energy that spews from round cylinders beneath the ships. Similarly in the Chinese language film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), characters defy gravity. Fighting scenes consist of characters that spin, fly backwards and forwards, scale structures, balance on tree limbs, and dance from rooftop to rooftop. The physics involved in these movies provide creative ideas for the design of virtual worlds and the analysis of physical worlds.
Culture GQ Has this society or culture participated in the study of physics? What is the history of this society or culture’s involvement with physics? What are the findings of this society or culture in terms of physics? What new technologies have been discovered and used related to physics? Have the findings from physics been significant to the functioning of the society or culture, and if so, in what way? How have the physics data become a part of the society or culture? Who uses physics data and for what purpose? What is the significance of advances in physics in terms of economics and power? What is the significance of physics in terms of social, political, or religious Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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considerations? How does physics affect the lives of human beings, other species, or other entities? How does motion, matter, force, energy, sound, and light function in this society or culture?
Target Audience GQ Has the target audience participated in the study of physics? What is the history of the target audience’s involvement with physics? What are the findings of the target audience in terms of physics? What new technologies have been discovered by the target audience in relation to physics? Have the findings from physics been significant to the target audience, and if so, in what way? In what ways and for what purpose is physics used by the target audience? How does physics affect the lives of the target audience? How do motion, matter, force, energy, sound and light function in the target audience’s world?
Earth Science Earth science is the study of the Earth’s origin, nature, evolution, behavior, and its place in the solar system (McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005). All parts of the Earth act and react in a cyclical motion. Those parts can be classified as lithosphere (solid crust), atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water surfaces), and biosphere (living organisms). There are many subfields for the study of earth sciences that present further in-depth areas of study such as geology, geophysics, geochemistry, oceanography, paleontology, petrology, mineralogy, stratigraphy, and climatology). Studying the science of earth can serve to help humans survive future natural disasters. By example, seismologists in Australia are studying the seismic wavespeed variation in the Earth to monitor earthquakes in Japan, Fuji, Taiwan and New Guinea. Recording stations are buried under ground with recording devices; this seismic imaging looks below the surface deep into the Earth’s lithosphere (The Canberra Times, 2007).
Culture GQ Has this society or culture participated in the study of earth science? What is the history of this society or culture’s involvement with earth science? What are the findings of this society or culture in terms of earth science? What new technologies have been discovered and used related to earth science? Have the findings from earth science been significant to the functioning of the society or culture, and if so, in what way? Have the earth sciences data become a part of the society or culture? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Who uses the earth sciences data and for what purpose? What is the significance of advances in earth sciences in terms of economics and power? What is the significance of earth sciences in terms of social, political, or religious considerations? How does earth science affect the lives of human beings?
Target Audience GQ Has the target audience participated in the study of earth science? What is the history of the target audience’s involvement with earth science? What are the findings of the target audience in terms of earth science? What new technologies have been discovered by the target audience in relation to earth science? Have the findings from earth science been significant to the target audience, and if so, in what way? In what ways and for what purpose is earth science used by the target audience? How does earth science affect the lives of the target audience?
Biological Sciences The biological sciences are the study of all aspects of living organisms. The main areas of study in biology are botany (the study of plants), zoology (the study of animals), and protistology (the study of one-celled organisms). Within these areas, topics for further examination of organisms can include: evolution, origins/history, development, structure, reproduction, function, behavior, growth (McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2005) and physiology/anatomy. Human H5N1 Avian influenza infection is a virus that is found in the droppings, secretions, respiratory and blood of infected birds. Humans are infected by coming into physical contact with contaminated birds. The concern of the World Health Organization is the investigation and preparation for an influenza pandemic. The last influenza pandemics were in 1957 and 1968 killing 1 to 4 million people respectively. The 3 prerequisites for an influenza pandemic is 1) the emergence of a new virus susceptible by all humans, 2) the viruses’ ability to duplicate and cause disease in humans, and 3) human to human transmission of the new virus. As of 2008, the first two prerequisites have been fulfilled (World Health Organization, 2008).
Culture GQ Has this society or culture participated in the study of biological sciences? What is the history of this society or cultures involvement with the biological sciences? What are the findings of this society or culture in terms of the primary areas of botany, zoology, protistology? What new technologies have been discovered as it relates to biological studies? Has the findings from the biological sciences been significant Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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to the functioning of the society or culture, if so in what way? Has the biological sciences data become a part of the society or culture? Who uses the biological data and for what purpose? What is the significance of advances in Biology in terms of economics and power? What is the significance of biological sciences in terms of social, political, or religious considerations? How does biological science impact the lives of human beings?
Target Audience GQ What is the history of the target audience’s involvement with the field of biological sciences? What are the target audience’s findings in terms of biological sciences? What new technologies have been discovered by the target audience in relation to the biological sciences? Have the findings from biological sciences been significant to the target audience, if so in what way? In what ways and for what purpose is biological science used by the target audience? Are the biological sciences a discipline the target audience must learn about? How does biological science impact the lives of the target audience?
Ecology Ecology examines the relationships between organisms and their environment (Cunningham, 2003a). It is one of the main branches of biological science. An ecological community is composed of species and populations that interact in a common area. Species are those organisms that are able to interbred and produce offspring that are fertile. Within a defined geographical area, a population includes every member of a particular species. This defined ecological community is an ecosystem. Added to the study of species, populations, and communities should be inquiry into the relationships between living organisms and their physical environment (Cunningham, 2003a). For an ecosystem to function there must be biodiversity; this means that there must be a diversity of species and an abundance of those species in a defined community (Freedman, 2003). •
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is an inclusive unit of all organisms within a specific area or boundary. The structure, function and development of an ecosystem can be studied. The horizontal structure of an ecosystem is how an area looks from above—similar to a satellite view of the earth. Figures 13.2 and 13.3 provide both perspectives for a visual comparison and clarification. These visual images provide the basis of studying how a species is distributed throughout a given area, other surrounding vegetation and rocks, and nearness to water sources (Gorham, 2003). Ecosystems function in an organizational pattern
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Figure 13.2. Horizontal structure in ecosystems
Figure 13.3. Vertical structure in ecosystems
that demonstrates the processing of matter and energy amongst organisms in a community. Through photosynthesis, green plants absorb solar energy that is converted into energy rich organic matter. Green plants are consumed by herbivores (plant eating animals). Herbivores are eaten by carnivores (animals that eat other animals). Carnivores eat other carnivores. This sequence of plant producers and animal consumers creates a “grazing food chain” that continues to become a complicated web where energy and materials are passed along (Gorham, 2003, p. 427). Detritus is a second type of food chain made up of organisms that metabolize and breakdown dead organisms or waste products into inorganic chemicals. Beetles and Earthworms are detritivores; and bacteria and fungi are examples of decomposers. Humans use the grazing food chain; where as the forests consume much of the detritus food chain (Cunningham, W. P., 2003b; Gorham, 2003). Figure 13.4 provides an example Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 13.4. Marine life food chain. Adapted from Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science (SAHFOS) Education Pages (2007)
of marine life food chain. Development is a third aspect in which to study an ecosystem. This aspects looks at how the ecosystem changes over time, taking into consideration climate, soil, land, colonization by other plants and animals, natural disasters (e.g., fire, flood), and/ human error.
Culture GQ •
•
Ecology: Has this society or culture participated in the study of ecology? What is the history of this society or culture’s involvement with ecology? What are the findings of this society or culture in terms of the primary areas of ecology? What new technologies have been discovered as it relates to ecological studies? Have the findings from ecology been significant to the functioning of the society or culture, and if so, in what way? Have the ecology data become a part of the society or culture? Who uses the ecology data and for what purpose? What is the significance of advances in ecology in terms of economics and power? What is the significance of ecology in terms of social, political, or religious considerations? How does ecology affect the lives of human beings? Ecosystem: Define the area of the ecosystem. What is the structure of the ecosystem? How does the ecosystem function? How did the ecosystem de-
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velop? Have humans negatively affected the ecosystem, and if so, in what way? Has any new element been introduced to the ecosystem that is causing it to collapse or the death of species? What animals live in the ecosystem? What plants live in the ecosystem? What insects live in the ecosystem? What other organisms live in the ecosystem?
Target Audience GQ •
•
Ecology: What is the history of the target audience’s involvement with the field of ecology? What are the target audience’s findings in terms of ecology? What new technologies have been discovered by the target audience in relation to ecology? Have the findings from ecology been significant to the target audience, and if so, in what way? In what ways and for what purpose is ecology used by the target audience? Is ecology a discipline the target audience must learn about? How does Ecology impact the lives of the target audience? Ecosystem: Does the target audience live in an ecosystem? How does the ecosystem function with the target audience as its inhabitants? Has the target audience negatively affected the ecosystem, and if so, in what way?
Cultural Futures E23. Cultural Futures - That which is to come. Cultural futures refers to that which is to come. To study the future means planning and improving the well-being of humankind and providing the means to sustain human life (Bell, 1997). This requires anticipating crises, finding resolutions to crises, creating strategies for resolving situations, preparing contingency plans for crises, and planning for alternative futures (Metafuture, 2007). Present crises on the planet Earth include: natural disasters (e.g., tsunamis, earthquakes), human-made disasters (e.g., oil spills, air pollution), health epidemics (e.g., bird flu, HIV/AIDS), education (e.g., illiteracy), chemical disasters, poverty, starvation, wars, biological warfare, and terrorist acts. Given these crises, determining that which is to come is futures thinking. Futures thinking is necessary for all societies, cultures, groups, and individuals. Cultural futures explore three ways to begin futures thinking: (a) projections, (b) scenarios, and (c) intentions.
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Projections and Scenarios Projections and scenarios about the future can be made for a society, culture, or target audience. Cultural futures is not based on predictions. It is an examination of alternative versions of the future that can be considered to be probable or possible given the society, culture, or target audience. Facts are based only on the present and past. The future does not exist; however, it is constructed through qualitative and quantitative methods of futures research. Projections are probable or possible situations that a society, culture, group, or individual believes could occur in the future. The projection is based on facts from the past or present, and the topic question usually elicits a limited response. A hypothetical example is “If A remains constant and B increases at a constant rate, then within 30 years C will occur” (Textor, 1990, p. 202). If chemical emissions remain constant and air pollution increases at a constant rate, then within 30 years there will be no ozone layer. Projections provide quantitative data (Textor, 1990). Scenarios are narratives of probable or possible situations that a society, culture, group, or individual believes could occur in the future. The scenario is based on facts from the past or present, and the topic question usually elicits many projections. Scenarios are multifaceted, as they consider human beings, living conditions, public response, and other issues related to the economic, political, and social impacts of futures thinking. Embedded within a scenario may be the process in which change happens from the present to the future. Scenarios provide qualitative data (Textor, 1990). A leader of a world health association, in making a speech about the HIV/AIDS crisis, could say the following statement: “What I hope will happen is that scientists come up with a cure for HIV/AIDS and that we can do away with the Molotov cocktail of prescription drugs.” Data Collection: Projections and scenarios are gathered from individuals. The individual can make future projections and scenarios alone or act on behalf of a group or as part of a group. Multiple groups of individuals can act as part of a consortium that informs the society or culture of their projections and scenarios (Textor, 1990). Data are gathered from the individual’s future projections and scenarios about the society, culture, or target audience. The individual knows what exists based on what they see, hear, smell, taste, and feel as this is the present. Also, the individual should have knowledge of the past based on multiple primary and secondary data sources and from multiple perspectives. The individual has a set of ideas and images about the probable or possible future and their preferences for one hypothetical future over another (Textor, 1990). Ultimately in the making of projections and scenarios the individual shares their hypotheses with others.
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Intentions Projections and scenarios fit perfectly with larger social issues; however understanding the individual requires further introspection into their personal futures thinking or ‘intentions.’ Individuals have their own personal goals for the future. This may be stated as an individual’s ‘intentions.’ The individual may “intend to,” “plan to,” “mean to,” or “aim to” do something in the future. Goals for the future are also stated as what the individual “will” do. The individual may be “determined to” do something in the future (D’Andrade, 1990). An individual might state, “I plan to go to college.” This is futures thinking. “Intentions . . . [have] . . . desired future states of affairs, but in an intention the decision to act has been made” (D’Andrade, 1987, p. 121). A high school graduate may make the following statement to his friends: “I plan to go to the university next semester.”
Question Prompts Projection (society/culture) These questions should not be obvious. If A remains constant and B increases at a constant rate, then within _____years, C will occur. If A increases at a constant rate and B remains constant, then _______ will occur. If A is improved and B increases at a constant rate, then __________ will occur. Scenario (society/culture/target audience) What ought to happen . . . . What will happen . . . . What can happen . . . . What I hope will happen . . . . What I fear might happen . . . . What I consider most likely to happen . . . . What I believe can happen given the support of . . . . Intentions questions for individuals (personal) I intend to . . . . I plan to . . . . I mean to . . . . I aim to . . . . I am determined to . . . . Note. Questions are adapted from D’Andrade’s (1987, 1990) and Textor’s (1990) work. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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To determine whether futures thinking works, the responses presented should be (a) non-obvious, (b) creative in determining causes and effects, (c) plausible ideas, and (d) solutions based on short- and long-range goals (Textor, 1990).
Culture GQ How has this society or culture planned for its cultural future; specifically, what steps have been taken? Who is in charge of planning the future of the society or culture? If planning for the future is not a concern of this society or culture, what does this mean? What are some basic assumptions that can be made about the future of this society or culture? •
Projections/Scenarios: What projections can be made about the future of this society or culture? What projections can be made based on the following issues (public policy; environment; energy; health; technology; social, political, religious, economic, population growth; science; land use; art; etc.)? What scenarios can be made about the future of this society or culture? What scenarios can be made based on the following issues (public policy; environment; energy; health; technology; social, political, religious, economic, issues; population growth; science; land use; art; and so forth).
Target Audience GQ How has the target audience planned for their cultural future; specifically, what steps have been taken? Who is in charge of planning the future of the target audience? If planning for the future is not a concern of the target audience, what does this mean? What are some basic assumptions that can be made about the target audience’s future? •
•
Projections/Scenarios: What projections can be made about the future of the target audience? What projections can be made about the target audience based on the following issues (public policy; environment; energy; health; technology; social, political, religious, economic, population growth; science; land use; art; and so forth)? What scenarios can be made about the future of the target audience? What scenarios can be made, about the target audience based on the following issues (public policy; environment; energy; health; technology; social, political, religious, economic, population growth; science; land use; art; and so forth)? Intentions: What are the personal futures thinking of individuals within the target audience? How do these individual intentions affect the target audience
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as a group? Are personal futures intentions allowed by the target audience or the society/culture? How does individualized futures’ thinking interfere with or support projections? How does individualized futures thinking interfere or support scenarios?
References Allen, D. W., & Wang, W. (2003). Microteaching. In J. W. Guthrie (Ed.), Encyclopedia of education (2nd ed.), 5, 1620–1623. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference USA. Bell, W. (1997). Foundations of futures studies: Human science for a new era, 1. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Botturi, L., & Stubbs, S. T. (2008). Handbook of visual languages for instructional design: Theories and practices. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. Cunningham, W. P. (2003a). Ecology. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham, & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed.), 1, 421-424. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. Cunningham, W. P. (2003b). Energy and the environment. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M.A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed.), 1, 457-458. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group. D’Andrade, R. (1987). A folk model of the mind. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language & thought (pp. 112-148). New York: Cambridge University Press. D’Andrade, R. (1990). Some propositions about the relations between culture and human cognition. In J. W. Stigler, R. A. Shweder, & G. Herdt (Eds.), Cultural psychology: Essays on comparative human development (pp. 65-129). New York: Cambridge University Press. Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or The preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: J. Murray Eglash, R. (Ed.). (2004). Appropriating technology: Vernacular science and social power. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Ehrlich, P. R., & Kremen, C. (2001). Human effects on ecosystems—An overview. In S. A. Levin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of biodiversity, 3, 383-393. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Ferraro, G. (2004). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Fiske, A. P. (1999). Culture. In A. S. R. Manstead & M. Hewstone (Eds.), The Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology (pp. 161-163). Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Franklin, S. (1995). Science as culture, cultures of science. Annual review of anthropology, 24, 163-184. Frazier, K. (1979, August 4). Stars, sky and culture. Science News, 116(5), 90-93. Freedman, B. (2003). Biodiversity. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed.), 1, 131-134. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group. Geist, H. (2006). Introductory essays. In H. Geist (Ed.), Our earth’s changing land: An encyclopedia of land-use and land-cover change (Vol. 1, pp. xxv–xxxii). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Gorham, E. (2003). Ecosystem. In M. Bortman, P. Brimblecombe, M. A. Cunningham, W. P. Cunningham & W. Freedman (Eds.), Environmental encyclopedia (3rd ed.), 1, 426-428. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Learning Inc.: The Gale Group. Graves, T. (1967). Psychological acculturation in a tri-ethnic community. SouthWestern Journal of Anthropology, 23, 337-350. Greenberg, M. I. (2006). Encyclopedia of terrorist, natural and man-made disasters. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. Ju-yeon, P. (2006, Winter). Korea’s B-Boys capture the international spotlight. Koreana, 20(4), 80-84. Kinley, D. (Ed.). (2006). Chernobyl’s legacy: Health, environmental and socio-economic impacts and recommendations to the governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine: Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency. Lee, A. (Director) (2000). Crouching tiger, hidden dragon. In L.-K. Hsu, W. Kong & A. Lee (Producer). Taiwan: Asia Union Film & Entertainment Ltd. McGraw-Hill concise encyclopedia of science and technology (5th ed.). (2005). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Miller, B. D. (2002). Cultural anthropology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Metafuture.org. (2007). Why futures thinking. Retrieved August 8, 2007, from www. metafuture.org/future_thinking.htm NASA. (2007). Solar system. Retrieved July 1, 2008, from http://www.nasa.gov Plotkin, H. (2003). The imagined world made real: Towards a natural science of culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Redgrove, H. S. (1922). Alchemy: Ancient and modern. London: William Rider & Son, Ltd. Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science (SAHFOS). (2007). The marine food chain. Plymouth, United Kingdom: Author. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.sahfos.ac.uk/edu_key_stage_4_5.htm Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education Company. Smelser, N. J. (1992). External and internal factors in theories of social change. In H. Haferkamp & N. J. Smelser (Eds.), Social change and modernity (pp. 369-394). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Smith, R. (2002). Abortion pill. In R. Smith (Ed.), Inventions and inventors (pp. 1-4). Pasadena, CA: Salem Press, Inc. Strathern, M. (1992). Reproducing the future: Anthropology, kinship and the new reproductive technologies. Manchester, United Kingdom: Manchester University Press. Textor, R. (1990). Methodological appendix. In S. Ketudat (Ed.), The middle path for the future of Thailand: Technology in harmony with culture and environment (pp. 194-212). Honolulu, HI: East-West Center. The Canberra Times. (April 30, 2007). Quakes hold key to planet's past. The Canberra Times (Australia), p. 6. Traweek, S. (1988). Beamtimes and lifetimes: The world of high energy physicists. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wachowski, L. (Producer/Director), & Wachowski, A. (Producer/Director). (2003). The matrix: Revolutions. United States: Warner Bros. White, L. A. (1949). The science of culture. New York: Grove Press, Inc. World Health Organization. (2008). Avian Influenza: Responding to the Pandemic Threat. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from http://www.searo.who.int/en/Section10/Section1027.htm Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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World Health Oranization (2007). Ebola hemorrhagic fever. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Retrieved September 11, 2007, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/index1.html Zitzewitz, P. W., & Neff, R. F. (1995). Physics: Principles and problems. Westerville, OH: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.
Endnotes
1
2
See Eglash (2004) for a more elaborate examination of how indigenous peoples have reinterpreted, reinvented and adapted technologies. Meteorology and mineralogy are also part of the physical sciences; however they have been excluded for brevity.
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Chapter XIV
CBM Elements VIII & Training
This chapter continues with CBM Elements and the design factors related to the science of culture. The following design factors are covered in this chapter: Cultural infinities and Cultural nature. Also, the final area of CBM Training is covered in its entirety.
Cultural Infinities E24. Cultural Infinities - Those things without limits: time, space, distance. Cultural infinites are those things without limits such as time, space, distance, dimension, speed, and numbers. They are unending entities. The term “entity” within this context means something that functions on its own. They pre-exist and pre-date human beings. Human beings have little control over cultural infinities. Time, space, distance and dimension are discussed as Cultural infinities.1 Time and space are discussed based on their practical applications with human beings. Distance is examined for its mathematical and practical properties. Two perspecCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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tives on dimension are presented the polaric dimension and spirit world. The polaric dimension is seen as a universal law to human existence. The spirit world is explored as an alternative universe.
Time Time is a preexisting entity that humans have been forced to adopt and adapt to as part of our existence. Time affects how humans experience our world. Humans participate in time as they do things such as eat, sleep, play, travel, work, and attend events (Hall, 1983). In this case, time is examined for its physical versus mathematical properties. Time is defined for how it functions, how it is oriented, and how it is paced.
How Time Functions Every culture is bound by human-made time frames. This means that, in practice, time functions as humans direct it; in theory, time is really against human beings and our existence. Time runs counter to humans because, as humans age, we cannot regain time or beat time. Humans manipulate time to best utilize this entity during one’s lifetime. These time frames direct what period of time to work, how fast to work, how long to work, and how to be idle. These functions of time have been described as clock time, event time, and wait time. •
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Clock Time: Much of the modern world is ruled by clock time. With clock time,2 individuals, groups, and societies are bound by the mechanical clock and have schedules with beginning and ending periods. The pace of existence is regulated, monitored, guided, and controlled by clock time. The speed at which people move and perform is dictated by the obligation to meet a scheduled time. The tempo of clock time is fast, because it is monitored by the second, minute, and hour. A meeting starts at 9 a.m. and ends at 10 a.m.; a task is started and ended within a specific time period.3 School bells in U.S. public schools signal the start of the school year; however, these bells are heard through the day to signal the change of classes, the beginning or end of lunch, and the end of the school day. School bells are holdovers from the factory bell system used during the Industrial Revolution. Clock time is very much engrained in the American structure, and early indoctrination conditions humans to be clock oriented. Event Time: Event time is driven by activities more so than time. An activity ends when there is mutual agreement that the activity is over. The schedule is spontaneous, allowing the freedom to determine one’s behavior. People oper-
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ating by event time see it as a way of life similar to those operating by clock time. With event time, activities dictate the day (Levine, 1997). An activity may continue on until another activity sparks interest. There is a stronger focus on human interactions than timed schedules.4 Event time cultures may also focus on the natural time of nature to guide their activities. As an example, a local report in the March 21, 2007, Beijing Youth Daily finds that primary and middle school students in China are not getting enough sleep, because they are under pressure to succeed academically. Youth attend school from sunrise to sunset and on Saturdays. Although the government has stipulated 9 to 10 hours of sleep for these youth, it is believed that school headmasters are not abiding by these rules. Beijing Youth Daily’s primary concern is the health of these youth for themselves and for the nation (Beijing Review, 2007). Wait Time: Time may also function as wait time. With wait time, someone is waiting for someone else or something else. People wait for things they value, such as waiting to enter an event or ceremony (e.g., concert, church) or eating at a trendy restaurant. Waiting is also affected by the economics of supply and demand. If there is little supply, the demand goes up; if there is a great supply, the demand goes down. People may wait in line for food when the supply is low and demand is high. Status, power, and self-worth dictate who waits. The higher a person’s status their time is deemed more valuable. Therefore, they will not wait long, but people will wait longer for them. The lower a person’s status, the less valuable their time may seem. This lower status may result in a longer wait time, or their self-worth may be deemed lower, so they can wait longer. However, the opposite may be the case in other cultures. In some Brazilian cultures, people who show up late are perceived to be more successful or have greater status than those who arrive on time. People with the monetary means can buy out their wait time. The well off or wealthy can have others do the waiting for them. Those with power control those who wait. The powerful may have other people wait to legitimize or acknowledge their power and prestige (Levine, 1997). In October 12, 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin and two U.S. Delegates (Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Defense Secretary Robert Gates) scheduled a meeting to plan the installation of missile defenses in Eastern Europe. President Putin kept the U.S. delegates waiting 40 minutes at his dacha. After the wait, Putin seemed to mock the U.S. missile defense plan as something Russia could not support, and then Putin kept the meeting going for far longer than scheduled (Shanker & Myers, 2007). In this example, the powerful waited for the more powerful.
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Culture GQ How does time function in this society or culture? If the culture is guided by clock time, what activities are scheduled and why? Who participates in clock time? How does clock time influence the society or culture? If the culture is guided by event time, what activities dictate the day and why? Who participates in event time? How does event time influence the society or culture? If the society is guided by wait time, what activities involve waiting? Who participates in wait time? Who does not participate in wait time? Who waits for whom? How is the society or culture influenced by wait time? During what events, ceremonies, or activities do people wait? Who are paid to wait for others? How do those with power control who waits? Are there social, political, economic, or religious reasons why individuals or groups wait?
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Clock time: How does time function for the target audience? Does the target audience participate in clock time? If the target audience is guided by clock time, what activities are scheduled and why? Does everyone in the target audience participate in clock time? How does clock time influence the target audience? Are there social, political, economic, or religious reasons why the target audience participates in clock time? How does the target audience feel about clock time? Event time: Does the target audience participate in event time? If the target audience is guided by event time, what activities dictate the day and why? Does everyone in the target audience participate in event time? How does event time influence the target audience? Are there social, political, economic, or religious reasons why the target audience participates in event time? How does the target audience feel about event time? Wait time: Does the target audience participate in wait time? If the target audience is guided by wait time, what activities involve waiting? Who in the target audience participates in wait time? Who in the target audience does not participate in wait time? Who in target audience waits for whom? How does wait time influence the target audience? During what events, ceremonies, or activities does the target audience wait? Are there social, political, economic, or religious reasons why the target audience waits? How does the target audience feel about waiting?
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How Time is Oriented Cultures operate by different or varied temporal orientations. Where cultures intersect, cultural characteristics interact to reveal each group’s temporal orientations (Levine, 1997). It is at this intersection that there is much confusion and awkwardness between cultures. Levine (1997) proposed that there is a type of “temporal illiteracy” between clock-time and event-time individuals (p. 188). Clock-time individuals seek to maintain their superiority in mastering time; therefore, eventtime individuals must assimilate to clock time. When this assimilation does not happen, there is cultural conflict and miscommunication. Event-time individuals who refuse or do not understand the assimilation to clock time are unsuccessful in clock-time societies. However, it may be best if event-time individual’s enculturate themselves into clock time and vice versa. Considering temporal orientations has implications for teaching, learning, and communicating. If the temporal orientations of young children are considered in the learning process, teachers are less likely to impose their orientations onto children. Instead, teachers could use this as an opportunity to teach children the time orientations consistent with schools, schooling and the dominant culture. This may mean teaching several short lessons on how the day is scheduled and what the children are expected to be doing throughout the day. This guidance should be continued until children learn their new time orientation. In terms of learning, there needs to be more flexibility in designs to help learners adapt to the time orientation specific to the learning context and technology. An e-learning environment may make considerations for the variety of temporal orientations. The time orientation used should be explained to learners visually, orally, and in writing. Learners could be given the flexibility to respond in the elearning environment within a longer time period initially until everyone learns the new time orientation. As the course progresses, response times are increased in pace with the achieved time orientation.
Culture GQ What is the time orientation of this society or culture? Is time measured by seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and years? Is there a past, present, and future sense of time? Is time tied to nature? What causes cultural conflicts or miscommunication related to time orientations? Are there cultural conflicts between home and school, home and work, or home and society?
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Target Audience GQ What is the time orientation of the target audience? What cultural conflicts or miscommunications related to time orientation exist between the target audience and other groups? Are there cultural conflicts, related to time orientations, between the target audience and schools, work, or society? What allowances in terms of time orientation could better meet the needs of the target audience?
How Time Is Paced Human beings experience the flow of time or the pace of time in patterns or rhythms. The pace of a society may be measured by several indicators such as walking speed, speed of performance in work tasks, concerns with checking time, rate of speech patterns, eating habits, driving speed, maintenance of schedules, and time urgency; Levine, 1997). Levine (1997) found that the pace is faster in societies that are economically viable, industrialized, individualistic, colder, and highly populated. Whereas pace refers to speed, duration refers to the length of time of an event. Duration is a “psychological experience” based on perception (Levine, 1997, p. 27). Human beings may perceive the duration of time based on the sun, feelings of body fatigue, or timepieces. Individuals perceive time differently (Levine, 1997). Humans create, use, and experience our own time from moment to moment (Kern, 1983). Time can seem to move slowly or quickly. Westerners use the colloquium “time flies when you are having fun” to mean that time speeds by quickly when one is enjoying an event. In addition to enjoyable perceptions of time, time can be perceived to move slowly when an individual is anxiously awaiting something. Time may be perceived to move quickly when an individual is engaged in an interesting or challenging task or when there are multiple events (Levine, 1997). The duration of time experienced by prisoners of war becomes very much a psychological experience. Physically and mentally tortured prisoners often mention their perceptions of time as altered, in that they are unable to recall the present day or time. Dr. Ashraf al-Hazouz, an Egyptian-born Palestinian, recalled his experience as a prisoner in Libya. He received electrical shocks, beatings, and injections of what he believed to be the HIV virus. Dr. Hazouz said that he was hung upside down with his hands tied behind him. This extended and extensive physical torture attributed to his sense that time blurred (Brunwasser, 2007).
Culture GQ5 What is the pace of time in this society or culture? How do individuals experience time? How do groups experience time? What is the pace of time when individuals Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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work? What is the pace of time when individuals go home? What is the pace of time when individuals have down time or leisure time? Is time tied to the pace of work? Is time tied to holidays, feasts, or celebrations? Is time tied to religion? Is time tied to the political structure of the society? How has technology influenced time? Is time tied to nature, and if so, in what way? How has time influenced social relations? What is the tempo of time? Are there divisions of time? Does time influence the speed of production? Does time influence the output of products or goods? Does time influence the distribution of goods? Are there moments or events where much time is spent idle? Is time tied to the political structure of the society or culture? Is time bought or sold (e.g., work, slavery)? Does time influence economic gain? Are there any uniform durations of time? How is time divided from sunrise to sunset? How have changes in the political structure influenced uses of time? Is time tied to political or social reform? Is time tied to economic constraints or gains? How is time spent? How is free time spent? Has the use of time changed attitudes? How do individuals use time? How do groups use time?
Target Audience GQ How does the target audience perceive the pace of time? What is the pace of time when the target audience works? What is the pace of time when the target audience is at home? What is the pace of time when the target audience has down time or leisure time? For the target audience, is time tied to holidays, feasts, or celebrations? For the target audience, is time tied to religion, politics, technology, nature, or social relations? What is the tempo of time for the target audience? Are there divisions of time within the target audience’s day to day practices? Does time influence the speed of production, output of products or goods, or the distribution of goods for the target audience? Are there moments or events, for the target audience, where much time is spent idle? For the target audience, is time bought or sold? Does time influence economic gain for the target audience? For the target audience, is time tied to political or social reform? How does the target audience spend their free time?
Space Space is a preexisting entity that humans have been forced to adopt and adapt to as part of human existence. The term entity within this context means something that functions on its own. Human beings use space, occupy space, invade space, and create space. Space is an entity humans manipulate for their land use, population control and migration. Given humans’ inability to live on other planets and the limitations of space travel, humans are confined to and imprisoned on the planet Earth. Therefore, humans Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 14.1. Space and distance zones
make use of this space as a territorial possession. Humans assign ownership to space. Humans worship land as space. Humans kill other humans and beasts over space. Space is limited. For humans, space is a valuable resource with tangible and intangible properties. Space and human interaction can be examined holistically or through researchbased thematic categories. Holistic means investigating space as a whole and its many layers of human complexity (Stake, 2000). This requires looking at how humans move through unknown spaces, interact with people, occupy spaces where they live and work, invade crowded spaces, and create spaces when room is available or not. Hall (1966) categorized space thematically as intimate, personal, social, or public. The findings of Hall’s research are based on Western values; however, these data can be used as markers for comparisons with other cultures. Intimate space is very close in proximity because the other person’s physical being is felt to be overwhelming. This closeness is felt in hugging, kissing, lovemaking, or close contact sports. Intimate space can be less than 6 inches or as close as 6 to 8 inches (see Figure 14.1). Personal space is within touching distance or arm’s length. Close friends may interact at this distance. This space can span a distance of 1.5 to 4 feet. In social space, no one touches another person or expects to be touched by another person. Social spacing is typical in business or social functions. This space can span a distance of 4 to 12 feet. In public space, persons are far enough to hear but not see the detail in their face. This spacing is the acceptable distance for public speaking. Public space can span a distance of 12 to 25 or more feet. In Libya, space is used to extend social customs between males and females. Men own the public spaces and they alone travel the streets, mosques, shops and cafes. Women live and work Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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in the compound areas. In Libya, the public and private spaces carry customary gender significance (Dalton, 2001). The behavior of human beings in and around space is conditioned by ones culture. Understanding the space or spacing patterns of groups can aid in designing architectural and urban developments, living spaces, products, and services. Every society or culture has its unique spatial needs. Determining those needs minimizes cultural incompatibility and conflicts. Architects often use urban planning to understand how people will live in and around space.
Culture GQ How is space intimate, personal, social, or public in this society or culture? What are the social customs of spacing in this society or culture? Are the social customs of spacing different for men versus women? Is spacing gender specific and why (e.g., women walking behind men)? Are the social customs of spacing different for family members versus strangers? How is spacing sociopolitical (e.g., walls separating the rich from the poor, train tracks that separate one town from another)? What are the economic implications of spacing for the society or culture? How is spacing used in religious or spiritual ceremonies? How is spacing used to geographically divide groups (e.g., the building of segregated subdivisions for the poor (like shanties and projects); sitting in the back of the bus based on race)? How is spacing used to divide racial and ethnic groups? How is spacing used in politics? How do individuals move and travel through space? Do individuals from the dominant group occupy space differently from those in subordinate groups? How do architectural and urban developments use spacing? How is spacing used inside individuals’ living spaces? How do family members and extended family use living space? How is space used as a psychological weapon or tool?
Target Audience GQ How is space intimate, personal, social or public for the target audience? What are the social customs of spacing for the target audience? Are the social customs of spacing different for men versus women in the target audience? Is spacing gender specific for the target audience and why? Are the social customs of spacing different for family members in the target audience versus strangers? How is spacing sociopolitical for the target audience? What are the economic implications of spacing for the target audience? How is spacing used in religious or spiritual ceremonies for the target audience? How is spacing used to geographically divide the target audience? How is spacing racially or ethnically significant to the target audience? How is spacing used to politically distance or unite the target audience? Describe Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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the architectural and urban developments where the target audience resides. How is spacing used inside the living spaces of the target audience? How is space used as a psychological weapon or tool that affects the target audience? Do individuals in the target audience touch people as they walk? Do individuals in the target audience greet people as they walk through their town, village, or city? Do individuals in the target audience stop and converse? How do individuals greet each other in the target audience? Describe the spacing of interactions with the target audience. Describe how individuals in the target audience move within the space of their community. Describe how individuals in the target audience move within the space of their society or culture. How does the target audience view the space that divides them from others in their society or culture? For the target audience, does spacing in general create negative or positive feelings? How has the target audience been spaced from those in the dominant culture?
Distance Distance is a mathematical description of the spatial length between two objects, microscopic organisms, or other points of significance; it is a human made utility with infinite possibilities. Given the mysteries of the universe, distance may never be fully measured because of its infinite nature. The measurement of distance serves useful mathematical functions such as measuring, joining, estimations or determining speed. Distance also serves purposeful functions such as to show separations or the length of time between two things or objects (Darling, 2004; McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Mathematics, 2003). As of 2008, the distance from China to the borders of Washington state in North America is roughly 5,736 miles or 9,231 kilometers. This distance reveals the path of a toxic cloud that traveled from thousands of coal-burning plants. The sulfur dioxide produced through coal combustion is said to be a health hazard for local inhabitants and an environmental problem for the world (Bradsher & Barboza, 2006).
Culture GQ What mathematical functions does distance serve in this society or culture? What practical functions does distance serve in this society or culture? How are groups in the society distanced from each other? Does distance play, as a mathematical property, a role in politics, religion, economics, housing/urban renewal, or social relations?
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Target Audience GQ What mathematical functions does distance serve for the target audience? What practical functions does distance serve for the target audience? How are groups in the society distanced from the target audience? Does distance , as a mathematical property, affect the target audience in terms of politics, religion, economics, housing/urban renewal, or social relations?
Dimension A dimension refers to a self-sustaining space or spatial dimension. There are many representations of dimension; however most involve the manipulation of space. Polaric: Although there are many representations of dimensions, this section deals with the Polaric Dimension as elaborated in Chapter II. By incorporating the polaric dimension under cultural infinities it is now part of the model. The polaric dimension is an entity of the universe. It operates by a universal law of communal balance. The polaric dimension refers to the need for equilibrium within and among all that there is in the universe. This equilibrium is manifested through opposites or interdependence. Opposites operate complementary in the polaric dimension. They are not in opposition to one another, but they need one another. Interdependence translates as a semiotic relationship where the energy of one entity is sustained by the energy of another. The energy can decrease or increase in either entity; however through interdependence they remain in balance (Chung-yuan, 1975; Maciocia, 1989). This harmonizing relation creates and maintains equilibrium. When there is equilibrium, the polaric dimension functions properly.
Culture GQ How does the polaric dimension function in this society or culture? Is the society or culture bound by the polaric dimension? What are examples of how the polaric dimension functions? Is the society or culture influenced by the polaric dimension? How do individuals respond to the functioning of the polaric dimension? Does the polaric dimension carry any significance in terms of religion, social interactions, politics, beliefs, values, so forth. (For example, are religious beliefs bound by positives or negatives such as a god or devil? Are social mindsets bound by positive and negative thoughts?) What beliefs exist that maintain this polaric dimension)?
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Target Audience GQ How does the polaric dimension function for the target audience? Is the target audience bound by the polaric dimension? What are examples of how the polaric dimension functions in the lives of the target audience? Is the target audience influenced by the polaric dimension? How do individuals, in the target audience, respond to the functioning of the polaric dimension? Does the polaric dimension carry any significance in terms of religion, social interactions, politics, beliefs, or values for the target audience? Spirit World: The physical world is very real to human beings because of our ability to touch, taste, see, hear and smell; these experiences provide concrete evidence that the physical world exists. The virtual world is that created to alter human’s reality and provide education, amusement or pleasure through the stimulation of the senses. Again, these experiences provide concrete evidence that the virtual world, although fictional, maintains an existence or occupies a space. The spirit world is much more difficult to prove its existence with concrete evidence. Although there are movies and television series about other worlds, the existence of the spirit world is questioned by humans. Given this, it does not mean that the spirit world does not exist. The belief in a supernatural being, higher power, or deity, is based on faith; faith holds more intangible versus tangible properties. If humans have faith, this is a belief in the spirit world. The spirit world can be defined as anything that does not exist in the physical world. It could be seen as a complementary realm to the physical world; therefore fulfilling the polaric dimension. Given these properties, the spirit world is another design factor to consider.
Culture GQ Is there an acknowledged spirit world in this society or culture? Is there an unacknowledged spirit world in this society or culture? Who or what inhabits this spirit world (e.g., ghost, ghoul, apparition, specter, phantom, poltergeist, soul, entity, and so forth)? What is known about the spirit world? What descriptions are used to explain the spirit world and the entities within it? Who from the physical world interacts with the spirit world? What happens during interactions between the spirit and physical worlds and why do these interactions happen? Is the spirit world associated with religion or does it exist on its own? What practices are related to connecting to the spirit world (e.g., channeling, faith healing, fortune telling, séance, spirit possession, or reincarnation)? How is the spirit world made real in the physical world (e.g., fictionalized movies, séances, psychics, medium, etc.)? How has the spirit world influenced this society or culture? What aspects of the physiCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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cal world validate that a spirit world exists? How has the spirit world influenced human beings? What interactions between the spirit and physical worlds emotions are involved when there are discussions or references to the spirit world?
Target Audience GQ Is there an acknowledged spirit world for the target audience? Is there an unacknowledged spirit world for the target audience? From the target audience’s perspective, who or what inhabits the spirit world? From the target audience’s perspective, what is known about the spirit world? How does the target audience explain the spirit world and the entities within it? Who in the target audience interacts with the spirit world, and what happens during these interactions? Is the spirit world associated through religious practices of the target audience, or does it exist on its own? From the target audience’s perspective, what practices are related to connecting to the spirit world (e.g., channeling, faith healing, fortune telling, mediumship, séance, spirit possession, or reincarnation)? From the target audience’s perspective, how is the spirit world made real in the physical world? How has the spirit world influenced the target audience? What aspects of the target audience’s physical world validate that a spirit world exists? From the target audience’s perspective, what emotions are involved when there are discussions or references to the spirit world?
Cultural Nature E25. Cultural Nature - Intrinsic characteristics of a human being, other species or entity. Cultural Nature refers to those intrinsic characteristics of a human being, other species or entity. What makes a man a man? What makes a woman a woman? What makes a bird a bird? What makes a cell a cell? What makes a hurricane a hurricane? These are the characteristics of a human being, other species or entities cultural nature. It is what it is because of its nature. It is distinguished by these characteristics and others of similar characteristics may fall under this category. Birds, by example, may behave differently; however the innate characteristics remain consistent through. Or does the line between what an organism is and should be blur? The hydra is a cnidarian—a multicellular aquatic animal that reproduces asexually by producing a daughter polyp in an adjacent bud (Panno, 2005). In this example, the notion that animals must have partners to fertilize them for reproduction is suspended. Every living thing has a unique, prescribed nature that makes it what it is. Humans may Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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look differently but they are still human. Hurricanes may react different but they are still hurricanes. Cells may mutate but they are still cells. Humans inhabit the planet Earth and are one of many organisms that makeup the biosphere of live systems. As such, humans and other organisms are dependent on the proper functioning of the planet (Šmajs, 2006). Humans share common biology and behavior. Humans are aware of their humanness; this means that they are aware of themselves. They have an identity. Humans recognize that they are part of the dominant species on the planet. Their self awareness means that they are cognizant of how others see them. They can evaluate themselves and their behavior and this is what makes them human. Like self awareness, human beings possess language and intelligence. Language sets human beings apart from other species. Although other species communicate, their language of communication is not as extensive or sophisticated as human languages. No other species on earth can communicate in both a written and spoken language. Intelligence is another characteristic that situates humans in another classification than most other species. Human evolution documents the development of human intelligence from the humble beginnings of early homosapiens (Baumeister, 2005). Human beings can think and learn. Human beings also have certain needs. Sex is “a biologically natural activity practiced by most (though not all) species, especially large mammals” (Baumeister, 2005, p. 4). The rules or codes of sexual conduct are guided by the society or culture. Sex for humans means many things; however for most species it serves as a means to replenish the population. Therefore, reproduction maintains the evolutionary life of a species (Baumeister, 2005). Humans are also a very social species. Humans prefer to live among others of their own kind to living alone (Myers, 1999; Segall, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Many species of animals rely on group interaction to survive their physical environment. A pack of wolves may travel together and kill their prey together. The physical environment must supply living organisms with certain resources to survive. For humans, this means air, food and water. The food cycle of animals maintains the ecological system and proper functioning of nature (Baumeister, 2005).
Culture GQ What is the cultural nature of this society or culture? What types of human beings exist? What types of species exist? What other types of entities exist? What are the biological characteristics of human beings, other species or entities? What are the environmental characteristics of human beings, other species or entities? Are these characteristics typical of the human being, species or entity or out of the ordinary? What characteristics are those that human beings, other species, or entities possess? What things are needed for survival by human beings, other species or entities? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Target Audience GQ What is the cultural nature of the target audience? What types of human beings exist in the target audience? What other types of species exist in the target audience? What types of entities exist in the target audience? What are the biological characteristics of human beings, other species or entities in the target audience? What are the environmental characteristics of human beings, other species or entities in the target audience? For the target audience, are these characteristics typical of human beings, other species or entities or out of the ordinary? What characteristics are specific to the target audience? What things are needed for the target audience to survive on their planet?
CBM Training Depending on whether it is an educational institution or business, the education of employees falls under the area of Training (Tr1-Tr2).. Specifically, the people (e.g., instructors, employees) who will be using the product should receive product training as needed. Culture-based training is specific training necessary for the design team to be informed about the target audience; this training is based on information from preliminary data (e.g., focus groups, surveys), CBM Elements, community representatives, and the cultural expert. Training is another phase in providing full management of the project.
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Tr1. Product Training. Provide Training of the Product as needed. Tr2. Culture-Based Training. Provide Training That is Culture Based, Incorporating CBM Elements and Interactions with Cultural Expert and Target Audience.
Tr1. Product Training. Provide Training of the Product as Needed. Product training informs instructors, practitioners, and others about the product. The content covered includes all the culture-based information gathered, including meeting the learning needs of the target audience. In addition to content, the organization and management of materials can be part of this product training. Instructors need to know how to organize and manage materials; monitor learner progress; establish a positive learning environment; foster an atmosphere for success; provide a safe, supportive, nonthreatening environment for learning and growing; and develop dispositions to support and respect learners’ identity and self-esteem. Instructors who fail to achieve the desired level of cultural sensitivity should be retrained and/or reassigned.
Tr2.
Culture-Based Training. Provide Training That is Culture-Based Incorporating Content Information from CBM Elements and Interactions with the Cultural Expert and Target Audience.
CBM Elements training consists of the comprehensive coverage of societies, cultures, and target audiences. Most of the information for culture-based training is gleamed from CBM Elements, the community representative, the cultural expert, and the target audience. There should also be opportunities to interact with the target audience during training or field tests. This social time is important in helping team members get to know those who will be using the products they design.
References Baumeister, R. F. (2005). The cultural animal: Human nature, meaning and social life. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. Bradsher, K., & Barboza, D. (2006, June 11). Pollution from Chinese coal casts a global shadow [Electronic version]. The New York Times. Retrieved July 18, 2008 Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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from http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/11/business/worldbusiness/11chinacoal. html Brunwasser, M. (2007, August 2). Doctor recounts imprisonment in Libya [Electronic version]. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/02/world/ europe/02doctor.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1 Chung-yuan, C. (1975). Tao: A new way of thinking. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. Cross, G. (1994). Time. In P. N. Sterns (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social history (pp. 751-753). New York: Garland Publishing. Dalton, W. G. (2001). Libya. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and their cultures, 3, 1290-1303. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. Darling, D. (2004). The universal book of mathematics: From abracadabra to Zeno’s paradoxes. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday. Hall, E. T. (1983). The dance of life: The other dimension of time. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday. Kern, S. (1983). The culture of time and space 1880–1918. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Levine, R. (1997). A geography of time: The temporal misadventures of a social psychologist, or how every culture keeps time just a little bit differently. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Maciocia, G. (1989). The foundations of Chinese medicine: A comprehensive text for acupuncturists and herbalists. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Marcelin, L. H. (2006). Diseases. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Anthropology, 2, 750-751. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. McGraw-Hill dictionary of mathematics. (2003). McGraw-Hill dictionary of mathematics (2nd ed.). (2003). New York: McGraw-Hill. Myers, D. G. (1999). Social psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill College. Panno, J. (2005). Animal cloning: The science of nuclear transfer. New York: Facts On File, Inc. Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education Company. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Shanker, T., & Myers, S. L. (2007, October 13). Putin criticizes U.S. officials on missile defense [Electronic version]. The New York Times. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http:// www.nytimes.com/2007/10/13/world/europe/13russia.html?_r=1&oref=slogin Sleep day, sleepy students. (2007, April 5). Beijing Review, 50(14), p. 4. Šmajs, J. (2006). Nature. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology, 4, 17001702. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Stake, R. E. (2000). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 435-454). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Yanow, D. (1998). American Ethnogenesis and the 1990 Census. In C. J. Greenhouse (Ed.), Democracy and ethnography: Constructing identities in multicultural liberal states (pp. 105-120). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Ed
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3
4
5
Alfred Gell (1992) poses that human beings have no control over time. See Hall’s (1983) work on monochronic and polychronic time for a similar interpretation. Hall (1983) refers to people who usually like to focus on one activity during a given time period as monochromic or M-time schedulers. Hall (1983) would refer to people who engage activities in this way as polychronic or P-time cultures. These questions were informed by Cross, 1994.
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Section III
Case Studies Using the Culture-Based Model Section III offers case studies using the culture based model (CBM) and some final thoughts in the concluding chapter. There are four realistic case studies that connect with CBM’s CARD framework. The first case study details how to use CBM in the custom development of an educational product. This chapter provides details in using the management and design components of CBM. The second case study demonstrates adding on to an existing video game. This chapter looks at how CBM Elements is used when designing for the physical and virtual worlds. The third case study shows how to use CBM when re-engineering an existing e-learning environment. This chapter details some aspects of this process. The fourth case study focuses on implementing a diagnostic evaluation for an e-learning Web page. This chapter provides two examples of diagnostic evaluations as research design specifications and an ethnographic instrument. Specifically, the chapter evaluates in some detail a Web page from the Library of Congress and provides an example of how to record this data. Overall, these case studies seek to help designers enhance their design thinking, examine and assess ICTs, and develop a culture-based mindset to design. There are many other ways of using CBM; however this sampling provides designers with a place to start. The creation of a complete CBM guide is not the goal of these chapters. The goal of these chapters is to give designers the beginning seeds to build culture-based information and communication technologies (ICTs). The presumption is that only those with an interest in game design may read the chapter on that topic. Only those with an interest in research may read the chapter on research. Therefore, the basics of how to use CBM’s ID-TABLET are reiterated at the beginning of each chapter. All forms of ICTs are not covered. However, it is contingent on the creative ingenuity of designers to adapt these practical examples to their personal projects. The Conclusion, Chapter XIX, offers some forward thinking about culture, design and the field of instructional design. It further makes connections to CBMs interdisciplinary applications.
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Chapter XV
Case Study of an Educational Product
Instructional design includes the production of educational products such as software, Web-based environments, video games, videos, films, and print technologies. Educational software for school-aged children in the United States has been on the decline since 1999, when it peaked at $605 million; in 2005, estimates of retail sales were at $128 million (Wong, 2006). However, higher education has seen an upsurge in software that aids colleges and universities in managing teaching and learning information. The future of educational product development for children and adult learners needs a resurgence of energy and innovative instructional designs can be at the forefront of this rebirth. Project goal: Design goal: Target Audience: Production stage:
Custom development Custom development of an educational product (software) Latino youth, ages 8-12, in US public schools (Specialized) Pre-production
The basic goal of constructing an instructional design should be to produce a product that helps the target audience fulfill the intended learning outcomes. CBM Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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is adaptive in that it can be used in conjunction with traditional instructional design models or on its own. The model does operate with similar components of ADDIE. For example, Analysis=Brainstorming, Design=Inquiry, Development=Development, Implementation=Team and Evaluation=Assessments. However, CBM is not linear; it allows the designer to start at the point most conducive to the project. Step 1: Determine the areas of the ID-TABLET that will be used for the project begin by reviewing the guiding questions in Chapter III (under Add-On). In any area where the answer is yes, that area should be reviewed and implemented as part of the design process. This process might proceed as follows: Inquiry: Does the project need monitoring for design and development issues? Review the Inquiry questions briefly. Given that this is a custom development, all Inquiry areas are needed. Development: Have all the problems been solved? Review the Development area. All of the design factors in this area are necessary. Team: Will the team have to be trained or replaced? Review the Team area briefly. In this custom development, team, recruitment and collaboration are needed. Assessments: Does the project need evaluating or re-evaluating? Review the Assessments area briefly. Evaluations are an important aspect of custom developments, especially those designed to produce learning outcomes. Brainstorming: Does the project require more planning? Review the Brainstorming area briefly. In this project, Brainstorming is essential to a custom development. Learners: Does the project require meeting the needs of learners? Review the Learners area. In this case, establishing the needs of learners is basic to an instructional design. Elements: Does the content need to be revised, reviewed or recreated? Elements determine the aspects of a culture that exist in a design and those that do not exist. This has implications for further development of the ICT and to identify areas where the ICT can be enhanced. In the case of a Custom Development, content must be developed, and Elements guides this process. Therefore, Elements are essential to the project. Training: Will training be needed for the team or trainers? Review the Training area briefly. Training of the design team is required with a specialized design. Step 2: Organize the production process and methodically work through the areas. Within CBM, the terms preproduction, production and postproduction are used Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Table 15.1 CBM ID-TABLET production schedule Preproduction
Production
Postproduction
Inquiry I1. Genre
X
X
I2. Framing
X
X
X
I3. Omission
X
X
I4. Backgrounding
X
X
I5. Foregrounding
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I6. Visual representations
X
Development D1. TACCT design specifications D2. Mass distribution formats
X
D3. Effective technology
X
D4. Diversify ICT format
X
D5. Understand target audience
X
D6. Explore environmental individual/group
X
D7. Quality design
X
D8. Authenticate product
X
X
D9. Control for interference
X
X
D10. Model the product or process
X
X
X
X
Team T1. Cultural expert
X
T2. Enlist educators
X
X
X
T3. Culturally informed team
X
X
X
A1. Multiple evaluation options
X
X
X
A2. Assess the assessment
X
X
X
Assessments
A3. External review
X
X
X
A4. Culture-specific assessments
X
X
X
Brainstorming B1. Financial support
X
B2. Pilot studies/field tests of product B3. Assess community’s response
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
B4. Community representative on team
X
X
B5. Investigate target audience
X
X
B6. Reflect & assess learning goals
X
X
X
B7. Affordable design
X
X
X
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Table 15.1 continued B8. Meet needs of target audience
X
X
X
B9. Discuss & consider cultural context
X
X
X
B10. Present & consider outcomes
X
X
X
L1. Extend learning
X
X
L2. Differentiate opportunities to learn
X
X
Learners
L3. Empower & engage learners
X
X
L4. Teach proactive learning
X
X
L5. Identify educational objectives
X
X
L6. Culture-specific instructional strategies
X
X
L7. Enrich instructional content
X
X
L8. Adapt instruction to learner
X
X
L9. Plan for instruction
X
X
L10. Enculturate the learner
X
X
X
Elements E1-E12 The anthropology of culture
X
X
E13-E19 The psychology of culture
X
X
E20-E25 The science of culture
X
X
Training Tr1. Product training Tr2. Culture-based training
X
X X
to divide the periods at which work should be performed. However, as with any production, multiple things are happening simultaneously. Table 15.1 provides a timetable of the areas of the model that focus on the specific production periods. This table aligns with custom development, add-on, and re-engineering ICTs. There is no production schedule for a diagnostic evaluation. Next, the eight areas of the ID-TABLET are outlined and then discussed in relation to what happens during preproduction, production, and postproduction. Given that this is a custom development, begin with Brainstorming and then simultaneously build the team; however this chapter describes the areas of the ID-TABLET in relation to the order of the acronym. This section specifically details “what should be done” during each stage of CBM, whereas the definitions and descriptions in previous chapters described “what it is.”
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Inquiry The design team uses the Inquiry area by reviewing the appropriate questions during the scheduled points in the production process. These questions are reiterated throughout several meetings to bring the project back into alignment with its overall goal and to limit bias. As the production evolves, the design changes, and many times the needs of the target audience gets lost in the process. These questions help keep the team on track by assessing and reassessing the design process. • •
Preproduction (I1, I2, I6) Ask these questions during preproduction and production. Review questions to keep project on task. Production and Postproduction (I1–I6) Ask these questions during production and postproduction. Review questions to keep project on task. These questions help align the project to one that is culture-based versus technical.
Development Development considers those features that are important in the overall development of the product. This area supports both new and existing products. For a custom development, begin with D2–D10 of Development. The team methodically goes through each factor, gathers data, engages discussions, offers considerations, and implements production of the project. As data are obtained, enter it into the CBM guide, KMS, wiki, website, or other repository system. •
Preproduction (D2–D5, D7–D10) D2. Mass Distribution Formats. Research into the target audience could reveal a need to produce the product in other mass distribution formats or to totally change the format. Data need to be obtained about the target audiences accessibility and equity in purchasing and using the product. The locations of accessibility for distribution and individual access should be known. An estimation of the number of hours it might take a beginning, intermediate or advanced learner to master the content of the product could be plotted along a timeline. Specifically, how many hours of use would it take for a beginner, intermediate, or advanced learner to master the content of the educational software if this is a consideration? If the target audience has access and equity, then they will be able to master the content. If the target audience has access but no equity in the
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number of hours on task, then they will not master the content. This information aids in determining what changes may need to be made before the production begins. For example, maybe allowances for an advanced learner need to be considered and heightened in the overall design. If there is no equity in use for the target audience, should the product be produced at all? D3. Effective Technology. Research the most efficient and effective technology that will provide the target audience with content and knowledge that surpasses other competing products. In this case, software has been determined to be the most effective form of technology for the delivery of the instructional content. D4. Diversify ICT Format. Research the formats of ICTs that the target audience has access and equity and that they are mostly likely to use. To diversify the ICT format, considerations should be made as to whether the content of the software should also be made available in a printed format, web-based environment, or video game. The goal is to provide more than one avenue to the instructional content so that the target audience can use their greatest strengths to acquire knowledge. D5. Understand Target Audience. Gather preliminary data about meeting the educational needs of the target audience. Use these data to begin discussions about how to integrate the learning styles of the target audience with the needs of the project. D7. Quality Design, D8. Authenticate Product, D9. Control for interference. Continue to aim for quality and an authentic product. D10. Model the Product or Process.Discuss the type of prototypes, sketches, storyboards, and visual languages that will be needed. Determine a time frame and the amount of detail needed at each stage of production. Map out the path to the learning outcomes. The creation of these models should be in collaboration with the design team during brainstorming sessions or other development meetings. •
Production (D5–D7, D9, D10) D5. Understand Target Audience. Use the preliminary data and data from CBM Elements to enhance work performed during production. Make sure facts about the target audience are accurately represented. D6. Explore Environmental & Individual/Group Cultures. The essence of culture can be captured by balancing both macro- and micro- perspectives. This is the purpose in examining environmental and individual/group cultures. Determine whether there is more of a focus on culture as an
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environmental or individual/group concept. Alternatively, the balancing of culture is expressed explicitly in CBM Elements as the Culture GQ and Target Audience GQ. These questions represent the two sides of anthropological, psychological, and scientific research and practices that addresses cultures. D7. Quality Design and D9. Control for Interference. Continue to aim for quality and an authentic product. D10. Model the Product or Process. Create prototypes of the educational product. All icons and graphics should be sketched, discussed, and determined to be generic or specialized. Map out the process that learners take in navigating the software and in meeting learning outcomes. Specifically, identify through some visual language how information is acquired or learned. •
Postproduction (D5) D5. Understand Target Audience. Examine whether the target audience has been accurately represented. Check for bias, stereotypes, and other mistakes related to design, content, language, symbols, color, and so forth.
Tam Team focuses on the recruitment of a culturally sensitive design team that includes a cultural expert, an educator, and other culturally informed members. The team leader hires the team based on their commitment to fulfilling the needs of the client and the target audience. A commitment to understanding and learning about the target audience is needed to be a team member. Team members without this commitment may not have the conviction or commitment needed or may have an aversion to the target audience. This can be a problem in the long run. The team leader may question the individual about what they know about the target audience, how they feel about working with the target audience, and the re-education that is required to be part of the team (See CBM Interview Questions for Team at the end of this chapter). The Team area guides the hiring of the design team members and educates the team about the target audience. These are nontraditional actions, as the design team engages in a somewhat comprehensive education of the target audience as specified under Training. Nurturing a team of highly skilled individuals (Gustafson & Branch, 2002) is extremely beneficial to the design process.
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Preproduction (T1–T3) T1. Cultural Expert(s). Begin by identifying local people who can be potential cultural experts. Their knowledge of the target audience must meet with the needs of the project. T2. Enlist Educators. Local educators with expertise in the target audience can provide insight into families, communities, and academic achievement. Investigate the community through local schools or community centers that can provide some preliminary data. Ultimately, these people will have to be interviewed. The interview questions used by Team may be useful in obtaining an authentic perspective of the candidate. T3. Culturally Informed Team. Recruitment of team members should begin early. If team members are already selected, then the training and buy-in are important. Team members who do not respect, accept, or value the target audience may not lend much to the team; they will cause problems and stunt production. Beware of hidden attitudes, prejudices, and perceptions of team members. These negative dispositions run counter to developing a culturally informed team.
•
Production and Postproduction (T1–T3). Team members should work collectively in trying to understand the needs of the target audience. This type of work setting should be viewed as an opportunity to learn about other people beyond one’s social circle. If the team sees this as an educational work experience, this may bring the team closer to being culturally sensitive and conscious.
Assessments •
Preproduction (A1-A4) A1. Multiple evaluation options/A2. Assess the Assessment. If there are learning outcomes, some form of internal and external assessment provides data to the client and that the learning outcomes proposed have been achieved. In examining and designing assessments, consider the learning outcomes that are being measured. Decide whether these learning outcomes should be measured. Determine the testing methods (e.g., short answer, multiple choice, essay, fill-in) that are most appropriate in measuring these learning outcomes. Gather research examples of internal assessments that may be modified to include in the educational software. Another option is to research examples of external assessments that measure many or most of the learning outcomes expected in this software.
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A3. External Review. Determine whether there will be reviews from an outside agency. A4. Culture-Specific Assessments. Assessments that are culture-specific adapt to the target audience. In designing these assessments, first, believe that it is possible to design alternative assessments that are culture-specific. Second, begin with the goal to create something totally different than what exists in terms of the types of exams (e.g., short answer, multiple choice, fill-in) that currently exist on the market. Gather the learning outcomes embedded in the software. Collect the information on the target audience as learners through CBM Learners. Take into consideration the information from CBM Elements about the target audience. Compile an assessment based on this collective information. •
Production and Postproduction (A1–A4) A1. Multiple evaluation options, A2. Assess the Assessment. Given all of the data, decide what should be continually assessed. Some type of ongoing assessments should be implemented throughout the project to determine whether the product actually teaches some content. Determine further what it is that the product teaches. Given that this is an instructional product that may be used in schools or for other educational purposes, feedback from the community can provide insight into its viability as a product. This may work best as a focus group of community members, educators, and local school teachers. A3. External Review. If money is available, a formal external review can be administered by an educational research agency. A4. Culture-Specific Assessments. Design an assessment based on the information gathered in preproduction. This assessment should be creative, and it should be acceptable to the target audience. The target audience should have opportunities to field test the assessment before it is totally integrated into the educational software.
Brainstorming Brainstorming determines the direction to proceed and serves as an initial review of the design process. In this area, the team leader prepares for the production process by reviewing the design factors specified under Brainstorming. These areas are thoroughly discussed and actions taken to make sure that they are in place. Several brainstorming sessions may be needed. The collection of this information is important in meeting the needs of the target audience, limiting revisions and mistakes Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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in the design process, and creating culture-based ICTs. According to Kelley and Hartfield (1996), brainstorming sessions offer the design team an opportunity to come up with ideas about the client’s problem, and most find these sessions interesting. The extent of the Brainstorming sessions with CBM should be as extensive as needed. Engaging in discussions that cover a breadth of information, states Kelley & Hartfield (1996), takes more time in the preproduction stage, but it saves time in the final stages of production. •
Preproduction (B1, B3–B10) B1. Financial Support. Many educational projects suffer from under funding, and the limitations of funding are also evident in the designs. If funding the project is a concern, research multiple funding sources for all levels of the design process. B3. Assess Community’s Response. The team uses the Assessments area to strengthen the validity of the design, provide evidence of the product’s effectiveness, and evaluate the goals set for the target audience. This area is a tool to check and balance design specifications. Hold a focus group or solicit the community’s opinion about the product. Focus groups consist of a small number of individuals, usually four to eight, and a facilitator who asks questions. The purpose of the focus group is to obtain multiple opinions, beliefs, and experiences about a topic or issue. Some individuals may feel more comfortable speaking in a focus group than one on one. Focus groups allow for the collective interaction of human beings. The data collected during the focus groups are the participants’ verbal responses, their body language in response to the questions, and their conversations and interactions (Madriz, 2000). This may seem insignificant; however, there are examples in education, business, and industry where some type of evaluation could have saved products from disaster. It is important to get at the multiple meanings and messages projected by the product (Young, 2008a). B4. Community Representative on Team. Locate the community representative. This person is versed in the cultural nuances of the target audience. The community representative and the cultural expert can be the same person. Their role in authenticating the product is crucial to the design process. The team must be open-minded to their input and accepting of their opinions as a member of the team. B5. Investigate Target Audience to Authenticate Product. Provide the team with an ethnographic portrait of the target audience. Given that this is an educational software product, preliminary data should be collected in
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B6.
B7.
B8.
B9.
terms of teaching and instruction. This information provides the basis to begin building the foundation of the design. Brainstorming—B5 provides details on the collection of data and cultural informants. Reflect and Assess Learning Goals. Reflecting on learning goals refers to determining the best methods and strategies to deliver information to the target audience and retrieve feedback. It requires reflection because this allows the team to think about what may work best and similar instances where things did not work. Assessing learning goals requires much forethought in how assessments will be conducted to determine whether learning is occurring. Affordable Design. One of the first goals should be to provide an affordable design that considers the financial investment the target audience may have to spend. This type of consideration is also important to the longevity of the product. If the target audience cannot afford the product, than the needs of the target audience have not been met. The objective should be to make these considerations early in the design process and monitor design changes that may result in price increases. Meet Needs of Target Audience. Specifically, map out how the product best meets the needs of the target audience in terms of instruction and learning. Determine how knowledge and information are gained through the design of the educational software. Map out how the product best meets the needs of the target audience in terms of culture. Determine how the culture of the target audience is supported through the design. If there are problems in initial testing, these are areas for changes in the design, not the target audience. Address cultural issues as those that the design must address and adjust to them versus trying to change human behavior. Discuss and Consider Cultural Context. This discussion is very broad. It may begin with an information session provided by the cultural expert and team members involved in researching the target audience. This discussion should cover a historical background of the target audience in the location or locations where the product will be distributed. If the target audiences are Taiwanese people who live in Taiwan and Taiwanese people who live in the United States, there will be some differences in historical background, social interactions, and so forth. The similarities and differences should be part of this discussion. CBM Elements guides the collection of these data. All areas should be discussed in relation to how it influences the overall design and development of the product. Taiwanese people in the United States may have different educational expectations and needs than Taiwanese people who live in Taiwan. In this
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example, there are two groups; therefore, a CBM guide may be needed for each group. B10. Present and Consider Outcomes. The learning outcomes of the target audience must be defined and addressed. Learning outcomes are defined in terms of short- and long-term goals. Determine how learning is acquired through short incremental steps that lead to the long-term goal. Then determine how these incremental steps are assessed or monitored throughout the software. The main discussion should revolve around defining the learning outcomes and implementing design aspects that enable these outcomes. •
Production (B1–B10) and Postproduction (B1–B4, B6–B10) Return to brainstorming during the production and postproduction to check that all design factors have been addressed. Determine what ideas the team began with during brainstorming. Examine the final product. Determine where the design shifted or changed for better or worse. Make decisions on how to avoid problems that came up during the production process.
Learners In using Learners, the design team determines the type of learning environment they want to create. Then they decide which design factors can aid them the most in achieving these goals. The team meticulously reviews the design factors and descriptions, working through each one and returning to others as needed. •
•
Preproduction (L1–L10) An instructional design should consider all the design factors under the area of learners. However, the point at which they should be considered depends on the project. All of the design factors should be reviewed during the preproduction stage. They may not be implemented until production; however, preproduction should provide ideas for the types of learning activities and structure needed throughout the project. Decisions can be made now in terms of the type of instructional strategies that will be included in the design of the educational software. In this preproduction stage, all plans for learning, teaching, and instruction should be discussed, reviewed, and sketched. Production (L1–L10) and Postproduction (L3) Throughout production go back to the instructional strategies or methods that are supported by research, focus groups, surveys, and other data. Determine whether the values of the target audience have been addressed in the product. Decide whether the educational objectives were achieved in the final product.
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Elements Elements address the overall design needs of the project. Determine which elements are most appropriate given the project. For an instructional design project, creating a CBM guide of information relevant to E1–E19 is necessary to provide a culturebased design. A culture-neutral or generic design focuses more on the culture GQ. A culture-specific or specialized design focuses more on the target audience GQ. However, reviewing both culture GQ and target audience GQ may be applicable for some projects. In this case study, the goal is to provide a specialized educational software product. Specialized inquiries require the use of qualitative research methods for data collection. An ethnography is a more in-depth method of qualitative research. Conducting an ethnographic study of a society requires an evaluation of their cultural elements (Dray & Siegel, 2005). Who are the people we seek to study? What do they know? How did they come to be? From the 25 design factors under Elements, members of the design team engage in a collection of written and graphic data collection about the target group. This information should be housed in a format (e.g., KMS, website) accessible to all team members. The information gathered is not stereotypical but authentic representations of the target audience. With the goal of creating products, Foucault, Russell, and Bell (2004) successfully implemented ethnographic methods in finding out about their target audience, Chinese consumers. The team of designers began with one goal in mind trying to build an understanding of the target audience. The field work consisted of visiting and interacting with the target audience in their country. Then, through “mediated immersion,” the design team gathered nonfiction materials that documented the target audience’s history and culture, and they used videography to create video documentaries of the history of the region (Foucault et al., 2004, p. 1482). Additional data about the target audience were obtained from local researchers who had engaged in their own ethnographic data collection of the target country that included field notes, presentations, and photographs. Foucault et al. (2004) also enlisted local users of their product to provide concept feedback and consumer information and to be cultural informants. Throughout this study, the collection of cultural artifacts consisted of books, political objects, religious items, and technology. This ethnographic data collection and analysis served to provide a more realistic understanding of the target audience and ultimately aided in authenticating the product’s design (Young, 2008b). Ethnographies provide rich examples of the human experience and helps researchers study people (e.g., social interactions), places (e.g., organizations) and things (e.g., technology) (Harvey & Myers, 1995). This type of ethnographic data gathering is time consuming, as the inclusion of culture is not a simple task. There will be more initial preparation and education that will save time and costs later in Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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the production process. Consider the loss involved in creating a product that does not fulfill the needs of the target audience. On the other hand, consider the number and high quality of products that can be created based on the data collected. •
Preproduction and Production (E1–E25) Begin by researching the design factors in the anthropology of culture. These design factors provide a comprehensive portrait of the society or culture and the target audience. The design factors in the psychology of culture should be completed when there is a need to understand the cognitive aspects of human behavior. Alternatively, why people do what they do and why people think what they think. The science of culture should be completed when there is a need to understand humans’ adaptation to their environment. Select the design factors that are most appropriate given the target audience and the project timetable. It is almost impossible to determine which design factors and sub-factors will be most useful given the project. Completing the information in all of the design factors yields the most comprehensive database of information on a society, culture or target audience. Excluding some design factors means that something is missing. However, if those design factors are not detrimental to the project, then they can be left out. Only the design team can determine how complete the CBM guide should be, given the short- and long-term goals of the project and future projects. Time, money, and future intent should be taken into consideration. It is difficult to say that a project will only need Elements (E1–E10), because then you only have half of a culture. The final product may also reflect the missing pieces. It is best to carefully select from as many design factors that are relevant to the project as possible and have a balance in all related areas.
Training The design team uses the Training area to plan for the postproduction handling of the product and to educate the design team members about the target audience. If training materials have been prepared, their proper implementation should be followed up in this area. The design team engages in discussions and maintains a progress report of the product for future reference. The planning and implementation of training for the design team happens in this area. The design team may not be involved in product training. However, this is an opportunity to learn about the product from the perspective of the instructor or trainer who may be informing learners about the product. In addition to content, the organization and management of materials can be a part of this product training. The designer and design team participate in culture-based training in order to receive a comprehensive knowledge of the target audience. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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•
•
•
Preproduction (Tr1) Determine whether product training is needed once the project is completed. If so, there may have to be a training module or course developed to address these needs. The extent of the training, materials, and number of days of training should be included in the preliminary budget. Production (Tr2) The culture-based training happens between the preproduction and production stages. Once data has been gathered for CBM Elements, these data are delivered instructionally to the team. The goal of the training session is to better inform team members about the culture of the target audience and aid them in making design decisions that are generic or specialized. Postproduction (Tr1) If the product does not warrant product training, then this stage is not needed. However, for those products that do, this training should have been budgeted and discussed in preproduction. The planning for product training should be underway at this point in the schedule. Determine the content of the training—module, seminar, or course; number of days of training; and materials needed. Determine whether any follow-up training or assessment will be needed beyond this training.
CBM Interview Questions for Team The following interview questions have been adapted from two psychological scales1 (Table 15.2). The questions meet the needs of a cross-cultural audience. There are 10 questions. They have not been tested, nor have they gone through any evaluations of their validity. These are possible interview questions that focus on issues of bias and equity in team members. Each question is placed on a 5-point Likert-type scale on which 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree, 3 = not sure, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. Interviewees should circle the most appropriate answers. These questions are meant to elicit the most culturally unbiased and equitable answers. For Questions 1–5, the interviewee should answer in the affirmative with agree or strongly agree. Questions 6–10 should be answered with disagree or strongly disagree. These responses reveal a person who has perspectives and attitudes that are more culturally unbiased. Interviewees with serious biases should probably be eliminated and not hired. Alternatively, if the person is truly needed, he or she should be involved in the collection of data for the CBM guide; this will provide the person with an opportunity for hands-on learning about the target audience. Step 3: Review the areas of CBMs ID-TABLET as needed to reinforce all aspects of the project. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Table 15.2 CBM Team Interview Questions Strongly disagree 1
Disagree
Not sure
Agree
2
3
4
Strongly agree 5
1. I am open to the various roles that men and women may have in a society or culture.
1
2
3
4
5
2. I try not to impose my values on others.
1
2
3
4
5
3. I believe everyone’s culture should be valued.
1
2
3
4
5
4. I am open to learning about diverse ethnic and racial groups.
1
2
3
4
5
5. I enjoy being around people of diverse ethnic and racial groups.
1
2
3
4
5
6. I feel that my culture should be the dominant culture.
1
2
3
4
5
7. I believe there is no racism.
1
2
3
4
5
8. I do not see color. I see people.
1
2
3
4
5
9. I prefer to work with people like myself.
1
2
3
4
5
10. We live in a fair and equal society or culture.
1
2
3
4
5
CBM Interview Questions
TOTAL POINTS ___ OF 50
A custom development is about starting from scratch and trying to get the design right from the start. In this case study, the goal of creating a specialized educational product for Latino youth relies mostly on knowing the needs of the target audience. The more learner focused the more specialized this product becomes. Specialized designs make a product much more culturally relevant, culturally responsive, culturally mediated, cultural accommodating, cultural compatible or culturally sensitive—and less so multicultural. Multicultural designs are more generic in nature —addressing the needs of the many versus the needs of a few. Specialized designs foster a more intimate relationship with the target audience. The closer the design is to lived experiences of the target audience—the more specialized a product. Truly specialized products get at the race or ethnicity of the target audience along with other cultural aspects; otherwise these products remain more generic than specialized. In this case study, there is also a focus on meeting the needs of the learner. Knowledge is constructed that best suits the learner and learning situation. This is consistent with constructivist theories and methods of research (Bednar, CunningCopyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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ham, Duffy & Perry 1992; Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Bruner, 1985; Resnick, 1987; Rogoff & Lave, 1984). CBM Learners suggests establishing a comprehensive knowledge of the learner before applying particular learning theories and methods. This practice guards against imposing the designers perspectives of learning onto the learner without knowing the learner.
References Bednar, A. K., Cunningham, D., Duffy, T. M., & Perry, J. D. (1992). Theory into practice: How do we link? In T. M. Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation (pp. 17-34). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational researcher, 18, 32-42. Bruner, J. (1985). Models of the Learner. Educational Researcher, 14(6), 5-8. Dray, S. M., & Siegel, D. A. (2005). “Sunday in Shanghai, Monday in Madrid?!”: Key issues and decisions in planning international user studies. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of informationtTechnology (pp. 189-212). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Foucault, B. E., Russell, R. S., & Bell, G. (2004, April 24–29). Techniques for research and designing global products in an unstable world: A case study. Paper presented at CHI 2004: The Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Vienna, Austria. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse On Information & Technology. Harvey, L. J., & Myers, M. D. (1995). Scholarship and practice: The contribution of ethnographic research methods to bridging the gap. Information Technology & People, 8(3), 13-27. Kelley, D., & Hartfield, B. (1996). The designer’s stance. In T. Winograd (Ed.), Bringing design to software (pp. 63-80). New York. Madriz, E. (2000). Focus groups in feminist research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.), (pp. 835-869). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
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Neville, H. A., Lilly, R. L., Lee, R. M., Duran, G., & Browne, L. (2000). Construction and initial validation of the color-blind racial attitudes scale (CoBRAS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 59-70. Ponterotto, J. G., Burkard, A., Rieger, B. P., & Grieger, I. (1995). Development and initial validation of the Quick Discrimination Index (QDI). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55(6), 1016-1031. Resnick, L. (1987). Education and learning to think. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Rogoff, B., & Lave, J. (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. VanPatten, J. (1989). What is instructional design? In K. A. Johnson & L. J. Foa (Eds.), Instructional design: New alternatives for effective education and training (pp. 16-31). New York: National University Continuing Education Association. Wong, M. (2006, August 7). Educational software makers try again after getting schooled. The Associated Press State & Local Wire. Young, P. A. (2008a). Exploring culture in the design of new technologies of literacy. In J. Coiro, M. Knobel, C. Lankshear, & D. J. Leu (Eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies (pp. 325-358). London: Routledge. Young, P. A. (2008b). Integrating culture in the design of ICTs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), 6-17.
Endnote
1
The CoBRAS scale and the Quick Discrimination Index were reviewed; however these scales are more relevant to western values. Therefore, questions have been modified to appeal to a cross-cultural audience (Neville, Lilly, Lee, Duran, & Browne, 2000; Ponterotto, Burkard, Rieger, & Grieger, 1995).
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Chapter XVI
Case Study in Game Design
The global game industry expects substantial growth in the next decades. Massive multiplayer online games (MMOG) are expected to skyrocket from the $3.8 billion reported in 2006 to $11.8 billion by 2011 (Olausson, 2007). The video game industry is expected to grow at an annual rate of 9.1%, or from a $31.6 billion in 2006 to $48.9 by 2011. Serious games are the new growth area. These games are reportedly not for entertainment purposes and are being developed by and for industries such as government, education, health, and business (Scanlon, 2007). Given these figures, the role of game design will have global implications for groups of people around the world. Therefore, design and development must meet the challenges of this technological revolution. Project goal: Design goal: Target Audience: Production stage:
Add-on Adding on to an existing video game design Youth; ages 12-18; US, China & Japan (specialized) Preproduction
In an Add-on, additions are made to existing products. The goal could be to enhance the design or make the product more culture-specific. The objective here is to evaluate what exists in the design and use CBM as a guide in adding on to the Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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pre-existing design. The reason for this add-on is to revamp the video games design into a more comprehensive culture, integrate human emotions into characters, and make real the virtual. This example is stylized after a commercial film that became a video game.1 The best way to demonstrate an add-on is to build a CBM guide. Therefore, several examples of what may be included are demonstrated. Step 1: Determine the areas of the ID-TABLET that will be used for the project. Begin by reviewing the guiding questions in Chapter III (under Add-On). In any area where the answer is yes, that area of CBM should be considered. This process might proceed as follows:
Inquiry: Does the project need monitoring for design and development issues? In determining the answer to this question, work with the Inquiry area. Review the Inquiry questions briefly. Read the following Genre questions: I1a. What ICTs are being used and why? and I1b. Which ICTs are more effective given the content? These questions are relevant and acceptable for use in the project. The next set of questions under Framing asks the following: I2a. Who is the target audience? and I2b. How is the content presented to the target audience? These questions are needed to keep the project focused. Review the questions under Omission that ask the following: I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why? This selection of questions is important to providing a balanced design, so they are acceptable. Next review the questions for Backgrounding such as: I4a. What has been backgrounded? This is a relevant question because what ever is hidden in the design is important to determining whether bias exists. Review the Foregrounding questions like: I5a. What is emphasized and why? In maintaining an objective design this question is needed and the other questions under this design factor. Finally, review the Visual representations questions: I6a. How do the visual representations frame the product? Given that game design is mostly about the visuals, the questions in this area are definitely needed. Development: Have all the problems been solved? Review the Development area. All of the design factors in this area need revisiting at some point in the project; therefore, all areas of Development are valid. Team: Will the team have to be trained or replaced? Review the Team area. In this add-on, a culturally sensitive team is needed. Assessments: Does the project need evaluating or re-evaluating? Review the Assessments area. Determine and gather any assessments that were conducted on the project during any aspect of the previous production. If this applies, the assessment may need to be re-evaluated.
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Brainstorming: Does the project require more planning? Review the Brainstorming area. Brainstorming the new add-ons means this area is needed. Learners: Does the project require meeting the needs of learners? Review the Learners area. This project focuses solely on entertainment; therefore, the Learners area is not needed. Elements: Does the content need to be revised, reviewed, or recreated? Briefly review the Elements area. Elements determine the aspects of a culture that exist in a design and those that do not exist. This has implications for further development of the ICT and identifies areas where the ICT can be enhanced. In the case of an add-on, this area is needed to further flesh out the existing culture and build on the fictional virtual world. Training: Will training be needed for the team or trainers? Review the Training area. Training of the design team is needed because of the focus on specialized target audiences.
Step 2: Review the areas of the ID-TABLET that have been selected. Begin with the management areas that include: Brainstorming, Team, Development, Assessments, and Training. Documenting data into the CBM guide is demonstrated in Tables 16.1–16.5. This data maybe recorded in a KMS, wiki, website, etc. where all team members have access and input. The areas of CBM ID-TABLET to be used in the design of these video games include: • • • • • • • •
Inquiry (all design factors) Development (all design factors) Team (all design factors) Assessments (all design factors) Brainstorming (all design factors) Learners (not applicable) Elements (all design factors) Training (all design factors)
CBM Guide: Video Game Entries Preproduction: July 1, 2008 Step 3: Ask and answer the Inquiry questions throughout the production process. The answers can be recorded in writing and orally through repeated meetings and discussions. The collection of notes or minutes of production meetings should best serve any project. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Table 16.1. CBM Guide Brainstorming Entry Brainstorming B1.
Financial support •
B2.
All funding is secured through postproduction. Pilot studies/Field tests of product
• B3.
Pilot studies with members from the community are expected to be conducted during each quarter of timeline. Final dates have not yet been determined. Assess community’s response
•
B4.
Community response to the existing game has been receptive with Western audiences. Non-Western audiences had some difficulty in interpreting icons, graphics, character motivations, and so forth and became nonresponsive to the existing game. Therefore, the add-ons serve to enhance this product, make a better game, and broaden the target audience. Community representative on team
• B5.
A community representative versed in Asian cultures is on the team to address the needs of Chinese and Japanese youth culture. Investigate target audience to authenticate product
• B6.
The target markets are the United States, China, and Japan, with a specific focus on American, Chinese, and Japanese youth. Reflect & assess learning goals (Not applicable)
B7.
Affordable design •
B8.
The new product’s price is expected to increase from $20 to $23. Given the add-ons, this is unavoidable. However, this product is still considered competitive, given the price increase and the presence of other similar video games. In terms of affordability, the video game market has prices at a set point, and decreasing prices drastically may hurt market value and projected sales. Meet needs of target audience
• B9.
Video games are exploding in youth cultures around the world; the product is capitalizing on this boom, with a focus on national and international audiences. Discuss and consider cultural context
•
B10.
The cultural contexts are being researched and shared with team members as part of the culturebased training. These data have been gathered based on CBM Elements and provides information relevant to the target audiences. Present and consider outcomes
•
Determine the goals of the video game. There should be immediate, midrange, and long-range goals (Bates, 2004) in addition to smaller incremental goal setting that is achievable by the user of the game.
Table 16.2. CBM Guide Team Entry Team T1.
Cultural expert •
T2.
The cultural expert and the community representative are the same person. Enlist educators (not applicable)
T3.
Culturally informed team •
The team received some training; they learned about American, Chinese, and Japanese youth culture. However, the Elements portion of the CBM guide is under development; upon its completion the team expects ongoing training during the production stage.
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Table 16.3. CBM Guide Development Entry Development D1.
Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience (TACCT) design specifications. •
D2.
A TACCT table of the present design specifications is expected to be conducted to determine where the existing product is most focused (i.e., technical, aesthetic, content, culture, or target audience). On the basis of this determination, more focus will be given to making the product more specialized for the intended target audiences, which may require three different video games with similar content, but specialized features. TACCT can guide this process. Mass distribution formats
•
D3.
The video game format already has a mass market and distribution avenues. Issues of access can be better addressed to allow poor and minority youth access even if they can not afford the game consoles. This is under review. Effective technology
• D4.
The video game format is at present the most effective format. Diversify ICT format
•
Games can be targeted to a variety of hardware platforms that include: PC, console, mobile phone, and handheld devices (Bates, 2004). Printed video game publications are called strategy or game guides. Strategy guides, sold in commercial stores, have been created for many of the most popular video games. These strategy guides include information on the technical specifications, strategies, storytelling, motivation, objectives, game structure, historical background, character demographics and history, player viewpoints, and the games functions (Thompson, Berbank-Green, & Cusworth, 2007).
•
A strategy guide can be published in conjunction with this revised version. The development of the game for a PC is an option that will allow access to other youth who do not own a game console. Also, making the game accessible as a MMOG is an option. Other alternative nominal-cost markets are being considered.
D5.
Understand target audience •
D6.
Some preliminary data from the pre-existing product gave the team an understanding of this youth culture; however, additional information is being gathered for further training. The plan is to take the existing product and add on, branching out into three different versions specialized for the three youth markets. Explore environmental and individual/group cultures
•
D7.
In addressing both of these areas, the project will involve gathering data about the following: •
American youth culture and video gaming
•
Chinese youth culture and video gaming
•
Japanese youth culture and video gaming
Quality design •
D8.
Creating a quality product is part of the work done in this company. The first product met this standard, and these revised versions are intended to do the same. Authenticate product
•
Given the three directions needed for the target audiences, three specialized games must be developed. To authenticate the games, cultural considerations for each group must be represented in the design of the products. The goal is not to offend with inappropriate content but to support and acknowledge the designated culture.
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Table 16.3. continued D9.
Control for interference •
D10.
Interference is monitored through adherence to CBMs ID-TABLET. Model the product or process
•
Pre-existing sketches were made of the game. The add-ons require additional sketches as needed.
Table 16.4. CBM Guide Assessments Entry Assessments A1.
Multiple evaluation options •
Pilot studies should provide data in terms of the public’s perception of the product. These pilot studies are expected to be conducted in America, China, and Japan with youth ages 12–18.
•
Improvements are going to be made based on this feedback.
A2.
Assess the assessment (not applicable)
A3.
External review (not applicable)
A4.
Culture-specific assessments (not applicable)
Table 16.5. CBM Guide Training Entry Training Tr1.
Product training •
Tr2.
Product training is planned on an as-needed basis. Culture-based training
•
The team has been given background information about the target audiences. The cultural expert has provided some insights into youth cultures in America, China, and Japan and their interactions with video games. This is one of the reasons for moving to three different versions of the video game. The data from CBM Elements, when completed, should provide specific information to further inform the team.
Step 4: Determine the pros and cons of internationalized (generic) versus localized (specialized). A generic design is one that can be used by all the youth in the different countries, with little to no changes. Typically, the localization efforts of games have been minimal. Publishers may make considerations that include language translation, not hard coding text boxes, the length of animations for cut scenes to match lip-syncing with second-language dialogue, organizing of source codes in file folders based on categories such as text or images, and changes to the stories content (Bates, 2004). These considerations are somewhat haphazard and do not probe the depths of specialized designs. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Step 5: Apply CBM Elements to the design. Within game design or any fictional design, content development takes on a double-edged approach of addressing the physical and virtual worlds. In addressing the physical world, determine who is the target audience or users of the product and gear the product towards their needs. This means that the selected components of CBM that deal with the physical world should be applied as done in Tables 16.1 -16.5. In this case study, the goal is to create three specialized products from a generic product. The target audiences are American, Chinese, and Japanese youth. Use CBM Elements to acquire data about the cultures of these youth groups. Apply CBM Elements separately to each culture. Choose those design factors under CBM Elements that best serve to enhance content development. Then create a CBM Guide for American youth using CBM Elements, create a CBM guide for Chinese youth using CBM Elements, and do the same for Japanese youth culture. These separate guides provide a resource for building future products. In addressing the virtual world, determine the add-ons needed to enhance the product’s design. Use CBMs ID-TABLET. Use Inquiry and Elements for content development. Look at CBM Elements to flesh out and build onto the existing video game environment. The checklist of design factors and subfactors may look like the following example: CBM ID-TABLET - Elements Cultural aesthetics √Art √Beauty Cultural artifacts Cultural capital √Production √Distribution √Consumption Next, apply CBM Elements to the existing information in the video games. Record this information into the CBM guide for the video game, The Phases of Purgator. This guide is a repository of existing information about the video game, and it contains all the new data that will be added or considered in the development of the new versions of the video game (bold italics). When adding on to an existing video game, a combination of a diagnostic evaluation and design applications happens. First, evaluate what data exist in the video game. This means input Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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information based on the design factors into the CBM guide. Second, using the team’s creativity, add on to the existing design to build a more complete culture. The add-on areas are illustrated in bold italics. The final result is the rebuilding of the content for the video game. This content can then be transferred from the CBM guide—The Phases of Purgator into the video game animated format. Adding on specialized content with the target audience should be considered throughout this process; however it is not explicit in these examples. This case study example of the CBM guide—The Phases of Purgator is provided for the following design factors: Cultural Physiology; Cultural History and Cultural Artifacts. These illustrate add-ons in content development using CBM Elements.
C GGUI —Video GGAME Pre production—July 3, 2008 Te Phases of Purgator Storyline: It is the year 3500 A.Z., and Zillians are pursing a galactic genocide of other worlds. Hominids,2 human like species, are on the verge of extinction as Zillians convert the strong into Zillians and annihilate the weak. Purgatorees are the only race immune to the Zillians conversion methods, so they are taken as slaves by the Zillians. Purgator, a warrior, fights to free his people and annihilate the Zillian Empire.
E11. Cultural Physiology: Phases of Purgator-Purgator The following is a taxonomy of the main character Purgator. Table 16.6 outlines the cultural physiology of Purgator.
E8. Cultural History: Phases of Purgator The following is a Cultural History for the video game Phases of Purgator. This narrative provides a comprehensive history to further develop the story in a virtual environment. Racial/ethnic: Zillians are converted humans and other species. This race is made up of other races. Zillians never existed before 3350 After Zunderverse (A.Z.). Once hominids and other mind-thinking species are converted to Zillians, their previous existences are erased. The common characteristics of Zillians are that they are converted peoples and entities from around the world. Many Zillians develop Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Table 16.6. Cultural physiology of Purgator -Name: Purgator -Species: Purgatoree -Location: Purgatoria planet -Gender: Some form of male -Characteristics: Aggressive; agile; unemotional; resourceful; thinks quickly; no social relationships; chameleon-like imitator of organic objects and beings; able to mimic behaviors and sounds of animals and other species; psychic -Physical: Purple eyes; Muscular, strong body frame -Language: Persian
sunken eyes, deteriorating skin, and raspy voices. It is said that Zillians are the universe’s Zomads. Political: Zillians are ruled by the entity forces of the Zunderverse. The Zunderverse is a modern-day version of a devil; it is the essence of pure evil. The leader of the Zillians, Lord Zikon, is controlled by the Zunderverse; his mind is not his own but that of the entity within. The Zillian leader possesses supernatural powers because of his status as the physical leader of the Zunderverse. Zillians’ political ideology is “KILL TO LIVE. LIVE TO KILL” All Zillians must kill or else they are killed by other Zillians. The political structure is organized by rank according to the number of organisms a Zillian kills. A Zillian with the most individual kills can become Lord. Anyone can become Lord by killing the residing Lord. The leader is the Lord Zikon, who has absolute power. He seeks domination across planetary systems, worlds, species, and entities. The second in command is Ziffno. The captain of the armed forces is Zuko. The captain of indoctrination is Ziffer. Social order is maintained through the threat of death. Also, Zillians are very devoted to their worship of the Zunderverse. Through their faith, the Zunderverse maintains its power.
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Social: Zillians do not associate with anyone outside the Zillian race. Any non-Zillians are enemies, and they are assimilated or annihilated. Interactions with other species or entities are only for the purpose of assimilation and annihilation. The Zillians destroy entire worlds, leaving only debris. The aggressive actions of Zillians are known and feared across universes. When the location of the Zillians is known, hominids and species either stay and . ght or abandon their worlds. These actions have caused other races of hominids, species and entities to unite against the Zillians. However, no single or collaborative action has been successful in stopping the Zillians’ Galactic Genocide. Linguistic: All Zillians speak Zinglish. Once converted, newcomers speak, read, and write the Zinglish language. All other languages are lost through the conversion. Educational: Zillians learn through oral stories, gatherings to discuss military domination tactics, and through the conversion. Zillian males tell stories of their military feats. No other stories are heard or told. The conversion machine educates Zillians of their history, lives, and the legacy of their Galactic journeys. This education repeats every month when Zillians receive their monthly re-conversion. Gender: Males and females are the genders in this culture. Males are dominant and the females serve as figureheads to males. Males kill. Females serve the empire, their mate and the Zunderverse. Asexual species become servants to all. Sexual intercourse, for the purpose of male gratification only, is initiated by the male only. Family: Zillians do not refer to themselves as a family. They consider themselves a tribe. Unions are allowed between species only for the purposes of servitude and sexual gratification. Children are not allowed. Zillians become sterile when converted. Male Zillians may have multiple mates of different species but never from the same species. Female Zillians serve males. Females who are not subservient become slaves. Zillian unions are short, given that no one expects to live long. Religious: Zillism is a religious doctrine founded during the period of Creation 1000 Before Zunderverse (B.Z.) (See Figure16.2). Zunder was a spiritual entity worshiped by hominids, beasts and other consciously living beings. This entity was showered with good thoughts, goodness, and gifts. By 3000 B.Z., other religious doctrines and religions gained favor because of the migrations of species and entities from other galaxies and worlds. Zillism was not as favored a Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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religion so Zunder through its psychic powers had his followers exile all species who believed in other religions. Zunder grew angry over the years as its people continued to leave the planet for other worlds and other religions. By 3250 B.Z. other livable planets manifested across the universe, more species left their faith in Zillism and Zunder behind. Over 100 years Zunder grew angry. Around 3350, Zunder turned evil as its followers were so few and powers fading because of its lack of psychic energy. Zunder cursed the universe for an eternity creating the Zunderverse—a world where only evil dwells. Zunder sought to rule through hominid form so its followers were brainwashed to follow its evil doctrines. Over a period of 150 years, the followers of Zunder annihilated each other until one victor remained Zikon. Through Zikon, Zunders power manifests in hominid form and this begins the period of Galactic Genocide (3500 A.Z.). All conquered people are converted and become known as Zillians. Zillism is now practiced by all Zillians. Zillians chant and this chant becomes a ringing message of worship to the Zunderverse. This chant is repeated throughout the day to generate power. The chant is written as follows: Zunder lives and breathes Only Zunder evil can rule Only Zunder can conquer Zunder is and can Only Zunder evil can rule Only Zunder can exist Zunder always and ever This psychic energy keeps the Zunderverse alive and well in its physical counterpart Zikon, the leader of the Zillian people. As long as the Zillians worship the Zunderverse, Zikon will always have supernatural powers. In their day to day interactions Zillians are reminded by leaders and captains who say, “PRAISE TO ZUNDER.” Zillians who die through battle are believed to transcend to the Zunderverse making the group even stronger. It is believed that through death eternal life will be Zunder. Artistic: Zillians have created the Zilliopolis, a monumental statue of the Zillism religion. It serves as a reminder to all Zillians of their faith and duty. Zilliopolis sits in the shaft of their spaceship of the same name (see Figure 16.1). Health: Zillians remain strong, healthy, and youthful through re-conversion. They believe that “Only the Strong Live.” The injured and weak of other races are killed for sport. Disease is not a part of Zillians’ history. Death is inevitable. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 16.1. Zilliopolis Interior
If the Zillians encounter a world full of sickly people, they annihilate the whole planet, fearing the spread of disease. Disease is a sign of weakness; it is worse than death. Science: Scientists and knowledge are appropriated from other worlds. Agriculture: Nutrients are provided by the Conversion machine, which Zillians frequent monthly to continue their lifelong indoctrination. No food is needed. Technological: Technology is acquired from every planet to achieve universal domination. This technology comes in the form of technologically advanced species and machines. Examples: Zasi-deads, Zensors. Zasi-deads are used as communication devices to retrieve information from non-Zillians. Zensors are used as devices that can locate the heat and blood signatures in human beings. Zillians have appropriated state-of-the-art traveling, tracking, navigational, and computerized equipment to conquer galaxies and universes. Time Periods: The Zillian Timeline records the last 2500 Hundred years (see Figure 16.2). The periods are represented as Before Zunderverse (B.Z.) and After Zunderverse (A.Z.). Before the Zunderverse, worlds were dominated by religious supremacy. Every planet dictated their actions and activities through religion. By 3250 B.Z., there was a planetary evolution. New planets appeared across Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Figure 16.2. Zillian timeline
Table 16.7 Cultural artifacts: Purga blade History: The Purga is the signature weapon for the Purgatoree people who live on the planet Purgatoria. The blade should only be touched by someone who plans to use it. The purga is designed to fit the elongated hands of the Purgatoree people. Design: Form-The Purga measures 15 inches in length. The entire knife is hand carved. The catacombs and finely carved blade make this knife a unique characteristic of the Purgatoree people. The top handle of the blade measures 6 inches. The remainder of the blade itself measures 9 inches. Style- The Purga reflects the artistic lifestyle of Purgatoree culture. The Purgatoree people are artisans of metal. This explains why the blade is half artistic sculpture and half sword. Content- At the tip of the handle, every Purga carries the symbol of freedom which looks like the flames of a torch. Material: Purga knives are made of a heavy metal. This heavy metal can only be found on planet Purgatoria. Construction: The heavy metal of the Purga is intricately thinned as it is carved into a weapon. The heavy metal is made soft and then carved with a barrow tool. Function: The Purga serves only one function. It is a weapon for killing. The catacombs and tip of the knife hold poison that seeps into its victims blood stream. The knife traditionally was used for hunting species for food consumption.
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galaxies. Hominids, other species and entities migrated to the various planets to live, travel, and trade. Then in year 3350, Zunder creates the Zunderverse. The year is now 3500 A.Z., the period of Galactic Genocide. Zunder infiltrates the human psyche with the mission to destroy this plethora of planets and restore order to the universe.
E 2. Cultural Artifacts: Phases of Purgator The following is an entry for Cultural artifacts-purga blade. Table 16.7 outlines the aspects of this tool. Step 6: Continue to follow CBM ID-TABLET for management and design throughout the production process. Step 7: Make the creative changes to the video games per the add-on specifications. Add-ons are meant to enhance existing products. In this case study, the content of the video game is dramatically altered from generic to specialized. The change comes with a focus on three different target audiences that ultimately yield different data. The video games are made more culture-specific than culture-neutral. Specialized designs make a product much more culturally relevant, responsive, accommodating, compatible and sensitive to the needs of the target audience.
Rerences Bates, B. (2004). Game design. Boston: Thomson Course Technology. Field, T. (Producer), Williams, W. (Producer), Womark, D. (Producer), Zakk, G. (Producer), & Twohy, D. (Director). (2004). The Chronicles of Riddick. United States: Universal Pictures. Olausson, M. (2007). Games industry transformed as one-third of games software revenues will be generated online by 2011 [Electronic version]. Strategy analytics: Insights for success. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.strategyanalytics. net/default.aspx?mod=PressReleaseViewer&a0=3569 Scanlon, J. (2007, August 13). Getting serious about gaming [Electronic version]. Business Week. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/aug2007/id20070813_756874.htm Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Thompson, J., Berbank-Green, B., & Cusworth, N. (2007). Game design course: Principles, practice, and techniques—The ultimate guide for the aspiring game designer. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing, Inc.
Endnotes
1
2
Aspects are adapted from the feature film The Chronicles of Riddick (Field, Williams, Womark, Zakk, & Twohy,, 2004). Hominids means species who appear to be human or have a human like form.
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Chapter XVII
Case Study in E-Learning
The future of e-learning is wide open in terms of innovations in software, hardware, instructional content, and teaching practices. Recent innovations in software have been instrumental in the development of rapid e-learning that allows the creation of podcasts and vodcasts (video podcasts) in 2 to 3 weeks versus 4 to 5 months (Weekes, 2007). Hardware such as PDAs, mobile phones, and pocket PCs provide new avenues in mobile e-learning. Businesses view e-learning as a way to train employees locally and worldwide. Student enrollment in distance education courses in U.S. colleges and universities increased from 2.3 million in 2004 to 3.2 million in 2006 (Allen & Seaman, 2006). It appears that the delivery of instructional content through elearning will continue to be another growth area in the new millennium.
Project goal: Design goal: Target Audience: Production Stage:
Re-engineer Re-engineer an existing e-learning course Adult learners, ages 22-55, in Egypt, Italy, and India (generic)
Pre-production
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Re-engineering is suitable for a product or on-line environment where part or most of the design can be revamped. This means that re-engineering requires making major changes related to coding, restructuring, and rebuilding. Re-engineering assists in modifying and reconceptualizing the e-learning system. The task of reengineering involves examining, recording, and analyzing the pre-existing system or product. This may begin with observing learners, documenting the behavior of learners, and evaluating learners before and after using the e-learning system. As an example, a tracking system may be implemented to evaluate an existing e-learning system. The tracking system can analyze when learners are moving forward with tasks, need to review tasks, or continue to error out on tasks (Iksal, Barré, Choquet, & Corbiére, 2004). With re-engineering, there should be technical and culture-based considerations. These considerations may focus on isolating the software coding for the technical context and culture-based context. The goal is to allow future re-engineering to be added to the e-learning system on the basis of technical-only or design-only specifications (Hoft, 1995; Taylor, 1992). In applying CBM to an e-learning system, the following steps can be taken. Step 1: Determine the areas of the ID-TABLET that will be used for the project. Begin by reviewing the guiding questions in Chapter III (under Add-on). In any area where the answer is yes, that area of CBM should be considered. The process might proceed as follows:
Inquiry: Does the project need monitoring for design and development issues? In determining the answer to this question, work with the Inquiry area by reviewing the questions related to Genre, such as the following: I1a. What ICTs are being used and why? and I1b. Which ICTs are more effective given the content? These questions may be relevant in an e-learning environment where learners receive content in on-line and printed form. Review the following questions: I1c. Is the project affordable to the target audience, given the ICTs used? and I1d. How have ICTs influenced the design of the product? Both of these questions are relevant to re-engineering and an e-learning environment. Framing questions ask the following: I2a. Who is the target audience? and I2b. How is the content presented to the target audience? These questions are needed to keep the project focused. Omission questions ask the following: I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why? This line of questions is important in providing a balanced design. Backgrounding questions ask the following: I4a. What has been backgrounded? This is a relevant question because whatever is hidden in the design is important in determining whether bias existed or still exists. Foregrounding questions ask the following:
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I5a. What is emphasized and why? In maintaining an objective design, this question is needed. Then, review the Visual Representations questions: I6a. How do the visual representations frame the product? This type of question is definitely required.
Development: Have all the problems been solved? Review the Development area. All of the design factors in this area are probably needed, because much of the project requires redoing or rethinking the development process. Team: Will the team have to be trained or replaced? Review the Team area. In this Re-engineering, a cohesive team is needed. Assessments: Does the project need evaluating or re-evaluating? Review the Assessments area briefly. Determine and gather any assessments that were conducted on the project during any aspect of the previous production. This re-evaluation can support future assessments. Brainstorming: Does the project require more planning? Review the Brainstorming area. Some brainstorming of how the re-engineering should proceed is required; therefore, this area should be included. Learners: Does the project require meeting the needs of learners? Review the Learners area briefly. Given that this is an e-learning environment, Learners is needed. Elements: Does the content need to be revised, reviewed, or recreated? Review the Elements area. Elements determine the aspects of a culture that exist in a design and those that do not exist. This has implications for further development of the ICT and identifies areas where the ICT can be enhanced. In the case of re-engineering, this area is needed to start anew in redefining the society, culture, or target audience. Training: Will training be needed for the team or trainers? Review the Training area briefly. Although this is a generic product, some culture-based training of the design team is needed to refocus the team.
Step 2: Review the areas of the ID-TABLET that have been selected. Methodically
work through management areas that include Brainstorming, Team, Development, Assessments, Learners, and Training. Design areas include Inquiry and Elements. Documenting data into the CBM guide is demonstrated in Tables 17.1–17.6. The areas of CBM’s ID-TABLET to be used include: • •
Inquiry (most design factors) Development (all design factors)
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• • • • • •
Team (all design factors) Assessments (all design factors) Brainstorming (all design factors) Learners (all design factors) Elements (all design factors) Training (all design factors)
Table 17.1.CBM Guide Brainstorming Entry Brainstorming B1.
Financial support •
B2.
All funding is secured through postproduction. Pilot studies/field tests of product
• B3.
Field tests with users of the e-learning Web site can be scheduled at different intervals of the production. Dates are yet to be determined. Assess community’s response
• B4.
Community response to the e-learning environment is not necessary because the audiences for this e-learning Web site are paying customers/students. Community representative on team
• B5.
In this case, a community representative is an international graduate student in the education program. Investigate target audience to authenticate product
•
B6.
The target audience consists of adult learners aged 22–55 who live all over the world. Some data can be collected using ethnographic methods; as ethnography has been used in systems and requirements engineering (Martin & Sommerville, 2005). Reflect and assess learning goals
• B7.
The learning goals are consistent with the e-learning course titled The Foundations of Teaching. Students will learn the foundations of the teaching profession. Affordable design
• B8.
The course is priced at $140 U.S. dollars per credit for this three-credit course. This price is comparable with the university on-campus fees. Meet needs of target audience
•
B9.
This e-learning course is meeting the needs of students, as it is one in a series offered for teaching certification. However, other concerns of students are expected to be assessed via a questionnaire mid-year and at the end of the course. Discuss and consider cultural context
•
B10.
It has been established that the students who take this course live in Egypt, Italy, and India, and they are all female. Therefore, the team is gathering data on these populations. These data are expected to be gathered based on CBM Elements E1–E20 and the building of a brief CBM guide related to the target countries and student population. Present and consider outcomes
•
The learning outcomes of the course are that students demonstrate a good-to-excellent knowledge of the course content. These outcomes are measured with exams delivered throughout the semester and the final project.
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Table 17.2. CBM Guide Team Entry Team T1.
Cultural expert •
T2.
The cultural expert and the community representative are the same person; in this case, it is a graduate student. Enlist educators
•
T3.
The professors of this course are available to explain content and instructional practices. They can provide course information, facilitate student interactions, and curtail other problems encountered with the Internet e-learning environment. Culturally informed team
•
Team training in Egyptian, Italian, and Indian culture is expected based on data gathered from CBM Elements. Understanding the role of gender in an e-learning environment is an important aspect of this training.
CBM Guide—E-Learning Entries: Pre production Step 3: Ask and answer the Inquiry questions throughout the production process. The answers can be recorded in writing or orally through repeated meetings and discussions. However, some notes of meetings best serves any project. Step 4: Determine whether the product will be internationalized (generic) or localized (specialized). Although this is a re-engineering of an existing e-learning Web site, the design is generic. The Web site is to be used by students in the different countries with little to no changes. Typically, the localization efforts may consist of changes in language translation, graphics and icons, color, layout, and the formatting of fields and objects (Aykin & Milewski, 2005). Step 5: Apply CBM Elements to the Web site as needed. Given that the Web site will probably be more generic than specialized, focus on the culture GQ. Step 6: For the software engineer, software developer or e-learning designers, they must be familiar with the target audience so that their architecture considers culture as specified by the needs of the project. With re-engineering, the software must be re-analyzed to determine whether the product can be made generic or specialized. Software needs to be flexible enough to handle multiple specialized designs (Aykin, 2005). Aykin proposed the following items in creating more specialized or localized software:
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Table 17.3. CBM Guide Development Entry Development D1.
Consider technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience (TACCT) design specifications.
A TACCT table is administered to the existing e-learning Web site to determine where there is more emphasis. The following is an example of an analysis of an e-learning Web site using the TACCT design specifications. The original goal was to provide an e-learning support site that incorporated variables related to culture, because this was a site used by students from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. Ten design guidelines or specifications were used to match the media as outlined in the TACCT table.1 Design specifications
T
A
C
CB
TA
x
Generic
x
x
Generic
x
x
Generic
x
Generic
5. Supplementary media and resources
x
Generic
6. Minimize technical proficiency
x
Generic
1. Multiple instructional methods and resources specific to student backgrounds and characteristics 2. Interchangeable functions for students and instructors to meet target audience’s learning styles 3. Choice in media selection (print materials must have a cultural fit) 4. On-line support with supplementary course materials
required 7. Limit text on the screen, provide mul-
x
x
Generic
tiple communication configurations 8. Multiple tool choices (Communica-
x
Generic
x
Generic
x
Generic
tion: Cultural considerations -- style, tone and language set by users) 9. Multiple choices in course lengths, times and assessment methods 10. Considerations for technological
x
skill levels of learners and instructors
continued on following page
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Table 17.3. continued The design specifications charted into the TACCT table revealed that the Web-based course focused more on technical features than aesthetics, content, culture-based, or target audience design specifications. The technical features aided in providing functionality to the course site. Aesthetics was considered in only one design specification; this may have been due to other limitations, such as money or timing. Content was referenced in one design specifications. Students and instructors were considered in Design Specifications 1, 2, and 10; however, these considerations were generically applied across groups and were not specialized to any particular ethnic group. An examination of the culture-based design specifications indicated that culture was generically applied throughout the design, and it was not specialized. Design specifications were geared toward a mostly generic target audience. There were considerations for culture-specific design specifications but not the full implementation. This is exemplified by Design Specification 2, where learning styles needed to be addressed through a variety of strategies (e.g., constructivist), and Design Specification 8 suggests that a variety of tool choices allow users to set the style, tone, and language of communication. The learning styles of users and communication styles, tone, and language of the users moved more toward specialized design specifications as specified by the culture-based circumference (Chapter II); however, these design specifications were not specific to a target audience. Two culture-based design specifications were not clearly defined. Design Specification 3 recommends that print materials must have a cultural fit; however, cultural fit is neither clearly articulated nor defined. Also in Design Specification 1, student backgrounds and characteristics should be considered in the design; however, the specifics of which aspects of student backgrounds and characteristics need further clarification. It is apparent from the TACCT table that the design guidelines contain a limited degree of culture-specific design specifications and more culture-neutral design specifications. The results indicate that the goal of providing a culture-based e-learning support site was successful; the website turned out to be more culture-neutral than culture-specific. D2.
Mass distribution formats •
D3.
The format of the course is Web based. An on-campus course is also available; however, this is the online version. Issues of access have been a concern for some students. Courses are delivered asynchronously; students access the course and the course content during their own availability. Effective technology
• D4.
The online course is an effective format for reaching diverse student populations. Diversify ICT format
•
D5.
The Internet is the fastest and most efficient way to deliver course content. Other formats under consideration are a series of podcasts that students can return during the length of the course to review class lessons. Understand target audience
• D6.
The data from CBM Elements and some preliminary data from the pre-existing product will provide the team with an understanding of this student population. Explore environmental and individual/group cultures
• D7.
In addressing both of these areas, the project team expects to gather data about the following: Egyptian culture and e-learning, Italian culture and e-learning, and Indian culture and e-learning. Quality design
• D8.
Creating a quality product is always the goal. The hope in re-engineering this on-line Web site is to better meet the growing needs of the university and students and to expand course offerings. Authenticate product
•
The goal of this project is to maintain the generic style of the Web site but to also consider culture in the design specifications. This means that design specifications can be tailored to meet the needs of the target audiences. Some options include selecting the language displayed in the user interface, podcast translations, and closed captions in the language of one’s choice during asynchronous instructor-led lessons.
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Table 17.3. continued D9.
Control for interference •
D10.
Interference is neutralized by following guidelines in the ID-TABLET. Model the product or process
•
Visual languages of how learners may use the Web site are expected to be drawn to provide clarity in the re-engineering process. There is an increased focus on usability and on management of the Web site and user preference (Gibson, 2006).
Table 17.4. CBM Guide Assessments Entry Assessments A1.
Multiple evaluation options •
A2.
To address user concerns about the Web site and improving usability, an e-mail address for online concerns and complaints is expected to provide instructors and students on-line feedback and technical assistance. Instructors administer a survey related to the e-learning Web site midsemester and at the end of the semester. These external evaluations should provide ongoing feedback for course content and on-line maintenance and upgrades. Assess the assessment
•
The effectiveness of the concerns and complaints and the midsemester and yearly evaluations are expected to be evaluated periodically for there effectiveness.
A3.
External review (not applicable).
A4.
Culture-specific assessments (not applicable)
Table 17.5. CBM Guide Learning Entry Learning L1.
Extend learning •
L2.
Extended learning opportunities are provided by instructors of the course. Instructors monitor student progress through exams, instructional activities and other assignments. Differentiate opportunities to learn
•
L3.
Instructors are expected to differentiate opportunities to learn by providing a diverse learning environment. This means integrating content in multi-media formats to address the various learning modalities and enhance the course overall. Differentiation is addressed in the instructors’ delivery of instruction in that it is delivered asynchronously and synchronously allowing students to work in many ways with the instructor. Instructors are encouraged to provide more than one way of learning the subject matter. Given that the population of students is all female, instructors are expected to participate in training session. This is part of the training to be acquired through CBM Elements and other resources. Instructors provide reflections of their experience with the e-learning course and students provide feedback. Empower & engage learners
•
Instructors are encouraged to provide engaging opportunities to learn. This requires some creativity as this assignment or activity can be generated by the instructor or student. One creative project is to have students generate a slide show of what they believe to be the foundations of teaching. These projects are expected to be accessible to all students for peer review.
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Table 17.5. continued L4.
Teach proactive learning •
L5.
The e-learning environment is very conducive to proactive learning in that students can readily review subject matter. The introduction of podcasts or videocasts with instructors’ lessons can provide greater learning in that students will be able to restart, go back, skip forward. The e-learning environment allows students ready access to their peers. Attention is given to student questions through the asynchronous delivery of the course. Identify educational objectives
• L6.
The learning objective is to provide students with content knowledge related to the course—The Foundations of Teaching. Culture-specific instructional strategies
•
L7.
Although the culture of the students is important to the overall design of the e-learning environment; the goal is to maintain a culture- neutral learning environment. Unfortunately, this may require that students adapt to the teaching style of the instructor. Enrich instructional content
•
L8.
In order to consider aspects of the students lives, instructors encourage students to integrate their projects with research based on the educational situations in their respective countries. Online chats and discussions also center on these diverse educational experiences. Instructors then bring discussions to some common ground to elaborate on the subject matter. Adapt instruction to learner
•
L9.
Given that this is a college level course, students are expected to be able to read and understand college texts. If they do not, they are encouraged to seek additional help to improve their writing and reading before entering the graduate program. Supplemental materials are provided for advanced learners to delve deeper into the subject matter. Plan for instruction
•
L10.
Given that this is an e-learning course, instructors develop a syllabus that plans out what students are expected to learn and the assignments that aid in this learning. Instructors consult with students at the beginning of the course to determine their level of access to the textbook, internet, library, software, etc. Adjustments to the course are made early on to provide a more equitable learning environment. Enculturate the learner
•
The course description, syllabus and graduate school inform students about the type of learning experience they are to receive. Based on this information, students make choices in deciding to take the e-learning course at this institution or another.
Table 17.6. CBM Guide Training Entry Training Tr1.
Product training •
Tr2.
The team is given product training as needed. Culture-based training
•
Background information on the target audience is expected to be part of the training. The Cultural expert provides some insights into Egyptian, Italian, and Indian cultures and the role of e-learning in the respective countries. The data from CBM Elements should provide specific information to further inform the team.
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• • • • • • • • •
One set of course code A single bug-tracking system Isolated localizable resources, including dialogs, macro-language, status bars, messages, menus, prompts, toolbars, and sounds Localizable elements such as time, date, currency, address, names, and so on that are not hard coded and should support different character sets Buffers large enough to handle translated text in cases where the text expands Character parsing that is not limited to Latin script Code clearly marked, showing what must and must not be translated Content that is presentable in user’s language and character set User input that can be received in the user’s native language and character set (Aykin, 2005, pp. 14–15). Every re-engineering situation is different. Therefore, it is difficult to predict the steps that should be taken.
Step 7: Continue to follow CBM ID-TABLET for management and design throughout
the production process.
Step 8: Make creative changes to the e-learning Web site.
Re-engineering refers to the process of recoding, restructuring or rebuilding. In this case study, the goal of creating a generic e-learning environment for adult learners who live in diverse parts of the world relies on making minimal considerations for ethnically diverse groups. The focus is more on technical, aesthetic, or content related design specifications. The generic focus allows for the sustainability of the institutional structure and the learner must in turn adapt to the e-learning environment.
Rerences Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (November 2006). Making the grade: Online education in the United States, 2006. Retrieved October 5, 2007. from http://www.sloanc.org/publications/survey/index.asp Aykin, N. (2005). Overview: Where to start and what to consider. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of information technology (pp. 3-20). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Aykin, N., & Milewski, A. E. (2005). Practical issues and guidelines for international information display. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of information technology (pp. 21-50). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Collis, B. (1999). Designing for differences: Cultural issues in the design of WWW-based course-support sites. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30(3), 201-215. Gibson, C. (2006). Web site engineering in the real world. Paper presented at the ACM SE 2006: 44th ACM Southeast Conference, Melbourne, FL. Hoft, N. L. (1995). International technical communication: How to export information about high technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Iksal, S., Barré, V., Choquet, C., & Corbiére, A. (2004, December 13-15). Comparing prescribed and observed for the re-engineering of e-learning systems. Paper presented at the IEEE Sixth International Symposium on Multimedia Software Engineering, Miami, FL. Martin, D., & Sommerville, I. (2005). Ethnography and the social structure of work. In D. Besnard, C. Gacek & C. B. Jones (Eds.), Structure for dependability: Computer based systems from an interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 169-188). London: Springer. Weekes, S. (2007, January 23). Rapid E-Learning. Training and Coaching Magazine.
Endnote
1
This has been adapted from a study by Collis (1999). Collis (1999) wanted to incorporate “culture-related variables” in the design of a WWW-based course support site that would be used by students from a variety of ethnic backgrounds (p. 202). Ten design guidelines were created to match the media; as outlined in TACCT Table under design specifications. The findings revealed that the website was more culture neutral than cultural specific as this was the original goal sought by Collis. If Collis wanted a more specialized product, the e-learning website needed more culture-specific design specifications.
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Chapter XVIII
Case Study in Research
Research is seen as a bad word, more work and lots more money. However, research is a good thing to do and engage in before, during and after product development. Researching products or services can actually save money and time. Businesses usually refer to this as front end marketing (Weisman, 2007). There needs to be more research before the development of products and a stronger focus on meeting the needs of target audiences. A diagnostic evaluation serves as a meter for researching information in ICTs. There are two ways to use CBM for diagnostic evaluations. The first is to use CBM to research design specifications, and the second is to use CBM as an ethnographic instrument. There may be other ways to use CBM as a diagnostic tool; however these two methods are offered in this chapter.
Example 1: Research Design Specifications Project goal: Design goal:
Diagnostic evaluation of an e-learning Web site Obtain an overview of the Library of Congress main Web page as a portal for the Web site
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General public, any age, generic Postproduction
This is a diagnostic evaluation conducted to determine the design specifications in an existing e-learning Web site. Step 1: Determine the areas of the ID-TABLET that will be used for the project. In any area where the answer is yes, that area of CBM should be considered.
•
Inquiry: Does the project need monitoring for design and development issues? In determining the answer to this question, review the Inquiry area. Review the Genre questions: I1a. What ICTs are being used and why?and I1b. Which ICTs are more effective given the content? These questions are “not” applicable to a diagnostic evaluation of an existing e-learning Web site. However, the last question is applicable: I1d. How have ICTs influenced the design of the product? Also, Genre only covers preproduction and production, and the analysis of a pre-existing Web site is postproduction. Briefly review the next set of questions under Framing: I2a. Who is the target audience? and I2b. How is the content presented to the target audience? These questions will need to be asked and answered as part of the diagnostic evaluation. Framing is also listed as something done in postproduction. Next, read the questions under I3. Omission: I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why? These Omission questions are important to the analysis of this e-learning Web site. Omission is also listed as something performed in postproduction. Review the Backgrounding questions: I4a. What has been backgrounded? This question is useful because whatever is hidden in the design of the e-learning Web site is important in determining whether bias exists. Backgrounding is also listed as being performed in postproduction. Review the Foregrounding questions: I5a. What is emphasized and why? This is definitely a question needed for a diagnostic evaluation of an ICT because it addresses what exists on the Web page. Foregrounding is also listed as something performed in postproduction. Last, review the Visual Representations questions: I6a. How do the visual representations frame the product? Given that the Internet is a visual medium, this question seems a relevant question to this evaluation. Visual Representations are also listed as being performed in postproduction. From this review of CBM Inquiry, it is apparent that a quick way to use the Inquiry questions is to determine the project’s stage of production. Then select those design factors relevant to preproduction, production, or postproduction.
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•
•
•
•
•
Development: Have all the problems been solved? Review the Development description and design factors. D1. is the only factor relevant to diagnostic evaluation. All the other design factors, under Development, focus on preproduction and production. Team: Will the team have to be trained or replaced? Review the Team section. In this diagnostic evaluation, no team members are needed. One designer or researcher can conduct this evaluation. Assessments: Does the project need evaluating or re-evaluating? Review the Assessments section. Determine and gather any assessments that were conducted on the project during any aspect of the production. These data can be used in the final analysis. No additional assessments are available in this area. Brainstorming: Does the project require more planning? Review the Brainstorming section. In this project, no additional planning is needed; therefore, Brainstorming will not be used as part of the evaluation. Learners: Does the project require meeting the needs of learners? Review the Learners section briefly. Learners relates to the preproduction and production process. However, the design factors can be adapted for a diagnostic evaluation. Guiding questions for Learners may ask the following, regarding the e-learning Web page: 1. How were opportunities for advanced or extended learning provided? 2. How were learning opportunities differentiated? 3. How were learners empowered or engaged? 4. How were learners encouraged to improve their own learning? 5. What were the educational or learning objectives? 6. How were instructional strategies specific to the target audience? 7. How was instructional content expanded beyond the subject matter? 8. How was instructional content adapted to the needs of learners?
•
These questions can provide some insight into the existing ICT’s goals of instruction, learning, and teaching. There can always be additional questions to meet the needs of the project. In an examination of the Library of Congress Web page, this area seems not applicable. Elements: Does the content need to be revised, reviewed, or recreated? Briefly review the Elements. Elements determine the aspects of a culture that exist in a design and those that do not exist. This has implications for further development of the ICT and to identify areas where the ICT can be enhanced. In this case, the evaluation of an e-learning Web page involves exploring what exists in the design and those things that do not exist. The following guiding
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questions can help in the process of reviewing CBM Elements as a diagnostic evaluation. These questions can be adapted; they are just guides to exploring the design specifications. Read E1. Go to the definition of E1 if needed for further clarification. Then answer E1 in relation to the e-learning Web site. This process should continue through to E25. In this case, CBM Elements can be used to evaluate the entire Library of Congress Web site; however, given that the purpose of this analysis is to provide an overview of the Library of Congress main Web page, this area will be excluded. E1. E2. E3. E4. E5. E6. E7. E8. E9. E10. E11. E12. E13. E14. E15. E16. E17. E18. E19. E20. E21. E22. E23. E24. E25.
What cultural aesthetics are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural artifacts are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural capital is represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural classifications are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural communications are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural demographics are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural environments are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural history is represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural knowledge is represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural language is represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural physiology is represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural relations are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural resources are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural beliefs and values are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural experiences are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural ideas are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural identity is represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural interests are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural misconceptions are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural ways are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural anomalies are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural cultures are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural futures are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural infinities are represented in the e-learning Web site? What cultural nature is represented in the e-learning Web site?
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•
Training: Will training be needed for the team or trainers? Review the Training section briefly. No training will be needed in this diagnostic evaluation of an e-learning Web page.
Step 2: Review the areas of the ID-TABLET that have been selected. Begin the evaluation of the e-learning Web page. Use the definitions of the design factors under the Inquiry area to guide the narrative description. The areas of CBMs ID-TABLET to be used include: • Inquiry (all design factors except I1: Genre) • Development (D1 only - TACCT table) • Team (not applicable) • Assessments (no additional assessments available) • Brainstorming (not applicable) • Learners (not applicable) • Elements (for in-depth assessment, not used in this analysis) • Training (not applicable)
Case Study of E-Learning Web Page Using CBM The following is a case study of the Library of Congress e-learning Web page (www. loc.gov/index.html; also see Figure 18.1). This Web page was chosen because of its
stability and the possibility of its longevity on the Internet. Also, the copyright and permissions provided more flexibility than other sites. The definition of an elearning environment varies; however, in this context, it is an on-line environment where learners can access and interact with content information In this case, the Library of Congress Web page meets this definition. This diagnostic evaluation begins with CBM—Inquiry and the questions most relevant to this examination of design specifications. I1. Genre – aids in the selection of ICTs.
I1d. How have ICTs influenced the design of the product? The ICTs have influenced the design of the Library of Congress e-learning Web page. Specifically, this is an Internet-based Web page that allows interaction by clicking on the links to relevant resources or using the search function. It is an interactive encyclopedia, library, gift shop, and educational resource. The Internet allows histories and information access to be readily available.
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Figure 18.1. Library of Congress Web page. Courtesy of the Library of Congress
I2. Framing – assists in maintaining the target audience’s perspective.
I2a. Who is the target audience? The target audience is generic in that the focus is anyone who can read and understand the English language. The main Web page lists examples of their possible audience; that includes: kids, families, librarians, publishers, researchers, teachers, and visitors.
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I2b. How is the content presented to the target audience? From the main Web page, the content is presented in a three-column format with a main heading across the top. There are rows of links in every column. The main graphic window scales across the second and third columns. There are five different images flashing with topics that may be of interest to the target audience.
I2c. What is the content presented? The content presented across the top heading includes Ask a Librarian, Digital Collections, and Library Catalogs. The search box provides a space for inputting text to locate a particular subject or topic on the Web site. In the left column, there are resources for kids, families, librarians, publishers, researchers, teachers, and visitors to peruse. Content related to the General Information heading covers information about the library, an events calendar, jobs, and fellowships, supporting the library, and shopping in the on-line store. Even more library resources are offered. There are links to the following places or information: the American Folklife Center, audio materials (Braille), the Copyright Office, the Copyright Royalty Board, the Kluge Center, the Law Library of Congress, Poetry, and other research centers. All of the links under each heading are listed in alphabetical order so that there is no order of importance but just order of information. There are several links that end this column; they include RSS (really simple syndication), a blog, podcasts, and e-mail updates. RSS allows the delivery of news feeds to computers and other devices where the Internet can be accessed. This is a subscriber only feed filled with library content. A blog web page is maintained by LOC to provide snippets of historical and local news to the surrounding community. The blog is maintained by one author. Podcasts provide links to audio and visual links related to library events, book authors, movies, films, television, and other sound recordings. E-Mail Updates provide access to another window where an individual can input their e-mail address to sign up for updates related to the library. The content listed, in column one, makes the individual aware that there is so much more to the Library of Congress than just books. The first category of resources gives the impression that there is something on this e-learning Web site for everyone, regardless of who you are or your purpose. General Information contains basic information for moving through the site and highlights data that may interest a first-time visitor to the Web page. Then there is the heading More Library Resources, which indicates that there is so much more information out there and more places to explore. There are several centers and other resources for learning and building one’s knowledge base.
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The main graphic window displays seven links along the top edge. The first five are related to the images that are flashing and the content behind the link. The links, in no particular order, include the following. In parentheses, I have included the by-lines of each flashing image: 1. American Memory (provides free and open access to historical maps, photos, documents, audio and video) 2. Exhibitions (presentations of treasures from our collections, past and present) 3. Thomas (in the spirit of Thomas Jefferson, legislative information from the Library of Congress: current and historical) 4. Global Gateway (multilingual resources on world culture) 5. Veterans History (first-hand accounts of veterans and people on the home front) The last two links are for preview and next. This main window serves as a caveat to the target audience accessing this Web page. The flashing link and images attracts the individual to read the link and click on the link for more information. This active window animates an otherwise inanimate page of data. The content presented is hip. The data are about the present and the future. Given the continuing Iraqi war in 2007, Veteran History relates to those interested in learning and hearing more from the troops who have returned home. It is an appeal to a topic that is on the minds of many people, both nationally and internationally. The middle column carries the Library Highlights. There are small boxed images with links beside the images. Library Highlights features contents related to the following: The National Book Festival; Hispanic Heritage Month; Wise Guide to loc.gov (features educational resources); Places in the News (locations from map collection); Webcasts from the Library; and Today in History. The Library Highlights section offers things to do and to see. For the frequent visitor to the Web page, the content is interesting and highlights some of the best in what the Library of Congress has to offer patrons. Another heading in the middle section is Popular Topics & Collections, the content includes the Civil War, Thomas Jefferson, The Great Depression, the U.S. Constitution, the Declaration of Independence, and the Bill of Rights. For historians, students, teachers, and history buffs, information on popular periods in the United States and primary source documents is made readily available. It appears that the most popular and interesting topics are located in the middle column. In the last column, the first heading provides News from the Library. The links access announcements; outreach efforts; Constitution Day on September 17th; Representative Xavier Becerra, a speaker during Hispanic Heritage Month; and More Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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News and Events This online news is up to date, easily accessible, and provides the Library of Congress with its own electronic newsletter. The next heading is Library at Work; in this section, the Library of Congress highlights the work the library is doing for the community and what is being done to preserve data. The links include Lifelong Literacy, Audio-Visual Conservation, Chronicling America, and Digital Preservation. Literacy is what the Library of Congress is all about, and the literacy campaign provides public service announcements to the community. The maintenance, development, and accessibility of audiovisual materials are other examples of how the Library of Congress functions. Chronicling America is a link to newspapers from 1900 to 1910 and much more. Digital preservation is what libraries do on a daily basis, but they also offers information on what the general public can do to preserve knowledge for history. This last heading provides an overview of the many fascinating functions at the library. The Library of Congress’s process of preserving American history is important for future generations. The links provide content and entry into the discovery of histories past and present. The last thing in the third column is a countdown calendar in days, hours, and minutes for one of the Library of Congress’s biggest yearly events—the National Book Festival. This is a great way to get patrons who visit the Web page excited about what is to come. The Library of Congress does not just house the books of authors; it offers the public an opportunity to meet their favorite book authors, listen to book readings, browse, read, learn, and just have fun.
I2d. Is the content appropriate for the target audience and why? Yes, the content is appropriate for the target audience, who appears to be a generic target audience who understand the English language. The written language seems to be at a reading level appropriate for their audience.
I2e. Where, within the product’s design, is this content most appropriate? The content seems most appropriate for the Library of Congress. Given that the Library is trying to reach a broad target audience, the content seems to cover a diversity of ages, professions, audiences, disciplines, interests, topics, events, and technologies.
I2f. Why is this content appropriate? The content is appropriate because the Library of Congress is a library, and libraries usually do not just house information—they also disseminate information. Libraries should promote literacy, and this is what the Library of Congress advocates according to its main Web page. Given the size and prominence around the world, the Library of Congress should exhibit the best in content and literacy acquisition.
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I3. Omission - helps in assessing a design.
I3a. What has been intentionally omitted and why? The Library of Congress’s Web page, not the site as a whole, seems to be intentionally omitting international perspectives. This may be the case because of their focus on Americans and American history. Another aspect omitted is critical social and political commentary. The Web page is straight-laced, and there are no politics or opinion apparent. Although there is a blog, the entries are dry and informational. A third aspect that may have been intentionally omitted is accessibility of the content in other languages. From the main page, it is not apparent that the content of the Web site is available to people who read in a language other than English. Last, controversy has intentionally been omitted, because that may offend visitors of the Web page. The more mainstream the Web page; the less likely it will offend.
I3b. What has been unintentionally omitted and why? The Library of Congress may have unintentionally omitted all voices in America. There is diversity in the opinions and dispositions of Americans across class levels and racial and ethnic groups. A library houses knowledge that is recorded in some medium; however there may be many untold stories that have not made it to the public press or communications media. These grassroots voices are sometimes left out of American history.
I3c. What has not been considered? and I3d. Will these omissions be detrimental to the project and why? Although the focus of the Library of Congress is to serve as a research resource for Congress, as the world continues to embark on globalization, so can the Library. This may be good for Americans who seek to learn about other countries and other people. The Library can be one conduit to bridging globalized e-learning.
I4. Backgrounding - helps in providing a balanced design.
I4a. What has been backgrounded? Backgrounded and implicit is the Eurocentric façade of the Web structure. Backgrounded and explicit is that the technology requires a human being to interact with it. The flashing images, text, color and graphics make for an explicit array of visually interesting things awaiting the inquisitive patron.
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I4b. Is backgrounding intentional or unintentional and why? This backgrounding is intentional but not detrimental to the Web page. Given that the Library of Congress is an important institution in the United States, international audiences probably expect the Westernized focus.
I4c. Will this backgrounding be detrimental to the project? The backgrounding is not detrimental to the design. In this case, the design is pre-established and widely accepted.
I5. Foregrounding – helps in providing an objective design.
I5a. What is emphasized and why? The available library resources are emphasized through an abundance of information on the main page. The purpose seems to be to give the patrons many choices to locate something of interest to them.
I5b. Is this what should be emphasized? Yes, the focus on information is what should be projected in the Library of Congress Web page.
I5c. How does this emphasis influence the overall design? The emphasis on the library resources has a Western slant. This lets patrons know that the flow of information, text directionality, colors, and so forth will be geared toward a Western audience. Therefore, when accessing the Web page, patrons are prepared for the content, language, and images.
I6. Visual Representations – assists in conveying meaning.
I6a. How do the visual representations frame the product? The graphics and text are arranged symmetrically on the Web page in a three-column format. The main graphics window crosses the second and third columns and is set at 1½ inches × 3 inches. Below the main graphics in the second column, small picture like icons accompany the text links. These visual representations correspond with the adjacent text links. Therefore, the visuals and text complement each other. This also makes it easier for the patron to get an idea of the visuals that may accompany the link.
I6b. How do visual representations assist in the instructional process? The visual representations assist in conveying information about the link. This information offers the target audience the ability to pinpoint choices and to make informed choices.
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I6c. Who is portrayed in these visual representations? and I6d. What is portrayed in these visual representations? The graphic representations that flash in the main graphic window are specific to their headings. 1. American Memory. The visual is a close-up shot of the cover of the Jackie Robinson comic book. 2. Exhibitions. The visual appears to be an art gallery with spotlights highlighting the framed pictures and posters of years past. 3. Thomas. The visual is a tight head shot of Thomas Jefferson in brown sepia tone. The background is darkened so that the headlines appear clearly. 4. Global Gateway. The visual is a small rowboat of men arriving on the shores of an island. In the background are four other ships with sails. 5. Veterans History. The visual is the top of a dresser with a laced dolly. There is a picture of a young man in a military uniform. Beside him are three open cases, with a military medal in each case.
The variety of visual representations is intended to meet the needs of a broad audience. The faces of Jackie Robinson and Thomas Jefferson are familiar to many Americans. The other visual images provide interest to the eye, and they make the patron want to read and review the flashing images in the main graphic window. In column 2, under the heading Library Highlights, small iconic pictures precede the text links. The National Book Festival 2007 has a small image of a camel that appears to be on the front page of a picture book. The Heritage Month icon is unrecognizable. The Wise Guide to loc.gov. icon appears to be a corner of a red picture frame with a head-and-shoulder clip of a fair-skinned man. The Webcasts from the Library icon is unrecognizable. The Places in the News icon is a picture of an old world map. The Today in History icon appears to be a head-and-shoulder shot of Abraham Lincoln and a young boy. These icons add visual interest to a page that has a lot of text. In terms of layout, the icons in the second column on the left balance the visual symmetry of the page.
I6e. What purpose do the visual representations serve? The visual representations serve to highlight special activities, events, services, and content of the Library of Congress. The icons provide graphic interest to the Web page and distract the visitor from the fact that there is a lot of text. The flashing graphics in the window provides visual interest. The visitors’ eyes are drawn to the window immediately on entering the Web page.
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I6f. Are inappropriate visual representations in the design? There are no inappropriate visual representations that are apparent from the main Web page.
I6g. Where are visual representations placed in the product? The visual representations are in the top corner of the Web page and the second column.
I6h. Why were these visual representations selected? (not applicable) The Library of Congress is not a typical library, as it houses a wealth of knowledge about the American culture. The layout and content of the Web page let the public know about the multitude of opportunities for enlightenment that are available in and around the Library. This appears to be an e-learning webpage just based on the content.
Step 3: CBM Development –D1 TACCT table is another way to provide a diagnostic evaluation. TACCT (technical, aesthetic, content, culture-based, and target audience) features can be used for decision making and evaluations. TACCT provides a way of categorizing and assessing large data sets specific to product design. In an e-learning environment, these data can be recorded directly into a TACCT table, or the data can be derived through a diagnostic evaluation of the e-learning environment. This is demonstrated in Table 18.1.
Table 18.1. TACCT Table for the Library of Congress Design specifications ICT– On-line Web-based page
T
A x
C
CB
TA
x
Generic
Main design window (flashing images, multiple topics)
x
x
Generic
Pictures as icons
x
x
Generic
x
Generic
General Information
x
Generic
More Library Resources
x
Generic
Library Highlights
x
Generic
Popular Topics & Collections
x
Generic
Resources for
New From the Library
x
Generic
The Library at Work
x
Generic
The 2007 National Book Festival (time log)
x
Generic
x
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Design specifications can be anything that is part of the design: content, words, phrases, photos, graphics, pictures, animation, functions, text, links, layout, evaluations, navigation, or media (Degen, Lubin, Pedell, & Zheng, 2005). Anything that brings content to an empty space is a design specification. The TACCT table is a quick way of assessing an ICT. It is meant to provide some preliminary data to improve the design of the ICT and determine the direction to proceed. It is not an in-depth evaluation tool. It provides a surface evaluation of ICTs. Technical features focus on function—specifically, making the technology work or work better. The technical features of the Web page are that it is an online web page that offers interactive links and search features. Aesthetic features are visual; they improve the appearance of the design and the technology. Aesthetics are limited to the main design window and the icons. Although the text could be an aesthetic feature, in this case, most of the text is the same size and color and does not seem to emphasize any particular information. Content features incorporate subject matter; this is information stored in the technology. There is a heavy focus on content. The Web page is geared toward a generic audience and is more culture neutral or internationalized. Target audience features focus on a general audience. In this case, the target audience is broad and generic as it includes: kids, families, librarians, publishers, researchers, teachers and visitors. Step 4: Use the preliminary data gathered to make design adjustments or to further enhance the existing design. In each step above, more analysis can be offered; however it depends on the goals of the project. An examination of the entire Web site may yield much more data.
Ele 2: Ethnographic Instrument Project goal: Design: Target audience: Production stage:
Diagnostic evaluation of a society and a target audience Collection pertinent to the country of Ireland and its people General public, any age, U.S.A., generic Postproduction
When using CBM as an ethnographic instrument, the focus is on the ID-TABLET guiding question: Does the content need to be revised, reviewed, or recreated? This diagnostic evaluation uses CBM Elements as a framework in which to analyze a society, culture, or target audience.
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Step 1: Determine the design factors of CBM Elements that will be used for the project. If the goal is to develop more of a generic design, then there should be a focus on CBM Elements Culture GQ. The Culture GQ directs the researcher in disclosing the intricacies of the society or culture. If the goal is to develop a specialized design, then there should be a focus on CBM Elements Culture GQ and Target Audience GQ. The Target Audience GQ directs the researcher in disclosing the intricacies of human beings in this society or culture. Through this analysis, the data collection is comprehensive in covering anthropological, scientific, and psychological perspectives about this society, culture, and target audience. What design factors under the anthropology of culture will be completed? What design factors under the psychology of culture will be completed? What design factors under the science of culture will be completed? The order in which the design factors are completed should not matter. It is probably best to begin with the anthropology of culture and then proceed to the psychology of culture. Step 2: Gather data in all forms of ICTs. Media of all types should be collected, including data from interviews, photographs, videos, documentaries, field notes, government studies, books, magazines, newspapers, and so forth. Conduct ethnographic methods in gathering information about the society or culture. As data are gathered, they should be inputted into the CBM guide, so that the process is properly managed. An example of an entry into the CBM guide for Cultural History may appear as follows (See Table 18.2):
Table 18.2. Cultural History: Ireland Entry CULTURAL HISTORY Definition: Cultural history is a narrative representation of events. This history is comprehensive in that it includes many of the histories that have been written by or about a population. Types of history: artistic, agricultural, crime, disease, economic, educational, ethnic, familial, gender, geographic, health, legal, linguistic, political, racial, religious, reproduction, science, sexual intercourse, social, time periods.
continued on following page
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Table 18.2. continued
Agricultural As of the year 2000, Ireland had 141,500 operational farms, many family owned and operated. Ireland’s land size is measured at 6.9 million hectares. Forestry and agriculture account for 5.5 million hectares of this land area. The largest percentage of agriculture is allocated to grass (hay, silage, and pasture), at 80%, followed by grazing (11%) and crop production (9%). The production of beef and milk accounts for 58% of the industry output. The maintenance and harvesting of animals is a large part of Ireland’s agricultural production. There are 13 million poultry, 6.5 million cattle, 4.8 million sheep, and 1.8 million pigs (Ireland: Information on the Irish State, 2007b). Economic The economic forecast for Ireland, as advocated by the minister of finance in 2006, is one of growth. More than 2 million people are employed. Unemployment is at a low of 4.4%. The primary goal of the government is to create more jobs and expand the economy through the development of business and industry (Ireland: Information on the Irish State, 2007a). Ethnic The majority of people identify as Irish; however, some identify as Irish of British descent. This latter group has been referred to as West Britons or Anglo-Irish. Another ethnic group is the Travellers, who are recognized by their professions as traders, entertainers, and artisans. Other small ethnic groups manage to maintain their national identities, such as the Chinese, Pakistanis, and Indians (Wilson, 2001).
E8. CultCULTURALHISTORY —Ireland POST PROuction-NNOVEMER4, 2008 Step 3: Use the Culture GQ and Target Audience GQ to gather further data specific to the society, culture, or target audience. Step 4: Use the data collected to complete this ethnographic portrait. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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CBM’s ID-TABLET can be used in various ways to accomplish the task of a diagnostic evaluation. The design factors provide a comprehensive total of factors, and this can aid designers and researchers in providing the most thorough picture of a society, culture, or target audience. The Culture GQ and Target Audience GQ can be adapted as needed to meet the assessment or evaluation needs of a project. Additional design factors not covered in CBMs ID-TABLET can be added on and should not interfere with the structure of the framework. A diagnostic evaluation serves to provide the designer or researcher with a basis to begin exploring humans and their humanity. It is a journey to understand, gain knowledge, and access another human beings world. This process is an adventure and should be seen as such.
References Degen, H., Lubin, K. L., Pedell, S., & Zheng, J. (2005). Travel planning on the web: A cross-cultural case study. In N. Aykin (Ed.), Usability and internationalization of information technology (pp. 313-343). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Ireland: Information on the Irish State. (2007a). Budget 2007. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.budget.gov.ie/2007/default.html Ireland: Information on the Irish State. (2007b). The Department of Agriculture & Food. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/ Weisman, R. (January 14, 2007). Why good products fail: Skimping on market research can prove a fatal flaw [Electronic Version]. The Boston Globe. Retrieved July 18, 2008 from http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2007/01/14/why_ good_products_fail/ Wilson, T. M. (2001). Ireland. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and their cultures, 2, 1091-1103). New York: Macmillan Reference USA.
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Chapter XIX
Conclusion
Culture works as a design construct. It is apparent that there are many factors operating to make this happen. First, the nature of culture in design is dynamic and maintains an interactive relation with its parts. Second, the inclusion of culture must be a design decision from the onset. Third, producing culture-based ICTs means that the needs of the many and the few are considered throughout the design process. Finally, designing with culture in mind is a creative process. The exploration of culture as a design construct is truly an interdisciplinary pursuit. This text situates culture in the field of instructional design; however the roots of culture can be found sprouting across disciplines. That said, the field of instructional design provided an ideal foundation for this work because of its focus on how humans learn and designing products for these learners. The research in learning theory and child development offered the foundations to mental development, understanding how children think, methods of teaching and learning, and the social impact of learning (Dewey, 1897; Lay, 1903; Thorndike, 1903). Behaviorists broadly examined how behavior influenced learning; this scholarship later transformed into cognitive approaches to learning (Aebli, 1951; Piaget, 1954; Skinner, 1954). Learning theories gave way to theories pertinent to the design of instruction such as Bruner’s (1966) theory of instruction, Ausubel’s (1960) theory of cognitive structures, and Gagné’s (1962b) theory of knowledge acquisition. The systematic Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
360 Young
design procedures aided in the management of military projects (Johnson, 1989; Richey, 1986; Seels, 1989) and later in solidifying the discipline of instructional systems design. Early instructional designmodels supported task analysis, systems development and instructional systems (Gagné, 1962a; Silvern, 1967); most in an effort to improve or understand human learning in parallel to ICTs. Constructivists continued in the search to improve teaching and learning by connecting the learner to their environment by authentic or real world situations (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy & Perry, 1992; Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). Culture, it was discovered, influenced learning and how learners acquire new knowledge (Bruner, 1996; DuBois, 1903; Vygotsky, 1978). Theories, methodologies and practices relevant to learning and culture became defined as multiculturalism, culturally responsive, culturally relevant, culturally mediated, cultural accommodation, cultural compatibility, and cultural congruence among others (Au & Kawakami, 1994; Banks & Banks, 2003; Gay, 2000; Hollins 1996; Jordan, 1984; Ladson-Billings, 1994). Overall, this history provided a foundation in terms of approaches to understanding how humans learn, systems and processes of design, the role of assessment in teaching and learning and the influence of culture on learning. Theory and methodologies of teaching and learning provide a basis but where does the designer begin. What should be added or deleted? How does the designer make a product culturally relevant, culturally sensitive, or culturally compatible? If a product is multicultural, it is by its nature generic because it is meeting the needs of multiple cultures or many cultures not one isolated culture. These theories and methodologies are implicit when it comes to design. The design process is explicit when there are specific design specifications such as those in CBM. Viewing culture as a design construct gets at the creativity needed to transform theory and methods into its practical applications.
Designers & Learners of the Future The designer of the future should be able to embrace multiple ethnic and racial groups and truly become a culture-based designer. This designer might be versed in creative and research skills in order to provide multiple talents to clients. He or she might be proficient in technological skills. To prepare for this role, designers might ask themselves: How can I better serve the client and my target audience?, What about myself do I need to change to grow as a designer? and What can I learn from others? The learner of the future should be multilingual and multi-talented. They are proficient in speaking, reading, and writing two or more languages. Socially savvy in meeting and working with people of different racial and ethnic backgrounds and operating in both national and international circles. They exhibit a comfortable Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Conclusion 361
manner in working with all people. The learner of the future is able to adapt to a variety of learning situations and views learning as a life long process. Thinking about the designer and learner of the future has implications for the type of design work that should be done in the coming decades. This means that design thinking must translate into design doing. It also means that the development of products and services might benefit from some futures thinking and futures designing. CBM is a call for the production of products that can transform today’s learner into tomorrows. There is a great need for design to catch up with technology. Only through more creative design thinking can this happen. The inclusion of specialized designs and the improvement of generic designs are two ways to begin this journey.
Some Final Thoughts There is so much more to say and so much that was unintentionally omitted. In particular, the work in the fields of Information Systems, HCI, Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Intelligent User Interfaces is innovative in researchers and designers search to better understand the human to technology connection. The mapping of models of culture to societies is a common methodology of this research; however do all cultures fit into these categories? CBM can enable these fields to define versus label cultures. Once defined through the construction of CBM’s framework, the building of culture-based products can be successfully implemented. Within CBM, it is inevitable that certain aspects of the nature of culture in design have been excluded. Only through further analysis of how culture has manifested in anthropology, sociology, psychology, biology and other disciplines can elaboration be achieved. CBM is a dynamic framework that possesses the ability to alter, update, and grow in significance. This means that additions and deletions could and should be made within dynamic models. The goal is to provide designers with a framework to guide the design process so that more structured and inclusive examples of learning, design, culture, and technology are produced. Gustafson & Branch (2002) support the notion that there is enough “room within the fundamental concept of instructional design to incorporate many emerging theories and philosophies of learning as well as advances in the technology available for design, development and delivery of instruction (p. xv).” CBM is consistent with these goals. Further research is needed on why cultural models for learning have not gained full inclusion in the field of instructional design. If models do not follow the ADDIE structure, are they excluded on this basis? Do models of culture have to be validated by certain researchers and practitioners before they are truly accepted? Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Alternative instructional design models can meet the needs of a technologically advanced society. This type of modern research provides designers with the tools to meet the needs of learners and users for decades to come. I advocate for a broadening of what has come to be known as instructional design models and a more inclusive representation of the histories of instructional technology and instructional design (Young, 1999, 2001). If knowledge is globalized, then the inclusion of culture within the design of ICTs would seem a natural course. As it stands in many western circles, culture seems an abstract concept devoid of design considerations, confused in teaching situations, and tolerated as a learning strategy. In a globalized society, culture would be at the forefront of learning and design. Scholars around the world are trying to figure out how to internationalize and localize design (Aykin, 2005; Edmundson, 2006). Therefore, it is imperative that designers find a space for this work in the new millennium. To design culture-based ICTs means to reinvent and reconstruct technologies thereby broadening one’s perspectives and conceptions of reality. It means that we are valuing “other peoples” culture-based ideologies and their humanity. We are including and accepting their versions of history. It means to step outside of what feels comfortable and learn, understand, and explore other people’s perception of reality. It’s a beautiful thing.
References Aebli, H. (1951). Didactique psychologique. Application á la didactique de la psychologie de Jean Piaget [Psychological didactics. The application of Piaget’s psychology to didactics]. Neuchâtel, Switzerland: Delachaux & Niestlé. Aykin, N. (2005). Usability and internationalization of Information Technology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Au, K. H., & Kawakami, A. J. (1994). Cultural congruence in instruction. In E. R. Hollins, J. E. King & W. C. Hayman (Eds.), Teaching diverse populations: Formulating a knowledge base (pp. 5-23). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51(5), 267-272. Banks, J. & Banks, C. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of research on multicultural education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
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Bednar, A. K., Cunningham, D., Duffy, T. M., & Perry, J. D. (1992). Theory into practice: How do we link? In T. M. Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: a conversation (pp. 17-34). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Dewey, J. (1897). My pedagogic creed. New York: E. L. Kellogg & Co. DuBois, W. E. B. (1903). The Talented Tenth. In The Negro Problem: A series of articles by representative American Negroes of To-day (pp. 33-75). New York: James Pott & Co. Duffy, T. M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp. 170-198). Edmundson, A. (Ed.). (2007). Globalized e-learning cultural challenges. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Gagné, R. M. (1962b). The acquisition of knowledge. Psychological Review, 69(4), 355-365. Gagné, R. M. (1962a). Introduction. In R. M. Gagné (Ed.), Psychological principles in system development (pp. 1-10). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.. Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching. New York: Teachers College Press. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse On Information & Technology. Hollins, E. R. (1996). Culture in school learning: Revealing the deep meaning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Johnson, K. A. (1989). The foundations of instructional design. In K. A. Johnson & L. J. Foa (Eds.), Instructional design: New alternatives for effective education and training (pp. 3-13). New York: National University Continuing Education Association. Jordan, C. (1984). Cultural compatibility and the education of ethnic minority children. Educational Research Quarterly, 8(4), 59-71. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers of African American Children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Lay, W. A. (1903). Experimentelle didaktik ihre grundlegung mit besondere rucksicht auf muskelshen, wille und tat (Experimental didactics: Its foundations, with some considerations of muscle sense, will and action). Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Nemnich. Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books. Richey, R. (1986). The theoretical and conceptual bases of instructional design. London: Kogan Page. Seels, B. (1989). The instructional design movement in educational technology. Educational Technology, 29(5), 11-15. Skinner, B. F. (1954). The science of teaching and the art of learning. Harvard Education Review, 24(1), 86-97. Silvern, L. C. (1967). Systems analysis and synthesis applied to occupational instruction in secondary schools. Los Angeles: Education & Training Consultants, Co. Thorndike, E. L. (1903). Educational psychology. New York: Lemchke and Buechner. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Young, P. A. (2001). Roads to travel: A historical look at The Freedman’s Torchlight —An African American contribution to 19th century instructional technologies. Journal of Black Studies, 31(5), 671-698. Young, P. A. (1999). Roads To Travel: A historical look at African American contributions to instructional technology. Unpublished Dissertation, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA.
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About the Author
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About the Author
Patricia A. Young, PhD, is an assistant professor in Literacy Education at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Dr. Young earned her PhD in education: language, literacy and culture from the University of California Berkeley. She received her Master of Science degree in education with an emphasis in curriculum and reading from California State University Hayward and a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in communication arts with a specialization in television production from New York Institute of Technology. Her current research involves the implementation of the Culture Based Model as a design construct and mapping the model to a variety of interdisciplinary uses. Her research also examines the history of instructional design and technologies made by and for African Americans.
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366 Index
Index
A
B
add-on 47 ADDIE 299, 361 ADDIE process 6 Aebli, Hans 3 African Americans, designed by and for 39 age demographics 143 agricultural history 177 Agriculture 178, 225, 227, 228, 229, 3 27, 358 agriculture 178 anomalies, cultural 255 anthropological 1, 9, 49, 83, 115, 231, 255, 304, 356 anthropological perspectives 10 art 104 artifacts, more on 113 artistic history 175 assessments 305 assets demographics 144 astronomy 261 Ausubel 359
B. F. Skinner 3 backgrounding (production & postproduction) 61 Banathy, Bela H. 5 Barson, John 5 beauty 106 behaviors 244 biological anthropology 11 biological sciences 267 birth demographics 144 Bruner 359
C CBM, brainstorming 80 CBM, development 65 CBM, elements 100, 126, 215, 232 CBM, how does it work 45 CBM, how do you manage 50 CBM, learners 88 CBM, team 73 CBM, what can it do 39 CBM, what is 37
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Index 367
CBM, where did it come from 39 CBM, who would use 40 CBM, why is it intercultural 52 CBM guide 50 CBM inquiry 55 CBMs, components 40 CBM training 293 chemistry 263 child study movement 2 Claparède, Edouard 1 climate 161 clock time 280 cognitive apprenticeship 8, 92 cognitive learning theory 3 communication 8, 34, 35, 43, 50, 56, 66, 68, 71, 82, 85, 98, 118, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 161, 167, 199, 219, 292, 297, 327, 336, 337, 341 communications, for cultures 127 communications, for target audiences 130 communities 168 component display theory 7 conceptual Perspectives 12 construction 112 constructivist 7, 8, 37, 90, 92, 313, 337 constructivist theories 8 consumption 118 content 110 crime history 179 cultural aesthetics 104 cultural anomalies 255 cultural anthropology 11, 101, 122, 140, 249, 252 cultural arti-facts 107 cultural beliefs 234 cultural beliefs and values 234 cultural capital 115 cultural classification 120 cultural communications 126, 345 cultural cultures 261 cultural demographics 142 cultural environment 160 cultural futures 271 cultural history 46, 102, 103, 174, 356 cultural ideas 238
cultural identity 239 cultural infinities 46, 102, 134, 254, 279 cultural interests 241 cultural knowledge 215 cultural language 200, 217 cultural misconceptions 242 cultural nature 291 cultural physiology 46, 102, 103, 215, 220, 223, 324 cultural relations 46, 102, 103, 215, 223 cultural remnants 39 cultural resources 46, 102, 103, 215, 225 cultural values 235 cultural ways 244 culture, anthropological perspectives 10 culture, anthropology of 103 culture, as a design construct 359 culture, conceptual Perspectives 12 culture, definitions of 25 culture, in perspective 28 culture, in the design process 37 culture, mapping to instructional design and ICTs 13 culture, perspectives and concepts of 9 culture, polaric dimension of 31 culture, psychology of 232 culture, qualifying in design 27 culture, science of 254 culture, sociological perspectives 10 culture-based training 294 Culture GQ 49, 54, 101, 105, 106, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 129, 131, 132, 135, 136, 138, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 168, 177, 178, 179, 183, 185, 187, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 201, 203, 206, 207, 209, 211, 216, 219, 223, 224, 235, 237, 238, 240, 241, 243, 247, 259, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267, 270, 274, 282, 283, 287, 288, 289, 290, 292, 304, 356, 357, 358
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368 Index
cultures, communications for 127 cultures, cultural 261 cultures, scientific identification of 261 culture specific instructional strategies 95
D data collection 48, 49, 74, 82, 83, 143, 148, 272, 310, 356 death demographics 145 demographics, cultural 142 density 146 design 109 design, qualifying culture in 27 designers, of the future 360 design process, culture in the 37 development 302 Dewey, John 2 diffusion 257 dimension 289 dimension, Polaric 289 disease 180 disease demographics 147 distance 288 distance education 9, 15, 38, 52, 71, 331 distribution 117 dyads/pairs 167
ethnicity 148 ethnographic instrument 355 event time 280
F family 149 family history 187 Field tests 44, 77, 80, 319, 334 folkways 245 food collection 177 forces of humanity 257 forces of nature 255 foregrounding (production & postproduction) 62 forestry 226 form 109 formal structures 168 framing (preproduction, production & production) 57 Franz Boas 10
G Gagné, Robert 4, 259 gender history 191 genre (preproduction & production) 56 geographic history 193 growth demographics 150
E
H
e-learning 331 e-learning Web site, using CBM 346 early instructional design models 4 earth science 266 ecology 268 economic history 182 economics, of a society or culture 115 education achievement demographics 147 educational history 185 educational objectives, identify 95 educational product development 298 educational software 33, 302, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310 elements 310 Émile Durkheim 10 energy 226 ethnic history 186
Hall, G. Stanley 2 health history 196 Henri Wallon 3 history, crime 179 history, cultural 174 history, economic 182 history, educational 185 history, ethnic 186 history, family 187 history, gender 191 history, geographic 193 history, health 196 history, legal 198 history, linguistic 199 history, science 207 horticulture 178 human-made world 164
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Index 369
I ID-TABLET 40, 299, 317 ID-TABLET: Inquiry, Development, Team, Assessments, Brainstorming, Learners, Elements, and Training 38 incarceration demographics 152 income demographics 153 industrialization, in terms of food production 178 innovation in learning, birth of 1 inquiry 302 instruction, plan for 96 instructional content, enrich 95 instructional design 298 instructional design, Marxists psychologists 2 instructional systems design 22, 360 instructional systems development (ISD) 3 intentions 273 intercultural communications 30 internationalization 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 86, 314, 340, 341, 358, 362 interview questions 312 invention 258 ISD 7 ISD, instructional systems development 3
J James M. Cattell 2 John Flanagan 3
K knowledge, cultural 215 knowledge management systems (KMS) 50
L language, cultural 217 language demographics 154 language of communication 131 Lay, Wilheim A. 1 learner, adapt instruction to 96 learners 309 learners, empower & engage 93 learners, of the future 360
learners and learning, assessing 6 learning, differentiation in 92 legal history 198 Leslie Briggs 3, 7 linguistic anthropology 11, 139 linguistic history 199 Luria, Alexander R. 3
M marital status demographics 155 massive multiplayer online games (MMOG) 316 material 111 media technology 91 Merrill, M. David 7 Meumann, Ernst 1 migration demographics 156 mineral extraction 226 MMOG, massive multiplayer online games 316 mobility demographics 157 modeling 20, 35, 37, 66, 216, 244 models of culture 30, 31, 103, 233, 255, 361 models of culture, what they do 30
N narrative representation of events 174 natural world 161 non-verbal communication 130 norms 245
O omission (production & postproduction) 59 opportunities to learn, differentiate 91
P pastoralism 178 Phases of Purgator, cultural artifacts 329 Phases of Purgator, cultural history 323 Phases of Purgator, video game 323 physical anthropology 11 physical environment, types of 160 physical sciences 261
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370 Index
physics 264 physiology, cultural 220 Piaget, Jean 3 Polaric dimension 289 polaric dimension, of culture 31 political histories 201 proactive learning 94 process approach, beginnings of 3 Product-oriented models 38, 39 product development 8, 38, 40, 78, 298, 342 production 115 product training 294 projections and scenarios 272 project management 9, 40, 54, 67 psychological perspectives 11 Purgator, preproduction 323
Q question prompts 273
R race demographics 158 racial histories 203 rapid prototyping 8 re-engineering 332 Reigeluth 3, 7, 8, 20, 21 relationship, of one being to another being 223 religious histories 204 reproduction patterns 205 research design speci.cations 342
S Scandura, Joseph M. 7 scenarios, projections and 272 science history 207 semiotics 136 sex demographics 159 sexual intercourse 208 sickle cell disease (SCD) 181 signs & symbols 136 Silvern, Leonard C. 5 Singlish 218 size demographics 160 small groups 167
Soban 114 social environment 167 social groups 122 social histories 209 social tradition 10 society, definition of 100 sociological 9, 10, 17, 23, 24 sociological perspectives 10 space 285 spirit world 290 Stein 7, 8, 21 stratification 120 structures 165 style 110 support structures 168 symbols 138 systems approach 3, 5, 7 systems development 3, 4, 5, 15, 360 systems oriented model 38
T target audience 8, 14, 30, 31, 37, 40–97, 101–139, 144–199, 200–244, 248–275, 282–298, 300–339, 343, 344–360 target audience, in e-learning design 335 teaching and instruction 92 team 304 technology 165 temporal 126, 134, 162, 283, 295 temporal communications 133 Tennyson 3, 6, 7, 8, 17, 21, 22, 23 theory of cognitive development 3 theory of cognitive structures 359 theory of instruction 359 theory of knowledge acquisition 359 Thorndike, Edward Lee 2 time 280 time, clock 280 time, event 280 time, how it is paced 284 time, linear or cyclic 134 time, wait 281 time periods 210 training 311 training, culture-based 294
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Index 371
training, product 294 transforming theories 7
U Using Knowledge Management Systems 50
V verbal communication 131 videoconferencing 9 video game design 33, 316 video games 51, 298, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 329 video production 38 videotapes 49, 83, 107
visual 4, 6, 16, 42, 43, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 71, 72, 79, 91, 94, 104, 123, 126, 129, 135, 136, 139, 140, 166, 175, 176, 187, 261, 268, 275, 303, 304, 317, 333, 343, 348, 352, 353, 354, 355 visual communication 135 visual representations (preproduction, Production & post production) 63 Vygotsky, Lev 2, 11
W wait time 281 writing 1, 3, 16, 91, 92, 97, 98, 126, 127, 128, 132, 133, 134, 139, 200, 219, 283, 318, 335, 339, 360
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