How to Become an Elected Official (Your Government--How It Works)

T H E U . S . G OV E R N M E N T HOW I T WOR K S

HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED

T H E U . S . G OV E R N M E N T HOW I T WOR K S

TH E CENTRAL I NTELLI G EN CE AG EN CY TH E D EPARTM ENT O F H O M EL AN D SECU RIT Y T H E F ED ER A L B U R E AU O F I N V E S T I GATI O N TH E H I STO RY O F TH E D EM O CR ATI C PART Y T H E H I S TO RY O F T H E R EP U B LI CA N PAR T Y TH E H I STO RY O F TH E TH I R D PARTI E S TH E H O US E O F R EP R E S ENTATIVE S H OW A L AW I S PA S S ED H OW TH E CO NSTITUTI O N WA S CR E ATED H OW TH E PRE SI D ENT IS ELEC TED TH E I M PE ACH M ENT PRO CE S S T H E P R E S I D EN CY TH E SENATE T H E SU P R EM E CO U R T

T H E U . S . G OV E R N M E N T HOW I T WOR K S

HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED H E AT H E R L E H R WAGN E R

How the President Is Elected Copyright © 2007 by Infobase Publishing All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, contact: Chelsea House An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York, NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wagner, Heather Lehr. How the president is elected / Heather Lehr Wagner. p. cm. — (The U.S. government: how it works) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7910-9418-1 (hardcover) ISBN-10: 0-7910-9418-9 (hardcover) 1. Presidents—United States—Election—Juvenile literature. I. Title. JK528.W24 2007 324.60973—dc22

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contents 1

Too Close to Call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2

Electing a President . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3

Electoral College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4

Party Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5 6

Presidential Campaign . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Presidential Candidate . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Picture Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

1 Too Close to Call E

lection Day, November 7, 2000: For the day on which Americans would choose their next president, it be-

gan in typical fashion. The two candidates—Republican George W. Bush and Democrat Al Gore—had returned to their home districts (in Texas and Tennessee, respectively) to cast their votes. Each had spent the past several months crisscrossing the country in an effort to persuade voters that he would be the best person to serve as the forty-third president of the United States. The campaign had been a close one, with different polls showing one or the other candidate narrowly leading the race for the presidency. The two men had certain factors in common. They both were the sons of famous politicians, for whom they had been named—Al Gore’s father,

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Albert Gore Sr., had been an influential Tennessee senator, whereas George W. Bush was the son of the forty-first president, George H.W. Bush. Both men had grown up in powerful political circles. Al Gore spent much of his childhood in Washington, D.C. His family had a penthouse there, in the Fairfax Hotel, where his father would meet with presidents and policymakers. George W. Bush’s grandfather, Prescott Bush, had served as a senator from Connecticut; before he became president, George H.W. Bush had served as a United Nations ambassador, director of the CIA, and vice president under Ronald Reagan. Both of the candidates had attended top universities and graduate schools. Al Gore was a graduate of Harvard University and had earned a law degree from Vanderbilt University. George W. Bush was a Yale University graduate and had earned an M.B.A. from Harvard. They were close in age: Al Gore was 52 years old at the time of the election, whereas George Bush was 54. Finally, each man deeply and strongly believed that he was the best man to become the next president of the United States. There were important differences between the two men, however, and these differences divided the country during this election year. After graduating from college, Al Gore had enlisted to serve in the war in Vietnam, despite his personal opposition to the conflict, and had spent much of the war working as an army journalist. At the age of 28, he ran for and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, the same position that his father had once held. After eight years, he was elected to the U.S. Senate.

TOO CLOSE TO CALL

9

The 2000 presidential race between Republican candidate George W. Bush and Democratic candidate Al Gore was one of the closest races in U.S. history. Even though more Americans voted for Al Gore, George W. Bush won the majority of the electoral votes, making him the forty-third president of the United States. In the photograph above, George W. Bush (right) shakes hands with Al Gore (left) before the first presidential debate on Tuesday, October 3, 2000.

As a senator from Tennessee, Gore focused on issues involving arms control and technology. Unlike many other Democrats, Gore supported President George H.W. Bush’s decision to send troops to fight against Iraq in Operation Desert Storm, as well as a military intervention in the conflict in Bosnia. After his failed first run for

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the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988, Gore wrote a best-selling book that focused on environmental issues, and he later served as vice president in Bill Clinton’s administration. Gore had been a visible vice president, working closely with President Clinton. That closeness had become a liability when Clinton’s administration was caught up in questions about fund-raising methods and scandals involving Clinton’s personal life. Gore was also criticized for appearing wooden and dull in speeches and at public appearances. Gore’s opponent, Texas governor George W. Bush, described himself as a “compassionate conservative” during the 2000 campaign. After a time in college during which he was, in Bush’s own words, “young and irresponsible,” he joined the Texas National Guard as a pilot. This would prove problematic during his campaign, with some suggesting that the Bush family had used their connections to obtain a spot for George W. in the National Guard to prevent him from being drafted to fight in Vietnam. After earning a master’s degree in business administration, Bush made money in the oil industry and bought a stake in a professional baseball team. He ran for Congress, but was not elected. He did not seek further political office until after his father’s presidency. Then, he ran for and was elected governor of Texas. As governor, Bush made major improvements in the state’s school systems, dramatically expanded Texas’s prison system, and opposed greater restrictions on gun

TOO CLOSE TO CALL

11

control. His presidential campaign focused in part on poverty, education, and minorities—not traditional issues for a Republican presidential candidate. The campaign was hard fought and seemed close through Election Day. On that November 7, only about half of all eligible voters cast their ballots in the presidential election. Little did they know how important each vote would prove to be. After polling booths closed on the East Coast, the television networks began airing predictions of the election results based on polls of voters as they left the places where they had voted. The state of Florida was considered to be a key state for the presidential candidates, but early results indicated that the election there was too close to call. Then, at 8:00 P.M., the television networks began to declare that Al Gore had won Florida. Many felt that this was a sign that the Democrat would become the next president. Other states began to fall to the candidates as expected. Pennsylvania and Michigan were declared to have been won by Gore; Ohio was a victory for Bush. Still, the Bush campaign refused to give up on Florida. Bush’s brother, Jeb Bush, was the governor of Florida, and the Bush campaign’s own polls suggested that the state might prove a victory for Bush rather than Gore. Two hours after the television networks declared that Al Gore had won the state of Florida’s electoral votes, network news anchors were forced to make an embarrassing announcement: The declaration had been premature; the election results in that state were too close to call.

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As polling places closed across the country, each state became increasingly critical. California, with its prized 54 electoral college votes, went to Al Gore, as did Iowa. The networks—and the campaigns—tallied up the electoral votes belonging to each candidate. Neither one had yet received enough electoral votes to be declared the winner. It all came down to one state: Florida. Whoever won Florida would win the presidential election. Finally, 2 hours and 20 minutes after voting ended in Alaska, the television networks once again made an announcement: Florida had been won by George W. Bush. This meant that he would become the forty-third president of the United States. Twenty minutes after the announcement, Al Gore phoned George Bush to concede (officially admit defeat) and congratulate his opponent on winning the election. After a long election night, many Americans went to bed believing that George W. Bush had been declared the winner and that the election was now over. They were wrong.

UNCERTAINTY AND CHAOS Shortly after phoning his opponent, Al Gore learned that the results of the election in Florida were so close that state law required an automatic recount of the votes. That state was not yet officially granting its electoral votes to either candidate and would not until the results of the recount were known. Within 30 minutes of his first call, Al Gore again phoned George Bush, this time to tell him that he was

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withdrawing his concession. George Bush was shocked. He had apparently already drafted his victory speech and could not believe that his opponent was now withdrawing his concession. For the next month, the question of who would become the forty-third president of the United States went unanswered. Attention focused on the state of Florida as individual counties began the tedious process of recounting the votes. In some instances, these votes were recounted manually (by hand); lawyers then questioned whether these manual recounts were constitutional. There were reports of voting machines failing to accurately register a vote, leaving voting officials to study the ballots to determine whether or not a voter had attempted to vote for a particular candidate. Once the courts had resolved the question of whether manual recounts were constitutional and could proceed— the legal ruling was that they could—other legal questions arose. The Democrats challenged a deadline imposed by the Florida courts for completing the recount process. Next came the deadline at which Florida was required by law to award its electoral college votes—December 12. This, too, passed without a winner being declared. Both Democrats and Republicans accused their opponents of interfering with the election results. Republicans suggested that Al Gore was simply being a “sore loser,” refusing to admit defeat. Democrats suggested that Republicans were attempting to stop the recounts so that their candidate would be declared the winner.

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The case was appealed to higher and higher courts as the recounts proceeded and were periodically halted. The Florida Supreme Court had ruled that manual recounts were allowed and that all questionable ballots in the state should be recounted by hand. The Bush campaign appealed this decision, however. The case finally reached the U.S. Supreme Court. It was an extraordinary legal moment. The U.S. Supreme Court was, in a sense, being pitted against the supreme court of the state of Florida. It was also going to be put in the position, through its ruling, of having a direct impact on who would become the next president of the United States. Like much of the country, the nine Supreme Court justices had divided opinions over whether or not the manual recounts were constitutional. Seven of the nine justices, however, ruled that there were constitutional problems with the recount as ordered by the Florida Supreme Court. Also, the Court ruled (in a narrower majority of five to four) that there was no constitutionally acceptable procedure that would allow a recount to take place before the deadline at which the state’s electors had to be chosen (the procedure by which the state’s electoral votes would officially be awarded). The Supreme Court based this decision on its concern that different standards for the recounts were being used in the different counties, which might result in unequal treatment for the candidates. The ruling—which did not give the Florida court time to fix the situation by setting recount standards to be used across the state—meant that the recount process

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was halted. Al Gore once again conceded, noting that he disagreed with the ruling by the Supreme Court but urging Americans to support George Bush. After 36 days, the winner of the 2000 presidential election was finally declared.

THE RESULT Votes were cast in the 2000 presidential election on November 7, but it was not until December 13 that George W. Bush could publicly claim the presidency. “I was elected not to serve one party but one nation,” he announced in his long-postponed victory speech. In the end, the question of who would become the next president hinged on a few hundred votes in Florida. The election would prove to be one of the closest in U.S. history. It would also prove notable for another reason: George W. Bush was declared the forty-third president of the United States, even though more Americans had voted for Al Gore. It was not the first time that a candidate had become president even though his opponent had received more votes. In 1824, 1876, and 1888, candidates won the presidency even though they had lost the nationwide popular vote. How can this happen? What is the process by which a president is elected? Why are electoral votes more important than popular votes, and what is the difference between the two? The election of a president is one of the most important events in American politics. The process of electing

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On January 20, 2001, George W. Bush was inaugurated as the forty-third president of the United States. In the photograph above, Bush takes the oath of office from Chief Justice William Rehnquist in Washington, D.C.

presidents has changed since George Washington became the nation’s first president. Political parties now play an important role in the election process. Elections follow a cycle, from the time candidates first announce their intentions to run for the presidency, through the primary season, and on to the national election. Campaigns dramatically impact voters’ impressions of the candidates. Election practices have changed over the more than 200 years of American history, as have the particular skills, background, and experience necessary to become the president of the United States.

2 Electing a President W

hen the members of the Constitutional Convention gathered in Philadelphia in 1787, they were faced

with a nearly overwhelming challenge: How should the new nation be governed? The decisions made by those delegates shaped the U.S. government, which was divided into three branches—the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. These decision makers also determined how the men and women who served in those branches of government would be chosen. The executive branch of government sparked particularly intense debate. Most delegates were clearest about the form of leadership they did not want: Only recently, they had successfully fought and won their liberty from England, and they wanted to be sure not to create another

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monarchy. Some delegates favored the idea of an executive branch formed of several people, each with a different area of expertise. Others supported an executive branch that reported to Congress, with Congress deciding what tasks the executive would handle and how many people would be needed to handle those tasks. Eventually, however, under a proposal known as the Virginia Plan (authored, most believe, by James Madison), the delegates began to consider the idea of a single chief executive or president, who would serve for a specific period of time. Under the Virginia Plan, the president was to be chosen by Congress and would serve one seven-year term. The idea of having a president chosen by Congress was troubling to some of the delegates, however. It seemed to contradict the original reason for creating three separate branches of government: to guarantee a balance of power and a certain amount of independence for each division of the government. By having one of the branches (the executive) appointed by another (the legislative), the balance of power would shift and place too much power in the hands of Congress. The delegates wanted to ensure that the president was truly a representative of the people. This was a good reason for the president to be selected by the people’s representatives (Congress). The idea of having the president chosen by popular vote of all American citizens did not seem practical to the delegates; in those days, before instant communication and political campaigns, they worried that citizens would not have the information

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In 1787, 55 delegates from several states convened in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention. It was there that they drafted a document that would be the basis for the government of the United States. Today, this painting by Howard Chandler, Scene at the Signing of the Constitution, hangs in the United States Capitol.

necessary to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the candidates. In addition, the size of the country and the distances between the states made it difficult to oversee and determine the results of a national election. After much debate, the delegates decided to create an electoral college—a group of representatives from each state who would meet and vote for a particular candidate. Under the original plan, the candidate who received the majority of the votes from the Electoral College would be elected president. The one with the second highest total would become vice president.

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ACCORDING TO THE CONSTITUTION When the Constitutional Convention ended, its delegates had drafted a document that formed the basis for the government of the United States. As the country evolved, so, too, has the Constitution, and amendments have been added to reflect the demands of a changing nation and its people. Several sections of the Constitution deal with the presidency and how a president is selected. Article II, Section 1, states: “The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years. . . .” It specifies the system for choosing the president—the Electoral College—and the qualifications necessary to be president: “No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty five years, and been fourteen Years a resident within the United States.” This basic framework has served as a solid foundation on which the American presidency is shaped. Over the years, however, additional amendments have been added to the Constitution to reflect changes in the system for electing the president. In 1804, the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution was adopted; it significantly changed the system used for electing the president. This amendment was a response to the difficulties surrounding the presidential election of

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1800. In that election, an equal number of votes were cast in the Electoral College for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, in an effort to ensure that they were elected president and vice president, respectively. The result, of course, was a tie. The House of Representatives was forced to decide the outcome of the election, and it took several days and 36 ballots before Jefferson was elected president. The Twelfth Amendment requires separate votes for president and vice president, a change from the previous system, in which the person receiving the second-highest number of votes for president became vice president. The amendment also states that when they vote, the electors must choose a president and a vice president from different states. It is for this reason that, even today, presidential and vice presidential candidates are never from the same state. The Fifteenth Amendment (1870) made it clear that race could not be an issue in denying citizens the right to vote. It stated: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” With the Nineteenth Amendment (1920), the right to vote was extended to women. In the amendment’s language, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.” Finally, the Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971) lowered the age for citizens to vote from 21 to 18: “The right of

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In the presidential election of 1800, Thomas Jefferson tied with his opponent, Aaron Burr, for the most votes. The decision went to the House of Representatives and Jefferson became the third president of the United States. Following this controversial election, the Twelfth Amendment was added to the Constitution.

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citizens of the United States, who are 18 years of age or older, to vote, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of age.”

THE FIRST ELECTION The Founding Fathers envisioned that the members of the Electoral College would be educated, wealthy, and prominent, and that they would carefully study and debate the qualifications of the various candidates before deciding which one would make the best president. The creation of political parties, the increase of public participation in an election, and the advent of conventions, campaigns, and public scrutiny of candidates has dramatically transformed what was intended to be a careful, deliberative process into what can, at times, seem like a carnival. This was clearly not the case when the Constitution was written. Even as the delegates to the Constitutional Convention outlined their plans for the new government and the office of the presidency, it became evident that George Washington, president of the Constitutional Convention and victorious general in the Revolutionary War, would be the obvious choice for the nation’s first president. Washington was certainly not the last president who would owe his election to success on the battlefield, but it is to his credit that, as the nation’s first president, he also remains one of its best. Although Washington was the unanimous choice for the first American president, it is interesting to note that

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he was not the only candidate to receive votes. In the somewhat awkward system initially conceived for electing the president, members of the Electoral College needed to cast two votes for president; as mentioned earlier, the man receiving the second highest number of votes was

THE ELECTION OF 1789

George Washington was the unanimous choice of the electors who cast their ballots in the presidential election of 1789—the only president to be elected unanimously. At the time, members of the Electoral College were required to vote twice—the candidate who received the most votes would become president, and the second-place candidate would become vice president. A total of 69 electors voted for president in 1789. Candidates George Washington John Adams John Jay John Rutledge Robert Harrison John Hancock George Clinton Others

Electoral Votes Received* 69 34 9 6 6 4 3 7

* “The Electoral Count for the Presidential Election of 1789.” The Papers of George Washington. Available online. URL: http://gwpapers .virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral.html

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then chosen as vice president. George Washington received one vote from every member of the Electoral College, for a total of 69 electoral votes. Other candidates receiving votes included John Adams of Massachusetts (whose 34 electoral votes qualified him to serve as vice president), John Jay of New York, John Rutledge of South Carolina, Robert Harrison of Maryland, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and George Clinton of New York. Washington remains the only president ever to be elected unanimously by the Electoral College. George Washington took his oath of office in New York City on April 30, 1789. New York served as the capital of the United States for 18 months, before the capital was relocated to Philadelphia. This provided Washington with yet another distinction from the presidents who would serve after him: He is the only president never to live in Washington, D.C., during his presidency. There was much about the concept of the presidency that was new at the time, and much about the office that was permanently shaped by George Washington. Washington was actively involved in both foreign and domestic policy. He confidently assumed the title of commander-inchief of the military. He decided to serve no more than two terms as president, although it is likely that he could have remained as president for life, had he chosen to do so. Future presidents—with the exception of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was elected to four terms as president—would follow his example, and the Twenty-second Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1951, limited presidents after Roosevelt to no more than two terms.

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George Washington was the first president of the United States. Elected in 1789, Washington served two terms as president until 1797. The Twenty-second Amendment (1951) to the Constitution limits presidents to only two terms.

Washington, as the first president, would remain a model for others who would be elected to the office. Military service would be viewed as an asset for many future presidents. Four of the nation’s first five presidents

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would all be, like Washington, from Virginia—the exception was John Adams, who had been Washington’s vice president. Washington also lobbied hard for the nation’s new permanent capital to be located conveniently near his home, Mount Vernon, in Virginia.

IMPORTANT ELECTIONS Other elections have affected how future presidents are chosen. As mentioned earlier, in the election of 1800, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency. This was caused by the efforts of electors who were members of the Democratic-Republican Party. Eager to ensure that their party controlled both the presidency and vice presidency (and to force John Adams and his Federalist Party out of office), the Democratic-Republican electors cast an equal number of votes for Jefferson and Burr. The election was then given to the House of Representatives to decide. Jefferson was ultimately chosen as president and Burr as his vice president, and the Twelfth Amendment, passed in 1804, ensured that separate votes would be cast for president and vice president in the future. The House of Representatives decided a presidential election once more, in 1824: Following the election, no candidate had won a majority of the electoral votes. At 99 votes, Andrew Jackson had received the most, whereas John Quincy Adams had 84, William H. Crawford 41, and Henry Clay 37. By 1824, electors were being chosen in 18 of the then-24 states by popular vote, and Jackson also led in the popular vote.

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Because no candidate had received a majority, the House of Representatives was ordered to choose the winner. According to the Twelfth Amendment, only the top three contenders would be considered, which meant Jackson, Adams, and Crawford. But Crawford, who had served as secretary of the treasury under President James Monroe, had suffered a serious illness, which made it unlikely that he would be able to effectively serve as president. This narrowed the House’s choice down to two—Jackson and Adams—and meant that whoever won the support of Clay would gain his electoral votes and the presidency. Both sides lobbied hard to win Clay’s support, but it was John Quincy Adams who won the support and the votes in the House. Jackson was outraged by the results, believing that, since he had received more electoral and popular votes, he should have been chosen as president. He hinted that some sort of deal had been made between Adams and Clay, a charge that seemed accurate when, shortly after the election was finalized, Adams appointed Clay as his secretary of state. The charge of election rigging against his opponent would help increase Jackson’s popularity and propel him into the White House four years later. The election of 1836 offers another example of how the system for electing the president is continuously changing. In that election, the Whig Party decided to run different presidential candidates in different parts of the country, with the idea that each candidate could win votes for the Whig Party in the region where he was the strongest

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candidate. The Whig electors would then choose the best candidate to serve as president, or the election could be decided in the House of Representatives. As a result, William Henry Harrison ran as the Whig candidate in most of New England, Daniel Webster was the Whig candidate in Massachusetts, and Hugh White (from Tennessee) was the Whig candidate in the South. It would have been an interesting strategy had it proved effective, but the only result of this divide-and-conquer plan was that the Democratic nominee, Martin Van Buren, was able to capture a majority of the electoral votes.

3 Electoral College O

n four different occasions, the man who was elected president of the United States lost the popular vote.

How is it possible that a candidate can receive fewer votes than his opponent, yet still win the presidency? The reason for this is the system of voting known as the Electoral College. The Electoral College was first proposed during the 1787 Constitutional Convention as the best solution to the problem of how the president should be elected. The idea of a popular vote, in which citizens chose the president, did not seem practical; in those early years of a scattered population, it seemed unlikely that citizens would be familiar with all of the candidates, and so would vote for the candidate they knew best, giving an advantage to candidates from heavily populated states.

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The Constitutional Convention appointed 11 of their delegates to a special committee, designed to solve the problem of how best to choose the president. This “Committee of 11” proposed a compromise: A “college of electors” would be formed. (In this context, college means simply “an organized group of people.”) Each state would be granted a certain number of electors, based on the total number of senators (for all states two) and representatives (varying by state). Each state would determine how its electors would be chosen. A presidential candidate would need to win a majority (one more than one-half) of the votes in the Electoral College; if he failed to do so, the election would be decided in the House of Representatives (initially the Committee of 11 felt it should be decided in the Senate, but this was changed to the House of Representatives), with each state given one vote. With the Electoral College, even the smallest states were given a role in deciding the outcome of presidential elections. They would have at least three electoral votes— two for their senators and one for each representative. The system also gave the individual states great power in determining how and when their electors would be chosen. Many experts agree that the drafters of the Constitution believed that most presidential candidates after George Washington would fail to win a majority of the Electoral College votes. According to this view, the Electoral College would provide an initial weeding out of candidates; when none of them won a majority of the votes, the top five candidates would be considered in the House of

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Representatives. Each state would be given one vote, which would ensure that each state, regardless of its size, would have an equal say in the election. Other steps were taken in the creation of the Electoral College to ensure fairness and balance. To avoid one branch of the government becoming too powerful, members of Congress and employees of the federal government could not serve as electors. Each state’s electors were to meet in their individual states, rather than in a large central gathering of all electors; this provision was designed to prevent secret deal making or outside influence on an election. Each elector was required to cast two votes for president, and one of those votes had to be for someone from a different state. This was done to prevent electors from voting only for candidates from their own states. The belief was that the eventual choice as president would often be the second choice of many of the voters. The electoral votes from each state would be sealed and delivered to the president of the Senate, who would then appear before a joint meeting of the Senate and House of Representatives and read the results.

THE SYSTEM CHANGES Created before political parties and campaigns, the Electoral College was conceived as a system where educated, thoughtful delegates would meet and carefully debate the qualifications of a candidate before casting their votes. The election of 1800 forced a change in the system, however. The tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr

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had resulted in intense behind-the-scenes campaigning and deal making and required 36 separate ballots before a winner was determined. The tie had also been caused by the rising influence of political parties; DemocraticRepublican supporters of Jefferson and Burr were so desperate to ensure that the Federalist candidates were defeated that they had intentionally created a tie. The secret maneuvering that finally resulted in Jefferson’s election was precisely the kind of activity that the Founding Fathers had hoped to prevent with the creation of the Electoral College. With the Twelfth Amendment, the electoral college system was changed so that electors voted separately for president and vice president. Other changes in the Electoral College took place that altered it even further from the original idea of the Committee of 11. Many of these changes were attributable to the growing role played by political parties. The initial plan was for the members of the Electoral College to be among the most distinguished citizens of each state. But with the rise of political parties, delegates to the Electoral College were increasingly chosen not for their prominence in their state, but for their loyalty to their political party. Today, the names of few delegates to the Electoral College would be recognized, even in their home states. They are not the free voters imagined by the Constitution, but instead are expected to vote according to the regulations governing electors in their individual states. In a presidential election, when you cast your vote, you are voting not for the candidates for president and vice

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president, but instead for the electors for that candidate. The words “electors for” generally appear in small print before the names of the candidates for vice president and president. Whichever party ticket wins the most popular votes in a state wins that states’ electors. This is true with only two exceptions: Maine and Nebraska. In those two states, two electors are chosen by statewide popular vote, and the remainder are chosen by popular vote within each congressional district. This represents a significant change in the electoral college system as it was initially imagined. Instead of a body of prominent, independent citizens who thoughtfully consider the various candidates, it has instead become a system where unknown delegates automatically cast their votes for a particular candidate based on the results of a popular election. Another such change affected the idea that the Electoral College would provide an initial screening or nominating process for candidates, with the final results of elections being decided in the House of Representatives. Rather than being a routine part of the process, a final decision in the House became a procedure used only in emergencies; inevitably, it would lead to bitter disagreement, deal making, and division.

HOW ELECTORS ARE CHOSEN The way in which electors to the Electoral College are chosen has also undergone change since the first presidential election. Initially, the system for choosing electors was left

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to the individual states. In some cases, state legislatures decided to choose the electors themselves. In other cases, a direct popular vote for electors was held, either by congressional district or across the entire state. In all of these cases, a list of different candidates to be elector was prepared, and the electors were chosen from that list. In the 1800s, however, the system changed. By 1860, all states had determined to choose their electors by statewide popular election. Maine and Nebraska are the only two remaining exceptions; they, as noted earlier, choose two electors based on statewide popular vote and the remainder by popular vote in each congressional district. The Electoral College also gradually shifted to what is called a “winner-take-all” system for choosing electors. This is the system in use today in the majority of the states. A candidate who wins a state’s popular vote then wins all that state’s electors. Similarly, the time for choosing electors has changed over the years. For the first 50 years, states were allowed to choose their electors—in essence, hold their presidential elections—at any time within a 34-day period before the first Wednesday of December. This first Wednesday was the day when electors were expected to meet in their individual states and choose their candidate for president. As the country grew and our systems of communication developed, however, this election scheduling began to present problems. States could choose to hold their elections late in the 34-day period, waiting to see how candidates had performed in states that held their elections earlier.

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In close elections, states that voted at the end might determine the outcome, giving them an unfair advantage in choosing the president. In 1845, Congress addressed this problem by setting a standard day on which all states were to choose their electors: the Tuesday following the first Monday in years that can be divided by four. That date remains the date on which all states hold their presidential elections. Each state’s electoral college meets on the Monday following the second Wednesday of December in their state capitals and casts their electoral votes—one for president and one for vice president. This second step has become more of a formality in recent years, though. With modern communication, the results of a popular election are quickly tabulated and the number of electors for a particular candidate are publicized well before the Electoral College meets.

CHALLENGING ELECTIONS There have been several elections in which the electoral college system contributed to confusion or dramatically affected the outcome. The election of 1800 has already been discussed, as has the election of 1824, in which the House of Representatives ultimately chose John Quincy Adams as president. The election of 1836, in which the Whig Party ran three separate candidates for president and lost to Democratic-Republican candidate Martin Van Buren, was also covered. In 1872, Republican president Ulysses S. Grant ran for reelection. His challenger was Democratic candidate

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Horace Greeley, a prominent journalist who had made famous the phrase “Go West, young man!” The problem arose when Greeley died in the period between the popular election that chose electors and the December meeting of the Electoral College. The electors pledged to Greeley were then faced with the awkward situation of determining whether or not to cast their electoral votes for a dead man. Strangely enough, three electors did. The others cast their votes for several other Democratic candidates. The outcome was not really significant, because Grant had won a majority of the electors, but still, it was a strange challenge to the electoral college system. The election of 1876 presented another set of problems. In that election, Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes ran against Democrat Samuel Tilden. The initial results suggested that Tilden had won; he had strong support in Southern states and had also gained the votes of Indiana, New York, Connecticut, and New Jersey. Tilden led in the popular vote by more than 250,000 votes. Questions soon arose, however, about the votes in South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. In the period between the popular vote and the meeting of the electors in each state, supporters of the two candidates intensely lobbied the states’ electors. In the end, each state delivered two sets of electoral votes, one set for Tilden and the other for Hayes. Congress appointed a special 15-member commission to determine how each of the three states’ electoral votes should be awarded. Again, intense lobbying and deal

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Famous journalist and newspaper editor Horace Greeley ran for U.S. president in 1872 against incumbent Ulysses S. Grant. Greeley, pictured above in a campaign poster, died before electoral votes could be cast. Ulysses S. Grant won the election and remained in office for a second term.

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making followed, and in the end, the commission awarded each of the three states’ electoral votes to Hayes. As a result, Hayes was elected president, with 185 electoral votes to Tilden’s 184. In 1887, Congress passed special legislation designed to determine how to handle electoral votes in the event of a dispute, to ensure that the events of the 1876 election could not be repeated. The election of 1888 offers an example in which a presidential candidate lost the popular vote by a significant margin and yet, because of votes in the Electoral College, won the presidency. In that election, President Grover Cleveland, a Democrat, won a large majority of the votes in the 18 states that supported him. Republican Benjamin Harrison won 20 states, but only by very narrow margins. Yet Harrison’s 20 states gave him 233 electoral votes to Cleveland’s 168, and so he became president.

HOW THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE WORKS TODAY The Electoral College has evolved as a result of these challenges and changes, yet it is still the system by which our presidents are chosen. Today, each state is given a certain number of electors based on its senators (always two) and the number of its U.S. representatives. This second number varies by state and can change if a state’s population changes significantly. Major political parties choose their electors either through state party conventions or through state party leaders appointing the electors. The political parties in each state then give to their state’s chief election official

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The Electoral College consists of officials from each state who vote for the president and vice president of the United States based on how their state’s electorate voted. The map above displays the number of electoral votes distributed to each of the 50 states.

the list of electors who are pledged to vote for their party’s candidate for president. This list is equal to the number of electoral votes a state has been given. On the Tuesday following the first Monday in November in years that can be divided by four, the people cast their votes for the electors for a particular candidate for president and vice president. Whichever party wins the most popular votes in a state wins the electors of the state (with the exceptions of Maine and Nebraska, as noted earlier). On the Monday after the second Wednesday in

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December, each state’s electors meet and cast their votes for president and vice president. The electoral votes are then sealed and transmitted to the president of the Senate, who opens them on January 6 and reads them before both houses of Congress. The candidate with the most electoral votes (it must be an absolute majority, or at least one more than half of the total) is declared president. If no one receives an absolute majority of the votes, the House of Representatives selects the candidate from among the top three candidates. Each state receives one vote; the candidate must receive an absolute majority to be elected. The president and vice president are then sworn into office at noon on January 20. Although the Electoral College was initially intended to address the concern of smaller states that their voices might not carry weight in presidential elections, the reality is that certain heavily populated states are considered key to elections and receive intense focus during presidential campaigns. At 55, California has the largest number of electoral votes. Other states with large numbers of electoral votes include Texas (34), New York (31), Florida (27), Illinois and Pennsylvania (both with 21), and Ohio (20). The total number of electoral votes in the United States is 538; a candidate needs at least 270 electoral votes to win a presidential election.

4 Party Politics T

he election of George Washington was a relatively straightforward process. As the unanimous choice of

the Electoral College, Washington took office with little conflict or disagreement. This cooperation in regard to the nation’s leadership would not outlast the nation’s first president, however. Within Washington’s cabinet were two men who disagreed strongly about the ways in which the new nation should be governed. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson favored greater power for the states, and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton believed America should have a strong central, or national, government. The two men differed on many other issues, including whether a bill of rights should be added to the U.S. Constitution, how debt from the Revolutionary War

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should be handled, and what America’s position should be in foreign conflicts. Both Jefferson and Hamilton were politically powerful men. Each had many friends who shared their views. From these differences emerged the first political parties in the United States. Supporters of Hamilton became known as Federalists; supporters of Jefferson were known as Republicans (and later as Democratic-Republicans). From the election of 1800 forward, political parties would play an important role in selecting nominees for the presidency. Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican Party relied heavily on Jefferson’s ideals for the U.S. government. Before the election, Jefferson wrote many letters to supporters around the country, explaining his vision and why he believed his ideas were best for America’s future. DemocraticRepublican supporters were encouraged to form networks of others who thought as they did. This ultimately formed the basis of a party structure. The Federalist Party did not survive beyond 1816, and although it boasted the membership of the nation’s first two presidents (Washington and Adams), it would never again reclaim the White House. Jefferson’s DemocraticRepublicans, however, would become the party we know today as the Democratic Party.

NOMINATING PRESIDENTS In order to ensure that the party continued to occupy the White House when Jefferson chose to step down after two terms, Democratic-Republican leaders in Congress

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The image above depicts George Washington and his cabinet, including Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Jefferson and Hamilton disagreed on how to run the nation. Jefferson was in favor of states having greater power, and Hamilton believed that a strong central government was best.

decided to form a committee to select the party’s nominee for the presidency. This early version of a party caucus gave Congress the power to choose the nominees for the presidency. Supporters of various nominees would lobby hard for their favorites. The system was informal; there was no fixed time when these caucuses would meet, nor were a set number of representatives required in order to choose a nominee.

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In the first three decades of presidential elections, the men who were chosen as their party’s nominees shared a certain common heritage. They had all played a role in the Revolution; many had served at the Constitutional Convention. They had contacts, influence, and name recognition based on the role they had already played in shaping American government. By 1824, political candidates no longer had the status of those who had preceded them; their names were not recognized nationally. A new generation of politicians had arisen, politicians who had become prominent because of what they had done on a local or regional level. Their support came from their individual states. A system in which individual states nominated their favorite choices proved as unworkable as a system in which Congressional leaders chose the nominees, however. State-based nominations would produce too many nominees, none of whom could muster enough support to win a majority of the electoral votes. A new system was needed, one that would be national, but representative.

PARTY CONVENTIONS The first political party to hold a convention to nominate its candidate for president was the Anti-Masonic party. This small party had no representatives in Congress, so there was no Congressional caucus that could choose the party’s nominee. The party decided instead to hold a general meeting, and so, in 1831, 116 delegates from 13 states attended the party’s gathering at a saloon in Baltimore.

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Those present selected that party’s nominee for the presidency—William Wirt—and prepared a speech to outline the party’s positions on the important issues of the day, a forerunner of the party platform. Three months later, a second party convention was held in Baltimore—in fact, at the same saloon. There, a group of delegates opposed to President Andrew Jackson, who called themselves National Republicans (they would later become known as Whigs) also nominated a candidate, Henry Clay, and chose a platform. The following year, the Democratic-Republicans also chose Baltimore as the location for their convention. Although Jackson, the incumbent president, was clearly the choice as nominee, Jackson wanted to hold the convention to ensure popular support for his candidacy and also to guarantee that his choice for a running mate, Martin Van Buren, would be elected. Four years later, Jackson again championed the idea of a party convention in Baltimore, this time to guarantee the selection of his choice—Van Buren—as his successor. These party conventions have little resemblance to the conventions major parties hold to nominate their presidential candidates today. In the days before television and carefully scripted speeches scheduled for prime-time coverage, the conventions were informal and often rowdy. The general public played only a minimal role in these conventions. Party leaders chose the delegates to the convention, decided the agenda for the conventions, and were instrumental in selecting the presidential and vice-

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presidential nominees. The kind of negotiation involved in determining who the nominees would be and on what issues the party would focus was largely carried on in secret, behind the scenes. Since the 1970s, primaries have replaced party conventions as the principal way in which presidential nominees are selected. Today, conventions provide a forum for parties to highlight their platforms and celebrate their nominees, but they rarely offer surprises. This has not always been the case. Three conventions—all held in Chicago— show how these party gatherings once directly affected the presidential election. For the 1860 presidential election, the Republican Party held its convention in Chicago. The choice would prove fateful. It was only the second presidential convention held since the party was formed, and there were many contenders for the nomination. The location of the convention, however, provided a boost to the candidate from Illinois: Abraham Lincoln. The convention was packed with supporters from Illinois, who cheered loudly for their local candidate. At the time the convention was held, Lincoln was considered as a possible vice-presidential nominee at best, but with the loud and boisterous support of the Illinois faction, Lincoln became the presidential nominee. Another Republican convention, in 1912, showed the influence of former presidents on the nominating process. Four years earlier, President Theodore Roosevelt had wholeheartedly supported the candidacy of his friend

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and former secretary of war, William Howard Taft. Roosevelt had campaigned for Taft and helped ensure that Taft would be his successor and continue Roosevelt’s progressive agenda. What a difference a presidential term can make, though. Roosevelt grew dissatisfied with Taft’s policies, and at the Republican convention of 1912, Roosevelt not only refused to support Taft, he actually challenged him for the nomination. When it became clear that Roosevelt would not succeed in his effort to wrestle the nomination away from Taft, Roosevelt stormed out of the convention, followed by his supporters, formed his own party—the Progressive Party—and ran as its nominee for the presidency. The split between supporters of Taft and Roosevelt divided the Republican Party and ensured that the Democratic nominee, Woodrow Wilson, would win the election. The Democratic Party Convention of 1968, held in Chicago, has become infamous as one of the most chaotic conventions in American history. It is perhaps not surprising that, after that election, primaries began to replace conventions as the principal path to naming the presidential nominee. Three men—Eugene McCarthy, Robert Kennedy, and Hubert Humphrey—all vied for the Democratic nomination that year. Kennedy was assassinated after winning the California primary. McCarthy represented a wing of the party opposed to the war in Vietnam. Humphrey, then vice president under Lyndon Johnson, had entered the race late, when President Johnson announced his decision not to seek reelection. Humphrey was then

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Protests and violent outbreaks characterized the 1968 Democratic Party Convention in Chicago, making it one of the most infamous conventions in U.S. history. A man burns his delegate card on the floor of the convention (above).

saddled with answering questions about the Johnson administration’s war policies. Protestors gathered outside the convention and quickly entered into violent confrontation with the Chicago police. Inside the convention hall, supporters of McCarthy and Humphrey clashed over what the party’s position should be on the war in Vietnam. The violence inside and outside the Democratic Party convention helped ensure a Republican victory that year.

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PRIMARY SEASON The process of choosing a party’s nominee increasingly has become a function of the primary election. Through the primary, voters are given the opportunity to directly

NEW WAYS OF CAMPAIGNING

As part of their campaign for the 2008 presidential election, candidates explored new ways to communicate their message to voters, particularly younger voters. Taking advantage of Web sites like MySpace, Facebook, and YouTube, presidential candidates began posting blogs, photos, and video, all in an effort to provide prospective voters with exposure to their ideas. In March 2007, MySpace.com launched “Impact,” a Web site designed to serve as a gateway to information about the candidates for the presidency. While much of the information provided about candidates was available through other media, there were interesting details that voters might not find elsewhere—for example, that Republican candidate John McCain’s favorite television show is 24, or that one of Democratic candidate John Edwards’ favorite books is Into Thin Air. YouTube also provided a forum for candidates—and their supporters—to post videos. Through the candidates’ Web sites and pages on online networking sites, voters had an opportunity not simply to learn more about the candidate, but also to interact with other supporters, read blogs from the candidate and campaign staff, send messages to the candidate, or contribute to the campaign.

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elect convention delegates who support the candidate of their choice within their party. The primary is a product of the twentieth century. The first presidential primary election was held in Florida in 1904; by 1912, 13 states were holding primaries. In 1913, President Woodrow Wilson publicly urged the creation of a national primary system as a way for voters, rather than nominating committees or conventions, to select presidential candidates. Real growth in the primary system did not take place until later in the twentieth century. Generally, most states hold either primaries or caucuses. A primary is much like a general election: voters go to a polling place and cast a vote for the candidate of their choice, usually within the political party to which the voter is registered. A caucus is more like a mini-convention: party members meet and listen to speeches in a public place before voting for delegates to represent a candidate at the national convention. In some states, only voters registered to a particular political party can vote in that party’s primary. In other states, voters can vote for a candidate in another party. In all states, voters can participate in only one primary. Presidential primaries and caucuses are usually held from February to June of an election year. Republican and Democratic primaries and caucuses are usually held on the same day. The first caucus is held in Iowa, and the first primary is held in New Hampshire. Pressure has been placed on the Democratic and Republican parties to change the schedule for primaries, however. It is

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argued that the schedule gives certain states—such as Iowa and New Hampshire—an unfair advantage in choosing presidential nominees. Because of the expense of a presidential campaign, candidates will often test the waters in these early primaries. If they do not receive sufficient support, they will pull out of the primaries before voters in most states have had a chance to cast their ballots.

THE ROLE OF THIRD PARTIES Although the Republican and Democratic parties play a dominant role in presidential elections, third parties have influenced the political process throughout our history. America is often described as having a two-party political system, because presidential elections have generally focused on the candidates from two parties. These parties have changed throughout our history. In America’s earliest elections, the presidential race pitted Federalists against Anti-Federalists or Democratic-Republicans. Later, the Whigs emerged to challenge Democrats and, in the mid-1800s, the Republican Party was formed. In our recent history, presidential elections—and indeed most local and state elections, as well—have focused on Democratic and Republican candidates. Smaller, so-called “third” parties have played a role in many presidential elections. These third parties are usually formed when a group of people becomes alienated from the major political parties, often over a single issue. They split off and form their own party, and so throughout American history we have had candidates from the

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Anti-Masonic Party, the Free Soil Party, the Constitutional Union Party, the Populist Party, the Progressive Party, the States’ Rights Party, the American Independent Party, the Reform Party, and the Green Party (among many others) waging campaigns for the White House. Parties formed around a single issue seldom succeed in winning enough nationwide support to capture the presidency. Often, as concern about that single issue fades, support for the party fades. In addition, when a third party champions a particular issue that seems to appeal to a large number of voters, that issue is often “stolen” or picked up by one or both major parties and becomes a part of their platform.

5 Presidential Campaign T

he race for the presidency is more like a marathon than a sprint. It has not always been this way. In the earli-

est presidential elections, candidates announced their desire to become president in the year in which the election was held. In fact, it is only recently that candidates have begun their campaigns sometimes more than two years before an election is actually held. In the 1952 election, Dwight Eisenhower, the Republican candidate (who would go on to win the presidency that year), announced his candidacy on June 4, 1952— only 33 days before the Republican convention was held. Nearly 40 years later, Democrat Bill Clinton announced his candidacy on October 3, 1991, a full 284 days before the convention. Clinton’s challenger in the

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primaries, Paul Tsongas, had declared that he would be a candidate on April 30, 1991—440 days before the Democratic convention. The campaign season, whether short or long, has traditionally given candidates the opportunity to present themselves to voters. It has also transformed presidential elections into a kind of entertainment, in which candidates are packaged almost like a product to be sold to voters. Candidates identify themselves with a particular image, a particular phrase or event, or even another political figure, in order to explain to the voter who they are and what they stand for. Television has further transformed presidential campaigns. Now candidates must be attractive and telegenic, conveying their ideas and plans in quick, colorful scenes, usually in beautiful or interesting settings, with enthusiastic crowds applauding. Whether candidates are staged before the camera or use slogans and imagery, however, presidential campaigns have provided voters with an opportunity to better understand the individuals running for president—or at least to get a better understanding of the image the candidates wish to project.

OLD HICKORY AND LOG CABINS In the early years of presidential elections, campaigning for the office was considered undignified. Those seeking the presidency were nominated by their peers. These people had been instrumental in shaping the country America would become. Many had participated in the decision

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for America to declare its independence from Britain; they had served in the Revolutionary War or in the Continental Congress, and later had helped craft the Constitution that would provide the framework for the American government. They were well known to those who would vote for or against them. Their positions were clear and were illustrated by their party affiliation. Andrew Jackson was one of the first to actively campaign for the presidency, using his image and dynamic personality to demonstrate to voters his fitness for office. The Jackson campaign in the election of 1828 marked a new era in politics—an end to the dignified pursuit of the office and a beginning of efforts to appeal directly to voters’ emotions. The Jackson campaign held parades and rallies. Jackson’s military career was highlighted and used to describe him as a “new Washington” or “second Washington.” He was depicted as a man of the people, a frontiersman, a man with little formal education and the nickname of “Old Hickory”—images used to contrast him with the aristocratic John Quincy Adams. In fact, the “Old Hickory” nickname became a focal point for the campaign: Hickory poles were put up alongside roads and in the center of towns by Jackson supporters. It was this campaign that marked the real beginning of the use of a candidate’s image as part of the campaign. Voters were not supporting a party or a philosophy, but a specific man, wanting him to serve as their president. The election of 1840 featured another military hero as candidate—General William Henry Harrison—whose

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supporters wisely copied many of the strategies that had brought Andrew Jackson to the White House. Harrison was the candidate for the recently formed Whig Party. He was challenging the incumbent, President Martin Van Buren, in his bid for reelection. Harrison was presented to voters both as a military hero and as a farmer who lived on the frontier in a log cabin and was happiest drinking a cup of hard (alcoholic) cider—a drink associated with the West. Harrison was compared to George Washington when supporters spoke of his career in the military. Campaign ads focused on his generosity, suggesting that the military hero waited in his log cabin to welcome other veterans and offer them a cup of cider. The ads contrasted him with President Van Buren, who was depicted as an elitist snob who would be happier sipping champagne. This image making was astonishingly effective, if glaringly inaccurate. Harrison’s home, depicted as a humble log cabin on the Western frontier, was actually a 16-room mansion in Ohio. He had grown up on a wealthy Virginia plantation, the son of a signer of the Declaration of Independence, whereas the “aristocratic” President Van Buren, his opponent, had actually grown up in very humble circumstances. The “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” campaign sparked tremendous public enthusiasm for Harrison and his running mate, John Tyler. The public eagerly supported “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too” (“Tippecanoe” was a reference to Harrison’s 1811 victory against the Indians in the Battle

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In this woodcut used as an advertisement during the presidential election of 1840, General William Henry Harrison is shown in front of his log cabin, greeting a soldier and offering some hard cider. During the campaign, Harrison was depicted as a generous everyman who enjoyed drinking cider and greeting fellow veterans.

of Tippecanoe). A weekly newspaper—the Log Cabin— printed stories of Harrison’s heroic actions in battle, his generosity to the men who had fought with him, and his hospitality to strangers who came to visit his “cabin,” as well as details of campaign rallies and the enthusiastic crowds who attended. The Whig Party organized cabin raisings, in which supporters gathered, bringing logs from their farms, and built a cabin, which became the Whig party headquarters. Miniature cabins were carried in parades, and barrels of hard cider were provided at every gathering. The campaign was successful both at promoting Harrison and at inspiring men (for it was only men at that time) to vote. Voter turnout was higher in that election

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than in any previous election; Whigs won the popular vote and captured 79 percent of the electoral vote.

THE ROUGH RIDER Certain themes emerged from the Log Cabin campaign that would permanently alter the way candidates pursued the White House. For one, campaigns began to focus on telling a story about a candidate—a story that would appeal to voters, perhaps providing him with a background that struck a chord, depicting the candidate in an idealized light, or focusing on a particular element of his history or experience. For much of the nineteenth century, many presidential candidates would be portrayed as ideally from some humble background, having spent some or all of their childhood in a log cabin. Abraham Lincoln, running for the presidency in 1860, was certainly one of these candidates. He was depicted as Honest Abe, who had grown up in a log cabin on the frontier and worked splitting rails. In fact, Lincoln’s image as a rail splitter became a gimmick; thousands of rails were distributed while he was campaigning, each one supposedly split by Lincoln himself. Theodore Roosevelt’s candidacy marked a new era in presidential campaigning—one in which voters chose a candidate for his personality as much as for his policies. Roosevelt had been a hero, popular for his exploits as leader of the volunteer Rough Riders during the 1898 SpanishAmerican War. Roosevelt became governor of New York,

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then was nominated for vice president on the Republican ticket with incumbent President William McKinley. McKinley had won his first term using a “front-porch” campaign; instead of traveling across the country to meet with voters, the voters came to him. Formally dressed, he would emerge from his home several times a day to welcome groups of admiring visitors, all of whom had been carefully prescreened, who had scheduled their appointments well in advance, and who, before their visits, had presented McKinley’s team with the issues they wanted to discuss and a copy of any remarks they intended to make. McKinley won the office using this stately style of campaigning, so he had little incentive to leave the White House to campaign for a second term. He left that to his vice-presidential nominee, and Teddy Roosevelt took to the campaign trail with vigor and enthusiasm. Roosevelt delivered fiery speeches that inspired his listeners as he crisscrossed the country, visiting 567 towns in 24 states, making 673 speeches, and spending 2 months campaigning in the West. Roosevelt assumed the presidency when McKinley died in office. He hit the campaign trail with energy and enthusiasm again in 1904 and 1908 to win two additional terms. Roosevelt’s campaigns were positive, focusing on the candidate almost as a larger-than-life figure. One campaign gimmick, highlighting Roosevelt’s trademark grin, was an item called “Teddy’s Teeth,” a whistle in the shape of Roosevelt’s wide smile that could be used as a noisemaker at rallies. Another trademark still survives to this

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Theodore Roosevelt (above) changed the way people voted for president of the United States. Aside from his political policies, Roosevelt’s personality, charisma, and charm played a huge role in his campaign. He toured the nation giving inspiring speeches and winning votes based on his public persona.

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day: the Teddy Bear, originally manufactured in response to a story in which President Roosevelt, on a hunting trip in 1902, was presented with a young bear to shoot. Roosevelt reportedly refused to shoot a bear that had already been captured, and stuffed bears named after him were soon being sold as a political symbol. Roosevelt used the presidency as a stage—a “bully pulpit,” in his words. He left office in 1909 but continued to capture public attention with a highly publicized big-game hunting trip he took to Africa. Dissatisfied with the policies of his Republican successor, William Howard Taft, Roosevelt determined to challenge Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912; when Taft won the nomination, Roosevelt formed his own party and ran for the presidency as the Progressive Party candidate.

CHANGING TECHNIQUES The technological changes of the twentieth century dramatically impacted how candidates campaigned for the presidency. Changes in transportation—the development of railroads, automobiles, and airplanes—made it easy for candidates to travel across the country to present their programs directly to the voters. Changes in communication—the development of film, radio, telephones, television, and the Internet—have all influenced the ways in which candidates are presented and how presidential campaigns are conducted. At one time, campaigns relied on political rallies, friendly newspaper coverage, songs, buttons, and tokens

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to promote their candidate to the public. In 1920, the right to vote was extended to women with the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution. It was not until 1952, however, that women made up half of the country’s voters and campaigns increasingly focused on efforts to design ads that appealed to women. Some of these seem amusingly outdated, such as the potholder featuring Republican candidate Dwight Eisenhower’s face or the stockings embroidered with the phrase “I like Ike” (Eisenhower’s nickname). Campaigns also began to feature not only the candidate, but also his wife and family. The candidate’s wives hit the campaign trail, often separately from their husbands. By the 1950s, television advertising had become a critical element for presidential campaigns. The first political advertising occurred in 1952, when 20-second commercials for Eisenhower were aired during popular television programs such as I Love Lucy. This strategy proved so successful at reaching large numbers of potential voters that it has continued to this day. Television campaign ads use certain basic strategies to prompt a response in viewers. Ads attacking an opponent frequently show that person in black and white, perhaps with footage played at a slower speed, or shot from an unflattering angle. Ads promoting a candidate frequently position the camera slightly below the candidate to make him or her seem taller and more regal, so that the viewer literally looks up to the candidate. Depending on what image the ad wishes to convey, the candidate may be shown speaking before a cheering crowd with American

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flags in the background, with rolled-up sleeves chatting informally with a group of workers, in a classroom with young children, or relaxed at home surrounded by loving family members. Music is also an important element of political commercials; it may be ominous or somber in an

THE CAMPAIGN TEAM

A successful presidential campaign team involves many different people with a wide range of skills and areas of expertise. The following are among the key players in a presidential campaign: campaign manager: The campaign manager helps raise money, creates a budget for the campaign, hires staff, handles the press, schedules appearances, and helps determine the issues on which the campaign will focus. fund-raisers: The fund-raisers are friends and supporters of the candidate who help raise the vast sums of money necessary for a presidential campaign. The fund-raisers convince people to contribute money to the campaign; they need to be persuasive and must also be connected to people who share the candidate’s vision for the country. They use phone calls, meetings, mailings, and Web sites to raise campaign money. press secretary: The press secretary takes some of the pressure off the candidate by answering questions posed by reporters. The press secretary also helps teach the candidate how to answer these questions and how to stay on message—keeping the focus on whatever topic the candidate wants to discuss on a particular day. A press secretary needs to be loyal, poised, educated, and quick. Being funny is a plus.

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ad criticizing an opponent, or patriotic and uplifting when promoting a candidate. The central issue of the commercial is generally condensed into a few key phrases, something like: “Candidate X: Can You Really Trust Him?” or “Candidate Y: Working for a Bright Future.”

pollsters: Pollsters conduct national surveys to determine how a candidate’s vision for America matches up with the needs and concerns of voters. Based on the results of these surveys, a candidate can then develop a winning campaign strategy. Pollsters might ask a select group of Americans what issues matter to them, or what impressions they have of the candidate. Answers are then broken down by gender, age, geography, race, and other categories. Candidates use this information to determine where support is strong and with which groups a campaign needs to communicate more effectively. volunteers: Volunteers are unpaid, enthusiastic supporters of the candidate who donate their time to help a campaign. They set up campaign headquarters in every state to spread a candidate’s message. They help energize crowds who attend rallies, speeches, and other public events. They make phone calls to encourage voters to support their candidate, stuff envelopes, research news articles, and even go door-to-door to hand out campaign fliers and provide information about a candidate.* * Heather Holliday. “Look for Innovation in a Campaign Manager.” Scholastic, Election 2004: How to Run for President. Available online. URL: http://teacher .scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/election1/team/.

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In this 1976 photograph, Democratic candidate Jimmy Carter stands in a mound of peanuts at the Carter Peanut Warehouse in Plains, Georgia. Jimmy Carter emphasized his background as a peanut farmer far more than his experience as governor of Georgia to appeal to the American public.

Certain commercials have been particularly noteworthy in presidential campaigns. In 1964, a television ad (the “Daisy Girl” ad) made for the reelection campaign of President Lyndon Johnson showed a little girl plucking the petals off a flower, replaced by images of a nuclear explosion, implying that if Johnson’s opponent, Republican

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Barry Goldwater, was elected, he might start a nuclear war. In 1976, commercials featuring Democratic candidate Jimmy Carter nearly always depicted him dressed casually, usually in a rural setting, emphasizing his background as a Georgia peanut farmer and his status as a Washington outsider. In 1984, television commercials for President Ronald Reagan’s reelection campaign told voters “It’s morning again in America” and reminded them that the country was “prouder, and stronger, and better” than it had been fewer than “four short years ago.” In 2000, when domestic issues were the focus of the presidential campaign, one fascinating ad from then-governor George Bush warned voters a year before the September 11 attacks: “We live in a dangerous world of terror, madmen, and missiles.” At a time when few Americans were focusing on the threat of terrorist attacks, it is interesting that the candidate promised to “rebuild our military” and promote a “foreign policy with a touch of iron.” Four years later, political commercials for both President Bush and his challenger, Democratic senator John Kerry, focused on the ideas of “changing times” and the need for a “safe America.”

SECRETS OF A WINNING CAMPAIGN Modern presidential candidates generally have on their staffs multiple people responsible for the various stages of a campaign. Among these is usually at least one media consultant, who provides advice and expertise on the kinds of commercials to create, the issues on which

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to focus, and the image of the candidate that should be presented. In order to win an election, candidates have two basic challenges: to develop a message that appeals to voters, and to deliver that message effectively. Modern polling techniques enable candidates to learn which issues matter to voters so they can target those issues with appearances and commercials. These issues may vary state by state or even from one town or city to another, which is why presidential candidates may focus on issues like gun control when speaking to one group of voters and stem cell research when speaking to another. Media advisors are well informed on issues that appeal to voters who watch certain television programs, and they will place specific commercials focusing on those issues during those programs. If you become familiar with a particular candidate’s political advertising, you will notice that a different commercial might appear during a news program, a sports event, or a morning talk show. Each of these ads might focus on a different issue or present the candidate in a different way. Financing for television commercials can be the most expensive part of a presidential campaign. For this reason, candidates will also use televised campaign events— covered for free by the media—as an opportunity to promote their message and appeal to a specific group of voters.

6 Presidential Candidate I

f someone were to craft a want ad for a modern presidential candidate, it might look something like this: Wanted: Attractive, energetic, enthusiastic candidate for president of the United States. Must be willing to commit up to two years to campaign. Must be willing to travel extensively, smile continually, and chat comfortably with workers, corporate executives, small children, senior citizens, and men and women of different ages and ethnic groups, generally in the same day. Must develop a message that appeals to all Americans and deliver it, without mistake, every day. Must be willing to greet supporters and handle hecklers. Must

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never appear flustered, uncomfortable, confused, or tired. Must speak confidently of your qualifications to lead an entire nation. Must inspire others to share your vision for America. Must be a good fund-raiser and an excellent public speaker. Must be neither too slick nor too unpolished. Must have some political experience yet not be a political insider. Must understand Washington politics and yet be willing to criticize Washington politics. Must be in excellent health. Must have a past free of any trouble or scandal, and must have a loving and supportive family. Must be at least 35 years of age, and must be a natural-born citizen of the United States. When voters are asked about their ideal presidential candidate, they often mention things like honesty, energy, moral character, ability to be calm under pressure, experience, and ideas for addressing the nation’s problems. Some might stress that a candidate should be younger than a certain age, perhaps younger than 60 or 65. Others might suggest that the ideal presidential candidate would be a certain sex, or of a certain racial, religious, or ethnic background. Still others might want a presidential candidate who had served in the military, or a president who enjoyed hunting and spending time in the outdoors. Few modern voters, however, would say that their ideal presidential candidate must have been born in a log cabin or be willing to drink hard cider. Modern voters might be more inclined to vote against, rather than for, a candidate

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depicted as Napoleon, but in the nineteenth century, that very comparison was put to good use for Andrew Jackson. Voters no longer require a presidential candidate to be someone of humble origin whose life demonstrates a ragsto-riches story. It would not be possible for a presidential candidate to refuse to leave his home and to conduct a campaign by inviting prescreened groups to his front porch. Voters have proven their willingness to elect presidents who were Catholic or who were divorced; both situations might have served as serious liabilities in an earlier age. Political scientist James David Barber has suggested that there are cycles, or themes, for each presidential election, and the successful candidate is the one who best responds to the perceived demands of voters in a particular election cycle. For example, in one presidential election, voters might be looking for a candidate who is aggressive, a fighter willing to demonstrate his or her toughness in challenging opponents and proposing sweeping plans to lead the country. Four years later, voters might prefer a candidate who inspires them, a candidate whose morals and conscience focus on America as a land where people help each other and do good in the world. In yet another four years, voters might elect a candidate who is a unifier, a person who promises to heal divisions within the country.

COMMON TRENDS Although the qualifications that cause a presidential candidate to appeal to voters have changed over the years, there are certain common elements that paint a picture of the successful presidential candidate. First is

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education. More than two-thirds of all of the men who have been elected president have held college degrees. Nine presidents never attended college, although the majority of them were elected in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries: George Washington, Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, Grover Cleveland, and Harry Truman. Of those who did attend college, many attended either Harvard University or Yale University. Harvard counts six presidents as alumni: John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Teddy Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, John Kennedy, and George W. Bush (who attended Harvard Business School). Five presidents attended Yale: William Taft,

MOST LIKELY TO SUCCEED The candidate who is likely to become president of the United States, based on the average of all presidents, will have the following traits: •

College graduate, probably attended Harvard or Yale.

•

Has been a governor of a state.

•

Has a law degree.

•

Has served in the military.

•

Is from a small town.

•

Is 54 years old.

•

Is married with children.

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Gerald Ford (law school), George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton (law school), and George W. Bush (undergraduate). Most successful presidential candidates have demonstrated through previous political positions that they have the skills and experience necessary to lead the nation. Fourteen men who were elected president had first served as vice presidents: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, John Tyler, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, Chester Arthur, Teddy Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge, Harry Truman, Richard Nixon, Lyndon Johnson, Gerald Ford, and George H.W. Bush. Others have served as cabinet officers, ambassadors, or members of the House of Representatives or Senate. Serving as governor of a state is another way in which presidential candidates demonstrate their skills at executive leadership. A total of 19 presidents have served as governors of states or territories, and 6 (Hayes, Cleveland, Wilson, F. Roosevelt, Clinton, and G.W. Bush) were governor when they became president. Although serving as the mayor of a large city might seems like a stepping stone to the presidency, only one mayor—Grover Cleveland, mayor of Buffalo—has ever become president. Training in the law is another common trend among many of the men who have been elected president: More than two-thirds of all presidents have had some law-related education or training. There are, of course, exceptions to these trends. Military service is a common trend in the background of many presidents, and three men had no political experience were elected purely because of their service as Army

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generals—Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, and Dwight D. Eisenhower. Herbert Hoover never ran for any elected office before becoming president, although he had served as Secretary of Commerce and on several national and international relief agencies during World War I. Presidents often need to be educators, and 10 presidents actually served as elementary or secondary school teachers: John Adams, Jackson, Fillmore, Pierce, Garfield, Arthur, Cleveland, McKinley, Harding, and Lyndon B. Johnson. Six presidents taught at colleges or graduate schools—John Quincy Adams, Garfield, Taft, Wilson, and Clinton. Presidential candidates once were expected to own some kind of farm or plantation, in keeping with the tradition of George Washington as the gentleman farmer. In recent years, however, only one candidate—Jimmy Carter, in 1976—has highlighted his experience working on the family farm as a critical part of his campaign. No doctors or ministers have been elected to the presidency, although William Henry Harrison briefly studied medicine and both John Adams and James Madison studied religion. Most presidents come from small towns or rural areas. Only five were born in large cities, and several (including Jackson, Polk, Fillmore, Buchanan, Lincoln, and Garfield) spent their childhoods living in a log cabin. Age is also a critical factor for many voters when they determine which candidate will receive their vote. Presidents are generally in their mid-50s when elected to the presidency. Ronald Reagan was the oldest, elected to his

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first term only a few weeks before his seventieth birthday. John F. Kennedy was the youngest to be elected president, at age 43, although Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest man to become president. He was 42 years old when he succeeded President McKinley, who had been assassinated. Many men and women choose to enter public service because a family member has held elected office, so it is not a surprise that several presidents are related to others who have been elected president. John Quincy Adams was the son of President John Adams, and President George H.W. Bush’s son, George W. Bush, also was elected president. James Madison and Zachary Taylor were second cousins, and William Henry Harrison was the grandfather of Benjamin Harrison. Fifth cousins Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Roosevelt both became president. Most presidents have been married, although not all were married at the time of their election. James Buchanan is the only president who never married. Cleveland, Tyler, and Wilson all married during their presidencies. The majority of presidents have had children, either their own or stepchildren and adopted children. Tyler, with 15, holds the honor of having the most children. Being born in the eastern part of the country seems to offer an advantage to presidential candidates, although this has not necessarily been true in recent elections. The state that has produced the most successful presidential candidates is Virginia, with eight: Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, William Henry Harrison, Tyler, Taylor, and Wilson.

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WHAT THE EXPERTS SAY Although these broad characteristics shape a general picture of the background of the successful presidential candidate, there are certain other elements, particularly in modern elections, which can determine how and why a president is elected. Matthew Dowd, director of polling and media planning for George W. Bush during his 2000 presidential campaign, notes three key events that helped President Bush win the primaries and ultimately go on to win the presidency. First, the Bush campaign focused intensely on raising large sums of money early in the campaign. Second, the Bush campaign gained many endorsements from important and popular Republican figures. Third, the campaign was able to successfully “spin” (or influence) the press coverage of their campaign to position Bush as the front-runner for the Republican nomination, according to Kathleen Hall Jamieson and Paul Waldman in Electing the President 2000: The Insiders’ View. Dowd also notes that the televised debates—between the Democratic candidate Al Gore and Bush—benefited Bush, and that voter turnout (the number of voters who actually go to the polls) was another important factor. Stanley Greenberg, an adviser to Al Gore’s 2000 campaign, has suggested that Gore’s defeat in the presidential election was attributable in part to his role as vice president to Bill Clinton. In Greenberg’s view, the vice presidency can be a difficult role, particularly when one is serving under a popular president. The vice president is

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easily overshadowed by the president and finds it difficult to claim credit for an administration’s accomplishments (these are usually credited to the president) but is held responsible for an administration’s failings. Bill Clinton’s second term in office was tarnished by personal scandals. According to Greenberg, it was this issue in particular that contributed to Gore’s defeat: Based on polls, voters elected Bush because of a desire to “restore dignity and honor to the White House” and to restore “a sense of American strength,” as quoted in Jamieson and Waldman, Electing the President 2000. At times, voters choose a candidate with new ideas and proposals for sweeping change. Kathleen Frankovic, director of surveys and producer for CBS News, says that the opposite was true in the 2000 presidential election: “In both parties, the voters ended up choosing fairly traditional candidates and avoiding candidates perceived as likely to have new ideas. They chose candidates who they believed would follow familiar approaches to get things done” (as quoted in Jamieson and Waldman). The successful presidential candidate “stays on message”—focuses on the central theme or themes of his campaign and is not distracted into making incorrect statements or entering discussions for which he is not prepared. George Stephanopoulos, who served in the 1992 presidential campaign of Bill Clinton, in the White House as a presidential advisor, and then as a political analyst for ABC News, notes in his memoir All Too Human that in the Clinton campaign headquarters (nicknamed the “War Room”) a white

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board was posted on a pillar. Stephanopoulos describes the board as containing “a campaign haiku—an entire election manifesto condensed into nineteen syllables.” The board’s handwritten message was three lines: Change vs. More of the Same The economy, stupid Don’t forget health care These three topics became the focus of the campaign efforts of candidate Bill Clinton and of his campaign staff. The strategy produced a stunning victory over thenPresident George H.W. Bush, a man who had seemed unbeatable less than two years before. Finally, the successful presidential candidate must be thick-skinned and capable of withstanding the glare of the spotlight. Senator Hillary Clinton, a former First Lady and a candidate for president in the 2008 election, described her experience of her husband’s presidential campaign in her memoir Living History: Despite all the good advice we had received and all the time Bill and I had spent in the political arena, we were unprepared for the hardball politics and relentless scrutiny that comes with a run for the Presidency. Bill had to make the case nationwide for his political beliefs, and we had to endure exhaustive inspection of every aspect of our lives. We had to get acquainted with a

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The forty-second president of the United States, Bill Clinton, served two terms in office, from 1993–2001. A key to his presidential win was his campaign’s focus on the economy, health care, and the need for change.

national press corps that knew little about us and even less about where we came from. And we had to manage our own emotions in the glare of the public spotlight, through the course of an increasingly mean-spirited and personal campaign.

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HOW A PRESIDENT IS ELECTED Every four years, Americans are given the opportunity to select a new candidate to become their president. Although those elected to the highest office in the land have so far all been men and all been white, it seems certain that the presidency will become more diverse, both in terms of gender and race, in the near future. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention who gathered in Philadelphia in 1787 carefully considered the process by which a president would be elected. They formulated the plan for an electoral college—a group of educated, wealthy, and prominent men who would carefully study and debate the qualifications of the various candidates before deciding which man would make the best president. The creation of political parties, the increase of public participation in an election, and the arrival of conventions, campaigns, and public scrutiny of candidates has dramatically transformed what was intended to be a careful, deliberative process into a media circus. Although the Electoral College was initially intended to address the concerns of smaller states—that their voices might not carry weight in presidential elections—the reality is that certain more heavily populated states are considered key to elections and receive intense focus during presidential campaigns. The states with the largest number of electoral votes—California, Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Ohio— receive a significant portion of a candidate’s attention and campaign resources.

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U.S. president George W. Bush (right) and his challenger, Democratic candidate John Kerry (left), engage in their first presidential debate on September 30, 2004. Both candidates had qualities that would appeal to voters, including specific policy plans and prior political experience.

Political parties—an insignificant factor in the election of the nation’s first president—quickly became a key element in how a candidate for the presidency was selected and, ultimately, elected. Party conventions, although no longer the critical factor in selecting the nominee for the presidency, still provide a framework for a candidate to rally support and present the official platform for the campaign. The extensive campaign season also plays a key role in how a president is elected. Candidates must develop a message that appeals to voters, and then present that

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message effectively. They must raise large amounts of money to sustain the expenses of a campaign, must gain the support of prominent and popular people, and must effectively use the media—through advertisements, interviews, and appearances—to convince as many voters as possible that they are the best qualified to serve as the next president of the United States. The election of a president remains one of the most important events in American politics, providing every eligible citizen with the opportunity to choose the person they want to lead the country. George Washington was the unanimous choice to be the nation’s first president, but from that smooth and unified beginning has come a process that is more often marked by division and disagreement. People become deeply involved in the process of choosing a president, and strong emotions may mark the search for the best-qualified candidate. Candidates face hazards, obstacles, and unanticipated events that may turn their road to the White House into a dead end. They need skill, endurance, and luck if they are to transition from candidate to president. The process of choosing a president has changed in many ways from that first presidential election in 1789. The hope is that each change will make the process more democratic, ensuring that all Americans have a voice in choosing the person who will become their president.

glossary abridge

To cut off, reduce, or shorten.

absolute majority A number of votes making up more than half the votes cast. arms control Treaties, agreements, and other steps taken to limit the type or number of weapons or armed forces of a particular nation or nations. ballot

System used for voting for a candidate.

caucus A meeting to nominate candidates for a particular political office and to decide a political party’s policies. concede an election To admit defeat in an election. early returns Predictions of election results based on polls of voters after they place their votes. electoral college A group of representatives from each of the states who meet and vote for a particular candidate. electoral votes Votes in the Electoral College; the number of electoral votes a state has is based on the number of senators and representatives it has. media consultant A member of a political campaign who provides candidates with advice on political commercials, television appearances, what issues to

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GLOSSARY

focus on, and what image to present before a specific audience. party platform The stated goals and policies of a political party. popular vote A system in which citizens directly cast their votes for a candidate; the candidate receiving the most votes from citizens wins the election. primary The election used by a political party to choose its nominee. telegenic Someone whose appearance and behavior gives them an advantage or helps them to appear attractive on television. third party A smaller political party that offers an alternative to the Democratic and Republican party candidates; generally formed when a group has become frustrated with the major parties, often over a single issue.

bibliography Barber, James David. The Pulse of Politics: Electing Presidents in the Media Age. New York: W.W. Norton, 1980. Clinton, Hillary Rodham. Living History. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. Congressional Quarterly Inc. Presidential Elections: 1789– 1992. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1995. Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, and Paul Waldman, eds. Electing the President 2000: The Insiders’ View. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. Longley, Lawrence D., and Neal R. Peirce. The Electoral College Primer. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996. Mayer, William G., ed. In Pursuit of the White House 2000: How We Choose Our Presidential Nominees. New York: Chatham House, 2000. Melder, Keith. Hail to the Candidate: Presidential Campaigns From Banners to Broadcasts. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. Plissner, Martin. The Control Room: How Television Calls the Shots in Presidential Elections. New York: Free Press, 1999. Stephanopoulos, George. All Too Human: A Political Education. Boston: Little, Brown, 1999. Trent, Judith S., Cady Short-Thompson, Paul A. Mongeau, Andrew K. Nusz, and Jimmie D. Trent. “Image, Media Bias and Voter Characteristics: The Ideal Candidate from 1988–2000.” American Behavioral Scientist 44 (2001): pp. 2101–2123.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wayne, Stephen J. The Road to the White House 2004: The Politics of Presidential Elections. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2004.

Web Sites “America Votes,” Duke University Special Collection Library, Presidential Campaign Memorabilia http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/americavotes/ Archiving Early America: Your Window to Early America http://earlyamerica.com BBC Home http:/bbc.co.uk Cornell Law School, Legal Information Institute http://law.cornell.edu “Election 2004: How to Run for President” http://teacher.scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/ election1/ “The Electoral Count for the Presidential Election of 1789,” The Papers of George Washington http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/documents/presidential/electoral .html Federal Election Commission http://fec.gov “The Living Room Candidate: Presidential Campaign Commercials 1952–2004,” American Museum of the Moving Image http://www.livingroomcandidate.movingimage.us “Mixed Messages: Tracking Political Advertising,” Washingtonpost.com http://projects.washingtonpost.com/politicalads

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“The Presidential Elections: Weekly http://elections.harpweek.com

1860–1912,”

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“Presidential Elections Data,” The American Presidency Project http://presidency.ucsb.edu/elections.php ThisNation.com: American Government & Politics Online http://thisnation.com “The Times Looks Back: Presidential Elections 1896– 1996,” New York Times on the Web: Learning Network http://nytimes.com/learning/general/specials/elections/ “United States Presidential Elections,” Historycentral .com: History’s Home on the Web http://historycentral.com/elections/

further reading Boller, Paul F., Jr. Presidential Campaigns. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Congressional Quarterly. Presidential Elections: 1789–2004. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2005. Melder, Keith. Hail to the Candidate: Presidential Campaigns From Banners to Broadcasts. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. Saffell, David C., ed. The Encyclopedia of U.S. Presidential Elections. New York: Franklin Watts, 2004. Schlesinger, Arthur M. The Elections of 1789 and 1792 and the Administration of George Washington. Broomall, Pa.: Mason Crest, 2003.

Web Sites “The :30 Second Candidate,” PBS Online http://www.pbs.org/30secondcandidate “Election 2004: How to Run for President” http://teacher.scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/ election1/ Kids Voting USA: A Community Commitment to Democracy http://www.kidsvotingusa.org

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“The Living Room Candidate: Presidential Campaign Commercials 1952–2004,” American Museum of the Moving Image http://www.livingroomcandidate.movingimage.us “Presidential Elections Data,” The American Presidency Project http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/elections.php Rock the Vote: Political Power for Young People http://www.rockthevote.com USNewsClassroom.com http://www.usnewsclassroom.com The White House http://www.whitehouse.gov Youth Vote Coalition http://www.youthvote.org

picture credits PAGE: 9: 16: 19: 22: 26: 38: 40: 44: 58: 61: 66: 79: 81:

AP Images/Ron Edmonds AP Images/Doug Mills Art Resource, NY Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-8195 Library of Congress, LC-D416-29910 Library of Congress, LC-USZC2-2598 SM Graphics Art Resource, NY Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-31479 Library of Congress, LC-USZC2-6234 AP Images Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-107700 AP Images/Charles Dharapak

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index new ways, 50 nominations, 34, 44–45, 46–47, 50, 52, 60 polls, 7, 11, 68, 76 resources, 80 season, 54–55, 81 secrets of a winning campaign, 67–68, 76 slogans, 55 team, 64–65 and television, 55, 63–68, 76 today, 69 Candidates, presidential, 31, 36 announcement, 54–55 common trends, 71–75 early, 45, 55–60, 62 impressions of, 16, 19 public scrutiny of, 23, 63, 68, 82 requirements, 21, 34, 40, 69–71 successful, 76–78 today, 46, 52, 69–71 Carter, Jimmy campaign, 67 CIA, 8 Clay, Henry, 27–28, 46 Cleveland, Grover, 39, 72, 74–75 family life, 75 as governor, 73 as mayor, 73 Clinton, Bill, 74 campaign, 54, 77–78 education, 73 as governor, 73 presidency, 10, 76 scandal, 10, 77 Clinton, George, 24–25 Clinton, Hillary Living History, 78–79 Congress, 10 caucus, 45 commissions, 37, 39 House of Representatives, 21, 27–29, 31–32, 34, 36, 41, 73 leaders, 43–45 Senate, 8–9, 31–32, 41, 73 shaping of, 17

A Adams, John, 24–25, 74 education, 72 presidency, 27, 43 vice presidency, 27, 73 Adams, John Quincy, 74–75 campaign, 56 education, 72 election, 27–28, 36 Alaska, 12 American Independent Party, 53 Anti-Federalist Party, 52 Anti-Masonic Party, 45–46, 53 Arthur, Chester, 74 vice presidency, 73

B Battle of Tippecanoe, 57–58 Buchanan, James, 74 family life, 75 Burr, Aaron election, 21, 27, 32–33 Bush, George H.W., 75, 78 C.I.A., 8 education, 73 presidency, 8–9 United Nations, 8 vice presidency, 8, 73 Bush, George W., 75 campaign, 11, 67, 76 education, 8, 72–73 election of 2000, 7, 11–15, 76–77 family, 8 governor, 10–11, 67, 73 presidency, 15 Bush, Jeb, 11 Bush, Prescott, 8

C California electoral votes, 12, 41 Campaigns behind the scenes, 33 changing techniques, 16, 62–67 contributions, 50, 76, 82 early, 18, 32, 55–60, 62

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INDEX

Constitution amendments to, 20–21, 23, 25, 27–28, 33, 63 bill of rights, 42 and the election process, 20–21, 23 framers, 17–20, 23, 31, 33, 56 and manual recounting, 13 Constitutional Convention debates, 17–19, 23, 30 delegates to, 17–20, 31, 45, 80 Constitutional Union Party, 53 Continental Congress, 56 Coolidge, Calvin vice presidency, 73 Crawford, William, H., 27–28

D Declaration of Independence, 57 Democratic Party, 43 members, 7, 9–10, 13, 33, 37, 50, 76 primaries, 51–52 Democratic-Republican Party, 52 convention, 48–49, 55 formation, 43 members, 27, 29, 36, 43, 46 Dowd, Matthew, 76

E Edwards, John, 50 Eisenhower, Dwight, 54 campaign, 63 as war hero, 74 Electing the President 2000: The Insiders’ View (Jamieson and Waldman), 76–77 Election process challenging, 36–37, 39 changes to, 16 early years, 19–27 first, 16, 23–27 important, 15–16, 27–29 manual recounting, 13–14 modern, 76 polling places, 12 Electoral College challenges, 36–37, 39 changes to, 32–35, 39 chosen, 34–36 early years, 19, 32, 42 formation of, 19–20, 30, 32, 41, 80 importance of, 15, 31 majority votes, 27–29, 31 members of, 23–25, 27, 31, 33, 36 problems with, 21, 27–29 today, 39–41 vote tallying, 11–12 Executive branch and balance of power, 18, 20 shaping of, 17–18

F Federalist Party, 52 formation of, 43 members of, 27, 33, 43 Fifteenth Amendment, 21 Fillmore, Millard, 72, 74 vice presidency, 73 Florida electoral votes, 11–12, 41 and the election of 2000, 11–15 and Supreme Court, 14 Ford, Gerald education, 73 vice presidency, 73 Foreign and domestic policy and the president, 25 Frankovic, Kathleen, 77 Free Soil Party, 53

G Garfield, James, 74 Goldwater, Barry, 67 Gore, Al, Sr., 7 Gore, Al and congress, 8–9 education, 8 and the election of 2000, 7, 11–15, 76–77 environmental issues, 10 vice presidency, 10, 76–77 and the Vietnam War, 8 Government branches, 17–18, 32 shaping of, 17, 23, 42–43, 45, 55–56 Grant, Ulysses election, 36–37 as war hero, 74 Great Britain, 17 Greeley, Horace, 37 Greenburg, Stanley, 76–77 Green Party, 53

H Hamilton, Alexander secretary of treasury, 42–43 Hancock, John, 24–25 Harding, Warren G., 74 Harrison, Benjamin, 39, 75 Harrison, Robert, 24–25 Harrison, William Henry, 74–75 campaign, 56–59 election, 29 Harvard University presidents from, 8, 72 Hayes, Rutherford, 73 election, 37, 39 Hoover, Herbert, 74 Humphrey, Hubert, 48–49

INDEX

I Illinois, 47 electoral votes, 41 Iowa electoral votes, 12

J Jackson, Andrew, 46, 72, 74 campaign, 56, 71 election, 27–28 Jamieson, Kathleen Hall Electing the President 2000: The Insiders’ View, 76–77 Jay, John, 24–25 Jefferson, Thomas, 75 election, 21, 27, 32–33 secretary of state, 42–43 vice presidency, 73 Johnson, Andrew, 72 vice presidency, 73 Johnson, Lyndon B., 48, 74 administration, 49 campaign, 66 vice presidency, 73

K Kennedy, John F., 75 education, 72 Kennedy, Robert, 48 Kerry, John, 67

L Lincoln, Abraham, 72, 74 campaign, 59 nomination, 47 Living History (Clinton, H.), 78–79

M Madison, James, 18, 74–75 Maine electors, 34–35, 40 McCain, John, 50 McCarthy, Eugene, 48–49 McKinley, William, 74 assassination, 75 campaign, 60 Michigan, 11 Monroe, James, 28, 75

N Nebraska electors, 34–35, 40 New York electoral votes, 41 New York City capital in, 25 Nineteenth Amendment, 21, 63 Nixon, Richard M. vice presidency, 73

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O Ohio electoral votes, 41 Old Hickory and log cabins, 55–59 Operation Desert Storm, 9

P Pennsylvania, 11 electoral votes, 41 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania capital in, 25 Constitutional Convention in, 17, 80 Pierce, Franklin, 74 Political parties, 42 conventions, 45–49, 51, 54–55 creation of, 23 electors, 39–40 platforms, 46–47, 53, 56, 81 presidential nominations, 32, 43–47 roles of, 16, 81 third parties, 52–53 Polk, James, 74 Populist Party, 53 Presidential election of 1789, 23–25 Presidential election of 1800 events of, 20–21, 27, 32–33, 36 Presidential election of 1824 events of, 27–28, 36, 56–59 Presidential election of 1828, 56 Presidential election of 1836, 28–29 Presidential election of 1860, 47 Presidential election of 1872, 36–27 Presidential election of 1876, 37, 39 Presidential election of 1888, 39 Presidential election of 2000 candidates, 7–15, 76–77 events of, 7, 11–15, 67 result, 15–16 Presidential election of 2008, 50, 78 Primary elections campaigning, 50–52, 55 national system, 51 Progressive Party, 53 members, 48, 62

Q Qualifications and assets, Presidency, 20, 23 age, 72, 74–75 education, 72 educators, 74 governor, 72–73 law degree, 72–73 marriage, 72, 75 military service, 26, 56–59, 70, 72–74 small town, 72, 74 today, 69–71

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INDEX

R Reagan, Ronald, 74–75 campaign, 67 presidency, 8 Reform Party, 53 Republican Party convention, 47–48, 54 members, 7, 13, 36–37, 49–50, 54, 60, 62–63, 66, 76 primaries, 51–52 Revolutionary War, 23, 45 debt, 42 independence, 56 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 75 education, 72 as governor, 73 presidency, 25 Roosevelt, Theodore, 47–48, 75 campaign, 59–60, 62 education, 72 vice presidency, 73 Rough rider, 59–60, 62 Rutledge, John, 24–25

S September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 67 Spanish-American War, 59 events of, 38 States’ Right Party, 53 Stephanopoulos, George, 77–78 Supreme Court justices of, 14 rulings, 15

T Taft, William, 48, 62, 74 education, 72 Taylor, Zachary, 72, 75 as war hero, 74 Tennessee, 7 Texas, 7 electoral votes, 41 Tilden, Samuel, 37, 39 Truman, Harry, 72 vice presidency, 73 Tsongas, Paul, 55 Twelfth Amendment and the election process, 20–21, 27–28, 33 Twenty-second Amendment, 25 Twenty-sixth Amendment, 21, 23

Tyler, John family life, 75 vice presidency, 57–58, 73

U United Nations ambassadors, 8

V Van Buren, Martin, 72 campaign, 57 presidency, 29, 36 vice presidency, 46, 73 Vice President elections of, 21, 40–41 nominations, 46–47, 60 to president, 73 Vietnam War, 8, 48 response to, 49 Virginia Plan, 18 Voters eligible, 11 ideal candidates, 70–71, 82 persuasion and impressions of, 7, 16, 68 popular, 15, 18, 30, 34–37, 59 requirements, 21, 23 turnout, 58–59, 76

W Waldman, Paul Electing the President 2000: The Insiders’ View, 76–77 Washington D.C., 8 capital in, 25, 27 Washington, George, 31, 57, 72, 74–75 cabinet, 42 as first president, 16, 23–27, 42–43, 82 as war hero, 23, 26 Webster, Daniel, 29 Whig Party, 52 members, 28–29, 36, 46, 57–59 White, Hugh, 29 Wilson, Woodrow, 51, 74–75 election, 48 family life, 75 as governor, 73 Wirt, William, 46 World War I, 74

Y Yale University presidents from, 8, 72–73

about the author HEATHER LEHR WAGNER is a writer and editor. She is the author of more than 30 books exploring social and political issues and focusing on the lives of prominent men and women. She earned a B.A. in political science from Duke University, and an M.A. in government from the College of William and Mary. She lives with her husband and family in Pennsylvania.

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