A HISTORY OF T
LITERATURE ...-
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PROF.
T. P. MEENAKSHISUNDABAN,
Director, Centre of Advanced St'Udy in DravidiaR Linguistics, An'namalai Uni'Versity
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ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY ANNAMALAINAGAR �
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1965
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PUBLISHED BY THE
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY' with the grant made available for this purpose by the University Grants Commission, India
MAD� .4-T G. S. PRESS, MADRA$
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PUBLISHED ..
IN COMMEMORATION OF THE
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SIXTYE'IRST BIRTHDAY OF I
Sir Dr. M. A.
w�tk a Prayer for his Long life and Service to the cause ;
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University Education
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FOREWORD ·-
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Professor· T. P. Meenakshisundaran
who is now the
Director· of Advanced Study in Dravidian Linguistics in the Anna1nalai
University,
has
had
a
very
diversified
and
remarkable career. To a lar-ge extent a self-taught scholar and now a widely recognised savant not only in the domain of Tamil language ·and literature but of several other tongttes, he caine -into the profession of teaching, in his· own words, by accident.
He has successively occupied the headship of
the Department of Tamil in the Madras Presidency College and in the Annamalai University.
He has, on the occasion
of the Sashtiabdapoorthy of the Pro-Chancellor of the Anna malai Universityl Raja Sir Muthiah Chettiar, produced
a
stimulating and instructive history of Tamil literature writ ten with. S1J.Ccintness and clarity_. As he himself remarks, he has traced the modern trends
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and developments and outlined their evolution from early times. As in the case of other Indian languages, missionaries and
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European
scholars
were
responsible
for
introducing
masterpieces ·like the Tirukkural and Tiruvachakam to the notice of Western countries and it is impossible to over estimate the services rendered to the Tamil language and literature by scholars like Father Beschi in the 18th Cenfury and Dr� ·Po e in the 19th. Indian scholars have, also, b gin
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ning "from V. Kanakasabhai and U
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v. Swaminatha Aiyar,
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done a great deal io wipe out the reproach of neglecting their own classics. The. author, in his first chapter, deals with the various traditions regarding the Tamil Sangam or Academy and the works attributed to that period and he approaches Tamil literary history through its four periods, namely, the Sangam era, the Pallava period, the Chnla age and ihe age of foreign contact and modernity. sc�nic
an d
He pays special attention to the
psychological 'backgropnCJ. Qf the Tamil country as
FOREWORD
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it affects literature.
It is rightly pointed out that the poets
enjoyed not only the patronage of select individuals but of the people at large so much so that they were in popular parlance identified by striking phrases or images which they had created in their works. The Aham aspect of love rega-rd ed as the secret of life and Puram as typifying heroism, self sacrifice and simplicity of life as weij as charity formed the �ifferentiated constituents of Tamil poetry which is also based on a keen appreciation of natural features and phenomena. Professor
Meenakshisundaran
furnishes
a
very.
careful
analysis of the two Epics, Silapathikaram and Manimekhalai and indicates in a few pages the secular and religious life led in the Pandyan capital and its environs at a time when Buddhist and Jain influences were forcing themselves on the attention of the people. Dealing
with
the
masterpiece,
Tirukkural
and
other
specimens of ethical literature, the Professor points out the change in the rhythm and language from Akaval to Venba and shows us how an increasing emphasis is gradually laid upon the Jain principles of Ahimsa evidenced in daily life. It is pointed out that not a small portion of Tirukkural should be regarded as dramatic ·monologues representing the vision and experience of joy in active life as well as the expression of feelings of tolerance and universal love. The great contribuiion of the Alwars and the Nayanmars to devotional literature and the development of epic poetry '
in the Pallava Age culminating in the Jain Pernnkatai was followed in the Chola period by the great adaptation of the Valmiki Ramayana by Kambar which is assigned by the author to the tenth century during the reign of Uttamacholan. In a few striking pages, the author points out the significant
changes
deliberately
made
by
Katnbar
in
the
Valmiki
Ramayana. Dealing
next
with
the Periyapuranam of the
Chola
period narrating the story of a notable saintly group it is emphasised that there are two varieties of sai:ntliness, namely, -
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FOREWORD
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Vll
the one which cannot be copied by ordinary folk and the other which all can follow. In the author's own language, Chekkilar in the Periyapuranam saved Tamil from sheer imitativ.�ness of Sanskrit classics. Although necessarily brief, the study of later literary trends and the modern period is not the least interesting portion of this book. The development of Tamil prose through missionary influence and later on exemplified by Arumugha Navalar and RamaJinga Swami and Dr. Swaminatha Aiya:r and the recent· influence exercised by oratory, journalism and political speeches are dealt with great sensitivity. An accouni of the development of the novel, short story and the drama is brought up to date. Deserved praise is bestowed on Sambanda Mll:daliar's pioneering dramatic activity and on the in comparable service rendered by Subramanja Bharathi to devotional and nationalistic poetry. As the Professor re marks, an all-round development has been revealed by this survey and we may join with him in the confident prophesy that the future of Tamil literature is very promising. This account is a valuable addition to the literature of sympathetic and discerning literary criticism. Madras,
14-10-1965.
c.
P. RAMASWAMI AIYAR
PREFACE The second series of my lectures at the Department· of the South-Eastern Studies in the Cbicago University is printed here in a book fonn. These lectures are on the history of Tamil literature. I have described in my Introduction to the History of Tamil Langttage� how I was encouraged by Sri. T .. M. Narayanaswami Pillai, the then Vice-Chancel loi· of the Annamalai University and Dr. Miltor1 Singer, Pro fessor of Sociology of the Chicago University, to deliver these lectures. This gave me an opportunity to collect my ideas and give them a form. Naturally the scope of these lectures had to be very limited, offering only an introduction to a detailed study of the history of Tamil literature. It was very much regretted by students, teachers and the general public that there was no suitable ancl authorita tive text for the history of Tamil literature which was offered as a course both for B.A. and M.A. in Tamil. The books available either emphasise without any sense of proportion any one period of this history or restrict themselves to fixing the chronology without any attempt to trace the history of the literary trends. As the Head of t�e Department of Tamil and Research at the Armamalai University between 1944 and 1946 and as the Chief Professor of Tamil and Head of th� Department of Tamil in the Presidency College, upgraded for research, from 1954 to 1958 and as the Professor and Head of the Department of Tamil (Arts) again at Annamalai University from 1958, I tried to run this course for M.A. on lines similar to the course in the history of English and other Western literatures.. Since the students cannot pos sibly think for themselves in evaluating the literary great ness of ancient literature, whilst they can do so with con fidence and experience with reference to !nodern literature in thei� own mother tongue, I -preferred starting the course with the modern period, gradually going baclt, tracing the modern trends and developments through the earlier centu-
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ries to the earliest source. This method .was fol:IDd successful but I could ·not follow this in an introductory course nor in many articles which I was.�req1.1ested to write for Souvenirs, Journals and Seminars though- I-· did attempt in an article . of n$1�!. · But for the experience in t�aching this histo�y and ·. . . . . · wiitmg . ·§uch. articles I could not� ·ha�e�·del_ivered ··th�se. le�tures� - I must mention that the- staff· and �tudents ·of the �d -. the_ Linguistics>·nepattments of the. An�amalai lJmversity ·attended my ext�nsion le.ctures on this yerjrhls• · their ·delivery- ·at "'Chicago tory, as ·.it. were, as a · rehe . �s-al Jor . . ap.d'• improvements:� . . . suggested . . ·_. · I must confess ·that I came· into the profession. of . . teach• ing· ..Tami _ l: ·by· . sheer _acciden� of .coming into ��nt��� wit4 great· scholars,: one_ ·of wh.om . s� K� Vadivelu �!tett!y�r, ��Y. .Guru; was mainly.responsible ·for �eve.aling to--�e tJle.:. ·dep�4 of scholarship possible not q�ly � P4il0�9Pl!Y @4 __log�c b\lt . also · in Tamil language and literature. It is t1:Ue I . come of . . · a··· fariily l which ha� · been --at·· least for. three genet..ations �con� �ected ·with the development of Tamil studies. I still remem ber my grandfather · Guruswami.-Gramani feedlng.-me.·.even whilst I was a child ·with . interesting quotations from· Kurai. My father Sri Ponnuswami ·aramani was a stttdent ..of A�1 vad�am Subbaraya Chettiyar, one of the illustrious. d.i�ci� pies . of Mahavidv1an · lV.linakshisundaram Pillai aft;er·:whoin my father in his fulliiess of his love.of Tamil and ·Tainil�·scholars named ·me. My··.brother T. . K Pavalar . had · already··.made ..hls mark. in Tamil- drcima. -MY Tamil teachers lil�e Sri r shna; . .Ki swami Mudaliyar.: and. Sri Govindaraja· Mudaliyar in· the High Schools and especially. Sri Celvakkesavaraya· Mudaliyar. in the . College,·by ·Iove·� d sincerity, ill addition to. their-er.udition, have inspired me with ·a 1ove for Tamil language and litera; ture.. -. It·· was· my good fortune that ·I was really· 'initiated- into .. the mysteries of ·literary ·appreciation· as tholigh ·into a··mystic .· . experience by ·a Professor of :English, Sri ·K . :---:v·. Ramanatha . >�.Iyer, who: in the course of ·his 'lectures· on -English-. literature attempted to explain certam . depths in English Poetry . with . th�:Jtelp. ·of:� sUitable··_ quotations -froi:n .:Tamil literature : which a'.new :dimension to my··experience . . not only ·gave, as it'were� . . ..
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PREFACE
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of .Tamil poetry, but· also suggested a :t;1ew w_ay of �pproach · ing .Tamil.:poetry from· ·a refreshingly� modern point. .<>f yiew. . 'Ibe national movement trained my brain and my. h_eart to t�nderstand and appreciate better the literatttre and culture of_··: ·our Motherland . In the constructive programme of lVIaha#n�· •_Gand.�l. the study . and popularisation of. our -Ian. giiages-- had: ·an important place and during the freedom· strug- · gle·I concentrated on this work though I ·had rto ·basic degree . · · fu Ta�;· for, in those· days :our study. of, Tainil was stopped with t�e ·hiterrilediate examillation. Though I ·have .no formal . q'Q.alif!ca�on.S fo/ . �e�g . a_ Professor of "Tamil, my practical . eXperience: . fu. teac. hing ·Tamil .to Vidwan and M. A� Courses for_. pr�vate condidates on behalf o£ c��ai ve-tiinttt cafikam and '·Ce��ai-�-tami!-c•cankcim came to the notice of that great _patron of all knowledge in general and Tamil in particular Ra]ah .. Sir Dr�. M. Arinamalai chettiar;· who, therefore · �equest.�d m� tyears, th�s .·to- the suggestion given by. Sri C. Raja..... ··• gbpalacliari and Sri K·. Kamaraj Nadar, that since I was� not .· fu.terestecf-in ·active politics I should -concentrate on lriy Tamil Studies, i started. working in this field to become once· again a�-teacher first in the Presidency College, where · I was ·en cot.traged by the then Edu-cation Miiiister Sri C. Subra.:. .: ·.·manyam to f6llow my plans of development o£ · the Depart� ·. :: . ment.. At the kind ·and presshtg ·invitation. of -the then. Vice. Chancellor of the· .An_na.m�ai University. Sri�- M Narayana._.s\v.ifihi · Pillai ·and with the kind interest · shown by: its Pro Ch��:elit>r ·Rajah sh- Dr� M� A. iviuihiah Chetti�r ·�-���� . b�·ck ip i958 to the A:r1n�al;u Unly�r�ity, tbe -gr�at Cent�� · for··'r�mii lea�ing. ·These are the only qualifications for. iny._ . · · leciurmg on the Histori of Tamil.literaiure which. I ·hope the·· My appr.pach orthodox.scholars . not .judge as impertinence. will . . ' . . .. -· therefore.is from ..the·· public· point 'of view rather tha� from th� · scholarly and···purely. academic point . of-view., though these �lso have not been forgotten by mel' . -
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PREFACE
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I have to state that the Scheme of transliteration, here followed
is
that
of
the
Tamil
Lexicon
of
the
Madras
University. With great pleasure, now I come to express my grati tude to all those who h�ve shaped me in such a WflY to write this history.
I must especially mention Sri T. M. Narayana
swami Pillai and the late lamented Sri V. Subrahmanya Nadar, the previous Vice-Chancellors of the Annamalai Uni versity. Dr.. C. P .. Ramaswami Aiyar, one of the greatest sons of India under whom it is a pleasure to serve, is mainly res ponsible for sanctioning the publication of the work in the University with the grant made available by the University Grants Commission.. I must thank Sri A. Ramaswami Pillai and Sri P.. Arunachalam of the Tamil
(Arts) Department,
Sri M.. Shanmugam Pillai, Sri S. V. Shanmugam, Sri E. Anna malai and Sri G.. Vijayavenugopal of the Linguistics Depart ment who corrected the first draft of my lectures and noted down the references and Dr. Asher, Sri R. Radhakrishnan and Dr. A. K.. Ramanujam, who, whilst at Chicago were kind enough to read through my drafts and correct them. The pre sent form of the lectures owes a good deal to these, especially to Dr. Asher who made the English as tolerable as possible.· I must also mention with pleasure and gratitud� the names of the Professors like Dr. Milton Singer, Dr. Van Buitenen and others of the South Eastern Department of the Chicago University who by their presence at these Iect11res and by their searching questions and suggestions made me appre... ciate better the History of Tamil literature. I must thank. Sri E. Annamalai, Sri S.. Suseendirarajah, Sri K. S. Kamaleswaran and Sri ·G. \lijayavenugopal of the Lil\guistics Department for going ihrough the proof of this edition.
I am greaily indebted to the University ·Grants
Commission for making this publication possible. There were proposals for publishing it abroad but I am happy that it is printed in India and under the auspices
of the University which I serve.
Providence has so worked
PREFACE
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that this book is being released on the 6lst Birthday of Rajah Sir Dr. M. A. Muthiah ·Chettiar, the Pro-Chancellor ·of the Annamalai University to whose abiding and loving interest this University must be ever grateful. I am there fore grateful to this kindly Providence wh?-ch makes this book greet on this day our Pro-Chancellor with many happy returns of the day. Annamalainagar,
2-8-1965.
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T. P. lVIEENAKSHISUNDARAN
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SCHEME
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OF TRA.l�SLITERATION OF TAMIL LET11ERS a
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CONTENTS Foreword by Dr. C P. Ramaswami Aiyar ..
Preface
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Scheme of Translitera tion
Poetry
. Twin-Epics The Ethical Literature •
The Jain Epics The Epics of the Cola period Minor poetry ·.Later· literary trends Modern period
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Bibliography
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171
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General Remarks
Index
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Errata
Cailkam
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ERRATA.
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107
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112
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119
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emphasise
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last �
ku11-ra-k..;.kuravai
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Nan.ma?ji�k-katikai
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with
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poet's
poets' ·Culamttni.
CiiZcimani .
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Viraco!iyam
·seems·
Tulasidas seems
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NaccUJ_akkiniyar
Nacciu,arkk@yar
on
of
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131
3
Attita:g.
. 134
8
.Qamperuma:g.atikal
ijamperumauatikal
18
malai
miilai
138
23
Kulottu.D.kaQ
Kulottwikau.
142
'1
Talkappiyam
Tolkappiyam
32
appripriate
appropriate
57
Ciru-t-tirumatal
Ciriya tirumata}
ew
new
Cantra Cekar
Cantira Cekara
sages
stages
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AtittaQ
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144
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148
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are
150
2
tiilicai
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he
the
15 2
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vicory
victory
163
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Ka7J-1_1,utaiya Va1Ja1iiT
Kal):Qutaiya Vallalar
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Pattnattar
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love
Manitam venTatanre -
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Page
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EtTOT
Correction
pump
pomp
166
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171
19
kuraavanci
kuravanci
173
10
introduction
introductions
16
porul
pOTU�
20
Peruntevauar
Penmteva:g.ir
19
Civaiiinacuvimikal
Civafiinacuvirr.nfkal
Btschi
Beschi
wote
wrote
175
fn. 10 176
16
178
32
182
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weay1ng
weavmg
K.aQaiyaliy4J,
Kat;taiyiliyin
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Note: The· lectures are in the fortn in which they were delivered in 1962. It is evry much regretted that some of them who were living then. are no more with us. I have not corrected these and other such statements.
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GENERAL REMARKS
INTRODUCTION America was once considered in India ·a s its very anti.. podes. it
But, today, thanks to the aeroplane · and the radio
is India's next-door neighbour, working with her for the
cause of Democracy. ·In this modern world, Indians are interested in American culture, and the United States of America as one of the leaders of the modern nations is now interested in the study of the culture of the various Ian.. guages.
The National Defence Education Act of 1958 is im
portant from this point of view.
It is you� universal inte
rest in human culture that has brought me here to take part,
with joy, in the inauguration of the Tamil studies in this
University.
India is a federation of states, but it is, generally speak ing, a federation of linguistic states . its constituent states being differentiated by the languages spoken within each one
of them. The Indian constitution
all of them with literatures of
teen national languages
their own. amongst
mentions therefore four..
Tamil has probably th� most ancient literature
these
modern
Indian
languages.
Its
importance
consists in being a classical language and a growing modern language at the same time, as our late Minister of E duca tion, Abul Kalam Azad, observed when he inaugurated the Sahitya Akademi.
SouRcEs
DIFFICULTIES
This series o£ lectures will concentrate on the literature of Tamil. It is the historic march of its literature through the ages with its varying fortunes that is of interest to. us in this course of study. Tamil.
.Our sources are the literary works in
Most of the works in Tamil whether literary or
otherwise are in verse, and it is very difficult, unless one A. 1
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studies these, to decide whether they form part of literature in the restricted sense in which the modern age uses that word. Often in the Tamil country, even works on medi�ine and astrology have been written in verse, more often in a popular rhythm, sometimes following the classical style and sometimes the folk-song moti£.1 To write in these varying verse forn1s seems to be almost natural to these authors . . Apart from these folk-songs and other literary motifs relat ing to their verse form, sometimes some of these verses are not wanting in poetic embellishment and poetic charm. Even a work on grammar is no exception to this rule. Tolkdppi yam, describing certain morpho-phonemic alternations, seems to suggest humorously enough something like the figure of speech called oxymoron. Here is an example: "The \vind .is like the dew; the rain is like the wind; the sunshine is like the rain; the darkness is like the sunshine."'2 Really there is no contradiction because the sutras are about the. behaviour of ·the words denoting these contraries. The siitras sug.. gesting these indirect implications captivate the minds of the readers. And again, the philosophical works sometimes take the form of ·mystic poetry. As a result, histories of Tamil literature often include all these works within the special domain of their study, not omitting even the dictionaries in Tamil verses. But in the present study only literary \Vorks, including mystic and ethical poetry, will be considered. ..
There is an abundance of such works, but unfortunately, unlike the Sanskrit classics, they are not available for study . by the wider world of scholars through translations in English or other Western languages. Father Beschi in the 18th century introduced Tiru-k-kura1 to the Western world through his Latin translation. In the 19th century it was fortunate that the British administrators and Christian mis. sionaries,· including American ·missionaries like Hoisington, .
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Aka8tiyar,
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Paiica· pil.ta aruta
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Akattiyar citta vaityam etc.· 2.
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Tolkappiyar, Tolkappiyam, 241, 242, 287, 377t 402.
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GENERAL REMARKS
translated a· few o£ the Tamil classics; but most of them are found in the journals3 which long ago ceased to be published. Tiru-k-kural was translated into French, Gennan and many times into English.4 Dr. Pope in addition to his translation •
of Kura� has given the world a translation of Tiruvftcakam, the book of bhakti songs, and of Nalatiyfir, a book o f poetic moral epigrams. He has translated from time to time verses from the Cankam Age. There have been other attempts. Mention must be made of translations in historical writings and other studies of" Tamil culture. An attempt was made in The Tamils 1800 Years Ago to give a picture of the Can
kam Age with a few translations from the originBl verses.s
That a number of literary works available as the source of this history of the Tamil literature, in spite o f these at tempts, are not available in modem Western languages is indeed very much to be regretted, but this defect may be expected to be removed, when countries like the United States of America take an interest in TamU literature. But there are much more fundamental defects. One, unfortu nately, cannot be rectified. Many works of precious value, if we are to believe the tradition, have disappeared. Even .
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amongst the works known to a previous age many are not available to the modem age, except for a few quotations, found here and there in the anthologies and commentaries. Rajarajeccura natakam, for instance, a. drama known to. us from the inscriptions'6 must have been of immense interest
3. Journal of the American Oriental Society etc. 4. Murdoch, John, Classified Catalogue of Tamil Printed Books, p. 135. Aerial, Translated into French. Graul, Translated into German. Ellis, Translated into English. Robertson, Translated into English. Aiyar v. v. s.) Translated into English. Dikshitar V. R R., Translated into English. 5. Kanakacapai y, The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago. 6. S,I.I., Vol. II, Part 3, No. 67, pp. 306, .
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A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
4
as belonging to the age of Rajaraja· the ·Great; but it is no The works whi�h have come down to the. longer extant. modern age, in a few. important cases, }:lave not come in their entirety.
Many verses and many lines are missing in the Cankam verses ·of the Eight Anthologies. Only 22 out of 70 verses are available in ParipBJal; only 80 out of 100 in Patirrup-p-pattu.
Even in such popuiar works as Te'l'iiram
and Tiruviicakam many verses are missing. With reference to some of the classics available, there is another ki�d of difficulty because of the tradition of inter A nun, Kantiyiar, is said. to have included her verses in the Jain epic Cintama·'{ti;'7 another scholar, VeUiyam polation.
palaval)ar, is said to have composed additional verses in Periyapu�1].am.s
Perhaps they were not intended as inter
polations; they may be elaborations of some of the episodes, .
intended as separate and independent poems which probably have been added as part and parcel of the original epics by a later age.
Many see such interpolations even in the great
epic of Tamil land, Kampartamiiya7}-am. The colophons9 to �he Cankam verses are important as giving particulars about the poet and his patron.
Dr. cami
nlata Aiyar, who edited these verses, had to change these colo phons in subsequent editions because of the discrepancy between the colophon and the matter found in the poem it self.
Fortunately such cases are very few indeed.
Often the
colophon gives also the context or the particulars of the lite rary heading which the verse illustrates.
The commentator
Naccil]RrkkiuJyar of the 16th century holds that these are
7.
(1) Naccinarkkil)iyar, Commentary on Cintamal)i 3145. (2) Rakava Aiyankar (Ed.), Peruntokai 1549.
8.
Comacuutara Tecikar, Papnelim Niirrfu)tu-t- Tamil-p- PiiJa varka} Varalaru. ,
9. The colophons are the narrative passages at the end of each verse explaining the dramatic situation in which the particular monologue takes place, ·
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5
GENERAL BEl\IARKS
later day additions according to a later tradition and there.. fore not authoritativ�.1o The other difficulty is that many of the manuscripts in eadjan. or palmyra -leaves could not be dated earlier than the 18th century; .for these leave s cannot be preserved for long in the climatic conditions ·of Tamil land. Photo-stat copies of Tamil works in the cadjan leaves of the 12th cen tury A.D., preserved in the much more favourable clim.ate Unfortunately we cannot say of Tibet, have been made. whether they are at· present available for study. A careful survey of the libraries of Europe may bring to light older manuscripts. Even with reference to the manuscripts pre served, it is very clear that they have been copied by people who had not much learning. Here arises the question whether the reading one gets is that of the age of the cop ist. or that
y
�f the original
In addition to these difficulties t.extual criticism, as it .is understood in· the West, has not as yet been followed in the editions of the Tamil classics. It is the subjective impres sions of the editor as making some sense or better sense, rather than objective methods to. restore .the original through collation and reconstruction, . that .have guided the editors till now. In addition to all these factors, one has to aclmit a break in the traditional study of these ancient works !\S confessed to . the present speaker by the erudite scholar and editor Dr. C!a Because of the troubled times, there were miP.ata Aiyar. only a few scholars in Tamil in the 18th century. Before these ancient classics were edited in the 19th century, there was perhaps no detailed study of the Cankam works ex cept through quotations occurring 1n commentaries. To-day . the Cankam works are more or less well-known to all and are more popular. But i n the .18th century the East India· Company restricted by its regulations the printing of
10. Nacci:g.arkkin.iyar� Commentary on Tolkappiyam,
103.6,
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6
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
works in the indigenous languages by the native Indians. Till the restriction was removed in
1835
by Sir Charles Met
calf there could be no publication in Tamil.
The effect of
this interdict can very well be imagined. Immediately after . the removal of the restri�tions on printing, native presses .
began to be established, though they were still required to obtain a licence.11
The same was perhaps true of all Eastern
languages and older books.
The present generation O\ves a
debt of· gratitude to British administrators like Sir Charles.· Metcalf who worked incessantly for the abolition of this regu lation and for the founding, within Fort St. George, of an institution of Tamil. and other South Indian languages, an institution which started issuing many original works and editions.
Unfortunately even some of these printed works
are no longer available. All this only sh�ws how necessary it is first to ·make
an
extensive suvey of available manuscripts, and secondly to edit
in the most scientific way all the important texts. CHRONOLOGY.
I. TRADITION .
Any history can be only on the basis ·of the chronological arrangement of the facts available. In spite of the Indians being individualistic enough to demand often individual sal vation, they concentrated on the Eternal, beyond Time, rather than on the panorama of the marching of Time, according to the clock and Zodiac.
They were, it is true, interested in
emphasising the tragic; passage of time, but even then it is the generalisation rather than the particular succession of events. that has -been of interest to them. Poetic
truth
rather
than
historical
fact
has
driven
them to express their valid subjective criticisms in the form of
anecdotes
full
of
anachronisms
and
divine
miracles.
Therefore, not only has there been no serious attempt at
11.
Murdoch, John, Classified
P· LX.
Catalogue of Tamil Print�d Books,
-
having. anything. to do With . the.. Ullmber five as being. asso�eiated .with ..that ·epic's h�roes, the five P,§;Q:rJ_avas.. "The caves in whicll there are. fi�e Of more . beds carved. out�. are called after the Pfu.].r�avas: The rathas or temples in Mahabalipu� ··· ram are also called after the Piandavas� -The mention in·.t1ie . Cailkam verses of.- the Cera feeding the Five12 perhaps a . coniedera.tiori �d the Hundred is interpretea from · ve:cy earliest times as a contemporary reference to -the Mak!1-bM.; ... . .· >;• � : rata war. .. , · .·There is also the ·now well-known Indian convention of •
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ascribing the victories and achievements, whether . historical or mythological, of the predecessors to their successors. Fcir instance, the founding of the Tamil Academy is attributed to . many a f:landya king. The carving of the Cera insignia ori tlie· Himalayas is. attributed to·-iriany great ·Ceras of-the his� toric·ai· period. Fixing the age of any .p atron� ·and·· his · poet on the basis ·of any such .teferences, as is often attempted when .fixing the age ·of Ma1}imekalai, a TaiD.il -epic, is no · more than an imag-inary flight.. . .. . . . . ·. . To know these ·various quicksands · in our historical ·ex� . curs1ons . is- itself a way .. to escape them and 'to arrive at -the basic. historical core 1n the traditions.· The� traditions,,, taken as -a whole and shorn of an the imaginary·..dreams ·and· divine ; eneral picture of the. events·. of Tamil miracles; may give ·us ·;;g literary-. history. ·:�:Within. these limits one may accept the relative clironological succession of these facts 'as . ·given. by tradition, though it may riot be possible to accept the . metri� cal dating sometimes . attempted there. :
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· · 1-be. . mythological stories about a glorious literary past ip.ay be . the relic of a race memory �of an ·unbroken. _literary history This .niay .mean · ,nothing ., mo;re · �han _the fact .that Tamil has a very ancient literature. There .is�the. tradition ' relating to .the Cailkam age according to which ±he three Cankams. or Acad�mies arose one afte� _the other- ·and moved �
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9
CENEllAL :REMABKS
northwards to the new- capitals_ of the Pandyas when the �l�er capitals had been devoured by the Southern sea. The first was in the Southern Maturai where the first Academyt?f Tamil met under the presidency of $iva. The- second capital of the Pandyas which -came after South-the destruction of ern Maturai was Kapata,puram a name which reminds us of the description of the capital of Pandya, as found in Val mild's RJimiiya?}a;13 it was .here the second- Cankam pre sided over by Agastya met.. Lastly, once again after the . 4estruction of Kapatapuram, arose the capital, modern Madu rai on the banks of Vaikai; it was here the third Ca:il.kam was located.. -- · The tradition: lnay represent the ideal of a literary aca demy -presiding over the development of the language v1hen . at a later time there arose the dream of a golden era of the past Or it may be due. to a feeling that the current langu... age was not all that it should be. It may be also based on a tradition of councils like the Jain or Buddhist ·sangha, which were · also educational institutions. There is in the Cankam poetry the description of poets, bard�, the musicians congre- gating,- if we may use this wo.rd, during festivals in th� coun t:t'Y and in the courts of kings and chieftains.14 Ther� is �so the description of ·pattima1Jram or assembly of learned �en in the ancient epics.15 This tradition of a Cailkam· in all its . details has become crystallised by the seventh century A.D. _ when the TevaTam hymns speak of the Cailltam EO�try.16 . . . - . -·� ·_ -To this golden period are assigned what are called �he .. •
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How many
...
of
14
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these can be legitimately
:
�3..
Cilmin:ata Aiyar U V.. (Ed.), Puran�ilru, 2 . Pattu-p-pa:ttu-Porunar3r!:uppat.ai, 1�3. Pattu-p-pittlt-Cilup�uppatai, 48. _
..
15.. ca.ttauar, Mat.llmekalai, 1: 11.. 60-61.
ijanko Atikal, Cilappatikaram,
5: 1. . ·102.
16. ijamurukag. (Ed..), 'l'evaramatalikanmurai, 7000.
A. 2
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18. · Vahniki, Ramiym:ta, Ki$kinta, 42
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io
A
HISTORY OF
TAMiL
LITERA'iuRE
assigned to the ea-rliest part of this period is a different question; some may belong to a period succeeding it. Perhaps there are two strata, an earlier one and a later one. But within this limitation one can group them togethe-r as the earliest literature. This must belong certainly to a period prior to the seventh century A.D. .,
Next come the Vaisnavite and Saivite traditions about the Va�avite .Alvlars and Saivite N,ayag.mars respectively. Here also the metrical dating found in the tradition need not be relied on; but the relative chronology of the saints may be accepted as more or less correct. The stories of the Vaisnavite saints are narrated in a few books called Guru, Parampa'nfis 'Heritage of Saints'. The Saivite tradition . s with more is found in Periyapu'flii1}am and other pttt/t,fi?}am and more elaborations as the ages pass. These traditions are thus more or less valid for the Pallava period from the 7th to the lOth century. .
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Then begins the glorious period of the Colas and the period of the epics i.t"1. the lOth centu.ry. There is the Jain tradition and also the historical evidence of the inscriptions about the patrons of poets like Otta-k-kUttar and Cekkil8r who have - played an important part in the State.17 'I'his period continues with its later developments, perhaps as its own pale reflection, in an age of philosophical elaboration and systematisation. The interpretations of the hymns be- come a major activity of the age. There is a revival of the study of the ancient books. It is thus an age of commen... taries.
17.
NilakaQ.ta Sistri, !!'he Colas, Vol. II, Part 2 Appendix. Patron of Ottakkutar ·(1) Vi.ldci.ramau:; p. 610; (2) KulottuD. kan II, p. 633; (3) "Rajarajau. II, p. 647. Patron of Cekkilar�Anapayau, who is interl>reted as Kulottwi. .. :. . kau. II, p. 633. ·
Cekki}ar, S.I.I., Vol. V 59. Inscriptions, 445/1912, 314/-1929, 39/1906, 218/1930. ' ;
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GENERAL REMARKS .-
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· The · · Tamil..k1_.,-gs of .the · ancient lineage· have- .all ·dis �pp��ed.. · In s it� ·-of- ali- �the int�r�st .. sh�� by th�- · v'ij�ya• � . �,
p
·
l!�g�� ��gdon;t the�e�.is- �ot that i�spir�ti_o�� �ron1 �thir{ the- '1;� . cou��Y· There is the_ �radition an4 Gus�om of p�tro� l_lising the poets by ·chieftains. There is the growth of the · · r�iigfous.. mutts in -this ·pe�iod. . P���� ha�e t� I��· k-. �or�·-. cma.· ��r� .to the� p�tblic at -l��g� Th� ·.folk-�ong� �tt���t the. . attention o£ all kinds �£ p�oe� in addition t�· the songs 0� the.. temples ·where also the foik.:.storie� centre as the �ou.i-ce niaterial.. - There begins ··an age of literal translations from Sans- · krit, distinct from "the. adaptations of an earlier· age. Tamii cultUre travels to -.the .Telugu and Kahnada- ·country.. Reli of. the gion l k -songs and chieftains for1n the �three aspects· .. . .; fo . . . poetry of this . age, when Tamil land has lost freedom. its . . . . ·� Then begins the period of the Western contC\ct. · Prose, simple_ prose, comes more and more into prominence because of the Christian missionaries' special concern for the c�ild · and the downtrodden. One has a series·· of attempts at :. translating the Bible and at expressing Christian ·philosophy in Ta.mil}S ·The �Christians ·and ·Muslims try to identify · themselves with Tamil and . begin to write epics and other . . kinds of' traditional..poetry iil �amil itself, so as to popu�a-rize. . . . . th�ir·tenets and ideas.19 There are the . bards singing . the· .. .. .§t
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18.
Mnrdoch, John, Classified Ca�ogue of - TaffiU Printed ·Books.� . 19� . Beschi, Tempavai).i. · �a PiUai H. A., Ratcalfya Yattirikam. Umaru-p-pulavar; Cira-p-purfu:lam (etc.) . .. .· an · Katai. 20. Teciilku Raj . . ·. . · · � .Kat1apom.mau, K�tai. - . Kaucakip cat:ttai (et.c.) . . . . 21. Kanakacuntaram . Pillai T. (Ed.);· ·T�! Nav��r Carltai. . .
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12
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATUR�
Tamil land, still afloat among the people, and publishing them in book form in what is called
Ta?}i-p-piital tirattu and
Ta7J,i-c-ceyyu:p ·cintiima�i22 These are much more reliable than the anecdotes elaborated in an exaggerated way in the
Vi�otaraca Mancari of the last century,23 and in the poetic work Pulavarpur.i.i:l}am 'pu'nii�am of the poets', prose work
published in the early part of this century_24
This leads us to the modern period the 20th c�ntary
in
which we are living perhaps as participants and at the same
I
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time as onlookers, and therefore in spite of the wealth of ·material we are far too near the events to judge them aright. This survey of the tradition has given us a rough divi sion of the periods of Tamil literary history,
1.
namely�.
I I
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The
golden
age
of
the
Cankam
poets
and
its
continuation.
2.
The Pallava period.
3.
The Cola age and its continuation.
4.
The age of foreign contact and the modern age.
In cultural history, there is no watertight compartment There is always a time lag. to live side by side.
The old and the new continue
Therefore one must expect certain
amount of overlapping; but this does not in any way falsify the division made for purpose of convenience of study. CHRONOLOGY.
II.
OTHER CRITERIA
So much for the relative chronology.
So far the main
emphasis has been on the tradition which is the main source of our history.
But there is the literature itself.
There is
therefore internal evidence available, wherein there are very
22.
(a) Cuppiramal)iya Pij:J.ai K. (Ed.), Taui-p-patal Tirattu. (b) Kantacamik-Kavir.ayar (Ed.), Taui-c-ceyyul Cintama'Q.i.
23. V�ukopala-p-piijai M. V. (Ed.), Vinotaracamaficari. 24. Ta1J.tapfu:licuvamikal, Pulavar Pur�am (3rd Edn.).
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GENERAL REMARKS .
important references to the patrons.25.- -Sometimes·these poets· or their contemporaries mention. the date of the. composition· of the works; dates are mentioned. in the saka. era. · . Here -also various doubts-arise, doubts about the correct reading and doubts about their authenticity. There is a verse ,_which gives the Saka year 807;lthat is 895 A.D., ·as the year· . which the Kampag. composed his in . epic, said to have is . ,.. . . . . . ,... .. · Riimaya�m. · There is another verse which is interpreted as referr_ing to 1107 of the Saka· era, that is 1195 A.D., for . KarripaJ2.. Again somebody who had read this poem giving 807 saka year for Kainpal]., ·c omposed a verse giving saka year . -- 7o7 · for· the composition of .the Saivite epic KantapurBtiJ,am by. Kacciyappar."-. 'This is exactly one · h1Jndred years before Kampa�. Whoever . Wrote . the verse probably . wanted to. . . . . . antedate Kacciyappar. One may not accept his date perhaps _ even otherwise on the "basis of the styie of Kantapu�re�am. Tamil wavaiaT caritai actually me�tions one. Kantap'U/i*�fi1}am 6 2 ·century Kacciy,appar of the early 17th .... . v er, ::1��:·�.:-s Thereniay. difficulty, howe about the not be much . . . ' dates mentioned iri relatiori · to· the composition of the l�ter . . are clear cases of metrical poems of the decadent' age. There d�tmg. - Actually the late Cu:ittarafu - P$ai, the histo�lan; philosopher and poet of the modern Tamil revival, at the. end of the last century has started with the date me�tioned: by a· Tamil phiiosopher-poet, Um§paticivam, in the. latter's wo�k as· the date� of a contemporary philosophic debate viz.· 1313. . . •· · -. A.D: This was taken by ·Cuntaram Pi'Uai as the· first m.Ue. . · stone in Tamll literature_l27 the history of of From this p oint .. . " . . . . . . · ., � e View, w have more milestones ··available�· � -
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Apart· from these pieces of internal evidence--as to metri cal dating there. is ot�er such �yidence which 1i�Jps to date . with a dated , event. any event because of its synchronism . . . . . . . . . - ." • ... :"" . 25. Kampau.� Cataiyappa ValJal, 6 :· 38 : 38 (for instance) · ;. 26. Ka:tiakacuniarain Pillai- T (Ed.)�- Tami}·-N�valar· Caritai, 242, . . . . . Vol. I, · �7. TatnU A.ntlqy.ary, .· .
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A
TAA-IIL LITERATURE
HISTORY OF
The;re ·synchronism referred to� . . . .. . . ·": . . . .is . the Cenkuttuvan�Gajabahu in.· ·Qilappatik·ii'fa�, �he.. earli�st: Tamil· · epic.2S· Whether ·one agrees that _the epic· is contemporary -with the· events. .narrated . . . . t?r not, thi� synclrroni?m. establisheg by other evidences is the · · Sheet �chor f9r the CaD.ka� chronology. · · The· . Cankam age then -m�� hay�· continued.. �pta" · ·the:· end of :th� �econd . half · �ruled: ··over� Ceyio'n.. . of · the · 2nd -century A.D when· Gajablahu . .· � -. � -� �:· .. . . - . .· � �- _-__.�. : :·-= �>-':�-�·: .-...-.··� �- . _- ' . . -. ..The Greek and· Roman Trade . which i's. ·so well attested . . by Caitkam· .--poetry could not .have continued- ·after . . the 2nd · eent�y� . �s . shown- by warmington.29 The Arecamedu exca-- . in vations ·near Pondicherry; the . . erstwhile French settlement . . settlement,. . �o:uth India, -point to . .an ·old Roman proving· that . . . . . ·· the"' Yr.tva�a settlements. referred. to in Patirru*"p-pattu of-the Gankam age�0 me-not ,·�YThe Roman· . .. . a figment of an imagination� . bottle .found- there could be dated because . of the initials of its manufacturer,..- so well kno\V-n . to: stud�ts of Roman -history, �. nd this.wi�--take us to·the 1st -century- o£ the .Christian era:One has such � �Vidence for ·�the -other ·periods as :\veli. The reigns of Pallava,. .Cola ··and. Vijayanagar ·rulers are more plates and or les�_. w�ll fixed, -thfuiks to the inscriptions, .:copper . foreign references. ... For. instance, Appar, contemporary of a . . . . . . Mahendra Varma First nr the Second; the . . . ·Pallava, . . ..whether . canilot·... be later than the 7th century.31 Ci:ru-t-tol}.tar,- a . gerie-r�; is -the .conqueror. . ·of ·Viatapi, according to the tradition of Narasimhavarma Pallava -of the· 7th century and- is . a con.temporacy ..of the S�int Tiru:fiJ§:g.acainpantar who mentio11s the. �or1ner. by l_lame32 and· ·who therefore cannot be later than the !7th .century, for...we ·.know that Vatapi- was conquered- about 642 A.D.33 In this way one can easily fix-the dates of.. many -
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28. . IJa:rUto Ap.ka'J,_ CilapP.atikaram, 30 : 160-163. .. . 2i[ Warmington, 'The commerce betWeen th� ·-R�man Empire and India', Tamil Culture, Vol. I, l'l'o.. 1, pp. 286-295. 30. Cfuninata Aiyar U. V. (Ed.), Patir!u-p-pattu, Patikam, 2.. . · 31: Gopiila:tl,- History·: of: the Pallavas of . Kanci, p.· ss, 103. 32.. IJamurukatt (Ed.), Tevaramatatika�urai, 665. 33. . Gopal�1 History of the. P�lava$ of. K¢ici, PJ;l· 98-�9 ..
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iS. poets like Amitacakarar, Pu!tamittirar, Ceya:iikol}.�ar,.
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and most of the others,
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U.S combinations have been brought. together. This however is ·not to minimise the importance of: approac� but . of this kind . oiily to warn against the dangers.. It is through this approach that the ·dates of th·e Cola afid other kings have been -·fiX�d� It is again this approach which has yielded the date for ottr poetess and saint, ..A.:Q.W in the 8th century.37 · __
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Everyone of these approaches can be criticised as being inconclusive, taken by itself. If one takes for instance t.t.lte literary tradition alone, one would be tempted to conclude : that Tev:aram was never composed and sung.. There seems to have been a kind of black-out with reference to such kinds of literary innovations appealing to a wider public and intro ducing more and more of colloquial rhythm.. The inscrip... �.tions however from the 9th .century onwards make it. clear -;;
34. Indian Ephemeries, Vol. I, Part I, pp. 98�109. 35. Kampan, Kampa.ramilym:tam, 1 : 5 : 92. 36. Kr�aswatni Aiyailkar, Pr., S., Ancient India and South History and Culture, Vol. II, p. 647. 37. Rakava Aiyailkar, A}varkal Kalanilai, pp. 78-80. •.
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Indian . ,
16
A ittSTORY OF ifAMiL LITERATUR£
Te'Oilram
how I
has become widespread in temple worship and
SO(!iety.38 'f.he evidence of the inscriptions is, even otherwise,
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It appears therefore that the cumulative value of
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these various sources of our study, by reciprocal action and reaction, by mutual checking and rechecking, is much more than might be supposed. These pieces of circumstantial evi dence, when they agree, amount almost to a certainty. "i
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All this shows that we have only a blurred picture and
the general outline attempted in this course is the most that can be justified at the present time. One is still in the pioneering stage..
These statements and reservations will not
be repeated, hereafter, at every stage; but they have to be kept in mind..
This should not create a pessimistic impres-
sion that nothing definite can be asserted.
Once again one
has to state that this is not something peculiar· to the history of Tamil literature.
This reservation is, however, · made only
to show that future research may alter details, though it is certain the outline will be as it appears today, especially h1
view of the cumulative value of the circumstantial evidence.
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38.
151a.
Sl.L, Vol. ttl, 43, 139, Inscriptions, 41/1891, 423/1908, 624/1909.
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·CANKAM pQ·ETRY
2.
THE CANKAM AGE .·• There are references in ·Cankam literature to the Yavanas or the Greek and Roman traders and their settlements in Tamil land. One such settlement has been excavated at Arecamedu near Pondicherry. Some of �he objects like the bottles manufactured at Rome are ' assigned · to the 1st cen tury �1\.D l As the Roman trade · with the East more or less ceased by the · 3rd century,_ this · ca;fikam literature may be assigned to the first three centuries of the Christian era. The tr�dition about Cailkam poetry is as old as the 7th century A.D., when Tevfiram poet� refer to it as connected with. Siva.2 . It may -be that some �ater. poetry was �corporated in the collections of Cankam verses which have. come down to us. . . . . -
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1. Wheeler, Ancient India, Vol.. D, pp. 17-124.
2. ijamuruk�, (Ed.), Tevaramatankamnurai, 7,000. 3. Tolkappiyar, Tolkappiyam, 1420, 1421. A. 3
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A ittSTOrt'Y Oif' �AMIL LI'rERAftJAE
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some of the folk-stories come under the second category. Prayers, direct and indirect satires, humorous hits, expres... sions of humility to the 1ear�.ed as�embly and advice to others are referred to · under the first category. _ · These are mention ed· in .Tolkiippiya.m as eight" types 'of 'literary · COmposition 4 Of the�e, . · two· are .important:· one. in the literary_ dialect _;md the other· in tlie colloquial llialect�. - Again. ampp.g�tJhe . eigpt _tl��re , were compositions on old subjects, some intezniixe� � with_. prose. and some not, as agains� Cf?mpositions. on new ·�bjec.�s...; The others . relate to the occurrence of. certain . sounds-_ . nasals, vowels, long _:Vowels et.�. It. is not. possibl� t� . be w.or.e. de�t�� about these literary .-compositions . � � _J : -. · ,: . -· . . . · · · · CANKAM ANmoio aiES : ENuMERATioN- AND c£.Ass��cA.T.roN .. : . . ·. . .. -· - . .. ... .. ....... -: .. .. --. . . . --. .. . .- ---.. ·- .-..:·-_· . . : · '· : .. . · Cankatri· literature, � according ;to ·: tradition� .consists .of the� compositions of. the� third -·caAkani : . . There is a contto.versy� about 'the ·w orks· · to -be� .mclud�d: under . thls head ._. AJt ·.�r�;· . however, -agreed that Ettu�t-tokai �d Pattu-p-pfittu should be· included here; though-- ..eveif-·liere - some will . claim there. is · an : earlier stratum and a laier· stratum .-� But; : sin�e :-.o� at� tempt . is �- only .:.to·:. . .give-. an . . outline, these detailed· ::.distincti_ons need .not be · gone into .·. · �-- ·� _ __ . - . �. : . -:.::: <-�·� ...� : · · ::-: . .. · � ·� · � t �. Ett��t�tokai "consists o� eight an hologi s� .- To:k_�i :-_n1_�ans an . anthology: · Kali is · a. kind of. sori.D.et . in that it- · has · _ an ·illtro�uc_tory- part, a·.. co�clrullrig : p�rl . �pd :the body wh�re the centr.al idea· is _-e1a�orated;·_ b�t :kali · cari� ·roitend · t��many lines. . . bne huiuked· and fifty.· kali' verses 'have' been collected to-. . . . . gether - as� one . . anthol9gy : c�ll�d Kali�t-fukai. Pa�ipatal .. . is-. another. kind of song veiy ·:much like this kali but it is hiuch . more. �laborate -arid: a riiusical composition.. . Seventy·· ·of th�s� ·verses have· been collec�e� together; of · these· . only twenty. tWo aie- now extant� - jhls ·anthology is· called Paripatat. Thes� : o ·tw alithoioW.es have been· ·collected·· ozi the-ba.�is· ·afthe kina of metre the verses follow. The rest are in akaval and some. - times in vafici met:__re. ·. ... �� · .. - ·.. .. - � : _.-: : - ...:� :·. . · · .. · · . . . . . . .
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· �ere· is. a furth�r: distinction: between akam� �oetry and tmram poetry � distinction which will �presently· be discl:lssed :Kali�t:..tokai is alcam poetry; .. l)ut PaTipiital consists �£ both.. Amongst the remaining six· anthologies tw(> �elong to . ·. theputam divisi:on. One is . Patirru-p-pattu. It. consists of 'ten tens';: that is ·to _say ten groups _ of . ��11:. poems, each �en . having 1?-een sung --by a _poet . or . poetess in praise of one · :o� anoth�r of "'_th e_ · ten Cera kings, the rulers · of_ ·· the - old Xerala- This anthology is unique as· being in: praise of the Ceras . �e- ·rest of. the Puram verses; numbering . four htmdred, fortn what is - -r·· -_ _ :: .. .:·-. · · . . called· · Puraw�ru� . :� - · ·_ . . . -. .. . . · :· ,. .. . · · -_ The other four are anthologies of_ akam _yer$es.__· -Atr�ady . it has . been seen- that the basis of collection was.·in some cases . · · flie· nunibe:r· · of .ver�es collected.· There- is �one s�ries o£ short . 100 verses·· _ · (Ain-kttiu: · vers�s - consisting , of five g roups of . . . � �niiri£)- :·.. • . ' . . . . . ... . .. . . . .. ·. · � . · .In akani poetry,- there -is -a: five fold distinction..- One part is . kttr�fici.t the - mountainous -region considered appropriate for pre-marital . �ove. The . second' is. �mullai, the pastoral region which is the. setting. for ·the idyllic hom� life of chastity and · peace.· ·The third �· is· · piCilai; -�desert �·r egion, - enhaficilig� the . feeifug o£- desolation.in the··po·eti.jf of love fu Separation�- TJie· fou.rth· .: is neytal, -· the coastal " region nr the seaboard.; ·· ·enh�c . fu.g the- feeling- of - despair, when - in the _ course of pre�ma-rital love' there is an inexplicable continued a,sence of. the hero� ._ . · this agricultu-ral tract of" - ciVilised maTutam; The · . _ fifth . is · · . life 'fuil of ·wealth and .pomp characterised by the' institution of public . women: gives iise sometimes t<> suspicion ·a.n
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or:.�grouping irito,.tens was not1ced.. \vith :reference to Patiriu-ppattu:� The traaition of"tens--continues all through the history� .
of the �Taniil literature · up to modern J:imes: in. TirukkuraJ; itt -the poe-ms of A.lV.ars . anct Nayaninars arid various patikams_ - and· pcrttu's of everi modern literature. · �The ..tens m this antho•·· logy are nanied after the· word or line repeated in.' every· one of the ten verses. ·. Some� nf ·. them· are'"" named after the- · crow; tlie · .peacock, ·tlie monkey, the crab, ·the· mountaineer, # the . . bardS, etc. . ·. These poems. with . recurring lines,· phrases, .. or ideas -remind us ·of the foll{-songs. Perhaps the poets used· . the folk-song motif for writing the akam verses. - Kuru means sh_ort �d this anthology therefore takes into consideration - - .. . . - ..· . the nUnlber of Ime's �- a 'verse. . . . .- . . The number of the lines in a poem�also forms the basis. of the· ·remaining three akam - collections . 400 · ·verses which contain eight lines or less - are collected together as Kuruntokai or the short anth<;>logy. 400 verses which contain nine i� twelv� Ime� e�ch a�e coli.ected �is Na/rrinat 4oo verses which contam 13 to . 31 lines each are- collected 'as tiie. long· · · �thology, viz.' N ei untokal o r · A kawa�iif�. . . . .. ... . . ' . . · . ... - ... · The name Narri"}],ai for the· medium · anthology .is im-. portant. Tit1ai may mean. the fi�e-fold ·division. ..Nal means . . �great' or -'good'. Here probably it means the latter, the good� This conception of . the �g�od . as-- that . which doe� not go to either of the two extremes -in any aspect of life as emphasiz-- ing ·temperance in general; · reminds us of Aristotle's� concep.- tion of the good.6 In ·Cankam literature there- is a .. reference to the Ionian contact with the· Tamils · to their artistic chains, lamps and- wines brought from ·the.. West. Orai · 'hour' and mattikai 'whip' have- probably come · into Tamil through these Ionians, who sometimes, as already stated, had their ow-n settlements Yava�aTirukkai perhaps like the ·one revealed at Arecamedu excavations. The advice given to the great '· . . . . .. . . · .... -
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21
cANKAM POETRY
··
Pandya king Netuiiceliyaij. by liis great poet Mankutl Maruta� .
�ar, · emphasizilig the fl.eetmg nature of the fame and victory, .· �rid . of pleasure and greatness, whilst at the same time sing�: uig 'of his victory' glories and pleasures· and . clo'sing· with a
' pr�yer for- their continuance,7 can only b-e understood, Without cbntraaiction, in temis of the conception of the gond as the vt1 media. Perhaps this may help us ·to understand the poeli�f · descriptions of the ideal life of the ancient Tamilians as aga-inst · the ·later ideals of asceticism. ·The siri:lilarity between "'Vvhat may be called the engines of war on the fortress of Maturai . as describea· iii CilappatikJflram and · the contrivances of war which Archimecte�' invented has been noted ·by some recent authors.8
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on the basis ot subject matter or · on the basis of tne different dimensions. of the verses. . To be distinguished :from - . ·. these eight anthologies. _ so far described is the Pattu-p-piitf;tt This is also an . anthology of 10 verses which are larger than 100 lines each. Here again �he · basis is the dimension . of the verse. Though one starts with eight anthologies and Pattu�p-.. fJ�ttu, one thus ends really with · nine anthologies. . trietre," \
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CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES .. Ettu-t-tokai -
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The fust characteristic feature of all these verses is that they do not fonn a continuous · narrative. They . look like isolated or occasional verses each independent of.. the other. There is reason to believe that the great Sanskrit rhetoricia:ti · D�f)iJJ who lived in Tamil land in .. the Pallava court of Raja simha I. at the beginning of the 8th century A-.D. has taken notice of this. . ,He di:vides literary ,comp..osition into twG main classes: [i] narratives (totarnilai as translated into Tannl) ;
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A msTORY OF_--TA·MIL·:·LI'FERATURE ....
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[ii] anthologies · (tokainilai or·k�a) ; some of his - commentators,�
for.� the latter,- refer to . the Dravida or . Tamil anthologies.s - Eyen in . later . times _ the� .. tradition . �f . ta1],i-p-piittu,.· _ 'is�lated · --� · or occasional verse', · is -of -some .for�� and vitality in the Tamil ....- -land.-.= ·�It is. :to be noted . thatdescribed . . . . . the. --. .dances . in _ the '· . . Cankam Age or rather in Cilappt;t�ikaram, .represent _ _ only · isol�ted poses rather than a · cnnnected- story-.: or an•. ·event� . y _ .we dp .not have- arty drama This is probably the reason W� . or epic in that age, at least- _ in . learned - lite�a�e, ·though. _it is· not · possible to say anything about _ �� fo�.;songs or folk stories o£ those times. Thi� suggests that t�e: ancient epic Cilappatikiiram must belong to a .later. peri�·d; at . least to- _ the. ·· very end of the Cail.kam age. �. . This . absence· :. another · - of . drama however ·:. emphas�zes . . characteristic of Cail.kam poetry. - These-: ve�ses are all drama� tic _ inonqlogues: · The p
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Commentary on . Tal}.ti aiaiikarani S. 5. (Tamil) ; Sanskrit con.unentaries
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23 An. example may be given. This may also make us familiar with. the conventions of this poetry. A young man
and a young woman meet for the first time, providentially, and
become inseparable lovers at the very first sight.
He has
however to go home, arid this idea of separation, though only till the next day, gives_ rise to · a conflicting thoughts in the mind of the lady love. The lover, to reassure her., points out
that this love is not a matter of their choice; for this had not been designed by them. Nor is it one effected by their . parents; for even the� respecti�e parents are strangers to
each other.
Therefore the divine force of love which brought
them together is not going to separate them. significant simile.
a
The explanation is ours but according to
The clouds from a distant place come and rain
·_ tradition. . -
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in a field of red so�l unknown to it, moved only by the force of Nature. The hard cracking soil at once becomes soft almost .melting in water.. _ The colourless water now ·takes the colour
�-. and taste of the soil and becomes one with it.1o Here is a :: glorious example of give and take, of life and of commingling : love. No more the separate existence! No more the isolation! No more the self-centred love! This is now an irrevocable fact of union o£ souls in love. cempula-p-peyalnir, the .
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rained on the red soU of a field is a beautiful simile
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The proper name of this poet has been forgotten.
Those
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. today only as Cempula-p-peyalnlriar, after the immortal simile he has created. There is another tradition of the Cankam .
, . 'age of calling the poets and verses after the phrases which �orm, as it were, the heart of their poems. Recently
an
author
claims . that nearly 80 names of . the Cailkam poets are of . this kind of_ striking phrase or . word.ll
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· CANKAM POETRY
25
m.ake · a deeper impri:nt on the ground. Tlje-re . is howeve:r �h� _·habitual smile on· her face. But it is no:t � �e-al _smile; ��� -is o � false bloom from a void within. All . this makes him · read .her .· �houghts even as one may . read the · id.ea behind- an· :ex.pressive painting. She senses his decision -�o · cross the fruit less desert of ·pebbles abandoned · all through the ages, where .the-· pathways·· are full ·of ston�s, ·their piercing head� like ·blunted arrows, covering the - slope of the mol.Jntain, lieated - by � the rays of the sun, the · slopes on which the crystal-like . > .nelli fruits fall down in that jungle of the ·ancient· soil and . � "dried-up trees, � reminding one of the dice� thrown down. It :is significant that this passage through the desert reminds her ..prol>ably goes on an ·errand to amass wealtll, now, when he .. . of a game · of dice. She seems to say in that context, "If you this . desert, let me not. repeat the ancient think�_of crossing . . . � . you, that this separation is sta�ement.. so · often asserted . . by .not �lle path of righteousness.�' . She thin.ks of something ..else; sh.
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26
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A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
the nnumeriori, .. the- poetry of the inner inspiration of Jove, .
.something to : be -felt . and ·. realised but . only to be ·hfuted
-'a.t to · · those who have· had . ·similar experience. . The .hero is �no·· ,particular-person; . nowhere' should his name be 'menti4';)ned, . according to · the poetic corivention..13 · ·Therefor(! akam exp-resses riot something to be ·dated Witli reference to any particular person. · It is somethii.tg 11uivers�l; . 'Common .to.· all ·men, and thus seen and revealed in the -ideal situations oi a · m.an. It · is best revealed from· the various situations· of homely. love, starting as- . a 'providential and' natUral ' pre marital love The five various .. aspects or ·developments· of this love have already beeri · stated, viZ:· · kurinci� the first union, tteytal; the despair; ·mullai; the married · love of peace, piilai� the separation and maTittam, the ·sulky mood� ' . . . . . . . · · · of. lov�. l;lttram p,lr�ni is the- "outer . aspe " . .. ..·ct 6f this life . ... poetry �s, the poetry_ of. the phenomenon, the · life .of heroi�, . the · life of seU sacrifice,_ :the . ufe of .munifici�.nce the life. of . . gl9ey, · t4ef life of simpllcity and also� the tragedy of. life fro� · bi_rth t9. death:, all inspi..red by the basic princ.ipl� of. love. . . This can ile des.cribea. · The hero her� can b� Unagiri�y or . histori cal but �pmpJetely - fu.�ividrtalised. It . is . tru�; - it is _sti!J. the hup1ari ·heart.- ..·and . ht1m an life that are desci. ib.. �d. even . . ·here, . . bpt_ .. from -.:th� point.. of view ·of- . what .c�. be �xpr.e_ssed . and descrl��d · by th�· best �<>f _poet� �in terms of the� Vision. � . furawa1l,iJ,ru . we' . g�t.,. kings and �ha�te ���n describing their : ..,. : !".. � · ·advising the. kings and· their�-.�,adVice beingz foJ .. ideals, poets� - � � -· :· . · � .:. - · · .· . � _· · '.· � · : c · · eVeren r · h . e t Io�ed�- wi · . . . ... .. ... .· . ,. ..- . :-- -...· ·- . .. . · p -. ...- ... . ... . .. . ... -. .. . .. "' - . ..... . . ·· "If I am not true to my words let my · land be deprived of the presence· of · the : poets'', � ·says a king:t4· 'There. is the moth�� �e;n� . ��r _ child t9 _the battle fiel� . �d �shing to commit sUicide 'there .at the. 'false .rumour . thai her- child has b��k b e only to �d,. to :ber 3oy, �t he �� :.ly�g �ea4 · on �is. back, s¥t��ed by the enemies' weapons.1� ... ... . ... . .. . .
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·Th�re_ is. also th� . desp�r�te wo:q1an _who_ :.finds ... h�r_ hu.sband . fa11jng dqwn dead. . in: the silence .Pf the forest o.( J;igers, . w!).eQ. _ the_�$Pn� is ju_st . �e�ting, atid c�ie�. out, . �'_I_ am afr!li� of·_ crying aloud le.st_·_ th.� . _tig_er_ should . come p.nd__ carry ·you . away _ �d. . I-!:;nn�.to_o. we�- !o carry yo:u�'. _ l'he_ .next moment, forg�tting that.he .is diad, ..she_ ·craves,- "O, _ my _b�lov�d! .·Catry . me: on�..1� -
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-- - . . .- -- �· - . - . Therefore the _ impo�tant . featu!e .in. Ca.D.kam pQ_etry·:�is. �� � concern for the human life, � its ideals, ._ it� joy& arid _its _ · sufferings: . But. no poetry can divorc.e: itself from Nature... �· . Natm•e .. . comes here as the backgroJllld . and . stage for this _drama��of � human-. life. The human -drama-· or story i� _the _essence_ .of_ Cankam ·_poetry. .. It is called . .uri.-p�poru�. . The . time-space ·_ . is mutal . · continuum, .s o. to�· say, is the basic background. it poru�.:: Na:ture -_ has· her. _regional ge�graphy. the _fiv.e:-fold ·· . divisio�s· . of . . the ..mountaiD.s,' the .- desert, the·. pa·stu:r:e land, _the . seashore and the city. . These change their . colour and aspect · ·. in · accordance with the time of the . day and with the _chang. ing season. Each region ·has. its idealised time of the day and. · its glorious.- sea��n·.. This idealised aspect is best :z-evealed by · what is called karu-p-p()Tul, _ the concrete representation- . . · birds, }leasts,_ trees, flowers, cultivated fields,. grains, men .and . women,- their- varyin-g occupations, their games ·and dan�es, � · theil- feasts a n - d festiVals, · tl:ieir gods and worship, ·their �ongs · . · :; and music, their· musical in�trtiments and peculiar tun�s-- all·�. �- making .Na�ure . a: living and .conctete .background · for · h.u.rb.an · life. Thus Nature in· ·all its= varied and ' varying aspects· be- c1lmes -�portant as giving.� us the clue £or understan&g· . the. . : .. . .. · · · · · �onte�t· Qf the monoloiues. . _ · · . "�· - ·-- . . '�:. : ' Nature - in addition to being··· a: clue· ·colours the�-1ife o£�-Ulan:: -
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tha� is, how the human beings feel at times in the · presence of Nature. The droning nois� of the sea �ppea_�s ,like a -�oq.� . ing cry · very much like ·her own to the desperate-· · h-er r.· . .,. -_ -. .b... fue . .
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A
HISTORY OF.
TAMIL i.t'i'£RAftiRE
separated from her lover r?. The sea seems to mourn iri. sym- pathy with her. : .Sometimes a �arring .note is heard; an oppo .. sition or� disregard is felt . The ·same heroine sometinies feels . . that the sea which goes on with its dance of waves remains cruelly unconcerned about her .nwn s�erings.ts All these moods are too well known i:n any poetry . to need emphasis. ..
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Nature comes in also to enrich the suggestive and sym bolic nature of poetry.. Description of Nature, as in any high poetry, stands as a symb·ol to reveal to . us the- inner meaning of the story, as seen by the poet in his vision. The rain water, showered on the red soU and ·ending in comming ling, has thus become a symbol of deep significance and is . ttsed thus by the poet. The heroine, concerned that her lover . has not yet come .to her . as promised by . him, sees on the mountain of her lover the rich waterfalls, fertile fields and groves. In her description o£ this sight '\Ve hear·· the. · un- _ expressed sbxieking cry of her desperate heart, "How falsity thrives in this world ?"19 But there is also another reverber ation of the feeling · of hope coming to the sur.face. The· hero thus blessed by Providence can never be ·l1D1.rue to this love. TbJs kind of suggestion, sometimes occurring in more · than - � . __ _ one hierarchic layer, is called iraicci 20 . Nature plays another important part in this poetry as giving room for the free play of allegory� - · An allegory is also a· suggestion, but it is . like 'an algebraical forinula \�lhere all terms are replaced by · respective concrete nUmbers, at · a later sfage� Reference has been made to the heroine's sulky · . mood brou-ght . about by the hero's intimacy with public . wo1nen. The heroine is too cultured to make any direct refer ence to this. She however hints at this in a description of the land of the hero; for instance, where a beautiful and proud . _
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18. Ibid., 123. 19.
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20. Tol.kappiyar, Tolkappiyam, 1175, 1176.
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or house, the lotus the heroine, the nectar therein the bliss of . her ·embrace, t:I:te slushy mire the hamlet o� the pro�titutes, .
the the creepers the leaves, . and .the various tiny ... ... flowers .. � various . prostitutes and their companions.. It is a biting satire -
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Puram and · akam are but two aspects of the same life. Therefore Nature colours also the pu,ram poetry.. The espio nage and secret warfare starting with cattle-lifting called vetci� like the kutifici or pre-marital love already referred to, thrive. within the hidden spots of the mount�in.. The military encampment during the invasiQn called vanci is well provided for only when the pastoral land, full of stream and water, is chosen, even as mullai, the peaceful homely life; · demands
the . . idyllic surroundings. As marutam, the sulky mood inspired by the. public women, . demands for its proper background a . civilised urban life, the siege in war called u!mai occurs natu... rally with reference · to a civilised city, . often the capital of .
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22. Tolkappiyar, Tolkappiyam, 993, 994. \
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A HISTORY ()� ·ttAMiL :LittERATURE -
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CANKAM POETRY r
There is the dramatic actor coming as the guide, friend. and philosopher in one poem 25 In another comes the musician �With the seven-stringed harp r26 In the third comes the musi cian with tbe fourteen-stringed harp..27 In . the fourth comes ·the dancer�128 The last guides us all to the great God of Youth taking us through all the world, showing the vision . -· of ·God on the top of every hill 29 . ..
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25. 26. 27. 28.
Porunatarruppa1ai.. Cirupfu].ir!:UPPatai. Perump3.t}.irruppatai. Malaipatuka'{lam. Tn,.tmurl).kinuppatai.
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A EITSTORY OF TAMcrL taTERATURE -
Pa#i-na-p-p:alai brings out the unifying aspect; the life. -of -· · love .in separation and the very. life being. the . life .of .u nique .�ignificance and · victory or viiikai. The . poet describes . . the . .greatness, the pleasure, the wealth, the culture a�d the ideal �of the city of the Cola, giving us · a daily routine of the life of· that city in 218 lines. It· is 1>ne- of the traditions of .. the . Cmikam age to compare the heroine to the ·culture. and- the artistic perfection of any well-kriown . city. Having this in miD.d, the hero ·fu this poem implicitly-compares· and -contrasts the . city to - his lady:}ove; " he ·makes his fi.Jial -decision and . tells hfs irtind., "Even if I get this beautiful city I shall: not depart -from her.''30 . The city; the glory . of . the· Col�; . is thus weighed -arid found ·wanting arid dismissed ill iwo" lihes. The hero continues· to describe ..the ttn'ique glory · ·of Karikat�, his miraculous escape from -his enenlles, ·his· glorious" ,>ictory� the ·nnce beautiful ·and rich ·cot1D.trles. of liis eneffii.es becoming now an-irreparable waste,- · his magical greatness of sub]ugatirig . . all, . his. resfoiation of peace and plenty' his . building . up a country of civilisation ari.d cUlture, art arid� religion·, his life . · in a humble :family beautified. by - children· all ... that·. in 79 lines. Here are two aspects of his rule, the victory and· tlie p�ac.e, sym.polised by the pie;rcip.g spear hurled �t. the.. _en�mies and 't4e e9ol sc�ptre. ·giving sha�e to a1t = · The· io�er: Weig�s the separati�� from his 'lady loy��. an4 -··i)l<:l _res_ii1t�g: ��ery . as against th� cr11:el spe�; the feeling of separat�on ,.t�us weighed? _is mucll more �ru�l to b.ll]l;. ·· ,He y.r�ig�s, agail} til� . . ... .. . ·· · bliss of. Jte� soft e�bra¢� and_ the irispiratio�_o( th� cUltur�.of lov� a$ _again� t�e).ngp�atiop. �f the �c�ptr�, again to ..de�l�e · · · · �h�t� th� �at��r is nnthing_ in �compari�o� vnth ��� "bl�ss, of one side, lo�e.31. . lJ:er�. is.. ati � . wJll�li 4e�clj. . . be$ at . l�ngth, . but so. su�ce.ssfull}:. it comes 1o em�ha.sis. � th�t when the qther . _ . . . . side of the picture, it is �ot necess�y to �ay· anytliir).g more tlian a line, to assert by contrast, that the latter 1s. nothing com parable to tlie fonner.. It is like sending the ball forcibly against an opp-osing wall only to get it back vi�toriously without doing anythlng more.. . �ll. Ibid., Pattioappalai, 218-220, . 31, Ibid., 29�-30ll' . -
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33
CANKAM POETRY
to have been sung by the great Kurinci-p-p1ii#u is said ... poet Kapilar to explain to an Aryan king Ya!-p-pirama tatt� (Pirakatta.12-) , the messag� of love �in �amil poetry. The word Tamil itself is often equated with · this kind of poetry"32 IJ'he self� rigliteous· aspect- of thi$ · pre-marital love, its · o f· - ideal � . . · jo.in� ··service to -hu.znanity, sacrifice _and the beauty Nature of . ... . .. . . · ., - :· . . .C?f -inspir.ing . this·· lov�, .the varying and conflicting feeling� .joy, anxiety,- :_ ��sp��-- �4. -4appy �esolve, � taking . the - form · · · :i>f one· ha:hironious Jif�, ar� - all described . in this. poem.· . This : .Aryan· 1tmg : probably becall1e . a Tamil poet himself, . for. one finds a poem �from his- pen included in one of ·the anthologies.33 -
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�It has b��n sta:�ed . that· the .poet successfully disapp�ars as - · it . were ··in 'the dr��atic m9n�log�es_. But when � poet Writes . • more than 100 liries, • ·� � a number of · verses- or a long verse of sometimes more than 600, his personality is bound to ·be re. vealed in spite of ther 'fact tha:t ·he- : excludes himself from the dramatic monologue. In this way we get a number of great poets cl�-a�ly rnar�ed at}d i:J?.�iv!dualised like Kapila1� and · · ·. � · · _' · ··· �-- ·· �-: ·Nakkirar · ·• . · :: - · · -�· ·· · · · .... . . ' . t . - •· . · . . . .. - .. .. .. . . . . . � -
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3. · TWIN EPICS .
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ln this lecture the study of the two earliest· epics will be
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taken up · and their development described.. They are m the akaval metre so popular in CaDka:m age. These are two epics which are considered to be the earliest by many; there . are a few · who will bring these epics to the ·age· of the Palla:va supremacy. The two epics are Cilappat?.kJiiram and MaJJ-ime kalai.. The stories -will · be first summarised and then some . remarks on the epics will follow. These two have become so · connected with each other that a tradition has · groWn up · making them "twin epics'' almost ·having ·a· contemporaneous . OrlgiD.
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CILAPPATIKARAM
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StoTy
Tamil country was ruled by three different Iqngs... , · Its unity was thus not political but only the cultural uriity of the people based on the language and literature. Therefore the · story chosen by our poet, ijaiik.o Atikal, is the story not of kings but of the son of a merchant and the da�ghter of another merchant. The happiness of their marriage is affect ed by anqther woman Matavi coming as the lover of the hero. The three royal courts come as the background and the story moves from ·one part of the Tamil country to the other. The first part is called after the capital city of the Colas; the second part after the capital of the Pandyas; and the third after the capital of the ·Ceras. .
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The Cola Capital.
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Marriage takes place in the first capital, P�ar, amidst pomp and festivity, between Koval�, the hero and KalfQ.aki, the heroine. The first song is the song of blesSing showered on the couple by the elderly married women. "May your embrace be not weakened".1 Thus runs the blessings as
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TWIN EPics
35
though suggesting to the reader the weakening of the em brace to happen in the story.
This kind of dramatic irony
is in plenty in this epic. The lovers live on happily; Kovalan grows p·oetic in describing his Ka.I..tQ.aki; the heroine reci
procartes fully this love, but only through the silence of her modesty. But unfortunately this is not to continue. Matavi's dance at the King's court· makes her the greatest artist. Bewitched by the long sweep of her eyes Koval� purchases the garland presented to her by the King.
him her slave.
art make
Her beauty and
He forgets Ka.I,.l1.1aki and lives
almost a married life with Maiavi who is passionately attach ed to him. woman.
Here is a portrait of the chastity of a public
But her public performances and the loving eyes
cast on her by the audience, provoke jealousy in him. Even
after she· has given birth to a child this suspicion clouds . their life. At the end of a great national festival to which all throng from the Himalayas downwards to witness the
wonders of
the
Cola
city,
one of
these wonders being
Matavi's dance, Kovala:n. and Matavi go to the beach
of
that
city. Koval� sings extempore musical compositions of akam poetry to the accompaniment of the harp or ya!, compositions . consisting of the songs ·of a loving hero pining for the com pany of his lady-love.
M.atavi with the wounded heart, mis�
takes this composition as giving expression to his love for another woman.
Whai an atmosphere of suspicion! She sings
another composition as though she is in love with another. KovalCUJ.'s erstwhile suspicions are aroused.
of
Perhaps the loss
all his wealth in this life of pleasure, gives additional
strength to this suspicion. He leaves Matavi for good, though Matavi refuses to believe that this is the final separation.
Ka:I}I.laki, to whom Koval� rushes, welcomes him. She tells him that her precious pair nf anklefs is still there. He decides
to trade in Maturai to become from the capital city before the
rich as of old.
day dawns.
Both depart
On their way to
Maturai they are accompanied by a Jain nun who acts as a of critic to magnify for us all the details of the character
kind
and conduct of this c-ouple.
The •'
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The;y_ enter flie�-Pandya -coUntry- and now· hegiris :-the �2nd .
�anto 9£-the story called-1Vlaiuiai-k-10a1j.:J;am. The praises of-the iiorie� of- the :Pandya whlch are .. full · a£ dr�matic- irony for us 3re uttered by- Koval� himself; · The travellers Witness - the dance of ihe. huriters where they· hear the propnecy- -of the . greatness . of K�aki- spreading- out from the Konkti _.couritry to the · cera couri.try,- to the- whole of Taniil land and ·to the whole world}� A friend ' of Koval�, one who' knows the world of that · age� is surprised to find- the righteous Kova1� an·d.. . Kal}.'Q.aki- so changed. �We are iold Kava� was so_ ·righteous . ihat lie once saved an old.. Brahmin from . a ro,gue elephant Which-he·- valiant(v c-ontrolled without spi11ing any _'blood; ihat · to he ' offered,· moved : cries �is ovm· rue the "of the mother, by . the punishing supernatUrcil being in .the place of her- ctnri.mai �£ a son, 'and . that he rushed to .the · .help of -tlie_ poor-_ and forlorn . woman The poet in the earlier .canto· . io build- � tempie for Matavi -in- our heC1I'tS, ·has not - narraied all these glorie-s of. K�vaia�. :Kovai3J1- dreams of his fall whilst app:t;oa..; �hiiig Ma!urai. · . The- nun, coming to know of this� -el?-trusts: KavJJaki and Kovai� to the care of the innoceni· . shepherdess . �f<�llaturai; emphasising to her _the greatnes·s of KciljJ;laki:wl;lom the to .be the very divine form of cha'siity.� _ �ov.a. nun-. asserts . Ian ·partakes in the shepherdess' · hut of the simple �and lov�g Ka:QJJ. a ki. For th�y �ood prepared and served the first tu;ne by . . . . . have occasion to unburden their hearts. . Knowing, . as .. he- does, . his ominous drea�� he is ali tears; hut he moves sWiftly .away �ithout ;her . bowing· it·. The· royal jeweller of . Maiural. has ·Queen's anklet; -to him Fate drags. Eova��' who �tolen. ihe . . . . -a view to .selling Ka:QJJ.aki's anklet · _ The vill�in has · come with · thisbetween anklet and the_ ()ne he _};las �ees- the - similarity . . �tolen. Just at that momeni, in the Royal court of lVIahl:rai, . :the-:P�dya
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37 followed in haste by the Pandya who has D:f>W co�e �o hi� senses. It is at the juncture that the wicked court jeweller lriforms the king ·of the· discovery of the stolen anklet. In his haste� perhaps to please the Queen, the King instead of decl�r ing "Brilig him to be killed,'� titters the ·fatal ·words "Kill him and. bring the jewels",3 Even the executioners see that Kova... . - innocent in spite of all the machinations of the jeweller. lag is . . But · -a.n intoxicated executioner kills Kovalan. · This news spreads through the city; the shepherdess . . notices all kinds of ill omens and she celebrates the famous ritual · dance 'Of l}er clan. Kal}I}.aki is foreign to this state · a·nd now thought to be the· · widow ·of a thief, and therefore nobody speaks to her. She goe·s about crying in the streets� The ·sun alone ·replies: (per.. haps it seems so · to her) "No, your · husband is not a· robbe�-; the �ity Wi� ·be burnt".4 What a f'lteful suggestion! She meets her lord. The corpse comes to life to ·embrace her and deparis asking her to stay. Probably taking that as a demand for justice she rushes to the Pandya King, the lord of pearls. Naturally the Queen's anklets contaili the · pearls. Kal}:l}.aki ·· breaks her ·anklet. which has been considered the stolen- pro.. perty. · The ruby jumping out nf · it proves the innocence . of Kovala:g.. The righteous and penitent King drops down dead" The· queen .swoons and also dies. Kal)l).aki tears off one . of her breasts and throws it at the city of Maturai. . The city -is burnt. But the God o£ Fire receives · instructions from the �haste Ka:IpJ.aki to spare the innocent cows, brahmins, chaste . · · women ··an d children. Kal)l}.aki however does ·:not even ·get .". . the pleasure of having wrecked·- vengeance to ·her .heart's con tent ·and ·on her own accord. The patron Goddess .o£ the city ·�· appears before her and tells that all that has happened had _·. · · already been fore-ordained. Kal).l)aki breaks ,away her_ bangles and leaves the city of Maturat She · is however taken away by a 8ivii1e chariot by the messengers of In8.ra while . stand.� mg fatigued and crest-fallen under- . a venkai .free in the Konku country. ·� . . : .. �
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4.: 1bid.� 18: 50-53.
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The Cera Capital.
Next- begins -the · vanCi-k-ka�tam narrating tlie- events :in the Cera coUD.try. · The mountaineers go and report the ·Iast mjracle - (?£ . he:r·- ascent· to · the Cera · Kfug.· According - to . the adYice ·given · . t(i the Cera King by his wife that they·· should ·worship Kaip:aaki, he leads an expedi�ion to the Himalayas for bringing the stone· in · which ·KaJ.J:Qaki's image ·has· to
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ChaTactetistic Features
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anthological nature of the earliest Tamil poetry has �eady been emphasised. The birth of epic in such an atmosphere must have been rather difficult. It has however been noted that in the longer poems like Pattu-p-pattu.: some kind of narration naturally ·comes. Agai� in Kali-t-tokai and PaTi¢tal, the �alogue is_ -found to develop into what may be called a - dramatic scene. TI a ntW.ber of scenes coUJ.d: b� des cribed .in th well. known a drama . ways, the r�sult se may be � · .. or r�ther a dl-a�·a�i� - epic. . . It !s· this kind of development which probably· has led to the first . . great epic in Tamil land.. It consists of thirty long verses which can be described as monolo-gues - or folk�songs sung by any character in the. . . story nr by an� outsider as his own- monologue often quotfug the dialogues he has . known or witnessed. In this way · the. .·r. ..ela. . tionship _of this epic to the --dramatic monologues of . the - e·arlier - - - . _- . period can be easily understood. - - - - ... -- � The separate monologues in Cilappatikaram do not direct ly- tell us the story. The song of the ku�ra-k-kuTavai d�nce can · only imply that the mountaineers have seen Ka:Ql).aki . -
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TwiN EPlCS
being taken away by the angels at the end. The song of the ·dance of the shepherdesses. can only imply in the midst of
·all the rituals of the dance
that it is for driving ouf the evils
of the ill omens that follow Kovalag.'s death.
The song of
Matavi's first dance only tells at its end in a few lines that -:K!oval�,. purchasing the garland presented to her by. the King, comes to live with her. In addition to these implications and direct statements there are passages in poetic prose intro duced in between the songs exPlaining their context · and making the narrative continuous.
The narrative aspect be
. comes much more pronounced and clear in the third c·anfo . of this epic. · B'ut ·even there one can still speak of the drama
tic monologue.
It is because ·of this that whaf Professor
Basham observes becomes true about our poet.
"He could
-afford to be irritatingly allusive and terse in important narra� tive pasaage and lip.gers lovingly over interesting description".S .. ... , . Another · · nnportant characteristic feature of this epic is
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the folk�song motif, used very extensively on important occa... There are the songs of the sea-shore (kii1Jalvari) ' the . t vavari) the song and song· and dance of the hunters ('V·etu sions.
dance· of the shepherds (iiycciyar kuravai) , the song and dance of the mountain lasses (ku�r-k-kuravai) ' the song and the various kinds of "folk-songs, such as the song of the swing
the
;(uca.Z)-,
song nf the ball
"(ka.nt'UkavaTi) ,
coming in the
valttu-k-�ffitai ("song of praise") . There are other parts like tu1]pa malai where the heroine gives expression to her sorrow
·an.d desolation at the unjust slaughter of her husband. 4
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It- should be thus seen thaf music and dance play an . . . . important part in this epic. It is probably these aspects that
··give ibis work the name nfitaka-��k;iippiyam or "dramatic epic".· It is also calle·a · muttamil-k-kiippiyam_ "the epic . of · the three-fold Tamil." The three great arts _viz., m�sic, the ·great artistic expression of emotion through the m�dillm. of
:souna, .
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expression of the harmonious movedance, the artisti�_ . .
"
Bash�m,·
A�
· L., �'The ·\v�nder
that
was· India'', p.
470. •
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A �STORY - OF · TAw.nL LITERATURE
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· mel)t of the. b�dy, an artistic �xpr�sion n£ action, poetry, the · artistic . expression ef· the ��� . yi�ion; ail �these . thr�� �s : _the . . finest expression of the human mi�d and personality; are- con� ·. ceive . by · _:· the· Tamilians as const�tut�g the '�thr�e�Iold d ·
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_TaiDil'�.- ·The third chapter, arankerru loiitai; in sin_g�ng t� dance · of .Matavi, gives us a pictt.ire of the stage? and points ou� that the music, vocal and instrumen�al, and pQetry wer� -in
hannony
with 1\ffiat:avi's dance..
It is indeed a ha�mony -so
perfect that even" the King, as the leader of the culture -of ihe . State, honours the .young danseuse visiting her- first per. . fonnance _in his royal c-ourt and presenting her yvith . a-: garland
by
which fixed
. for it.
1008
gold pieces as- the price she can -demancl
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has _ a society _ iri . which . f�ee women }lecpme e�� . H��� �!!�. . .. .boq}111ents o£ . l;leauty and _art,.. though �his.,. implies _ !h� _e�il institution o£ public women. effects
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The story brings out the traglc
�owing from this kind of development, splittillg� wo�an
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hood itself into .two unnatural divisions; .of those� . whu serve th� . cause· of· chastity'""' and thnse who serve .the , caus� of -- art. There is here �-society grown rich - through---foreign trade.- and ·given to . the ··pleasures of life,· a . society -which- makes !the- pnsition -- .of a man- "'devot�d to art · suspicious - if . not· inlmnral; -be� . cause of this divorce of �rt from- chastity.-·: -Fate; -if .-one-_-·may apply this· name to social conditions, has set the--stage for-. ··this , . . : · "'_: . . -: .. . . , . _ tragedy . '· · , ·: - . � < �-· - :'"·' :·· . . . .. " . . .. · :To .l1e.. a perle$!t. specjiDen .�f _t;agedy, .th.� sto�y musi h:a�� � .. � �k ended with Maturai k a1!t�:m. J3ut th� tr�diti�� of /a- happy .ending .probably necessitates the . Va/iic.i-k=-kii'J'!tam It i�here we find Ka:t}:Q.aki achieving the. ·perfection. of· love. -�- Here �we are told -that the nun-fasts and dies.. �This ..nun who. believed :
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..in mere �· ne·gativism has been :. so thoroughly changed into a ' .saint, of loYe-·It is here we are. told -of. the death of the mothers ·-of . ti1e . hero and .the heroine. and also of Matari,. the '. shephe;r: _dess, . and it is here _ yve - learn . of . the. renunciation �of fathers . 'Of the hero and heroine and above all of the renunciation of lVLatavi and her
only daughter. All these emphasise the spiri
a�d ��aki, tual great�e�s a:p.d -glory of·:Kovala:g. ... •
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TWIN
41
EPICS ·
Pukar-k-ka'l!tam depicts the poetic sentiment of love, Maturai-k-ka"l}tam the tragic sentiment of Sok.a. rasa, and the Vanci-k-kliitntam the heroic sentiment of Vira Tasa. • -
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Cilappatikfiram is called after cilampu, the jewelled -
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The anklets seem to be tragic in their import except
ankl�t.
when worn by the perfect or 'deified woman. The very posses- sion by others spells disaster to them. The anklets are a
symbol and a foreboding of tragedy. In the beginning Ka:Ql}.a ki must have been wearing these anklets. ·Once her husband
goes away to Mlatavi, she no longer adorns herself and. there.. fore the anklets to·o do not have the good fortune of adorning
KovalaJJ. comes back and, as already narrated, ·Kal)l}.aki offers him her anklets. These anklets, as it were, drive them to Maiurai into the clutches of the court jeweller. After her.
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Koval� is killed, the anklet comes to the Pandya court. The Pandya Kin-g and Queen die. The circle must be completed . -
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and so at the end of the story K3l,;ll}.aki is deified .and adorned with these anklets. -
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The peet's heart
is universal in its sympathy.
This is
emphasised by his reference to the various conflicting sects, where the reader- feels the poet is becoming one with each of them . . This is not a condescending toleration but a -successful attempt at .actually experiencing the various religions day. . .
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There is . another aspect of this epic which shows the
universal love which inspires the author.
· ·
p£
In this story· there
is no portrait of a Villain properly so called. The jeweller is not painted ·as· one. He is greedy enough but perhaps a crea ·
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ture of temptations. Every character in the story is portrayed
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Patti1J,i WOTship.
In the villages of Tamil land a female deity is worshipped -especially in ·times of famine and epidemics.
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known by the name of Mtiiriyamma11- which means the lady of the rains
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A , mSTORY. OF TAMIL.: Ll'l'ERATURE
land that the chaste · :Woman :·brings the rains�. and�it'-is .there fore :�.probable tliat" Mfiriyamma'!], is the Patti�i : Deyo. :worship ped in Ceylon. · Iri the:. Tamil· temples �big ankl�ts ·made ·of . bronze are held in the hand and moved so that.:the sound of t�e -. �Qlli,.ng-=: stories �side . fuay� keep· �e to the_ g�ng� - s�g � - e · · - ·praise of the deity. It is thus cl ar· :that there is � an iriti�at� connection .between the . symbol of the anklet �nd the ..story. .· · -. of Kal)l}.aki, t�e chaste woman. It :is this fa�t - that�is brought out _by_ the name of th�.- epic · cilappatikJii.ra�. The cuit �£ �he _even 'into :. Ceylon .and. Pait.ini Deyo. . ��� wtimaD. spreads · chaste . . . . . .... - . :. ' ' . · · · · ·· · �o.rshipped even today. -
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. . . . � · _ The _ story closes . with- a - scene� where the auihor's great;.. ' · foretold nes� is by Ka:Q:Q.aki · -i. s by some . cen . herself and this �idered . an interpolation�? The poem itself ·. is' assigtied . to the . . second century on the basis of this -story, because this" -author appears as the· yotthger brother · of the ruling- Cera to �h�e . ·court Gajabahu of -Ceylon, of the · second cen:tuJ;y A.D. ,, caiDe · . at llie 'time of the consecration of KaDriald's temple� :·Ptofes-s s�r Nilaka�ta Sastri. admits - th� Gaja bi§h u�C�ra ck ohlam . . . · �Pl!t fe-els tlie _ c·ompositio;n ·of the epic_ to be -later�� - .Th -erefore · it e -place th he Will plac�it in ceritury. Attempts t� fifth . -.,. ... . ···-:; ..... . ' . . """ .. ....... . ·-'• .,.. ,.. .. .. . . . .. . ··� · . � later._ ciniriot be ac'cepted. .. The epic we . are· ·told· is based . on an. earlier _popular tradition. !\: reference to a - lady under �.the . tree· - With �- one - b-reast -lost - is � foftnd · · . m· a Cankam · Venkai . antlro1ogy.9 .-_There are a few:. verses - of·four llnes each at the end of so�e of· the thirty long verses of - this- epic · which are of great poetic · charm· and - dramatic b�auty and it is -_ suggested ,' . -""'·'�� t; .. . . . - . . . . . . . .. . . . . . �· = � ._ · �-� amr -(Ed.), Kalittokai, 16, 39. · 6. :Qavalak Tiruvalluvar, Tirukk.ura.l, 55. _ · "'-�-., - ·� 7� This view is expressed on Tamil platforms. · . Professor S. Vaiyapuri-p-PiU� however stat�s· : · th.at- .the --author ..
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� ""of - Cilappatikiaram · to inake :the ·Story · of his _ .believable as that �- . of the contemporary. event, � poetically introduces· �his· - episC?de ·· �,_ _ · '_ �-�- (�ee, his Dakkiyam81Pmalai, p. . 154).. - _ · · · s:·�- Nilakanta oasti�i� A History of South _India, p. 112.. . • .· .-· · ·- · �· ·.. . ... . attii;,.•r, (Ed.), Nar!Jl}.at, 216. : ' :. · • · --- · 9�-� Naray:n:tacaml Aiyar, P100 -
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they were part of an earlier version of this story 10 There is also a poem referred to as having been composed by patti1!i or Kann.aki.11 ..
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Relationship with Cilappatikfiram Cilappatikiiram is said to form a Twin Epic with Ma)]ti mekalai.. Ma'l}imekalai is by a great poet, Oatta11ar, often
mistaken for a poet of the earlier period. Epic ceases to be, by now, a mere collection of monologues. Though it is some times claimed to be· earlier than CilapptaikJiiram, a careful reading shows that this epic c'Ould have meant nothing to an audience which was not familiar with CilappatiklU:tram.. The Story #
The story starts with Matavi speaking tearfully of the greatness of Ka:t}:Qaki and refusing not only to take part any more in the public dance but also to allow this to her daughier, Ma.I}im.ekalai who has become a perfect danseuse.. Mai}.imekalai over-hearing this conversation is overwhe1med by grief. The prince of the land given away to pleasure is ·incited by the mother of MIB.taVi, who believes that it is a sin to depart from the hereditary duty of her clan, to become passionately attached to Mal}.imekalai. Later we learn that the prince and Mal'}im·ekalai were husband and wife in a , series of previous births.. Thus there is within and without her a struggle between her passion for the prince and her spiritual· leanings, the first fanned by the grandmother, the prince ·and the general dispo sition of the society, the latter strengthened and developed by her mother, the angels and the great Arava.:IJa Atikal, the saint of the epic. The prince pursues her but � angel magically :removes her to a distant island to reveal . to Manirnekalai her •
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view is e�ressecl on Tamil platforms. Amitacak:arar, Yapparuilkalam, Vol. I, p. 3Sl.
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44
and ��ssion. in life. . From her _ guardian. �ngel,. C!;fter · �h:om_ sl].e is hez:self-�named,_she ..attains certain magical powers. She comes to receive from a sacred pond on the .�yersacy of the Buddha's hi� a magical bowl which, when once filled by a chaste woman, is ever full -of food. The land is in the grip of a cruel famine and she _goes ever.yw�ere to fe�d the poor, the criminal, the needy� The prison ·house becomes the I�ous� of ;Q�arm�. ;Bu�_ afraid �� the _a�t_eJ?:�i�_ns of th�. J2_rince, she takes.- the folm of a well known. woman . of the day whose husband --mror �tunately comes 'and se�s the . pri.nc� p��uin:g -le�d;· hhn t� This mistaken ideiliity her �t the de�d of night. . · . to � rushes fall- -�n the princ� kin the p�ce. imekalcrl M . . · . · · · . · - - · · iw y c -�nd . • ·- - ·• FortunateJy she h�ars. . a divine _voic_e advising- - her _ to bemoan no more.- The queen puts her in a cell to �e hut because of her_ magical power she survives. The queen-sends a villain to . attack he� - modesty but Mal}imekalai - escapes by-taking the form of �a man.. The . .queen repents . and .Mal.li= mekalai . gges .about learning - the ienets ·of- the. various religi. . . . . . _.gions . of the day!' . . Learrifug of the· misfortUne which· h·as to . befall Kaviri�p:. . . puinpatti:Q.am, as the result ·of· an� erosion by· the ·sea, "Ma.tp.nie"kalai goes ¥to·wo�ship ·at"KatJ.'Q.a�'s temple in the Cera C:apital and tneri �to KJafici .to• 'h�lp.· the famliie. -stricken- people �theie· ... Her mother ·a.na- Aravana atikal .aJ.so -come there.. ·._ She. sits ·at ·the fe·et ·of -th� Ma�ter �na- §ai�t and performs .:tdpds��:. unfor� tunately the final portion ·of the epic�- is · missing. · · · · . -.· . . .CharacteriStic FeatuTe&: . ·The story. ha.S a :· religious. mot,iye, th.¢ propa_g�tion - of ·-B. uddhimn. . . -�There. a.re.· a. nwnb�r . of ·allusions to. a-uddhist . mythology a:qd _ philoso_phy,_ The po�t is also intoleralit, - bring� · ing �to. contempt the followers ·of other -religions· esp.ecially :the .Jains. -��ere are brought together the _vaxious.folk•stories prevalent among the Buddhists. has witli tlie . fo:Uow ai The discussions. whjch Mal).ime�a1 . ers of other se�� giv� _rise to a new d�velopment i� t.clilln birth
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The philosophical ..and--religious debates are� .:given epic grandeur .and ·written . m poetry ·Ofte� these ..are. c�lled · w-epics� -KU1l}talakeci is _one such_ work. �nC..luded . by . traditions ' amo�g the five major epics. .
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- The ..:verse .form is_ really perfect and th� gr�atness of J;he poet is... ·visible everywhere.. The.-author_ is full of hllmour, ... . thong� a. biting . humour, against other religions... ·His similes �e very expressive, as for instance when. he.. compares the - king and queen .of th� nake
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· � The:re is _a quota� on _in Ma'f!imekalai f;ro;Qt_ . 'firu-k-ku.raJ,�3 . aJ!d therefo�e Jt has to_ . b�. pla��d after _the _ period of Ti:ruYal.......
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�luvar"'- There .is a-. chap��r. Y�hi�h s-eem� to........, be a . tr.a.�sJation of · Dinnaga's work on logic.l4 It - does not �eem to _ be._ a part of the epic.. The principles of Cankya philosophy and others, �-also seem.· -to-belong to· an earlier age than the Cankya Klarika -an.d ·otlier· ·books now ·available. This epic may ·be- assigne1l to ·�an.-age 'following Cilappatikaram, in the·· period · p-r�ceding · the · : - Pallaita Supremacy. �
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.' - -- - - ·- A -New Character ··in CilappatikO.ram afld· Ma�ime-kala_i ·· ..
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. . ., . .. . - ·- . ·· · -Kavunt� and M�talal]. in Cilappatikaram� and Mava:Qa .. i· m- Ma�im�kalai � a�e important cha�acters m the struc �- � � Atika · < _. �e -�f these �o· epics� - The chorus plays an hnporiant part . -�- �:in Greek - drciina; as giving an expression of-� op]n·ion -on the - �- · action of· the drama-, even as it is taking place. ·Apart from this · . critical functi�n, the chorus represents-an� :agency� which knows · . · · ·· �-\more than · the· ·-actors� · In CilappatikiiTam, WithoutH· the. · nun . . . -· . .. ·--· ...
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oatta:oar, M�ekalai, ts.es.
13. 1bid., 22.59.. 14. Ibid.� 27
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HISTORY· . .. ·OF-· �A.MiL . -
LITEkAttlDE
..-Kavunti: wb.o-.�:.�ccompa��s�. K()valay. an.d.. .:K� . on _ �h�!l: . way..;. to�. Maturai, th� author · could . no�.· so . �ffectiy�ly . P.a�e of Koval�_ and : ��aiQ . created an ¢thically.. perf�ct portrait . · •
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Ma:talan. who narrates the previolis achie\renients of� Kova ..
. laJJ.JS �qually_ i�portant.. . But he is. important_from a di:(ferent . . · �lder, Point of view"' . He knows ahnost all �haracters as an the· . . . and outlives. most of. them. He knows . · more · �than· any ·�Of tl).e . . characters.. . He has travelled all over India. · His sympathy, · - his piety, his . life �of pilg�age, . his po'Yer of beautiful ex ; .pression (e.g. "the song of Matavi crushes. do"Wn.�the _Northern . .kings") , his saintly.· advice, his communication . . . with spititual . powers, and, above all, the reverence shown by all the characters including the spiritual power, C;attau, make it ;.easy �- for� us to -believe that· all. turn to h"im ·for. explaining .the past, · the present . and the future, not· of c��se like - an� .astrologer, . . ·but ·a s the man of great experience� ·He may be called a rcho�c . . . . . , � '' . . spectator (sa�in) in the drama. ' . � . In· Ma�imekalai. tin's kind �£ char�cter ·comes iri the fo�m of A.ravclQa A�a}. He· has a moral arid saintly stature. greater . than that· of· -M�talan. He.· knows all the character� and their .. · as well� personally. · Like IVLata,la:g. he is· theie birth s previous . from the heginn·jng to the end of the· story with a sug'gestion . that he lives thereaf�er as well. To him all come -for an ·expla. nation past, present and fu�ure.. He is. not merely worldly. . - of . - - ,r . -.,. · ·�·· · ·· wise · · like MatalaJJ; he is blessed- ·With ·a spiritual visron- aild .
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THE ETHICAL LI•rERATURE
4.
THE AGE
oF 'l'BE ETHicAL
WoRKS
Tiru-k-kural.
. The rhythm o£ the language is slowly changing- from a·kaval · to veT),p:a. The main feature of this development is the increasing frequency of longer . words. Even Parip,fital belongs to this verpp'i rhythm. This tendency has thus begun· at the end of the . Cankam age itself. But it becomes very . p�edoiriinant as we move from the 3rd century A.D. do\vn �ards. · _,We have a collection of eighteen works called Patin,err· �1�k-ka?}�kku. All of them are in 'V'l!l}p1a metre. Mutumo!i-k �afici is iri ·ve?Jtttrai, which is merely another kind of veiJ.p·ii �.et:w;e. 'rhe literature _ also .b ecomes more concerned with .
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The author of TirUrk-kural, one of these eighteen works, · is cailed Valluvar or TiruvaP..uvar� the pre:fi.X Tiru being added Jor· an that is' held sacred. VaJJuvaTS today form a class of · But from the ancient epics, astrologers among the Harijans. it '"is learnt that they were officers of state · who published the · royal proclamations.l Many anecdotes stirrot1hd his na�e. . ffig.:name- is connected with Elela, a Tamilian Ceylonese King. :._The ·Jains identify him with a disciple of one of their .Saints, ��-·Ku�taku1fpac�iLrya.'2 Another tradition narrates how he brought about the fall of the proud Tamil Cankam.3 He is � claimed by almost all religions of · India as . one of their · ad·;. hererits �· - .Dr� Pope hears echoes of the Sermon · on the Mount --� · and suggests that Tiruvalluvar might have heara ·· the sertnon . s �:· of the Apostle St. Thomas · who is said to _have lived at . . 1. Konkuv&l, Perutikatai, 2:2:32-34. _ 2. Cakkarvarttinayan.ar, Tirukkural translation, Intr. p. ·txvm. 3� Matava-c-Civafii:oa Yoki, Comecar • Mutumoli Vel).pa · · · TaJ.lta� Cuvamikal, Pulavar Purfu_lam: Tiruv.alluvsr Caruk . kam: n. . . (See also Parati, S. S.1 Tiruvaij.uv��) . .
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48
A HISTORY OF TAl'\IIIL LITERATURE
Santhome near Mylapore in Madras where there is a temple of TiruviJ.luvar4 and where according to one tradition Yal.Juvar lived as a_ . weave:r.5 - -All this only e�phasises tlie Universal appeal of his book� The author evidently refuses to be labelled- · as ·. a- sectarian. That is the . . · -secret of the . greatness of this book.. t
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Some. will hold is anterior to the Cankam· . that Valluvar , . .. .· . .. poets because _ certain phrases of his· occur in these ·verses 6 Others will argue that it was .Tiruva1Iuvar who had bor�owed · � · the�e· phrases· and' ideas.7 . •it is also pp�ted out. that certain. · later usages aie follnd · Jor· ·the fu.st. �time in . Tiru-k-·kurC1J, Cilappati�ram etc.8 If ·an author prefers the colloqui� tem1s� his language _ will . differ froni the established liier.ary � dialect.. . e Perhaps · this boo:K should b placed at the end of -the Cailkam period _if no� ·Jater. This vfew i� sup];)or�ed by the . tr�dition - a�ready mentioned. Cilappatik�ram and Mal]-irnek.a la,i quote troni this work.9 'lV.lanimekalai actually refers � to· him as 'poyyilpulava1}' ("the poet of unfailing truth) ".to Onl!- · has to : conclude �that this ·b�ok.-·_ is- earlier ·. ,th:an -thesE! - -two epics.. However ·we are· · dealing with this ·work after ·-the ''twin epics'·'; for ,the simple reason that - it forms one of the eighteen ethi�al works in 1Je7fptii rhythm, wliich characterised the period · start ing somewhere in the 3rd century and continuing · up to the � ·.. 7th - century� .:if not. later. :: . · . · _ · : . ': - . · . · . It has . b�en 'said th_a�··· ya u�a ;s �ouplets cp ta� . �Idea� �nd·. Ayu�� fouit�l ii K�a�andaloa, ·. K.�ruinasUtr�rt, Kauti1ya, Man1t. . . , . . . .. ......_ ... . . . ... .... •' .. . . . , · 4� · Pope ·n�. G. u., .·TlrtlkaJ kur transiation· Intr. ·5.� �Tro:i-tapfu:li · . Cuvamikal; Pulavar '·Purfu:tam: TinivaJ.!1lyar � Caruk.... kam: 6,- 33. - , . . , .. · � .. � · 6 _Par�ti, S. S., Tiruva1!Juvar,- _pp. -� , 6 7, . 8. .. · · -· _, 7.. lliid.� p. to:-- · · · ·· · . s. Vaiyipuri-p-Pi.Uai, S. Tamil-c-cutarmat)ika}, p. 70, nakkiya· ru · . . · · .. :.:� � mam.m p 137 . 9:. !Janko .AtiaJ i: ; .CilappatiKaram, 19·: 15, 16. . - . � ·• . ...; . . ·. -:� · Tirtivalluvar Tirukkural · · 555. : · · · · . .;. : .. . ·.· :--Ibid�; 55.. . ca�ir, Ma.tPmekaiai, 22: 59-60. 10!' Ibid.� MaJ}imekalai? ·' 22: 61:- � .
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THE ETHICAL LITERATURE
49
· vedic works.lt All . these Sanskrit works in their present ··fozm are :con-sidered to be· later . than the third or fourth -cen :tUry A.D. · ··TiruvaUuvar, . therefore, according to this school ·of · thought belongs· to the fifth· century or later� But som� . :.of the slOkas in these ·worlts mighi have beeri earlier, for as :'Vle ·now _have them they are· the final . forms · of a growing tradition. Even if · it is granted that Va:JlUvar borro\.ved. from some of 'them, . it would not necessarily follow-. that ·-he lived · as late as the fifth century. In � any case it is · .not clear why it .is assumed lhat. certain beautiful idea·s could -not have ·been ·g enie froiri Tainil into Sanskrit especially ..when ·sanskrit workS ·of· importance were written in . South · India. . 'Malviibhar.ata is� · found in its . ma.Ximum size only in South . India.- : BhJiigavatapu11a�am is ·considered to have been a work of South India� It will be foolislmess· to attribute ignorance . -of Sanskrit and earlier Sanskrit' works to TiruvaUuvar, but it· is equally imprudent that . all good idea·s whicll are of un1provenance. should . ye;rsal . . . . be attributed to Sansk1·it alone.. .. .�hould one to . explain the .well-lmown tr.a.. .. .go. to ·K, .fimasiitra ' . dition speard. · an .over. India, wh�re . _one wishes .another a !onger ;tife . at the . latter'� sneezing� In ·assigning .to Tiru-k� · kura] a pe.riod succeeding the Cail.kam _age aDd preceding · the period .o£ Cilappatikiir �d Ma'}imekalai, we may not be · Ja1' wrong. · ...
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:· �-- . A� for the other - seveh.teen. works in this· group �£ eigh:. teen, they p�obably beiong to .a period earlie� ·than "the �eventl� century. They represent more or less an atmosphere empha sising et-hics �d · sho�g the__ �uen-ce- of �he Buddhists and the Jains. - The .worship . · of the · faur Gods, s�metimes men� tioned in · the .Cank� poetr.y; co_uld not be brought down t� the period of Hindu revival _·of the Pallava age. The worship . of Tirimiirtti may characterise the Pallava peri-od · but -not the period of its supremacy after Mahendravanna I. The Sanskrit influence, including that of smrtis,. was . .. - felt in- .South. ...
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11.
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:Vrutaptirl-p-Pi!Ji1; �s.,
"''ami}-c.;.cuta�ikaJ,
PP·
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· ·72�17..
50
A HISTORY OF.. TAMIL LI'f.t!!RATURli:
--
. the· period of P�lav� Suprem.a�y. · Cer.. .. �rn India long . before . ' as being later,. but for tlrls tain .usages are often pa:inted out · ·no ·arguments have _been given.ll2 There are . at_times . certain statements made on the basis of subjective iinpressions but they a�e. _:tiot _of much scientific _value. . Pex4aps one 'VJill not .be wrong in assigning _ them to an age. ·b efore 650 A.D. . It .must · .be remembered that this group of works . comes to be · re'cog � as· great in the Y,appafru,riikal'ri-k..kfiiiktii· of .. the . lOth �sed · ce:Q.tury. An old commentary speaks· of a Ka1avtt!i ·as being in praise:. of Vijayialay� of the ·· 9th century. ·. Since .. Kala,va!i is a generic name for. a particular· kind of literary composi tion, the one referred to here may ·w ell · not be the .Ka1a�a1i . . warpatu of the Eigteen. But ev�n if :we allow for.. some of the works in this group extending into� the period . ·of Palla,la Supremacy, the tradition ·and the . poetic diction as a whole, belong to a period earlier than the·· seitenth century; for, by this time people looked back on them with love an.d reverence. -
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The period after the Calikam age and before the period of the Pallava Sup"�"emacy, is often .considered of . . the period d�rkriess in T�l History, the period of_ Kalabhra interreg. . . n'll:ffi. . r;rhis is the period when· the earlier line of kings se�ms t�. have suffered an eclipse because of others comi�g t� rule . the . Tamil country. Pallavas · entered Tamil laTJ.d - . estab. - -� · · lished· themselves at Kmici.
and -
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�ere is a tradition about a foreign ruler coming· to - rule over Maturai. ·One -hears also of .Kaliaracar or Kalabhras Jleco�g powerful, . and of their . . ultimate-defeat by · . the . . -_ . Pallavas. �
. - · Buddhism was· thriving in this period at Kailci from
where went Dii.ullfiga and Dam.ffiaoala - to preside over the famous -" Nalanda Uni-\7ers1tY. Buddhavarttla, a prince from there, went to preach . Zen· B-uddhism in China .·ana Japan..ta The Bud.clhi sts ·of South India · 'had wTitten books m Paii , even . . . .. .. ' . . · . . . . . .. . • ...
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·# 12. Ibid., pp. 68-70. 13. Leydon, Toung Pao, XIII, pp. 471-472; XXIT, pp. 253 ff. Cjstiri, Foreign Notices South India, p.. 14. . . Nilakalfta . . •
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51
now preserved in Ceylon. . An Jmportant sect emphasising love arose in South India and this was responsible for the schism in the Buddhist monasteries of Anuradhapura in Ceylon. Ma?!imekalai., which refers to a :Buddhistic co:p.tact with ·Ceylon, .probably belongs to this age. Accuta, a patron of Bud�st learning, was ruling over Kaviri-p-piimpatti.Q.am. The Jains however probably had Maturai as their centre. Therefore this period was great for the glory of the two great ethical religions, Buddhism and Jainism. ·Courts and scholars- were interested in in- a language like Palf writing . or Prakrit or S anskrit which would ·carry their message to the learned world of that day. The Tamil scholars, in order . . �o escape from the religious and philosophical conflicts, preferred to 'emphasise the common denominator of all religions and philosophies, by speaklng of the ethical principles, true . . to the spirit of the times.. This is not to deny that other · religious sects were in the Tamil country.. Ma·l}imekalai itself proves that South India then was the seat of philo sophical learning and religious sects. . .
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Many of these compositions probably belong to Maturai. They are the works of Jains _or of followers of other religions who· were students of Jain masters. All of them emphasise the principle 'Of ahimsa and the virtue of refusing to eat flesh. We have a teacher Ma-k-kay�ar of Maturai. His disciples are Kari Ac�, the author of Cirupaficamiilam and Kal)i metaviyiar, the author of :Ebati and Ti?}aimalai n:'urraimpat'lt,. The prefix Ka'!i suggests that · Kai]imetavi= was an astrologer. The names of the _ poets sometimes remind us· of the · Cailkam poets. One thing seems to be clear, that the tradition about the· proper names has not yet ch�ged in this age of Pati1J,;�ki!-k-ka?J,akku. Names like Piita:g., C·enta:g, A.taJ!, MuP.i, Kay�, Kari;- Kalft, · Kutaliir Ki!ar, Kapilar, A�, all continue in this age. The tradition of placing the father's name first and then the son's name where the ending of the first word is changed14 still continues,.·� as is . made. elear. : by . . . ·. . . ·- .. .
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14. Tolkappiyar, T�lkappiyam, 350. .
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A ittsTORY oi'. TAMiL. LITERATUftE the�. -nam� .Piita:iicent�.! The_ tradition.. of pr.efudng _1J,al or. na . t() show that:_they�are great_:aiso .continues .as is seen in,the name . Nallataij:ar. - On the. basis _of the identity. of names, one n.e-ed� � not .· conclude that the· authors · . 'of these . works are the Cail.kam.. poets of the .. same �ame.i · . · The style, t�e ,general .out., �ook and . cet:.tairi 'new. usages. that these. authors - came .Jaier than .the .older poets.. . . .
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· Kapilar �of ihl.s · group sings of the four ··Gods·-kriown to Pittam poetryls ·siv�, �v�u, B'alairama arid Subrahm�ya� The authors o£-Tirikatukam, · Ntii1Jma7J,i..:k-.katkai and Acaia�k-kovai worship ··V�u� · Piitaiic·entcqj:ar -·probably · bel�ngs to a · tradi.:. tion· -1ater tha�·· that of. the-· Ca.Bkam �ge� · · He · worships- the . Hilidu... Tr�ty :Siva, -V�u and Brahma.- Miivatiyar,:a:.perplex mg n�m�, is said �0 · have composed tlie initial verse' •of� prayer_ . to �Ganapati · · But the- old comm.entary does .not refer. to� this.. Therefore · this-� must he ·� a-later -addition. It has � to ·�be i:riote�d that the · w�ship of · Vinayaka �came � with · the· ·-"C:altikyas� ·· ta the Tamil land in the -7th..·century.1'6- Nalatiyiir;· at- lea. sf in two · verses,l7 refers to Muttaraiya:r- about whom we ·hear-1.&-the- 7th �
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£e.��.;� .-�o�e.- a!gue- thaf this is a . title, though coming to . · . there�oJre,� it may. b�� ·earli�r as denote.. . a. . clan later, .. · . . · · ·are f r� � r rich g d Th ti.�. n -, w a ul patro t r · · � po � � �ll! � . . �� . others who- will hold that, even if these two ver�es�are. later, ogy rtS�lf e�; b.� g -�� :ru;._ �arlier -age, the
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having ·been... collected . subsequently�· :"'-·-. .. . ' .. . .. . . ·-· -. . . --·· WoRKs : THE.· CoNTENT .. . - .. - · "- -· ·· · oF · mE ETHICAL . -·· . . .. ... - •'
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\:. .2· 1Q;-� � ��I@��t ·�a�_!'P�� �: .: . . . . . . 16.. MiJJak�cuntaran, T. P., Pirantatu Eppapyo, p. 11. _
17.
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T.I.S.S.B.P. Society (Ed.), : Nalati,�ar; _200, '306. .
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virtues, Porutpal ,or the part on · artha or. government a11d. society and Kiimattu-p-paL or �the part on kfima or love. . It will be .seen that there . is. no specific mention of mil�a or sal vation. .Bui the division on dharma or aram includes chapters which treat of · final redemption or salvation. Therefore the wprd aram .should . b� taken to mean vir-tue in .all . its aspects not excluding. . the seekin_g -after salvation. Such a usage is fo11nd . in Jain and Buddhist .works and also in Ma1vftblvi1·ata which speaks of . mo�adharma. . This division into dharma, aTtha and k�ma is different from the division into akam and puram.. ..:A�am · will include only the ideal love, and all other aspec� of kiima,. artha · and · dharma will come under puram. Va.Uuvar's. kiimam is of the akam variety .
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Kiamam.
strong tr aditio n of the Calika� age is_ Tiru-k-still in ' ... . The ' . ·kura�. . In the third part, Ksamattu-p-pal� every couplet is a . dramatic monologue of the akam variety. Concen�ration or . . economy is- ,at itS height. According to . an . ancient tradition · . it· is said. this . part w�s divided into three · sections., firstly �p�eches . only by women, secondly only by men and. thirdly that these by both men ·� and women,18 thus emphasising . couplets are. ..dramatic .monologues. · . . �- � � According to another old tradit�on the 25 chapter� nf ·this part on love were divided according to the five-fold division of. akam poetry, each division containing five chapters� · · This again shows that the Catikam tradition was- still powerful�- ·
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:£: _ .· :According to this arrangement; maTutam, the sulky -mood :� ·· _. . . · · of .-love is sung in the last five chapters. . Here is a revolution introduced by TiruvalJuvar in akam po�try.. He . has condem_n : ea� the institution ·of prostitution elsewhere19 and it, is not · . fiossibl� for ·him ·to introduce it here as inspil'ing the sulky . · mo-o'd; · As� is- always- the · case �th our p6et, he understands the fundamental nature of this sulky mood in love and sings .. : ·�
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18.. Ibid., Tiruval}uvamalai, 27 19. Tiruva]luvar, Tirukkura}, 92� .
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A HIST0ay . . . . · . OF. . TAlVdL . tiTERATUR.E . .
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from _that bas�s. 4ka� po�try :4etaUs th� . r¢alistic_. �harac.t�Qf $�. �nj:ve�.s� . ��p�c�. of loye 41 its relation l;l�tw�e� ._twQ. h:uman souls lJ�qught tog�tP.er by Providence and N�tm:e. Bl!t ·tiU this happy . o� two �in�s h�o�ous commingling now . . · . li$g in . diff�rep.t surro�dings, wit4 diff . erent . �ttit1:1c:les to . life, cannot b,e established in their daily. action, il;l _·o�� _day, _ �· U1 the outside world.. _Ther� _is �ere_ the struggle to b�co:.;ne . 9ne through giv�-and�take· in· ihe course of inevital:>l� . mis�. understandings in· such an e�vir<;>nment. But there. . _· "is _also the· final . �evolution and realisai�op. . of the Jo'Vhlg squl. -�This is iitp,l or marutam, the ...- sulky .m�pd followed by _ a _loy�ng. em�rar:e whe:Q. the _co�ingling . is achiev�d. _ . . This empha�is_ on the loving embr�ce. is_ Vc;ill.uvar�s ��W _c.onc�p�io�.-of_ 11JLLT'I),�tam. Even in the sulky_ ·mood the ·he art runs a successful race against the seeming reason. "I followed the path. of ·th� .-sUlky� mood, fo�getting :that my ·heart followed · the . path of . . . embrace", says the heroine.:2o The hero reads .·her- thoughts: · "Her .eyes expressed the sulky mood bui hankering for the embrace·�m.ore . than � e; she stood perplexed'"2t- -There -is rapture at the very . . . · · thought: . "Delight . at · the- · · mere seeing belongs hot- � to wine, but only · to love.''22 i;3ecause of this, a hero -welc·omes· . this kind of utat There-is a whole chapter (Pulavinit?J;ukkam)·: where, because of this, the · heroine purposely· ;inisinterprets the It is .a. new. picture of . ·and. remarks of the .hero. · . · behaviour .. . . . marutam poetry that we ·get in Tirti-k-kuraJ. Unfortunately . the tradition was. so strong · that even here some com:.mentators .. · fu..(f reference t� .th� old. . kind .of_,mar1.tt-affl.. ,_ . .. . . : - � . in India, there are works on the four ·goals of human"' life; dhaTma. ·or . virtue · (called aram ii1 Tamil) , artha . or ·govern ment or society;·. �kama or love, and mo�a nr· salvation.·� The . of Vatsyayana K!iimtf:- �iistTas s1ltTas like that deal with or . kama · or love from a · scientific point of view; analysln.g all �nds :of . "love; legal. · and illegal. ..· 1;3ut - the akam poetrY· whose. . . .. . . ......-
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21. lbicl�; 1290. 22.. Ibid., 1281.
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THE ETHICAL
55
LITERATURE
tradition our _ poet follows is concerned with the ideal love1
free from egotism and nurtured by Providence and Nature." This ideal love is sometimes called u1uval a�pu as the love. perfected in the course of a series of births. This is therefore a new way of dealing wiih love as against the other Indian traditions.
ti
No wonder that at the next stage this pure love
is iden fied with the mystic divine love.
Porul. and Aram. -
Jusi as the couplets in
Kiimattu-p-pal are
dramatic mono...
logues, the couplets in other parts could be expla�ed
as
such.
In the second part on poru1, in the chapter on military force we get a couplet as the speech of a soldier "Stand not facing my leader; many have stood only to stand as the stone"23. referring to the tradition of setting up an image in stone of the warrior who dies on the battlefield. If every couplet could be thus visualised in ifs concrete dramatic situation, the couplets will gain in value and then the question may not be asked whether
Tiru-k-kural
is really poetry.
But it will be
difficult to read all the couplets in this way. They may seem no more than ethical epigrams, but their poe�ic values should be realised for a correct appreciation of this great work as literature. In ordinary and often apparently meaningless hap perungs, the poet sees symbols full of deep ethical message. The accidental fall nf a hair from our head so much curled and combed before, but now considered worse than dirt�. symbolises the fall of any great man.24 In this way the similes
become symbols of a moral ideal.
Apart from these there are
couplets which have a poetic value by the very form of their statement. In poetry it is not so much what is said but how i� is said that becomes its reality. Even when the simile is not
a
symbol of his vision, the autlior produces poetic effects.
''The mean are verily the Devas because they act as the·y like.''25
''The mean are indeed like men.''26
23. Ibid., 7'11.
24. Ibid., 964. 25. Ibid., 1073.
26. Ibid., 1071.
We have not
56
A
HISTORY OF TAMIL· LITERATURE
elsewhere · experienced this ·kind·. of similarity.. .. . Sometimes
·va.U.irvar '"starts speaking of -man in. the .bonorofic , singular but. m9r�l indignation drives him· to speak of the· criminal man m
the ·singular imply�g condemnation. ''However great- lie {hono�
·., rifle singular)
be, what is the us� if he without thought enters
· the 'house (wife) of another -man""27_· -
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·Schweitzer points- out th�t Kuraf does not. pr�a�h� ·'world and life negation'. With the knowledge that ·good-: must .be d9ne for. its o-w:n sake, nian must .·"·realise ·that_ work and -profit plac� him in� a. position -only,. to .do good to . oth�rs'! . wi�h--: a · joy ..
in such activities. . Tho_ugh· _emphasising an !=thi�al inwa�dnes� and desir�g . �n . · inner . fre�dom.. from the world and a mind .
free from hatr�d,- there _ appear in the KuraJ .. the living _ethical. . . love and the . ideal of simple . ethic�l. humanity:· · In . drawing ...
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this ideal, as Schweitzer points - out, �with· � sure . strokes - the author of KuraJ . repres.ents his .vision and· experience . of- the joy in the �ctive ·life of. love; and herein lies his greatness -as � poet.
Sc4weit�er has _ q1:1oted .his chosen couplets not·- only
of ;m�ral grandeur .,but�alse of.. poetic .excellence.- He con.cludes, '�T;h�re hardly exists . in the. . literature._ of· the· world· a collec-. �'.,2s. . m ti�D: .of l!laxims _in.. which . we. find . so -much lofty wisdo . . .
.
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In the ·first -part of
�
· · his · KuraJ Tituvalluvar gives · us ·fliE;
gradual urifolcfmg ·of the personality, moved by·tne· iiiner pi'in-· . ciple of · love.; -Man develops by sY.tripathisiD.g if not· ident ing -himself in ever expancJing concentric circies: Wrtli his owri
��
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wife, with his children,� with ·his family�. with his friends, With h1s_ village and with his cot1ntzy. Always in all cases ::lie goes through an active life where · this Iove �takes· the form of hospitality, of ..
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sweet and • kind words; of ·grateful recogriitioh of any. little good ·or · worth;· of a -resulting· obliVion- of all ·harms"· suffered, .of equanimity and justice,- .of a· well disciplined behaviour and .,. -· . · of good conduct; of a · heroism which· does not submit to lust,. of . a victoryover ·inexcusable- iniinica:l acts by syinpathy and �
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27. Ibid., 144. · ·· 28.. Schweitzer1 Albert, Indian thought and its de':�lopment�.· p._ �199. .
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. . . ETHICAL LITERATURE
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·w , ealth ry cessa unne after ering hank sy and any of jealou trait: . . . of a refusal· to speak behind the o·acks of others and to indulge in vain talk, and of a righteo�s fear 'Of Wr�n_g acts. Wheh -� · "' man reaches this stage he becomes one with society. Without . . . . dependi�g· _on -any_ spe��fic rela�ions�p -he ac�ev�s ��ivers�I ��paf�y; like . the �I�ud . raming. ·ao� i� - tr.�asu�e� on · un:. · knowD. �lanCls.29 - He7 knows that wealth is lfke the reservoir 'of �ate��� w�ich . v;itho�� bei�g :used by (_)t�_ers, vAn evaporate. ·or_ be�ome f� - .feeling ot �universal · -love ot atuf, a child·- ·of �anpit,- tlle loVe · �- ·With- which ·a · man starts · ·his frfe's · j·ourney. "Place yourself . :��: : :iri ,tHe place or others'', · says Vallu�ar to-expJairf aruJ. At this · �: �stage· · of humah deve-lopment; there is .fio longer. the distihc. ·; �on ·between c-you'" 'and ·'I'-, the mine · antt tne yours: Tlie ·life . · · . -�f renunciatiOn 'is really 'fhe ·reDUDCiatiOil: of· thiSA duality.:· It -: ' . is the full bloom of -tlie- persol_lality w1thout•tnese restraints . �- -��Tapas C'Ol!Sists he_r� in �utt��i· up. yvit� all s�eri�gs an� pro . · · � · r ceeding ·· i<)· cto �ood acts to help. even the' du:iiib beasts:· · Truth · �-, ' to such a ·mari is •tfie "progressive · driVing out 'of au m]ury�ana ., .:.� mis�ry; tlie e�p�es�i�n · of ·aru1, ·n�t a- �e;e pr�c1�ie :statemenf.of : ·� 'fact.35 �-. Tlie infrici" become� pu�1ned fr·�m.· �If hatreds�- £roril' aTI .· ' .. · . · . · ,. · ·. ·- · .·� . . . . . .. ....
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58
A
HISTORY OF · TAMIL LITERATURE
•
cravings, . . and then . dawns real ·knowledge. Such . a .. man of . unive�sal . lo�e and knowledge nev�r. slides back .. illto the _�_old · �. � -�: _ · . life -.of ·narroW and . conflicting . desires. . . " . . . -' - -· . . ·' .. . · :. _ .. . Por�tpiil, 'the second part of the - book, gives �s�hi� _ - vislon ��.. " o£ 'en ideal state. trn1Jke . other art�a '8astras,-. -it_: is not · .a practical handbook . of. ?government. Ue ... goes. . to. the . basis . the.. . verY of the social . and . . governmental institutions . human nature which. �n�ce�sitates ·For these . or.ganizations. . . . _ i:J?stance, if . other. . cirtha �iist�as dis�uss . the-- nature · .of .. edu� cation .. required for princes, . _our .author approaches. . it from .the point - of view of every hu.man . being. Ex�ept� -for- edu� cation. · man. is . b�t . . an an.inl�·-- - Eyen th� �high'y . s�!a�egic _ . ·and .diplomatic re��tionships _ , ·wit� 1�r�ign 4" P.g)V����, ,ar� ..�i�aspect·.. of friendship. . . The�e- cussed. from the basic human' . ., -', . _,· � -: -. , fore· · though :_"'· the. author contemplates ·.only · :a:":. � monarchy ... • . ), .. -- • • ,, e his book reads .as one.. intended ..for modem. d illocr.acies. • • • • • • • His preference for abstract terms emphasises the universal ' . ·aspects. Tht.fs for �'King'" he . uses the word irai;· which:-could · be · translated -as -'Sovereignty'. -.. In eomlnon with�·nther artha ·�Sastras of India, he mentions llie sapt;iingas� or - the seven - lfuibs ·_of . a' state . 1., the King, . 2. •the� army, �:' a� the finance;· 4: the . minjsfers ':"of state; · 5. the foreign· allies, .6� the fortress. and 7.---the citizens·;. · · . In Va'l,luvar's · language;- the ·Crown becomes 'the wliole of" theJ body ·polltic of which�the ·other" siX are· mere limb�.ss - �.The . King ·is ·in that · sense the· I;ord. �- · ·.... :. - ·-. .. . • • • • · I' • -: . . . _ According ,. to one �tradition· the .'last thirteen · chapters· �- of - ...this, part . deal with . the . ·citizens. 'J;he perfect citizen. thus · becomes. the . end and aim of the state.. ·_ The citizen· . .is. almost. . �·a . saint; whose perfection eonsisis in returning good--:for- .evil. _· ·H� will give up his life rather than his ideal. Tliere is no ·poverty in that society of give and take; nor is there wealth running to waste. The citizen is · really :an _mcamation of an· good qualities. Tlie author does mention the .·word� fortifica· _tion, hut! he believes that a contented peacefUl ·st�te_· fu� of _
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·the necessaries of life without evil factions; is the best forti� fication ?i Perfect men make ·the perfect st·ate.. ..
As-against many other artha sfistTas� he is Speaking of a dh�rnic state · . l:t- is· not mainly the end which is justifiable ·act of .state should be o� Moral grourids, the means and every . kt:spire·d- by m·ora� ideais.- Firm action (vi"1-ai-t-titpam) . is . o 'appl�uded but . thai" acti n is requh?ed.. to be morally pure · · gambling, diseases, and drink (vi?l,ai -t�tilymai) � Prostitution, . .are enm.:nerated along with the foreign erieiliies; as the dangers - · · .38 · · i s � the e of. ta : ._
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· Thus, though the . work is made up of seemingly uncona. couplets, each complete in itself, the author is able to · nected . . 'gtve an integrated pi�t�re of his experience and Vision . of the . . · �o��-�a� and the ethical state This work is fUll of sugges� of t:h�· epigrammatic · tions,-·full of similies, fUll of the grandeur . . .. . :· . �tyle, �r�ating th�s in a new way this poetic pict�re without · : nur J��owing that we are reading poetry._ . ,. ·: . .· � · · · Certain phrases are pointed out as having a Jain: flavour. : · . · �en if this is admitted, the whole tenor· · of . . his book� shows ;� that . he wants tO emphasise the .. 1...1DiVersal aspect of human , :_ life. ·� . ,. . - . ,, · THE OTHER SEvEN'l'EEN ETHICAL WoRKS "' . . · · �". ··.: � . Akam� · . :�. . Apart from Tiru-k-kura� there are 17 other works. Of all . defuied by these· six · · b e long to There are poetry" akam . . ;. the number 'Of the1r verses. KiirniiiPatu. is. the. ''forty of the This �was sUng by lYiaturru-k-kai:iQ�iitt�ar : .� �ainy �season"., - -�.: Its .first poem refers to. Tintmal or V�u whose garland 1� ... .. . . ... - \.-.. ·, . · . .. · compared to the ... rain-bow. This work deals with mullai ·: � it. is the-poetry of .th,e heroine expeciing a� the. appointed time, .. .. . . :.· : . the return ·of the hero. It describes through realistic shniles ·. . . · ·
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A rusTon . LITERATtiltE . ·- ¥. oF TAMiL .. .the rainy season with its flowers, beautifying the pastoral land., · But -thi� p����� like ·other -f!,k�m� po�ffis · b; this. group," �erely translates the .be��tifuf ·-icte�s --of -th� �arii�r . c"a6kani .poetry -into ·the- new- idiom and- rhythm· ·of th�age.· ·a £ -the other five, Kainni-lai consists of -6o- verses, each of the five regions getting "twelve · verses.- -The author of t�s work is. not known.. ·· Unfortunately many verses and lines ·are missing. - In· ·Ti'l!aimo!i aimpatu each region-· _gets. . ten · verses.. Ainti�ai aimpatu .is ··similar. Ainti�i-eJupatu has. 14 verses for� each ·of the �regions. In Ti?Jaimlilai . n·urraimpatu ·each of · the regions - should -get thirty; but the total number now found is 153� probably be cause of interpolations� 60
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Ainti'tlai aimp·atu, ,is said to have been composed �by Pu!li
mara.y. poraiy�· for restating the conception . of . ideal love. Reference has been · already�. made · to ·Tamil being: -·-equated With pre-marital love · and it is· stated here that- those who do ·not read this work are '�far - removed from -Tamil'' · . Ti1)aimiilai is praised by .. another· poet as . giving the mes sage Qf pre-marital love so that · those who hate this may not hate .it . any . longer�39 It Will.. . be 'thus seen thai ilies�� books · :r:-e-emphasise -the -Ca:itkaiD m�ssage of . love- in _an- �ge-Wijen this message" is not'" only not honoured - but also sl1ghted:" --- · : . : . . -· Such a· kind of debate ·on the propriety · of pre-marital love is heard- even · in Parip'tXjal between the Taniils and the followers of Veda.4o Ifi this age this message of these verses .. �s couc�ed in such a way as to appeal_ to the learned. Probably because of the disturbed condiiions, it is an age . which desires to ·safeguard the chastity of women by not permitting their free movem�nt ·on the street. This ·is emphasised even in the · epic Ma?J,imekalai.41 · It comes to be considered a great vir:tue to refrain from even looking at women,. A · hero tells· search of the mother comes in her daughter wh() has who . elopec}. with]j.er· lover that he_ has seen_ the young man whilst :his . . .
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39. Ka:Qim,eta.viyar, �aimalainftrrimp atu-payiram. 40. caminata Aiyar, U. v. (Ed.) , ParipataJ,, 9 : · 2-26. 41. ca.ttau-ar, Ma:Qim.ekalai, 3: 17-43. : ·
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· There are eleven · works which dea.I·with ·ethical principles.
Of these ·Nalatiyfir and Pa!amo!i" consist of 400 · verses -each..
N,filati · means a verse of four lines. Pa!amo!i ·means proverb.. The author of ·pa!amoli is .the · king of Mu�rurai. He · is a Jain.
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have two ·poems · of 40 verses each
Nii7Jma1J,i vai wiirpatu and five works of 100 · verses each k�katik�i by Vijampi Niak�r, Tirikatukam by Nallata:niar, �cara-k-k�ovai by TiruvayJ.tunu}J,iyar, ·Cirupancam1f.lam by Karl A� and �Liiti by Kal)irrietaviy.ar.. Only eighty verses of this :E�ati aie · extant. Mutumo!i-k-kiimci consists of ten tens,
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· · each ten consisting Qf ten statements. It will be seen that some of the names like. Tirikatukam,
Cirupaficamulam and E�iiti are really t;he names of medicines..
The idea is that the three ingredients or the five ingredients or ·the six in.gredients of the moral life emphasised in . each the verses in these three book� respectively are like those
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· - ments in - each. -Acara-k-kovai is a garland 9£ -good · ·conduct.. . It lists -the outward aspects -of-- good · behaviour--- emphasised in
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·-. . The puram works discussed above · deal with dharma. . . . . One pu:ram work among the · Eighteen · is exceptional ·- iri"' this respect. This- poem, - Ka�ava!i niirpatu, is a . de�ci'iptioii. of-� a battlefield and emphasises the ephemeral nature_ -�£ the world in accordance with the main- tradition of the -age. � � The" author is Poykaiy;ar.: The ·hattlefleld is that of Ka!funaJ.am.-�wher� the · Cola king Kocceilkal}i� defeated·- his enemies. · · · �t liaS' io -·be poiiited riut that the poem speaks of the' enem.res :iii-the-pJ.ural . . . . except in one verse· which · specifically refers ·to·- the- Xilig -6£ Vaiici, namely a · Cera.43 The bloody battlefield, ·-the beasts; the ·drum,·. the soldier�, ·. are an- O.escribed . . by·_.. appropriate �irillles� · The poei sees sometimes humorous and,tStartlmg Situations Iti this horri�le and revolting battlefield:�·,· Soinetiines the wonder and the glory of victory are sung� His ·· work -often· ·reminds� tls . of . the . kind . of hulD.our which ohe . meets �witif ii.f the medieval English tragedies: -·· The paratti literature -of- later· times �eceived its inspiration �rom this poem. _ - � -� .. . ·. ."! •· . .in - . . a�cl . . · :.--.-�. . changes ·- their . meaning . . · -K:iimam · ··,..Aram - . . ., . . .. . . - ...· . . Words cluster together because --of their· meanings ;·bei.ng . . · connected and because·'·�' of their- suggestive : secondary · ·asso� ciations. . Therefore nne . can . speak of . a .. semaniic ·strUcture· not only in th� vocabulary · system relating� to� colotir - and kinship· but gen�rally in the vocabulary relating· t'o ·_ all · fields of knowledge. When the ideas . of the society . · change, · the . . . - fields · · also structure with reference to certain semantic changes. This may be illustrated with relation . io the c'Orre. lation between aram and kiimcim. · · ' . . ·· -- . . ... � ·· of honour': colours the-· In . the ·Cmikam age the conception . ideal· of love at. home and the ideal of heroism on the battle� . fie!d� Aram i��a. par.t_ �f .htunan .nature �- the �e�pressiQ:tt ·of. tke.2 -
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THE ETHICAL LITERATURE
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real Man.; · No hope of a future world as a prize is necessary; such a conception .of winning a ·priZe is rejected as a bemean� ing profiteering motive. One poet exclaims, "The chieftain A.y is no trader in aram."44 Kr�am is also something intrinsically gr�at in this scheme· of things bringing out th� best in man and woman as c·omplementaries in a united life. ..
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. This period is succeeded by the age where, because of _Buddhism · and Jainism, asceticism becomes the ideal Aravor, the people of · aram; are equated with those who have ·renounc... ed the world. Love or kamam from which the ascetic escapes; naturally becomes · "degraded": ilittita-p-pattata1Jre, sings Cintamani i.e.. "it is condemned as mean."45 .
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The· pre-marltal love which was the id�al of the canka� ·age can no. longer hold good. The undisturbed political con ditions themselves encourage society to set its face against it. The older tradition does not die easily. There is voci ferous opposition to the new ideas; there is ridiculing in Paripfital�4B The akam verses in the ethical literature identify the older message with Tamil Those who dn not tlnderstand this message are not admitted as having any knowle�ge of Tami1.47 •
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There follow two developments. ·One is that this old message is coloured by the fashions of the new age when it is not considered moral to look at the face :of any women except one's own wife.48 The other is that pre-martal love is interpreted only as mental. This development occurs when this tradition of pre-marital love is interpreted only as an imaginary ideal never realised in this world though accepted as the best in literature. This is what is happening in the commentary on lraiya1]iir Aka-p-porul, probably of the seventh century. The old tradition is also looked upon as a sugar44.
45. 46.
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caminata Aiyar, U. V. (Ed.) , Pumaniiru, 134. Tirnttakkatevar, Civaka cintamat}i, 1:210. Oaminata Aiyar, U. V. (Ed.), ParipataJ., 9: 12.
Ibid., 36. 48.. Il>id., 38�
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64
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
coaied pill to attract the worldly who are to be taken away from love to tapas and salvation.49 At this stage come the Alvars and Niaya:Q.mars. No longer is aram a renunciation. ·Communion with God comes to be emphasised. Everything leading to this goal is aram. The Lord preaches this aram even to the saints who have re nounced the world and who yet require therefore this eso teric teaching.. Men and women can worship God in a higher communion.. The divinity of womanhood and motherhood becomes clear. Kamam therfore in relation to aram becomes elevated provided it is righieous and directed towards God, even if it be within the pure family life. The basic relationship between ·God and Soul comes to be explained in tenns of this love.. God himseH becomes the purified Love A�pe Ci®am.50
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49. Iraiyal)a.r, IraiyaJ;J.ar Akapporul Urai, p. 12. 50. Tirum:Ular, Tirpm�tiram, 270,
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�5. :ALVARS ,AND NAYANMA:RS
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�· '. .[BEFORE �600 7A.D:]
. SAINTS; EARLY .
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. . In this rperiod ef . ethical literature b�gins the "development of religious .poetry� A:part·.fro� . Buddhism ,and .Jainism, other . religious . _sects . must have :flourished in TamJ.I . . Land at this time Appa·r, a·�Tevifiram .poet mentions the .K·iipBJileas, P·iistt patas, Ma:kavr.adins . and Saivites�t The name of . the .Myla�pore ·temple as _referred to by --Campantar is · Kapa1.1ccllram,2 perhClPS ... a centr� of ..the .Kiirp,iilikas. Tev1iiran1, also mentions ,celitain other temples known by the name of Karol}.am,3 evi .dently. named . after K�iir,o']-am, .t he birth place of Laku .lisa, the founder · .of the P!asupata sect. Tir1tmantira.ra, �one 9f the books . . of the Saivite canonical literature, is by Saint Tirumiilar . and jt is ,._·believed that . he came from . �ashmir... . Thls . ·book is _.probably the earli�st known . · to any . Tantra . Agama and also :·calling itself work . r efening '!"'· ; one� ..Tirumiilar mentioned. by .Cuntarar -of the age of _R-aja" simha, �ust -be earlier.:4 · It · will thus be clear .: that . some - of ,the aseetic ;Saivite sects coming. from other lands with L�eir varying p�. osophies have. become popular .in .Tamil Land. .
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The older metres, such as ve'lJ,pa, akaval, kali; ·become longer and longer in this perio_d. They are then� �ailed vi'l·ut J-tam. · This· name·· is ��t aP.pfied · ·to what is l�ter on · describe.d �.· as kattalai.:.�kdlai.;.t.;.turai, -whi�h consists . 0.£ .;lines oJ five "feet . ·t'The .paine �-1.,iTUJta�, is later ·on ·used ·for defto:tin:g all SUCh developments.. . ... " . · . - - --· l. l1amurukar1-iir. r (E'd:), Tevaram · · afaiika.Dmurai !{Appar)- :·4358. .· ., ... .. . . 2. Ibid., (Campantar) . 1971" · - · · ... '· �- · ·. 3. Ibid., (Campantar) �04 . . . . . . . . ·�·�: ���- . . lbi�.:, v(Cuntarru;) ·7621� . ·
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A
IDSTORY OF
l{.flraikkalammaiyiir. .
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TAMIL LITERATURE
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Karaikkalammaiyar, who sings in ve·'l),pa and kattalai-1e kali-t-t1.ttai, is ·-the · earliest saiVite _poetess .and - is held in the . highest estimation by saint -Cuntar�5 and others including the later philos9phers. One of - he;r wor�s; · arputl!,-t-ti1·uva,t tati, consists of 100 vef!,piis and is a sincere · outpouring of her heart to God. . She ·tells- .us that she has been uttering . the name of the L�rd from the . time . she began to speak.6 To . her, God is the · ... . tullversal · principle and at the · sa�e -·. time the very heart of - her. hearts.7 She . has been. blesse(l \vith . a. ·pey or · ghost . - herself . · mystic experience.- She calls Per�s · · haps she belongs - to a sect . of mystics: who be)lave¢1.. like gho�ts .. and mad people, a way of avoiding . the curiosity of others. . . of ghost; she - described the title of · True to this : assumption . . the .. dance -· of the Lord a� -T�u\rtatanka l;t, �-w�ere .,··siva · sur rounded by. the ghosts· on th� burnjng· ·pyie, ·�th·e. �· symbol · of destruction, is said to have danced � competition�· wjth · K..�li in a pectdiar �ancing post�re putting one of' ·his legs straight up to the skies. . $he bea�tifully describes the gho��s ·blessed . 'and human hearts.. For uist�ce, in one With sympathetic . . ' \rerse · th� ghost, � mother;· �_after: riursing: her�··child and · put · . - ting it · to � sleep s leaves . the child> whom she .c�Us after her ,-Lady K�li; . th� child; . 4owever, - wakes up .- and cries for .· the niother; · This ' poetess ' has composed· two patikams or terts_ih this spirit.10 Patikarns have begun to bec
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Ibid., (Cuntarar) 7620. 6.. Karaikkalammaiyar, :Arp:utattiruvantati, 1.. �- . : .. - �.. · ·. · : . � . e , 1 o 2 2 , 9 t ; . - · - , · .. . . . 6 · 7. . . · . � .. . 8. Ibid., lOl. -.. . . . - : > __ . · 9. Ibid., Tiruvaiailkattumiitta tiruppatikam, ·s. ·· lO:o Ibid.1 TiruvmaD.ka�uttatiruppatikam and.. lViutta . tiruppatikam 5.
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o£ the vel].pa and also the music of the viruttam. Often there is the same pattern of a sentence in every one of the lines or in every two lines. -"'Love and God are two different entities' say the fools. Nobody knows that Love is God. If all know
that love is God, all will remain as the very identit:y of Love and God."ll So sings Tirumiilar. His message is, ''Love is God''.
Love, and not God, is the subject of this sentence; Love is not
attribute predicated of God.
an
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Love is the only known
Proceeding from the known to the unknown, the
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purified love is given the other well known nan1e, God of Philosophy and Religion..
The book, according to tradition,
must consist of 3000 verses; but there probably are more
terpolations.
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There are references to tantras and agamas,
as already stated, and also to mantras and to
yoga.
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are references to bhakti in verses which move our heart very much like the Tevaram coming later. · Though he sings the glory of Siva, Tirumillar expressed surprise that people should
fight
amongst themselves about the three Gods who basical-.
ly are � llut one and the same..12
In
his poems he uses the
mystic language of allegory though never the language of Sometimes his poems refer to mere num bers and they are difficult to interpret.13 Elsewhere the style
. mystic eroticism.
is simple.. Every word is a thing of beauty in this work. All the verses are in the same metre, yet there is a variety in the rhytb1n, following the very rhythm of his ideas.
Tixumiilar is considered the greatest of siddh.as, the
father of the eclectic school of mysticism, famous for its prin� ciples o£ refonnation.. caste.14
. body is
He asserts there is but one clan or
He is against mortification of the 'body. destroyed, the soul is destroyed.
fumly enough the true · wisdom.
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O�e cannot achieve
I have learnt the metho�
I have nurtured the body; J have
U. Tirumiilar, Tirumantiram, 270. .
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nurtured� the soul"1�-· · Though ·-lie"'is: not ag·ainst -temple woT-· s��P� he .: �ares�� more · for:�- the. temple�" within: the _ heart. � "�The- .. Mind: is . the: sanctum. sanctoruril, ,.the body of. flesh is . the. outer.- . . . tempi�; � tb � lhe�- riiiun ficient .Lord: the:: . mouth . . is.�- the: sacred . entrance; . to. th<>Se·. who. have: clarity: -� vision; .;_ the �·soul' is : the. �sivalinga,. the misleading _sens-ations� are� . the. ·five·· · great ·:. . al-'· .ug 1! ·hts.."16 ·. .. . cryst · '
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.. . _- - . . Som� of the . early_' Mvars. pr�bably belong �to this . early ·: period. - . The ' _first. great_. Al:v,ars . Po�kai, ' ���.- :arid- P.ey.a_i.�. smg _:· . -in . ve'YJ,pa metre.. Each �one of �them� has·: stin _ g· 1700 �\:'erses_· l�e � ers· The endmg .of the first vers'e com·es as a t .garimd. of flow. . iin of� the- second� verse and SO· on . til}. the . endi�g- � the: b�gi.iiig . of� the� last"' verse.: is 'the� _ same as the___ beg�D.ing _.9£: . th� Jir�t_· . . verse . It. is . said : that' these three are contemporaries;�. they_; belong. to the_ .Palla�a co1tnt�y. The :first poet,.. P.oykaiy§iV:ar,� .' · : tlie �·poin� of -view start��_ siDgiDg. of the uillversal .. God . from . . of- .the phenonlenon: _ ''The . W9rld is the lamp..:�ish fill�d: With ghee. of. the sea; , the - -sun is its. - wick. ·· -� God�- �s - the - light of� · J:1erhaps a _contemporary� of: light.':i1 - The... second . PU.tatta}vav,. . . . Karaikklalarmliaiy.at (we · fiave a_ . verse composed·_.�Y-- � PQ.t�t:. � tar and Jierself. quoted fu'�-� . conlmerita�y18) ' · .llegins·. 'sfrigih�g not of the outer- 11ght hut the imler light, ' • tlie ·hotu:nenon : � ,�ove�Is �the --la.mp...;dish; pining · for the ;Lord is· the �ghec:r tliere itl; · tlie . hli�-sfu.l ni'elting� heart is �the . wick;: I have - lighted: tfi.is�-� la1np; -Goer is th.e -· light- of the lights "l� � : Pey3Jvar� see� the�. Iamp . lighted by Piitatta!var-· the light of lights, the great�.God:. of. . his- - lieart.�o� ::.. There is tolerance in the - poems . of these:."early� ,A!Via�s; : probably:- there - were .fonns ·of images· .wliere Gne _ hal£. ..
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16. Ibid., 1823. _ 17. Murray and Co (Ed.), TivyaprQpantam :rnutaltiruy.antati.... ·__ .. -_ · � 18. Amitacakarar, Y,apparuilkalam, Vol.. I, p. 352. y y
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Was. Siva an·d' the othe� hal£ Vi�u.21 The mythological stori�s are· told with a. grasp of their ess�ntial message... . The verses are full of humour. The. simplicity of. the l�ngu�ge has a ring of sincerity.. ·
Tirumalicai AlvaT -
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�irumajicaiiajviar is the fourth .AjVJar. He beiongs to the Pallava· vill age Tiruma}icai near Madras.. Professor K:uppttswami. Sastri feels. he is . Drami,t;lacarya22 referred to in the commentaries on Brahma sfrtra. This A!var was a great scho lar referring often to philosophical conceptions in his poems. He sometimes weaves a poem ouf of a series of numbers.2a Probably be belongs to the beginning period of the Pallava Supremacy. He is not as tolerant as the other three Ajva:rs. Apart from his Ve�pa An'biiti he has composed Tirucca?�ta "'iT·utta,_rn sung to the tune of four equal measlires in a line·· where each foot -consists of a long monosyllable, a disyllable and again a monosyllable. The work· is full of rhythlnic beauty, perhaps because of the new device thus. introduced .. Though the style is majestic and elevated, the · ideas are- crys tal clear.. The poem expresses. the very· rhytl1ID.i.c outhurst of. his. heart, trained by _ his: philosophy and :religion, but shaped� by. · love.. , There is a story. in the Va�ava· tradition that TirUll1ali cai was the Saivite Civavakkiyar before he 'vas converte·d to V�vism. Civaviaky ki ar must be earlier than Pattig.at- tar, of the lOth century, who. refers to him in his poem.24 · There m·e a number of stanzas which are found in this ·Alvar's poems and: fu -Civavakkiyar's and it is probably this which �s. responsible for, the story in the V�avite tradition.. Per naps in the verses which have come down to us as Civavak l�iyar's there ar.e interpolations which because of · their style· .
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. These are the :morning stars before the _ dawn: of the ·age. of bhaktt . Bhakti, . as. �xpressed . in ·a .. beatttiful poem, . · was born on the banks of the Tamil Land, grew into womanhood - to become · · in the Mahratt4a. country and 41 the North Iztdia, . �ld · -fu . Gujerat,.·26 T4� · bhakti _of Tamil Land is _not merely .. . �inotiona1isin It is -�0� even . . intellectual love - for ""God; . "nor f:D.ere · ·bJ.iD.d- worship. -�-: It--is a · beautiful . and ha.rnioillous- -ex... pression . of. "tlie three . . aspects' - of man: - cognition, co:riatioh and .. feeling.. . It is the fut�nse universal love Which 'lights . up all . dark corners . anq . _proceeds to - work and enjoy that work as . .. . · �ervlce· for others, - � all of whom ·the_ full Vision · of -God - is· . . . �eveaied. . . The .bhakta"· . one who� ' was therefore called tontan' .. . serves- or aiiyiiiJ,, - 'tlie� slave ·of- the Lol:d.' His . is . the 1ife ·oi complete self-surrender to · the principle of this. . tmiverse.1 . . . ..
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ALVARS AND NAYANMARS
allowing himself to be guided in the service of M�n by its unfailing Love and Light. -
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The saint Cuntarar even after God-realisation, feels a void. To him is revealed, according to the' tradition, the vision of the sixty-three saints of the Tamil Land, .ric� and poor, men and women, of all castes and clans, all living for an ideal of serving according to their capacity the God in man. Cuntarar in a sacred hymn enumerates '\lvith joy all these saintso The whole vision seems to us not parochial but national in the best sense of the term, emphasising tl1e universal aspect as well. It is the beautiful vision of all su�l1 WOl"kers, or bhaktas of the past, the present and the future, not of this country or that, not even belonging to this world or that, but belongmg to the whole of this universe, the vision o£ a spiritual democracy of love and service before which saint Cuntarar bows down exclaiming, "I am their ser vant's servant'' appalurn ati carntar atiyi§.rkkum atiye� ''27 A similar approach is seen . among the Vai9l}.avites. For instance, Per1yaJvar speaks of this clan as to:IJ.ta-k-kulam,l2s clan of divine servants · knowing no other -clan and relying upon nothing but God.. .
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B-oth the ,AJv.ars and Nayanm:ars see God in the five e}e... ments earth, water, fire, air, space and in the Sun and the Moon, and above all, in the soul of every living being. This is the glorious message of saint Appar. Saint Tayum�avar, · coming nearly 1000 years later, exclaims, "When shall I learn · this tnessage of Appar."29 Appar, it is said, went on a pil _ grimage to Kailas, but was told by a divine voice that he would be blessed with that divine vision - at Tintvaiy.aru on the banks o£ the river Kaveri.. We have his hymn describ ing the glorious vision of the so called Kallas where every thL."1g is 1 evealed as the very form of God, God overflo\ving with the love and mercy of a mother and ·with the po,ver ..
27. :Qamurukru:mr (Ed.) , Tevaram Atankaumurai '(Cuntarar) , 7626. 28. Murray and Co. (Ed.) , Tivyaprapantam Tiruppallitit u.
29,. Tayum�avar, errQ.atkaJ}l}.i-?tiyarvai].akkam, 2,
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.A EcrSTORY OF 'T�
·a,·..father� �- -Along witli :bhtiktas ·2-\pp ar sings, "I came as of old to worship ·�with--flowers .and w�ter. b efore, I saw.. the he-el�phant4and . t he she-elephant . c oming_ as · . ' but lo! .l . see what I.have. ·not' till now seen. .I see therein .the .sacred .feet of .the Lord."30 He _goes on -singing like. .this� see. ing ·aod . as. the Father and the Mother in eve�y .. couple of 'birds ., and . beasts of - this world.. - No wonder love . . towards God takes �he shape iuid fortn- of servic, not only. to 7men . but , to .the dumJ� . million . of living beings. : · .They see the beasts and . birds worshipping the Lord. - Folk-stories to whic�_these poets _ refer to, · speak of - th�se �dumb c�eatures - attahling . salvation. � .�, . . . ' ....:. SAiviTE ·� SAINTS. . . . . . . . . �AppaT . �. . . · . . . . . .· - :· -· . .. Appar · was a Jain ·before · herbecame a · convert lo sa�vi�m. 'He remembers · his life - as a naked ascetic· wlucli was a revolt . ing sight 'to the women of the land. . That life, he later realises, · . was · a life of vain · mortification of the 'body, �teeping ·it � l ditt, deriymg it even ··the pleasure of a. simple 'bath. · Perhaps his was a heart in need of a loving prop.. Therefor� fue reli gion o£ self�rel-iance, b1tikling itself .according ..to him ·� on a series of _ n.egations, �in .. spite ..of. . its lmowledge and. �sincerity, brought.- him . - oDly a chronic �stomach_ ache. This .inner tension \vas removed. . when he became a . convert .to· 'Saivic;m, · the ,.:riever-failirig .love . and . support·,- of the . omni... relyin. upon g . . s :he expresses .in the ver_y present and omnipotent . Lord." . . first�hym.D. he is .supp_osed to '· hav� sUngoi . . . . . . ·He . is -a ·mystic. . He -sings · of the · Lord as -.hi� 1�ve�. -.. in . ·· one :plac e· ·he· is surprised 'that .the Lora .�had �onie. into· ·�s #heart witliout liis �knowledge. - ''Are ·you ·.a ·thief?" he asks. - "No! �1 · am. the . guileless'' comes . the reply�31 - · He ·has s�en · t. he ·: darker:-side �of /life� · ; lie �has· lived futo · old age. - ;'He �:therefore . always speaks out of his rich experience. He also empha.. .. - .. · . . . . . -· . . . .. . . . . ... . . .. . ' :... rab.d .:fhe :kiiowledge · :·of
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ALVARS AND NAYANMARS
-sises· tne worship of · aod with hymns, with love and truth.32 The ei�ht great virtues �are the eight great flowers ·with which to worship Him.33 His poems are thus his individual offer ings at this- private worship.
Te?>aram means private worship and· originally that term belonged to -his hymn. He has musicaf composftions to . his . credit. He also sings in katta1ai-k-kalittitrai so full of feel� ings; so full of power and rhythm. These - are called' - virut:. tams in those · days. He has also sung m the Io�g-draWn. rhythm called tirit11ericai. He is preparing the ground for �
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the rhythm o£ the next age where the lines . are lengthened _by doubling the older lines. His Tiru�t-va�takam is so · sim ple, so sirtcere, full of . all the varying emotions of his heart� -full of that diyine message so appealing even to the illiterate man and woman. .... ,
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It is indeed- a good fortt1ne that he ·was a. Jairi. ·Jairusm : . emphasises the ethical principle. He cannot· renounce the moral grandeur· of that life. In that age the · various :saivite cults though _ emphasising the unique devotion to; God, _ per
·
mitted all kinds· of mental and moral aberations� But he . i�v·olutioriises th'e Whole Saivite attitude to life,- by lay�g the · ·emphasis on the fundam·ental . ethical-- prn;.ciple of _ this t.1ni� verse, a principle which out of his oWn· experie11Ce he has . �ome to equate with siva. His beautiful phrase, 'ttaylii m�la � ta1J-mamennum tattuvam explains his God34 as the root prin ciple of love or grace. This is reminiscent or Jainism; but this is what Tirumular has said: "Love is God". . ''
-.... ,.--CuntaTaT \;:.-. . From this point 9£ view, ' l'
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every act is a diy�e . service an<:l a divine commt1nion; every word is His mantra.: Words dis� .- pel darkness, and light - up eyerything in that glorious reve-: lati.on of the heart. .One's wife is also the form. of God and a life of domestic sanctity anq such lived Cuntarar saint . '
, - . 32. Ibid., 4895, 4906, 4897. 33. Ibid., 6591 (as interpreted traditionally) .. ·34. Ibid., 6449. -
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·spirituality - :. Ctintara-r was ·a -great political force - in his times ;in(f sang· the · praise ·nf the Pallavas. ..35: · His' life was a 'divine life of· world -. fulfilriient a-:- diyine family life, a. diyme social ..
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and perhaps political life. To him' God was · a· friend· anet-a . · : . . guide; As ·in .·the . bord s prayer ·where even the monarch . . . '
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. begs · for his daily bread . �hecause everything � is . the Lord's, euntarar even When · he: was -rich, � begged for th��e materials . _of enjoyment because . : �£ his realisation . that · they · were the · even when · they ·were. .in his · own �ontinued ·gifts of God .. ss s possession. . · --.�'I.. .want food, I·: want clothes" he pray . . . . . He was · a greai poet and a :scholar.' . But he sang his hYmns like his predecessors for the coJ.1lllion· man. · His . ri1usic�l comz{ {i positions . are >·iri :·a ' shnple tho gh <)t . colloquial style. His heart, �s ·he hiniself tells us� is so ·. iiririiersed' in . the·� poetry of C.ampantar ·and Appar that ·he sings -but their -own· i�eas Hl.s . poetry'··� which is so full' of autobiographical touclies· operis his ·heart · to ·his · Lord · . : and· · to us.· His beautiful vision · of · the Dem.o·cracy· of ·Lov.e :and · Service has:· already been . mentioned� .. .· . ·campa1�ta· " . .·· . . . : - · . .·· • ·.· st � of: these· ,hyninologists -is saint Campantar . The : greate . . . ,.,nis poet, .. even \Vhen :young� began singing musical COmposi. . . tion� to the accompaniment· of , the . played· by the untouch... ��le saint �Tir�l�k�lJt� .Y�a!-p.�pfu}.�r ln- the , h�art .of the Tamil · - -. . -· · · · . ·· ,· � · ;· · · · · temples. .· . . . . ·-� . .· Jairis and· B�ddh1Sts·· were p·o�ts and philosophers, artists . -· ancl patrons' of art. ,,,· They saw: however th'e weakness and fa$ng . of . the arts. These could be used in the servjce of religio:p; but in ��sen�e, they were worJdly; . unl�ss. safeguard� . . eel, . they: . kindle- /t:he degratUng passiolis. A ··Jain _ poet_ calls . ·�itst the :wealth. of.' m�sic�3 ___ When the 'inspiration 'o£ the great . . . men .of.. Jainism ,evaporated� . this attitude ended. in. � a ' negativ� . . ism� · not a blossolrling. 'of the. �P.n�r spirit but a : .cloister virtue . Where the: soul and · the·· heart lay cabined, cribbed and con� . . . ... . 35. Ibid.; (Cuntarar) . 8240. .. ...�. ·. 36. Ibid., 7700. 37. .· Nacc�ar�yar, Commentary on Cintamaz.U, 412, . .
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fined.
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in all
The world
run away from.
y all
the t�ealit
its aspect was to them something to
Since it was impossible to run away from
round, there remained only the possibility of
"All is fleeting;
closing one's eyes to this reality.
All is
tempting." "Woman is an enchantress," was their chorus.38 Motherhood and childhood lost their divine charm. II
The Saivite saints . as against this preached a religion of hope and love,
a
religion of beauty and innocence, a reli-
gion of communion and social service.
The fleeting move...
ment of the world is to them the moving panorama ·of .the spiritual principle.
''All is ephemeral, as
ic; miserable" is
Bttt
an idea 'vhich sometimes perplexes even these saints. beneath
all
this change is the wonderful and beautiful dr�am
Thls basis which is God as Siya and His Karul)a or Love, or Fatherhood and Motherhood, is the truth of the Permanent.
. of truths�
ceGod sits there on the throne with the purest of
'vomen [the Mother] .
One _ can live aright in this world"
There can be no doubt of this�'' sings C ampa11iar.39 The divi.... nity of motherhood and womanhood thus come to be glorified.
In one song -Campantar sings of a divine temple descend1.1J.g from the heavens to enjoy the sweet and loving innocence of a lullaby sung to her child by an unsophisticated woman.40 This is his way of looking at the mythological story of the
descent of a temple.
He revels ..
men and women. .
in
describing worship by
N�ture, �s App�r sings, is the very form of the Mother
. ahd. God, and He has no other form.41 '
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From this point 6f .
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vi�w, Campantar in every one of his verses sings the beauty . of Nat11re, the cloud capped mountains with the playful mon· keys, tl1e cool lotus ponds where
all
bathe and become puri
fied in body and mind, where the sword-fish leaps and dashes .against the coconut fruits.
He sings of · the rolling waves of
the sea, the life-giving floods . of . the rivers the paddy fields
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38.. Tiruttakkatevar, Cintama':'i, 2760 etc.. 39. :Qamuruk�ar (Ed.) , Tevaram AtaDkanmurai (Campantar), 3082. 40.. Ibid., 1425.. 41. Ibid , (Appar) , 4552, 4560. .
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76 with their - �yield of- gold .- and _the� :groves . of coconut palms, full of ·peacocks and.. koels and parrots. Miraculous :rnetamor"'! phosis · · o·ccurs .. everyWhere ·in this -world . of - l)recio�s wealth and -beauty, everywliere full of the wealth o£ . inner . content ment.. . -�He smgs of the arecanut palm; its buds are pearls; its 1.mripe .fruits are ·. emeralds; itS fruits are gold; all turning �to coral�. . Flowe�s, pJants, bees, _ birds and beasts all seem .to 4ance� sing and play. _.t\ll this- is not a meaningless �ove xp.�nt but ·a ch:o:r;i_c ·4ai].�e_. 9o _ w�r�hi iq th�- Lord.� �s _ i� th� �es$age not only of C�p�t� but of A!v���- ap.d _N,ay�umJars
i
g�nerally.
p
. . . ... -. · . Campantar -sings . of - the .- -path of song and the path . .of dance leading to . the .- Lord. Art becomes divine in temple worship. . Music . .is. divine. It . may ·kindle. passions but one has- -t o l1armonise them . all in a symphony of Love through -catharsis. . . �'Music-.-· thus ' drives . . out. the six passions and in . .that . pe�.ce lea�s _ up. the . Divine Light · in the lotus .. o£ our ·heart,"43.· sings Campantar. . These songs have become . part of temple . ritual and they have worked a revolution.... r;rhe lofty gop'u.�·ams of the temples become the centre of all aspects of social life, learning, · polling, . local self-govenment, royal coronation, festivhl �nd even of · soci� �nd medical .re]ief. This ·new m:essage· when understood . by all the · Tamils, · gives rise to a_ . rie"v . hopeful . r.eligion whose power we see ·.. in _ the . reign of the �perial Colas. --· .. .. _
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· Iri adoition to th�. · innocent love,- expressing itself in "family · . life, ·the . relati�n . between·_ ·God and soul · was expressed in ·te.rms of this · love. -The idealised Jove of the CaD.ltam age, .
· purified still further by TiruvaUuvar and identified- with God with Tirum:iilar, . is revealed in all its concrete . . elaboration in - tl;iis · story of the love of, the. eternal lovers the soul . and God. .· A!v�ars and ,N,a.Ya:gm}ars turn .in· their poeiry into women . ..pining . for the . embrace .of� God. · . . . . · .. . __
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Appar belongs to the reign of Mahendra, and Narasimha · w�s bi� . yo�ger Varma of the Seventh century. . Campan�ar ... . ....
42.. Ibid., 2703.. 43. Ibid., 1421.
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.AtvAns. . ANn NAYANMAis . - - '..
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contemporary, converting . the Pandya . King Netumar�, also · o£ the Seventh C�ntury.. . . C11ntarar s�ging as he_ does of � Simha, ruling the world in his times, must be referring. to R�ja�imh� . and therefore must belong to the early quarter· -- - . . of the Eighth ·century. .. .. .. "' . , .. . . . . - - .. - ... . - - - ... . .. . ... . .- - . .... .. THE·- EIGHTH · CENTURY. VAISH.L'i �VISM . . .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .- . --...... . .. . .. . . . . .. . .. · · · Antal' � . . . . . .. . . . . -· - � a llava ·ruler · Nandi is a Vai&taimpoit. ·· P a nt . The- next .. . . vite and in his p�riod Vru�visin- b'ecomes-iinportant:· · Peri..:: his daughter AJJ�� come m the' micldle of the cen� ��� .. ��tal . is. the, gioeatest woman . samt. Her ·songs are. the l€?.Y� .. ��ng� of a ·.. woi:Q.aD. pining for her Lord, God. Sl1e . des� cribes the �iiual of a 'penance, 'a worship and a prayer to �awnata for her union with the Lord. There- is the · descrip� tion 9f a dream in which the love-sick maiden goes through Kri@a _ a �arriage as conductthe. ri�"Qal of a· marriage: wit4 .... .. ed_ in those . days"�- fu. other �ongs one gets the neytal theme · · · · . . t�� . song of. desp��' full- o�. lov� and pat};lo��44 ·' -· · She -has· - also-- . . sung a - folk�song popular in .those time�, . where tl1e virgins in -the mon�h of December go ·to bathe and . . pray · -before :dawn, for rain and .prosperity for society, · and . for a . good husband for each one· oi · them.. . This _ folk-song· n�.otif · has been · taken by Al}.�[J and later. by Ma1.1ikkav.acakar to -giv.�--expression to the eternal longirig of the human. heart for·: the�-iove - of · God. . They .give their. me�s�ge. �of love and. hope in these songs of. children. - In this they. show .their. con� �ern lor the old and the young, for men and women. 'Ihe .. prayer is �or-. the. love - ·of . God with Whom our relation is . eternal. · ana·- "pel1;narient: The' prayer is for service' . and is . �or the removal of all other desires. "If ·God's love is a�sured i· · . . what doei .1t - iriatter where 'the Sun rises" they' sing.4s . . . . -· �ts po�try travelled .all the way -�� - . .This. m.e§s�g� . ll�c�us.e Qf . . . n upto �ea Thauan� �o. · th�:· .islands ..Qf � the"' �-!l��e� · t�e-�-d�st�ni � . . . .. . . . . -..: . . .., . . . .. · .. _
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44. Tivyaprapantam, Nacciyfu��.>- .- : noy. 'ceyta p�ricu . � . . . .. . . · ·�
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Tirumo!i, Mekavi�tiitu 1-10,
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45. M�avacakar, Tiruvacakam, Tiruvempavai, 19.
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where .. this .fe_stival was .celebrated as a National festival till very late in the . first . quarter p£ this century.46 . . . Periya!vlir; ·· . . . Penyt§!v� is the p·oet · �£ the div1ne child. ·_ It is l{ri'?I}a's �hildish P.ranks that he sings1 perhaps- �s His· loving mother in . � the details of a child's life in the nursery, where the background is the mythology of K.ri�a. This has given rise to a .ne-vv kind of literature, singing the childhood of �ny ·hero· . . or God. But in PeriYta}.Viar · the trammels o£ a · conventional ised poetry are not seen, and therefore he may · be . lo�ked . upon ·as ihe originator · of: this new · kind o£ poetry. .. Here· is. again restored the divine inn��ence of childhood. In ·-Val... labha�carya's w.orship of Balakii�a. one m�y see the influ.. ence of this Alvar41 · .
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. . . .. . Kulacekarar must also belong to this age along with TO'Q.tarati-p-poti. Kulacekarar was a Prince of the Cera country anxious to go and worship the Lord at Srirangam� in He : has a vivid imagination which helps him to portray . dramatic inonol�gues the scenes _which appeal to him � the stories . Kul§cekargr sings. as one . Kr�. . of R·� _and . o£ the . Gopis in love with �a, full of her imaginery complaints He identifies himself. so z·ealistic, so sincere and _so touching. . . with . D.eva�. who had .not the good fortune of nursing and nurturing · Kr�, her own son and · w�o · pathetically ·. gives expression· . to -'· the .v -· oid she feels -in her life. · · But RUmiiya"'}a · is Kulasekarar's · favourite theme�� He gives� · us.·. ·the heartrending cry of ·nasarata, the father af Raina, when th� latter . was ··exiled. He sings -a · -lttllaby · for the baby ·of a Rama. · He has summarised the important epi sodes which appealed to him in Riiwaya7J,a. Rather than be a ·king, · he wouid �refer-. to be a 'stepping stone · on which the bkakt�· tresd �s they go . up . tQ- the-· l'irupp�ti Hills .to . worship ._,. .
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79
ALVARS AND NAYANMARS
The · dust on the feet of these· bhaktas is- more .holy than the waters of the Ganges�· The phrase tdfJ,tarati;..p the Lord.47
bho,ktas''
·poti, "the dust on the feet of the ·na)ne · of an
Ajvar
is found as tbe
famous .for singing the mori)ing song wak...
ing up the Lord.
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Tiru,-p-p!ti1JJO.!vliT . · Tiru-p-Pfu);aJ:v:ar was an untouchable bard, but, \Ve are told he was carried to the Lord by
priest.This meaningless ness of caste in the e:ves of· the Lord is · · one of the messages of the poetry of A!viars and Nlay�ars. This Ajv.ar has sung ·
a
only ten songs describing graphically his vision o£ --the image at Srirangam, its ·eyes, its mouth, its chest, its navel,- its_ dress and its feet,- all so beautiful and so captivating to his heart,
so life-like and divine. · It is his vision which he projects forth.
·
We have -sim.ilarly a few such ·songs by Appar on
This poem of Tiru-p-pai);a}-var · has appealed so m"ttCll to the heart · of the great - scholar, philosopher, logi
Nata�aja.
rY
ve
cian and poet o£ the 14th century V:etanta Tecikar, who has written a commentary on these ten songs. .
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Another message of these poets and philosophers is that God is everywhere and that since what appeals to man is .
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Beauty·, His image · in the endearing form of beauty, capti vates . and· purifies our heart.
God. becomes incarnate in all The· artistic images are 11ot
such artistic forms of beauty.
p1ere symbols but- His · divine incarnation.
God, according to
the saints, in His glory and greatness. . comes dovm as a mere toy in our hands and for our sake.. . Such is His love and His concern for our salvation. We are, as ··explained by the VaiSl].a\rites, His divine -jewel; · separation frotn us is thus a loss to
Him.
He therefore more than us works for our union witl1 Him- in love. This emphasises more powerft1lly the t1·uth- of · the parab� of the Prodigal ·Son.
Tirumankaiyfi1vaT
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. deservedly occupies an . important · pl�ce in Vaj$1Javism, both as a religion and as . a philosophy. Ti�mankaiy:a}var
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He was probably the Guru of ·.
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Pallavas
of that age. . He had
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l\'JuiTay · and Co (Ed.) , Tivyapirapantam, Peruma.t Tirumo!i, 2,. 9. .
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A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
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known . the world� He · lived . up to · a great · age.. He visited all. the . temples and . perhaps was responsible for' the build:. in� nf in�ny V��avite temples. · His poetry reininds · us of the n1usic · arid learning of Cuntarar and Cafupantar. He · uses folk�song motifs. In him we meet the� ripe eXperience ·reflected in the poetry of Appar. He has sung more than· a thousand. verses exemplifying the truths of the new religious poetry of the age.
TaE!· Ntwnt CENTURY _ VAISNAVISM ..
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Nam/n1lllviT Lastly came . the- greatest of �1\rars, Namma1var ''Our Ajvar." His is the piercing · cry .and the unexplicable joy of the ·hea1't.. We have in . his poetry. the hide and se�k �inch the eternal enchanting Lover- of his heart · plays with. -Juni, now the . joy of . the incomparable blessing, then the feeling of isolation, ·the despair of the dark . . chamber with intermittent glimpses of the love; finally the eternal joy and light of Gocl,- to whose presence he is taken with all pomp and grandeur.. ;rn between these moods, the A!var addresses the 'V'rorld and directly delivers his message of l ov� and Hope. He often tries to express the inexpressible, in· mystic · songs of akam poetry.. His is a heart-melting poetry givihg us the q uintessence of his divine experience� ..
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Even mythology becomes real and vivid to this imagina.:. cruel tive ]Joet. The stories wild become ' sometimes and to this A}var as to the · Niaya:wn;a.rs; revelations of only the love of the Lord removing obstructions even iri an · earlier . age, with a prophetic vision for an · human beings, including s ent and the future. ·It :is not ourse lves· , coming in the pre . the beginning or the middle but the final end of these episodes, namely the · loving Victory and joy of the Lord, born o£ His satisfaction of serving us, that. is -emphasised in these. re£erences to the mythological stories. - There is for instance. the famous story of MabJabali where the Lord comes as a be�g�r-:-boy praying for · three feet of land and, after getting the boon assumes His ttniversal fortn to measure out the ea:rth and the heavens with -Hi$ Fe�t� Afte� measuring .
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ALVARS AND · NAYANMARS
81
two · he · finally puts 'His Foot on * the "Head · of Mahabali for the third foot. It is the joy of the Lord iri · touching his children-all living beings · in this act · of · measurement that is emphasised. The · 1dea of inspiring �the. future generations with hope a.nd love through and by this story is also
important
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.1\-fatttrakavi
Matttrakavi is the last of the ·�vlars and perhaps a disciple of Namma}var. He� has sung ·only one hymn and that not -on . God . but -on · NammiaJvar. To sing of . him is sweeter to Maturakavi than to sing of God. In this way Nammalvat· becomes the first acarya, or the acarya, amongst the Vai�.Qavites. The spiritual lineage of Ramanuja, the great Visi�advaita philosopher, is traced baclt to Namm:a.Jv.ar, throt1gh Y.amunacary�, Natamu:g.i and Maturakavi. It is said that N.atamrup, whose !J.eart was c�ptivated by a few songs from N·iiliiyiram, collected all the verses through prayers to Ma tttrakavi. ·
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sAIVISM
Manikkav.ficakaT •
Mal}.ikkavacakar is the fourth great Saivite Saint. There is a dispute about his age, but we may assign him to the ninth century. His Tiruv1iicakam is, as Dr. Pope describes it in its own phraseology, bone-melting poetry the divine revelation of a loving heart. All sorts of folk-song 1nntifs · are used to carry the poet's message even · to the playing girls. To any Tamilian, thinking of poetry of divine love, the 11ame of Tiruv.acakam alone occurs. This work is an -� out-pouring o£ the poets' heart; his fears and anxieties alter... ; nate with his hopes and joys till finally there is no longer ·.· any despondency but blissful and �ertain joy.
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A
HISTORY OF TA.i\IIL I LITERATuRE
speaks of God as Lord and Master; God is his guru.49 Here is perfected the cult of the guru. He speaks the language of intimacy of a child speaking to its mother. The delicious sweetness of honey and nectar, the rich colottrs of precious gems, and the varying aspects of human love all become one in God, inspiring wonder and reverence and finally a childlike love. He speaks the language of mytl1ology only to bring out this wonderful richness and concreteness of God. He is a minister and a great scholar who when he lool{s back ·exclaims, "Oh learning, what a great ocean."SO He be comes an innocent child melting in love with no hanl{ering after 11ame or fame, no attachment to land or relatives.
49. Mfu:rlkkavacakar, Tiruvacakam, Pouittiruvakav-.ru, 76. so.. Ibid., Tiruvacakam, PQnittiruvakaval,
38,
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.6 .
THE! JAIN EPICS
PERUNKA'lAI 'fhe periud of the Pallava Supremacy is characterised by the development of epic poetry.
This development begins in
an earlier period, with Cilawatikiiram and Manimekalai.
In Perunkatai the _epic in akaval form reaches its pe1,_fection.
It is assumed by many that Perunkatai is a translation of
a Sanskrit work/ even though these critics can point to no specific '\vork that is still extant.
l'he ·epic does not read
At most it can only be an adaptatioz1 of . the story so popular in that age. �he poet belongs to the like a translation. .
Koilku country pf the Gangas.
A Ganga king Turvinita:g, also a . Jain, has written a long narrative poem on Utayai}.aJ}, the hero of the story of Perunkatai giving it a Jain colouring2
but tl'-Js is not available. This might have inspired our poet ancl _ in tl}at sense he might have been influe11cecl. To be so i_nspired Konku Ve! must be a near contemporary
nit�, who lived in the sixth century..
of
Tl.tl�vi-
An old commentator
Ati�arkkunallar, speaks of this poet as belonging to a Cank�m
But perhaps the Cail.kam he refers to may be a
period..3
Jain one o£ a · later date than the Cail.kam already mentioned.
The author writes in ·akaval metre.
The ·composition of this·
work is · of the type called iyaipu4 narrative poetry · of long verses each ending in a nasal. ...-
-
·•
...
.
.
PeTunkatai is told in Tamil by an author
�
whose real name
has nof been preserved.. Koiiku is the
-Koilku
He is now kno-wn as Konku·vet . country, one of :the $Ub-divisions of the .
Tamil Land, comprising the modern Coimbatore and Salem ..... ·..�
.
.
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Aiyar, Dr. U.. V. (Ed..) , Peruilkatai preface �- viii . 2 · · lbi(!,., footnote.. 3.. Ilatiko AtikaJ, Cilappatikaram: Uraippayiram, p. 8" 4.. Tolkappiyar, Tolkappiyam, 1496. 1. ..
Cfuninata
,
•
84 •
districts.. Ve�ir means the clan o£ chieftains; ve� is the title of the clan used as suffix or prefix to personal names. We are told he was a ....Jain· of Vicayamankalam, once a .... - . - - '\ascetic ·Jain centre,s even now having Jain temples, '\lvhich may be seen whilst travelling frOJ.n � Coimbatore to Erode. The work conclusion that this is a Jain epic usi11g Jain does justify the . . · Dr. ·Catninata phraseology, ideas. Jain mythology, -·and Jain ' . . · ;Jain· influences found in· this · epic.·6 Aiyar ha.s ·summarised the . .. . . " . �· . . . ... -·· -· . to ."" -· . Perunkatai . means the . "Great Story''; corresponding -.,. the Sanskrit name Brihat Katha.. The earliest ··1ersion of this story was in .Prakrit;-"'. it. was. by GUI}.a,tiya . the poet . of. the Salivaha.JJ.a court of . the ..First .C�ntury . A.D.? - But that . is . ·na longer. available ·. except for. a . . few verses · quoted in books on Sanskrit grammar� � The -story .itself .was - popular, giving rise to dramas· and narr�tive-poetcy in va:cious. l�g�ages 9£ India �t .is . really a colle�tion.. of_ anecdotes which gJ:ew.-ro1.1nd . the. �ame _of '""the . hero, _Utayal}.ag., a -king .. of. .Ujjain.�- :The_ Katha;. . SfLT.�"t . . s. ''., .as .I. t 1s 1agara� .the --"ocean_ o£ stor1es -called 1n . _ one ver�ion,8 clearly _ brings out .. this· . char.acteristic featura�of the. stocy�. Many . of. its . episodes �ave . been. separately� treated . by. Bhla8a; Har�a. and others.9-� Naravia!Q.� was said. to-be the son. of. .Utaya:Q.�--- and some . $tories.. lay �. the. .. emphasise ..:.on. · Ijara-. WJ}a·:g,.!� p.erh@s ___as a . later_ d�v..elopment. . · _ � Utayal}.ai]· is· I oiis- . as- tlle ·musician. . who,- With the help· . . of �-.ius li�rp, · �an brmg iffi(;l.er coiitrol - even -rogue- 'elephants: .. · He - goes-- air -aioiie itito-the- "forest in· · searcli · of- hi& · favourite elephant. �-- Krio�big lhis;-aii eifeirlY. _ kfug� ha5----p1acea liis, �ICTiers. - inside a wooden elephant, so perfec.tly maae, tliat-Utay�r.Qa� Ipistakes it for ·a live elephant; He is overpowered �and taken riso e�:-- ·· Whil�t -h�. is . ?n :Pri;�n, . th� -� �oy�- -ei�ph��t�·-�� �11� city ru.ns. amuck and-The part of: . the . , . he . :-is -· -called . . . for . . .. help. . . -
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85.
epic narratirig the stor.y �thus far, is not. available..... Th�- �por�ion now. eXtant begins with UtayaiJ.�- bringing the ,elephant. under control. with .his harp. .He . is thereafter requested to give lessons i.1"1 music . to the princess �acavatattai. She and Utay�. fall . in love with each . other.. Their marriage is about to .take place, but Utaya.:QaJJ.'S minister wants to punish the king for having imprisoned Utaya:Q.aJ1.. · He arranges for · · water whilst" the tJtay�,.s- elopement with Viacavatattaf . festival fs _gomg on· in the city, and they are" married - in ac- cordance -w1th- his plans.4>
••
...
Yaukantat\ayal}.a:g. or YUki, as · this minister is called, is painted- in this epic as 'greater than C!at}.akya of the Mauryan period.. It is . not . polltical consideration -hut friendship and. human.. .J)jiilalp thy -that inspire his stratagems. He is not only a minister of Utaya'Q.� but also one of the four friends who a�e .prepared to lay down _ their lives for his- sake. · Utayat}.a:g loses himself completely in his- passionate attachment to his wife, when. he should be himself in safety.. With the help . of his friends, the minister arranges for this also. �
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Orders have been given for a fallen woman, Oankiya-t-tay to be drowned in a river. Utayal}.� releases· her and sends . her . on a pilgrimage. She must have _ embraced the religl.on of C!anky-a, popular in those times.: On her r�turn, the father of Vacavatattai makes her his daughter's maid of honour. The minister Yilk-i obtaiils the help of this woman. The state in religious _p�rsons fo1; its sb;�tegy, those days . made . . . - use . of such But here again S'- astra.. as- is made clear .by Kautilya's Artha . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. - - .. - · -- . - . -· . .. · it is not. political intentions but real love �d human sympath� · - - ��ake_ her . - Jtlay this part. Tliy means a mother and -�!J.�� . pankiya-t-tay �true to that appellation is more than a mother to Viacavatattai. The world is made to. believe that V:acava.. . �attai's · residence · is burnt by accident . ·along with her.. But bankiya-t-tay- cleverly removes her and takes care of ·her. .. _,.
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Utayavan · is· overwhelmed· With . sorrow �e� he le�ms that Vacavatattai is ·dead.. Once again Yiikf has to make him . act. . ·He proposes to make Utaya:Q.a.:g an ally of the king of Magadha. . A festival is being celebrated in its capital city.
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A IDSTORY OF TAMiL LITERATuRE
86
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Utaya:g.a:g., who goes there, sees the niece of the king, Patum.a
vati.
She is so much like Vacavatattai, that he falls in love
She too loves him. �ey are . married after with her. Utaya.:Qay has put to flight the enezp.ies who have surrounded the capital city of Magadha..
Utayai}.a:g. wins back his .kingdom
which has all along been in the hands of the enemy. Since everything has been successfully accomplished, Vacavatattai can now be brought back. is recovered..
UtayaJ;ta:g's lost harp
He thinks of V,acavatattai alone, neglecting
Patumavati who is magnanimous enough to take this as quite
natural�
Vacavatattai who is convinced that Utayal}.ci:Q. was
separated £-.com her only for gaining the help of the king of Magadha, is brought back to Utayal)a-g. Patumavati and Vaca- vatattai are now the two queens beloved of Utaya�ag..
In a game of ball M�a;@kai, really the daughter of the king of Kosala imprisoned by his enemies and brought Utayal}.�
along with
other imprisoned
women
by
when he
conquered back his collntry, shows herself an expert. Utaya:IJ.� falls in love with her.
Vacavatattai is angry and orders the
shaving of her head.
It now becomes a problem requiring
all the strategy of state policy to save �awkai from this disaster.
Patumavati is sent to pacify Y,acavatattai.
At the
opportune moment a letter comes to V,acavatattai revealing the identity of Ma.g.�ai. Utayal).�.
Vacavatattai has her married to
He later marries a number of other women.
Viacavatattai, whilst pregnant, achieves her desire to fly
/
in a,
son,
vimii1J-a
and see all parts of
Narava�.
Matal].amaiicikai.
He
grows
India.
into
She gives birth to a
manhood
and
marries
�e extant portion of the epic stops here.
From other sources we know that this Matanamaiicikai is carried away by a
Vidyadhara of the higher regions. -
?Jft1.za1!· defeats him, recovers back his wife VidyiidhaTa empire. Utayal).aJ1., therefore Paturn·avati and renounces the world.
Nara�
and rules over the
crowns his son by
He finally attains the
highest spiritual stage of Jain Perfection.
This is in essence a story of a king enjoying life to the
full , blessed with
r
a
glorious son, and at the end renouncing
THE JAIN EPICS
S7
...
the world and . attaining salvation. This, it will be seen, is ·also a characteristic feature of the stories of Cintamani and Cii�amani. ..
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Unlike the Buddhist Ma'}imekalai this is not propaganda literature. · Narrating the story in the most interesting and captivating way is the main concern of the poet Kuiikuvel. He wrote in an" age when Jainism ·was popular, and his readers could no doubt understand the various references to this religion. The_. ··epic here has taken the fon11 of the Sanskrit literary epic, thanks to the influence of the Sanskrit and Prakrit works which have become popular in the · Tamil Land-. This epic, however' does not reveal a closely knit plot. That is because the stories of two kings, father and the son, are . given without any continuity except that of time and history.. Descriptions of nature and various human activities and _games, often for the mere pleasure of description, come in _this epic. Sometimes these remind us of some of the mono logues in �cilappatikilram. · As individual songs they are of interest even without specific reference to the :Plot of · the epic. The tendency to elaborate, almost to the extent of concentrat ing. exclusively. on · the parts, develops in later writings.. The poet ' though an ascetic . is not blind to the mnocent joys of nature and society. The description of the ball gamell and · water gam�s� played by women, the description of the garden,13 and of the flowers, in many places with a pleasure: simply. in enumerating them,14 are all there. It has become a fashion1. an established rule, that the epic should · contain these descriptions. D��ig., who after all wrote his defui.ition of an epic only after studying the famous epics of · a previous age, makes this · clear�ls ·
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U. }Janko A'Pkal, Cilappatikiram, 1. 20-22.
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Koiiku veJir, Peru.D.katai, 4: 12.
12. Thid., 1:28. 13.. Ibid., 1:12
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14. Ibid., 1:15.. 15.
Ta:t].ti, T��ya]�nkaram� 8,
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.A HISTORY-�-OF
ss
.!i'AMIL -LITERATURE
Chara·cterisation has also · been · attempted; Utay� is ·a warrior; . The poet ·describ-es him as haying· a valvil--·('-:st.rong bow") , a tern1 used of a chieftain in CaD.kam p�etry · who C,ould aim �S ax.ro"'!/. . �O?D _ !Us. DOV)T _S� stroD;gly _ as .t9 . P.ierce . · o g musici�. arid �a H� · is � mas�er .�f gs �br l.i h_ ni�y� thiil .lG many�· arts. He is a SJ.l�Cessful teac�er expo�ding· t�ese . arts, - :- Y ' -. . · . atHe is so so much so _ that · he is. praised as the. teacher. . -�se of _ .this' weaJ;mess tached. to· music that �is ...enemy makes' to cap��e _ him as � pr.isoneJ.". · H� lov�� �th �� his ��ait Viacavatattai and takes no interest in -life when he ·Iea:li1s ·that .Viaca�atattai is n� more� . Bu agairi. . �e . falls � lov� . ��vit� . Patumav�ti �d · latet: with ��a�� Makmg lov� to ·_th7 latter when· queens ·. ar.e · the��- -shows� on�y _that� ·_this -man � . not by_ l)ature �Qnoga�ous.In � age "when 'polyg�my .W¥tS . . ., . ' · · . . . - immoral . the rul� this · was not considered . .·• 'l;'he po�t '?reates htunorous situations · in which t!J.e ·King expres�es" his , iove f�r Ma:g.aiJikaf .� to .. ·Via.ca_vatatt�i _herself mista�g t�� la�tei-� �O.i: _M�:g�a�.11 ·The jirip�essl�n �eft in �U.r_· mincl,-�J:IoWev.er�. is tl?.at · he - -�s giyen - fD.O�e · to the pl�asures · of_ l).fe than_ to tl1� _ . duties of :. a _ki�ag� Perhaps this �s a . sign . of . greatness · ni that . ' from ·himself · on many· an. pccasion age. He has to be saved . . ... , .. • · .by· YUki. .and· it - is . · YUki therefore comes in like · Providence . p.is� ·g�eatiies��- t�at . is. reve�e.d in . this epic.� . ·Per4aps unlike· � · �kya �e �as � hea�� · The peop�e �ke oaAkiya-t�tay vvho ·w�rk ·unaer hfiil are full 'of ' this human love and sYmpathy, sacrifi�fug }h�ir 'per!30��- mte��sts jn the' . cause of � higher interest. - �His. . policy, . tpoug4 not av9id�g �conflicts and.'" \Vars, ls one- of marriage . alliances.· In this, too, we�' see his _humail · approach to all problems. All :· the characters in this epic ap'pear· liefore 1rlm as mere pawz1s on hi� ch�ss-l;>oard. . But he . deals with them with love and regard� ·iike :the · in:visible G-od trying to make men ·more and more perfect by creating suitable situations. ..
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89
1\IN EPICS ·
J
The women · characters - are. also skilfully portrayed. Vi.cavatattai and Patumavati are all in love for Utaya:I}.ay.. no · f eelings Even there is a contrast. Patumavati has . .- .. here . . . . ' ·• and in that way . appeals to our of jealousy - towards· MiJla:g.ikai heart'. With all he� love, . with all her sufferings; with all her beauty, Viacavatattal create�·· nl oui' miiiCJ. the im.pr�$SiOD of a woman.fus:Pired by vindictive jealousy: To-create a loveab]e and human character - out . of fallen women� acting in . the ser• vice of the state is indeed difficult. · .. Buf in the· creation of . beyond.. measure. Ca:Dkiya-t-tlay ; . the- . poet .. has . succeeded .. . . . II' · . . In . this story:� the nluq�e " f�ature i� that. st�at�gy' espion� · age · aD.d states�anship - are_ not only . · s�rving the . righteo�s caus� but ·are also inspi�ed by human friend�hip �nd loye · ·· · . . . . _ and therefore hunianised. . . . . . . - : It is because _-·he� lias developed this - huffia:tiistic ·outlook that . this _· Jain ascetic of . a poet· ' en]oys humorous· situati.ons ·and - · inriocent ·. pleasures - of · the . · life of - the ,vorld. ·This . hew outiook is ' itsei£ · a--reflection ·of the' -change in · attitudes to · - -� ·rue takirig- place -in this period: . : · � · � .,. .. . . . . .· . . - .. r .. . . . ... .... .. . . . . . . . · · � difficult · to · believe .--that the ·poet- is 11arrating __ : · - �· 9·:� It. is very �- . :this ·story �o· preach· Jainism when . he_ actually · is. Tevealing · . to us· the -innocent joys of life in spite of cruel fate.w -_ True -�"- to .the tradition ()£ · pre-marital _ ,Jove, the later .- -poets al"vays ·_ :- show their hero.es and heroin:es to be inspired by this love. · · . __ V.acavatattai. and UtayalJ.� look at . each other by accident or . • · · by provid�n�e when Utayai}.� controis the -rogue elephant �· and when Vacacatattai i� looking at that _great act :from the . �:· �- _palace.. . They. at once feel love for each other. Tl.le d�scrip .' tion · of · this.. pre-marital love is in accordan-ce · with · Tamil con . vention,: and _the . simi1ies . _used : here are ·found . in the com. mentary on Iraiya11JdT Aka-P-poruJ,18 which i� the authoritative exposition of the philosophy of pre-marital love. 'P -
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'90
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE .
.
.
General
··
Cinvama?!i · and -CiL�amal}i are the two ·great epics. of the . Jains. _-They are written in the viTuttam metre,- the metre ·so to ·say of the Pallava and -Cola age. Thi�_ metre had· been employed earlier in the devotional hymns, but Cin1Jama·�i was the first great epic to make use of it . _ CiiJamatti, too, was · ·written in the same met:re. .
There is an inscription at Sravana Belgola in · M�·sore giving the list of .great Jains, among whom are mentioned the .authors of Cintiima'iJ,i and Cii�iima�JJ,i�19_ in that order a�er 9Ul}.abhadra.. · . This is . interpret�d. as �eaning that the author . . o£ Cin1Jiimal]ri came first: 120 · -. ·GU'Q.abha�a_. · wro�e his pu,Tta�1a or the Book of Jain Mythology at the en
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19. Epigraphica Indica, Vol. m, pp. 190, 191. 20. Kop�v, Centamil, Vol. V, p. 99. 21. Kopinatarav, See 19.
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�2. �ak�v� �Aiy�,. �troduction to -N�viruttam� · -
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jAiN EPICS
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the age of· Appar; virnttc£m meant haS come to be �popu-- · lar in the later age as ·kali-t-turai and .not other kinds of. verses such ·as· those in which the Narivirutta'in of Tiruttal{""' katevar was written. A - reference to another work on the story of the_ Jaclm! · _(i.e. n_ariviruttam) composed in this .. kali t-turai metre occurs in the commentary on Viraco!iyam.� Cii�iima�i . is s�d to have· been composed in the reign of one CentaJJ. , the Tamil king,124 who is identified with the Pan-dya . Jayanta:g.· of the seventh century.� But there is another �ers� which refers to this epic being patronised by a Kar- · _vetP26 a_ variant northern form . of Ka:tuvetti, the title of the Pallavas. Centan., then may be a Pallava chieftain of a later age. . . ·. -
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. than the age of " ··;.'- . In any .case these works are not earlier . . . . .
Pallava . St;tpr��acy .-·and not · later than . the · tenth century. ; T�ere�ore they -cannot . come within ·the period of Cola Supre... .�acy. _. ·:.
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· The commentator on Cintiima1}i,.. Nacc�arkkinJyar, speaks of the author ·of Cin1lima:tti as a scion of the Cola family.27 It · may . be . tha� the aut�or wr�te this �ork on the great . Jain en1perqr in·. order to portray a conception of an ideal :ruler. . . � · The : Jams speak of sixty�three. renowned persons of · the ancient · age:· These are the twenty-four Tirttailkaras or Pro. phets, of whom the last was Mahlavir�; twelve Cakravarttis others, ; consisting of nine or emperors; and twenty-seven . . gen��ations o� two Vasud€vas ("brothers'') and one Prati . (''enemy") in each generation.l28 The Tirttankaras vasudeva . are-- ·the prophets who··· expound the faith after attaining- sup66. . � . · . . •
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23. Penmtevau.ar, Cornmenta..lj on V'aacoliya:rn:. 127� r� 24� · c. TolaniQli-t-·:tevar, · C@am�: Payiram, � ..· · · Velvikkuti ·grant Indian antiquary, ·. xxn, 57. .. ..., .. . . 41 · , m o · d g Khi . :Paruiy i; an � ir 25 st a C ... , Pa1:1tai-atmr, T. V�. S�, PW;tpyar Varalaru, 24. .
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p. (&! ), Cillamal')i- prefaee; p. 2.- ..
27. �". Naccittarkkitt.iyar, Commentary on CiDtattllu:rl 3143.
· · 28. Veiika�julu · R"ettiyar · (Ed.), - Sriptiravam
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reme .. knowledge. -Tlie: .::Vasudevas .remind ::us of·. . Kris:na and·� . _. Balarama or . Rama·_arid· .La�nlai].a. -.� In -.evecy generation. they are _ born: as brothers: : One of. ' them .� is :· a warrior and the- other a saint� ��- The warrior. fights · ·against the Prativ.asudeva like - RJarn.a. fighting aga4'tst Raval}.a, or. Kr�a against siSu-. pala. . .. . ' · � · -Cin1iirriarpi and Cu�a/ma'Qti -both end · with renilri.ciation an.d· . �ttainment of salvation. - In these sections the - Jaiil ascetic _
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and philosophy - ai� described at great length:· ·The ini.:' J?Ortance of this aspect of these epics in Tariill literary - his..: . �ocy . Will. be referred - - to later.- ··· .. . . . . ... . . . . CINTAMANI . . :._ · · . ·Cin1J6Jma'}i gives us the� story ·of one of the Jain emperors, Civakal].. - There, are many works in - Sanskrit that- deal with� · this story, � but - none . of them is earlier than ..this work in Tamil. The Tamil version differs from the others in various· details. Except for the story,. . probably . . - current in l1is age, Tiruttakkatevar ·. had - no original to follow. . . . . . · - · The poet first gives the story of Caccanta:g, the - father· of · the emperor. · - It is a tragedy· - and is · we�--written. Cac... �ailtag marries the beautiful Vicayai. So that he n1ay enjoy · life with Vicayai, he places the adr.Diiustration· - in the hands of a Macbeth in spite - of the pr�testS : ai:ld en ... . .. of a minister, . . . . . .. . . treatie-s- of his ·other ministers.. On assuming the new power; the min��ter, Kattiyail.kar�:g, desi:rous of becoming a l(ing, besieges �he _palace. Caccant� ·· prepa-res a vimiit?AJ, .in the. shape of a peacock aild train� Vicayaito- fly·. therem. Vlcayai who. is pregnant i� r�questeci to fly a.Wa.Y .£or safety. ca�can: t�, like all tragic heroes, welcomes death with the full know· to ledge of what . is goin� happen .. . . .. . ""' . . · . . The Vimana glides down· m.:. a. grave-yard arid� . the-\ queen gives birth to Ci"aka:g.;�'i'his 'portinil of.t�- epic- is v�rY .PaJ��etic. The cry of . th� � mother .is heartrendplg. -_ She leaves the child only after� E7Ye� . thC!t he is �e�ng ._ Qf�. -the·· dead king, "'V\Then :this taken away,' b.Sr a._ loyal serva.nt person later comes to>-�btiry· :his oWn. chUd. - She goes and .
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resideS.-in·�,nuDnery - The child-, unknown . to . -others as the :real # princeJ is for.:tunate enough to be educated_ -under a· great saint,- - whg . is cured of hjs . illness . by. the_ inherent . natural ..
powers of Civ�a:g.. Civaka:g. learns from . him the. truth about his .. own . birth put the . s�int takes . a promise hom . his .disciple · - .. that P,e . :will continue 'to l;le inc9gnito fQr a year.: . .
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. . ·--· · In this one year - he becomes famous in. the State and I
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outside, . as a warrior, as a master of
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sciences and arts ..._.
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archery, l}lUSic,. . the art .
as.the_p.erfect man. _ He .is a Ja!n . to the core.. . Here ihe poet
. Jain king _practising has . the aim of .showing that . a �
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ahimsa can .
still �e- successful in war. . When the v hunters .lift away the
cattla oLihe city, the enemy king is. powerless and Civakan
brings_back. the� cattle driving away .the robbe:.;s without shed� · �g -_a,:drop. . .of _b1o�d
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a _young woman of the . city .
clutches . of_ a rogue elephant, and -· brings it under cont:rol .wit�out .causing. any · injury even to this cruel animal. _
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. He: is _ f\l:lL€2_£ .sympathy and love to all liying beings. �e is so
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· · kind to. dog in whose ears he utters the divine. mantra whilst . it is about to:..die, that this dog,_ reborn as an angel, later comes ....,.,
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supe:fn:atural · elements are treated as being quite natural. . . . .. . . . saw the importance · ·of marriage ��-� : ln� · Pe'M!nkatai we -·
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allianc.es in foreign _policy. The Colas believed in this policy29 -
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and� fhe story _of Civakan. must have been therefore of immense
int�rest_ to .· the people of the age. Civak� himself. is not con� .
sciou�. ·of_ this put Fate takes charge of .foreign p·Olicy. He · has
. ... . to get allies .noi_-only. outside the state but also- inside� There•. fore in this age of polygamy a number of marriages are con• tracted by him.
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It must be remembered, however, that from
��� pQi!l:t:�f. Y!�w out of love.
�is.. is rrot for : Po��i�al . c·o�siderations, �but
Each of these. m�rriage� �tories perhaps . has its
origin in a folk-story.
One--lady---is won - - as--a�. result -of:·rus ... .. . . ·-� .. -. ·- . .. .
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victory in a musical competition;ao another in an archery tour �am.ent �here the. t�get_ was a revolvhig pig;31 . ·others as a �esult of �s curing sna�e-bite,32 his judging the best perfu�e,� �s s�ving a lady :trom an elephant,34 his making _on� to confess �er love .to �' though she has been pretending to hate him,�s . and lastly his inspiring love .bY his presence · in :the . heart of a · lady who, to the misery of her parents, has not till then felt · - . .. . any SlgDS OJ.J: 1"t 36 ·· ·· · · · · · . -. . .. '- · . . These stories stand as separate episodes an� they �ust be . · taken .as.. such. They . are introduced int'o �the main story with� out much cohesion.. The only connecting link is the person «;>£ Civ��- ·- l'hese loosely related episodes affect the unity . Qf this epic. . Most of these · stories have been Tamilised, true · to the tradition of Tamil · literature. The aut�or tries to har..., . mo�se. this preponderance of marriage stories·-�_Wi.th the ·othe� episodes .of . the . her�'s life by speaking . ot�all _· tho_se asp�cts, too, in terms of marriage. His ed�cation is his marriage with the goddess of learning, his victory is . the marriage with · the goddess ro£ the Earth, his coronation is the marriage with the goddess of wealth; and his attaining divinity i� his marriage . . with the Kayv_�ya :sri or the goddess ·of salvation. : . . . ·-He- meeiS ·his- mother fin?lly at the Swayam.vara � of his . uncle�'f; daughter�- Swayamv�a here is a ceremony in which a princess takes as her husband the successful competitor at an Civaka:Q. is successful in this·. competiarchery tournament. . tion. . . Kattiyankaran, · who is present, . incites ot4er · kings to attack. Civak�'s party has come prepared �or it. In the battle the� vill:a� is killed, and ·Civak� is crowned king and emperor. Fmally he renounces the world and. atfains sainthood. ...-. · ... ·- · - ··· · . . ·- " . . :�-· ao. -:-ocTiruttakka Tevar, Cintamarii 3 (Kantaruvatattaiyar nampakam) :.. · ·al · . Ibid.,· 12 (Dakkal,laiyar Tiampakam) .. .. . .32• Ibid.; pakam) . aiyar D� . 5. . (Patum . . . .. · · 3310 Ibid., 4 (KUQamalaiyfu' Tiampakam) . ( 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid., 9 (Curama:iicariyar nampakam) . 36.. Ibid., 6 (K�macanyar . nampakam) .· ..
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THE JAIN EPICS
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music31 the �The�'.. knowledge.. of �the various sciences . . making . . of . musical instrumentS,38 curing �nake-bite3� -. is explained at · length whenever the story provides an opportu� nity..... This is a recurring feature in Indian ·literature. . . .· . . . . - There is · o�ly one place in which Civak� sheds any blood, th�t '-is · iri killing. Kattiyankara� on the battlefield. This is not. �f ·cl:vak�'s· s_eeking and Kattiyail.karan's death is the · just :·and ·prope� punishment� which any state has to inflict.. - It -�oUld seem therefore that there is a place for hi7(lrSa as a last resort .and only as the last resort, not to save oneself or one's . "family but · only to save the · world . at large. . The idea of an empire is centered aroUnd ' this conception of Universal �D4�a,. not .. around individual greatness ·or national · pride. In :all these ways Cin1j5;qna?!i rises · in '"th� estimation of the )leople ·o.f. that �ge as portraying an· ideal of an empire ·where ..there �re strategies, battles, and even _capital punishment, but .-all fo:.; -the sake of spreading universal love -in accordance with Universal Dharma. This conception has special · importance . have come under. the influence 'Of. Mahatma .. to Tamilians �who . .. G�dhi.. . . - . . . . ·. . The . . poet; " though a Jain . . ascetic, describes the -love ��pi-sodes in granhic detait . not even avoiding at times a· sensu on� appeal . This has ·unfortunately set the standard for the ·'later day- poets; till in the days of the volnptuous· polygars or· chieftains in the eighteenth century such poetry �ecomes revoltiD:gly ob�cel)e;4o P�ople, _we. are t'old, �uspected the · ·auflfor s· �e1iba.cy�41 Some in modern 'Qmes will -sugg�st . that · · �?-ere repr�sse� feeli:qgs get sublii_nat_ed into. p9etry: · The P
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Ibid., 3 658. Ibid., 3 717-721. Ibid., 5 1286-1290.
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HISTORY OF. TAMIL LITERATURE:
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in whoin all aspects of human life become. ha.rmonised wi�hout any. jarring · note �·or· opposition. . In that kind pf � peace· an� - after wordly pleasures, harm�� there- is no more hankeririg in the march towards· Godhood or ideal manhood. · Man there. . ·.
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within himsel£.. renounces U:t� world. ... and concentrates after . - . . ·attitudeof the to become one with the eternal truth. This . . -author is �he finest example of �Jain humanism. · . It }.s · not_ a life �f w9rld-negation that he preaches, . but a fruitioD: of worldly aspirations, a cons�ation which in tiine ultiffi�tely leads to • divinity. This is indeed a . new interpr�tati�n or rather a . I)ew emphasis on old aspects of Jainism, D:ecess��ate� · . ·· · hy the stand tak�n by A.lvars_ and Nay�ars. .. - Tile author has made his contribution to the growth of the 'verse . forin called virutt.am in ·Tamil. · He has . tried to . experiment . With -the varieties of this metre -·as a vehicle of 'epic poetry: The verses sometimes show signs' of such expe riinentation. He changes the metre to · suit the varying moods · · ·of the speakers or of the episodes. . In this, it is clear that he wants form to harmonise with contenf. Even his similes are ·chosen for their appropriateness to the speaker. The sliepherd in- describing the beauty of his ·-daughter compares her brown or goldert . beauty ·to the melted ghee ot• the cow and her . 'softness- to that of butter..42 The various � episodes 'des�l'Ve a detailed' . stUdy from.·· this point . . · · ·of v1ew. . -.. - - · · · . . .The poet .has . estaPlis4e4 certain .conventio;ns -which later . poe� follow. .There is fi;rsf of. all the description of the ideal , . stat� and city at th� begjp.n!�g of_the sto�Y-� AU .late� p:oets . whether writing . �n epic . or a pu.rlii!1_1,a. always. st?rf- with this idealised description. ....
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Another convention is avaiyatakkam, the song of hu�lity in addressing the learned audience of readers; occitrririg at · · . · . · work. the beginning of the '
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Phrasesl. similes and id_eas are freely bo�owed from this :epic by · later writers. ·Gen�rations of poets including the · Muslim poets and even Tamil poets of foreign origin like Beschi have · not only praised this work but also paid their _
homage by freely imitating it 43· Dr. Pope speaks of it as being ''at once the Iliad and the Odyssey of the Tamil language "44 . CULAMANI · ..
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experimentation,_ thus showing a development from ihe .stag� of Cin1Jiihna?J,i. · , We have to mention here �a� in this period the Sanskrit school.. of · rheto�ic has come to poWer ev�n � South . India;
for one must not f�rget that Dal).Qi:Q. belongs to the Pallava. court. The epics of this period therefore reveal this influence m the number of figures of speech al1.d in . the use of" and the pre-nccupation with the words as words.
The Sanslqit influ
ence is more pronounced in cupama�i, which takes ideas from Kalidasa· and others.45 The realism of the Cailkam age 1s no longer considered a virtue.
How can it be in 'epics whicn
introduce· supernatural elements into the stories? But in spite of all this the characters, whether men or gods, remain 'human
to the core, in their sympathies-, in their passions and· in. their actions.. CiiJiima�i. is the story of one generaiiori of Vasudevas and Prativasudevas. The elder of the Viasudevas is called Tivittan� Tivittan reminds u·s The Prativasudeva is A.Svakantan. . of Kri�a holding up the mountain -·as -his umbrella and killing .. .
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A HISTORY OF TAMIL �ITERATURE .
Though · Cu�ffirna'f}i is thus the story of Tivitta:g., the · Vasudeva, the author has in his mind · the story of his father Payapati, as the story of a perfect man blessed with
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·happy family, consisting of glorious children, adored by the whole world, and with an empire assured of peace and plenty through him and through his children by their own greatness
and by marriage alliance, and above all with a personality made complete and perfect, aimjng at and reaching as in the
case ·of Civak� the perfection 'Of divinity through renuncia
tapas and and the final knowledge.
It is evident that this poet is trying to give us a portrait of an ideal king very
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much like Ci�Jaka:g. but free from the obsession of marriages. To this ext"ent it is an improvement on �
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If we look_ at the beginning and end of Cii1lfbma�i it· is Payapati whn has to be considered as the hero. In the inter vening po�tions Tivittan.'s adventures and glories become so
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of PaY�apati and not Tivitt�. The structure of the epic is tl1us defective. •
· The verses are perfecf gems. The plot is well knit though not expressing the idea of the author so very ·clearly as he intends. Characterisation has also been attempted but the ·
value lies in the story rather than in the characterisation. The · descriptions are charn:iing and beautiful. · ·
His description of nature make it one with man. He is superb where he describes the trees and plants and caves as natural palaces and marriage halls.
He describes his ideal
world as a commingling of flowers and this syinbolises the harmony of thJ.s wnrld and of the heavens. .
The NiwtJ;u-c-carukkam and Nakara-c-carukkam. describing the ideal country and the· city are unique. Instead of descri· bing the five regions one after the other, as other works do, the poet aitempts to give a synoptic picture of the country as a· whole,. giving as it were a picture of the flower-world, the ·plant-world, the human world. It is important to note that
Cekki]ar,
a .�eat Saivite :poet, follows -this method� when he
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. �omes tO -=describe his ovi.ri mother eountry, the Tol}t-ai natu ror ·. ··Pallava · country · in his Tiru,;�k-kurippu�t-to7].ta:niiya1Jii� . .
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The· epicifincluded under the five major epics are Cilappaii�
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kmrari(,- Ma1J,imekalai,
Cintiima1].i, Ku,�talakeci and Valaiyapciti.
The fir�t three have been already examined. The last two . are not�11:Vailable.. The ·stocy of Valaiyrap_ati is fot1nd. givel;l- iri Va?_iikapii'niittam4B but one cannot .itnderstand the value ·of · the . .lmln ry of ibe st�ry_ alone. ·epic :f�om this ·._sla -- . ··� .. idea of Kul)],talak·eci ·however from Nilakeci �· One gets an . which was inspired by it as a . count�r-blast. _ KUl}.tal�eci is the name of the heroine, challenging the followers nf various sects" and philosophical systems ·to a debate to find out the truth ·arid ultimately winning them ail to her side. . She is a Buddhist.-' - w� aiready saw in- Ma·i],imekalai, the importance · . Su.ch -·religious and philosophical discussions_. had in· ·that: ·age; : · · They". " hecome -the subject matter of an episode in an: epici . - an: e is�de �which suggests the intellectual progress of -the ·· . ·.t·. inirrian:·. mi�d: These ··religious · --diScussions assunie. ·� an �epiC! grandeur and a number of poetic works : inere �oniposed· iri � �at age, - :UJ . of- them. having names e��g .- 'Yith .th�. · s:uffiX .. . . · f the �rriiig "to "ke�'�:-.r� wo:triari_-wh� SUCc;!�ed_s· � . these ·ae'ba���� ��re �1s9 � ope �-see8 · the - iDflue�-c�---_of : ..Ma'Q,imek(Llai m. m:aki�g . :· : . the- "Victo�- a �oman The� �o�e�tary Q� Y)fipparitfl,ka�� .
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. enumerates a number ·of �uch works 49 . Nila-keci is the �ain ·r�toit- -t<>. .Ku1),jalaree·c� :ol tlie · Buddli1sis.. -=- -Nilake�t 1s -ih� vl�fi kD.ovhl- mythologfcal ghost� popular m-Tailuf Nad ��s PaJ:iiya: :g.iir Nili. She is in this epic. converted to Jainism. �and sh€ defeats Ku1'ftalakeci and oth�rs. in:;:ct_·s�ries of debates. Fortu-to give us a picture _nately this work is still available . of other . -
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works�·� . . . . .. . .. -. . . ... - . . .. · should be_ · . .� I.t i� :Surprising that. .K u7J.talakec_i �-· . in . . included . . ... the_ _li�t. ·of ��ajor epics. It . is� very. �difficult to :understand., th� �e:Q.se of -P,terary �ppreciation of the people responsibl� �fQJ; ..�
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. this grouping. - More- than this inclusion, S9�� ext;lu�ions_ �r� more startling.. One would have expected P..erunkatai and ·C·u�ama1;,ti to go into this group.. One h�s therefore to · con� elude that this grouping has been made not on the . basis · of ti?.e· literary some:_ oth�r -gro unds� b�auties·· these e p ics, but on o f · . .. . . . . The ·value of · this conception of perutnkiipPiyam. is �not · of much importance in. . the . lit'erary history. of Ta� except . as . . showing that considerations · other than literarY merit, - such as� _ religion · and . philosophy, guided at a . .later · · tilt•e·. the · · evaluatio� -�of .. even_ epic. po·etry. . .·· · � . . . .- .. . . - . . . . · · the other group, the Cirupancnkfippi'J..Iam, w� . Included in . -
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find. ·-Cti-�iima'tli� N!ilakeci, YacotarakJfiviyam, . ·utaya''l}.a'fJ! caritai� and . Niakaku'Jl1)ara-kilviyam. . . .He.re· .ag�in the inclusion_.of :Cu�a: matti·disturbs our sen_se of.·1iterary appreciation, .because it .is ranked �here. ·with others' }vhich . are . of no -literary . inerit�
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Ni�keci-.i-tira:#u, as . Slready remarked, stands rOn .a· different feoting ·and even. there it- :is-_ comparable with .Ku7!talak�si . a.D.Ci nnt With Cii�ama�i. ..
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. . · . · . ··· Th� Jother �hree . belong to the kind of J�iil narra�ive _ po�try whic_h . we_ g�t �:r4iP.arily in Tamil and other language� of-Ifidia · · . · In_'tp,cotarakdviyam a man sacrifices a , cock. made b£ Jlour� - ·Everr for:tfri.s kind of sacrifice · he undergoes· uD.to1d sufferings in a series of births.. In one of these births he is born as a handsome and powerful king. His . wife however, en.
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Vol. ll, p.. 540. �
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chanted by the musical tune sung by a horsegrood who is a leper, falls in love with him. She even attempts to kill the king. This xevolt .against music . and art as leading. to passion, . this insistence .. on the futer1ninable cham: of-- births as ex-plaining karma and . �e�cription ,��e as one continuous misery, ..fonn the characteristic features of these works* There in n�th�r- poet�y. :nor plot- construction nor chal�acterisation. of _ births, we miss· otir ·way ln'"_the. �dst of .the . thick forest · · -. - · in .following� :the story - - · . . .. _ __ . There· nitist. - liave. been - ah age in ·whlch these . were . pbJ:nilar; �l:lut. ·-w�'- can hardly call it an age. of . real literary . ..edited. by. Dr. �cami been has �ppreciati9n. . "nata: . Al.Yat· . �a· reads· like - the compoSition - of a high school .. . ·. boy.. . Nakaktimlira KJffiviyam is no better. There are other . lm fortull a tely referred · to, l>uf fortunately . or . .. . -. .. · . . * v� a le �0� b la aie -· . . .
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THE EPICS OF THE COLA PERIOD· .
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. The period of the Imperial Colas �s . a glorious page .in .the history of Tamil land, when the . Tamils unc;le_r Rajendra I . go as victors as far as the Ganges in the North,. the distant Thailand in the East and Ceylon in the South" This is the result -of the national awakening inspired by the A!vars an<:J. NlayanmJars with their new and more positive attitude to life. This inspiration is · not confined to Saivism and Vai�avism. It · colours the poetry of other religions as may be seen fro1n the various Buddhist and Jain prayers in verse form preserv ed in the commentaries.l Perhaps Cintii.mw'l!i and. CU�fimta:'l}i also reflect the same humanism. It is· naturally very much pronottnced in the Hindu epics"
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Kampar!s Age Kamp� is the gratest epic poet of Tamil land. Accord.. ing to one verse the year of composition of his work is 885 A.D.. ;2 On the basis of another verse3 and the frequent occurrence of the word uttama'll!, this work is assigned to the fenth century in the reign of Uttamacol�- This seems the most reasonable view. Others will interpret these verses as referring to 1185 in the age of Kulottw:ika:g. III on the basis of references to Prataparudra in the anecdotes relating to Kamp� and ·on the basis of the �ccurrence of the phrase Tiyfikavi"?]iota� which is claimed by them to he the special title of this king, though this is not admitted by all.4 In any case all these dates fall within the period of the Imperial Colas. 1.. Nacch.).arkki.l}fyar, Commentary on Tolkappiyam. 1022. 2. Kampa:g, Kampariunaya:Q.am : taJJiyau. ''el)lfiya cakaptam -1!---1" e.lll u u e -
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3. lbid., "aviu. katai-c-cakarar ayirattu nilrolittu''. 'l. Vaiyapuri-p-PilJai, S� Tamil-c... cutam�ika}, pp. 122, 127, 131.
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'rHE EFICS-
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COLA PERIOD
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with The fact that Kamp� .is · still experimenting the · . . earlier- forn1s of viTuttam metre suggests an · earlier date. . His . . pnor knowledge of geography of even the Deccan cannot be explained if he belonged to a period · later · than that o·f · · Ral�ndra I and earlier than that of the fall of the Tamils� Thls conclusion is strengthened by _the :(act that, thoQ.gJt he refers iri -.everY thousandth ,verse to his · patron . Cat8iy�,s . king. there is· rio direct reference contemporary· �ny great to . . .. . . . . ... . . .· _ . - ·· The ·name Kampag is the name of ·siva in K.anci, as we learn. - from T.ev:aram.s · We have a -Pall ava · King, · Kampa · varnl�· · The commentary� on · Viroco!iyam gives . as an exam ple .. this s�nt�pce "Kampa1]J�ritai-p-perumai uta�tr," (((there is greatness in Kamp:i:D.") .7 This must be a reference to. Kampa:g · the. ·po�t. . '.The great cohrr.nentators do not ·quote : him;· . _ · but; fo�owing a.s �hey . do a differen� literary tradition, -rrio�t of therP, �o not ·quote even from Te'V'Eiram or NiilJU!yiTam. · Some of his verses are . however found included in ·a later ... Puram anthology ·called Pura-t-tirattu,s perhaps of the fourte_enth · century . · ... . "'·· . I:fi the. s e century · a Kannada inscription ft'o� l\Jiysore, refers to Kampadar.iimJaya1]-a. The fonn kampada is puzzling because grammatically it belongs to. ·the class of ·rton�hunlans. A�ecdotes . have :_ grown aroUnd· the name' of . Kampa:g. ·When t4at prop�r .n�e h_as ceas�d. tp · b.e cur.rent,.= these �tories · . . associated him . with ·kampam� the pillar or_ . stick . ---- A:..p�overb fs ' current .-in ��he · t.t�;rary world . that. eyen� a ._post .. in Kamp�'s. house will compose·. _verses.. - · ·P�rhaps . _�this is: ·responsible �ror ·-that��he stick,� the :kannada · fonn kampada on the _assllll:lption - . It -is sigirlficant the-· verseS. characteristic of Kamp�, sang . . . . . . that such anecdotes should have arisen before the fourteenth · century when_ �his epic_ beco¢es. .poptt1ar ·even: in the Kanna�a · - .. . country. � "
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A;_. ffiSTORY� OF -TAM!k LITERATURE
RP.ma in · the ·�pre-Kampti� period � • • · · · i� a great· moral influence and it i� e � story. of. _B�:ma ·· . Tll · _ , • epic is the · goo.d--f�rt�e. of the Tanillians that their greatest . .
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on.Ran:ta� _ The story of RamJayaJ:}.a is known to ihe Tami1ians fro� the·. ·Caiikam �ge. . � one ·verse · therei Rama.. holds ·his co�. in .the Tamil land before he� invades ·RavalJ.a's country;_ �ven the b�ds keep silent and serene suggestirig·that -even tlre non-human world was cooperating with Rlama in his designs.9 In another· verse the· jewels · thro'Wn out by Sita are found by the monkey� which; with a joy ·and wonder .4of · discovery, try to wear. them without any knowledge as. to their proper use.10 .
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In · �i�ilaWatik�ram., K�vtinti jn con�o�g
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to �a, the ·very Lord___o£.·_the . Veda.s ; ·suffering_ on# a�co:u_nt_of .
· · s _ ' wi£�.11 hi ·sepM-ation . fro� ·his Ag�i� we ·ar�. tol_d �that _ the ·
Puka� -aft�� Kovai� left it, looke4' like_ Ayijdhya -�er RJam� __had_· {eft i�.l� Sita p.nd Rama - hava thus appeal.ed- to city of
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There are a few ve'l],piis quoted in the old comment�es,l�_ -yersrpn of and t�<:se �e �ro�ably �ol!l_ �n ��rlier __ -· · · · · · · · · Riimfi.-:.Ja·�*·"""' ;;· . � .� To the.. P.Jvars -and ,. Acaryas,,.. RJama . 'is an · incarnation- of e.· .·: · ��� - -. · · � -�.· .i.· � l i -e in me o gmif p es sin the of hi sod f Vi�u-. So . . . . . . · · . Peri�var has· · a :�ng· _which" represents _ Hanum.�'s"' - . speeclf to ·sita. To' prove that h�· is the accre�it�d.��ssenger .· from. Rrulia,-·Hanunia:Q refer� -tQ_ certain episodes kno� op.ly . to Sita . and �ama.14 K8nlp�. elahorates� . thi ·.. �- !he ___sc��e . :. - . : .. .. . . . • } ; a ls . ft · · · where -:Efantin:imi lneets S . .· . .. "·
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THE· EPICS
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Alv�r's p·oem · has the · pathetic speech of . . :Dasarata when . Rama: - has· left for the forests.ts In. Kampa]]. a speech : of.· this li]Jld comes 'before· Rama· · actUally leaves for .. the fq�est .wJlllst Dasarata is being attendedto by �a�salya.17 . . · ;KamP.�. s�o arranges the story. .that Dasaraia .-dies_ as _- SQO:ll ·. as . · h� llea.rs· !.� J�.as left . fpr the forest. . ' �ul�cekarar sings a
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· ·-lull�by��o the �hild - Ramals but this Kampan does -not utilise. Kulace��ar also , �ummarises . the . important - episodes in the .· · . . . -. . RamJW1Ja1:ia.t9 :·
. .. � Tirum�kai .Alvar refers to R·ama addressing the boatman - Guha_ . as �his ..brother ·and speaking · of his o� wife Siia and _.his Lak�Ilal).a as the sister-in-law ·and younger brother . , . .brother This has touched the Alvar�s -heart and-- made him .of.. �Guha�:2° . . .take.-Fefuge in· Go(J who is no - nther- than Rama.. This message _,has ·beco�e- the very-- heart of. Kampan's epic 21 �
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. If- �pan, is earlier.than th� eleve�tl). century, Rfunanuja � : must··���� �o�-� - after Q.im. -'thls ta�aTya. has �be�n pr�ised by . -�()�� .of hii clj��ipl�s,' as- fa�ou� fo;,l:-. ljis .i�teresi ."in. Rfir{!!;ayq;�a.� . in s ,_.gr��t. o;rk . . -·�s .�ust then· be a dire�t eff�ct of Kampa:g. w ·: = -· · · _. . . . .: · · . · . ·� : · :: · · �Tiuriii. � �_::.... ... -. ... - � · � . -- . - , � -� . .· . . . . . · ...: .. . , . . -· . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . - · · ' -· · )6. ·· · JM:uti'ay and Co.. (Ed.). -, · T�vya antam Kulacekarar: · Muta. Pirap -� �: ' � � ·.:.· . .: · .... ' . J.ayirain 729-739. . . �· • !7. Kam��,. K3!11pari:ma'fa:Qam 2: 4: �4�6�. ·· . .. • - . 18. MUITay an� Co. (Ed.), . . TiVY.a fira.pantam, �ulacekarar: . . · �· · : ' - = ·Muta1ayiram 718-728. • . • · : •o19. ibid.;� 740-750. . · · ·. · · · 1bid o .11 �afutai Alyar : }?eriya Tuipn p l418._ . -s -_· 20.
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106
A :&�STORY OF TAMIL LITERATt.i''RE
The commentators on Na�Q;yiram quote from Kampa-g.24 Many of their interpretations· of Vialmiki such as thai on T�ara seem to have been suggested by Kampa�iimJfiJya7)41,m. No wonder that when the influence of Rla.'manuja travelled North through Ramiananda, it blossomed first into the songs t)£ Kab:ir referring to Rama and ultimately into the RJamii yaTJa of Tulasidas seems to have travelled Sottth and must have heard of Kamp�'s version of the story, especially the premarital love of RJfuna and Si1Ja. The popularity of Kamp� in the Kannada country has already been noticed. His popularity in the Kerala country is shown by the following Malayalam anecdote. KJap, guar ding the Lanka of RJaval).a, was requested by Siva to depart. She was therefore not present to w1tness the RJfimiiya?pa war. To make up for this jsiva, born as Kampan, composed the Kampa,4iimiiya?Jam consist'ing of the thirty-two dramas enact ed even today as a part of the ritual during the annual festi vals in the temples of Siva in the northern part of Kerala. •
The epic, written in an age when rhetoric and exaggera tion were popular, suffers from these defects. There have been a number of interpolations and these mar the beauty of the epic and also rightly create an impression that Kampa.'Q. is pleading for a society full of castes and for blind adoration · of the higher caste. There is actually a movement in the Tamil country which goes to the extent of demanding the burning of this great epic on this score. Kampan's epic is called Kampawiitakam, "KampaiJ.'s drama," because it has the · appearence of a series dramatic scenes. In the Malayalam country "we have in the temple rituals, the marionette plays. representing some thirty-two episodes from Kamprx-r.ama ya?J,am, where people behind the scene mo·ving the marionette ·dolls, recite the speeches as found in Kamp!flrfimaya�m and explain and elaborate them. Kampat].'s dramatic scenes are so arranged that the first speech of any character appearing for the first time is immensely important. 24.
Periyaviic� Pijlai, Commentary on Ver�e 957, '
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The. Stcwy Kampa1]/s ideal
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The Jain epics have described the ideal king. ·K�unp�'s story makes this idea more c·oncrete in terms of the ideals of his age and of his poetic vision. Bbaravi has spoken of Bama or Han� as the Mahavira.. Here is a conception of heroism different from .that of Jains who speak of · their last prophet as Maha.vira.. After the Ajviars and Nay�s divinitY and heroism can no more be a mere negativism, a turning away from this world.. God's greatest mission, almost the only e:xpla.... nation for His existence, is to prepare the environment · for the ·salvation of the souls. •
The heavenly kingdom has to be established here .and now. This is the high watermark of divinity.. This is the greatest of sacrifices and it is real heroism to sacrifice . even His divinity in this great cause of universal salvation. "Barna.. riajya" has become popular in India as the name of this king dom of God· on earth.. Our poet is concerned with _portraying the environment which will be suitable for shaping the Perfect Man or ·Rfuna, who will in his turn work for the . establish.. ment ;of the- :Rama.ziajya. . . . With_ �his purpose in view he describes the co�nt-.cy and �he ciiy, u�lising the ideal descriptions of ainti·�ai fot1nd in the ·Cankam literature and ·Cintliima1}i.25 Perump,fi7]lir-ru-p . . pO;tai describes the country as taking its colour and shape· as it . were from the king.2G. .
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Nature sets ihe stage for Man but it is also true that Man ��J?:qu��� . . ...from ... even �he opposition of N�t�e. -:· Man can rise his . �nimal nature only when the basic necessities of life are ��tisfied.. · H�ger drives · out all signs of cultttre, sings ,Ayv�t�:r:r_�_ �Wh�t �s requir�� is a �ountry rich in .its .Yields, .
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blessed with unfailing rains, with scope for the nobJe� activi� ties Of Man. In India · famine an¢! pe�tilence result from the failure of the r�ins.. Rains ihtis hold- the key. Bui the great� �st :tilen and · women�undeterred by Nature's.. opptisition ·be·come perlecit and eveh · fo��e · down rain. · .That is · considered� the . gt.eatness _:of the perfect Man · (Siddh�a) , of the king and · ·of . .· · ihe· chaste woman . .� . .; · -· .. . · . .... . . . kain� describes the unfailing rains, feeding the peren... • • ·· •• •• rlver •nial - �· � .JO • � • the Ganges minds hoiy and sacred in the made . of th� ··penpl� �f ·India . .by .legends and literature.. . The rains . . and the flood�� �emind.'him of the . _divine lege�ds·. · Like. ·G.od� . � - th�y� t�k the fo� of r mai�y· -things, · soiDetinl�s remhlding us •• 4 even of the prostitute. He does not leave us in doubt; for he . . . tells us that, like GOd appearing m many forms according· to the b�li�fs·· of �the: v:arious sects and religions� . water takes . mariy different forms of . chamiels and reservoirs according to . · • � . .· : .< · -. � ..:2 · : �: t.28 i n the . �hapes -me g ve i . ... ·- A grictiitllre and the. · agriclllturai · tract marutam· - . . for�i- the. life of the country. This parl of nature is�- described � holding its court where- the culture of . Nature's·- beauty . · thrives in the forn1 of . the dance of the . peacock, dancmg to the tune of the bees,l29 whilst the murinuiing clouds keep the time 'mid ' honey bees keep hl.unnimg the . sruti or basic... tone. The all-pervasive love -'thiives here.· ·. The swan leaves itS· . . · . yot1ng· bird to . steep · on the lotus; the, frogs sing . ihe" 1ullaby; . . . · ff it w��s . up and .c.ries,� the milk from the· udder of the buffalo cooling itself in the waters there, · drips info · itS open mouth.30. . . . . ·� . · ·· : The agricultural activities ·are described as a cooperative game · iof. 1oVing men and women:.st ·The descriptions here rerirl.nd us ·of · tli� N�ituie painted by A.l�ars and N·ay�ars. T.h� :'rich �yieici;·· . ·after -equ1table �·distributi<>n; is . stor"ed- for . th� -
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28. Kampan, Kampar.amaya:Q. am 1:1: 619. . . . . . 29. .lbiCi ,� :r: 2': 4� ' 30. Ibid., 1:2:13. 31. Ibid., 1:2: 10, �1.
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THE .EPiCs _ oF THE cotA · PERIOD
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great s_acrifice of �ospitality and social ser.�ice and for . the _ developmeil.Lof :. culture. . .. Tlie description· of the ideal city, reininding one of the , Heavens described by the poets, follows. The _ Rrama of Kampa:g.; a product of nrban culture, goes to spread his culture · � bt. the. - for�sts, ·in- ilncivilised countries- or ln courltries Where civilisation. has taken an undesirable turn. One can contrast the rl�he� �f .this city of . :Rama. with the riches of the city .. . . of Raval}.a. -. ·Here . . it is ·governed by the ideal ·of . aram-uni-versal Dharma; there it .Is governed by maram narro"'vV natJ.onal and- military jingoism, incarnate in · RavaQa, closing its doors to · the· ·· Universal ·principle of Dharm�a. In Raina's · cl.ty · there · i� no ·m��ade distinction between the poor -and . the ·rich; between . the · educated ·and · the uneducated. It is a land of light and·� love. Kampan, closes this chapter making this suggestion explicit� "Education is the great trunk of the tree. Infinite aspectS ·-of -le�ng are the strong branches · growmg forth- frorrr _it.· Tapa$ forms the leaves; 1ove is the bud; -d-harma is - lhe�:-flower; uiri.que ·bliss is ·the fiuit ''3·2 · Here comes the description · of the role of the King as the reflection of:God,. the King of Kings. If God.exists only for the perfection . .of man., the king_ . exists, as TiruvaJJuvar has �ted, fo-r. the 'perfect!on or the ·citizens.� .The .soul of t�e. body poli tic is the society o£ .citizens; the. body . prQviding for its enjoy ment and perfection is .the king. This differs from the . Cankam� id¢a of the king as the soul of the . state . . -· . . � ID . this environment is born Rfuna. It is only in a civilised -and ·cultured state, . that great people are born and make a� mark �� ·- s�ci�ty. Rfuna receives his . physicai, -�mental, and . . hom the- saint of that :age, , m��al�education . . Though . . Vasi�ha. . living in the city, Rama m_oves in the midst of the beauties of_ N�ture; ·-pe�haps ·to ·. train · himself fo� the · futi.tre · life · in : the forest·, -·.:With:: -his� iris.eparabie · brother· Lak$h.1a.J)a.� · · He lives a'fuidSt wealth. ·and ' love . only 'to ·be --convinced: that· a life . -such· . . . _ · -. l . . · . i5-· ·necessar� ' fo - r ·al . . . . . ' · 32. Ibid., 1:3: 74.. - ·.. 33. Ibid., 1:4: 10. . . · ·.
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A .msTbttY :()F�- rt.AMI:t · · trrtmA.Ttl"BE
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Returning · every day �from hi� .teacher;· he lovingly asks . the cit�ens about their welfare pf their family_ and. clilldren, · o£ ter1n� moving_ _,�bus . with. _J .them . · all on · equal love and · · ·. · . . . :· . · · � sy1npathy.·· -· . ·· . . . . · . . . . . .: S�me� of. the. episodes as · described already in Valmikf. . become ·of iliunense .importance�:· in :· Kampay -in -, our -- view ��of..: . liis emphasising the� developinent of the Perfect Man, Ranl.a·, .. m that environment. · Therefore these . implications are brottght . out here though they - are stated· specifically by Kampa:g. . . .. . . . . · visvi§�itr� is. the other great DRme . in the spiritual ¥world · . . . · of _ Hiiidu _ mythology; . · he is a · sage, not a · born Brahmin but · a . �atriya· becornjrig- a Bralunin . by .his spirituality, a . sage � · bless who, refusmg to "acce:pt": the caste distinctions, tries to' '. . . . . . · ... the . accursed candala Rama . the 'future . with . Heaven . . . . . .... . . . . . even . · ' watrior .. and the uruversar man ' "'"should necessa'rily _corr[e 'under . 'of the . sage -waging ·:a. war against·� · the ··· eternal . . the:�iDfluence . . ' forces . of cruelty. and sin,. which are inspired by" egoism arid� · · frustration" in. life. . Rama � undergoes .his trainh1g ·" through , . . ... . . -· · a mental swlferings physic l, and moral. . . . . . . . . . ·. upon · - to� aim- his grrow. ·at a woman, - his mind. is = . · Call e a : . · · the -J�sson torn· ·by c1· moral conflict but · · he _ultimately learQs . of. :submitting · to the will .·. of. the chosen Gttru, .who · .ha� · no ·�of universal ..love. :. _ -• · . . .· passions. . .except the passion . . . . . . . · . . .�· . . ViSvfunitr� t��s him · to. be · m�rried to . the daughter· of .--�ame;famous ih Hincfli· and · Upani��d- inytho·� -� · Janaka, another· · . .. . .· . . · logy fo� -spirituality · �d universal viSion. · · -ThiS �arriage ·of :Rama : with Sita, not Jan�ka's o� daughter but �a foundling . · on the field ·a.dopted and treated as . his own,. true·:·to tlie u.ni... . versal· vl.sion, _ is in . accordance with the ideals of ViSvanlitra. � · ·
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. .: :· Foll�wing, . the traditions of ih� P�eDlarit�l Jo�e oL the .. . . . ·, and Sita . see and .lalf. c���m� .�g�, Kaxnpaij· makes liis�-Rama . in· lo.;,e With each . other.' This .incident . is . draiD.atically intro�:· . . she is . o n� duc�d wh�re Rfuna ent-ers the- city of Sita . Whilst . . .. . . . . the balcony of her palace.34 . .. 34. Ibid.l 1: 10: 35 .
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·· ·THE -EPICS o�
111
THE ·�cot.A . PERIOD-
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.. ;�_1��:. :R·aria i : proves hls·. right ' to �lier · hanct by establishing him · · · sel£ as th�- only warnor who can handle the� · chosen bow. The ..
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The . Brahmin sage ParaSur,funa, though · blessed with -. -flfviile · powers 1s -· the" - ·sworn ·· enemy of kii:tgs. �- He ·chai1enges �Rtima :· to handle his ·bovi; ·: Ranla with. all · bls hu.nlility ·· accepts the -·challenge as a heroic·· and · Dharmic -- venture.· · He� bend� anl a · has to· pomt out �the liow with�ut any· ·difficult�. Para5uir · · own his r ce · · tapasas the target lo be aimed at and p i e by d . Rama's arrow. Thus Para8urama· symb_olically surrenders . :'.: · �his �ers�hil� --ideais ��c�eptilig:. · Rama's ideal ·as shaped and · ·�{otined by · Va sisth� �na· visvamitra. .. . � �, -
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· Rama's father cannot but th.ink of his O'tNil spiritUal . per. . He therefore . · fection as · the consummation of .his rich · life.. . • �: . :-· ·_ arrimg��.-£�)r. Barila's -· c�ronation. · �- - - · : . . . .. . .. . . . . . · ·· �- - : elsewhere. �Providence, Riama's mission is or Devas as But' · . Kampan calls _ it, prevents the coronation throtigh�. tlie - agericy . of ·n hunchbacked woman. This woman, whose scheme is a . . . brilliant example . of polft�cal strategy; �acts ,'put '
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112
A IDSTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
king but as an ascetic outside the capital of the kingdom.. Ramarajya is thus prepared by this as�etic ruler inspired only by the high ideal of dhaTma and guided always by the human love of brotherhood. .
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Rifuna begins his pilgrimage of universalism. What fol lows is a story of the expansion of the empir� of love and and the establishment of the brotherhood of lVIan. This ex pansion is described as the enlargement o:f the family of R·am.a. The hunter chieftain, the leader of the boatsmen, Gl.tha, who helps Rama to cross the Ganges, becomes Rama's younger brother, but the elder brother of Lal��tnal}.a and Bharata. ·
Kamp� describes a scene in which the prince Bharata, true to his relationships, tries to fall at the feet of Guha, the elder brother; and Guha competing in love, tries · to full at Bharata's feet. Rama's mother accepts Guha as the chUd of Dasarata, her husband, and exclaims, "what wonder that Dasa-rata after :rea(!hing the Heavens still begets children."36 It is not merely an admission into the family. She ardently desires that th,ese five, Guha with the four sons of Da!Sarata, may like one man rule all the expanse of this world. I
Thanks to Hanum§:g., another natural born gPnius of this culture, Rama befriends Sugriva and makes him king of the monkey State, admitting him into his family as the �ixth brother.. Vib�a:Q.a, the brother of Rava:Qa, is admitted into the fold as the seventh brother, to be crowned later as the King of Lailka. Thus spl!eads the kingdom of love and bl"other hood of Man upto the Southern Seas, the limit of the world then known.. 36, lbid.1 6: 4: 143,
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THE EPICS OF THE COLA PERIOD
\Vomen ·in
Kampa�fim;iiya'f!am
.. . The greatness of the c:J,laste woman is aD.�ther · ni�ssag� of KamparO!maya"l]:am. It comes, however, fro� Cilappatikfi-_ ram. Kampau. knpws the anima,1. p�ssion existin:g in · ihe . minds of some women, as in his character Ajamuki. It tries to · reach the· level of human · passion in some. But i� _ is·_ . still a selfish hankering · after physical pleasure, often tu�g into hatred when tha,t love is· not returned; all the same tJle ·heart,. even when ·disappointed and frustrated and filled yvith je�--� lousy, is always thinking of its ideal of beauty. Sometimes in the midst of working out of jealousy for the downfall of the · ideal lover, it uneonsciously gives expression to -its love for the ideal; · This is found in Siirpa.J}.aka "\\"'ho. falls in love 'vith Rama and hates Sita. beprived of her nose, she · goes to inspire Raval)a to elope with Sita. Rava.Q.a inspired by :her description, sees in his imagination. Sita herself and. when he, overoowered ·by that imagination, asks her whether it is �ita who appears before him, Siirpanaka's unconscious m�d · and itn&gination cause her to reply ''This is �a" 37 .
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There is . a still l:rlgher stage reached, the stage of the devoted wife exemplified by the wives �f Da.Sarata· qnd the wive's of Tishis. · � higher stage is reached in those \Vho iden tify their lives with that: of their husbands, so · much so that !f..,vhen the husbands die they themselves die. This is exem- plified . by- Mcuj.(;lodari, the Queen- of RavalJ-3. There are certain names honoured in Hind11. tradition as those of -chaste womeri. Ahalya and Tara niay be ·mention.:. .ed� · In Viahniki, Ahalya, the wife of a sage, willingly .accepts the · embrace of Indra, but is purified into . a ·.Chaste woman by the touch of the divine dust from Rama�t? feet. Kampan.'s idea of chastity refuses to. accep� this version, but follows . ?Dd improves upon a Caiikam 'version..?S In his . account ·Ahalya is duped by Indra's impersonation and .�hen she sus!"'· pects. the truth she swoons. The curse of her husband· .com� . .. ·
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A �· HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
114 ·
ing later on and changing her into a stone is . a . "continuatioli' of this repentance. . ViSviamitra �delivers. his m._essage .that . there is no .. sill when the mlnd is · not in it. The. touch of Rama, . the . missionary disciple . of Vi�vfunit.ra, �-e�tores her_ back to the huinan life of- love. and service. .. · · · '11ara· is the wife of · the · monkey kirl.g Vali. · . In·· Valmiki's epic; on Vali's death his brother Stigriva� the ·mend of · R-ama, takes · her as his · beloved. His love is· reciprocated ·by 'Tiara. La�ma:Qa is red- with rage at the ungrateful indifference pf ·Sugriva iri.. not ·cotiring · with the offered help mid Tara is brought. to pacify him by - her presence. -. Karilpag., ·however, the pangs of separation, has to change : this. Rfuna knowiri. g .. sympathises. with Stigriva whose wife was· fol..ci."bly removed from hiin by his oWD brother. I f Ra:va1.,1a deserves death · for a similar act, -Kamp� feels· Vall also should . deser-Ve · that puhishiD.ent. There ·ca1i ·be no other moral jttstification for the' · death of�Viili. I{ that · were so, Raina or Lak�al}.a can- not be allowed to tolerate Sugriva taking T.ara as his beloved� Therefore Tara iri Kainp� becomes a saint in her widow� hood, the spiritual lodestar in the court of Sugriva. She c?mes to p�cif_y L�mal}.a by her saintly and ascetic pre sence, .. her dress of widowhood brings_ tears in -his eyes by . reminding . him that the same fate must have overtaken his owri mother after. -he left the . capital city. · . .
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the- minor · ·episo�es, · which he could reasonably alter. In :these episodes he jumps into the middle of the story. But as far as the main story is concerned he follows the tradition of narrating · it from the very starting point without making ·any great change.. · . stands Sita. She is one In contrast with these women . . ·who can conquer Na�ure and opposing environment. . Such 1� her love and such is her power that even Raval).a � cannot touch her, though he is prepared to lay dovm his life for her rather than return her to Rfuna. She suffers in prison to save the empire of love, and brotherhood of Man. She bears a cross. for. the rest of humanity. tp� . :�uff.e_rings :have . .
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ii5 no effect on her because her love of Raina · makes her think . . always . of him f.l�d' not of . �yt�g f��t .happens around her. Wlien after the yi�tory Han�ma:g r:ushe� to·_ pt��ish the ser� vants imprisoning ��r, �he _ple�<Js � all eal!l�stne"s for them Modern India, -- thanks to - M$atma Gandhl, believes in the . prin;ciple of satyagrciha. Kampan· · nearly a thousand year� ·- . . ' . ago exemplifies- this principle in Sita.; She · is the divine prin• ciple of universal compassion, taking the form · of a helpless '\Voman but pro1;1dly · accepting. the c�allenge: of _evil and walk.;.. ing· into prison� She-. is · an · love· to her husband..- All who come into contact· w.ltli ;her � feel her ·divine ·presen�e�- She accom� panies her husband· - on� hiS-,, travels · from Ayodhya; -being unable to bear the· separat�on;-·and yet �Providence, as ·though to make hex ·more and more perfect, inflicts an unbearable .. . .. . ...separation . - -which . . -· she �ccel>ts as a kind · of tapas or satyagraha . .With 8lf her love . to- Raina, .She· is .. gUided only by dha,r1ncL ·even .to _ save She will .not swerve -n:om the path · of ..... . - - - , _ � her father. Raval)a because of· his magical powers a1..1..anges . for somebody- to impersonate . the- father. of Sita and to- beg . "her.· to �yleld. . to Ra�a�a.- She spurns- Jilin and--finally -refUses -to . believe_'ihat lier faiher "is capable o:f suCh an ignoble � re� -· · . . - ...., .. .. -· . .. .. . . quest. She is never afraid of Rav:a:Qa. She is conscious of . "her powers; but�· refuses - to us"e them '"be�ause she "feels it is . · .the duty. .of a hero to WID hack his-wife- on� the battle veld. . . . . -·-..-- . - - - � � ·� In · -'Vialmiki's version, ·after -�a's · coronation Sita is banished to the forest because of the.. ruriiour- ·that Sita after . ten· months . of stay in' the enemy's·> country· . coUld· not be ex... ·pected � to . . be pure_ : 'The force of ::-ruiDour · ·- and scandal is �indee-d great.. lt is in . the forest that S1:ta gives birth t� twins, ·who · come to nile after· RJama. That · the perfect man should · be blessed with children is the ideal which we have seen in the Jain · e.pics. · But Kampa:g. does · not � emphasise this �aspect..- · He · closes this · story ·.�dra:inaticaily -� enough -· with the . · · Coronatl.on of Ram - a. . --·· - ....: .. ·--.., ..... -. · -· . ·· . . �· ·. . ..
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Kampa:g. cannot forget the force of the malicious rumour which even now halm.ts the minds o£ the readers .. of R·fi.mii. ya:1}q when they forget the story �s told� _-�1:1. th� ep�cs._:_ _ He . . -
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A · IDS'tORY
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OF
T-AMiL- LITERATURE
. its . expre�sion . and its therefore creates an episode- for removal. Rania, when. Sita is . brought back from Lanka, is not merely a husband but . a. king' to� rule over . an . empire where the queen equally with him has to be not .only Aperfect but. also above suspicion. J.n his spiritual equanin:Uty, made perfect' by his sufferings he . demands at . the · ·can.� of . duty, )n what appears . to us a· ruthless" riianher,: the proof O£·-· her -the ·fire ·rath.er than suffer chastity. She is prepared to enter . . the. :scandal. But fire refuses to buin . lier�· ·. ltariia- is -angry w!th' . the'' . Spirit. . o£"" fire. Who can resolve . this . complication? p�arata still 'dear .to _ ltiama _ comes . do'Wn; �nd llQ�:v --as a .. �llpema�ural being, knoWID.g all the secrets- of . th_e . tiniverse, !lSSUres RWna and �e. world Q(. Sita's ch�stity -arid·: ··d�v.inity: .
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· There is� ·however,---the quesiion of the untold · sufferlngs . undergone by · -!tam� �nd Sit�� - W1tat · expla.nation c� · -be : of nffered? What is the --i>lace, of Kmkeyf,- the- stepo.mo�herRama· in the scheme o£ ·things? Because : ·of Dakarata'"s love . . tor �Rama, Kaikeyf ta start-- with·; ]oves· Raina· . more_ . than 'her :·own_ son Bharata. ·But · when her future is- pamt�tl---blackt . . machinations ·of . the- hunchback ·.:she . SUCCllmbs . to- the . . . It . )llust have · cost -·her-- � good· ·deal to ·b� · firm·· -a ·flrnuie_ss - whic11 . · l'_esults in her widowhood� and--in· her · being· - spurned by �al;J. · ·inc��ding her own: son. ,.. . . It--is:�fudeed,·a great- fall .: -�She pears it · all . with tragic -calnr ·and·;� goes� with� Bharata- to -· bring ·back Rama.- Her. - silence ..:�peaks .of ..her greatness; . · �· She· does not .�eiDonStrate.· �She� �c��pta::ev.�cythmg with�ut -a n;��rinm..- This j.s . a . g:reat .· spirituai -�eXp�rlen�e: --. ' "bne. who ��as o�c� cap�ble . -. is thus · shown to -be capable of. this willing -suffer.of all love · -· . · ·- -�· . . · · ing. Perhaps even when succumbing. · to the evil ·advice :del�anding Rama's banishment, her" uncon-sclous. . nlinci�. sub�� . . this-d.emand as one . a£ :R�� thr�ugh :for the per£�ctio� .mat.ei . . ... . ' .... -· . . ' . holy pilgrimage and ,tapas.39 That is what has actually hap"" . ·...is �:revealed by · �ama himself ill ih.e-. -b�autifu) :...pened.- . - This� _ . ... - . -· . -· . -·-. scene Kampa:g creates.4o �
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ii1 Da�arata, after restoring .Sita to her legitimate .queenhood -begs . of Rama to . ask. for . a request.. Dasarata,. before his ...death refuses to. own .Bharata as . his son and :Kaikeyi as his _ wife. Kamp� introduces the cultured phraseology of his .times and. . . Rmna .requests Dasarata to recognise Bharata , as . his_ (Rfuna's) brother and Kaikeyi. as . his (Rama's) .mother 41 . . __
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Dasara:ta· has not yet ·reached· the steps o£ perfection; he .. still nurtUreS . his old ·hatred against Kaikeyi. . He has' to be made perfect. He willingly grants the boon that- Bharata .,should be .. accepted as his son. But he refuses the .other 1·equest. It is here tb;:lt Rama explains the heart of Kaikeyi . and . thereby her �ocence,42 from his own experience. The development of his personality is the effect of the magnani.... mous act of Kaikeyi when she bears the sinner's �adge. �D.asarata is co:nvfuced and admits Kaikeyi into his fold of - love. This episode thus · r·eveals the purity of Sita and .. ·relieves the conflict · between family love and political duty . . - in lhe--h�art of Rama� - It makes DaSaiata perfect and reveals · tire true · "in:wa:rd natu.re of Kaikeyr to be accepted · as great . .. by all. Finally it · gives a - satisfactory ·explanation ·for the � sufferings· undergone · for · the· establislnrtent ·· of; the · kingdom . .. .. of love and brotherhood- ·of Man. . · · - -· . . Rliva·?Ja,. h'LJ.t for his military jingoism and_. egotism which do not hold any other thing . of ..value and which . a5pired to - bring everything great flnd beautiful into his state and palace, · is a. great personality. He is a: warrior, wh
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lbid., 6:40: 115..
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THE COLA·-· PERIOD
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119'··.
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this is� only · one·- half - of- the truth: The· · other .- lia.Jf ·' 1s the inner � inSpiration . of �- dhaT'm,Q. which is wanting in Raval}.a'S scheme of thinifs. If the value of chastity as a symbol j)f: the _perfect spiritval . .cult:ure h�s t9 l)e �es�Qre..d, Raval}.a has to cae. . . Sita ' is not only imprisoned in -the - prison.;_house of" Asokav�a- but also· lies iin.prisoned in . .his . h-eart. · Release· from . . the - latter· prison · has to be effected ·by the· · arrow of Rfuna.. piercmg · through -Rav�a's ·- heart and� bodY� Mru;:lt;lo� da-ri ..the · · b�loved and \�vine ·Queen of Raval}a, before ·her death crying in ..·despair at the loss of her�·. husl>�d, · gives �xpr��s�o� to . t�s gr�at truth and th�s e�lains the poetic ·. . · justice.. . of this irag�dy.: · · · . . . .- - �Kampag calls · this · Work RlimiivatfiTam, the descent of Rama. · He knows. Rama 'is God · .incarnate and he repeats this as. . often as he · can. · God has to - come as a man, live ·as a man, _: suffer as · other men; becom�g perfect fr.xough the yery scheme · of things he has ordained for others. .If Rama . \vere to become ·a m�del and ·a · standard; he must become a .. man. It is only �then · any man or- woman can believe·· iii · Therethe potentialities of . human nature to divine. become .. fore . in Kampar.iimfiya"'fam, Ram.a is through · and through a man and Sita through and· through �: woman. · If· they were . to ·behave �like . God · there would be nothing to wonder at. It is the human .heart with all the human .passions �nd human failings ·th�t make Rama and Sita lovable and great.. . Kani.pa� .. is . conscious of this and ·therefore he ·gives expression · to · a beautiful phrase; "Mliin.itam . 'lJ�atcLn're",44 . 0 ! . human nature . has �won. .. • .. � antapuTt�1J,am: A homage . �of · imitation· to Kantpau, . 6 . � · . -. . The !Saivites have ··an . ep}c·· produced in th� sev.enteenth centuiY by Kacciyappa Civiaccariyar. · :it is a� ·ad�ptatioJ?. of Skartda pu,iiv-a, . narratlD.g · _th� story of . S11b·rahn1al}.ya, t�(! child- of Siva and an · old Tamilian· deity. It is an attempt to ·
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120'�
A EcrSTORY OF TANcrL L�TURE
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· t11e · footst�ps. of_ � Ka.mpd,TO,mliya:-¥Jam.: That is· the walk m greatest ·..homage · the . author " can pay to Kamp� find · that is· vihy· it · is- mentioned... here·� ·: .:: - · · • . . The age .. " of this book is also not settled. A verse _gi�es_ the ye� as 707; the saka year will correspo�d to 785 A.D.' it seems -rto be exactly hUD.dred· .years �previous to· saka· 807 i.e. 885 given by a ·verse· for Kampa}ri�a�am. There is a verse mentioned In- Ta'iriil wiivalaT ·· caritai ·as Kacciyappar's.45 ' This colophon .. refers to- a . Kantaput�am Kacciyappar --�contemporary of Antaka-k-kaVi Vtrarakava Mutallyar ·of -the. seventeenth' century, though :others claim- it earlier. : .·: . · .. . . · Its language is naturally more modem. The -c1ivinity o£ childhood is very beautifully expressed.' As against Rava�a we ·have -Siirapadma; as· against · · Hanuinatt;. Virabhahu·; as against Kuinbhakar.t).a, Sunhamtiklllf; . as against ' Indraj1t; Bbi�ukopa; as against Mav�odarf�-- Pafunak-5mal§; ·· as agamst Rama, Subrahn1a.I).ya.· This is however - a story (Jf God and not of man.· Therefore the story has to move in the super natu.ral sphere. � The poet has: utilised the- conception of Da�a fighting against · siva as conceived - by Ottakkftttar. He . also utilises the cdnception of the universal strugg1e· between egotistn ·and spirituality as ·represented in . Kampag.'s version of · Hir�ya and Narasimha. It iS only from that --point of view that the story of God .coUld- be -narrated.. - The ·last poriioiJ. of this ·work is . the ·story ·of God going to �woo · and mai-ry . . Valli. The story ·h a s· an· mner significance· as · revealing the . philosophical truth of -G-od · going m search of the : soul, to snatch it away from seductive �nvrrolunents, ancl to . mak� it one with Himself. The book is V·ery popular among the Saivites,. especially those of Jaffna. Though not ri�ing to the . . ag's work, it has its own merit3. A later heights of . Karnp writer .in �the twentieth century, a purist-, - -one P.fun.pag . has not been told with -cuvainikaf, ..' feeling that , the -story . . . · ·- · _$eriou�ness aiJd� serenity _ which the- divine story -requires has · to .write . an·· ·epic on the story of Subrah.. -.himself attempted . .
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THE
EPICS OF
THE
mal}.ya, Kumiira Cu�amiyam.
121
COLA PERIOD
Except for the puritanic out..
look, it cannot stand comparison with Kantapura·1..tam. PERIYAPURANAM
Origin and influence The great e.pic which must be mentioned next to Kampa..
ra�miiya7]tam is Periyapur.fi?J,am by Cekkil;ar, a minister. · Qf the Cola empire. Jainism has the Mahapum'Qa and the very name PeriyapuT1ii1fam suggests that it is claimed to be on a par with it (maha and periya both mean "great") . The �'lah,fipura'ljta speaks of the sixty-three ancient great men. Periyapu'lii?Jam also deals with the sixty-three Naya:nmars called Purtata:g.apunU?aru
("the ancient men")
The name the author gave it is
ill Kannada
Tovyptar pur.a)Jam, th� Pttral}.a
of the Servants of God. Some hold that Cekkilar composed the work in the first -
half of the twelfth century, and others assign it to the last
part of the same century.
The tradition tells us that he
composed this epic for the sake of the reigning King, with the set purpose of leading him to the glories of Saivite stories and away from his original attachment to the story of
CintJiimavni. .
This
Cintiimani ..
more famous epic in Tamil.
·cannot be the earlier and the One Vadibha Simha has com-
posed during the reign of Raja:r1aja II anotl1er version of tl1e story of the Tamil Cin1Jiima')J,i in Sanskrit called K�at1·a
Cu�iima'l}i.
He has made the epic mu·ch more ethical in
atmosphere by introducing moral epigrams which th.e various parts of the story illustrate. appealed to Rajarnja II.
This moralisation seems to have
To show him the greatness of the
Saivite conception of Dharma, ·C·ekkijar probably wrote his great pu,,.,alrJ-r� .•
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Rajaraja must hav� been so very well . impressed with this new epic that, in the new temple which he built at Taracuram, he arranged to get these stories of the saints sculptured in bas reli·ef, though the sculptors have intro� duced some changes. 1\.. :J-6
122
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
The stories of these Nayawriars became so popular even in the distant Kannada country that the
great Vira:Saiva
Kannada poet Harihara of the twelfth century came all the v1ay from his country on a pilgrimage to the native places of these saints.
He went back and produced popular literary
pieces called Raga1a describing the lives of the saints. This Virasaivite tradition grew in the Kannada and Telugtl coun.. . tries and produced a number of literary works on the stories -
of these saints.
In the Tamil country itself various pura7Jn.s
of the temples especially of those which are in the native villages of the saints never failed to narrate the stories of the respective saints. Characteristic features
The Teviiram saint Cuntarar has given us his vision of these great saints forming and service.
a.
universal democracy of love
But he has mentioned only the names, though
sometimes with suggestive attributes.
In the tenth century
Nampiy·fu:ltar Nampi has summarised what he learnt about each of these individual saints in each verse of his Tiru-t toiJ,fartiruvan1liti.
As a minister of state, Cekkijar must have
known more about these saints through inscriptions, court... records and traditions.
In his epic he narrates the individual
lives of these poets. in separate purii1]-as. Really his work is the story of saint Cuntarar. In the midst of the story when this saint sees the vision of the spiritual democracy, C·ekkiJar takes the opportunity to explain at length the life of every sa!nt in that vision, so as to make us understand the real implication of the vision
as transforming Cuntarar's life.
NatLtrally these stories have no other unity except through this vision. The saints mentioned by Cuntarar are all natives of the Tamil land, which in those times extended up to the banks of Tungabadra in the North.
Therefore PeriyapuTtfi7].am be
comes the national epic of the Tamils. The saints belong to all kinds of castes and tribes, classes and c;reeds.
These are men and women, old ar1d young, rich \
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123 poor, learned · and ignorant, ascetic and · · worldly. T'nese differeces do not co11nt before God.. The Jlural]a . is the story of a perfe�t spiritual democracy. It narrates the story of . inan, whatever his political, e�on�mic and social position �e,. . . becoming great _as . a· s�int..
and
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Saiva Siddb}anta work T�rit-k-k�lirru.-:-p-patiyf.ir� namely· - one . v,rhom· ordinary men ·cannot · follow, the oth·er whom· all can folJow..· ·�e· first group is;· as -it were; fu a different . world forgetting· everything else · but their· absolute· devotion · to God, preparing : to sacrifice· their life, children· , ·parents, and · rela . tives without . ever caring to consider whether this may nnt be unj�st a�cordlng to the ord.iriarY rules- and :laws of society.. '¥hen the heart is pure··and the inspiiation ·divine, these· acts; , . not motivated · by · any lower passion; make . · even God, who · co�es �o -test them, .. shudder at the� sp�it of absolute self-· sacrifice.. ·� But this can never ·be a model to be 'followed 1-?Y, - · . · ·· · others;. :... · .: · · · -. · ·
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..It is aft�r .all the :tife guid�d by p.n �deal which has to lie ' emphasised and for this the storles _of other s�mt� ·� ·�erv� · group (va� all: (;ls.- a l.riodel · . .and a stanclard for the first · . Jf . . · · tiJ'i],tar) belongs to· the harder way, _this �ou;p· belongs t� 'the . . . · �ofte� yvay . .. (m� to·YJtar) However· .:p�oi'�-. iiaW�ver helples� . . havirig a :human . heing may . be, nothing can prevent 1ljm� . . ,��om· ., . · . . an ideal and living up 'to that - ideal..- · The -1deai"'inay b'edlstributing . .food, clothes or . other ne�essities. of.. .life; v/riting books_. for . the -benefit o£ others ·.or. composing .arid smging hymns��6- . One has to see _the Lord in . mari;··=and in · that feeling of reverence perforn1 the social sexVl.ce�. �according -to . one's O\'�ln. capacity -in . whatever field . one .i�. "'.;rhe , fisherman .offers . tp God th�- .�st . fish caught ·eClch. day . and . throws it away . .)n·_4�e s�·�� _ Ev�n v.r��n :for .days �ogether he does not ..�atch � · �- .:S�(!ond. � �h; .thus ' . bei.Ug 'reduced� . to chrome hUD.ger; . he . · · sYi��Y� � np� 'fr om this id�al. This is . real �ii:��n� ·. ('�h9n9ur'�)· . .. .. . ... . . - .. ... ..
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as preached by Tiruva!Juvar; the . honourable man dies rather . . than gi�e up - his'' ideal. . • - ··�. . . -- It i� oruy ·:thos�- - -�ho live this .-life "·6£ . · a·n id�al - that ��n: know how to· · s�rve. �·-· A ·· fartne� �who' has -the ideal- of --f¢eding� every guest coming to his house� ·- 'is ·_: r�du�ed � ·to �po\rerty�� Whatever paddy he has, is sowed in his field. There is noth i:ug iri ' the house . _ana 'the' ' guest .comes _ .. 'His' wffe suggests to . . . .. · . hini to brmg . the ·seed11ngs froi.n. the fields. · '\Vhat .._are · they· to -do, . however� for. fuel? . - The Iarmer i·eriioves . . the� rafters of" . the 'roof� The ' fea'st IS served�47 - This £eiriiid i sus ·. 'of . a . . popUlar anecdote relating - to K�a of . Mahabharata .fanie;. he : ·demollshes- _his- palace to all�w · the . :Brahmill fo whqin he had promised to give whatever·- the latter �demanded arid who ask�d .. for the fire�wood 'when� . because" 'of ' the rains, "'it ·-wa.s . not .. available . any· where. in _the ;Country eyen · for .the . p�ince of . the· land: �· · ODiy thos�-� who have· lived .. the - life 'of -sacrifice· . know -how 'to serve. . In Periyapuratiam-tlie ·divinity of farrrlly life, husband .. and� Wife living�- in � coriuiiuiriori. for -this- divmesocial service, is be�utifully expressed in many of the stories:· .
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: . Iri� ev st9 ·· there is �an outer co:nffi�t 'and . � i�ner� tension �· But. every�ne of thes� sain_�s ·refuses- - to· yield ·and becomes glorious and ctorious; even if it - be · in 4eath. In. everY story there · is a ·mental and· spi;ritUaj development. This reminds us' of the:.-modern psychplogical short Eto�ies. � The: �pic· is throug;h and .'through' hum�n 'from all :po�ts of v�ew* · . . . ... ....., . . . · . .. . - - ...... � · . .. _ �- Th� .. desc�iptions of these. saint�� �ative _vill�ges, spread all over the Tamil country ��e graphic, ·_b�autiful, ..insp�ring �ap.d_ . . befitting.. The descriptiqn�: app�al by_ :t_h�ir . i®,pc�nt . simpli- : . .. city_ to :the hearts _ of_ all._ . . . . · · .��- . The • style of · Pe-TiyapUlJ"�Wrpam is· · simple · and ful) . of .life,J . • o Naya:g.ina the h ymn s ·of ;:_sometimes_ e cho h e metimesing r�, t · s th� · poets : of the:� Cimk:am - age� ·, The majestic -.· and �s� :San� < .
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skpt�ridden- language_ ·whi�h an -.;elder contemporary;-:· 6ttak : . k.fi�a.r, · ·popUlarised :miglit� have .. killed · all ·attempts ·at poetry.� . . ..
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47. Cekkijar, Periyapurfu.l,am 8, 13,
il'HE EPICS OF THE c6tA PERIOD
125
But C·ekkilar saved Tamil from this calamity and his epic is national and democratic, not only in its theme and its message but also in its language and its rhythm� Naturally the book has a universal appeal and therefore has a tremend.... ous influence both within and without the Tamil country.. There is nothing obscene, nothing bemeaning in this epic .. Every verse is full of love for God, full of reverence for life and full of human sympathy, revelling in the idea that the meanest of the mean can rise to the highest spiritual glory, refusing at times even salvation and preferring a life of ser vice and love. -
This epic contains the lives of the three Tev�firo/tn hyrm1o.... logists, treated with epic grandeur bringing out the import... ance of the hymns and. their message and also every episode ir.t their life. These stories are unparalleled in Tamil literature.
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: Tm: NINETi:-siX�YAR:IETIEs· OF ..::Po:Et•zc -CoMPosxT.IoNs -
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-: · The Tamil . tradition . later caine to believe -that the .
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raey�_poetic. compositions-- were .of ninety-six -kinds. � This tra dition�- - is- . probably ··as · . old · ·as · the sixteenth centur.r�! -� This number, popular ' as the total number o� · tatvas ·or elements in. a · hllma1-1 - body, was _ probably . �hosen .to_¥show . . that · there Were varieties of literarY. composition neariDg ·a. h1jndred . :From . . . the.: elev�nth·· centmy;:]£ . .not earlier� . there are W9rks . calle.d Piij;tiyals liiving· ·. us' "explanations. H about .·a nt1mber .of these . compositionS. All these works . ·are . agreed · on thirty�six vari�ties; but even the first work now availab�e . adds. · thirty :
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-more.· More and more varieties : are added . till . · in the eighteenth century there · is an attempt to.-· arrive somehow at the figur� ninety-six, especially by Beschi, who gave us the Tamil Dictionary,.2 The list in that Dictional'y is not the same as· the one · he gives in his T�1}ul, his grammar of verse with a commentary.. . Tamil in Tamil . .
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· These Fattiyals · give some astrological explanatiQn of . . words and metres as being auspicious and unauspicious with reference to the nativity star and th:e caste of the patron on · whom � a·· poem is · composed. This poetic tradition of astro logical convention is not accepted by the commentators like NacciJJ.aky kigi ar, probably be�ause it is not even hinted at in Tolkfippiyam,.3 The later poetic astrological traditions however' speak of two of their branches, one coming from Akattiyar and the other from Intiralm!iy�U', each of whom . . seem to have written works expo11nding this tradition,. The old .
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Bes� Catur Akarati.. 3. Nacciuar:ldar dtP.y , Commentary . on Pattu-p-pattu, · Malaipatu-. .
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MlNOB POETR¥
.commentators refuse to accept that -any _ of this tradition is ·BnC!ienf nr . valid,, or that Akattiyar of . the -Plittiyal. was� . the . �cient sage of that name.4 ·
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. .. --. :.-The�� . are many � literary' -works diff�rentiated by the . . nlimber of - verses they contain, viz. 5, 8, ·g, 1"0, 20, 30, 40; 100, · and 400. The.,_yarieties of metre also :coirie in . for further clrissification.. Often verse fornis · like . t;a�takam,- tevap�'IJri arid also the ·various vi1-uttams: including ca1ita1Jir'lttto:ni,. ·often . ' called va1j,�am ana - ti'ru.,P-pakal, come.. ta . increase . the. �num: . . . . ber of literary· compositions: . ,� . .
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fi�e...fold .aspects_ of · po�try, especially puram po�try becomes . �- indi:Vidual c�t�g�r� . Similarly ce�in ideas of the hymns of .Alviars �d NlaJyawri.iars like _-th� d�scription of the. p�ts of t�e �age or qivirie for_91' . (patat} kecam� ''foot. to ��e �roWn") developed _iri.�o independent literary compositions. The con. cep�!�ii. of liiJ�k-ka}jakku SJld ·t�e conception, corresponding to �thi�� �� looking· upon the e�ght �tho)ogies an4· P!lttu-p-pattu together as �nother gro�p �f ·eighteen called kai].akk?.t Mer . . .. . enter this list� ,
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- .The .Kings .become very. important, giving rise . to .a· num ber · o_f court poems. Prasasti or Mey�k-kirtti ("the fame") �o11fains· a description. of- the. .a.ctivities· _ and victories of the ruling· King, oft�n . prefixed io. the · . grants _ and . inscrlp· tions.. TadU!nkam a11.d C�n,appii _ qescrihe the - ten royal in� signia.', namely, the law, country, city, river, symbolic .gar� Jan�, l_lorse, .. el��hant, victorious drum, mot.in�hl·, and - . royal . �uspiciqus th�ugs to be seen �yeapon. . 'The' }:!oeni: on the eight . . . .. .. . by _ th� King, the song ·pn the �i.ng's annivers�ry,_ King s nati�tY -�ong, anq tlie song· annouticing - the time . of the . day to the . king must have become·· im:P�rtant part to get into the list of literary compos�tions.s . . . . __; -.. . ·. . . .
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A HISTORY - ·01t"'TAMIL - LITERA'tURE �
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·important ·· m. poetry. · Th'e s\Vin:g=song; · the·-eroflc 'songs/ ··an·--ille ·::mountam �lass; · th�- fi.Shr:r worrtan, the shepherdess, the hUntress·, . the ·woman · of the cultivator class, the · V�avite or ISaivite nun,� and the· . a1eam so�gs ,. of .. the. ,v-arious seasons . independent of the year �become . . literary categories.� ,. . : . . �,-, .. . ,. �.�� � � . . . . .. ; �<: . The p-te-occupation · With ·numbers- seems · to be· a 'poetic game, .· . apparently · holding - � a · · great- . . fascination.. '- for ·the . .. Tamilians. , .. Mention · has . been �made �-of the religious ..poets referring to mere numbers, probably because the · tradition h�d attached some significa�ce to these ntlmber$. · Even . now · in shops �and m�rkets," when ,the v�ndors try to speak of . the. .. · e pric , with�ut , the purchas�� knowi�g it, they follQ.w. tl1e revers� piopess:� . -�I� 't�e. poet. ;used the numb�r four .t.o _de:Q.ote . ·� . the vedas, USe �'veda" for denQ�ing fou�. � .. the· ve:p d9rs . . . ·',. c·· : A. shnilar ·�. b.;.t.ere�t is -�shown by . the poets , . in arranging . . �hese significant numbers either in the ascending or in the descendin� ord�r, . or . first in.· the ascending .. and then in the �e5cending orde:r. �# Even - saints . . like· Campantar and Tiru-. ma�aiya!var. · indulge . .in . this. . · In Tiruve!uk·iirri'tttkkai� the whole poem is thus arranged in the form · of . a .;ratha or chariot.7 . .. . · - '11ie third- kmd. · of m�eresf iri numbers' is' exhibited llY.. . · . th� po�ts · �o�p�s�g ,:,er�es up to a sp�cified. riumber. There . · · are poems · of · five · verses, reri:lin�ing us of five precious . . . geins� -4�r �£ nin�, verses, reminding of the niri� gems.8 Th� · £ �g��at�r frequency (pattu o�. pat·ikarrJ, r nUmbef �t�n, l.is·· b � . . . · · ·. · · . · -: � qrupii prupak.tu) · .. · .. -. . - . . . . . . ,Hundred is t4e next .P�pular num}>er., We have kalampakfl:.ms, . an1Jiitis �and. malais .each of . a httndred verses, all - suggesting . the idea of a garland. Akam verses, as in the . still prefer 400.. But Kalliitct1n, probably Cazikanl� an!.h�logies, . . . . . . . . . -. .,. . . .. . . .. •
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· 6. The names are ucal, kuratti-p:...pa:�, valaicci, itaicci, · matam, ulatti-p-pa�, korriyar, picciyar. 7 Tirupp�antil Mti� (Ed.), Patiu.or:am. Tirumm:ai: .� Tiruvelu. . . kiirrirukkai (Nakkiratevar) .. 8. The examples are Paficarattll,}am.aJ.ai, NavarattJ.n.amalai1 etc,. '•
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·POETR�
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'belonging tc r the _ period of Pandya only revival,_ has lOO�aka� . . �verses. Here there is -no an1iiti. · · . · ·· · · · Catakam if we. leave out of ac · comeS'" l�te· m: · the · field, . . . . . c�unt the e�ly Ti��:...c-catakam· of TiT'U'Dilcakam� These hav.� · �huzi�ted verses each �-���isting of ethical .ideas� tl.sually ��d� . .· . ' iiig with , • tlie b.anie of ., a. G6d. (See K;i,ma·r�ca '�ai'akarri, .. .. . . , • • ', ·�,· ' As , -� contrasted with ' Arappali�ura catakam, · etc.) Tiru-c .. · this �atakam·. they d�. not have .antati arrangement. , Perhap� . ·to the Telugu · r�vival of an-· interest - � · ·catakam is _·due . . ·izifiueiice. of - tli. -e ·vijayanaga�·· p·eriod. · . . . . .. . · These verses, often linked together like a necklace or a garland,- are� often ·�iri . what 'i S called the an'biiti arrangement, alrep.dy explaine.d. . .-. . .. - . . . . . . .. . : �·· - .... were �amed aft.er � )��v�;n in the · Ca�kam age compositio�s . .their metre.· In some -ca·ses· . the whole of the book is ip the sam�e metre. . Perhaps_ this is more frequent, and from this point of View. ·katta1ai-k•kali-t-turai metre · is · ·considered . ·to - be .m·ajestic - .wh ilst. vet]Jpa . metre comes next in importance. ·Viruttam liowever . is the metre ·of _ this · a:ge. The uniq11� .beauty· o£· the.. _- composition 1s· sho� by the richness of the .variety. Necklaces are ·made of- two or three or �Qur alter;. -1ititing gems and named ·aft er these. - varying patterns. Th� .total number of each · kind· of · alternatihg gem is ten. ·. There �ore; if -�one has- two kinds of alternating metres the total nwnber of ·verses is.·.: twenty . · If there · .are · three metres, the .total � �s thirty·, ·and if four the · total is · 'forty. We · have· seen �hat � th� :number · of :ve�ses is .. .-fifty,·. seventy,. . :hundred Pt . hundred �and fifty in Pati��rJ'kfi!-k--ka7J,a,kku,9 �hut with no alter� �atin� m�tres. _ '
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A mSTOR1?':· OF,. TAMIL� 1J:TERATURE
-mulam · and ·.Tirikatitkam. ·
1n·· the� succeeding age,_ the . ..name� of poems such as kovai, miilai (garland or. necltlace) � n.ii�ma1}ti · (four gems) mumma'{ti. (three . gems) Irattaima:l],i . . (two . . . . · · (five ·ge�s) navaratti�am (n.ine gems) . ·. gems) . pci�ccirattifl,am . . . imply a nio�� joyful attitude �awards life, God Himself . com-. · in:g · , to _ be 8poken ·of ·as a gem (m£t11,iye) .l� The · import�n-�� ..
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This pre-occupation with numbers, perhaps learnt from 'the Jams · or rather from the . Sia!D.khyas, was m�d�·-·much more mterestilig in ' the second ? half �=of · .. the first nilllenium. K.tl idea of this period from this point- of view can: be had from tHe elev·enth . book of . the Saivite . canonical llOetry.- This . anthology was ··made· probably after the time of Nampiyal)tar-. n-ampi; the Tamil VY,asa; for his poems · are inclueled in .this book.. Nampiya:Qtarnainpi is· said to be responsible for coil. · 1ecting 'rev�iiram hyrnns .. · arid c1assifying them ·futo· seven tirumurais; : the ·. word murai meanirig . a book. · The · -eiassifi.:. cation·; into� seven . books- ·was".. on the basis . of mttsical tunes. . Campantar's hymns· ·were . eollected · · irito : Books � one · to · three, Appar's' into· ··Books ·four lo· six ·. and 'Ctintarar's · Jnto Bopk seven. Perhaps .. Mfujikkav.acakar's Tirtiv,ficakam · and Tiru k� ·kavaiyfir were · added· only later ·as the eighth · book for these are � not : nitisicru .compositions·.. But this is nof fo·. deny· . · that Na...lD.piyifu}.�ar _might have made this collection on a · different pasis; for� �ampi _ r.efe.rs to_ Miz}ikkavacakar. in . y�ry .r�veren·, .. tia1 terms.. . . · , ·Nampi ·belongs to . the·· last p�t ·of the·· riinth· · at1d . early ...
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part of. the fehth century. �· He speaks .of the Kmg · .Atitta:g.' as
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(Ed.} ; Patb.).oram .TirumUI�: ,lVIllllml�-k:liovai · ·9·· l'Pa�it)aitarJ [for instclnceJ, . . . . '. .. . · · Tinlppau.�tal .Mutt
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having brought gold from the Ko:ilku. country and as having . . hall at, Citamparam with that gotd.ll · We.· covered the . temple . ' . ... - .. . · � . know that the Cola king AttitaJJ. conquered the Konkti coun-try and that he ruled betw�en· 870 and 907 A.D. Since · this poetspeaks also of the death of this: King he mttst have SUrVived• ··� ��-· him.l2 . ·. -. _· . . ..
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The ninth book of the Saivite canon consists of songs . . probably s1.:1ng in the ·Cola temples as musical corilposiij. .. . ons· or icai-p-p1ii in the tenth' .: and ·eleventh centuries. . As · some· of the poets like Karuyri;r�t��var, �_the contemporary of Raja-. :r;aja I, came . later ..than . Nampi, the latter·. .collld .not be ·responsible for that collection. The tenth Book is Tirumfilar's Tirumantiram, which · is l>lder than Cuntarar of the seventh and eighth centuries. The twelfth . hook is the ·-P. eiiyap'ltm"l],am . . of · Cekkijar \who l?.�lo:qg� . . to-_ t}le· twelfth ce�t:ury . · Tl�er� · fore the canonical 'Qpoks �from the · eighth to the twelfth .seem . to have been ·made at-: . diffe:rent times or all at . :once at-' · a . -. ·- · ·:� · later date. :... . "" . �- . -�;· The usage of the word _.mutai, meaning a book- is found · in C.ekki!=?.r's PeTi'!Jf!:PU.'tlil'l}am.. _,Even there, there · is ·no· re : -� ference to the Tevtiiram hymns iri. terms·· · of :�rir1.tmtttai.--� In· . . the· f6urteentb· . century . th� poets Irattaiyar · · spe�k : oi '- the - ,vork of each of lhe . Tevaram . and of . Manikkav.acakar . · Writers �s TiTumur«is. �o ·· ·:��her- - ref�rence i�-- foun�... t9.___this 'Word . in this sense, though the story describing the �cqllection . .of the canonical_ Sai"Vite · poetry· in a pufl�a form is . ascribed . to Umapati Civmil,- ·a . poet and philosopher o� th� fourt�enth · century. w'. Frcim.' this it. will -be clear that after the�- ci>ilection of the· .ten� .Ti;um�rai·�· · peopl�. tilust have felt . t]?.at the works on Siva, other than· �ev�Tam. considered to be older · than thfrlr generation, shoilld ··� a1so- find a place · · in the canonical works. The eleverith:!.book-�}g.; : the result. · T11e table below gi'"e& the naro.e.s. Qf . authors.t. anq �-their works as found includ..... '. ...: . . . ... - · · ·. ,.� . · ed in the twelve· -T.irumuTais . . :
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No. of the
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Tirumurai
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4. Tirunavukk 5. · ;, . �; . ' , 6. ., . . Cu.D.tatmF � · -· 'l. s.�-:a·. Maliika k v.�cakar · ..b. ,, " 9.Tirumalikai-t.-tevar . b. Centanar. . .. ·. · c. Karuvur-t-tevar . · -· d.. .
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. · �irn�p.:palwintu . Titumantircim _TiTumuka p-pacu:ram ?t�ruvai iika#u··· miltta tiru�p patikam ·· · Tirumrattiii. ..mani#idlai . �
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vena.ttatikai · . g. . Tiruvaliyamutau.ar .. b.- · nampi i. .. . . ·- . 10.-Tirum-ular 11., a. Tiruvalavay-utaiyar .. . . .. - ., '.. ' - .. · . b. Karid.kkil ammaiyar . .. eo: · ' _ · •
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. �Kseitira-f :..-ti:ruvenM. .� . ·Po'ltvantmttan:tati· TiTu'ViiTur -mummani-k-kOvai.. TiTu:.k-?CaiJfw:ua -itzi · . · ·xayizo.·r· pati "'kaJ(itti- pati-iintati .. ... .. • · Tint i1iko#riialai e1upatm · . ·-Tifu � valiincu1i '"�umma1ii�k'-1Wvai�-: � 1.i� e!ukuf:lii'u""kka&· .
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:{{apa-;p-pirG.ciita/m. - Kai-�it ::Parri-.t;.;tin:£.:.k.:.kau .�-�e1J,�· w i i ifit.--;:.,r,; atai -� . . Tirumluiiul -.. 1:':.p·" TirukkmJlJJ,ttppct teva? ti?um,crcm TiTukka1].1J.apptt teva? tiTumaram . · --�Miitta 7ttatJaiiil'l' tiTu rwiiUai mAtii�lfii: . · Civaperumii:ii :.. -� ,�-� . -� � ;_ ;;' ·-·-:.: =� Civapentmdt1t tiru-van�ti ·:- .. -� .
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CivaperumaD tiTuvantdti Ci�aperuma� tiru my.mman.i-k-kovai Mutta pillaiy.iir ti-,u . mummani-k-kovai . . · K.oyil 'nl�n,ma1]-imalai , .· . Tirit k kalumalct m/umman1:.:k k6vai · · �TiTuvitai · �aratftr m'Umm�-ni-k-kOvai -Ti1'lt ekampamutaiyar tiruvantiiti · · � TiTitvo.aLiyiir . orupii oru pa"ktu · · · Tiruna:taiyur . .vi1].Jayakar , irattaima-'{ti . malai '"Koyii · tiru-p-pai],�iyar viruttam · Tiruttootar tiruvantdti AJufaiya piUaiyar tiruvantati. - ·.,, . . " . tiru-c�ca'Q,pai . virattam , .. • tirumumma?J.i-k-ltovai . ,, ...
i. ijampe��a'tikal j. Atiravatikal · . ·
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, . tiruv���millai . · -� ·. :. " , tiTu-k-kalampakam . " ,. . tiTu-t-tokai . . ·Tiru'iliivukkaracutevar tiru11ekalaca · · ,.
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. . . � . ·There' . is:: at the b_egi:rifiing · - of · the--· ¢leverith 'bo6k - a- verse attributed by -. ·a · credulous · generation ·to · . siv� · Himself - as icidiessed ., by · Hlm · to Cetaman. : Nek.t � come the poems · of.. Klaxa1ltkalanbtla.iyiar - already · r eferred to:· �'Nakkirar's ·Tiru.; murukJiilrru-p-pa.tai from Pattu-p-p1iittu is here inciuded because it is a complete poem on Muruka.J}, the .saivite child... god ··.-Here · .the· tradition �of - names: like those.� of� Ca:D.kam poets . ·� {Kapilar, . �arcn,:.tar K�lla:tar and Nakkirar) · still'- co�tinues. · There is . �cozlfUsi�Ii · aborit - the· nanies . . wl1ich .1eads ·- to · cankam poet�. �istakes · � �dentifying� the :later 'Po � �:th � . . The. period cov.e�ed by_ _ th� ·_eleve�ih . book may be from . . : · . the � sl.xth to th in . e . tenth century: The . works are arranged . the order pf . th� traditional age ·of .the. ·. authors. . Karaikkal Amm.aiy,ar ·_:·1.«\t-a.s· · earlier than Cuntarar and · her·· poems come first Jlfter. _that �eged to: .'J:le by Siva. · _The verses of Aiyat�kal . . · · to any · Pallava King" Kfafayarko.Q.� _follo·ir. : Kitavark�tt r�fers . · Atika:f�meiinS "His Holiriess." · This: shows_ -that -the king. had renounced the �world._ :WThis te��- Aiya.til�a} 1:p.ay. be.. �ompa:�:ed '
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with Bappaswami occurring in_ Pallava inscriptions.13 · . Para� mesvara Pallava, the --father of Rajasimha II, renounced - the world and he must be this Aiy.atikal. Next . comes. . ceraman . . the --�ontemporary .of Cuntarar. . Nakkirar� Kallatar.. and Para:Qar mentioned- here are referred to as the ''Poyyati1nai-y-illiita pulava�' by Nampiyl��ampi.14 :Qarope�atika} and Atiravatikal here come next. . It has been suggested that I}am. peruina:g�atik� _ i� no other. than K:o� :Qamperumag1ar of the Centalai . _i· nscriptions.ls All these must precede Patti:g.atr ta . Patt�atta.r must belong· to the period immediately .preceding that of Nampiyal)�ilampi, for both of them refer to �t-ikka vacakar- ·o£ "the ninth ' ·century..16 .
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. . . The .list_ of w:orks shnws the preoccupation of this age V?i:tJ:�. _ t�e · li.t��ary �ompOsitions we are studying (Antati, E!u�� . . kurru irukkai, U�ii.,. Kalampakam) . The emphasis on numbers may -be seen- from :th� names of .the works: Patika11t, Orupa oru� •
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pai£tu,. · Irattai�a,'Tj,i ·· milai, Mumma . .lpi-k-kovai, Nan.1na;:ti 'in·filai.. We have here in -addition the· riumber eleven in Ekata·ca malai ("a garland_ of · eleven.._·:_-ve.rses") ..17 There is also .TiT���ma-t�. tokai,18 the "collection of names'' not referred to in piittiyals • But ·�ecoming· popular iri modern times · in wdmri ciinkirttii!!fam �r the ''musical song of names." -· No - wonder pattiyals· came to· Be Written dUring the age of the collection of the eleventh bnok�. . . . ·. .... ·- - . . .. . . . ' . . . -- ·--�· - - . . . . ', . ' . . . '1'" .' - ·- ..... ..... . . . . . 13. . lxahatagaP.i plates of Civakanta Varmau, Epigraphica. · Indica, - · -·� · · · · . ·x" 2� · � v o l. · - Turai · AraD.k3lJ.ai · �Dr. M. · A ., Tlie · Religion and Philosophy · ..of •
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Tevaram, p.. 13.. · -14. - Tiruppat;tantaf Mutt . (Ed.) � - -Patmor.am. Tirumurai : Tiru-t-to:r:;ttar·� . Tiruvantati 49, �[Nampiy:fu].ta r Nampi]. . . . . . . �.- ·centalai- Inscriptions, .Epigraphica Indica·. Vol. XI ·154;- :Vol. · Xm . .. . . . . . _· . . . . .- - - �- - �- c.: .. :.. :�- - : .· .. - 136. . . : . . - . . . : ·.i � ;� Rakava· : Aiy.ankfu., . M�, ·'.cac�a-t-tamil�k�kavi Caritaln, p.· . 19; .- . : ··: �- - 1��-- �ppa:o���:� (�d ) PatiUoratn T�urai��y�tai-. . . marut& Mwwnat}i-k-�ovai 28 . [Pattinattar]. ·. . . . . . . ' •. . .... · · "\._ .... 5 p� .. . .., . m. am � . � � . . Ibid:, Ylfllt . · � :: �aracu' tev_a:r;·- ·Tiru: ekiatacamatai ·452 [Nani'�'i•• �. . 1 7 Ibid:·--�TiruOO . . • , •. • ' .• . 1: '·• • .. · · �;:�--- � yitt).t;ar - Nampi] ..� �, -'· � - ' ·· · : · · .
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:: 135
MINOR POETRY �
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���.lJ)�n��pne_d· above af!er. Cuntarar and·· before t
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· Pattiuat�atr try to revive the old litetary .style. . Th�y . do not l'ise up to the expectations raised in our minds by their names, . which suggest the glories of the Cankam age. ·
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But theve - are two poems which are exceptions to this conclusion and which- show the way ih which the literary com...
·_positions developed. These are the two poems on Saint KaJ)J;lappar, one by Nakkirar and another by Kalla:tar.l9 Both are called marams, mentioned in the list of ninety-six com• _positio_ns._ . . 'I1Us heading maram occurs also in other kalattnpaka.ms and also reminds us of the heroism of the · Catikam age� .The songs · on clans, (hunters, mountaineers, cultiv�tors)' . describing their characteristic features through interesting . episodes ·o·r dramas·, _ develop in the later age, for instance m Kuram, Kuravanci, and Pal�u. The episode of the life of "'a hunter or Marav·aT "is given in · these two marams. Maram is _heroism; it however;· · receives a new significance. It is no · more. the mere recklessness of the warrior on the battlefield, . for battle. implies a conflict of ideals. The old conc�ption ·of maram is no longer accepted in the new philosophy of love. It is - now· a reverence and love for the ideal, for which one is . . ready to .· lay down everything one has including one's life, ��ather than hurt any human being. It is true we have the con ception of MahtaVira and also the descriptJon of Buddha whom Mal}.imekalai praises as ".Mara�ai vellum '1>1/ra?J",2o "the hero ·who co�quered the spirit of passions.'' . But even here the �conception is that .of a moral victory and nQt _ of·. the . lovi11g · · · · ·, · · · sacrifice. -· .
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These two poems narrate the story of Ka:Q.t}.appar, a hunter, _who became mad af�er G'Od at the. sight ·of .the. symbol of Lhiga and who, when he saw the eyes of the 'IJnga bleeding, took out his own eyes to replace them. Even God, we are told, testing . him, was deeply moved by this unheard-of her
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Mutt '(Ed.), P�tiu.orim k�appatevar· Tiru Maram [Nakkiratevar]. . ·Ibid., [Kall�tar]..- · . 20.. ca�ar, Mal}im�k�;U. ll; 61$ -
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A . HISTORY
. TAMIL LITERATUB� '
..To· make even the .testing Go·d shudder at ·one's- self-.sacrifice is real maTam; or heroism � · · · ·- · :· _Cintfie the_ t o· ' a ge �PP � , 6 pti� t Patfm�ttar's:·p�ems, : as� : of .. · . · ma�i iii which - he'"11ved; are Written m a grand ·� iyle; though e Naya,g.mars expressed . giviz?..g only the ·1Il����g�. o� _ �he &livit . . by theiD in - a simple lan.:gu�ge.. ·He described _the worsliip ·in the ·temple. �f his he�rt.�. There is. a fully. �developed metaphor . .speaking.. qf ·God . as . the- .fruit of a precious gem.21 -. His poefcy is .full - of . captivating similes and charming descriPtions. ·:: In his-poems,- in addition -to the varieties· mentioned, we ·get. liin.ts ••
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at. the---other·. species of compositions, •viz. : pa:IJiUikeca'f�Vla and taca:nkam,:23 . In the laiter, the irrevocable order nr law:··of· the Lord is described ·�s that which· is . not haSty, a ferro foimd :·fu tiruviTai�k,;..kali�24- :. the inscription of the ·tenth century and, sufferThe ephemeral nature 9£ the physic.al pleasures . ings '"of hfunan· life are,: it is t�e, painted in ·�ol�ti.rs.; .
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·d�r��s� � tO. show tli� beauty and _joy ·o£ the spi��� · but . that is- only. . �
contentment.' He is not ·a.g�inst righteous arid inn�c�t' eD.j �y� .. . .._ �· .. . ment. ·nor against the life� of 'Ye�lth if guided moral. pr� by . . . ciples.26 He ther�fo�e e�pla� th�t 'th. e neW ����ol_ '9f P!U\o '· . ·sophy has learned to .lose' none qf the pleasur�s world, of: the . . . . · - Th�z-e whllst keeping the. mind . iii co� union . . with G : od. .,ar� - · . . .. . ,·· 'lo. ,.. , · other works attriouted · to Pattinatta r but ·not included . in this coliection. - This -must 'be by a diffe.�ent,'person with a .differ�nt �g� to message 'and· an e. asier diction" beloiliilli perhap�· th-e . . . . lof· Vijayanagar,· as maj.r 'be seep. from the use of the relug� ·pinral sUffiX · lu -iii �tlie te�i pommat Jffita t m.e'Z · · · .
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·21;- �Tiruppan�taf Mutt {Ed.}, Patmaraiii Tirumurai : Tirnkkal�ai"a ·4 - [Pa�iu.attar].; · :: · · ·· · · .22 . Ibid.,. TiruvitffimarutU.r Mummm;U-k-kovai 1 [Pattiuattar].. 23. Ibid., Koyil l'iawnm;Umruai 4 [Pattiu.attar]. ..
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MINOR
137
POETRY
The Pu'fla'IJ.-as and kiiviyas are also mentioned among the
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.ninety-six varieties.
If one leaves out of account all such
.. considerations as metre and number, and also well-known literary compositions like epic poetry and p1.t'i·fi·1]as, certain . literary compositions stand out as peculiar to Tamil.
AKAM
(INCLUDING AKA-P-PURAi"VI)
Kavai The
akam
·monologues. narrative.
verses of the Cailkam age were unconnected
No attempt was made to weave a coniinuous
The dramatic monnlogues led to the development
of the epic, by something like a combination of monologues. .Literary pieces came io be written consisting of a series o£
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speeches of the lovers and the people around them, so as to
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present a continuous romantic story starting from the first meeting of the lovers and ending with their living together in peace.
The illustrative headings of the various
akam
con
texts, which were considered in the ·CaD.kam age as something
· .unconnected, came to be arranged in their historical sequence This is the difference between the earlier and later poetics.
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The first o£ the latter type is Iraiya1]Jfir
aka-p-poru�
often
.attrib_uted by a credulous generation io God Siva:28 because the word Iraiya!J)ar, the name of the author, a poet, can be :interpreted as ·God or :siva.
There is
of one single poet, illustrating the by Iraiya11ar
aka-P-poruJ
an
akam
anthology of verses
contexts as arranged
to show the contmuity of the story.
It is on a Pandya Prince and therefore called
�ti-k-kovai.
_K,ovai, a collection or string of flowers or gems came to be the name of such literary species.
It. is admittedly on the Pandya Netu.ma�alJ. converted by Tiruli3i!a ·cam aniar.t!!J But
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Prof. Nilakal}.ta Sastri thinks that it was 'composed at a later date on a later Pandya to whom the Victories of his predeces sors were, according to a well known convention, attributed.30
28. Iraiyau.ar, IraiyatJ.ar Aka-p-porUJ.
29. PaJ!�attar T. V. s., P��iyar Varalaru, p. 25. 30. N'tlaka1.1ta Sas� The :P�dya Kingdom, p. 17,
A� 18
A EaSTORY . . . . OF-...... TP.u -· �IL · LITERATURE .
But it is difficult ·to· believe . that minor details and battles . . importance could be so attributed. :w. hich Were not of� historical . . . . . The. second- gre at atte�pi in this lirie is that of the great ._...
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. t Manikkav:acakar of the early ninth century. --:saivite Sain . Nampiyl�tar. Nanipi·, · who collected and codified the earlier Saivite works iricluding Tiru'V!iicakam and Tiru-k-kovaiyiir lived in · the early ienth centurY. · Therefore- Tiru-k�kovai'!Pr · must be anterior to the t>eriod of that collection. Malr}ikkav� cakar refers to . a contemporary__ t:'andya king, . Varaltlll)alJ.,at . · :probably of the- early. ninth cenitiry. Mfu}.ikkavacak�'s kovai is held ·� great ven�ratio.n; . it is called Tiru-k-kD'L"'aiyO.'t, with the prefix tiru., . �'sacred'' and . with the suffix lir, the honorific . . . singular be added generally used for great men but coming to . . _also . t� names of great literary �works.. It forms _ part of ihe Saivite canonical literature.· Reference has -been already made to the �ystic. poetry of these saints. This k·ovai· is· also consi. �der�<:J · to �e_ll:lystic. poetry. _. Here admitteclly there · is an implied .allego�. Th�s poe� expresses the Love of the soul for ihe · Lord. As · against .- the · ordinary . trend of . mystic poetry, in . . . . lady love is -God and the hero is-the soul. Tiru-k-kovaiyrfir the - . . ··- ·� . One has kovais sung -on: chieftains. ·A different version · ·-.of the ·poetics of the akam· verses, came to be written m the - period of KulottuiJ.kClTI- III round about the end of · the 12th .century and :-the beginning of ·the 13th· cenfury.32 : A work . ·conforming to this - changed · tradition is :tiow the most . famous .of the later_ Kovais held by the learned t'o be next- only · to It is called · Tancai- V,fitl!a1J. Kovai: .T afi.cai -js Tiru-k-kOvaiyar. . · not Tanjore but .a place in Tenkasi Taluq nf· Tinnevelly. Poyyamo!i-p-pulavar is its author; -and ·various anecdotes like . .his· meeting God Muruka:g. · Hini�elf surround his nafue.- -:, The boo� �s : orr. Vifu:l.� (Ba:Q.a) · a Pandya �chieftain VTho'" is praised .as .conquering Colas -and Ceras.33 . Bfu).as,· a clan- of· chieftains, ·moved. ·_from the Pallava . and (�·ola · country-into ,the.· Pandya .
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M�ikkavacakar, Tirukkovaiyar 306, 327. Narkavirac_a .-Nampi, -Nampi �a-p-poru.l Vilakkam, · PoyYfunoli�p�pulavar, Taficairi'Q,at} �ovai ·
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country only in the. thirteenth century� It is known ihat the. Pandya_ king . Cataiya v� Ctintara Pandya (1251-1271) and. Marravarma.g. Kulacekaran (1271-1311) who succeeded him fought with the Ceras · and Colas34 and _therefore · the V�an; t�?-e patron of our poet, might have been a chieftain of any . one of these two in the 13th centUiy. . . The commentary on · tliis work. . actually divides the ·events referred to_ in . the monologues into a n11mb_er. of s�ccessive days. This kovai is great for translating the Cankam monologues, so to say, into the language of the poet's age. It is full of similes and othe� . figures o£ speech which have become popular by -the time . of' . . its author.. · - ·· ·· ·. · · · ·· · · .. . . . . ' , There have been;: hu:r�ulreds of kovai from. that age to this : day, both on chieftains and the .deities of the . temples. Accor. ding to th� tradition tile hero of the kovai story is - never.. . na�e�l place . .It is the patron in whose cot1ntry the story takes . . that is . always . mentioned.a� . . . · � · There is another aspect of later literature which is com.. its · poetry, music, architecture; inon to · aU · arts in India iconography and· painting. There is, to starf with, an original · artistic cieatioit -_It i$ -upheld as the · standard for others; but· ID:oti£. It is. not that there· · . soon it becomes · a conventionalised . is · n�--originality· il).· the . subsequent pr6ciuctions. · Originality,· howe�r, is ·shown ·only in the details. For fustance, there is . the final ·andr. successful artistic ·· creation of Natariija after . · is mnre or· vari�u�·.- earlier attempts. But later ·on, this · icon . . the· holy standard with .. o and held as less c nventionalised . . varying but well defined dimensions as described in the ..· Silpa .Sastras�· . However, ihere � follow minor. changes, in the sweep· of the matlock of the hair, in the. height of th� leg held . ' . up, iii the . swing of the left hand,. . and, in fhe expressions of. , the·· j'Oy in . the face. These symbolise. different _ degrees of .the : . joyful dance of the Lord. But these will be clear only to one who knows the fradition . and who studies the icons at closer _
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. 34. · PalJ.'{;ai-attar� -T�- v:. S.�- "Pfu).tiyar Varalaru, pp. 53, 54. 35. Poyyamoli.;.p-pulavar, Taficaivfu:.tau Kovai [for instancej�
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140quarters -- The.· ·.same- thing . happens in poetry. .. The�e are changes -in�;the nrinor details,.� in_ the wordings, in ..$imiles, and.. eve·n � in· ->the:. . senti)nents. expressed;. what .. is_ serious..: in. one author .b ecomes.. humorous. in another-author. But who will -have the- patience to· .go throug4 th�se hundreds of�repet�tiol;ls? The . K·ovai. consists of . four. hundred verses, .each. on ol).e of. the four -hundred contexts. of ideal love ppetry; but some poets eomposed . four . 4undred verses. on - · any . one oi . t�e .four_ hundred� contexts.36 . ..
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·u . .. -· Tiitu, the poetry. of love's embassy ·has become very popular amongst the later day poets. In Cankam literature, . we·�fiiid :.the ·.:hero-ine in a context of despair . givmg expression, to· ..-her,� · feeling· - of- desolation by- ·addressing -the birds, �- bees·, and· ·-begging· them· sometimes to- go §Ild bring the hero �7 .But there� iS- the other �.context where . as a .true. ambassador of�1ove: ru1d family peac�, the musician a�. :man� . or :_a y�oman-often· goes _. .to. the. battlefield_ . or -� .o. the __ prostitu��'s' hotlse. where the hero� is - sfay!rig.�� .. These. two "''contexts ·are comliined -t(;>gethe:t;_ and� ela�orated , ori . a - ' larg-e - scaie, �-·perhaps, 4iflil.enced- by ·· B l{Wi4�sa'S-�.ZV.f�ghastindesa. . U.f it- is· ··difficult ·to �s�y that� any . �f_ th�·�e- -�tt��pts _come · to· the· Ievel :.o£ ·Kaud.as�'s poem. ·· _ That . .is� .li���ause��'in-. t�e ·-_later : yYor}ts . the - praise of the' �patron or: _ the Gbd.liecomes ·· · m.u.cli-. more. �irii p ortant� whilst . � · ,; ,. , . • .; ; . .· ""· · Tut-u 1>i6p�l c(?rii�. s ·o.nl�i', · as·.:·a..-cloak. · ·The· name . · of the lover · is "mentiOned ' - - There, - in· . a�di.:. · m �tliesepoems,. as a g a iri lie st t old_'traditioif. .. . . t;.o:o-.· to_· akltm ·a.n.d: putam�- a third-category _of ilk�a-p.;.puran i� . . � .. . -·:: ·-� · � � · s�' m o �P e li� g i e :as ....chaiacterisii t s · · · re-cT ·ogn.fsed . · � ·· - · _ - · • ...,. . _,. :. :�� This. _Vfas:._later:.�used··.·. as ..: aJl . �allegQry. . ·by�th� · phijqsQ.p})i� an.d religious poets _ where ·�h:eY·· ·$end J;h�i,r. :O�: lle��t) �s: tl�� messenger of.�.thei;r :10"{�-.-to.... -��heir ·_lover-G9d -or· ·- t�e!r .Mas�er. The �first -s. gr��t�-:WQfk � .Pf: ··this· -.kind · is · jro� · · t�� ·m%,tic ·. �� -·
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37. Naray�acam.i Aiyar, Pi(m.attUr (Ed.) , N�ai 542 70, 102.. 38. Veilk�ta��!lti �·a����' N._ �M <�d:)� A]ta{l�f!ru 244. iiru 1�0. · · � ·ilk <;i\minat� Aiyax:; J:?r., U. v�· .(Ed. ); Aiurun •
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141
phiiosophical poet Umapaticivam of. the fourteenth century.39 This. is followed by Qther mystic and philosophical poets like ���t�vcmayar, of the fourteenth �entury,4a and Civa�p pirakacar of the seventeep.th ,century.41 In praising the patrons in later tiitus_, the emphasis· on love becomes less and less and the poetic effort is turn�d towards singing the glory of the particular kinq -9£ ambas�ador of love as agah1st others. Mythological stories, traditio:p.s, . beliefs, and later, more and more puns are used tQ establish this supremacy of the parti· cular amba�sador of love. We- get a variety of ambassadors, . . bee,42 pa�ot,43 . cl9ud,� terJT(ll.)4 5 or southern wind, coin,-� 6 . paddy,47 and even Tamil.48 The last will clearly show where the interest of the poet lies� Vitali Vitu Tiitu ("the embassy of the danseuse�') . �e�o�es popular . in the decadent age. In later days, we have the �old rice or the tobacco coming as �uch· an arobassador.49 L9ve itself is forgotten and we have �he shoe and finally the Lo�d of De�th sent not to the lover but to the . enemy.so Ulii .. Ulii is also connected with love, though not the ideal
love. Here the patron or God goes in procession around the .. streets of . the city, arid -the women of varying ages from five to forty fall in love with him. Their love is not returned. \AJho these women are, is a great puzzle. One explanati,:>n · is that they are all public women. The distinction into seven 5tages of womanhood does . not occur in the Cankam poetry or in Sanskrit. It seems . to : be. an elaboration of suggestions . found in CaD.kam poetry and the Sanskrit . -· '
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40. Tattuvarayar, Neiicu ·vitu TutU.. 41� � Civapp1rakacar� Civaiiana:palaiyar. Neficu· vitu Tiitu. 42. to 50. Caminata Aiyar, Dr U. V. (Ed.), Introduction to Alakar Ki!lai vi� TUtu (See t}lere - all the following names of i¥tus) . V�tu yitu tUtu, Ki.J!� vitu tutu, Meka vi1it tUtu, Tem-al yitu tiitu, Pm;;tam Vitu tiitu, N� ' vitu tutu, . Tamil vitu · tUtu, Pal�:yatu vitu tUtU, Pukaiyilm· vitu tutu, Ceruppu vitU tUtu, Matali vitu ' tutu. ..
142 .· Cel'anian -pertun.a! a :. Cera· � Kfng�. · by;� . The · earliest uta . . . naya:giar;. a.: contemporary of C11ntarar� of. the eighth century,
is called Tiru-k-·kayiliiya fia�a ulJ6, because it .is. beli�ved to have been published · on Mot1nt Kail§s . It is also knoWn a.s ati .-uLii .
or the ancient or the . first' uta, which makes Cerama:g. peru mat . nay�ar, the inventor . of this ·new . kind ·..of prabandha; thou·gh some will hold .that ilrotu torram in Talkfippiyatn51 . refers · to this kind . of literature. The name . Nan-a - Ulfi_,52 the rut� �f s�iritual wisd�m, is intriguing. But we have seen. that ·. the saints and mystics use erotic . language with a:n. allegorical -
signific�ce . . of great spiritual importance. The spiritually minded : man has to go . through seven · stages . of mental deve� lopment, which are often · ·called seven worlds; el1t nilarn o:r
sapta
·
It is for ·consideration whether these · seven stages are· in .the mirids of. those ·who describe this as ·N'a13a Ubii. Thiti is · another complication in later .Tamil ·poetry · bhiimi.sa
the spiritual significance coming very often in the interpreta:"" tion of · poetry. In the poets like Tattuvarayar; ·. the ·spiritual
significance · has to be accepted. In the p�ems · of the Siddhas or the eclectic mystics, the spiritual .significance is much . L"10re patent and . almost the centre .of he poems. . · The- . poetic importance o£ this kind of · literature c·onsists .. in being::. true- to the· varyP1g . ages· of women falling· in love with · God · or · the ·patron; · and in creating· dramatic situations, preparing . · · for these women falling thus in. . love · with. the hero. The child�- for instance;: is playing the game of the -· ·mother and when ·asked replies that Siva is the fath�r .of her toy,. · implying that �e is her owD. husband.S4 · At that june... ·
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ture; · the · procession . of siva comes before her · and the child cries for Him whilst the procession moves · on. Those who
are older have their own hobbies and games and at an ap... · pripriate · juncture come to .. enter . the l"rocession, their . . according' to their age . and experi��ce. .p assion being ..kindled . . .. ·- ·• . .. .• . . ... ·- . . .. . . .. . . . � · •· '·'· · , 51. Tolkappiyar, Tolkappiyam, ill, 2...83: · · · · · · . · �. 52 · · Cer�aqperuma}, TirukkayiHiya .Na:g.a Uia� , · 1 · · · 53. · Tatjtavaraya Cuvfunikal, Kaivai:ra .· Navanitam 28 · (See · £or the · . ·· .: . . · < · ·· · · ·description.: of Sabtha Bhiimi) . : · 54. Ceramau peruma}, Tirukkayilaya :Naua . Ula: Kal)l)i�sa; 84. '
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The: tlire� ·great u�as a�e 'J>y o a-k-kiittar praising hi� ·patrons, · Vfkki�ama Cola=q, k�lottuitk�a� II and Rajar�jan II.5� · at his ·best lD those respects, in· . which the ttla is The·· poet .. . ,. has · to .. be· poetic and drffina:t�c. We have . an endless seric� . . . . :. of utiis in the later� peri�d.
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. Another literary composition·.-on· love is cailed matal. In ·.·.· Ccriikam literature itself we have- references . to the possibili . · ties· of a lover comi.nitting suicide when his love i� not retttrn· eel In Kali-t-tok��' we. _ get �etaUed descriptions of . an lln. foftun�te :- l�ve�·· ·�esnie?ring' Jli�s�lf . with ashes, _ ,vearing the . . garlands �of er11-kkam flow�rs, . holding iii his right han� . the . p�rtrait of the . �ady- whpni he iov�s and bei�g 'dragged round . whilst he · is' . se�ted on . a . horse made - of the . sword...JiJ.te �ut · thro�gh his .· palmyra b�an�hes.ss This in motion · Vvill . .· · body. ·fu . ,�kam po�try, there ' is .. inerely a. tln,eat to. perf�r1n . . . · · · · . · :this· rituai. · · , ·� · · . ·. · .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .: . . '=rhe . poet · .Tirumankaiy;ajvar, however, makes ,. this· threat ·come� fr�m .a . woman.� . -The� woman· · is ·-the · soul in love ·witJi . God..:.·- -..'fl.le .. �Viar -: hirilsel£ feels this threat By a \voma.n is �1nknown �to the . Tainil· Dand- and .therefore · appeals- · to the st
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· Tliis ·motif 1s ·used ·by Tatttivar�yar' and others for e:xpressfug their · love towaras · · their · Guru.s·s · · · TIJ.i�� l_it.��ary nfotif came to . :be used in . an·- obscene way in the' decadent
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- ... . ·- .�. .--::·, · ottakkuttar, M:uvar---tna. . 56. Murray and Co. (Ed.) , �al�ttoka�-1�8. ... . . . . ...... ·'t -· · -· · :.· ; . . 57. Ibid.:� Tivya Piraparit�:· Ciru-t-t��tar kamP. 32 (Tiruman.. • • _.. . . . · · · · kaimannari) . . ·-· ·· . · -· · . · · . . . · · 58. Tattu.varayar,· :.I{ai.i ·Matal.- . . . ·
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144
A
age.59
EcrSTORY OF TANOL LITERATURE
A ew and glorious use, however, has been made of
this concepti9n of 20th century.
matal
$.ai
by Kir�a P
He speaks of Christ's
of the 19th and
crucifixion as
lVlata...
lerutal,
sacrificing himself for his love for us al1.6o Here is indeed a :Bash of original poetic imagination bringing out the underlying idea of crucifixion in tenx1s of a convention of akam poetry..
PURAM
Pi1�ai-k-kavi, Pil1ai=-t-tami! Pillai-t-tamil,
or
Pillai-t-tirunama'm
the "Tamil of childhood", is another popu
lar type of literature.
This is in praise of childhood in aU
its varying stages whether the child be a male or a fen1ale. It starts singing of the child from its third month, wben usually we have the prayer qffered for the child's welfare; then follow the song of the wavy movements of the body of the child forwards and backwards or sidew::t�ts, the lullaby, the song of clapping hands, the song of kisses, the welcome song and the song of the moon, requesting it to come do'\vn to appease the child crying for the 'moon. common to both sexes.
These songs are
But if the child is a male, there are
in addition the song of the kettledrum, the song
of the
childish prank of brushing aside the toy houses built by the ferr.tale children and the· song of the toy-cart. is
a
If the child
female, we have any three of the followig: the son� of
the swing, the song of the bath, the song of toy-houses, the song of throwing up things.61
pnd
catching
seeds
or
other
su�h
As one poet states ''even when singing of the omnipotent divinity it is more charming and enchanting to si11g of it as a child".62 Love towards a child is the innocent joy o£ self...
59. Cantra Cekar Kaviraja Pa:Q.titar (Ed.) , Vartlal.l kulatitt� rna Matal. •
60. Kiru�a Pijlai, Iratcm;rlya yattirtkam.
61. The names are N"matal, Cirril Daittal, Ka}aD.ku. 62.
•
Civa:ii�a Mun.ivar, Am.utampik:ai �ilJai-t-tami!-1,
•
145·
MINOR POETRY
lessn�ss. . In that ·mood, poetry becomes sincere and captivates any heart.
' Though peopl�. _read . a reference to this kind of literaul·e ·. in Tolkappiyq.,m�63 the _ real father of this kind o£ poetry · Periy.a!v;ar.64 t�e great Vai$_1ava. .
f is � ..
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In his · poetry this . type of litera:ttire · I1as· not bec0n1e
Cf)nventionalised into· the ten- sages of child.I1ood. · The poet describes Kri$)a's- nativity. It is interesting to· note that ft\e AJV.ar ·makes�, Tiru-k-k-otp.yiir �-fu- Tamil · land the · birth
poets
place of Kri�a.GS . This is how ·. the · Tamil saints and · ma e eyery mytholcrgy ·a·· Tainil one. ::· . . . . . Then follow' :.· twenty showing the beautiful and . verses" . . . . captivatiilg �estures· of the · various parts ·- of this child. . The .
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The song of calling the moon succeeds. . . lullaby · . follows. . · Next only come the song of the movement of the child _ and . be _ so o£ clap ing hands. This arrange ent is ·much more . . itattiral · against the other order of placing the lullaby at a · . later stage. The song of the trial and error in walking is -
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song of -the mother, ·requestin)� the child .
t� catch hol¢1 of her; .- behind · her · back, - is something .
known
. to all · Tamil mothers· . though _ - it , is - missing in the conventional poetry_� Th�r� �·are : also' the . . song · ·of hide�and-seek; the song · of nursing, the so�g of pierc�g the lobe-s of the ears, · and the song · of oil-bath, all so grapJ:V.cally described; ·almost vvith .
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a mot4er's h�art.67 _There is the calling of the c:t·ov! to �draw avlay the . attention of the child - from the pain of combing its hair �n� requesting the crow . to bring a· . stick ·for Kri�a 1o take the · calves for grazuig.ss Krappu or safegt1arding · the· ·
child . against the evil eye, -·: · -· •
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(Ed.) , Tivya Pirapantam: Perl.yalvar. Tirumoli. . . .. . 65. Ibid , Kaip}.an Tiruvavataram. · · 66. Ibid., Ta1arnatai-p-paruvam; . -�· . · · . . . . 67. Ibi_d.; Pu&am pulkal, _Tay Palut:U,la A}aittal, Katu kuttal, �trfr�am.
64.
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68. Ibid., Kulal vara-k-kakkaiyai A.. 19 .
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146
A IDSTORY OF TAMIL LITERA'l'UBE
enough.69
There is also the song of the neighbours complain
ing to the mother of the childish pranks of Kri��a itt ..
It is this natu�al outpouring of the heart of a r.aother in
Periyajv;ar's poems that has become conventionalised in later We do catch a glimpse of this innocent hut divjne
poetry.
love in the works of Kurnarakuruparar. not the simple diction of Periy;a}var.
But his diction is
Kumarakuruparar has
s1mg of god with love and reverence and with an incompar... able joy, worshipping him in the forn1 of the divine child Murukan and in the form of the divine mother in her child-
hood, 1\I.Iig.a� .
He was an ascetic, but probably enjoyed the
beauties of the life of a divine child.
child.
a
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But here the child is al\vays
He speaks of the universal destruction and
creation and other miraculous acts as the childish pranks of god.71
Therefore, from the world of childhood he takes us
to the world of the divine child and the divine mother.
The
language describing these divine acts is naturally majestic and grand. Poets have used this literary motif for describing their Otta,kkiittar has composed a
patrons.
piJJai-t-tami�
on Kulot
tuitka:g. II, in a style of grandeur which he has developed. Per haps this king was his student as tradition tells us, and there is therefore a certain amount of endea rn1ent and love towards the patron in this poem.72
But over an_d above this, is the
description of the greatness of this Cola and his predeces
sorso
Perhaps Ottakkuttar's is the first conventionalised
Jai-t-tamil -
and we do not have any
pilJai-t-tami�
111-1-
praising a
King after him.
The philosophers and mystics like Tattt1varayar and
Civappirakacar have not failed to make use of this literary
69. Ibid., Kappital. 70. Ibid., �yar Mailkaiyar Mu.raiyitu.. 71. Kumarakuruparar, Kumarakuruparar Pirapantanka.l 16 .
. 72. O�akkUttar, Kulottunkan Pil}ai-t-tami}..
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are said to be �ot# for p�aising their Guru;73for saints . . the children all the world over. .
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The various authors have come to sing n1 praise of the . deities o£ the v�ious temples. Even Muslims have a num · ber of pi�Jai-t...tami!s �n their Holy Prophet · and then' saints.74 . ...
Paran·1. .
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. Para7J,i is another jmportant literary genre which is very popul� in the Cola . period� It"is war poetry. It is said. that this kind -of compositi�n couid he' sung oDly on a hero who . .. . conquered seven . hundied or a. thousand . eiephants on . the battlefield. Para"r}i {Bha'ta1].i) is the name of a constellation of stars· ·whose.. presiding · deity is the Goddess of war. In the Caitkam, -age, ·one has reference to the ghost especially in . the description of the battlefield... One o£ such descriptions 'vas called KaJave�vi or ''battle sacrifice", where tl1e ghosts feed ing on-· the corpses get their feasts.75 Without this recouping power in· natUFe which· ultimately assimilates to itself the coi'pses, destructive war � · will become complete annihilation �£ life. K#l]� sur:.;oUI?-�ed: by . �he g�osts is !1.1e scavenging mother, cleaning and purifying t�� wo�ld for Her children� . · These poems never forget · to emphasise the motherhood of Kiiji.76 Righteous war, in spite of its destruction, is a neces sary kind of pruning. Kiaraikkal Ammaiy:ar� as already point e-d· out; sings the divine dance on the burning ghat the dance which- has a spiritual significance. All. these secondary asso• ciations· arise in these war poems. •
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73� Tattuvarayar, Cor�tpaoantar Pi.Uai-t-tam.il. .
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Civappirakacar, Civaii3.u.apalaiyar cuvamika}· Pi}.lai-t-tamil. 74: Cey,yitu anapi�a · cakipu,.: Napi Nayakam· P.Q.!ai-t-tami}. Apturraahim, Muslim Tamll-p-pulavarkal Appendix 2,.p. 2, 3 (see for other poets) . . 75 C3mi.nata ·Aiyar, Dr U. V (Ed.), Puranau.u.ru 368. '16. Ceyailkol}.tar, KaliD.kattu-p-paratP.. . .
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148 literary - composition included � - in- -niiiety-six . PTab1iandhas�: Prasasti writing becomes the:popular art among -some of the-' poets. . In prasasti . or the p�aise of the · king, his genealogy . along - with the. vari6us achievements of his predecessors . are � given in verses at the beginning of · the copper plate grants, . . . made by .Pallava and �he Co1a Kirigs. This also finds a place in pa.ra;J}i poetry.'17 . , ·The work �alled Takatur-yattirai de·scribes· · a military expedition ·. against· · Takatur; the caP,ital- of chieftain Atiyam�� �his kind of description of a military expedition· -also form� a part of para7J,i. - · ·_ :. · : . Para1].i poetry is in this way a: cro-\vning glorY . of _all thes� varying -deveiopments of different kinds of 'literary . endea:" vours. In the eleventh century, the Colas won· ·decisive vic... . tories over the Calukyas in � various . battles . s{tcli. as --Ku.tal . Cailkamam and Kopp�. Each - of- these' battles �was cele . -· brated in 9 ·par�1}i,78 though these are not no)iif available. .. -
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Later para1J,is came to be named after the country into which · the expedition· · of conquest was led:-. for example·, Kalinkattu-p-para7!i . and K.alinka-p-para1J,i;.79 · - � . ·· · ·. . . . Kulottlink� . I, -through "hls cohrtriarider ·--Karu.n,akara-t:: . t®.taimay.led an expedition agamst -the Kalmga . co�itry- ro1d. · inflicted a -crushing defeat' on tlie enemy·. This is .the subject matter o£ . Kalinkatturp�para1),i by the' 'poet ·ceya:Dkol).tar. Tlli� . · is the :_most popul� �d· fimious para11i m - .the Timill - land·. . �he poem starts with prayers -to deities: - The "' poet' addresses thereafter 'the women- of the· harem; requesting -them- 'ttl open the doors to ·· lisen to . his · poetry of . W§r- snd· to welcome. theit . . . -
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Ibid., 8, Iracaparampariyam. 78. Epigraphica Indica, Vol. XII, p. 298. S.IJ. . Vol. V, 644. Vikkirama -� Col� lila--21, 22 Rajarajau. Ula-23, 25. · ·._ 79. Ceyailkol}:{ar, Kalmkattu--p�para\li. - Kulottunkag . n. : :_ defeated · :.. . � . � �- :�antapatmau. of North Kaliiikam. . .. Ottakkiittar, Kaliilka-p-para\li, Vikkiramau, defeated Vunan, · of South . :· Kaliilkani · (See . ·_ .Takkayaka..:p-parru;ll, 776 . : · and �- � its commentary).. .. . . .. .. · 77.
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lovers, the heroes · returning victoriously from the \var. This part of -the poem .· is sensuous. The scene changes to tl1e desert in mid-summer. The temple of Kali therein 1s gra phically describe�.80 She holds her court where the ghosts praise her. A repentant offender of a ghost -returns to Ka}i to beg Her pgrdon and to show Her the · wonderful inagic it has learnt during · the period of its ostracism. Here ..one l1as the royal court o£ the Mother, a transformation of Cola court of that age.81 The ghost narrates a dream of a feast. Other ghosts describe the good omens they have seen. They com� plain to the Mother of their hunger which remains unsatisfied for a . long .time because of the absence of any war. There is · joy in the hope that the good omens of the dream are coming true. The enemy, the Kalinga king, fails to attend the court of the patron Kulottuitka:Q. with tribute. This leads to an expedition being sent by the Cola. Here tl1e oppor� tunity is taken to describe the genealogy of the Cola King and the victories of his predecessors. Next follows an account of the expedition. The proud enemies see only ill omens·.. The battle ensues and · the Cola commander · returns victo rious. Ka}i goes on a personal visit to the battle-field. The feast of corpses on· the battle-field is prepared· and distri buted amongst the ghosts. .
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Here we have the elaboration of the tradition of kala. ve�vi and katava1i.82. The ghosts are artistically brought together. There is a satire on the various types of people of that ·age, who are slyly represented as ghosts on this bat tlefields.83 This kind of poetry is unique as havi11g for its theme the ugliness represented by the ghost. But these ghosts are human to the core, giving room for harmless satire iri whicl.t all could join and laugh unconsciously even against themselves. A pecUliar metre has been developed with in.
80. CeyailkoJ..ltar, Kali.Dkattu-p-parat).i 4 Koyil patiyatu 81. Ibid., 7, Intiracalam.
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82. Ibid., 13, Kiilatutal. . 83. Ibid., 63-66. :.
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�ite .variations, a metre whichwill echo. the varying move-. . . . . . . ments . of the. war� . This .is a development of the old tat�c�� of two lines.. -. . O�iittar sang of another expedition to Kaliiiga by the .- Colg Prince Vikkiramag. in the beginning of the twelfth cen.:. tury.. But that is··. not now available He· has developed · � and difficult style full of exaggerations, Sanskrit compounds . . varieties of metres�84 .· He· must have felt that this Ultra grand style . becomes nothing but an unnatural exaggeration when applied to· the description of ordinary battles which are be. comilig less and less· · glorious and less · · and less frequent� 1 Therefore he conceives the idea, o£ m�g use of this style . to sing the glories .of the univers� fight between the · good ' and the evil.- ·· The evil takes. the for1n of egotism ancl power . . full intoxication. :· The good assumes the omni.Potent force· . of righteous in�gnati�n and vehemence � destroying the evil and punishing all those who are on the side of evil�85 The b9ttle is thus :reised to the rmiversal and eternal level wh�re the ·struggle- and final victory will · always appeal tC? the human mind · : . . . . . .· · . This,. is the_ . significance he probably reads into the story of Da�a, th� son of Brahma who_ . became the ruler · of the father-in-law of Siva Himself.. Daksa universe, and . the . desires _· to take . revenge on !Siva for CalTying· away his . daughter Dak�ayal}i and marrying her without his permission.. He arranges for a sacrifice and refuses · to invite· Siva, even though his ·daJighter comes io him and entreats him to do so All others. throng to. the sacrifice, afraid of th� powers of Dak�. The ·_ righteous power of punishment takes the ,form of v-n:�bhgdra a11d :·ms wife K;ap.. They march and destroy . . . . : . the sacrifice.. . Th� ghosts enjoy the incomparable feast. · The proud· na�a · is revived! hulnorously enough. to ..appear:· hefbre us thoroughly transformed with the head of a foolish and .
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comments on the book p. xxxn. · · · 85. O�akkiti tar, Takkay.aka-p-parm_U (as a whole) �� � ·
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MiNOR liOETRY . .. .
151
iimocent ·goat. ·. In describing such a· universal conflagration, oUr · poet's ultra grand style becomes -a proper· vehicle.. · . But . · this·· can never b-e a living style for the succeeding generation;·
hi
Ilistead" of the wonderful magic perforinance
Kali�
the' court-of
·as ·found in. Kcilinka:ttu-p-para"'J,i, · one lias here the narra•
tion' · of the story of . Campanta:r.ss As we learn · from the inscription · of T:inivattiyUr tliis narration of the story of the
Tamil saints was the fas�on · of he day.· The worship of Kali according _to the tantras was probably popular "in that age;· and he' m�ke·s 'use o£ this mythology· as the best background for his'
He · was rightly called, because o£ this .poem� I{av1-c. �akkaravartti 'the emperor · of poetry', and Kavir.al�ata:g- · 'the giant of.poetry' . But . because of- its artificiality his style· could . . - .... ·.., - . . .. not survive. · poem.
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;:·:. ··.. ...Nobody· after bini c·ould have sung a paT(l't)i on a battle field'� The · Vai�ijavites · s·ang· on the similar -- universal conflict represented:�; by . the- mild· ravings . of .-the" power intoxicated Hira:Q.ya" wh�·is· proceeding ·to kill 'his oW'n son Prahlada, when, to save tliis- bhakta · of a:· hoy,:- the' universal power of punish� ....
nient �prin:gs forth miraculously from - a pillar ift the shape of a man-liort87 · But this poem does not rise 'to ·the epic grandeur
··
of Takkayaka-p-para�i · of Ottakkiittar.'· The stbzy ··of _ Subrah.. ma:Qya fighting against an Asura is the subject matter of another para?Ji.ss But all these pale . into insignificance by the ....
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side- · of the . earlier paT(1;1J,i8. · · This motif is· however · · iised by the mystic · phllosophers · like Tattuvarayar to · describe- tne spiritual cori:flict �with ignorance or sin �d their final dest�c.: tion at . the hands of a Guru.s9 .. · · · · �.:-. . - · · · . . . : . . The p�osop�cal and J;eligious debates. .were �escribe4 already With _an eP-. i. C..J�r�deur in.. Ku:�talakeci and . JY?J,akeci . . referred to.. The. 'victors iri all these . cases are�. women. In )
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A
HISTORY · -<>F·
TA.l'\fiL ··LITERATURE
perfection. · reached by the heroes after a period .of internal
conflict· and . tension . against · passions· and · tetnptatioD:s is · beautifully described by the -poets · in terms of war and final vicory.
Apart from this Tamil · tradition one had to ·take note
of the influence of the allegorical vedantic -drama by Kri�a
.Misra, caJ.led Prabhoda Candrodaya (''The rising of tbe moon of knowledge") . · This dawn of wisdom . is ·really . ·· the final
victory over·· · ignorance. In the fourteenth century as _ against this V�dantic . allegory, tlie great Vetantatecikar; :· the ·. great
Vai$Q.avite · scholar,
wrote an allegorical drama of his philo-
sophy called ·Cltnkalpa siiryodhaya. . . In the same century, · Tattuvarayar made use of indigenotls _
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para?J-i for giving his philosophical ·and m�,rstic message. in two of his works Moka ·vaiai-p-para'Ji and An1iavatai-p-para:;:ti'· .
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Kr�ifa Tiruveilkatanata�.. navalar,
·· · Iri the 17th century the allegorical drama of Misra was rendered · into a Tamil epic by Matai He· · was a patron of a poet Vaittiyaiila.ta : who is said according · to some tradition to be the real author of this epic. Izi': ·any ·case Vaittiyan:ata niavalar, a Saiva Sidclhantin, has given us,· perhaps· benefited by his knowledge of ·this · epic ·
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and by the close study of Tattuvarayar's pcira"Y}i, the Piicavatai
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of . varying - flowers. learned poetry
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garland
It is important in that. it brings together
and folk-songs.
Even a poet like Tattu·var.ay·ar,
who . ·Composes both kinds of literature keeps·· t�etn apart; or
at least . posterity has _considered such _ c�mpositions distinct
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His lit�rary work . are. call�d ataf,k_a!!, 111/ttrai, a . . collection o� literary compositions. .His folk-songs are grouped
and different. tog�ther
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Ptatut1LT(li, ''the harbo� of song'', emphasisrn.g by
its very name that these songs are to· be s1Jng to the tune It will be thus seen that these two streams run in
of music.
parallel courses.
. . - . ·� Learned people, as the · custodians of the literary tradition, �
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153
1\tilNOB POETRY
of -social ci:rcumstanc.es or··because of the universal sympathy of .certa:in· poets; the _ folk-song· motif enters into . the ·main literary This_ influence-was noticed it. ..stream, rejuvenates and,etlriches . . in Cankam · Iiteratrtre, CilappatikJmram and· ·Tiru...k-kuraJ. The religious . ·poets like · the � A!V.ars ·and· . Nay.fu.]mars, because of their Universal in�erest in Mali sang th�i_r fo}k...songs to appeal to · the common. man·-� · .. . . . . These devotional·.hymns are popular· inside Tamil land arid - outside. up to the· Himalayas, where the priest at Badrinath -sings . them, and also .as . far')· as distant ThaUand·.9o But ·from -the lit�rary .learned tradit�on of the grammarians, t:-'c:cept for .stray · quotationS . . by a: few, one might not-ev�n lrn.ow of the existence of these hymns. This shows the general outlook o� Saivite. and Vai�Q. av � ite poets · refer �he literary custodians. The . · . -�tli -reverence to .these devotees,-· often . at the beginning of .. _their po�ms. . So do. the_. authors �! Saivite philosophical works� · 1Qne would .But. -this .is. a. diff . . . e. rent matter. and. · it is what · · �at�all� - expect. . - -. .. - · . . - . . .. . · . .. . . -. . · �. -� This · dualism _- in_,�TamU poetry of � the _-literary and follt li.terattire should · · be -�nipliasised. � . From this :. point of · View� Kalcimpakarn: aim.ing · at -t4eir'· harmony is very important� . 1'-.s various . parts, apart-� from . the � �te�ary · metres and · subject matter, have been mentioned in the enumeration of these· folk-songs. . . . Nqnti:-i�_ The ear4est Kal�1n.:paka1v, now· avail�ble. .· is�· . _ . �kalampakam s�g -m p�aise of 1\Tandiv:arma III TeUare:rin.ta Nantl (826-84� A.D.) .91 Perhaps this poet, _w�ose name_-- .is u-pknown - uce this -yariety·· of literature·. . . The was the . first to introd language remains simple and enchanting�-: Even · tod�y it re � :� : : _-:; ::--� ::-. � :�. : · �-: �i!'h� ch . d· � �� o.u ta. in� · �t� YQ:B yig lthfu , .. -- . . .. . . . . .. .. .' · . ··There · is the Tiru-k-ka.lampakam of the · Jaig�1: -�ung by . from the poet Utlci 'r.evar; ·perhaps· to �raise··the atinospher� . . . . . · .. .. . · . 90. M""�icuntaram, T. �., C_aymnp_ T��p-��vai,_· T�v�mP.�vai. Also personally seeP. and . hear.d. 'by il:le autltor. . . _ _91. ?an�attar, . . . T.� V. S.,. Tami. l D*.ldya_ V::u-�� 13th, 11th, 15th · centuries, p 62'. •
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OF·. TAMIL
A lnSTORY..
L"lTERATUBE
·:the simple one of innocent joy in tbe pleasures of· the · world ·to one of ethical serenity. Tlie Kalampakam by· Nampiy.aQ.tar nampi92 .in praise of · 'rirufi�acampantar ·probably comes next. . . It· seems to give�-us an atmosphere which is a. harniony of �these . two aspe·cts, ·viz., secular and . religious: Non� of these · · -rise to the heights of Nanti-k-kalampakam.: · .. The later attempts are to use the Kala/iripaka·m for singing the praise of the deity· of a temple or.- one's o� spiritual master.· . The greatest amongst those ·composing I{.ala7p,pakams are the.· Iratt;aiyar·of the fourteenth century.93 They themselves make_ honourable · mention · of � poet named Tolkappijta-t• tevar.94 . Taltuvar,ayar and Civappirakaca.r 'sing · this · kind of poems- in hbnour of. their gitrus.ss · -· - In later times · -we have this poem snng in. a majestic �tyie · . with reference to the · temples by poetS · like KtiinarakurLtparar . of the seventeenth century, · and Muja�i... and Civappirakacar:_ . . ��ntarani P$ai of the nitieteerith centllry.9s ·· .A great professor of Mathematics and E�glish, Rankanata Mutaliyar;·· m.- �the iast · "Cerittiry . -composed. a Kalampakam.97 · Even Bescbi- wrote his Tiritkkiivttliir Kalampakam · on Mother · Mary. We · · have ·a nl1mber ·of Kalampakams ·even ...by Nruslims·.9s · All' this shows the . popularity of . this. type·· -of literature. · · · ·· ·· · . . . -
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92. -Tiruppananta:J Mutt (Ed.) , Patinoram - Tirum.urai . Alutaiya Pijlaiyfu:_ Tiiuka k lampakam (Nampiy�tar Nampi) . 93. _Irattaiyar, Tiruvamattar-k-kaiampak�, Tillai-k-kalampak�.. · · · �· · am ak p · am . k al fcc -k Ka · •
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. Tolk·appiya tevar, Tfruppami.:.p-puliYftr-k-·kalampakam. .- · � -- -. . . � . :- · -95.·_ T�ttuvarayar; :Nanav�otau.· kalampakam. . Civappirakacar� ·civafianapruaiya . cuvfunikal Kalam.pakam. · 96. Kumarakuruparar, Maturai-k-kalampakam, Kici-k-kalam;.· . .· r · pakam� · .· · · · � - · --· · · · ·, · :·.; · · · · · ·· · � . Civappirakacar, �Tiruveilkai-k-kalampakam. · ·. � - ·· � · · · : . Mi.TI.ak�icuntaram Pillai, · vatpokki-k-kalampakam, etc., (for his other kalampakams, see �mak�cuntaram PiUai Pirapanta-t. . - tira1tu) . . . .. · · 97. Railkanata _Mutaliyar, Kacci7k-kalampakam. . · . · :.Y 98. Javvatu-p..:pulavar Nakai-k-kalainpakam. .. · Apturrahlni, Muslim · Tamil-p-pulavarka:J, Appendix 2.. {Se� for other kalampakam.s by Muslim poets) , : .· · 94.
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9. · LATER LITERARY TRENPS ,
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- OLDER
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TRADITION .
Apart from. . the various kinds of literary compositions, one may notice certain general trends in the centuries following the disappearance of the Tamil independence. There is first of all the old literary tradition . enriched by Sanskrit learning and . influence. This is patent in ,Court poetry. Second is ·the religious trend which becomes more and more philosophical, -- mystical an� eclectic.-��Third is th� coming into . prominence of folk literature. .
•
CoURT PoETRY The Tamil chiefs like the Caropavairayars !of the fouroQ teenth century continued to patronise Tamil.! Villiputtiirar was patronised by the chieftain VarapatiyatkolJ,1ijn 'Of Vakka pakai, who was also the patron of the Irattaiyar.l2 ·vijayanagar : kings Snd their chieftains from the very beginning patronised Tamil.. KI[Jamekam, a poet who composed extempore verses, · sang of T�alairayan who had been ruling under the Vijayanagar Kings in the fifteenth century a Artll}.akirinatar's patron was probably a Piraputateva Mar:ayag. of the fifteenth -� century.4 Kr�adevaraya the ·Great of the sixteenth century · · · not only patronised Tamil poets like Tattuva-p-piraka:car, [· Kiittaniirappan, Vruakakokilam,5 but also wrote a Telugu epic .
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2. Varantaruvar, Cqoappu-p-payiram to Paratam-18.
Cuppira:tnm:rlya-k-kavirayar, Preface- to Paratam: Life sketch of the author, p. 5.
3. S. I. I. Vol.
n, 23. There are 'three of the name Thirumalairayan.
One from 1406 to 1422 A.D ; the second from 1422 to 1447 A.D.; the third from 1477-1456 A.D. ..
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�akirinatar, Tiruppukal..
5. Rakava . Aiyailkar, M.
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(Ed ) , Peruntokai, 1637-1643. ..
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.A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE •
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on the Tamil story of A:Q.ta}.G This shows the influence of the Tamil bhakti move�ent. The chieftains in the Tamil country grew more and more powerful. The kings of Tenkaci calling themselves Pandyas not ·only . pattomsed · Tamil "learning but they themselves composed poems. The - C·etupatis of Ramnata. puram became prominent amongst .other kings for patronising Tamil � pcn�ts� - Tirl.Urialai�N;ayakkar - of - the i7th �century. -was another great patron of :Tamil learfiilig, in · whos·� iime- various: · . Tanul liieraty works: ·c�nie: to be written. . . The officers; of:··state� also were patrons of learn-ing and_ scholars. - - Vatamala1yappa Pi)lai : translate·d :Macca'J!it1:a1)tam in. 1647;'7 - lVUitai �-Tituvenkata Niatar wrote -Pir-ap§ta·- Catntirotfiyam as an epic�8- · Even: traders like citakklati- '"tt :M�slim· -of the early. 17d1 -·century� :.pairorused_ both Muslim and Hindu poets 9· . .,.!.n.antararil�ain :Pij}ai� the� dubash of Dupleix ·of the eighteenth century and· a host of others, rich and imporiant ·men,- considered it a respectable · · -··� :·_- � - �- :: fashion=to patrohise �poets -- - · .� . · •· . . · . . . _· _ iii - thls- way . .we . gef a variety --of literary pieces _- prai'sing . . ' . tliese- ·patrons� �- ·. brice· again we have here the �-popliiarity ef . . o"ccasionat· "verses. There - ccime into vogue-- a -new- species .of . literatilre- called Ci#,u-re:.�av�� 'letters- wr1tteD. m- verse,�add·ress- � .ed .to these.- patrons and deiiuin�g_ the" fuJfilment .of tile. needs-.. · · · �f. the. .paet8:i·r�-· : - - . -- ...· ,...... --··- - - . . · ,. - - . . ···. - · � -' �- . - .· .· - .· --- ·- , ---· ... ... - ·- ·The various p,a]ayaklarars, chieftains · holding .·: districts under· military tenure, gometimes ·given to -a life Of pleasure and:se�Ual ex"Cesses,--adrriire ·-ob·scene· and detailed -descriptions of sextiaJ" J.Ue. :'· In ·spite of the. command over .·the�Jarigtiage, the charm of its style and striking similes, this poetry, because . .of this want of taste, shows more of the weakness . of the de. - · -· · cadent age than the vigour and: life of ·a· new· age · � -Viiali vitu . . #'
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an _ d Va'lu']a_. K�a�fittittri1] . matal are examples of this kind of poety.ll
tUtu) : KitJapJ;Ja_.Nuyakka� kiatal·
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Tlt�SLATION-� -·4-:fin A"DAPTA!.l'lONS oJt S4\NS'KI{lT- .WORKS �- . � There- are-_- var1ous- · llterciry �works of-- 'some� importance protlticed �in this age;- · either aS trans1ations, -adaptations · or ·as original --compositions� · We-have twa trarislations of -- Bhiiga vuta · pu'Vil'f}a, one by·-Cevvai c-cU:tuViar and� another �by Vara-. kar, ·both · of the ·sixteenth century.- -- We · have taDaca ·· Aiyaii . also :�anslations· of �Kiirma j»J,rnl}a · by Ativirar.amaJ]: PiramotiiTa -row7J,tam · and Kiici-k-kii?!tam }?y · varatwikan. · of Te�kaci (has · also translated Harsa's Naisada · into ·,l,amil Ativircma1n.an . as Naitatam�-In spite �9£ sensuous descriptions it remains _ popular� iui(f dignlfi.ed;_ � - · - - ·· - · · · .. We have also translations of �eligio�s -and-: philosophicalwork�. Bhagavad Gita as interpreted by Sailkara, was trans. . � ·. , l�ted �into ·virutta'l)'t · metre by - Pattar. This work· ·became so · in· the · Mala into alam translated · popfila.r �that· it was · y fou�·tfie�t:h · ·century by Kannasa. - There was another trans II:i.iiofi · ifi:;.:.ve�pa metre... SiitasamhitJii was -t�anslated in · the . -. . . fifteenth ·.. c�htury by Tattuvarayar as Pi.Tamak!itai �nd again .. by --lYl��tc�cti.nt�ra� - :Pil}ai ��teenth _ _c�ntury· _ under -in the - - � -_ :· · .., -- · - - · · ·, th� · ortginal name. · ·· · .. �: -The _ Qld .·:·mytlroJogical · stories _ have . . ::·..'in · -a.-· "' . - been . . - adapted . �u�b_e�:� �f. papular works� �he .story- of Haris�andra �hich . of- . :Mahatma - ·G. andhi has - ·become - well-known on � account . . •' po�tii)g- _oU:t� . in his � autobio�ap];ly; · how. �hi� _s!ory ��h�s :i¢1ue.�ced ��c! - shaped:. his � life,l� � has · been - �oJ4_ �-ery.- early _ � s atel ort thi_ � v�P.jli�I:fl.e_��:- ·-V� � y i . ..not. ������e�- � �i�s . en--� tirety" Later a sixteenth century poet famous for his ex"' tempore versification called Acu Kavi Vir� composed on .- .. . . ·� -· -� -
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This has been sung in vettpm �etre� by Puka!enti, perhaps of . t�e thirteenth c'entll.ry.14 It �is · ·a . poem· \· which-- is . popular aiD.ong··- the students of our high schools:�· --It ·· 1s . composed m ve1,.1plii metre; its" music . arid'• rhYtfuii appeal 'to- its readers: The . way in whlch- · the - author tells .the story is� sinipl� and impressive. . There ·a.re also other works 'following 1tS exam..: ple in . using . Ve1.lPifl "metre" " for narrative poetry, such . as- pUrii"rava vef.!,p'�.. Akalikdi ve�plaJ15 belongs· to 'the . pres-en� century · Even �graiD.matical - works caine--_ to b� written m. v�pfi meire,l6 because it follows- the rhythm "of speecP..'" "The' Ver}pfi of this age, full of kali rhythm, is � not the terse -speErcb.· · rhytbm of the earlier age. ..
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the attention of the' MahablvfiTata naturally . attracts . . poets. - The earlier ··work · b�i · PeruD.tev�-r in·· . the · age of · . . the . Pallava Kfug Nantivarma:g. III - was written 'in � ve·l]1la, . metre iriterspersed ·with . prose, abounding in- Sanskrif.;·words.There seems to have been another version of an _ea;rlier age, . e · · perhaps also. in· ve'lfpii metr . This is not now· available�· . : An . inscription of 1210 A.D speaks of one Arul riilai Viclakan. . . "establishing the Saivite path by translating- 1\tlakabkfirata· . into Tamil..''l'l .. -But ·. the age required this popular story of India being told in the viTttttam metre, · especially: - in. canta : · viruttam. :.· Villiputiurar �of the · fourt�enth century has1 given� us this ·story in -his inimitable -�verses which . are- easy· -.a.nd_ flowing, majestic and- musical.·. - It is said it follows . ,Agastya . Bhattia's ��Bala ; B1viitata�· ill' SaD.skrit.18 But - it. · cannot . b·e �defi�: . ·. - . . . . . . .
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15. Cuppirama'Qjya Mutaliyar/.VeUakkat, AkaUkai v�l)pa.·-·, · . . . . . ·-· . . . . 16.· Km::ta. vira -. Pal). . instance) � . .. . titar, Neminatam (for . . . . - . . . 1_7,. Ins. 482/1905. - . · -�. . 18. Kiru�amaccfui, Villiparatam l'reface. ·
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· :nitely: stated,_ because Villiputtiimr. . could not be considered
later than Agastya Bhatta.
·
Villi has emphasised · in his story only such of the ' episodes o£ the great 'epic that wotild appeal to the men �of his age and avoided unnecessary ela borations. In this . way the story is much mnre gripping than · the original. , Till very late, even in the twentieth century, - durmg the sununer nights piracankis (lecturers) have been : reading and expounding this interesting �ork in the North ·Arcot, South Arcot and ·Chingleput · districts. Perhaps this -·has been the only annual enjoymen� for the people of the villages. In the eighteenth century one Nalla-p--piJI.ai, · · to· fill up the gaps in this work, has cumposed verses describing , the- various episod�s found in the original Malv.abhJfiTata but · purposely left out by Villi. These verses have been used . sometimes b.y the piraca1ikis to elaborate the story as told by ·villi. It cannot be said that the people enjoyed these additions. · ·
RELIGIOUS POETRY
SE!CTARIAN
WRltt1NG
•
Rise of Saivite and Vai�)J,avite mutts When there is no external peace man turns ·inward. The penple of the religio�s order coming to serve. the
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A HISTORY . . · 0� TAMTh .
I:;I1$lt,�TtmE
I
· I�d · at , Tiru-p-p�an1iaJ . �� Tiruv;avatutu:rai, · r�p�tec;l a�.. th� pl�c�·�o��- ']!irumiilar,-. cotne�· ·_t� be another . centr�. . Sq.'ny_a�i'lj_s of thi� - mutt. are. proud· of the fact that their founder w� . :P.o. �sciple. of a �h�use--holder... . There ·· have been a ntt�ber of The non�Brahmin .mutts. . at. .least from� the ti1ne .other mutts.� . � have . come . to � be known as ku.kai and of. Kulotlulikan III, . in- his. reign· we. know of the dem·olition. ,of these- norr-Br� mutts.l�. : .- This �is. because Jo£ the· opposition- to .- non-Brahmins .. becoming .. ascetics. ! . B'ut . the. attempt - � actually ·· inspired th� . growth.. of., many· more mutts; for all . these mutts . enumerated above have arisen· only. after this vandalism. More a:nd-- more · .men of � spirituality and human � sympathy r�nonnced the . . world- and. �came to serve God either . through mutts· or , indi· vidually., -delivering the - message · of ·God's love.- . uater the Vira saivites, established" mutts . or took charge of the uncared for mutts :. . CivaiiJ�apalaiya ·CuVtfunika:J's is - one� such-7Vira saiva · mutt. Civa-p-pirakiacar belonged to this mutt�- -�- .- · ._ .
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Saivism and Vai�avism began to develop into various sub-schools which, thot;.gh. --�thin the:. general philosophy as explained by the elder generation·, ·differed in minor details. This freedom of thnught shot.1ld be emphasised.. The ascetics of �ese schools with their ·concern f�r the · ·suff�ring �llio;s . . cofuposed literary and· religio{1s . works-- in·· Tami}}Z4) -: . �--�· •·t ! .·• ··. ·.;;..,.. . . . �!.· · At .a later stage .. Th� · mutts · we:�:e centres of leanung.. . . ,. : ... -.. . ·· . · . . -:... ,. . ·· · . �w�e� . . pa. ��I?:�g� :of,_ _po�try �D:d art bee��� . a f�. .shJ�it. , :ev�� _.as . th�r<: �e�e�, c�urt �poets. of_ ��J;Jol:ls . .Pril}cipalj.t���' �poe� �am� M s inJatcic:�.lnt�;ram PiU�, . t
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LATER
in the eighteenth ·century.21 They · sang on :· th�ir •
temple,
gurus �ild the deities.· . ·
161
LITERARY TRENDS
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'rhere· were . three, aspects of the religiril:ls trend. . The first wa·s .Sectarian.. There· were purely sectari� works praising the · particular.· · f
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The Muslims and · Christians also 'Wrote theii.• epics. · The most important of the Muslim epics is �iLp-p'ltf,a1J,a:in, givirig us · the life· of · the Great Prophet Mllhaniinad� · This · is · by Umaru-p-pulavar patronised . .. by ·Citakloati rif the early sevent�enth� century. · It reads like a pur-ai],.a full.of · :ffi.iracles� . The poet in thinking · of - Arabia -describes -only -the · · Tamil Country. · But · fori' the ' Krabic names, oii.e may mistake this · · for another Hindu. pu/rarJ-a of the age.- · ·· . -
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M.inaksicuntaran) Pijlai, atu:turai Ampalava.t).au. Tecikar · · Piliai-t-tainil. Tirikiitaracappa-k-kavirayar, Tirukkurrala-t-talapu.rfu}.am, Ti rukkura r lanatar ma.. A�-pirapantam. 22. PiUai-p.:perumilJ. Caiva Ellappa .Navalar; Tiruvaru'Qai-k-kalampakam. 23. It is also attriputed to Varatmikarama pat}.tiyat).
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Aiyankar,
Comacuntara Tecikar, SiJde�nth century poe�,
162
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
Christian epics
Father Beschi has adopted the Portuguese original of the story of St. Joseph in writing his great epic T.empiiva',.,i. It is important as giving us the life of Jesus. follows �Cin1Jama7],i and Kampar.!imiiya'l'],am.
The poet here Certain echoes
from Tasso have been recognised but a fuller study of the poet from Italy, may reveal the influence nf Latin and Italian poetry. . Being a foreigner he finds it difficult: to complete the sentences with ease. The Protestants have to wait till the nineteenih century for the true Tamil Christian poet, Kir�a Piijai.
His adap
' nyan's Pilgrim's Progress is a masterpiece in this ation of Bu e.. lin24 Philosophical and mystic poetry
The second aspect of religious poetry is its philosophical This is found in mystic poetry.
emphasis.
Tiruvaru�paya�
of Umlapati civam seems to philosophise on the mystic ex perience. Here the philosophical emphasis is pronounced but not so as to affect the poetic value.
N'anamirtam, a bo'Ok
consisting of a number of akavals, is written in the old literary language.rzs
Except for the use of the older language, it is
full of original poetic beauties.
It is rarely one gets a
philosophical work of such great literary value. It stands unique in Tarn.il literature. It is assigned to the Cola period, perhaps the twelfth century.
There were also other exposi
tions of philosophies in prose and verse.
The best in this
field are Civafiiina ·cittiyiir'26 of the thirteenth century for Saivism and Kaivalya NavanitamJ&7 in the seventeenth eighteenth centt.try for Sailkara V�edanfa. simple and so captivating as these. the. 4virota
Untiyar
of
or
No exposition is so
One has also to mention
C.antalmkar
of
the
seventeenth
As the name itself denotes it is a poem consisting
century..
24. Kir�a-p-piijai, Iratcat;tiya yattirikam. 25. Vak11ca Munivar, &anamirtam. 26. Arunanti civaccariyar, Civafia:oa cittiyitr. Cuvamikal., Kaivalliya N�v�tam, 27. T�tavarayar . .
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LATER ttTER.ARY. TREl\t-bs
(unti) ,
of songs · sung by girls in their game.
the
and explaining
(aviroda) of cnnfficting philosophies.. O!ivil Otukk.am · by Ka1P1J,utaiya Va��aJiir is praised by Saint Rama harmony ·
]inkar of the nineteenth century. Citampara Cuv.funikal, a
mystic poet and a bhakta of the eighteenth century, has written a - commentary on this work. VaUalar claimg as his gu1··u the
Tev:iiram
before him.
Saint Campantar who lived a ihousand years
The author states that when he was in con
The ·
templation Cai:npantar revealed . to him the great truth.
Vel),pa metre,
simple, touchingand full of beautiful .. This is a book of great value both as literature and
book is in
similes.
He refers to Pattinattar and Pattirakiriyiar.
mystic poetry.
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He must therefore belong to the seventeenth ceniury.
T�a.yu....
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��avar's poems of the seventeen:th. century spring from his mystic experience�� kindled by philosophical study and intense bhakti:· · Philosnphy in · India is a way of 1ife rather than. a
But even there it became, as
mere -- intellectual ., pursuit.
Tayui.n�avar points ·out, a mere quibbling with words.l28 In sp1te · of · Sanskrit words and philosophical terms, his poetry- ·
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is generally simple and inspiring.
Nowhere else does one
find· poeiry explaining the intricacies of philosophy in such, an '. �easy · manner carrying · conviction� · · Upani�ad ·phrases · . . ·- , · - . . . . .� e · e · e s s rs v iv hi in al · . b�C'ome.. . -. . .
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in . spite of his passing references to . sectarian . outlook�--. He __ speaks . of the cittars belonging to the school of Tirumiilar ,30 , to which he - himself belongs. . ..__ .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .' . The poems of various ci�ar$_ as collected and published· are. popW,ar. All of them are not . of unifoim merit; some . .. . . . . .. " � .. . -...,;. -· . ...... .. , . ; : . . · : . . .. .. . · . . . . ....- - � · · - - ·- ......, 4 . •• , . . - . .. 28. Tayumanavar, Tayumiu.ava Atikal Tiru-p-patalkal, Cittarka.... . 0 !).am, . 1 '! . , · . · � . 29� aiyil]. : Ibid., · see especially PorUJ val).akkam and· th.e lirie "Arilmar . · . - - -�ira�p-porul'' which means- of .the Upanlsha
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Medicine,. . alc�emy,- tC;.'ilira have no value · whatsoever. . . wor" .. . . . ship� and Yog�· fo�i__th�· gr���er. p�t �f th�s_e _kin�s- �� w�r�s· � But. stUI: th�re is · Ie£t a remnant which is of- supreme . significance even cis poetry. The. hrlluence of.. sufisin- may. ... be· . . noticed . and Muslim poets• also have sung in this strain.31 CivaVJakkiyar has already been -�ention�d.- It h�� b��n pomt:. ed out . Jhat cert��n . poems · which .go in ·the- name of . .Pa-tti... . :(la't�ar . dp- .11ot f!n� . a plac� fl?. the Saivite canonical works and . . · i� has been · assumed ..that , they might belong to the Vijaya-. . · · nag�r peri�d. In � world. of w�� �d famine, some turned · i�wards as. another case of escapism, effiphasised . . . . .. by . this Pat. . tiQ.attar �d others. . Their poems were often . addressed .to · · theiX· : .IID:nds� Pattin.attar,..s disciple is · ·called Pattfraklriy.a;r � � reminding us of the great philosopher arid grammarian Bar..
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trhari. His poem .'is caHed the- -�'moaning cry of true ·:,\risdom" � · · meyfi,fiQ.na-p-pulampal. Among · the Muslim� poets · ene. may.. refer . to Kunankutimastan.32 His verses . ren1incl · us of the . ·. are sinlpler and :more colloquial.. songs of T,ayuffi�avar , but . H� .does not mind· using obscene . terms a characteristic feat�re of some of the mystics-. · As - it· becan1e sac�:rdofa.l,_ .the�. conventional religion raised a rev:o�t in the poem�. of ci�ta1·s -� Tb.�y-.ezD.phasised the inner ·spirit rather than the ot1ter ·ritual.-· � The· cittars composed in folk-song metre and in .the popu. lar rhythm of speech. One of them sings verses in the · :metre used by the snake charmers. Itai.:k-klarttu-c-ciftar · sings a3 � though· he. is a shepherd. · . H:e empha�ises that God,. is in .n::tan .A:kappey-c.:ciftar addresS'es· his · ·mind - as -the ghost or pey Kiifampai-=c-cittar· addresses .. his mind as · a lady wearing an � .. ear rfng:: · KatuvaJi-c-cittar'" ·and -- A!uku¢-c-cittar should. also . be. mentioned. By the time of the form-er; opium eating,has . . come- .to. -�di�; th�. latter addresses Sak_ti as Kal)l}.ammao: �ut � ···::-; ,;;; .__ ' . �' . ..' pl · � � rY d r' p :fo i a o ar ¢a in e t or sti · my ' · �o �. hi� i.cl.ea:s . . . . · · . · ID. the -lnnete.enth Century: � tlie period �of _.Sri·. Ra��� : kr�a, there was born in the Tamil land Ramalinkar, .. . a . . -. . . .: . .. . . . . . . . . ... - . . · · ·
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32. KUJ;lankuti Mas�, KtiD.aiikuti M�stau ·cakipu . PatalkaJ.' �
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poet . _of. :Ut1�V:��saJ loye.. . .�e als9 _claims to come . in tl1e line. of Siddhas.. . His m�ntra . de��ip�s God as . Aru}pe_runcoti-tan-i-p ·
�
. l?�ruit kci._r!£1}ai:J33 -�'!h�_gr��t �]j:g�t _of �iversal_ lo��,. the unique
·univ He spea�s . of the univer-. and . . cam . . . .. .. . . . . ersal . passion". .. . .. great sal path (sa�miirga) emphasising the co�mon . _basis .of . all ...
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religions and containing the quintessence of of them. He is . against . all creeds ...and . dogmas, sects and clans, castes·· and classes. All .beings are - brought together by this· -universal love.. . - God is _love; · and feeling sympathy with all beings · is .
the only form of .worship. - His poetry is very popular. ·He· confesses his. . mistakes, and therefore one does not feel any distance . from
him.
--His poetry is an expression of his per sonality. It _has a - direct appeal - to the heart.. . llis simple language. . is- very - much .appreciated by the common man. He ·
describes his mystic experience in terms ·of ordinary inno
cent experiences of Nature.� His religion of · uni\7ersal love unfortuna.tely came .. before people were ripe for it. He dld not .have a ·:viv·ekananda to deliver message in English. In the . .futurE\ when _the world. becomes one family, his poem is
bound- �to. �become .the . .musical and poetic voice _ of the world. · .
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FoLK-SONGS AND FoLK-sToRIEs
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The third great literary trend was inspired by the com
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mon .folk. . - Where there -was not. a Tamil King as in the can.
...
kam . .age,
the · poets had . . to look - to the common man for sup port. They therefore 'began .. to sing folk-songs and develop . folk literature. . This interest ln. the common rnan began as ..
·
early· as
·
the ·-Naya.wn ars· an:d A!Viars. Even in the sricce·eding period · of philosophising· the ·great men of the age expressed their, mystic- experience·. in. · poetry. . The earliest work on ·
Saiva Siddh.anta,
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Tiruvuntiyiir, is a folk-song.35 .. This. is ear
lier thari the thirteenth -century when .Meyka.Q.�ar gave his Civafiiia iJ, potam / vn illustrativE! verses exemplifying his ·o wn
th
mysti:c . exp·erience..
33'. ·
34 · ..
35�
Tattuva�ayar · in . the :fourteenth· . century_·
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· �almkar, Ti�v3rutp.a Ibid.,
Tiru Ayiram V�appam, p. ArulvilakkamaJ.ai-2, p. 160. ___;
Uyyavanta Tevar, · Tiruv�tiyar.
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The foik-songs �e alway� to be sting,-- �d thi� brings out . the close relationship between music and poetry . ge:Qerally. · , .en-_ Temples we�e the centre . of social Pfe. The· poor man joy�d. the- public . p�rlorm�ce of mu�ic, the public distribution of .prasiidJ. as such. . as _offerings ·of food, and gen.erally .the public . pump ·of _lif�. � relation . tQ the · tempi� ¢leity . clothed and_ bejewelled. . He identified himself wi:th · all this · richP:ess of · life God. in the. �otm . . . because . of his belief that . . . of the deity was the Common Father. Temples, - naturally encouraged the poe� _to co�pose folk-S
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LATER Lli'ERARY TRE:6TDS
inidst of worldly sufferings �d sins this· is a message ()f hopEi. . �d. p-estilence may be raging all round; but in �very Poverty village, God is there to save us, if not in this birth� at least in the next. . There is no village which does not have a small . ·�emple, and . the poets sing of that deity being worshipped. by · the .god of .. the rains, the sun, _the moon and the wi�d.; Wh�re is_ a place which does not get ram, where . the moon and the sun do not shine _ and \Vl1e-re the wind ���s. not. blow? In that age of despair and despondency� hope is. · stirred in the hearts of men. There is another . belief found· in . the Tiruvilaiyiital pu�ttantS: - Tamil-- is God; . Tamil poets are God's -c-oncern; Tamil _ land is His The most popular version . is probably favourite resort. tha� . of Paraficoti · of the seventeenth century. Its flow is ch�rming; . its rhythm is enchanting. We -have. . a · nu�ber of �the� pu11�1J,as. in . every century from the t�teenth.. Mm.atci �un�aram � PiUai of the _ last -century .. wrote many· becaus� of t�e desire of the . people to have P1!11wttas for their villages. s · ome \:;of. the _ ·w,a"l)as like the K,iifiici-p-pu�a']tam by Civafia:g.a Cuy.funik�, · �a?Ji�ai-p-P,u/rii?Jam · by Kacciyapp�r a:n.d . Cetu, . puTta1fam by Nirampa-v�alak1ya T·ecikar are considered by traditiorial ' schoiars .t9. be' of high lft�rary value, ·�s·. preservir�g . r the � older lite ary�- tr�ditio� and as exp�aining in ve;rses the . religious .rituals and phll�sophical t�ths. . . .
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168
A HISTORY OF- TAMIL LITERATUtm
This ' musical 'dance�draina ' 1s 'called 4kurava:iici · and the best ·of the ··eighteenth · Tirikii\aracappa is that · . of . -_k.:. ' kirvirrayar . . . . . . .· ... . . .. - 3 . century. 8 -
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'rhe cultivating lab��rers .inspiX,e another kind or axama. . Thes� labouXers form the · depressed coiDmunity . attached to · vice.· _The chief of them . dresses in their the Jand. Druik is . imitation of the higher class. He has a fine :moustach� of . . which he is. proud. � He ,has two wives. This sets the plot on .Jts way. The ·. oider' jealous of the younger' complains to t�e supervisor, that becouse of . the younger wife her husband is �azy ?D-d .. is . given to pilfering. The supervisor casts his amorous gl�nces on this. woman. He puts the c�ef of th:� labour�rs ln.to the sto-cks. There is , 'an e��liange -- o£ --words betwe�n the wives.. · The elder wife w4o has not e�pect�d · this ser!o�s turn�· begs �h.e release p£ her husband. �e dXama ends . � peace ancf' joy. Here come all the detail� of . . CL��tivati�n, of supervi�ion and administration, iQ short, of the lif� of th.� VilJa_ge.. ·These· dramas are called pa1�us. The b.est .of . the P�1lp,s _is Mukkiita.rpal�u of_ the seventee;nth century. . . : . . .
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LATER LITERARY TRENDS
169
the Hindu temple deity cures lameness in many such no'lfti... 7ZJD,takams ("the drama of the lame") . This becomes very popular. The particular metre used by the no'!ti in 11arrating his story -comes to be known as the no'!tirc-cinutu.. These dramas give room for the free movement of the poet's art. The poets cannot make fun of the chieftains and rulers, but they can ridicule the foibles of the robbers and labourers; these characters symbolise the weakness of the age, both in the rich and the poor. In this way these dramas become good satires with no bitterness. The characters remain as types rather than individuals.. Marimuttu Pi.Uai of the eighteenth century has v11itten a _ drama called Aniti N·iitakam, "the drama of injustice�'.. It is the age of the Carnatic Nawabs. Khan Sahib who has help ed the East India Company becomes the Governor tlnder the Nawab at the company's recommendation. As shown by this drama he has become popular as a just administrator. The poet describes the atrocities of the Nawab's administrators down to the village officials. The whole system is corrupt to the core. The matter is finally taken up to the Khan Sahib and he renders justice. In the nineteenth century, drama is fully developed with a certain amount of characterisation. It continues, however, to be a musical dance-drama . In the latter half of the nine... teenth century drama is enacted in indoor theatres. There are influences from Telugu and Marathi, and finally from English.. Ba1J,ads
The mention of Khan Sahib reminds us of the develop ment in folk-songs of something like a ballad.. Khan Sahib vvas hated by the Nawab and finally he was hanged. People touched by this sad fate of their popular hero, enjoyed listen ing to the song telling of his battle and of his heroic death. Kan oayapu Ca'?ftai is the name of that song. Katta Pomman was the next chieftain to be hanged when he revolted against the British. His story was sung by a number of people, the A. 22
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170
.EcrSTORY. OF. T�IL- LlTERATURE
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best version ·being the one sung by his .court poet.40 · Kummi is the so�g suri.g· by ·y9ung · gi�ls �going round · and roUnd in various . . their hands.-. There are songs on_ .Katta .Po�·patterns clapping . .. . mag. and Kummi songs. -. · Ther� are al�o 9ther poems. on battles: · . e . is an - earlier poeni :describing tl;le military expedition 6£ - Ram.appayy� called Riimappayyan ·ammii�ai. · A1nm��ai was . originally · a· game : played by· yourlg· girls; who threvt up the . . · aright. · Later it, became . the · · toy-like pieces cmd caught them · . . . .· . . name .of the · metre of . these ballad-like- songs. · . Various .. stories · m in etre · Tecin-of. . . the. contemporary age were sung this . . . ·kurlica1J Katai is the story o£ a popuiar �prinGe.. of Gingi whose · · Muslim friend died on the battle . field when the Nawab led . · ap. �xP e.ditlo� . ag�inst the- pr���- 'The cha�g�s in th� rhythm - r very cap i · o o t no _ e e · jlt £ �li s� iY .. � � _: � t �ating. . �a s-q.it. �e i v�:rp. . . . . . . - . . . . . . -- . . . . ·.. .. . . .-. . · There �re . various- folk-songs on th� ·.· village deities , like Others are con�etned witli . ay� and Mariyamman . l{Jattavar. . the _�lage - heroes like Maturai V:tr�, equally mytnological ift �he· popular -memory. �e· stories from the · old vur.fi'J'],as and ancient . Tamil .literature, modified unconsciously, are also sung in. �this .. metre. Kovala?} Katai- gives- us· a . new : version · of Cilappatikiiram. A number of episodes, unkn·ovm to .the origi�. -�af M_ahft�1varq,ta, .��veJoped !n the Tflmil countr,Y. Alliyara-· . · P ca?J.i mffl_ai, · uJ�ntira1} katavu_ �d PavaJa-lc-k�ti _ 1niilai �� . . ·:�·: .- .· . .· . . . . .·. : . . . ·. . . ·. . . . ·. . . . examples � . . . . . . . . . :"' - · . . .. · . .. . .. . . . . . .;_ Ty . d i · et an po . . . :: :· ; �� .. . .-:.. �: . . c· :� M · · · - . :�:� ·_, Because. of the' patr6nage nf · music by . the Nayak ·. and . - ·· · Mahrattha chieftains of Tamil land, Cintu develops .into · kirt-· �a�ai. KJirfta1}ai means praise. It began first a·s the singing of the praise of God. From · the · ·eighth century onwar4s . . at �least, hands · we know· of · verses on .the · Victories and glories of the . . .. . . and. anTis of k.illg� �' Thes� verses �escribe. . the'_:� va;rieties ot these . giories ·ul � successi�n� This is calJecl. vakupp·u� . . .This= has - a inusical rhythm..:'whlch :' crul be sung -to k�ep tlm�; · tlius vakitppu becomes the- n�e ·of a in�s�cal comp·ositlon. . In the� · vija�anagar · days �Aru.J.ia�i�atar ·. . has _ m�4e thi;;· popul�!;.· ..-. ��: . . . . .
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171 becomes a new · art where music and poetry are commingled.
His compositions of this type are called Tiru-p-pukaj, because
they sing the sacred praise of the Lord. The metrical pat.... tern is of. the old viru.tta.m. One of the chief characteristics of the post-Cola period is the change of the rhythm into
ira'J;tai viruttam. By the doubling of the old lines of the viru,t.... tam longer verses came to be composed. We get such longer ve:rses in Tiru-p-puka!.. This doubling _ goes on till in Rfuna.... Imkar we get a verse of four lines where each line consists of hundred and twelve feet.41
Tiru-p-pu,kal is the Tanill word .. for what comes to be known as k?,rtta1}ai in later times, but; · unlike the k�tta1J,ai, it has no pallavi or refrain. There is a kfirtta1.}ai sung by Ve:g.:rimalai-k-kavirlayar when the idol of It will be thus seen that
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Tiruccentiir, taken away by the Dutch, was _recovered in
1653.
Muttu-t-tal}.tavarayar composed
kirtta�ais probably in
the last part of the seventeenth century.42
Mariyappa
Pi.Uai,
Aniti N�iitakam, has also composed kirtta-nais.. KiTtta�ais become part of dramas like kuraava:fici. Dvipltta and Sisapadya from Telugu and Dohra and Taru from Ma the author of
rathi are adapted as special forms of versification in Tamil dramas.. Dramas came to be written entirely in
The
lclrttanais.
earliest and the most successful and popular attempt is that
of Arug;acala Kavi at the end of the eighteenth century. He
Ramaya�a in his Ramanlitaka-k-ki?�ttan,ai. PBratam, Kantaptt'nfi1),am, PeTiyapu'nii1].am and many others
dramatises
the
also come to be written as dramas of this type by poets ·who are experts in music.
KJala�epam means literally "spending
tlme". The word,
first used in the sense of listening to discourses on sacred stories, becomes the name of a particular kind of discourse where the stories are explained in prose interspersed 1Nith
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41. Ramalitikar, Ira�ai viruttam. .
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42. Muttu-t-tBI}.tavarayar, Muttu-t-tfu.ltavar Patam.
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musical songs. These became popular in the nineteenth cen tury. The kJirtta11ais are utilised in these K·alak�epa1ns. The story of the Harijan saint Nant�, who, as against a Brah... min, was preferred by God, has been developed into beauti ful drama of kirttafl,ai by Kopalakr�a Barati.43 The characte... risation is perfect, though given to exaggeration. It is a very popular book of great literary value though not recognised as such by the literary tradition, which does not take kindly to colloquial phrases and terms in�roduced . into such wo1·ks. Even mystics use this kirtta?1ai form. Ramalinkar also has written many kirtta�ais.44 Kuravaiici is utilisecl as an allegory.. Christians too use this folk song motif.. Vetan.a yaka Cattiriyar's works illustrate this trend. Similarly the Muslims have many kurvancis.
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43. Kopalaki�a P.iirati, Nantau:ar Carittira-k-kirttauai. 44. Riunalmkar,
Tiru
Arutpa · Tiru Ayiram: Kirttan,ai, pp. 214-239.
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:. -10.· . MODERN PERIOD . . .. . PR.oSE .
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. General · . .· - . . . ... . -·. . :·:·:_ What man sp-e§lks� is prose, ·but· it takes . a long time for him to �e<;ognise t�s�:and · much more time to recognise that it, can be_ lite:r�tur�. . .- . Tolk·iippiyam speaks of. prose literature �onsisting _of ridcUe��Cl_r{d .·p roverbs.1 These ·diffet· : from ver�e only in their. _freedom '·:q:.qm restrictions ·· as · to lines �. Litera.. tw::e in verse .int�rspersed :·with prose comes _to. be CO:Qlposed. Cilappatikil;am is _an . exam:ple.2• • The narrative introduction tQ · sorigs · or religi()us ·drama:iic · rituals ar� in pr�se.3 This ·" �<""" . pro�e _has all the marks .of . a ve:rse alliteration, initial rhymd or asso:q:anc�;. · a.D.d even metric�l - .�hYthm, the . foot however . · c� be� much ... ionge� and. the metrlcal p�tten1 . can change ·ru.�e. written ir; · . W,i.thQui_· :a.)).i._ · · resiriction. commentaries The . . . . · prQse� _Nak�rar's commentary .on Ir.aiya!JiaT . Aka-p-porul, belbngifig -,,to: the P�ll�v� ·��eriod, h?s � <;Iescriptive . · passages of literary beauty. Here als� We find ·alliteration and assonance; Sometimes · · .thsy -can.. be�· metrically· scanned� . The�· prose in Perunteva"fiar Piiratam u£ -the. ninth , centtiry ·is 'fi1ll of ·sanskrit wor·ds. · :;: The ,inscriptions give (an. idea · of the · prose of the · ago but ·not ·"of '"the·�prose. � literature.- · TJJ_e . ma-;;.ti-p-piravli!ct. style· consists · of.- alternating · phrases in Tamil .arid� Sanskrit like ·a· �ecklace -of� gems and·- :corals;.·· its syri.tax is .Tamil�': - It �becomes· a vehicle of V�avite philosophical thought.4 The . com mentary in this style on Namma}var's. poems, as told . by Nam . . · pil}ai and as reduced. -to. writing by . va·takku-t;;.tiru viti-p-pij1ai .
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. A. HisToit¥ OF �Al\W.. tiTERA'ftiR.E .
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of the thirteenth · century, stands . unique for. its poetic appre� · ciation governed by a philosophical outlook. · .The great Sans · krit scholar, poet and philosopher, Y.etanta Tecika1.., has also . in this · _styl�.�· .�:M�avlalam§mu-gi,. ·.�he· great · exponent . . written . of Te�alai · Srivai�avism is a · prolific · writer, · commenting ··-�on -,-ihe ma?;.ti-p-piTavftla philosophic'al works:. · · In . this . style, .·which is also · popular a�ong the Jains, Sripu�ii1Jam _ the P'Ura1}a .· of ·· the · siXty�three ancient .men of .--Jain .· mythology, : . · ·_ �rimes �o �be ::-writet n.-� · .This ...1s . assigned; b�> some . to· . the end · _ .
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of_��he . nin:th . century; but . it probably . belongs to the sixteenth of MIDJ.talapur$r of . Kr�adeva� . J �entury:_��and is the - work .· . . r,aya's _ reign:__ It is... the ·oD.ly literary .:.w�rk . in _ p111ose avai_lable in .Tamil .l;lefore we come · to the sey:enteenth: century .: · · .: - · .. · · ·
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Second _ mrilenium ·is 'alsO -th� Period The. first. hrur of the .
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of .th� coir.unentators · : on an·ci�nt-:_TaiD.il classics. · The ·.. style . · of IJampur�ar� · the - fu:�t. . confui�n�tor. · �� 'folkippiyam is . · sunple. ·-_· . Ce�avaraiyar' s ::-.- 1s<�:�ore · elegarii '- an.d descriptive� . . though· th�re· is not _-;lnuch-� sc6p� for desc'ription in"- his gram� · s rnatic.al . writing� ·- The. ·style ·of Parimelalakar,·· the. colnin�.�ta..:· tor on· Kurat;· · is. ·;, ery terse. though ccystal clear.- P-er.a. ciriyar's · . ·stYle is. digiiliei d.7 N�cc4larkkiW-y�r- . uses - no tricks :; of style; . � . : � -�-� . . . . ' . · ·· he f. orgets:·. 'isiilri e1£ _ _iD his ' expositio�. �. � �-.. . ·... ... . .... . ·_ � ·. .,; ·. :· . ..·. -� . . ·. �- -·�- _·-··�· .: :::-... - . ..��:.·. ·. : � . . ·: . . _- _ · . ·-- ··�· . - -: : missionaries.: - .. :. : -;The .· ·� Chri�tian. . from - the West ·had . to write · �heir :philosophy ·.' and religion :m · Tamil prose. � . pe-. Nobiliss w.otks �� volumln . . contains many Sanskrit - �tis.9_ . . ·His Tamil �· · . wor(Js.� _ : · I:Ie : ·tries · to· � explain in . Tamil . me_dieval : European . PhilPS.:�pl;ly: and>.this is ·_a _ great contribution to' the enr��ent . .
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175
MODERN PERIOD
eighteenth centurY started translating the Bible. The history of Bible translation will be the history of one kind of Tamil prose. The translation of the Bible now in use is im. portant because the great prose writer of the nineteenth century, .Arumukanavalar, had a ...part in it. The eighteen1h centu_ry Jesuit Beschi was a prolific writer on Christian reli gion in Tamil. to His greatest contribution is Aviveka piira"l}a kurukatai ("the story . of the guru who is the perfec tion of ignorance") . It was intended as a satire on the four Protestant schools of thought, but that can never ·be understood by the general public of the Tamil land. Having lost its origi nal sting, · it has · become a general · satire. Simple and full of humour it is ·enjoyed even by children. In a sense, Beschi is the father of modern prose and the modern short story. •
The development of prose in the hands of. Christians did. not affect the main stream of literary prose.. The commen.. taries on grainmatical and philosophical works continued to be written.. The most important production was that of ·Civaii[D.acuvamikal of the eighteenth century. Apart from his · controversial writings on grammar, litrature and philo sophyll there is his monumental work, the commentary on · Civawa1Japotam which contains many long prose passages describing the philosophy of Saiva Siddhlanta. - In his contro-· versial works he shows a biting humour and uses a number of proverbs,. Citamparacuvamiki!'s commentar�r on philo sophical verses is an elaborate elucidation in simple and straightforward prose. .
.
was fotmded ·in fhe Fort St. George, for the development of Tamil. Prose works . came to be written . by _ Tamil - scholars. TatJ.tavaraya . mutall.yar's Panca tantiram· is important · m that its style in . each of the tantirams graduaily becomes more and more In the nineteenth century
·an · institution
·
·
10. Btschi, Vetiyar Olukkam. 11. Civaii�a Muu.ivar, Tiakka:I:la Vijakka-c-c'Uravali, Tolkappiya .mutar;..c.;.cuttiravirutti, Payira virutti, Cittanta Marapu KQI).ta :g.am, KamparfunayaJ?-a Mutar Cankottara Vi;t�uttt ·
176
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
literary and difficult. The Vinotaracamancari by Vir.acarni Cettiyar is characterised by a style full of proverbs. Though grammatical Jt �lso shows the force of the colloquial style.. It narrates anecdotes concerning poets and describes the social events of the day. Arumukan.avalar of the nineteenth century is the father of modern literary prose the simple, elegant hut grammati cally correct prose. His style is colourless, avoiding poetical flourishes. This restraint probably made others follow his style. The prose style of Saint Ramalinkar is characterised by vigour and emotion. It is clear and simple. His essay on human compassion is indeed a masterpiece. His story of M�urutika:Qta ·Co!�, a Saivite king, is an elab0rate develop ment of an episode in Periyapu�ii1!am. In the twentieth century Maraimalai Atikal wote in a
simple style, cleflr 9nd sweet. As he grew olde.t· his style became more and more clear and simple. 'I'he religious, philosophical and political controversies made his style force ful and full of llfe.12
The style of Tiru-Vi-Ka, a patriot, a labour leader and a jo1.1rnalist, consists of powerful short sentences interspersed with sentences of greater length, creatin� a new rhythm and avoiding monotony. Though lacking in humour his prose is nlll of the sincere fervour of patriotism and other great ideals. His speeches on the political, labour and literary platforms have made Tamil a powerful vehicle of modern thought. Autobiography has become popular in the present cen tury. We ha.ve the autobiography of Dr. U. V. Caminata Aiyar, the scholar and great editor of Tamil classics. '\Vith almost a childish innocence he gives us a picture of the
12. Maraimalai AtikaJ, Mfu).tkkavacakar Kalamum Varalarum [see for instance].
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:
1iterary -world
.
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.
MODERN PERIOD ··
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177
�-Tfru-Vi�ka's .·:autobio-s. . 'grapby is_ - - � Work ·· "'�£ ·art."14 : lie·_;hia�s }'noiil h l g · i#a ·� lrl •. ,. . ' · · 1a:rge heartedriess he .has ·given us pen :portrait$ of lhe, s·�holars . .. /f: "'• · ·- arid - statesmen, 'safntS -�rid P.hil<Jsoph�rs_ With . ;�h�m JJ.'e 1c�e · . . .. . - "i�ito coiit�cl. afs -�styl� ·is�·:�t Its _ ·perfe-ction ..m 'this · work .' ... . ' .. �· . .: '· �-Early ..Christian-s . desirous · of ·appeaiifig to� -the ehildten ...
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. and the -neo..:Jiterates . wrote in simple ·: colloquial:: prose: · ·The idea o£ �aded text�boo�s for the children · ma¥ - be traced to t_hem.. A.t}unukanav�lar,� who had ..of Christian . 'Uiis'siona�y education� wrote - his gl-1.ded . rea�e�:s for · . ·c�IdreD: b:ll:f �t� . a · -�SaiVite bias. rlt i� �niy_ latt�rl.y · books With · p. _ictur. s ·p�ted in -hotd.. 41Y.Pe and . ·cateriDg to tlie futere�ts slied.. .. ' . . . ' �£ the . children are .being publl . . . .. . . .. . Oratory �.
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. � tne 1nodem world mspire Tattlil oratory The problems . b f · ·i n · Rll the varied . spheres · 'of hui:n�n Jlfe.� ·under the pres�iit . . .:·circumstances, Tafuil oratory -hils · become )l _ fore� mo�e ·
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178
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
audience spell-bound for hours together; for Tamil oratory never knew any restriction .of time. His di�ifiecl rhythm, his inspiring emphasis, his arresting prologue full of poetic descriptions of the locality and its noble and historic past, his peroration slowly but unfailingly reaching its climax whilst his body glowed with enthusiasm and inspiration, the literary flavour of his quotations and style and his epilogue · swiftly in one span summing up in a masterly fashion his \vhole speech had a telling effect on his audience. Other kinds .of oratory developed among his friends. The first relies on emotion and rhythm to guide and beautify it� speech. The second is the oratory of tl1e ideal teacher characterised by clarity and simplicity, by illustration and naturalness, but made 11nique by the use o£ the Gospel method of parables and similes. . Another is characterised by a studied com.mo11 sense, by .an arresting array of facts, imagined or othervvise, and by a sincerity of tone, with no literary adornment or rhetorical trick. This is very successful in some iconoclDstic speakers, . who't without any conscious use of humour or other visible emotions, ·carry the audience through the vihole gamut of . emotions, which are however kindled in the audience by the force of facts stated rather than as a reflection of the . speakers' patent feelings in the speech. There is a fourth and more recent one, not altogether 'new, but becoming more and more common; it is characteris ed by its faith in endless alliteration and jingling assor1ance, which · fortunately in Tamil come in without much effort. Those who play on the shallow waters of meaningless speecl1 enliven their talk with·· this jingle, relying more on vulgar humour and childish wit. Learned style a.lso 11ses this jingle, weaying oxymorons and epigrams. This epidemic of alliteration is a dangero·us modern trend in Tamil infecting all kinds of literature. · It therefore demands closer study. When there is this hankering after alliteration and assonanc�, words are chosen neither for their subtle· nuances of meaning nor for their volcan1�c power- nor .
r
.
179 ...
MbnERN PERIOD
even for their · music or sound symbolism, but only for their
jingling -effect.
As a result, words of allied meaning, piled ·
again and again, or chosen as equals of other words because o£ this assonance alone, lose their differences in meaning,
their fine nuances� their even. increasing. depth and ever inspiring
music.
This
impoverishment
of
"vords
and
language st�ted by the rhyming poets of the dark ages, is continued by this race of orators.
Alliteration and assonance have a · place in literature
and oratory, when they come in naturally and forcibly, as
in proverbs, ·creating never-to-be-forgotten epigrams, slogans, satirical or humorous- phrases, or poetic expres.;ions. These . summarise with- telling effect the whole trend of thought, epitomise the whole speech as . a- caption, compress the pero ration . in a powerful war cry.. They come effectively not in
every sentence, but only on the important · and emphatic pPak5 . of the m·ounting speech. There is one other recent trend startir1g from oratory
and spreading into other forms of prose
trend which is
a
becoming more and more the fashion of the day.
To give
.
a telling effect� inversions in the word ord�r were always .
used..
To avoid the appearance of a rhetorical flourish,
an
.
attempt is mgde to follow the modern speech Md its rhythm, . where the l9sely knit sent�nces proceed as in conversation, .
'\\ith the slow movement o£ our thought, leisurely elaborat...
.ing and· restricting the statements, explaining . and illustrat- : ing _them as though without any forethought c,r pi'e-estab:Ushed p]an, _where again these exigencies. naturally allow · all sorts of inversions, which therefore never s unJ rhetori al or
�
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artificial. �11 T� the endings of verbs or predicates have . .. more or less the · same form and their repetitio11 . at the· end of every sentence robs it of . its . emphatic : conclusion; the . ending
in an
a
dead
weight: .
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Inversion, . in ilnitating , ordinary speech, brings back to life and power this predicate,
now
becomes .
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emphatic position in the sentence.
In other
places, where there. is· no inversion, the · ordinary predicate
�s �ronounced with
a ·-
full mouthed emphasis almost in
ru1
1so. . -
exagg�rated, w�y, with()ut. any slur�ing as in hurried spe.ech; ap..q, thu�. in : contrast, it becomes . very . much alive. A nevv . on :r:l;lyJbm, of. . speech . moving . . . . with. inversion and emphasis . .
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Oratory· has been explained at great length because most of the speeches are published as independent prose works. Therefore this study becomes the study of Tamil ·
prose..
Novels and dram�s and· very often P.Oetry imitate this . style.. of oratory.. .
.
Journals . .
.
�
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JpurA�ls· in , -
.
�am.il were first started . ly Ch-ristian mis
sjo:p§·,�S '"but la��r, _ ot4ers. . also took to. journalism. There \Ve�k.Ue�; and : montl_:ilies .
\Ver� .
religious and literary. In the . . -· . tv��n�ieth c�ntury d.uring_.. the first world war P.eopl� felt a . thirst for foreign . news" The . fight made local news . freedom also of great importance.. Politics· , became of greater general interest. Newspapers rose in popularity and power.. To �
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st�·rt with,. because of an attempt at literal . translatiQn, . the style was stiff and laboured and . there were unnecessary San$krit wordJ3, but .. later. on . when experience was gained, the, style became. more full of :life. and .. also true to the genius (\f . th� .Tamil language. When. Tiru-vi--.ka ·be�ame . an . editor,16
journalism attained a dignity . and tried to. b·e'!oms more and . more literary.� without ceasing to be. simple. · Journals. .includ- . ing. . the weeklies and monthlies.- .were the vehicles . of modern .
.
thought . and ·: in � the · eqrlie:r: part · of the century · they , .alon� ·
e11rouraged. lit�rary. ·criticism., ·
short .. storie3,
serial . novel:;.
ar1d: : popular science, particularly in- their . special issues. .
.
..
. .
The-· first : great :na-vel is Pir.atliparmutaliyii� Ca1�ittiram- by a -District Munsiff � (i.e• .a . . subordinate· judge �of those times) ,. . ¥etanayakam Pf!.lai.. The . style· .is - simple though.�full . of power · ..
.
.
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TanYl :�tal .[Tamil Magazine] in .·.l83l. A·.D. . 16. T�-vi-ka, Editor of Tecapak.tay in· 191� A.D.
15
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,
1st� and elegance.
This novel, like Thackeray's, is famous for giving us a picture of the society of its day" It reminds us of Fielding's
Tom Jones in its digressions. It belongs to an age when people were passing from the puTlfi7,.Lic stories to the
new novel. The characters are well defined and individualised enough, but perhaps they do not completely cease to be types.
There is a sly humour and an enjoyable satire on
the foibles of the various kinds of people.
It is still read
with pleasure.
KamaLiim.pE.J Carittiram by Rajam Aiyar, an author who was so full of promise but The next important land mark is
who unfortunately died young.. It is a beautiful picture of the life of the Tamjl village in Tirunelveli District. His vivid description of the Brahmin family shows the way to other
social novels.
The characterisation is perfect and we can
never forget even the minor personalities. Plot construction has not become an art.. The influence of the Victorian Novel on which these authors have been fed, is responsible for this.. The style is pliable and Tamil prose proves its capacity to express in the living rhythm all the movements of the heart.. Now begins an era · of translation, first translations from · Bengali, later from English, often unfortunately translations of the novels of G. W. M .. Reynolds.
Even a great Tamil
scholar like Ma:raimalai Atikal has adapted such a · story for �s
Kumutavalli
tions..
which is full of beautiful realistic . descrip
Conan Doyle's detective stories beco1ne popttlar in
T�mil in the second decade o£ this century� irilportant in these stories.
Plot becomes
Attempts are made to� write ori
ginal detective stories and in this line
Tuppariy�[rn . C�a1npu of
the late M�ateva.g., with its abundance of . humour, is per haps the best... Ponnucami Pillai of · the . · .Burma . Government Service .. wrote a number of novels depicting· the social and family life ...
-
of. the Tamils, but his- novels still continue to · he · stories of adolescence.17 Mat.avaiYJa's Patmavati Carittiran"t is also im-
17. Powucfuni PiUai, KamaHitci, Civakum.a.ran, etc.
•
A HiSTORY OF 1'AMIL LITERATURE
The author has a message of social reform which
portant.
is the strength and also the weakness of this Vlork of art. . He speaks with personal experience and fervotrr, -and to that
But in his en thusiasm his message instead of becoming one with his art
extent the novel is powerful and interesting. tries to have an independent existence.
This is the case with
very many short stories and poems of this country. With Kalki one · enters another stage.
Trained in jour
nalism under the scholar Tiru-vi-ka, he developed style, which he came to use in his fiction.
an
elegant
He v.;ras a prolific
\\Titer of short stories and voluminous no,Jcls.lS
He intro
duces healthy humour as against the vulgar humour of some of the journals of the early period.
He will live by his llis
Civakamiyi� Capatam
torical novels.
gives us the picture
of the Pallava age of the seventh century, bringing out the author's interest in
�
art.
Plot construction and characterisa
tion have become important . and successful. h1 his Po?}?],iyi1]celva?}, the Cola age of Raja Raja lives before our eyes. The plot is interesting but here again the historical interest predominates.
The number of characters with tl1eir high
sounding old Tamil names probably has this in view.
'!'his
novel continues to a thousand and two hundred pages. Nobody can have the patience to read carefully through this volu... mious novel and therefore much of the author's art runs to waste.
His
Alai ocai,
which received the award
of Sahitya
Akademi, describes modern India during the freedom strug gle.
It is, like Tolstoy's
War and Peace
though on a lower
-!..
level, the story of a generation.
Dr. M. University
Varatar�aca_u., the Professor of Tamil in the Madras has
given
dignity
and
to novel
respectability
\vriting even in the world of pandits who thought ·of this art as
the hobby of those who failed to become pandits or ·
scholars.
His style is both simple and elega11t, unlike · the
style of a majority of other novelists.
His nove]s are success...
18. Kalki [Kiru$l}Amiirtti, R.], Ka:Qaiyaliyi_u. Kru].avu, Poyman. Karatu, etc. Kalvaniu Katali, Parttipau. Kau.avu, etc
.
..
,
·183
MODERN PERIOD
• ....
Akal vi1akku has received -the . ·S�hit:)'a Akademi Prize for · the best book in ·Tamil of the year 1961 It is ra story of two · friends born and brought up in lhe same Yillage and going to study in the same college. One· ends as ful and . popula�. ..
..
a great man whilst the other dies as a moral and physical · · their that wreck. From their birth the author shows· -behaviour forecasts their futUre; inspire� . ·as ·. the one was by
other by pleasure . ·· seeking arid .. egotisnt. He· is also a prolific writer.l9 . He has a· way · of l1is own reminding · us of Montesquieu. The constructlon of th.e plot is loose. · The digressions relating to the stylised .character often · occuring _ in the novels with the name Arava!i moral integrity and the
remffid us of the author hiffiself or of Tiru-.,.Ji.-ka, and morali-�
.
"
..
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. sations though perfect m. themselves do �ot become . one with . ·th_� �ovel. But they_ .ar� . the attractions o£ his n�yel. . �e · to ·understand and Write how. women take a false step.. trie� . ·. . In a.� lajl¢1 wh�re physical chastity or prostiJtttion alone form.. .
,
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ec.J the th�me of literature, this _ attempt at portraying WOJ?en . witE·· feelings and passi�ns as var�g as tho'3e of men seems :�o. be · aifficult even for .him. In Nencil oru .m1.f,J the heroin�_,
. · ·a married woman, has succumbed to the. overtures of · her . first lover and becomes pregnant. This ···sin works a revolu.
.tion and she becomes · perfect. Nobody including the reader knows - o£ her failings, till the very · ·end. �Wheri her own· son and the legal daughter of her lover faU· in love with each
other; she has to confess and prevent an incestuous ·marriage TJns . is the clthorn in · the heart"' · which : is .· tho · title · of the novel. Because _ of this, �the earlier · part ·of -·-tlie story · is not so gripping. The- ·author · must -. be · congratulated for· intro� ·. · problems· but c1ucin-g such this· . · attempt � - also proves . th'e ..
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difficulty he feels in · dealing· with this, kind. of theine. Un fortunately he . dnes · not .. try to explain- the workmgs · of ·the feminine mind.. . . Lady.. · writers · like Lakft:ni have come to 1vrite and explain the feelings · of · woma.Iihood.'2C ·
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19.. Varata�can, . ·
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. M�,
.Vitutalajya, Kura� oli, Ma,n.a-c-c'am'u, KaUo-kaviyamo, Malar Viji, Kari-t--tu:Q.tu, Ma:r:Utu'Pca:i, · e�c.· · 2"0. Lak�i · '[Tirlptiracu.iltari], Ka.ficauaiyiu.kauavu� Pe.unan.am, Nayakkar makkaJ etc" .
Dr
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184
A EITSTORY OF TA� LITERATURE Psychological novels are now developing.
In Akila�'s
Favai Vilakktt the minds of a novelist and the various vvomen who take interest in --him are ·beautifully described and •
revealed.
Short Stories -The short story in its perfect fonn fust appeared from
tl1e pen of V. V. S. Iyer:21
Soon this comes into favour with
the modern readers who are running a race mth time. ·There
is
a
host of successful writers, but a few names only are
mentioned here, because of the trends developed by th·em.
Somewher,e. about the thirties of this centtll'Y., a group of writers conducting the journal selves
Ma?Ji-k-koti a..�d calling them
Ma�i-.k-:-k.oti writers under the leadership of Va.
Ra.
vociferously demanded that one should write as one speaks. This movement must be held to be successfttl to t-l1e extent
that pedantic writing has now become a matte� o: history·. Th� colloquialism of the dialects, however, coufd not be. int�oduced
into
literature
romin� in the drama
and
except
in
the novel.
for its short stories.
speeches
of
persons
This g1·o11p is great
The �reatest of the shot;t story writers is l?utumai-p pittal},
a
member 'of this �roup.
He however mal{es his mes
sage, if it exists, take the perfect shape of a�, and therefore he ma.y be true when he states that he does not himself know the import of his stories.22
He is a prolific writer, but
sotne of his short stories are bound to sUX\rive as excellent literature. He has the vision to see the poetic aspect of any •
situation however trivial it be and he descl;'ibes it vividly
and graphically so as to appeal to our heart, whether \Ve understand him correctly or not.
He is the prose-poet of
darkness and inystery coining phrases that are so1netimes jaw-breaking but always suitable and expres�ive.
He deals
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21. Aiya�, V. V. S., Mmi.kayarkkaraciyig. Katal.
�?· Putumai"'!p�pittal). [Viruttacalam, S.], Putumai-p-pittan: Kat t.uraikaJ, p. 7,.
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185
MODERN PERIOD
· reinterpret with modern situations_ and trjes to accord:also .. . . . . ing to his -light the · mythological stories such . as �that of .
Akalikai or Siva coming .as .a labourer.22
...
Thet·e is_ humour
and- pathos and sometimes biting satire, as in the _ story where . .
God comes as an ordinary_ layman.� ·. This grotlp of writers
_is still : · powerful in writing novels and __ short· stories. Raku . nata:g's novel25 . and stories, for instan�e, -_translated into _.
. Czech, we are told, have a wide circulation. · . ._ � . . . . .. . ·. In short stories propaganda and didacticism come in, as.· ·for example, _even in the most successful · s�ories of Rajaji, _
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the former Governor General of India, and o£ AlAt§tUrai, the- Leader · of the Dravidian -Progressive Party .26 ., . . . .. . .
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tl;ti§
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kind of , drama can . only be read a11.d. enjoyed, never · acted on the stage. .
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and
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_ShakespeaTean dramas and dramas · from � Sanskrit.-: · In addi: ···. tion he - h� written· � number of original '"drama� of- his own, J;r-agedies; �ome��es,- ·· �d _far�es, . · . iri _ · : �ll. nJimbering- almost �ighty : � �e was one of: _the · founder:s - of the Cuku.rja .Vilasa .. .Sa1Jha for · acting dramas, and -he has · acted ·almost · all :_of _ ltis ·
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A HISTORY OF "TAMIL "LIT:ERATURE-
186
· responsible for making drama and a-cting respectable. . His plays have been wl-itten With ail in�er t.ID.derstanding of the stage ·a:Dd ·from that point of ·--view are perfeiJt. · His · Ma�Okarii .was· very inuch �ppreci�ted in the early -d�ys and its - adapta tion· · appeared as a· filin. .He took the hero's part.. in various dramas . ·and therefore wrote serious plays though introducing the· vidiisaka .or comic character fu many of them. · · La�terly . he has come to write his series· of farces, enjoying the .ordinary comical �_ situ�tiol:ls, sometimes n�tural and .some�ip.1es forced and . artificial. On the whole he will be . remembered more . ·_ - · · · as a patron of · ·drama . rather thari as· ·a ·dramatist� . . . . . . . .. . During the freedom struggie a- number of dr�as like Katari� verri, "the su.ccess of Katar", and :Teciya-'i�_�koti, 'the national - flag�·,,· "\\tith the· motive of emphasising the· fight _ for National Freedom, wer� by T. . K. l?.avalar_ ,and acted .. . . writt�n to the · great satisfaction· ·a£ - the audi�nce- .of that age. · Similar propaganda 4ramas . followed.. · · Drama �was _also-. :· used for . health �prop�ganda and other -such pUrposes., . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .For �a -long � · - - time · the mythological · stories· · held- the . field · but more recently social dramas · have be.ctime po:in.tlar . . The popular trend now seents to be�·m faVour of historical dramas -depicting· the . greatness of the� ·glory _ of ·-the·· great Kings . lik� ·. Ra]ariaja and. ·the -chieftains who · opposed . the ._ British rule �iii · the . early - days.:- like _ -l{irtlap_omni�. -- Literary_�·_ . figures .like . Avvaiyar are- also popUlar. . ·N�vertheless; it. is : the national feeling -fo·r. 'these great -names and" the greatness ,�f- the actors ·ratlier ·than . the ·ilitrinsic ..worth -of - the drlnria that -is :resp(jilsi. .- · .. :ble for tliese successes.. .. .
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The cinema· has _ become mttch more popular_ _but has not driven out drama.. Most. ..of ·the· succes�ful actors·· in the films . have started as actors oli the stage. - That shows the . greatness - achieved ·the stage._the ·a and in: the cinem �onby the . actors. . . . ... Both . . . . . . . . - ' .. - . .- · . .· . · style of the pl�tform · casts. its shadow.· _ _. ·But in oratorical .rec�p.t t�es a much · .more natUral styl�-; delivered in a · P:atitral way� h�s .been. preferred. But n�ither the stag� nor · the �iias: _.succeeded. in freeing itseii fro� -PWsic�. . .. .
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. . . Mention must -b e made of. the . radio� drama, .; a �n�w.__ dev�lopment which requires a greater skill in _using language..-. · · · For . here so11nds as heard without any furtl1er help .. of the. . · ��en�, ·_dress �d � the other _parapheri?-alla of the stage� :·shoul� suggest the -context and :even changes .. . . scene. Such . i� th� · · a. drama has necessarily to _be� . ·short. · � Perhaps ·Ul-� Ta.m..i) · _tl1e: · radio plays _ are m��h _more successful .. than . t:lje ordinary_ dram�s. · _But - even· _·here we - h�ve to wait _. for re�lly� _ou1-� ·. iD: · ding . st 1 .��as_ �wmch_ .will suryive into ..tlte futur�. .. .:::.. .: : -� -� . . . . . . . .._.· · · · -� �-- -. PoEritx< · .... . .· ... . . �The religious :. or - rather the · . spiritual . trend in . Tamil : · ·. _: literature -�takes .the · form of . :·nationalism . in the ·poetry of ·· Parati . (Subrabmanya Bharathi) who is the · greatest · poet of. · . the· . twenti�tb:· . century: · �He actually �begins ·_ the · . period of.: .. . _ �wakened. . . Tamil · land The . Motherland is not an . -empty .. · filetaphor· · to ·. the Tanlilian of - �this ; _century·. To ·. one who.:. . . worships · the · Divih� llead - as · the. · Mother � shining : .as -- the · . v.� "'iotis ·virtues of . the . world, . this · coiiceptiozt of a··· Mother- · _ land is not · ln.�re abstraction. It is as concrete and .real� -� as . · ·_'� S\Veet . arid ennobling,� and . as powerful -and inspl.rmg :as:_·qne?.s. ·: OWli -moth�r,�-as- Oil�'g -. OWil mother's m.}Jk and . ·as orle's ·· OV!D . ;.-.:. :God . !!'he Vantem;fftaram - �ng describes this living reaJity;_. :�:� a.nd . .it was .translated:. inio: Tam.n · froin. �Bengali�·hY. P.aratt . . - .. . . . . ·\ .�· .. .. . . . � .. · . P� : - ·gi\Tes expresSlori fu his poetry'- tO. · . this . Jove �£ the ' ratl ( . .. . � �\- ; Taniil . Land� 4 ·Tainir langliage -and .Iiiclia a·s_ - the .�love --o£ . the. great � �akti.28 The- very4 -sound-- of ' -the_-nafQ�e -_of Tami�� CQUi1�- . . � · · trYt he- singS: fs iiect � �'im.to_ -tlie �ears'; ·..()� �T.�_�il!ans; ��there is� a unique.-· and : inex:plicable -poWer-born at 't1ie . very" "mentfori of� the -'fatherland�; . the·:� T.aini1 1and.29��-.:TaiiiU : eountiY � · to -�llli-n . is� the' totality- of. : an. _jt$ · �ult:ure;} aild �·-all:· it�'· ·:natirral -� be�ufy. : .-. the -- very · _ earth :of this� land�· · tlie �rivers : and mountains, · the : . · fruits- -�d. the graitis�:. .tlie tt�E;s··�d:· the <6irdS; and, inore thari ' . . . . ' ·... . . ya, · Parati . Nillkal, · p. 1.· · Vantemataram, p. 8. amm:U Cuppir , ..Parati 28 . . . ,. · · ParatSmata, p. · 33. Centami}natu, p. 43. Va}iya centami}.. 29. · lbid�; .· p. .33. Centamil ·natu. . . . . .- -. · .
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A HISTORY - OF
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. . because ·of its �u., the men women. �e: de� to : the .. poet;�d . � culture · and its _· message 1o· the whole w.orld.._;· . The country - is . nothfug ·buf th-e - emborH«nent- o£- . its· cultilre and history· . tl1e� drama of its-- heroes, its poets, its seers,� and: its chaste. women;. all contributing their best to the world. The great power and influence of his poetry lies in his us� of • the follt:-song rhytllm.;· called cint-u. The earlier experiment in the speech rhythm, o£ the· colnmon·:· man·· ·guidell by music . has. created . lhi� v·erse form for the Tamil poetry of the modern democracy, and· · our� poet usmg this popular metre in all its varied richness and beauty appeals to the ear and heart of the common man. His poetry tr?c�s its· l�neage �o �he cittars, the eclectic� s�ints of Tamil land.3� _ .-L�ke _ the· later �ittars, he ""'JVrites his autobio• graphy ..in yerse. in the· favourite metre. 9£. . eight ci't lines, ex--_ . plaining his.. sp�itual evolution. _ D_e�ocracy · becomes spiri� . tualised. Even th� barking dug, the . temple bell and the beg-� gar'� cry bec9m� equally divine songs.�1 _He dances joyfully_ with the oppr�ssed and· the depressed at - the· very idea 9f fl"eedom.32__ �y��ything gains the poetic - �hue of t�� . rainbow: of his im_agination and the · divine - music of the harp· of ]jfe. . To him all religions are one. - . But there is no negativism o� . t�rning away: froin ;life. . �-e se�s. God �- every: ltind of rela-· tionship.33 -The song of Ka:Ql}.a� ' - or Kri$}.a, coming in the · · best traditions ·· of the Alvars but in a modern· rhythm, is thus o£ g�eat sigrim�ance. Life on this earth .is life di�ine andall around �-s but God . i11 _ H;is · varied form, overflo-vv�g with love. · His · ·Kuyil pattu ("koei ·_ song;') is on tl1e ·one_ hand · a fai:ry tale and .. a roman:ce, and . on the other' ·a �ystic poem � · : � : : ' : .. � � ·� . . . . · fUll of ' lluier �eanmg to the select few: .... .. _ ''_disciple of Piirati" as Paratitaca:g(Bharatidasan) , the · . 4e �hooses. to call rumelf; ·· i� . arioth�r · poet Vlhose · Jiaffie is � Ka:g.akacuppurattig.am. He is immersed in Wicient .: Tamil . . ·. . back that rich to he brings .-tradition· ... . e nrich literature and . . . .. . . .... .. .. _
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'MODERN PERIOD.
189.
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the · n�w- .·poetry,._ �"the :new xhythin :.of democracy < He . ..is a master · · fu. .:weaving �words- :i . rito � chai:roing and� enchanting . · verses. �· ;But ·he . represents : another _ trend in modern .poetry, . social poirit of · view.' a revolt. against from the r.ecent past the.. . The story of Bilhana is made into a revolutionary. poein:· · The . . _and . his lady-love, who is the� _priricess of poe�. in �hat st()ry the · ]a.nd; ._appeal to · the citizens as . against the king in the name of true love; . . the· �itizens : rise in revolt .and solemnize their� marriage �4 P,aratitac�'s . poem� on Natttre · are _ .bril Iianf flashes· of . a poetic mind. Unfortunately his missionary zeal . as a social reformer gets the upper hand and some... tinies ·-stifles his poetry:· � This. is another will-of-the-wisp mis leadfrig, the· poets of this age; when poetry tries to compete with " p�litical · oratory to lose its purity' and restraint, its . .:J ·economy' and eternar power� . . ·: . : . . ·. . . . . . . . . .. . . other .great · trend in modern poetry is humour and . . .. - The . . . ' a concern for th� children and the women. Ka\'Fjmal).i (Kavim�i- Desiga. Vin:?yagam Pill:�i) . illustrates this t�end. Hav . mg �ee:Q·_ � teacher, . in a women's. college he has kiloVlil the . n��essl.�y� for �om�n.�s'- regeneration Bl,ld the great d�rriand for �hildr�n's poetry: . _ae·����laims, "wh:at great_� ·fort�e to . be . . born a woman".as · To th� children he sings of the roses . . a�cl • th.eir robbe�s, the . honey-b�es;.· · of the rat e�tering' the gl·�d-lll.other's! pot, and also of th� cycle : whos'e w�eels move . . . ·younger ·_sister lik� following the ·-�lder brother.3G Nursery th� . . - ·--� . . rhynies "and ·childr�n's songs are much to be desired, but no book_ . of 01:1tstanding mer�t has yet Come. ,A!a. Valliyapp§ ancl others of the children's literature society . ar� writing verses and stories for children.37 . . . . - .. . . ·:,..,.' ·. . 34. Paratitacan� [Kanakacuppuratti.Q.am], Paratitacai). ·. Kavitaikal, ..
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190:
A HtSTORY OF tAw.tit LITERATURE
Translations and adaptations from Western languages fortn. another trend.. They look almost original in Kavima1p. The Umarkayyiim which he has · translated looks like an original Tamil poem full of TamU references and Tamil atmosphere.. Another trend is the reinterpretation of tl1e older stories; sometimes even changing the story.. The Buddha appeals to Kavima.I).i, P.aD.eali to P:arati, Bilhana to Paratitacag., Akalya . to VelJ.akkal ·Cuppirama:Q.iya Mutaliyrar, Cuppiramal}iya Yoki and Putumai-p-pitta:g.as Even though the poets are Hindus, they are inspired by the stories of other religions: Kavima:Q.i writes on Jesus, Cup pirama.I).iya Yoki on Mary Magdalene.39 This ecleciicism is at its best in the poems of Tiru-vi-ka where, like Saint Ramakr�a, he experiences the joy of Vi�u worship and the joy of the worship of Jesus, and feels at tl1e end no difference.40 There is also a dissatisfaction with mythology, which, according to some, has brought about the downfall of the Tamil nation. This mythology comes to be identified \vith Brahmanism. The stories are held to falsify the trutl1 and to glorify the caste system. This results sometimes in mere condemnation, whilst at other times the stories �re retold in terms of this attitude of revolt against the great personalities of mythology.. The writers of this school sing or write tl1e glories of Raval).a against Rama, condemning Prahlada as a dupe falling a prey to Brahmin strategy, and bringing all the 38. Kavimar_:ti, Aciyaj oti. . AI.u!aturai, c. N., �avin Cirukataika:J. Parati, Panoali Capatam. Paratitacan, Puratci-k-kavifian. Cuppiramal).iya Mutaliyar, VeUakkal, Akalikai ve}fpa. Cuppiramal).iya Yoki, Tamil-k-kumari. Putumai-p-pitta:o, Capavimoc�am, Akalikai. 39. Kavimal).i, Iratcakar. Cuppiramal).iya Yoki, Tamil-k-kumari. 40. Tiru-vi-ka, Ecu Arul Vettal, Tirumil Arul Ve��
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older poets before their so-called court of the God of Justi�e.41 Latterly, in some literary works, sex comes to play a more and more important part, -sometimes innocent, sometimes obscene.. -
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As of old, a few conceptions� captivating the mind of inari,' appropriate fur themselves, in the moder�· - world, cer . ari.d these terms in the present atmosphere, tain catch words, . .l?e�aus_e ,of the. bubbling enthusiasm in the mind of the au_�i ence rather than . because of . intrinsic worth and significance ·of the de�criptiori o�_ these ideas, become surcl1arged with an · 11nknown · · ·energy. ·_ These slogans become the war-cry of ;· . . : groups and factions even fu . their poetry. - -- ,., · ·-· poetry is ·*qthing Qn Tami1 _new. . . .- . The �uence� ·of music . . . But the motion pictt:ires� true· to the traditions oi Tamil ·drama still . require ·the · prQp .of dance and music. The songs in Tamil· ·are -comp-osed. �cco;rding to the dictates _of_ the_: tulle and to the necessity of .the -·content. These poems, though for· a · · shQrt �im¢ only, receive · a . wi<1� · publicity. · . Fortunately the · · itUmber of ·songs iD: everY.·: IDrit;·_is slowly coJ.niJ.lg d�wn. · · . . -- ...·. . . . . . The . all round-: development revealed by- this · survey .is :_ itid:e-ed�reln�rkable but the�· high · water ·mark . has not yet been . is very promising and one may ·close : · ·�reached... . . Th� futu±e . . / · ��h �this- hopeful Aote� ..
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. Kul�tai,. ·pwavar, · Rav�a kaviyaixl. Parati�acan, Ir�iYatl allati.t IJJ.aiyarra V"ri'�. · · ·Aijr].atur�, �c� �., Nititev;.l:g. :J,v.Iayakkam,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Akastiyar
2. A!akiyam�ava}a-p
Peruma_J, 3. Amitaca.karar, .
4. Amirta Kavirayar, s. AJ):Q.aturai, c. N.
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6.. Aptuuakim, 7. Aristotle, 8. A.rumuka Navalar,
9.
[1] Paficaputa ariita tattuva coti1am, Munioami Mutaliyar, 1899. [2] Akattiyar Citta Vaittiyam. Acarya Hrutayam, SriJ]ivaca Rakava car, Madras, 1906. Yapparuilkalam, Vol. I., Pavanantar Kalakam, Madras, 1916. Oru turai-k-kovai.. · [1] Alfl):avi:g. CirukataikaJ. [2] Nititevau Mayakkam... Muslim Tamil-p-pulavarkal, Universal Publishers, Madras, 1957. Nicomachian - Ethics. Pilapatam, Vols. I, ll, ill & IV, Citam para Caivappirakaca Vittiya Calai, Citamparam. Tiru-p-pukal, Part I & II, Madras, 1939. [1] Kurma Puriu).am. [2] Naitatam, Ed. Katiraiver PilJai, Nalvali, Niti-k-k�a:ficiyam, Ed., Murray & Co., Madras, 1959. [1] The Kural or the Maxims of Tiru vaUuvar, 3rd Edn., V. V.. S. Krishnamurti (Ed.) Tiruccil'appa}Ji, 1952.. [2] Mailkaiyarkkaraciyin Katal, "The Wonder that was India", Vol. I, Evergreen Encyclopaedia, New York, 1951. [1] Tempav�i, Vols. I, II & III, Im primeric de la Mission Catholique, Pondicherry, 1927-1928. [2] Catur Akarati. [3] Vetiyar Olukkam. Bhagvad Gita. Indian Ephemeries. [1] Aiilkutunuru, 4th Edn., 1949.. [2] Kunmtokai, 1st Edn., 1937. (3] Paripatal, 3rd Edn., 1948,
Arul}.akirinatar,
10. Ativirarama Pfu:.ttiyau., 11.. Avvaiyar, 12. Ayyar, V. V. S..,
"
6
13. Basham, 14. Beschi, Rev.. C. J.,
15. Bhatta [Tr.], 16. Damikka:I)l).u PU}ai, L D., 17. Caminitaiyar, Dr. U. V. [Ed.], ..
193
BmLIOGRAPBY , [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] 18.. Cantira Cekara Kaviraya Pal).titar [Ed.], 19. Cussie, Chetty, Simon,
20. Campanta Mutaliyir P.,
21. Catta.g.ar, 22. Cekkilar, 23.. ceg.avaraiyar,
24. Centa.m.i!,
Patirruppattu 3rd Edn., 1941. Pattuppa�, 4th Edn., 1950. Puranauiiru, 4th Edn., 1950. va:Q.tuvitu tutu. EJJ. caritam, Tiyakarica Vilacam, Madras. Vartl.'Qakulatittau. Matal, Palavai, Tam. pucami Mutaliy.§r, Madras. The Tamil Plutarch, 1st Edn., General Puplishers Limited, Colombo, 1946. [1] Amalatitta:g. [Tr. Hamlet]. [2] Makipati [Tr. Macbeth]. [3] Capapati. [4] Manokara, etc., Ma.J)imekalai, 4th Edn.., Tiyaka.rica Vilacam, Madras, 1949. Periyapurfu)am, 3rd Edn., Caivacittan ta Camicam, Madras, 1950. Commentary on Collatikaram, Ka:ge caiyar [Ed.], Cun.g.akam, Ceylon, 1938.. Volumes, Pub.. Muturai-t-tamil-ccail.kam, Maturai.. Tirukkayilaya fi� uia, Pat�oram Tirum.UEai, Tiruppa.JJanta). Mutt, Tiruppauanta}, 1950.. Pakavatam, Varataraca Aiyailkar [Ed.] [1] Ka.liiikattupparal}i, Murray & Co., Madras, 1960. [2] Kali.ilkattupparal).i, A. Gopilaiyar, [Ed.] Madras, 1923 Citakkati . Nol}.ti Natakam, Muhm.ad Usen Naynar [Ed.], University of Madras, Madras.. [1] Tiruttol}.tar Tirunimakkovai. [2] nakk�a Vij.akka-c-Cii!'liva}i. [3] Tolkappiya lVIutar ciittira 'Virutti.. [4] PB.yira Virutti.. [5] Cittanta Marapu K�tao.am.. [6] Kampar3mayal).a Mut;ar cailkottara Virutti, [7] Amutampikai P.QJai-t-tamij [re print] T.S.I..S.S..W P. Society, Mad ra�, 1955.. •
25. Ceraman Perumal Niya-
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26. Cevvai-c-Ciituvar, 27. Ceyanko:Qtar,
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28. Citakkati,
. 29. Civaii�a Mu�ivar, .
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194
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE '
30. Civappirakacar,
31. Civavakkiyar, 32. Comacuntara Tecikar,
33. Cuntaram PiP.ai, P., •
34. Cuppiramru.:rlya Mutaliyar, VeJ.lakkaJ., 35.. Cuppira.t�ru.:rlya Pij.!ai, K.,
36. Cuppiramru.:rlya Yoki, 37. Cupratipa-k-kavirayar,
38. Di�itar, V. R. R.,
39. Drew, W. H., 40. Ellappa Navalar, Caiva, 41. Ellis, F. W.,
42. Epigraphica Indica, 43.. Gandhi, M. K.,
44. I!amurukal].ar, Mayilaikkilar [Ed.], 45. :Qailko Atika1, .
46. Indian Antiquary, 47. Inscriptions,
NiilkaJ, Civappirakacar Centamil Civafiauapilaya CuvamikaJ Mutt, Pommaiyapafaiyam, 1944. Civavakkiy:ar Patal, Cittarpatalkal, Aru. Ramanatat) [Ed.] Madras, 1959. Nii�ffuJ.tu t-Tamil-p[1 ] Patiu,a;ram Pulavar varalaru. [Sixteenth century Tamil poets] 1st Edn., �ladras, 1943. Some Mile Stones in the History of Tamil Literatuxe. The Tainilian Antiquary, Vol. I, The Tamilian Archaeological Society Series 3, Tirucciriippa}!i, 1909.. Akalikai v�p:a!> [1] Taui-p-patal tirati;u, Vol. I & II, B.. Rattina Nayakkar & Sons, Mad ras, 1939.. Tamil-k-kumari. [1] KUJappa Nayakkau Katal. [2] Virali Vitu Tutu, Prema Publishers, Madras, 1958. Tirukkural with English translation, Adyar Library Series, No. 68, Madras, 1949. T.S.I.S.S.W.P. Society, TirukkuraJ, Madras, 1958. Tiruva:rt.n:laikkalampakam. Tirukkura.J, Ellis Commentary, Madras University Tamil Series, No. 20, Madras. 1955. Vols. I, UI, X, XII, Xlli. An Autobiography or My Experiments with Truth, 2nd Edn., [Reprint], Navajivan Publishing House, Ah medabad, 1945.. Tevaram Atailkal)lllw;ai, Caiva Cittanta Camacam, Madras, 1953. Cilappatikiram:- 3rd Edn., Dr. U. V. C;amtma aiyar [Ed.] Madras, 1927. Vol. XXII. No. 65/1897. No. 289/1628. No. 471/1912.. "No. 482/1905,
•
BfBLiOGRAP� - . : .
·A.tinu�= Reports on Epigraphy, Southern
· ·
Circle, ll Part, 1913. [1] Tiruvamattur-k-kalampakam. . : .� 121, Tillai-k-kalai:npa.kam. � [3] Kaccikkalampakam. . . Akapporu} . Kovintaraca Mutaliy.ar·· & · - �, others [Ed.], Pa�antar Kalakam, Series No. 1, Madras, 1959..
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·... , .. 54. Kau. cayapu Cantai. · :· 55� K�akacapai �- Pil.lai, ·· V., - · The · Tamils . · Eighteen Hundre d Years : - :: :_ -� . - . _ . . . ?:..�� � :.� i�:-� : Ago, 2nd Edn.� - -- 'r�sI.s.s�w.P._ ..
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Society, Madras, 1956. : i E . ( ] . Malaruni-- Maiaiyum, 6th dn., Pari - Nilaiyam, Madras, 1956.. -[2] . Aciya Coti, 3rd Edn., Pari Nilaiyam, Madras, 1952. --Rawal:fiya Yattirikam. :�:-:. A History of - Early· Vaishnavism in University India, Madras _. South . - ·- ·Series No. 4, .The . Oxford Univer. sity Press, Madras, 1920. . �
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196
LITERA� A HISTORY -OF TAMIL . .
65. Klllfavira PaT).titar,
66. Kuppucanu Castiri, 67. Lak�, [Tiripuracuntari] 68. �avacakar,
69. Maraimalai AtikaJ,
70. Mirimuttu-p-pi}lai 71. Mayilainatar,
•
72.
73. :Minaksicuntaram . Mahavittuvan,
Neminatam, R. Rakava Aiya:Dkar [Ed..] Centamij Series No.. 6, Maturai-t-. Tamil-c-CaD.kam, Maturai, 1923.. The Proceedings of the Third Oriental Conference. [1] Kaiicanaiyiu. K�avu. [2] Pel)ll'lattam. [3] Nayakkar Makka!, etc. [1] Tiruvacakam, 1st Edn., Murray & Co., Madras, 1956. [2] Tirukkovaiyar with Peraciriyar ··commentary, 2nd Edn., Arwnu kanavalar [Ed.] Ceylon. M�avacakar Varal.8,rum Kalamum, Vols. I & II, 2nd Edn., T.SJ.S.S. W.P.. Society, Madras, 1957. Aniti Natakam. Commentary on NaJJu.i,il 1st Edn., Dr. U. V. Ciminitaiyar [Ed.] Madras, 1918. Meyka:Q.ta C-attiram, 2nd Edn., Taru mapura A.tit}.am, Pub.. No. 377, Tarumapuram [1956]. Mi:g.ak�icnntaram Piijai Pirapanta-t tirattu, Dr. U. V. Daminataiyar [Ed.] Madras.. [1] Piran_tatu . Eppatiyo, 3rd Edn., Pari Nilaiyam, Madras, 1953. [2] Ciijama.I}i Pattum Uraina1a,iywn, Series Ce:g.nai-t-tamil-c-Catikam No.. 6, Madras, 1944. [3] Cayfunil Tiruppavai Tiruvemp·a vai, Pari Nilaiyam, Madras-1, 1961.. M.. Anu;;tacalam [Ed.], 2nd Ed., Tamil Niilakam, Madras, 1949.. Classified Catalogue of Tamil Printed Books, 1st Edn., The Christian Society, Education Vernacular Madras, 1866. Muttu-t-tantavar Patam. [1] Commentary on TolkippiyamPorulatikiram.. [2] Commentary on Kalittokai. [3] Commentary on Pattu-p-pattu.. [4] Commentary on Civakacintama1,.1i..
Pillai' .. .
74. �ak:?icuntaran., T.. P.,
75. Mukkutar paJ.lu, 76. Murdoch, John,
77. Muttu-t-tfu::ttavar, 78. Nacci.n.ar-k-ki@yar,
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BISLIOGBAPHY
79. Nalla-p-Pi].lai. so. Naraya.I}aoami Aiyar
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197
Paratam. [Reprint]. Nan;-�ai T.S.I.S.S.W.P.. Society, Madras, 1956. 81. Narkavimca Nampi AkapporuJ Vijakkam.. 82. Nilaka.Qta Castiri, K. A., [1] Foreign Notices of South India, Madras University Historical Series 14, Madras, 1939. [2] The Colas, Vols. I, II & ill, Uni versity of Madras, Madras, 1935. [3] History of South India, Oxford University Press, Madras, 1955. [4l The Pandya Kingdom, Luzac & · Co., London, 1929. 83. Nobill, Robert De, [1] Nanopateca Kfu.).1;am. [2] Mantirama.Iai, etc. 84. Ottakkiittar, [1] Miivar Ula, Dr. U. V. Cami nataiyar [Ed.] Adyar Library Series, Madras, 1946.. [2] Kulottmikan Pil!ai-t-tamil. [3] Ta.ka kyak ppara:Q.i; 2nd Edn., Dr. U.. V. Caminataiyar [Ed.], Madras; 1945. 85. Pa:gtarattar, T. V. S., [1] The History of the Later Colas, Vols.. I & II (Tamil) , 3rd Edn., Annamalai University, AI).Q:ar malainagar, 1958. [2] Pfu}.t,iyar Varal3.ru, Kumpako:Q.am, 1940. [3] A History of ·Tamil Literature-e [13, 14, 15 centuries] (Tamil) 1st Edn., Annamalai University, Al)l}.a malainagar, 1955.. 86. Paraiicoti MWJ.ivar, Tiruvijaiyatal Purfu:}.am. Parati Nillka.J: Poetry, Government of 87. Parati Madras, Madras, 1954.. [C. Cuppirama:Q.iya Para · tiyar] Tiruva,Uuvar, 2nd Edn., Maturai-t ss. Parati, S. s. Tami!-c-Calikam, Maturai, 1934. [1] Paratitacan Kavitaika}, Vol. I, 8th 89. Paratitacag. Edn., Centami! Nilaiyam, Ramac cantirapuram, 1952. [2] Ira:Q.iyan allatu 11J.aiyarravirau .. Edn., T.Sl..S.S.W.P.. Society 8th 90. Patinenkil-k-kanakku . . Madras, 1947.. IJamurukan [Ed.], Tiruppau.antaJ. Keci 91. Patm.oram Tirumurai Mutt, Tiruppa{lanta;J, 1950. -
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HISTORY OF TAMIL :LITERATURE
92. PattinattaJ . .
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Pattmattar Pa� 5th Edn., Ra.D.kacami Mutaliyar & Sons, Madras 1940. Nanniil [21st Edn.], (Pub.) Arumuka . navalar, Madras [1955]. Viyakkiy.8:g.am, Irupattunruayira-p-pati. Co., & �ppirapantam, Murray Madras, 1957. [1] Kamalatci. [2] Civakumarau, etc. [1] Tirukkural [Tr.], T.S.I.S.S.W.P. Society, Madras, 1958. [2] Tiruvacakam [Tr.]. T.S.I.S.S.W.P. Taiicaiv.fu.la.u. Kovai, Society, Madras. Na}ave.I.lpa, Murray & Co., Madras, 1959. Viracoliyam with Peruntevanar's ComKalakam Pavanantar mentary, Series 3, Madras, 1942. [1] Putumai-p-pitta:g. Katturaika}, 2nd Edn., Star Publications, Madras, 1956. [2] Kaiicanai, 2nd Edn., Kalaimakal Kariyalayam, Madras, 1955. Maturai-t-tamil-c[ 11 Peruntokai, cailkam series 62, Maturai, 1935. [2] Alvarka} Kruanilai, I Part Pala niappa BrotheTs, TiruccirappatJi. caritam, [3] cacau.a-t-tamil-k-kavi Madras, 1937.. [ 1] Rajajiy� Cirukataikal. [2] RajajiyiJJ Kuttikkataikal. Paficum Paciyum. Aintu Tirumuraikal, Camaraca C� markka Cazikam, Madras, 1932. Ramaccantira:g. Cettiyar [Ed.] Gov ernment Oriental Manuscript Lib rary, Madras. Indian Thought and Its Development Ist Edn., Wilco Publishing House, Bombay, 1960. Vols. II Part 3, V & VIII. T. Kat1akacuntaram Pi}.lai, 1st Edn., Kumaracfuni Nayutu Sons, Madras, 1921. ·
93. Pavananti •
94. Periyavaccfu;} Pillai 95. Piijai-p-Peruma} Aiyail kar 96. Ponnucfuni Pillai -
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97. Pope, Dr. G. U.
98. Poyyamoli-p-Pulavar 99.. Pukalenti-p-Pulavar 100. Puttamittirar
101. Ptttumai-p-pittau.
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102. Rakava Aiyankar, M. [Ed.]
103. Rajaji [C. Rajagopalaccari] 104. Rakunatan 105. Ramaliilkar -
106. Ramappaiya:g. Ammanai 107. Schweitzer, Albert
108. South India Inscriptions, 109. Tamil ·Navalar Caritai [Ed.] -
1�0. T�tapa¢ CuvamikaJ
111. T2Q1avaraya Cuvamikal 112. Tanti • • •
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113. Tattuvarayar 114. Tayumanavar 115. Tirukiitaracappa-k Kavirayar. 116�
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Pulavar Pural_lam,. 3rd Edn., T. M. PiJlai [Ed.J, Centilnayakam Madras, 1931. Kaivalya Navanitam, 6th Edn., Ko.cita. Mutt, Citamparam, 1941. Tai].ti Alailk·aram, 2nd Edn., 1943. T.S.I.S.S.W.P. Society, Pub. No. 215, Madras. .. Ata . ...... Murai. . nkan . . .. ·- Kocita Mutt, Citambaram [S.I.] .. Tayum�ava · A�ika:J. Tiruppatalkal, 3rd Edn., T.S.I.S.S.W.P.. Society, Madras. [1] Tiru.kkunalanatar Ula. [2] Tirukkun;.a.Ia-k-ku!:avafici. [3] Tirukku,rraia fital.. [4] Tirnkkttr!ala-t-talapti.r.a:t]am, Kurr.alanata cuvami Tevastauam, Courtalam, 1955. Tirumantiram. Tirukkural Urai-k-kottu, 3rd EdD. Kaci Mutt, Tiruppaganta}, 1960 [1] Valkkai-k-kurippukaJ. [2] Tirumal AruJ Vettal. [3] :Kixistuviu. AruJ Vettal, 2nd Edn., Catu Press, Madras, 1938, 1949 Vols. I, II, ill & IV. 1st Ec 1., :rviurray & Co., Madras, 1956. CilJiunal)i, Vols. I & II, 1st Edn., Dr.. U V Cfuninataiyar, Library, Mad ras, 1954. Tolk.appiyam, 2nd Edn., T.S.I.S.S.W.P Society, Madras, 1954. [1] CaD.kakitla-c-Cirappu-p-Peyarkal, Pari Nilaiyam, Madras, 1960.. [2] The religion and philosophy of Tev�am, Book I & ll, Madras University Tamil Department Pub lication Series No. 21} Madras, 1959. [1] Dakkiya Ma.t_litnalai, 1st Edn., Tam.il-p-puttakaJ.ayam, Madras, 1954. [2] Tamil-c-cutar Mal).ika}, 2nd Edn., Pari Nilaiyam, Madras, 1952.. [3] Ed. Purattira«u. .
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A IDSTORY- · OF TAMIL J:;lTERAT�E
125. Vakica· Munivar
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Na�, . :� · .: . . Akan�iiru, Vol. I, 1st Edn., 1943, . :_� ·.:. ·_ N. - M;; _ -. . · :Yol. 2, 1st Edn., 1946, Vol. 3, ·tst · :. < -: � - - · · - : : _ � ; · Edn., 1948. . Pub. V P... . P .-. M. K. .: - -- · . �-.· .:.. _ - . · .- . Y_icuvana�cettiyar, Pakaneri. Civaka Cintama:Qi-c-Corpolivu malar, -13_ 2. Ve�nil�opai, M. V., . · . Jama-t-tamil Dakkiya Mawam, . . . ... . . . -- . . . _. . · Kancipuram .. �· .- . 133. Vetanta Tecikar, .:·: �.:�·�:-·.:. Te. cika-p-pirapantam, R.: ·. Raiikac. ami ·_ :. . · . · A.IYatikar · B.A., B.L., . Tan] ore,· · _; �.:.:.-·< : --:-·� -� . � �. . .· , . 1944.. .' - .. . .. Villipiratalll, Kri�amaccari [Ed.]� 134. Villi-p-p�ttiirar,. . .. Madras. Villiparatam, Cuppira . . �al)iya Kavirayar [Ed.], Madras. 135.. ��e�ler,: :.. . Ancient India, Vol II, 1946 . . .. . . . -· ·. .. _.
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INDEX A
Accuta, 51 Agastya Bha�, 158, 159 Ahalya, 113 ahimsa, 51, 93 Aimperuilkappiyam, 99 Aiiikll!"Ulii l ru, 18 Aintil).ai, 107 AintU;tai aimpatu, 60 Aintil_lai elupatu, 60 Aiyatikal klatavar kott, 133, 134 Ajamukhi, 113 Akalikai vel).pa, 158 Aka! vilakku, 183 akam, 17, 18, 19, 24, 27, 29, 35, 53, 54, 59, 80, 81, 128, 129, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144. Akanfu]U!U, 19 Akappey-c-cittar, 164 aka-p-puram, 140 akaval, 17, 47, 65, 83, 162 Akilan, 184 Alai ocai, 182 Ala. Vaijiyappa, 189 Alliyaracfu.ll malai, 170 Alukut:rlc-c-cittar, 164 Amitacakarar, 12 Ammanai, 170 Aniti nQta,kam, 169, 171 Ann.a turai' 185 . . A:iifiavatai-p-para.I).i, 152 anpu, 55, 57, 64 Antaka-k-kavi Virarakavamutaliyar, 120 Antati, 128, 129, 134 Anuradhapura, 51 appalum ati carntar, 71 Appar, 12, 65, 66, 71, 72, 74, 79, 90, 130 A. 26
Arabic, 161 aram, 52, 53, 62, 63, 64, 109 Arappal.icura Catakam, 129 A.rav� atikal, 43, 46 A.rputa-t-tiruvantati, 66 artha, 53, 54 artha ·sastra, 58, 59, 85 arul, 57 AruJ nilai Vicakau., 158 A.rut).a.kirinatar, 155, 170 Arunakiri 12 . yar, A.rut).acala Kavi, 171 Asura, 151 Asvakat:lta:D, 97 atailkan mm-ai, 152 Atirava-pkal, 139 Ativrrarfunau., 157 Ativirarama pa;I?.tiy� 161 Atiyam.Qu., 148 atiyau, 70 Atiyarkkunallar, 83 avaiyatakkam, 96 Avirota Untiyar, 162 Aviveka piirl)a kuru katai, 175 Avvaiyar, 6, 107, 186 Ayodhya, 104, 115 Ayurvedic work, 48 A.cara-k-kovai, 61, 62 acarya, 81, 105 A.cu kavi viratt, · 157 agamas, 67 A.jivaka, 61 A.lvat-, 6, 8, 18, 64, 65, 68, 71, 76, 82, 96, 102, 104, 127, 143, 153, 156, 161, 188 At:ltaf., 13, 77, 156 Arru-p-pa1ai, 28 Arumuka navalar, 175, 176, 177 Atitta.o, 130, 131 A.y, 63
202
A IDSTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE B
Badrinath, 153 Balarama, 52, 92 Banaras, 159 · . Bappaswami, 134 BaJa Bharati, 158 Bala Kri!?Qa, . 78 Bengali, 181, 187 . Beschi, 2, 97, 162, 175 Bhagavat Gita, 157 · ' . · .Bhaktas, 72, 78 Bhakti, 2, 70 Bharata, 111, 112 Bhagavata Pum:Q.a, 49, 157 . Bhanukopa, 120 · · ·· .. . Bhasa, 84 : Bible, 10, 175 . · ·· Brahma, 52. · Brahma Siitra, 69 . . · .· · · -· . Brihat Katha; ·· s4 · · · . · . .: : · · ... .<� Buddha, 44, 135 · · · · · . · · Buddhavarma, 50 · 51, Buddhism, ·44, Buddhist, 8, 49, 50, 51, 53, 74 " Bunyan, 162
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128, 130, 151, 163 .·:. Cam.pavariyar,-- 157 · ·
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43, 45, 48, 83, 87, 99, 104, 113, 120, 149, 153, 173 . . ;. . ·--. . · : · cinema, 186 . . . · Ci:Q.u.appii, 127 · ·- , ·. · cmta:mm_u, a, ·sa; s1, 9o, -- 91, 97, 99, 107, 121, 136, - 151, · 162 . ·cintu, 170; 1ss · .:: .: · · -·.: · · ��: . .- :: · -.- · Ci!upaiica miilam, 51, 61,· 12.9 · · Cirupanca kappiyain, 99, ioo · · Ciru-t-tol}.tar, 12 · · Citampara cuvamikitl, · 163, t75 : -�-· ··A ·• · · · · · · Citamparam, - 130 • Cittar, 163, 164, 188 .· .: �--.:. · · · Civakamj� Capatam;�·1s2· '
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Dat;,1Qin, 20, 8�, 97 ·· , ' Dahara 171 Daksa' 120' 150 -· · · · o is · · t, yatf k � Da · . Dammapala, 50 · · · . Dasarath.a, 78, 105, 112 · ·· · � · · .. _t)eccan; 103 :·. - 4 · tie Nobili� - 17 .... · Devaki, 78 . . .-.. · · · : 1 1 Devas, 1 · Dharma, 44, 52 to 54� 62; 95, 109, . . 112 118' 121 . .- . !<-:· . · ·' . Dharmapuram�- .�159- -� · Dinnaga, 45� · 50 : · 9 -� . · Drami�acaria,-- 6 - · Dripata, 171 . .· .. Dutch, 171 . . . �. ·. . - · · E :,. . ·
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204
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
iyaipu, 83 lyer V. V. S., 184 J
Jaffna, 120 Jain, 8, 35, 44, 47' 51, 53, 61, 74, 83, 90, 101, 130, 153, 174
Jainism, 50, 51, 63, 65, 73, 95, 121 Jau.�a, 110
Japan, 50 Jayantan, 91 Jesus, 162 Joseph St., 162 K
Kapilar, 30, 33, 52, 61 Kabir, 106 Kacciyappa Civaccariyfu', 119 Kacciyappar, 11, 167 Kaikeyi, 116 Kallas, 11, 142 Kai-n-nilai, 60 Kaivalya Navanitam, 162 Kaivalya Sri, 94 Kalabhara, 50 Kalampakam, 128, 134, 135, 152, 153, 154
Kalava!i, 147, 149 Ka}avalin9.rpatu, 50, 62 KaJave}vi, 147, 149 kali, 17, 65 Kalmga country, 148, 149, 150 Kalilika-p-paravi, 148 Kalink.attu-p-paral).i, 148, 151 Kali-t-tokai, 17, 22, 38, 143 Kali-t-turai, 91 Kalki, 182 Kallatam, 128 Kallatar, 134, 135 Kalumalam, 62 Kamalfunpa} carittiram, 181 Kampada, 103 Kampadaramaya:Q.a, 103 Kampau, 11, 102-U9
Kamparfunaya1:,1am, 3,
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Kam.panatakam, 106 Kampavarmau, 103 Kannada, 121, 122 Kannasa, 157
Kantapur�,
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119, p. 121,
Ka.t.Umetaviyar, 51, 61 K�aki, 34, 44, 46 Ka:I}:Q.amma, 164 Kmp;.lappar, 135 KalJ.I.lutmya Va!lalar, 163 Kantiyar, 3 karma, 101 Kan;ta, 124 karw.;ta, 75 K�akara-t-to:Q.taimfu]., 148 karu-p-poru}, 25 Karuviir-t-tevar, 131 Katar� Ve;rri, 186 Katha Sarit Sagara, 84 Kattapommau., 169, 170, 186 katta!ai-k-kali-t-tuEai, 65, 66, 73, 129
Kat{;iyailkara:Q., 92, 94, 95 Kausalya, 105 Kautflya, 48, 85 Kavima.I).i, 189, 190 Kavunti, 45, 46, 104 Kaci-k-k.fu;ttam, 157 Kalamekam, 12, 155 Kal�pam, 171, 172, 177 K�i, 66, 106, 147, 149, 150, 151 Kalidasa, 97, 140 �a, 53, 54, 62-64 Kamimdak.a, 48 Kamasastra, 54, 141 Kamasiitra, 48, 49, 54 Kan, cayapu Ca.I)tai, 169 Ka:iici-p-pur3.Qam, 167 Kapalikas, 65 Karaikka.I Ammaiyar, 66, 68, 133, 147
Karl .Ac3:g, 51, 61 Karnan>atu, 59
205
INDEX Karo�am, 65 . ., ·� . Klarvetti, 91 , Katuvetti, 91 -Kattavaraya_u, 170 Kiveri, 71 Kaviri-p-pumpa"tth.J.am, 44, 51 Khan Sahib, 169 Kiru�a PiP.-ai, 144, 162 . Kil-k-kal)akkU, 127 . . Kirttauai, 170-172 . . ·. ·. · Konku, 36, 83, 131. _ · -.· \. Koilku vel, 83, 87 · . -� �� . ., · · i{oppam, 148 .. Kocceilk�, 62 . . . I<.opalakri�a Pi!lai, · 172 Kovai, 130, 137, 13�, 140 Kovala:o, 30-42, 46, 104, 170 Kr�a, 77, 78, 92, - 97, 145, 146 · Kri�a devaraya, 155, 174 Kri�:Q.a Misra, 152 K!?atrya Cftlamal}.i, 121 • . : Kulacekarar, 78, 105 . Kulottuilkau. fi:l; 102, . 138, . 143, {' � . 146, 148, 149 . ..
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Mahatma Gandhi, 95, 115, 157 Mahav.ira, 91, 107, 135 Maha Vradin, 65 Mahendra Varma I, 49, 76 . Mahitevau, 181 . Malay.alam, 157 Ma:I}.av:a}amamu:g.i, 179 �.· Mal)�otari, 113, 120 . : · Mm:U�k-koti, 84 M�ekalai, 7, 34, 4a'746, 49, 51, 60, 83, 87, 99, 135 • a:Qi-p-prav.a:Ja, 173, 174 Manmata, 77 Ma:ookara, 86 Mano]Jm.a'Qiyam, 185 Ma:J).tala Purutar, 12, . 174 Mantra, 67, 73, 93 Mau.u, 48 Ma:g.unitik�1a CBlaQ,· . 176 Mauusmrti, 6 Maraimalai . atikal� t76, 181 maram, 109, 135, 136 Marathi, 169, . 1�1 . marutam, 18, 24, . �7, .?9, ��' 54, .
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Kumara cuvamiyam, 121- - · . < Kumarakuruparar, .146, : 154 . Kumareca catakam, 129 · Kumbhakan).a, 118;· 120 . .. kummi, 170 Kumutavalli, 181 Kutampai-c-cittar; ·164 KUQ.aDkuti mastfuJ., 164 K�takUJ}.taccarya; 47 . KUQtalakeci, 45, 99; -100, 151 Kutavali-c-cittar. '· 164 . . Kutti.-.t-tiruvacakam; 161· , Kuram, 135, 167 . · Kuravafici, 135, 167, 171,· 172 -� . .· . . . kurinci, 18, 24, 27, . 29 Ktlliiici-p-patpl, 30, - 33 . � . .- . Kuruntokai, 19 · · . . .. -.· -, Kuyil pattu, 188 . . · ·. : - .. · � . � KfiJappa Nayakka:g. katal, ·157 -.: KU.rtna pur.fu}.am, 157 . Kii�al Ca.Dkamam, 148 . , . .. Kiitta:g.iirappag, 155
..
158, 159, 170
·
_
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Macbeth, 92 Maccapur.at}.am, 156 Magata, 85 Mah:apur�a, 121 . Mahabali, so, 81 Mahabbirata, 6, 7, 49, 53, 124,
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108
. Matal, 143 . Mat�a Maiic�ai, 86 · Maturai, 35, 36, 5�, 168 ...
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206
A IDSTORY OF TAMIL LITERATURE
Maturakavi, 81 Maturai-k-kanci, 28 Maturai Vrr� 170 Maurya, 85 Mayavaram, 159 Mayilainatar, 99 Ma-k-kayau.ar, 51 MaiJ.a.u.ikai, ss, ss lVI�avacakar, 77, 81, 130s 134, 138 Mfuikutimarutau., 19, 28
Maravarman Kulacekar�, 139 Marimuttu P.Q.lai, 169 M.ariyappa PilJai, 171 Maryam_mau, 41, 42, 170 152, Tiruv:elikatanatar, Matai 156
Matalau, 45, 46 Matari, 40, 34-43, 46 Matavaiya, 181 Me:p tol).�ar, 123 Mey k�tfu', 165 Mey-k-kirtti, 127 Mey-ii-fiaua-p-pulampal, 169 Mel ka:IJ.akku, 121 M""maksi . ' 146 M"m�icuntaram Pi.Uai, 154, 157, 160, 167
Monologue, 30, 53 Montesquien, 183 Mother Mary, 154 Mohavataipparal).i, 152 Mok�a, 53, 54 Mohammed, the Great Prophet, 161
Mukkitar i Pa.Uu, 168 mullai, 18, 24, 27, 29 Mullai-p-pattu, 29
Murnma:t).i-k-kovai, 134 Muururai, 61 Munlk�, 133, 138, 146 �uslhn, 147, 154, 161, 168 Mutar Porul, 25 Muttaraiyar, 52 Muttu-t-t�tavarayar, 171 M\ltumoli-k-kafici7 47� 61
Miitaciriyar, 52 Miitta tiru-p-patikarn, 66 Mysore, 90 N NacciQ.arJtk®yar, 4, 91, 174 Na�da, 157 Naitatam, 157 Nakkirar, 6, 30, 33, 123, 133-135 NalaJJ, 158 . Nallatanar, 52, 61 Nammalvar, so, 81, 105, 173 NampiUai, 173 Nampiyfu:ltfu nampi, 122, 130, 131, 134, 138, 154
Nau.niil, 99 Nantau.ar, 172 Nanti-k-kalampakam, 153, 154 Nantivatma:g. TII, 77, 153, 158 Narasimha Varma, 77, 120 Naravfu:lau, 84 Nariviruttam, 90, 91 NarriJ:tai, 19 Natar.aja, 79, 139 Nitkakumara kaviyam, 100, 101 Nalatiyfu-, 2, 52, 61 Nalayiram, 81, 103, 106 Niunacailkirtta:Q.am, 134 :Nau.amirtam, 162 &au-a rna, 142 Nit:lma.t:li-k-katikai, 61, 136 Nfu:un81Jimalai, 134 Natamuu.i, 81 Nayau.mar, 8, 18, 64-82, 96, 102, 121, 122, 124, 127' 136, 153, 161
Neficil Oru mu1, 183 Netum:8:ra1J, 77 Netunalvatai, 29 neytal, 18, 24, 27, 29, 77 Nirampa-v-alakiya Tecikar, 167 Nilakeci, 99, 100, 151 Nilakeci-t-tirattu, 100 Nol).ti-c-cintu, 169 Nol).ti natakam, 169 \
Novel, 180-184
INDEX 0 Odyssey, 97 Olivil otukkam, 163 Oratory, 177-180 Orupa Orupaktu, 128, 134
otta-k-kfi.ttar, 6, 9, 12, 120, 124, 143, 146, 150, 151
oxymoron, 2, 178 p Padmakomala, 120. Pali, . 50, 51 PalamoU, 61 Pallava, 34, 49, 50, 74, 133, 134, 138, 148
pallavi, 171 PaUu, 135, 168 Pa:iicakavya, 99 Pa:ficaratti:u.am, 130 Paiicatantiram, 175 Pandya, 34, 36 38, 41, 129, 137, 138, 156
Pandya Netumaral]., 137 Parable of the Prodigal Son, 79 Paramesvara Pallava, 134 Para:ficoti, 167 Parat)ar, 133, 134 Par�, 62, 147, 148, 151, 152 Parasurfuna, 111 Parimelalakar, 179 Paripatal, 3, 17, 22, 38, 47, so, 63 Patikam, 18, 66, 128, 134 Pat�et:tkilkka:r:takku, 47, 64, 127 Patirru-p-pattu, 12, 17, 18 Patumavati, 86, 88, 89 Patmavati Carittiram, 181 Pattar, 157 Pattiua-p-palai, 29 Patt.IJattar, 69, 134, 135, 136, 163, 169
Pattil].i, 41, 43 Pattirakiriy.ar.. 163 P�ttunnattn . 17, 20, 22, 27, 28, 2�, 38, 127, 133
207 Payapati, 98 Pava!a-k-koti, 170 P�ti-k-kovai, 137 Pacavatai-p-par�, 152 palai, 18, 24, 27, 29 P.a}ayakkarar, 156 Fampa:g. Cuvfnnikal, 120 Paratam, 171 Parati, (Bharathi) , 187, 190 Paratitacau. (Bharatidasan), 188, 190 p.asupatas, 65 Patutu.rai, 152 P.avalar, T.K.., 186 P.avaivijakku, 184 Periyapurfu_lam, 3, 9, 121, 122, 124, 131, 171, 176
Periy.a}var, 71, 77, 78, 104, 145, 146 Peruilkatai, 83, 93, 100 Peruilkappiyam, 100 Perump�ppatai, 107 Peruntevaoar, 158 Peruntevanar Paratam, 173 P.eraciriyar, 179 Pey, 66 Peyar, SF Pilgrim's Progress, 162 Pillai-p-Perumal Aiyailkar, 161 PWai-t-tamil, 144, 146, 147 Pillai-t-tiru.naman .. ' 144 PilJai-k-kavi, 144 Piracali.ki, 159 Pirakatt�, 33 Pramakitai, 157 Piramottirakfu}tam, 157 Pirapota cantirotayam, 156 Piraputatevamarayan, 155 Piratapa mutaliy.5r carittiram, 180 Poetic Prose, 39 Poetry, 187, 191 Polygars, 95 Pommalattam, 136 Pou.trlyiu. Celvau, 182 Powucami PU.lai, 181 Pope, 2, 47, 81, 97
208
A HISTORY OF TAMIL LrrERATURE
Poykaiya}var, 68 Poykaiyar, 62 Poyyamoli, 90 Poyyainoll-p-pttiavar, 138 Pont}., 53, 55, 58 Portuguese, 162 Prabandha, 142 Prabhoda candrodaya 152 Prahlada, 190 Prakrit, 84 Prasada, 166 Prasisti, 127, 148 Prataparudra, 102 Prativasudeva, 91, 92, 97 pre-marital love, 33, 60, 63 Prose, 9, 173, 187 Protestant, 175 Pukalenti, 188 Puk:ar, 34, 104 Pulantirau. kalavu, 170 Pulavar Pur.fu:lam, 10 Puijimarau, Poraiyau., 60 puram, 17, 24, 27, 29, 52, 62, 103, 127, 149, 144
Puranfu].uru, 17, 24 pur�a, 90, 96, 122, 123, 131, 137, 161, 166, 170, 181
puxataoap�aru, 121 Pura-t-tiranu, 103 Puriirava v�pa, 158 Putumai-p-pittan, 184, 190 Puttamittirar, 12 Piitan, 68 Piitaficentanar, 52 R
Raga:Ja, 122 Rakunatau., 185 Railkanata Mutaliy.ar, 154 Rajaji, 185 Rajam Aiyar, 181 Rajaraja I, 33, 131 Rajaraja II, 121, 143 Rajarajeccura natakam, 3 Rajasimha, 65, 77
Rajendra I, 102, 103 Rama, 78, 92, 104, 105, 109, 113, 120
Ramakri�a, 164, 190 Ramaliilkar, 163, 164, 166, 172, 176
Ramana�aka-k-K?rttauaikaJ, 171 Ramanatapuram, 168 Ramappayyar P.umcrnanai, 170 Ramarajya, 107, 112 R amananda, 106 Ramanuja, 81, 105 Etaxnavatarai.n, 119 Ramayal)am, 8, 78, 104, 115, 171
Raval).a, 92, 104, 106, 109, 113 Reynolds, 181 s
saiva Ellappa Navalar, 161 saiva Siddhanta, 123, 175 Saivlsm, 72, 81, 102, 160, 161 Saivite, 65-69, 120, 121, 128, 130, 131, 153
saka yeal"' 120 Salem, 83 Sailkara, 157 sa:rikara Vedanta, 162 Sagmarga, 165 Sanskrit, 2, 49, 51, 124, 141, 150, 155, 158, 163, 173, 174
Satyavak, 90 Satyagraha, 115 sak�in, 46
salivahana, 84 Schweitzer, 56 Shakespeare, 185 Sheridan, 185 Short Story, 184, 185 Siddha, 66, 70, 142 Silpa Sastras, 139 Simhamukha, 120 sisup[la, 92 siva, 52, 67, 69, 75, 103, 117, 119, 131, 133, 137, 142, 150
Sivalmga, 68 '
209 Sisapadya, 171 Sita, 104, 105, 106, 113 Skanda puril}.a, 119 Smrtis, 49, 62 soka rasa, 41 South Axco� 15� 168 Sravana Belgola, 90 Sripurfu_lam, 174 Srirangam, 78 Sruti, 108 Subrahmal}.ya, 52, 119, 120, 151 Sugriva, 112 Siirapa.g.ma, 120 SUrp�aka, 113 Siitasamhita, 15'1 Swayamvara, 94 'I'
0
Tacfuikam, 127, 136 Takatfir-yattirai, 148 Takkayakaparai).i, 151 Tami!-c-ceyyat Cintama.I}i, 10 Tamil navalar caritai, 10, 11, 120 Tamil Vyasa, 130 Taficaival}.au, Kovai, 138 T�ai-p-purfu!.am., 167 ta@-p-pattu, 20 Tau.i,-p-pataJ. tirattu, 10 tantras, 67, 151, 164 Tantra Agama, 65 tapas, 44, 57, 98, 109, J-�1, 115 Tasso, 162 Taru, 171 Tattuva-p-pirakacar, 155 Tattuvarayar, 141, 142, 143, 151, 152, 154, l57' �59, �65 tapcai, 15 T&;ltavaraya mutaliyar, �75 Tara, 106, 113 Tar.acuram, 121. Tay, ss Tayumanavar, 71, 163, �66� �69 Telugu Country, l22 Telugu language, 129, 136, 156, 169, 171
TeJ!�eq;inta nampi, 153 TelJ.kalai, 174 Tegkaci, 156 Teciya-k-koti, 186 Teciiikuraccu.Jkatai, J'lO Tempavavi, 1�2 Tevaram, a, 8, 12, 65, 67, 73, 82, 103, 122, 125, 13(), 131, 163 Thackery, 181 Thailand, 77, 102, 153 Thomas, Saint� 47 Tii_laima.laia nUr;r impatu, 51, 60 T4laimoll aimpatu, 60 Tirikatukam, 61, 130 Tirikiita,racappa-k-kavir.ayar, 60, 168 Tiritniirti, 49 Tiruccatakam, 129 Tiruccentiir, 171 Tiru-k-kalampakam, 153 Tiru-k-ka]ircru-p-pa�iyar, 123 Tiru-k-kayilaya � 142 Tiru-k-kuruvai-p-patirr-ppattantati, 161 Tiru-k-kavaliir kalampakam, 154 Tiru-k-kott;iyiir, 145 Tiru-k-kovaiyar, 130, 138 Tiru-k-kural, 2, 18, 45, 47, 48, 52, 59, 153 Tirukkurralam, 160 Tiru-k-kurippu-t-to�ta n.ay�ar purfu).am, 99 Tiru-k-kuruntokai, 66 Tirumalai Nayakkar, 156 Tirumalairayatt, 1ss Tirumalicai A.lvar, 69 Tirumailkai-y-alvir, 79, 105, 12s, 143 Tirumantiram, 65, 131 Tirumurukan;uppatai, 133 Tirumurai, 130, 131-133 TirumUlar, 65, 66, 67, 73, 76, 131, 160, 163 Tirunama-t-tokai, 134 tirunericai, 73
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210
A HISTORY oF TAMIL LITERATuitE!
Tinmilaka1}.1,a yal-p-pfu;lar, 74 Tiruppa,u.anta.J, 160 Tiruppati, 78 Tiru-p-�aJvar, 79 Tiru-p-pukal,. 171 Tiruttakkatevar, 90 Tiru-t-tfu).takam, 73 Tiru-t-tol).taz" tiruvantati, 122 TiruvaUuvar, 47, 48, 49, . 52-59, 76, 124 Tbnl-v-arutpayaxh 162 Tiruvattiyur, 151 . Tiruvacakam, 2, 3, 88, 129, 130, 138 Tiruvilankatu, 66 Tiruvala.D.kattu-t-tiru-p-patikam, 66 Tiruvavatuturai, 160 Tiruvayiu. muP.iyar, 61 Tiruvaiyaru, 71 . Tiruve!ukkiirrirukkai, 128, 134 Tiru..vi.ka, 176, 177, 180, 182, 183, 190 Tiruvilai-y-atal pur�, 167 Tiruviraiya-k-kali, 160 Tiruvuntiy.ar, 165 Tivitta:g., 97 Tiyakavinota{l, 102 Tttttailkaras, 91 tokainilai, 20 Tolkappiya.:m, 2, 6, 16, 21, 142, 145, 173, 174 Tolkappiya-t-tevar, 154 Tolstoy, 182 Tom Jones, 181 To�tainatu, 99 toiJ.ta-k-kulam, 71 toi)tan, 70 ToiJ.�ap-p-po�, 78 Tontar pur.fu).am, 121 totarnilai, 20 Tolamoli-t-tevar, 90, 97 tragedy, 40, 41, 62, 185 Tranquebar, 174 Trinity, 52 Tulasidas, lOG .
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Tungapadra, 122 tumpai, 27 Tuppariyum Cimpu1 181 Turvinit8l1-, 83 TUtu, 140, 141 .
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u
Ujjain, 84 UHi, 134, 141-143 Uliii . 27 aJ., Umaru-p-pulavar, 161 Umarkayyam, 190 Umapaticivam, 6, 11, 131, 141, 162 Upanjshad, 110, 163 uri-p-poru.J, 25 Utayal}.m.h 84-86, 143 Utay�an Caritam, 100, 101 Utici Tevar, 153 Uttama Colan., 102 iitaJ., 54 v
Vadibha Simha, 121 Vai�avism, 69, 77, 79, 80, 102, 160, 161 Vai�avites, 79, 81, 128, 151, 153 Vaittiyanata Navalar, 152 Vakkapakai, 155 vakuppu, 170 Va.Jaiyapati, 99 Vallabhaciirya, 78 Val-li, 120 Valvil, 88 Vaiici, 17, 62. vafi.ci, 27 (puratturai) V�a Pur8I).am, 99 Val}to:Q.tar, 123 VarakUJ.la, 138 VarapatiyatJtol}.�, 155 Varataraca Aiyailkar, 157 Varataracau, 182 Varatunk�, 157 v�akulatitta:g. matal, 157 �.rasi�tha, 109
• . · .
INDEX · Vatakku-t�tiruviti-p-pi!lai, 173 Vatamalaiyappa-p-pi!!ai, · 156 . Vacavatattai, 85, 86, 88, 89, 143 vakai, 27, 29
.Valaka Kokilam, 155 Vall · 114 . '
Valm�, s, 10s, 113
Vfu}.cm, 138, 139
va. Ra, 184
·
Vasudevas, 91, 92, 97 Veda, 60, 128 -· .vep:r, 84
Ve}!akkal Cuppiramai}.iya, Muta .
ua.r,· 190
.
VeWyampe:Javil).ar, 3
vei).pa, 47, 48, 65, 66, 67, 68, 104, 129, 157' 158, 163 v6J.pa antati, 69 Venrimilai-k-kavirayar, . 171 vei).tulai, · 47 vetci, . 27 . Vetanayaka Citttiriyar, 172 vetanayagam PiUai, 1so ·vetanta Tecikar, 79, 152, 174 Vib�a.IJ.a, 112 Vicayai, 92 Vicayamankalam, 84 :�· ·vidyadhara, 86, 97 · Vijayalaya, 50 . Vijayanakar; 129, 136, 155, 170 ;_. Vikkirama Cola, 143, 150 Vijampmakanar, 61 � Vlllipputtiirar, 155, 158, 159 Vinayaka, 52 ·
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Vinotaracamafi.cari, 10, 176
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Viraco!iyam, 91, 103 Virali vitu tiitu 141 156 . · Vira Saivism, 122 v-n-a Saivite, 122, 145 · · · viruttam, 65, 66, 90, 91, 96, 97, 103, 129, 157, 158, 171 Vi.Si�atvaita, 81 Vi�u, 52, 59, . 69, 104 Visvamitra, UO, 114 Vivekau.antar, 165 v-rrabhadra, 150 VU"abhahu, 120 Viracami-c-cettiyar, 176 -
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viraraca, 41
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VVar and Peace, 182
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Yacotarakaviyam, 100 Yaukantarayat}.a, 85
yal, 35, 74
Yamunachirya, 81 Yappartnikala-k-k:arikai, 50 Yappartnikalam, 99 Yoga, 67, 164
Yiiki, 85, 88
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Ziegen balg, 174 Zulfikon Kh� 168.
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