Historical Dictionary of U.S. Diplomacy from the Civil War to World War I (Historical Dictionaries of U.S. Diplomacy)

Historical Dictionary of U.S. Diplomacy from the Civil War to World War I Kenneth J. Blume The Scarecrow Press HISTO...

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Historical Dictionary of U.S. Diplomacy from the Civil War to World War I

Kenneth J. Blume

The Scarecrow Press

HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF U.S. DIPLOMACY Edited by Jon Woronoff 1. U S . Diplomacy from the Civil War to World War I, by Kenneth J. Blume. 2005. 2. United States-China Relation, by Robert Sutter, 2006.

Historical Dictionary of U.S. Diplomacy from the Civil War to World War I

Kenneth J. Blume

Historical Dictionaries of US. Diplomacy, No. 1

The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland Toronto Oxford 2005

SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 ~~~.scarecrowpress.com PO Box 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright O 2005 by Kenneth J. Blume

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Blume, Kenneth J., 1948Historical dictionary of U S . diplomacy from the Civil War to World War I / Kenneth J. Blume. p. cm. -- (Historical dictionaries of U.S. diplomacy ; no. 1) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8108-5377-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. United States--Foreign relations--1865-192 1--Dictionaries. I. Title. 11. Series.

Q m n e paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO 239.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America.

Contents Editor's Foreword Jon Woronoff Acknowledgments Acronyms and Abbreviations Chronology Introduction The Dictionary Appendixes A U.S. Presidents, 1861-1914 B U.S. Secretaries of State, 1861-1914 C U.S. Secretaries of War, 1861-1914 D U.S. Secretaries of the Navy, 1861-1914 E U.S. Diplomatic Corps, 1861-1914 Bibliography About the Author

vii ix xi xiii 1

Editor's Foreword This first volume in the new series of historical dictionaries of American diplomacy, as it happens, is actually the second in the assigned time sequence. It forms a link between the first, when the United States was still growing and much more concerned with domestic than foreign affairs, although never completely oblivious to the latter, and this book, which covers about half a century between the start of the Civil War and the start of the Great War, after which the United States rose to be the biggest and most influential player bar none. It is thus a transitional period, but one marked by significant events, among them wars and other conflicts, acquisitions of foreign territories (although not called colonies), and economic expansion as well. While the time may seem a bit remote-and almost sedate--compared to today's hectic pace, America was already becoming the policeman of the world, presenting itself as a model and decrying lesser nations, and also getting into a number of imbroglios that it might better have kept out of. So much for the conventional notion that this was a time of "isolation." While the primary task of this volume, and the others, is to provide a broad array of facts and figures and brief descriptions of the more significant persons, places, and events, among other things, it obviously goes much further. It gives us a feel for this vii

viii EDITOR'S FOREWORD

not really so remote time, when news was initially carried by steamer and then telegraph, and played up by the newspapers, rather than bounced around by the mass media and covered ad nauseam by 24-hour TV. Although the pace may be slower, the changes were momentous, and they are outlined in an insightful introduction and followed real time in the chronology. The dictionary provides much of the information readers will want, neatly broken down by discrete subjects often cross-referenced to one another. The appendixes are also helpful. Since no such reference work can go into enough detail for the serious reader, the broader literature is presented in an extensive bibliography. This Historical Dictionary of US. Diplomacy from the Civil War to World War I was written by a historian very familiar with the field. Dr. Kenneth J. Blume is professor of history at Albany College of Pharmacy, where he has been teaching for some 16 years. He has given courses and lectures on the broad range of American and Western history, but with some preference for diplomatic history and the period covered by this book. His research focuses on the navy, shipping, and U.S.-Caribbean relations as do his publications. Aside from this, Dr. Blume was director of the Writing Center, a useful attribute for someone who is producing a form of encyclopedia and wants it to be accessible to more than just other academics. So let us take advantage of this first easy-to-use volume while awaiting the others. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

Acknowledgments This volume is both a personal and a cooperative undertaking. It is cooperative in that many individuals have assisted me as I wrote and prepared the manuscript. I owe heartfelt expressions of thanks to all the librarians at Albany College of Pharmacy's Lewis Library; and to the many student workers my department has employed over the past few years; and to Dorothy Cannon, my administrative assistant, who labored valiantly to get the manuscript into shape. Nevertheless, these good helpers are not to be held accountable for any of the volume's quirks or errorswhich are solely my responsibility. I have drawn on several decades of reading, thinking, teaching, and writing about America's approach to the world from 1861 to 1914 and have attempted to keep in mind the range of readers who might wish to consult the pages that have resulted.

Acronyms and Abbreviations AEF AME AP APA

American Expeditionary Force African Methodist Episcopal Church Associated Press American Protective Association

CS CSN

Confederate States Confederate States Navy

CSS GOP HMS IMM

NAM SS UP

Confederate States Ship Grand Old Party (Republican Party) Her Majesty's Ship International Mercantile Marine Company International Workers of the World National Association for the Advancement of Colored People National Association of Manufacturers Steamship (commercial) United Press

USN USS

United States United States Navy United States Ship (naval)

IWW NAACP

us

Chronology 1861 1 January 8 February 18 February 4 March 12 April 19 April 27 April

13 May 17 July 8 November

Benito Juarez captures Mexico City Confederate States of America is formed Victor Emmanuel of Savoy becomes king of Italy Abraham Lincoln inaugurated as president of United States United States Civil War begins at Fort Sumter, South Carolina Lincoln declares blockade of all southern ports from South Carolina to Texas Lincoln extends blockade to include coast of Virginia and North Carolina; Secretary of Navy Gideon Welles orders capture of Confederate privateers on the high seas Great Britain issues a proclamation of neutrality and recognizes the Confederacy as having belligerent rights Mexico suspends payment on its foreign loans Trent Affair: Charles Wilkes, USN, stops British mail steamer Trent and removes two Confederate emissaries

...

Xlll

xiv CHRONOLOGY

1862 9 March 22 March

5 May

1863 1 January 1-3 July 5 July

5 September 1864 19 June

22 August 1 September 1865 4 March

9 April 14 April 15 April

1866 14 June 10 July

27 July

Battle between USS Monitor and CSS Virginia CSS Florida, first ship built in England for the Confederacy, sails from Liverpool for Nassau Battle of Puebla: Mexican general Ignacio Zaragoza defeats the French army (Cinco de Mayo) Emancipation Proclamation Battle of Gettysburg Charles Francis Adams protests the building of ironclads and outfitting of blockade runners in Britain Laird Ram Crisis Battle between USS Kearsarge and CSS Alabama International Red Cross founded in Geneva Charlottetown Conference convenes to discuss Canadian confederation Abraham Lincoln inaugurated for second term as president of the United States General Robert E Lee surrenders at Appomattox; Civil War ends President Lincoln shot President Lincoln dies from gunshot wound; Andrew Johnson becomes president of the United States Austro-Prussian War begins Naval battle at Lissa between Austria-Hungary and Italy Atlantic Cable is successfully completed

CHRONOLOGY xv

1867 11 January

3 February 17 February 30 March 1 April 19 June 1 July 28 December 1868 3 January 24 February

16 May

Benito Juarez becomes president of Mexico a second time Shogun of Japan abdicates First ship passes through Suez Canal Secretary of State William H Seward signs agreement for United States purchase of Alaska Singapore becomes a British crown colony Emperor Maxirnilian executed Dominion of Canada formed (British North America Act) United States claims Midway Island Meiji Restoration (Japan) President Johnson impeached by the House of Representatives President Johnson acquitted by the Senate

1869 14 January 4 March

Johnson-Clarendon Convention Ulysses S Grant inaugurated as president of the United States Completion of first railroad spanning North 10 May America 17 November Suez Canal opens

1870 Franco-Prussian War begins 19 July 4 September Napoleon I11 of France abdicates; Third Republic begins 1871 9 January

28 January 8 May

Rose-Fish Memorandum, basis for Treaty of Washington Franco-Prussian War ends; France surrenders Treaty of Washington with Great Britain

xvi CHRONOLOGY

1872 17 February

Richard W. Meade, USN, signs treaty with Samoa 14 September Alabama claims settled by Geneva Tribunal award

1873 11 February

4 March 3 1 October

1874 13 February

18 March

1875 30 January

Spanish Cortes deposes King Amadeus I, proclaims first Spanish Republic Ulysses S. Grant inaugurated for second term as president of the United States Virginius affair: U. S. schooner Virginius captured by Spanish warship while transporting arms to Cuban insurgents U.S. landing party sent ashore at Honolulu during riots that followed the coronation of the new king Hawaii and the United States sign commercial treaty Reciprocity treaty between Hawaii and the United States

1876 16 May

U.S. marines and sailors land at Matamoros, Mexico, to protect American lives and property 29 November Porfirio Diaz becomes president of Mexico 1877 1 January 5 March

1 June

Queen Victoria is proclaimed empress of India Rutherford B. Hayes inaugurated president of the United States Secretary of War George McCrary sends U.S. troops into Mexico in pursuit of Mexican border bandits

CHRONOLOGY xvii

1878 13 July 1879 5 April

Treaty of Berlin

11 January

War of the Pacific (Chile, Bolivia, and Peru) begins Anglo-Zulu War begins

1880 1 January

French construction of Panama Canal begins

1881 4 March

James A. Garfield inaugurated president of the United States Assassination of Tsar Alexander I1 of Russia 13 March Tunisia becomes French protectorate 12 May President James A. Garfield shot 2 July 19 September President Garfield dies 20 September Chester A. Arthur becomes president 1882 18 April 20 May

22 May 14 July 8 August 1883 16 January 3 March

President Arthur proposes U.S .-Mexican convention to define the border between the two countries Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) Treaty of amity and commerce signed between the United States and Korea (ratified 9 January 1883) U.S. marines and sailors land at Alexandria, Egypt, to restore order and protect American life and property First steel warships authorized by Congress Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act creates the U.S. Civil Service President Arthur signs "Mongrel Tariff," which

xviii CHRONOLOGY

lowers duties but maintains protection

1884 13 March 5 July 1885 18 January

5 February 4 March

1886 28 October 1887 1 January 20 January

Siege of Khartoum, Sudan, begins Germany takes possession of Cameroon U.S. marines land at Colon, Colombia, to guard the railroad and protect American lives and property (other landings on 16 March, 3 1 March, 11 April, and 12 April) King Leopold I1 of Belgium establishes the Congo Free State as a personal possession Grover Cleveland inaugurated as president of the United States Statue of Liberty is dedicated Queen Victoria becomes empress of India Senate approves lease of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, as naval base

1888 13 May 19 June

Brazil abolishes slavery U.S. marines and seamen land at Chemalpo, Korea, to protect American residents 14 November U.S. marines land at Apia, Samoa, to protect American lives and property

1889 11 February 3 March 4 March 15 March

Meiji constitution of Japan adopted Congress appropriates $100,000 for construction of coaling station at Pago Pago, Samoa Benjamin Harrison inaugurated as president of the United States Anglo-German-American dispute over Samoa (to 16 March)

CHRONOLOGY xix

30 July

Marines land at Honolulu to protect Americans during election disturbances 15 November Emperor Pedro I1 of Brazil deposed in military coup, ending the Brazilian Empire

1890 8 February

30 July

18 November 1891 29 January 25 February 2 June

27 August 28 August 16 October 23 November 1892 27 January

1893 17 January

16 January 4 March

U.S. marines and seamen land at Hodogaya, Japan, to assist fire fighters U.S. marines land at Buenos Aires, Argentina, to protect the American consulate First American battleship, USS Maine, is launched Liliuokalani proclaimed queen of Hawaii Manuel Fonseca elected first president of Brazil Marines land on Navassa Island, Haiti, to help maintain order Franco-Russian Alliance (the "Dual Alliance") Marines land at Valparaiso, Chile, to protect American lives and property during unrest Baltimore incident: American sailors from USS Baltimore injured by a mob in Valparaiso, Chile Manuel Fonseca forced to resign as president of Brazil Chile agrees to apologize and pay reparations for the Baltimore incident (see 16 October 1891) American sugar planters overthrow government of Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii Marines land at Honolulu to protect American lives and property Grover Cleveland inaugurated for second term as president of the United States

xx CHRONOLOGY

1894 4 July 24 July 3 1 July

24 October 1895 1 March 4 March

8 March

17 April 27 April 1896 2 May 1897 4 March

24 July 1898 7 February

15 February 22 April

Sanford Dole proclaims the Republic of Hawaii Marines and seamen land at Seoul to protect American lives and property Marines and seamen land at Bluefields, Nicaragua, to protect American lives and property Nicholas I1 succeeds Alexander I11 as Tsar of All the Russians Marines guard U.S. legation at Seoul, Korea Marines and seamen land at Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, to fight fire Marines and seamen land at Cheefoo, China, to protect American lives and property Marines and seamen land at Boca del Toro, Colombia, to protect American lives and property Treaty of Shimonoseki ends Sino-Japanese War British troops seize Corinto, Nicaragua Marines and seamen land at Corinto, Nicaragua, to protect American lives and property William McKinley inaugurated as president of the United States Dingley Tariff Marines and seamen land at San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua, to protect American lives and property USS Maine explodes and sinks in Havana harbor U.S. Navy begins blockade of Cuban ports

CHRONOLOGY xxi

United States declares war on Spain Battle of Manila Bay, Philippines General Emilio Aguinaldo declares Philippine independence from Spain Battle of Santiago. Rear Admiral Cervera's 3 July Spanish fleet is destroyed United States annexes Hawaiian Islands 7 July U.S. invasion of Puerto Rico 25 July United States and Spain agree on terms for 12 August cessation of hostilities 10 December Treaty of Paris ending Spanish-American War 23 December Guam placed under control of Navy Department

25 April 1 May 12 June

1899 17 January 4 February 6 February 14 February

United States takes possession of Wake Island Philippine-American War begins Senate ratifies Treaty of Paris Marines and seamen land at Apia, Samoa, to protect American lives and property Marines and seamen land at Bluefields, 24 February Nicaragua, to protect American lives and property Marines and seamen land in Samoa to attempt to 1 April establish order in a dispute over the Samoan crown Marines land at Havana, Cuba 27 April First Hague Conference begins 18 May 6 September First set of Secretary of State John Hay's Open Door Notes Boer (South African) War begins 11 October 1900 8 January 16 January

President William McKinley places Alaska under military rule Senate accepts 1899 Anglo-Geman treaty in which Britain renounces claims to Samoa

xxii CHRONOLOGY

10 February 3 1 May 17 June

Commodore Seaton Schroeder appointed first naval governor of Samoa Marines and seamen arrive in Beijing, China, joining an international force to resist the Boxers USS Monocacy is fired on by fort at Tong Ku, China

1901 22 January

Edward VII becomes king upon the death of Queen Victoria 2 March Congress passes the Platt Amendment 4 March William McKinley inaugurated for second term as president of the United States 6 September President McKinley shot 14 September President McKinley dies; Theodore Roosevelt becomes president 18 November Hay-Pauncefote Treaty between the United States and Great Britain

1902 16-19 April 8 May 20 May 31 May

1903 22 January 23 February

U.S. marines and seamen land at Boca de Toro, Colombia, to protect American lives and property Mount Pelee in Martinique erupts, destroying town of St Pierre Cuba gains independence from the United States under terms of Platt Amendment Treaty of Vereeniging concludes Boer War

Hay-Herrfin Treaty signed United States leases Guanthamo Bay from Cuba in perpetuity Senate ratifies Hay-Herr& Treaty 14 March 4 November Panama declares independence from Colombia 6 November United States recognizes the government of Panama

CHRONOLOGY xxiii

18 November 1904 8 February 23 February

30 May 6 December

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty signed Japanese attack on Port Arthur begins RussoJapanese War United States gains control of Panama Canal Zone Marines land at Tangiers, Morocco, to guard American consulate Theodore Roosevelt announces the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

1905 1 January

Port Arthur taken by Japanese, Russo-Japanese War 22 January Abortive revolution begins in Russia 4 March Theodore Roosevelt inaugurated as president of the United States 3 1 March Kaiser Wilhelm I1 triggers the First Moroccan Crisis by asserting German equality with France in Morocco 1 April United States and Dominican Republic agree that the United States will direct the Dominican Customs Service Battle of Tsushima (25-27 May), in which the 27 May Japanese fleet destroys the Russian fleet 5 September Treaty of Portsmouth ending the Russo-Japanese War HMS Dreadnought is laid down, triggering a 3 October naval arms race 1906 8 March

Final military action in the Philippine Insurrection San Francisco school board ignites U.S.-Japan 18 April diplomatic crisis by ordering Japanese students to be taught in racially segregated schools 13 September Marines and seamen land at Havana, Cuba

xxiv CHRONOLOGY

9 November President Theodore Roosevelt travels to Panama to inspect canal construction, becoming first sitting U.S. president to travel outside the country 1907 28 April 15 June 25 July 16 December 20 December

U.S. marines land at Laguna, Honduras, to protect Americans during Honduras-Nicaragua war Second Hague Conference begins Korea becomes protectorate of Japan Cruise of the "Great White Fleet" begins Central American Arbitration Treaty establishes a court of justice

1908 18 February

"Gentlemen's Agreement" between the United States and Japan 30 November Root-Takahira Agreement

1909 5 January 16 January 28 January 4 March 6 April

1910 6 May 3 1 May 22 August

1911 10 January 14 December

Colombia recognizes independence of Panama Shackleton expedition to the South Pole U.S. troops leave Cuba William Howard Taft inaugurated as president of the United States Robert Peary reaches the North Pole George V succeeds Edward VII as king of United Kingdom Union of South Africa created Japan annexes Korea United States signs treaty to refinance Honduras debt Roald Amundsen expedition reaches South Pole

CHRONOLOGY xxv

29 December 1912 30 March 15 April 1913 18 February 4 March 1914 6 April 21 April 28 June 15 July 28 July 1 August 3 August 4 August 12 August 15 August

Sun Yat-sen becomes first president of Republic of China (end of Qing Dynasty) France establishes a protectorate over Morocco RMS Titanic sinks in the North Atlantic Victoriano Huerta proclaims himself provisional president of Mexico Woodrow Wilson inaugurated as president of the United States Tampico incident Colombian Reparation Treaty signed (proclaimed 30 March 1922) Marines land at Veracruz, Mexico Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated at Sarajevo, Bosnia, precipitating events that led to World War I Victoriano Huerta resigns and goes into exile Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia Germany declares war on Russia Germany declares war on France Germany invades Belgium; Britain declares war on Germany; United States declares neutrality Japan declares war on Germany Panama Canal opens

Introduction The period encompassed by this volume-with the start of the Civil War and World War I as bookends-has gone by a number of colorful, if perhaps misleading, names: The Imperial Years, America's Rise to World Power, Imperial Democracy, or Prelude to World Power, to give a few examples. A different organizing theme would describe the period as one in which a transformation took place in American foreign relations. But whatever developments or events historians have emphasized, there is general agreement that the period was one in which something changed in the American approach to the world.' An older interpretation of this change plays off a longstanding myth: the myth of American isolation. According to this myth, the United States, following the sage advice of George Washington, avoided "entangling alliances" (actually Thomas Jefferson's phrase) for the first century of American independence, and with its resulting "isolation" from the rest of the world was able to develop its "Republican" institutions and traditions and way of life free of the pernicious toxins of Old World governments and society. But the reality was something different. The United States had been connected to the rest of the worldthrough political, economic, and cultural contacts-from the day the Treaty of Paris of 1783 had been signed.

2 INTRODUCTION

In that sense, then, it is misleading to suggest that, in the late 19th century (or more precisely, in 1898), the United States burst upon the world scene, becoming a world power after a century of isolation from the rest of the globe, much as the Hermit Kingdom of Korea opened itself up to the rest of the world in the late 19th century. It is true, on the other hand, that in the 1890s the United States embarked on its second great period of expansionism. The first period, the 1840s, has been described as the era of "Manifest Destiny," in which a process of "natural growth" brought the United States the future states of California, Oregon, New Mexico, Utah, and Texas. This second period, the 1890s, has been described as the era of "Imperialism," in which, by the forces of destiny and obligation, the United States acquired the territories, not states, of the Philippines, Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico, anddepending on how one casts events-Cuba. It is also true that antebellum American Romanticism, which saw an eagle rising over the North American continent and was prepared to confiont the rest of the world's opposition to continental expansion, returned during the postbellurn era in a different format, using different language, and with different (perhaps expanded) horizons. Whether or not the acquisition of the Philippines during the Spanish-American war was a "great national aberration" (in Samuel Flagg Bemis7sphrase)2 has long been discussed and debated. But the two decades between that event and American entry into World War I saw the emergence of a new world power called the United States.

The Civil War The Civil War (1861-1 865) was the great national crisis of the United States, the event that defined the nation for the next century. In addition, the war amounted to the great challenge in the history of American foreign relations. Potentially, foreign relations and diplomacy might have been the making of the Confederacy or the unmaking of the Union. Potentially, the war might have provided European powers with their final opportunity to divide a bothersome rival, the United States. But through luck,

INTRODUCTION 3

skill, and happenstance, that did not occur. As a result, the nation emerged as a military and economic giant, united and potentially hegemonic. The diplomacy of the Civil War, then, was dominated by Confederate efforts to gain diplomatic recognition and financial support fi-om the European powers and Union efforts to block any such European move. Wartime diplomacy also was marked by crises with Great Britain-historically America's most important diplomatic contact-by challenges to the Monroe Doctrine, and by threats to the American merchant marine. Union successes in foreign relations are largely credited to two individuals: Secretary of State William Henry Seward and Minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams. The strains never produced a transatlantic war, although the legacy-in some instances bitterness and resentment-took several decades to heal. At the same time, the wartime diplomatic experience taught the British that their North American colonies could not be secure without greater unification. Canadian confederation occurred just two years afterward. In addition, American policymakers realized that the new technologies of foreign affairs, specifically, the new naval technologies, required a new approach to the world. The war demonstrated as never before the triumph of iron ships powered by steam. But steam power required coal, and coal required secure storage facilities, and such secure facilities, ultimately, meant the need for overseas naval bases. In that sense, a technological imperative was drawing the United States into an ever more complex relationship with the world beyond its borders.

The Elements of Postbellum Diplomacy The United States emerged from the war united and powerful, potentially an invincible force on the world scene. But that force was still potential, because many elements converged to shape the conduct of U.S. foreign policy during these years. The makers of American diplomacy-as distinct from the makers of American foreign policy-were the naval officers and diplomats who represented the United States throughout the

4 INTRODUCTION

world. In that sense, several realities of the postbellum era need to be considered. First, it was an era of a declining American navy. Postwar demobilization occurred at a dizzying pace. In 1865, at the immediate end of the war, the United States had a massive naval force of 700 ships, totaling 500,000 tons, with some 5,000 guns. Within five years there were but 200 ships of 200,000 tons and 1,300 guns. A few years later, the fleet was ranked seventh in the world, and the navy had returned to sail while European navies forged ahead with ironclad steamers. In the Virginius Affair (1874) the U.S. squadron made a dismal showing in a confkontation with the ships of Spain, a declining imperial power. Meanwhile, the navy in these early postwar years ranked low in the esteem of the presidency, the Congress, and the public. Economy was more important than the latest technology, and mediocre secretaries of the navy with limited understanding of naval affairs handled naval administration. Civilian leaders, certainly, saw the navy's mission as limited: passive coastal defense, wartime commerce destroying, and "showing the flag" in foreign ports. But a revival began in the 1880s, with the construction of new ships and an intellectual renaissance, and came to full fruition in the building of America's first real battleships in the 1890s. But even as the navy suffered decline, stagnation, and eventual revival, American diplomatic contacts were being made most frequently by American captains and commodores and admirals around the globe. The Department of State (and the secretary of state) often valued reports from naval officers more than from diplomatic ministers. That was a reflection in part of the physical presence of naval officers around the globe, but also of the mediocre quality of official American diplomatic representation. The probably apocryphal story of Joseph Choate, American ambassador to Britain around 1900, illustrates the problem in spirit if not in factual accuracy. Purportedly, Choate's sense of "dignity" was such that he dressed in tuxedos-evening attirewhile in Britain only butlers or doormen wore such garb during the day. A verifiable example of low ministerial quality, however, was the case of Seneca Haselton, minister to Venezuela. During a period in which the Cleveland administration was

INTRODUCTION 5

searching for a viable Venezuelan policy, a man lacking in the requisite qualities of caution, temperance (he was an alcoholic), and discretion represented the American government in Caracas. American diplomacy, therefore, was often conducted by naval officers, sometimes in a mode that has been dubbed "gunboat diplomacy" by historians. Naval officers sometimes let their guns do the talking. Guns on American warships razed villages, or bombarded harbors, or fired warning shots across bows of other vessels. Given the official policies of the U.S. government at the time, the navy was well-suited to its mission. The other "human element" in the making of U.S. diplomacy and foreign policy during these years can be found in Washington, D.C., in presidential-secretarial-congressional leadership. It was, for the bulk of the era, a period of relatively weak presidential leadership, far removed from the "Imperial Presidency" that often describes the mid- and late-20th-century office. The main exceptions, of course, were Abraham Lincoln-arguably the most powerful president of the 19th century because he confronted the gravest national crisis of the century-Theodore Roosevelt, and, at the very end of the period, Woodrow Wilson. But the other eight presidents-Republicans all except for Grover Cleveland-favored, by personal preference and individual philosophy, a weaker office that deferred to Congress on many matters. Relatively, then, the president's cabinet secretaries, especially his secretary of state or secretary of the navy, had considerable potential power. But while a good number of distinguished and talented individuals held the office of secretary of state during the period, secretaries of the navy, until late in the period, were often weak and ill-prepared for their duties. The formula for policy-making, therefore, left a large role for Congress during the period. Congress tended to be dominated by antiexpansionists and men whose sights were set mainly on a domestic agenda. Another element in America's approaches to the world in these years is to be found in the state of the American merchant marine. In the antebellum period it was the stuff of legend both nationally and globally, but, within two generations after the Civil War, the foreign merchant fleet had slipped to worse than

6 INTRODUCTION

second-rate status, and by 1900 only 10 percent of American trade was being carried in American bottoms. In addition, the United States was losing the maritime war of technology, as iron hulls and steam propulsion gained in Britain and stalled in the United States. The process of decline had begun in the 1850s, but the Civil War accelerated the process. Throughout the period, politicians of both parties spoke on behalf of a revived merchant marine, but few people in government could agree upon what needed to be done. Only World War I brought about a revival-massive but temporary-of the foreign fleet. At the same time, American foreign commerce expanded steadily after the disruptions of the Civil War. As the nation's industrial sector grew and the nation had more manufactured products to export, the U.S. trade balance--more exports than imports-grew steadily. The multinational nature of American business increased steadily too, even though exports were still a small part of the gross domestic product. Despite the "informal empire" that many historians have emphasized, America's major trading partner throughout the period continued to be Great Britain.

The United States Looking Outward Yet by the 1890s things had begun to change in the American approach to the world. This was, after all, the era of the "New Imperialism" of European powers, and the spirit of the age eventually had to touch American shores. Historians have focused on numerous elements contributing to the change. In part, new intellectual trends started to reshape the way Americans viewed their relationship to the world. Some Americans applied Social Darwinist thinking to the position of the United States and concluded that they, as the exemplars of Anglo-Saxon superiority, were biologically destined to dominate. One way or the other, the historic sense of American mission evolved from a philosophy of continental expansion to one of global expansion. America, in the minds of some American writers, political leaders, and naval officers, had to take its civilization and political system to the rest of the world-to the benefit of the "barbaric races."

INTRODUCTION 7

But for other Americans, the issue was more hardheaded than romantic flights of national destiny. Alfred Thayer Mahan's Influence of Sea Power Upon History summarized and popularized ideas that were already commonplace in the late 19th century, and Mahan is seen as the leading exponent of this point of view. Sea power, Mahan argued, had raised Britain to the world's most powerful nation. Without sea power, no nation could attain a position of importance. Consequently, the United States had to build up its sea power so that it might be both prosperous and influential. In Mahan's formulation, "sea power" encompassed commerce, the merchant marine, the navy, naval bases to support the fleet, and colonies to support those naval bases. Specifically, Mahan argued that U.S. security demanded control of the Caribbean and the Isthmus, and that the commercial future of the nation was in the Pacific, where the nations of the world would struggle in future generations. At the root of sea power, essentially, was trade. In that sense the Mahanian notion of sea power was an economic notion. The economic component of America's approach to the world from the end of the Civil War to the beginning of World War I has been called a "new empire"--one that shunned the formal empire of colonies in favor of an informal empire of trade and economic hegemony.3 In the 1960s and 1970s some historians argued essentially that economics provided the prime motivation for America's "outward thrusVA in the 1880s and especially 1890s. But in more recent decades a counterargument has suggested that economic motivations were at best just one consideration in the complex formula of American expansion. To be sure, even in the 1890s, a period of economic depression, many or even most businessmen remained unconvinced of the need for colonies, which they believed could be more trouble than value. Nevertheless, the "Dollar Diplomacy" of the Taft administration-particularly in the Caribbean-makes the interpretive argument complex. Any description of "the United States looking o ~ t w a r ddur"~ ing the last third of the 19th century, of course, must be placed in context. This was, at the same time, the era of the "New Imperialism," in which European nations expanded across the globe-

8 INTRODUCTION

particularly in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific-to build new empires. Where was the United States to stand in the course of events? The debate between American "imperialists" and "antiimperialists" at the time of the Spanish-American War took place in this context, with the advocates of American empire arguing that the United States had an obligation to expand for the perpetuation and dissemination of American ideas and institutions and opponents arguing that empire was incompatible with and destructive of American traditions. One of the prime exponents of expansion, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge (R-Mass.), said in an 1895 speech: "The great nations are rapidly absorbing for their future expansion and their present defense all the waste places of the earth. It is a movement which makes for civilization and the advancement of the race. As one of the great nations of the world, the United States must not fall out of line of m a r ~ h . " ~ He spoke for many Americans. Perhaps the turning point in American foreign relations in the postbellum period came in the late 1890s with the "Great Rapprochement" between the United States and Great Britain. The warming of Anglo-American relations after a century of uncertainty marked the change that settled the nature of the transatlantic relationship, leaving the United States to dominate Latin America and the Caribbean during the next few decades and to stand with the Allies in World War I. It was the change that, in many ways, shaped much of the international history of the 20th century.

America, the Pacific, and Asia In 1845, Lieutenant Charles Wilkes predicted that the West Coast of the United States was "destined to fill a large space in the world's future hi~tory."~President Ronald Reagan proclaimed 139 years later that "the Pacific is where the future of the world lies."' Suffice it to say, then, that Americans for the better part of the last two centuries have understood the importance of the Pacific, or Asia, or what is now called the Pacific Rim. The key areas of American interest at various moments

INTRODUCTION 9

during the period of this book were Alaska, Hawaii, China, Japan, and an array of small Pacific islands. Alaska, acquired by the United States in 1867, was the nation's final continental acquisition, understood at the time as having strategic value but believed useless for other purposes. It opened the issue of the status of residents of the territorysettled temporarily by acknowledging their citizenship but denying actual incorporation of the territory as a co-equal with the existing states. Throughout the Pacific, the United States expanded informally and formally, slowly and steadily, throughout the period. Midway Island was acquired in 1867. The United States resisted a treaty with Samoa five years later, accepted but never implemented a treaty six years after that, and joined with Great Britain and Germany in a tripartite condominium that effectively halted Great Power rivalry over the island and prevented German domination in 1889. The main chapter in American Pacific expansion was Hawaii, however. With a strategic location and excellent harbor, it seemed a natural outpost. American merchants and missionaries had long had contacts with the islands, and American economic relations with Hawaii, particularly with regard to sugar production, grew steadily. American political influence (or at least the political influence of American transplants or descendants of transplants) increased accordingly. One U.S. presidential administration rejected annexationist overtures from the American community on Hawaii, while the successor administration, more expansionist by inclination, took advantage of the opportunity. Meanwhile, American relations with the two Asian giantsChina and Japan-alternated, with the United States favoring Japan at one point and then China at another. In the SinoJapanese War (1894), the United States remained neutral but tended to be proJapan. In the wake of China's defeat, however, and the near certainty that China would be carved up, U.S. policymakers turned to the traditional American policy-by then called the "Open Door"--of supporting equal access of all powers (especially the United States) to China. China, of course, had

10 INTRODUCTION

loomed large in business plans for future markets, although the mythic "China Market" never developed.

America, Latin America, and the Caribbean The 1823 Monroe Doctrine, one of the earliest cornerstone statements of American foreign policy, posits what has been called the "Doctrine of Two Worlds." The political systems of the Old and New Worlds, the doctrine asserted, were different. By extension, the United States had a special relationship with the other nations of the New World and should be assumed to have special privileges. Such attitudes, when coupled with Americans' expansionist tendencies, produced a relationship that was at times bullying, at times paternal, and at times mercenary. The Caribbean, which has sometimes been seen as an "American Lake," in a sense represents the American diplomatic experience writ small. The Monroe Doctrine itself had some of its earliest applications in the region, and U.S. interests in noncontinental expansion manifested themselves in the region early-both in terms of the pragmatic wish to acquire "guano islands" that would benefit American agriculture and the more calculatingly political drive to acquire more territory for the expansion of slavery. After the Civil War, U.S. policy toward and diplomacy in the Caribbean demonstrate the aggressiveness and ambivalence that sometimes characterized American activities elsewhere during the period. Although some policymakers salivated over strategic locations in the Isthmus or Santo Domingo or the Virgin Islands, Congress remained skeptical of formal linkages. An Isthmian canal-interest in which neatly married security and trade issues-was a point of debate and discussion for decades. President Rutherford B. Hayes went so far as to announce in 1880 that "The policy of this country is a canal under American control" and that such a canal would be "virtually a part of the coast line of the United ~tates."~ Although Hayes' proclamation had brought the United States to a new stage in its Isthmian policy, more than two decades would pass before diplomacy-more

INTRODUCTION 11

specifically the "velvet on iron" approach of Theodore Roose~elt'~-would add that new coastline to the United States. Events in Latin America also provided the context for the two most extensive expansions of the Monroe Doctrine. The first occurred during the administration of the otherwise cautious Grover Cleveland, when Secretary of State Richard Olney issued his famous "twenty-inch gun blast," frequently called the Olney Interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine. The United States, he declared, "is practically sovereign on this continent, and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its interposition."" It was but a short step from there to the assertion by President Theodore Roosevelt that the United States had the right to police areas whose stability was important to the United States. The "Roosevelt Corollary" set the stage for American interventions in the Caribbean and Latin America generally throughout the 20th century. At the same time, Pan-Americanism remained a goal and dream for some U.S. policymakers. The idea had existed for years when Secretary of State James G. Blaine issued an invitation for delegates to explore closer hemispheric ties. The movement proceeded with fits and starts, manifesting itself eventually as the Bureau of American Republics (later the Pan American Union) and, in the 20th century, the "Good Neighbor Policy, " the Organization of American States, and the Alliance for Progress. Throughout it all, two nations in particular loomed large in American thinking: Mexico and Cuba. Mexican-American relations had their roots in the war for Texas independence and the Mexican-American War before the Civil War. The most serious challenge in the 19th century to the Monroe Doctrine came with the attempt by Napoleon 111 to install the puppet emperor Maximilian in Mexico. Later in the century, continuing political turmoil, occasionally spilling over the border into the United States itself, concerned policymakers in Washington and moved them to action. The relationship had not yet been resolved by the outbreak of World War I. Cuba, too, attracted Americans' attention-in part because of its economic potential, in part because of its status as a Euro-

12 INTRODUCTION

pean colonial dependency, and in part because of its continuing political instability throughout most of the period. The story of Cuba from the end of the U.S. Civil War until the end of the 19th century was a story of political turmoil, incipient and actual revolution, and the ways in which the United States reacted to those conditions. The culmination of the 19th-century chapter of this story, the Spanish-American War, resulted in Cuban independence from Spain, a new relationship with the United States, and an American colonial empire. At the same time, the war began a new chapter of the story, a 20th-century chapter highlighted by an increased U.S. role-direct and indirect economic involvement and sometimes direct military involvement. More than a century later, the relationship remained unresolved.

America and Canada The United States's relationship with its neighbor to the north, on the other hand, progressed through uncertainty and tension to a resolution that produced the world's longest undefended border-in large measure because that relationship was, for much of the 19th century, a subset of the larger Anglo-American relationship. Prior to Anglo-American rapprochement at the end of the century, Canadian-American relations were more tentative and tense than cordial. But once the contours of the transatlantic relationship had been settled for the better, Canadians and Americans could and did begin to speak of themselves as "children of a common mother." Canadian-American tensions manifested themselves in various ways and at numerous points throughout the second half of the 19th century. During the Civil War, the British worried about Canadian security and were prepared to defend their colony in the face of a feared invasion from the south. Certainly, many U.S. expansionists had looked northward, not just southward, for U.S. territorial acquisition, although the likelihood of anything of that nature happening during the great war for national survival and reunification was slim at best. Nevertheless, the passage of the British North American Act of 1867, creating the Dominion

INTRODUCTION 13

of Canada, can be traced to British concerns between 1861 and 1865 about losing Canada. Dominion did not settle the issues of the Canadian-American relationship, however. American expansionists continued to look toward Canada in the early postbellum years. When the United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867-"Seward's Ice Box," as critics scornfully dubbed it-some U.S. congressmen hoped that the purchase might eventually lead to the acquisition of all of Canada. They were, of course, to be disappointed. Minor disputes punctuated Canadian-American relations for the balance of the century. Canada became a surrogate for the anti-British sentiment of Irish-Americans in a series of forays across the border by American Fenians. Minor boundary disputes proved difficult to resolve. Fishery controversies consumed diplomatic energy. And the tariff issue-ever the ongoing flashpoint of domestic U.S. politics-became a stumbling block in Canadian-American relations as reciprocity raised the specter of annexation for some Canadians. Nevertheless, after the Great Rapprochement with Britain in the 1890s, most issues with Canada took a back seat and, eventually, were resolved-even if, well into the first decade of the 20th century, fear of U.S. annexation could rise again over the reciprocity issue. Effectively, however, by the end of the 19th century, the northern U S . border had been secured in a remarkable feat of continental defense that required no military force.

America and Europe The United States and the Old World-specifically Western Europe-might potentially have been on a collision course during these years. Industrialization had transformed the economies of both continents. Liberal democratic reforms-going by different names in different countries-were transforming politics and the social structure on both sides of the Atlantic. Advances in transportation (the steamship) and communication (the transatlantic cable) were linking the peoples of two continents as never before. And the Great Powers of Europe began to embark on their final great expansionist surge-the so-called New Imperial-

14 INTRODUCTION

ism that resulted in the carving up of Africa and large parts of Asia by the turn of the century. But any tensions that existed between the Old and New Worlds during this period were relatively minor, even as the economic connections between the two continents became more critical. Nothing less than a major European conflagration-World War I-could entangle the United States with European affairs in a negative way. Britain remained the nation with which the United States had the strongest political, economic, and cultural ties throughout the period. The image of that relationship is best represented even today by the Peace Arch that stands on the border between British Columbia and Washington State. The arch extols the good relationship between two peoples who are, according to the inscription, "children of a common mother." This bond of friendship is also reflected in a comment by U.S. secretary of state John Hay, who said in 1899: "As long as I stay here, no action shall be taken contrary to my conviction that the indispensable feature of our foreign policy should be a friendly understanding with ~ n ~ l a n d . " ' ~ It was not always so. For much of the 19th century, Britain represented America's "ancient enemy7' and "prime villain." In other words, the "special relationship" was, at best, an antagonistic one. Revolution was followed by postwar disputes over boundaries and navigation and fishing rights, then by the War of 1812, then by conflict over the Oregon territory, peaking in crisis during the Civil War--characterized by Secretary of State Seward's version of "brinksmanship." After the Civil War, conflict and tension continued over fisheries, and finally, in the mid1890s, the Venezuelan boundary dispute. But then, by 1900, the relationship changed. A "rapprochement''-"the forging of closer ties with Great Britain''-had occurred. The change was clearly evident during the SpanishAmerican War of 1898, when Britain remained overtly friendly toward the United States, and, in the postwar years, when both nations retreated from hostile actions and began to embrace policies and procedures that benefited each other. Why did this transformation occur? Historian Charles S. Campbell summarized the factors concisely: "The common heri-

INTRODUCTION 15

tage, the close economic relations, the absence of clashing vital interests, the rise of British democracy and of admiration for American institutions, the dwindling of Irish and free-silver fanaticism, and Anglo-Saxon race patriotism-these were positive forces molding the British-American relationship. Diplomacy and arbitration had held off war and mitigated tension; more positive forces had then made themselves felt."13 To be sure Civil War diplomacy, the Alabama claims, the Northeastern fisheries controversy, and the Bering Sea controversy-among many other diplomatic imtants or crisesrequired copious and patient diplomacy. But during the period covered by this book the Anglo-American relationship evolved until, at century's end, it embarked on the "special relationship" that has influenced so much of the globe's international relations ever since. The other major powers of Western Europe were less of an all-consuming diplomatic focus for the United States. Relations with France were damaged by the Maximilian affair in Mexico but for the most part the two nations remained friendly, even as the United States far outstripped France as a global power. The gift of the Statue of Liberty to the United States perhaps best symbolizes the solidity of the relationship. During the Civil War, many German states had been friendly toward the Union, and Americans tended to be fiiendly toward Prussia. After German unification in 1871, however, as the German Empire became economically and militarily more assertive, the diplomatic dynamic changed. The tripartite wrangling over Samoa strained the relationship with Germany, but Samoa was too distant and too tangential to produce a serious German-American clash. Clearly, these relationships changed significantly in the second decade of the 20th century as a result of World War I. Meanwhile, the American relationship with Spain was indelibly affected by the situation in Cuba and, then, the Spanish-American War.

America on the Threshold of World Power By the 1890s, therefore, the stage had been set. The United States had never been isolated. But throughout the postbellum

16 INTRODUCTION

era the United States had taken a limited role in world affairs. The policy fulfilled American goals very well: maintaining a "balance of power"; maintaining an "open door" that fostered trade; limiting the size of the governmental and militarylnaval establishment; remaining free from threats to American security; and remaining free from colonial commitments. But with the Spanish-American War, the role of the United States changed. The colonies that the United States acquired as a result of the war were not a planned result, but rather an inescapable outcome of the collapse of the Spanish Empire. This new role was one that the United States accepted with some discomfort despite the braggadocio of some American politicians, a role that it has played with discomfort ever since.

The Spanish-American War The war that occurred between the United States and Spain in 1898 is often seen as one of those "watersheds" in American diplomatic history. Two generations of coveting the Pearl of the Antilles, and a generation of sometimes impatient observation of a long, destructive, and brutal revolution on the island, culminated in a "splendid little war" that destroyed the remnants of one of the original European colonial empires and catapulted the United States into a new position in the world. It was a war that was long in coming, and to this day historians debate whether or not it was inevitable. The war faction in the nation was an unlikely collection: humanitarians who believed that war would end the suffering of the Cuban people; jingoes who were bellicose nationalists who believed that war would bring about commercial and industrial prosperity and national greatness; politicians who wanted to drum up support for President William McKinley; the masses who were bored with the routine of everyday life; those infected with the "martial spirit" who were looking for a little war to transform the United States into a world power; and the barons of the "yellow press" who wanted to fatten their circulation by pandering to a thirst for sensationalist news reporting.

INTRODUCTION 17

President Grover Cleveland had tried to remain neutral and had successfully resisted the march to war. But his successor, William McKinley, pursued a different policy that culminated in war. McKinley's motivations and the influences on his decision to go to war have long been debated. The most recent consensus would argue that McKinley was, basically, a conservative on domestic issues who tried to avoid conflict with Spain and only reluctantly accepted congressional demand for war and expansion. In the view of some historians, the war set many patterns for the future: the emergence of a nascent "military-industrial complex"; the mixture of idealism and realism in that it was America's first "war to end wars"; the exaggeration of foreign perils, and the overreaction to a threat that did not exist or was at best minor; military overkill after initial intervention; and the emergence of a countenevolutionary posture of the United States Certainly, if the Spanish-American War did not actually create each of these patterns, it employed and legitimized patterns that had been long-standing in the American approach to the world.

America and the World on the Verge of War In the less than two decades between the Spanish-American War and the beginning of World War I, the United States maintained and built upon some of its basic diplomatic traditions-within a new context of global empire. To the extent that it could, Washington continued its pattern of aloofness fi-om, or nonentanglement in, European affairs. The most important areas for U.S. foreign policy continued to be the Panama Canal, the Caribbean, and Central America. On the other hand, America still had only tangential interests in Asia. In an era of growing nationalism, U.S. foreign policy continued to demonstrate general insensitivity to such yearnings. Finally, although the United States had by this time acquired a territorial empire, the growth of an "informal" economic empire continued. Theodore Roosevelt's foreign policy and diplomacy, sometimes described as "velvet on iron," represents "power internationalism" at its most accomplished. In that sense, Roosevelt's

18 INTRODUCTION

short-term results were considerable. The United States was able, through decisive action and firm use of force, to acquire the rights to, and then build, a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, whereas a succession of previous administrations had dithered, or been more cautious, or chose to act in a more "ethical" manner. "I took the Canal Zone," Roosevelt later said proudly, "and let Congress debate; and while the debate goes on the Canal does He, and his Republican successor William Howard Taft, had no qualms about using American military force to police the Caribbean and Central America, to stabilize politically fragile governments, and to put numerous financial houses in order. Elsewhere, the Roosevelt-Taft policies toward China and Japan emphasized the Open Door and the territorial integrity of China. Although Roosevelt won a Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the Treaty of Portsmouth ending the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, he also was complicit in the agreement with Japan to limit Japanese immigration to the United States. Roosevelt could send the Great White Fleet around the world to demonstrate US. naval and military might, but he also understood the realities of electoral politics in the United States itself. Woodrow Wilson, one of only two Democratic presidents between 1861 and 1932, followed TaR in office with the intention of undoing the "damage" of the Roosevelt/Taft Caribbean policy. Yet Wilson's "democratic internationalism" differed mainly in the rhetoric and perhaps intentions of the president's policies. In truth, under Wilson there were more interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean than during all of the previous administrations. Wilson's moralist approach is best seen in his policy toward Mexico. He pursued a policy of "watchful waiting" with regard to the political turmoil south of the border. But he also indicated, "My ideal is for an orderly and righteous government in Mexico; but my passion is for the submerged eightyfive percent of the people of that Republic who are now struggling toward liberty."I5 He described General Victoriano Huerta as a "desperate brute"16 and declared that he was "going to teach the South American republics to elect good men."17

INTRODUCTION 19

Wilson indicated just before his inauguration that "It would be the irony of fate if my administration had to deal chiefly with foreign affairs."18 Yet more than anything else in foreign relations, Woodrow Wilson will be remembered as the president who brought the United States into World War I-breaking, according to his critics, a century-long policy of avoiding strictly European affairs. Wilson, for all his high-blown moralistic rhetoric, also understood the broad contours of international power politics. He understood the grave danger to the balance of power-central to both British and American foreign policyposed by German domination of the European continent. In many ways, then, Wilson's United States was a nation that had superimposed an expanded global view on traditional American foreign policy concerns. In that sense, Wilson stands midway, not just chronologically but also intellectually, in the course of American diplomacy and foreign policy from the Civil War to the Cold War.

Notes 1. See, for example, Foster Rhea Dulles, The Imperial Years (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1956); Robert H. Ferrell, ed. America as a World Power, 1872-1945. New York: Harper & Row, 1971; David R. Contosta, and Jessica R Hawthorne, eds. Rise to World Power: Selected Letters of Whitelaw Reid, 18951912 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1986); Ernest R. May, Imperial Democracy;The Emergence of America as a Great Power (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961); Foster Rhea Dulles, Prelude to World Power: American Diplomatic History, 1860-1900 (New York: Macmillan 1965); and Charles S. Campbell, The Transformation of American Foreign Relations, 1865-1900 (New York: Harper & Row, 1976). 2. Bemis, A Diplomatic History of the United States, 5th ed. (1965), chap. 26; quoted in Mark T. Gilderhus, "Founding Father: Samuel Flagg Bemis and the Study of U.S.-Latin American Relations." Diplomatic History 21, 1 (Winter 1997): 3. 3. The classic articulation of this argument is Walter LaFeber, The New Empire, An Interpretation of American Expansion,

20 INTRODUCTION

1860-1898 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1963; rev. ed. 1998). 4. The phrase, but not the argument, comes from Milton Plesur, America's Outward Thrust. Approaches to Foreign A$ fairs, 1865-1890. (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1971). 5. See the seminal article by Alfred Thayer Mahan, "The United States Looking Outward," Atlantic Monthly, 66 (December, 1890): 8 16-24). 6. Henry Cabot Lodge, "The Business World vs. the Politicians." Speech to Congress, 1895. http:/kome.att.net/-coachbb/DBQImperialismDBQ.htm 7. Charles Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, 5 vols. (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1845) V, 183; quoted in Richard W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1960; 1965 edition), 127. 8. Quoted in Darby Li Po Price, "'All American Girl' and the American Dream," HCM. A Journal of Asian American Cultural Criticism. 2, l (Winter 1994); on-line version: http://socrates.berkeley.edu/-criticismv2nllprice 1.html. 9. James D. Richardson, ed. A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897, 10 vols. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1897-1899), vol. 7, 58586. 10. Frederick W. Marks, 111. Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979). 11. Richard Olney to Thomas F. Bayard, 20 July 1894. In Ruhl J. Bartlett, ed. The Record of American Diplomacy. Documents and Readings in the Histoiy of American Foreign Relations, 4th ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, l964), 34 1-45. 12. Quoted in Robert Beisner, From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 1865-1900 (new York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1975), 124. 13. Charles S. Campbell, From Revolution to Rapprochement: The United States and Great Britain, 1783-1900 (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974), 204.

INTRODUCTION 2 1

14. Quoted in Warren Zimmermann, First Great Triumph. How Five Americans Made their Country a World Power (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2002), 435. James F. Vivian argues that TR never actually uttered the phrase. Vivian, "The 'Taking' of the Panama Canal Zone: Myth and Reality," Diplomatic History 4, 1 (Winter 1980): 95-100. 15. Wilson, interview in Saturday Evening Post, 32 May 1914; quoted in H.W. Brands, Woodrow Wilson (New York: Times Books / Henry Holt, 2003), 47. 16. Brands, Woodrow Wilson, 46. 17. Wilson to Sir William Tyrrell, 13 November 1913; in, Ray Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 193I), vol. 4,289. 18. Quoted in Brands, Woodrow Wilson, 42.

The Dictionary

A.B.C. CONFERENCE. International conference held at Niagara Falls, New York (May-July 1914) at which the A.B.C. Powers attempted to mediate between the United States and the Mexican government following the Veracruz incident. The participants proposed that the two main factions in Mexico, those of Victoriano Huerta and Venustiano Carranza, choose a provisional government. Carranza rejected the proposal, however. A.B.C. POWERS. The name for the South American countries of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. The term has been used since the early 20th century. In 1914, the A.B.C. powers conferred regarding possible intervention to prevent a Mexican-American war over the Veracruz incident. ABAIANG, AMERICAN SHELLING OF (1872). A classic example of 19th-century U.S. "gunboat diplomacy." In 1870, a party of warriors from Tarawa in the Gilbert Islands invaded Abaiang, destroying American property and wounding a missionary. In May 1870, Commander William

24 ABBOTT, JOHN TRUE

Talbot Truxton of the USS Jamestown forced the Tarawans to sign a treaty in which they agreed to pay an indemnity of 50 casks of oil, end the fighting, and leave Abaiang. But the Tarawan chief doubted American willingness to take action and derided the Jamestown as a "picture ship" that could not enter the lagoon. Two years later, when Commander Richard W. Meade of the USS Narragansett arrived, no indemnity had yet been paid, and the Tarawan chief and 300 invaders were still on the island, and the situation generally was dangerous to the safety of foreigners and detrimental to trade. Although the arrival of the Narragansett sent Chief Naevaea into hiding, Meade's attempt at negotiation failed to produce payment or the removal of the Tarawans. As a result, Meade determined that a show of force was necessary. His ship shelled the village, cutting down a number of trees and causing panic among the Tarawans. Naevaea quickly paid the first installment of the indemnity, and within 24 hours the Tarawans left Abaiang.

ABBOTT, JOHN TRUE (1850-1914). Diplomat. A native of New Hampshire, he served as U.S. minister to Colombia (1889-1 893). ADAMS, BROOKS (1848-1927). Son of Charles Francis Adams (1807-1 887). He served as his father's secretary during the Alabama claims arbitration. He later devoted much of his life to the writing of history, often propounding broad and challenging theses. He published on the importance of trade routes in the development of nations, and argued (Law of Civilization and Decay, 1895) that human societies differed to the extent that they possessed "energy." Civilization follows commercial growth and decay, he wrote, and as such he predicted new and growing global importance to China, Russia, the United States, and Russo-American relations (America's Economic Supremacy, 1900; and The New Empire, 1902).

ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, ON EXPANISONISM 25

ADAMS, CHARLES (1845-1895). Soldier and diplomat. He was born Karl Adam Schwanbeck in Pomerania and joined a Massachusetts regiment soon after his arrival in the United States. As minister to Bolivia (1880-1882), he assisted in resolving differences between that country and Chile. ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886). Son of President John Quincy Adams. His early years and education were spent in Europe while his father was U.S. to England. As U.S. minister to Great Britain (186 1-1869), Charles Francis Adams skillfully helped to manage Anglo-American relations during the Civil War, especially during the T m t affair and the Laird Ram crisis. It was largely through his tireless efforts that relations were maintained as well as they were, and that England and France never offered diplomatic recognition to the Confederacy. As head of the U.S. commission established to settle the Alabama claims after the Civil War, Adams helped to defuse that explosive issue and bolster arbitration as a technique of international diplomacy. ADAMS, HENRY (1838-1918). Historian, son of Charles Francis Adams (1807-1886), He was European correspondent for the Boston Courier and then, during the Civil War, secretary to his father, U.S. minister to Great Britain. He later taught at Harvard, wrote extensively, and traveled. His works probe the nature of the relationship between man and the universe, and he applied the second law of thennodynamics to human society. Civilizations, institutions, and individuals, he argued, all must follow the law of senescence and decay. His was a sober and gloomy voice during an otherwise optimistic and outward-looking era in the United States. ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, ON EXPANISONISM. Much is made of the expansionist tendency in American history, but a strong anti-expansionist streak coexisted. Representative John Quincy Adams, for example, told the House of Representatives on 4 July 1821: "[America] goes not abroad, in

26 ADAMS, ROBERT, JR

search of monsters to destroy. She is the well-wisher to the freedom and independence of all. She is the champion and vindicator only of her own. She will recommend the general cause by the countenance of her voice and the benignant sympathy of her example. She well knows that by once enlisting under other banners than her own, she would involve herself beyond the power of extrication, in all the wars and interest and intrigue, of individual avarice, envy, and ambition, which assumed the colors and usurped the standards of freedom. The fimdamental maxims of her policy would insensibly change from liberty to force. . . . She might become the dictatress of the world. She would no longer be the ruler of her own spirit." See also ANTI-IMPERIALISM. ADAMS, ROBERT, JR. (1849-1906). Politician and diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Brazil (1889-1890) and later was a Republican member of Congress from Pennsylvania (1893-1906). He introduced the declaration of war against Spain (1898) that began the Spanish-American War. ADDAMS, JANE (1860-1935). American reformer and pacifist. She created Chicago's Hull House, one of the nation's first settlement houses, and later worked to find alternatives to war. In the late 19th century she became a member of the Anti-Imperialist League. In 1915, as World War I raged in Europe, she joined with other women's suffrage leaders to found the Woman's Peace Party. In the same year she traveled extensively to confer with European leaders and President Woodrow Wilson. Once the United States entered the war in 1917, she worked for the Department of Food Administration. In 1931, she won the Nobel Peace Prize for her humanitarian and antiwar efforts. ADMIRALS. Highest-ranking naval officers. In the United States, no such rank existed until David Farragut was awarded the title, first, of rear admiral (1862), then vice admiral (1864), and finally admiral (1866). The ranks of vice

AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS 27

admiral and admiral ceased to exist aRer 1890 and 1891, respectively, but were reestablished in 1915. AFRICA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. By virtue of the slave trade and the existence of slavery, the United States has had a relationship with Africa from the early colonial period. In the 19th century, many Americans were fascinated by explorations of the "dark continent" and participated in expeditions to its interior. The most famous was the expedition of Henry M. Stanley, a Welsh-born Civil War veteran who was commissioned by the New York Herald to "find" Scottish explorer Henry Livingstone in 1871. In later years Stanley also explored Zanzibar, Lake Victoria, the mouth of the Congo River, and other locales in central equatorial Africa. His explorations were contemporaneous with the late19th-century European expansion into Africa. The United States was not part of those developments, focusing its expansionist efforts in the Caribbean and the Pacific, although American representatives did attend the Berlin Conference (1884-1885), called by German chancellor Otto von Bismarck to discuss the partition of central Africa. See also JOHANNA; LIBERIA; MADAGASCAR; ZANZIBAR. AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS. Although it was not until the mid-20th century that U.S. agricultural exports consistently exceeded agricultural imports, agricultural issues have always played a significant part in American foreign policy and diplomacy. Until the late 19th century, at least half of all U.S. citizens were engaged in agriculture, yet because mechanization did not begin in force until mid-century, most farms were small multicrop operations. Farmers, therefore, did not constitute a powerful lobby until the post-Civil War era. Tariffs on imported commodities were levied mainly for revenue rather than to protect farmers. The "big three" of U.S. agricultural exports during the period were cotton, tobacco, and wheat, with cotton overwhelmingly predominating in terms of both volume and value.

28 AGUINALDO, EMILIO

AGUINALDO, EMILI0.(1869-1964). Filipino revolutionary and nationalist leader. Exiled after a failed revolt against Spanish rule in 1896, he returned after the battle of Manila Bay (1 May 1898) and collaborated with U.S. forces in the capture of Manila (August 1898). The Philippine insurrection against the United States demonstrated that even he could not control the nationalist tide. He unsuccessfully ran for president of the Philippines in 1935 and, during World War 11, was imprisoned by U.S. forces on charges of having aided the Japanese. ALABAMA CLAIMS. Claims by the United States against Great Britain for damages to the U.S. merchant marine caused by Confederate warships (especially the Alabama and Florida) that had been built in Britain during the Civil War. In 1869, the U.S. Senate rejected an initial settlement, the Johnson-Clarendon Convention, and Senator Charles Sumner demanded collateral damages of $2,125,000,000. In the Treaty of Washington (1871) the parties agreed to an international tribunal to arbitrate the dispute. The tribunal met in Geneva, 1871-1872, with representatives from Italy, Brazil, Switzerland, Great Britain (led by Chief Justice Sir Alexander Cockburn), and the United States (Charles Francis Adams, arbitrator; Bancroft Davis, agent; and Caleb Cushing, William Evarts, and Morrison R. Waite, counsel). Ultimately, the tribunal awarded the United States $15.5 million but rejected indirect claims. The process demonstrated that negotiations, rather than war, could resolve international disputes, although the extended wrangling over the indirect claims weakened the lesson. In addition, the successful conclusion of the controversy strengthened Anglo-American relations, as Americans came to accept the notion that Britain was right and the United States wrong on the issue of indirect claims. Although not quite a "proto-rapprochement," the settlement paved the way for the great rapprochement that was to occur at the end of the century.

ALASKA, SURVEYS OF 29 ALABAMA, CSS. Confederate warship responsible for capturing and burning at sea 55 vessels worth $4.5 million. See also ALABAMA CLAIMS. ALASKA, PURCHASE OF. The vast Alaskan territory had long been a Russian trading region when, on 30 March 1867, Secretary of State William H. Seward signed an agreement for its purchase for $7.2 million. In 1866, Baron Edouard de Stoeckl, Russian minister to the United States, had been instructed to offer to sell Alaska-in part because his nation needed the funds-and Seward, committed to American expansion, was eager to close the deal. Derided at the time as Seward's ice box, or Seward's folly, because of the territory's presumed worthlessness, the purchase was approved by the U.S. Senate on 9 April 1867, by a vote of 37 to 2. After a long delay (in part because of President Andrew Johnson's impeachment trial), the House appropriated the necessary funds on 14 July 1868. See also ALASKA, SCANDAL OVER PURCHASE OF; ALASKA, SURVEYS OF; ALASKA-CANADIAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE; ALASKA-CANADIAN BOUNDARY SETTLEMENT; GOLD RUSH. ALASKA, SCANDAL OVER PURCHASE OF. The campaign (1867-1868) for approval and funding of the purchase of Alaska involved a massive lobbying effort marked by verbal persuasion and bribery, and one assessment argues that the corruption associated with this expedition into territorial expansion appalled Americans and "tarnished" the idea of expansionism for the next 30 years. ALASKA, SURVEYS OF. Soon after the purchase of Alaska, the U.S. Navy began coastal surveys and explorations, and Alaska service became a standard tour of duty for most U.S. naval officers. The 586,412 square mile purchase (one-fifth the size of the present contiguous United States) soon proved to be rich in minerals, timber, and furs.

30 ALASKA-CANADIANBOUNDARY DISPUTE

ALASKA-CANADIAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE (1899-1903). The last American boundary dispute to be settled. After gold was discovered in the Canadian Klondike region (18971898), areas of the Alaska Panhandle border as established by the treaty with Russia (1867) came under controversy. Access to Klondike gold fields was best through the Panhandle, and Canada, pointing to an Anglo-Russian treaty of 1825, claimed that the boundary line should follow a path that would, effectively, keep deep inlets under Canadian control. Secretary of State John Hay arranged a temporary settlement, a modus vivendi, in 1899, allowing passions to cool. Three years later, however, President Theodore Roosevelt told Hay, privately, that the Canadian claim was "outrageous and indefensible." The controversy began to intensify once again, and Roosevelt ordered troops to the Panhandle to maintain order. See also ALASKA, SURVEYS OF; ALASKA-CANADIAN BOUNDARY SETTLEMENT; GOLD RUSH. ALASKA-CANADIAN BOUNDARY SETTLEMENT (1903). After four years of continued conflict over the Alaska-Canadian boundary, Secretary of State John Hay was able to negotiate a convention with the British that called for a tribunal to settle the matter. The United States sent Secretary of War Elihu Root, former senator George Turner of Washington, and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, while the British sent Lord Alverstone, Lord Chief Justice of England, and two prominent Canadians. The tribunal met in late 1903. President Theodore Roosevelt threatened to send troops to occupy the territory if the tribunal did not rule properly, and Canadians went so far as to threaten secession if their claim were not supported. Ultimately, the tribunal agreed on a compromise that was largely favorable to the U.S. claim-to the jubilation of Americans and the disgruntlement of Canadians. See also ALASKACANADIAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE; GOLD RUSH; GREAT BRITAIN.

ALGER, RUSSELL ALEXANDER 3 1

AL,ASKA COMMERCIAL COMPANY. A company founded in 1868 to hunt fur seals in the Bering Sea. In 1870, the company received from the U.S. government a 20-year lease on the Pribilof Islands, seal breeding grounds fi-om May to November. The company paid annual rent on the islands, and a fee for each gallon of seal oil and each skin taken. In 18861886, the company's attorney, N. L. Jeffries, served as an adviser to the Alaska judge adjudicating the American confiscations of Canadian pelagic sealing vessels. ALEXANDER, EBEN (185 1-19 10). Educator and diplomat. Born in Knoxville, Tennessee, he became a professor of Greek at the University of North Carolina (1886-1910). He also served as U.S. minister to Greece, Romania, and Serbia (1893-1897). As minister to Greece he was a leader in the efforts to revive the Olympic games. ALGECIRAS CONFERENCE (1906). A meeting of representatives from France, Great Britain, Germany, and Spain, called to defuse the "Moroccan Crisis" of 1905-1906. Germany had challenged French hegemony in Morocco, precipitating a confi-ontation that might have led to war. The settlement recognized Moroccan independence even though French influence was increased. Although President Theodore Roosevelt had been instrumental in calling the meeting, the United States sent only an observer, Samuel RenC Gummed, and the U.S. Senate approved the resulting treaty with the understanding that ratification should not be seen as a departure from the American traditions, asserted in the Monroe Doctrine, of "noninvolvement" in purely European affairs. ALGER, RUSSELL ALEXANDER (1836-1907). American attorney and politician. Born in Ohio, he was a general in the Union army during the Civil War, served as Republican governor of Michigan (1885-1887), and was an unsuccessful candidate for president in 1888. After becoming an enthusiastic supporter of William McKinley's presidential candi-

32 ALGER, WILLIAM ELLERTON

dacy, McKinley appointed him secretary of war (18971899). As secretary at the time of the Spanish-American War, he demonstrated ineffective leadership and administrative skills, failing to support greater preparations for war and underestimating the time it would require to train troops for battle. He became enmeshed in a dispute with General Nelson Miles and was attacked by the press for his mismanagement of the department. "Algerism," therefore, came to mean incompetence and corruption. Afterward, he served as U.S. senator from Michigan (1902-1907). See also EMBALMED BEEF SCANDAL. ALGER, WILLIAM ELLERTON (b. 1856) Diplomat. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, he served as consular agent in Puerto Cortes, Honduras (1891-19O2), consul to Puerto Cortes, Honduras (1902-l9O4), consul at Tegucigalpa, Honduras (1904-1909); consul at Mazatlhn, Mexico (19 14-19 16), and Fernie, British Columbia, (19 17). ALLEN, HORACE NEWTON (1858-1932). Clergyman, physician, and diplomat. Born in Ohio, he was a medical consultant to the Korean royal family and assisted the Korean government in establishing its diplomatic ministry in Washington. In 1890, he became secretary of the U.S. legation at Seoul, and he served as U.S. minister to Korea (1897-1905). AMBASSADORS, DIPLOMATIC. The highest-ranking members of the diplomatic corps. By tradition, until the early 20th century, major powers dispatched ambassadors while lesser powers sent and received ministers-representatives of a lower rank. Until 1893, therefore, the highest rank in the U.S. diplomatic corps was minister. Then, in 1893, President Grover Cleveland appointed Thomas F. Bayard as ambassador to Great Britain (1893-1897) and other ambassadors to France, Germany, and Italy. In response, Britain appointed Sir Julian Pauncefote as its first ambassador to the United States. The change was an implicit reflection of the growing international stature of the United States.

AMERICAN PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION 33

AMERICAN ACADEMY IN ROME (1894). Established as a school of architecture, with Charles Follen McKim (18471909) as president, and chartered by Congress in 1905. The academy was one of many transoceanic cultural exchanges that demonstrated an internationalization of American culture and cultural influence. AMERICAN ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION (18991901). Also known as the Walker Commission, for the man who headed it, Rear Admiral John Grimes Walker. The United States established the commission to investigate which Isthmian route was "the most feasible and practicable" for a canal. The commission surveyed routes across Nicaragua, Panama, and the Isthmus of Darien. On 16 December 1901, the commission reported to President Theodore Roosevelt that the choice had to be between Nicaragua and Panama; a canal with locks was preferable to a sealevel canal; transit time through a Nicaraguan canal for most voyages would be shorter than through a Panamanian canal; health and sanitary conditions would likely be superior along a Nicaraguan route; and there were few political obstacles to a Nicaraguan route while many existed regarding a Panamanian route. The commission's final recommendation, therefore, was that "the most practicable and feasible route' for an isthmian canal, to be 'under the control, management, and ownership of the United States,' is that known as the Nicaragua route." Despite its analysis, the commission, under pressure from President Roosevelt, later reversed its recommendation. See also PANAMA CANAL. AMERICAN PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION. An antiimmigrant organization, founded in 1887 at Clinton, Iowa, by Henry F. Bowers. A secret society with elaborate rituals, its members swore an oath to "strike the shackles and chains of blind obedience to the Roman Catholic Church from the hampered and bound consciences of a priest-ridden and church-oppressed people" and to "endeavor to place the political positions of this country in the hands of Protestants, to

34 AMERICAN SAMOA

the entire exclusion of the Roman Catholic Church." Capitalizing on the fears of rural Americans about immigration and domestic unrest, the group peaked in the mid-1890s with a membership of 2,000,000. It attempted to capitalize, for example, on the 1889 arrival of Monsignor Satolli, head of the Accademia Ecclesiastics, as Pope Leo XIII's delegate to the founding of the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. The group's influence waned in the late 1890s and dropped sharply after a failed attempt to prevent the 1896 presidential nomination of Republican William McKinley. See also NATIVISM.

AMERICAN SAMOA. A coral atoll comprising the seven eastern islands of the Samoa group, 2,300 miles southwest of Hawaii. Aunu'u, O h , Olosega, Rose, Swain, and Ta'u were virtually uninhabited, while the bulk of the population resided on Tutuila. Tutuila, Aunu'u, and Manu'a are high volcanic islands; Swain's Island and Rose Island are low-lying atolls. Pago Pago was known to be one of the three or four best harbors in the Pacific. The late 19th century was an era of increasing Western interest in Samoa and endless internecine, intertribal warfare on the islands. In 1868, the Samoan tribes formed a confederation, but factionalism continued and open warfare broke out shortly thereafter. Meanwhile, Western influence in the islands was changing. The coconut oil trade, previously Samoa's major contact with the West, gave way to the more lucrative production of copra, which required higher technology and larger plantations. In the Treaty of Berlin (1 899), the United States gained sovereignty over the eastern islands of Samoa (Tutuila, Manu'a, Sand, and Rose). Two deeds of cession, 1900 and 1904, were ratified by the Senate in 1929. See also BERLIN, TREATY OF; MEADE TREATIES; SAMOA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS; WAKEMAN REPORT. ANDERSON, JOHN ALEXANDER (1834-1892). Clergyman, politician, and diplomat. Born in Pennsylvania, he was a Re-

ANGEL, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 35 publican member of Congress from Kansas (1879-1891) and served as U.S. consul in Egypt (1891-1892). ANDERSON, LARZ (1866-1937). Diplomat. Born in Paris, France, he became a resident of Massachusetts and Washington, D.C. He served in the U.S. army during the SpanishAmerican War and was U.S. minister to Belgium (19 111912) and ambassador to Japan (19 12-19 13). ANDERSON, RASMUS BJORN (1846-1936). Scholar and diplomat. Born in Wisconsin, he was an alternate delegate to the Republican National Convention of 1868. Later, he taught at the University of Wisconsin (1875-1883), served as U.S. minister to Denmark (1885-1889), and edited Amerika (1897-1922). ANDERSON, THOMAS HENRY (1848-1916). Educator, attorney, and diplomat. A Republican and native of Ohio, he served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1889-1893), and was U.S. district attorney for the District of Columbia (1899-1901) and a justice of the District of Columbia Supreme Court (1901-1916). ANDREWS, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS (1829-1922). Attorney, soldier, and diplomat. Born in New Hampshire, he was a Republican member of the Minnesota state senate (1859-1860), a general in the Union army during the Civil War, and a delegate to the Republican National Convention of 1868. He served as U.S. minister to Sweden and Norway (1869-1877) and consul general to Brazil (1882-1885). ANGEL, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1815-1894). Lawyer and diplomat. Born in Geneseo County, New York, he served as commissioner to China under President Franklin Pierce (1855) and minister to Sweden and Norway under President James Buchanan (1857-1861). In 1864 he was a delegate from New York to the Democratic National Convention.

36 ANGELL, JAMES BURRILL

ANGELL, JAMES BURRILL (1829-19 16). Educator, journalist, diplomat. Born in Rhode Island, he was editor of The Journal (1860-1866), president of the University of Vermont (1866-1871), and president of the University of Michigan (1871). As U.S. minister to China (1880-188l), he negotiated an 1880 treaty on Chinese immigration. While Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt served as attach6 to the U.S. legation at Peking (1881), Angell was kept uninformed of Shufeldt's mission until Shufeldt told him personally. Angell later served as minister to Turkey (1897-1898) and was a cofounder (1884) and president (1893-1894) of the American Historical Association. ANGLO-AMERICAN RELATIONS. See GREAT BRITAINUNITED STATES RELATIONS; GREAT RAPPROCHEMENT. ANGLOPHOBIA. One of several elements contributing to the contours of Anglo-American relations throughout the 19th century. Stemming in part from the Revolution's antagonisms, in part from the U.S. population's ethnic mix, and in part from basic American nationalism, hatred of Great Britain surfaced at key flashpoints throughout the century, often when Anglo-American conflicts occurred. In addition, Anglophobia emerged in several election campaigns, notably the presidential campaign of 1888. The major turning point in Anglo-American relations was the so-called great rapprochement of the 1890s. From that point, and particularly in the decade preceding World War I, Anglophobia began to decline. See also ANGLO-SAXONISM. ANGLO-SAXONISM. The belief that Anglo-Saxons were an innately superior people destined to bring prosperity and order to the world. Many 19th-century Americans viewed themselves as a special and even more superior branch of the Anglo-Saxons. The view surfaced as Manifest Destiny in the first half of the century and expansionism or imperialism in the late century, and at the same time created a counter-

APPLETON, JOHN 37 weight to a stream of Anglophobia that also ran through the American popular imagination. ANTI-IMPERIALISM. During the post-Civil War era, as the United States increasingly "looked outward," a segment of the American population expressed reservations about "imperialism" and expansionism. Anti-expansionism had been a strong theme in antebellum America, but especially after the Spanish-American War a reform movement developed that opposed colonialism for a mixture of idealistic, principled, and self-serving motivations. See also ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, ON EXPANISONISM; ANTI-IMPEWIST LEAGUE; EXPANSIONISM. ANTI-IMPERIALIST LEAGUE. Founded in New England in 1898 and nationally in 1899 in response to the proposed U.S. annexation of the Philippines after the Spanish-American War. The league received its strongest support in the Northeast and included such prominent members as Andrew Carnegie, Jane Addams, William James, and E. L. Godkin. The league's opposition to annexation included arguments that acquisition of colonies was unconstitutional; that the president was exceeding his authority; and that annexation would betray American ideals. Despite such arguments, the Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris of 1898, and afterward the league declined in strength. ANTI-IMPERIALISTS. See ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, ON EXPANSIONISM; ADDAMS, JANE; CARNEGIE, ANDREW; GODKIN, E. L.; JAMES, WILLIAM. APPLETON, JOHN (1815-1864). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Massachusetts, he served as U.S. chargC d'affaires in Bolivia (1848-1849), a Democratic member of Congress from Maine (185 1-1853), secretary of legation in London (18%), and assistant secretary of state (1857-1860) under President James Buchanan. He then served as Bu-

38 ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL

chanan's minister to Russia (1860-1861), resigning upon the election of Abraham Lincoln. ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. A method of solving disputes between sovereign states in which a third party selected by the two disputants hears the case and hands down a legally binding decision. The United States had employed the technique on several occasions, but the Alabama Claims arbitration, under the Treaty of Washington, demonstrated the utility of the method. In the late 19th century, many individuals and nations began to emphasize arbitration as the preferred method of solving conflict without war. See ARBITRATION TREATIES of 1897,1908 and 1911. ARBITMTION TREATY, 1897. One of many efforts to establish a mechanism for the peaceful resolution of international disputes and also to ensure amicable Anglo-American relations. In the 1897 treaty, sometimes known as the 01ney-Pauncefote Treaty, Great Britain and the United States agreed to submit to arbitration "all questions in difference between them which they may fail to adjust by diplomatic negotiation." The U.S. Senate debated the treaty extensively, amended it, and then refused to ratify it. ARBITRATION TREATIES, 1908. One of many efforts to establish a mechanism for the peaceful resolution of international disputes, these were 25 treaties signed with France on 10 February 1908. More limited in scope than the AngloAmerican Arbitration Treaty of 1897, which had failed to win Senate ratification, these treaties established that the United States and France agreed to turn to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague for resolution of differences over legal or treaty issues provided that "they do not affect the vital interests, the independence, or the honor of the two contracting states, and do not concern the interests of third parties."

ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN 39

ARBITRATION TREATIES, 1911. One of many efforts to establish a mechanism for the peaceful resolution of international disputes, these were a series of treaties the United States signed with Great Britain and France. The signatories agreed to refer disputes to either the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague or a special tribunal. The Senate ratified the treaty with significant amendments, and since President William Howard Taft refused to accept those amendments the treaties never took effect. ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA (1879). See ETHNOLOGY. ARCTIC EXPLORATION. See POLAR EXPEDITIONS. ARMSTRONG V. UNITED STATES (1901). One of the socalled Insular cases. In this decision and that of Dooley v. United States (1901) the Supreme Court declared that the presidentially imposed war tariff on goods exported from the United States to Puerto Rico ended upon the ratification of the peace treaty under which Puerto Rico became subject to US. sovereignty. ARMSTRONG, DAVID MAITLAND (1836-1918). Artist, attorney, and diplomat. Born in Orange County, New York, he served as chargt d'affaires (1869) and consul general (1869-1872) to the Papal States. He was also responsible for the frescoes in Machinery Hall at the World's Columbian Exposition (1893) and was known for the stained glass windows that he designed. ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1829-1886). Twenty-first president of the United States. He was elected Republican vice president in 1880 and assumed the presidency in 1881 on the death of President James A. Garfield in 1881. As president, Arthur first vetoed a bill that totally ended Chinese immigration, but then, under political pressure from California, signed the Chinese Exclusion Act that ended such immigra-

40 ASBOTH, ALEXANDER ( s ~ D o R )

tion for 10 years. He appointed a commission to examine the tariff issue, but despite the commission's recommendation for a lower tariff Arthur ultimately assented to the Tariff of 1883 bill that left rates largely unchanged. He supported and signed the Pendleton Act, which created a Civil Service Commission. The consular service fell under the new system and so began to become professionalized. Arthur's secretary of state, James G. Blaine, strengthened U.S. commercial relations with Latin America and Korea and advocated an Isthmian canal through Panama. Arthur inherited William H. Hunt as his first secretary of the navy but, under political pressure, replaced Hunt in April 1882 with William E. Chandler, who is often called the "father of the modern navy." During his single term in office, Arthur negotiated reciprocal treaties with Mexico, Spain, and the British West Indies, although protectionist elements in his own party balked at such treaties. In part for that reason he was not renominated for a second term. See also PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1880. ASBOTH, ALEXANDER ( S ~ D O R )(1811-1868). Soldier and diplomat. Born in Hungary, he came to the United States with Louis Kossuth in 1851 and was a general in the Union army during the Civil War. Later, he served as minister to Argentina (1866-68) and minister to Uruguay (1867-68). ASIA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. The United States had only tangential interests in Asia during the 19th century, mostly economic and cultural. The "China Trade" loomed large in the imaginations of American businessmen throughout the period. Among the first ships to leave American ports after independence had been merchantmen heading for China. The China trade continued throughout the century but, statistically, was never significant in comparison with the economic contacts between the United States and Europe or within the Western Hemisphere. A "cultural" connection with Asia, however, was more noteworthy, as educators, scientists, explorers, and Protestant missionaries developed

ASSOCIATED PRESS (AP) 41

strong contacts between the United States and Siam, Burma, China, Japan, and Korea. At mid-century, American naval officers Matthew C. Perry and Robert W. Shufeldt had "opened" China and Korea to American contacts, which culminated at the end of the century with U.S. acquisition of the Philippines as a result of the Spanish-American War. The American strategic stake in Asia remained insignificant until that point. See also ASIAN IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES; BORNEO; CHINESE EXCLUSION ACTS; GENTLEMEN'S AGREEMENT; JAPANESE AND KOREAN EXCLUSION LEAGUE. ASIAN IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES. Even as the American strategic stake in Asia remained insignificant in the late 19th century, the impact of Asia within the United States grew. In the last decades of the 19th century, use of Asian immigrants as cheap labor in railroad construction, mining, and agriculture contributed to three waves of immigration: 1850-1882 (Chinese); 1890-1924 (Japanese); and 1900- 1935 (Filipino). Immigration alternated with reactions against the "yellow peril" that included violence, discrimination, and Asian exclusion. Congress ended Chinese immigration in 1882 through the first Chinese Exclusion Act, and in the 1907 Gentlemen's Agreement Japan voluntarily ended Japanese emigration to the United States. See also ASIA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. ASSOCIATED PRESS (AP). Newsgathering agency, which originated in New York City in the 1820s and by 1860 had absorbed most of its rivals and expanded into Canada. At a time when there were multiple daily newspapers in big cities, the organization permitted only one newspaper in a market to join the cooperative. In 1900, Congress attacked the group as a monopoly. The organization lost the resulting suit filed by the Department of Justice, but the loss, in turn, allowed other newspapers to join the organization, making it stronger in the end. By the turn of the 20th century, the organization had amassed a worldwide reputation for excel-

42 ASTOR, WILLIAM WALDORF

lence in journalism. Mark Twain told the AP's annual meeting in 1906, "There are only two forces that can carry light to all comers of the globe and only two-the sun in the heavens and The Associated Press down here." The growth of the Associated Press reflected rapidly growing American links to global affairs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. See also UNITED PRESS. ASTOR, WTLLIAM WALDORF (1848-1919). Capitalist and diplomat. Born in New York City, he was a Republican member of the New York State Assembly (1878-1879) and the New York State Senate (1880-188 1). He served as U.S. minister to Italy (1882-1885) and later became a British subject (1899). ATLANTIC CABLE. A transatlantic telegraph link, the project of New York entrepreneur Cyrus W. Field, was first successfully laid in August 1858 between Newfoundland and Ireland. Technical challenges had slowed the enterprise. The cable had at first broken while being laid, and only one ship in the world, Brunel's white elephant steamship Great Eastern, was large enough to carry enough cable to span the North Atlantic. But the 1858 opening was a technical and public relations triumph that conjured new images of Transatlantic unity. The cable failed after only a month, however. Ironically, the lack of a functioning cable link afforded the diplomatic antagonists in the Trent affair (1861) the time required to cool tensions and thereby prevent an AngloAmerican clash. A permanent link was completed in 1866, and, by 1900, 15 transatlantic telegraph cables linked the Old World with the New. ATLANTIC CROSSING. A term often used to describe the experience of crossing the Atlantic Ocean in a sailing vessel or steamship. That experience had psychological aspects, in that steerage passengers, usually emigrants leaving Europe for a new life in the United States, were marked by the hardships of the experience, while first-class travelers experi-

BACON, JOHN EDMUND 43

enced luxury and pleasure. Similarly, the physiological impact of a long crossing on a sailing vessel-often, diseasewas part of the immigrant experience. For both ends of the socioeconomic spectrum, the crossing became part of folklore. Meanwhile late in the 19th century the economic dimensions included cutthroat economic competition and development of great liners subsidizing crossings for the elite with steerage passengers. See also IMMIGRATION; OCEANIC PASSENGER TRAVEL. ATLANTIC MONTHLY. A magazine of literature, art, and current affairs, first published in Boston in 1857. James Russell Lowell served as its first editor (1857-1862). AVERY, BENJAMIN PARKE (1828-1875). Journalist and diplomat. A resident of California, he served as U.S. minister to China (1874-1875).

BABCOCK, ORVILLE E. (1835-1884). Soldier and presidential private secretary. He was private secretary and close adviser to President Ulysses S. Grant. In 1870, Grant sent Babcock to Santo Domingo to explore annexation possibilities and, on that mission, he negotiated an annexation treaty. Later, Babcock was forced to resign his position because of his involvement with the Whiskey Ring scandal, in which a group of distillers was involved in a scheme to defraud the government of tax revenue. He was acquitted, and afterward worked on engineering projects. See also SANTO DOMINGO, PLANS FOR ANNEXATION OF. BACON, JOHN EDMUND (1832-1897). Diplomat. A Democrat from South Carolina, he was secretary of legation at St. Petersburg (1858), where he was also acting chargC d'affaires until the arrival of the permanent U.S. minister, F. W. Pickens. Upon the election of Abraham Lincoln, Bacon resigned his post and joined the Confederate army. After the

44 BACON, ROBERT

war, he was, briefly, a district judge, and then unsuccessfully ran for congress. He served as US. chargC d'affaires to Paraguay (1885), chargC d'affaires to Uruguay (1885-1886), minister to Uruguay (1886-1888), and minister to Paraguay (1888). BACON, ROBERT (1860-1919). Banker and government official. Born in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, he joined J.P. Morgan and Company in 1894 as a partner, and with the company was involved in the creation of U.S. Steel. He served as assistant secretary of state (1905-1909) and acting secretary of state during Elihu Root's goodwill tour of South America (January-March 1906). As acting secretary of state, he persuaded the Senate to approve treaties with Panama and Colombia designed to resolve issues remaining from the Panama Revolution of 1903. He served as ambassador to France (1909-1912) and in 1913 traveled to South America for the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Later, he wrote about better hemispheric relations. Before U.S. entry into World War I, Bacon was a vocal proponent of preparedness and, eventually, U.S. participation. During World War I, he was a colonel in the U.S. army and served as chief of the American military mission at British headquarters. BAILLY-BLANCHARD, ARTHUR (1855-1925). Foreign service officer. Born in New Orleans, in 1855 he became private secretary to the US. minister to France and, later, secretary to the Bering Sea. Tribunal of Arbitration. In 1897 he became secretary to the U.S. ambassador to Russia, John W. Foster. He served as assistant secretary to the US. delegation to the Hague Peace Conference (1907), secretary of embassy, Paris (1909-1912), and deputy chief of mission (secretary of embassy) to Japan (1912-1914). His final foreign post was as U.S. minister to Haiti (1914-1921) during the first U.S. occupation of that nation (1914-1934). His final assignment involved special duty at the Department of State (1923-1925).

BALTIMORE AFFAIR 45

BAJO NUEVO (PETREL ISLAND). An oval-shaped coral bank, northeast of Serranilla Bank, 180 miles southwest of Jamaica, in the Caribbean Sea. The United States claimed Bajo Nuevo under the Guano Islands Act, but other nations continued to challenge the claim. BAKER ISLAND. A tiny island (1,500 yards wide and one mile long) about 1,650 miles southwest of Honolulu in the Pacific Ocean. In 1832, Michael Baker, the captain of a Nantucket whaling vessel, sighted the island, marked it on a map, and named it New Nantucket. He landed on the island in 1839 to bury one of his crew, at the same time claiming the island and raising the American flag. When the U.S. government received reports in 1855 that Baker Island was rich with guano deposits, Congress took action and passed the Guano Islands Act. ARer Baker sold his interest in the island to the American Guano Company, the company claimed the island in 1856 under the recently passed act. The company mined the island for its guano resources for the next quarter century, abandoning it in the 1880s. BAKER, JEHU (1822-1903). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Kentucky, he was a Republican congressman from Illinois (1 865-1 869, 1887-1 889, 1897-1 899), and served as U.S. minister (1878-1881, 1882-1885) and consul genera1 (1882-1885) to Venezuela. BAKER, LEWIS (1832-1899). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and El Salvador (18931897). BAKER, WILLIAM L. (d. 1863). Consular representative. He was U.S. consul at Guaymas, Mexico (1861-1863), and was killed by Indians at Guaymas, 6 January 1863.

BALTIMORE AFFAIR (1891). In 1891, civil war broke out in Chile. A rebel steamer, the Itata, escaped San Diego harbor and headed for Chile, where it surrendered to U.S. military

46 BALZAC V. PORTO RICO

authorities but was eventually released. Meanwhile, U.S. minister Patrick Egan had granted asylum to a number of Chileans fleeing from the triumphant rebels. Tensions between the United States and Chile were high because of these events. Then, on 16 October 1891, Captain Winfield S. Schley of the USS Baltimore allowed 120 of his crew shore leave while in Valparaiso. The sailors were at the True Blue Saloon when, reportedly, some Chileans spat in their faces. A riot ensued, two American sailors were killed, and 17 were wounded. Some Americans angrily insisted that the American flag had been insulted. The Chilean government delayed in issuing any sort of apology, the acting secretary of state (Secretary of State James G. Blaine was ill) sent a pointed diplomatic note, and war feeling in both the United States and Chile soared. On 21 January 1892, Secretary of State Blaine sent an ultimatum to the Chilean government threatening to sever diplomatic relations. In response, Chile issued a full apology. Blaine was criticized at the time for using excessive pressure, and historians have suggested that his actions, to a certain extent, worked against his efforts at greater Pan American cooperation. BALZAC V. PORTO RICO (1922). One of the so-called Insular Cases. The Supreme Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial was inapplicable in Puerto Rico. BANCROFT, GEORGE (1800-1891). Historian, secretary of the navy (1845-1846), minister to England (1846-1849), and minister to Prussia (1867-1871) and then Germany (18711874), during which time he became a close friend of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. BARRETT, JOHN (1866-1938). Diplomat and author. Born in Vermont, he served as minister to Siam (1894-1898), in which capacity he oversaw arbitration involving $3 million in claims and issues of extratenitoriality. He also engaged in a special mission to Japan, Siam, Korea, Siberia, and India regarding diplomatic and commercial relations. During the

BATCHELLER, GEORGE SHERMAN 47

Spanish-American War and the subsequent Philippine insurrection, he served as a newspaper correspondent in the Philippines (1898-1899). Afterward, he was American plenipotentiary to the International Conference of American Republics in Mexico (190 1-1902). As commissioner-general of foreign affairs of the St. Louis Exposition (1902-1903) he visited China, Japan, the Philippines, Korea, Liberia, India, Australia, and Europe. In 1903, he declined the post of U.S. minister to Japan but afterward served as minister to Argentina (1903-19O4), Panama (1904-19O5), and Colombia (1905-1906). Later, he was director general of the Pan American Union in Washington, D.C. (1907-1920) and founder of the Pan American Society of the United States (1912). BARTLETT, JOSEPH JACKSON (1834-1893). Soldier, attorney, and diplomat. Born in Binghamton, New York, he served in the Union army during the Civil War, and later was U.S. minister to Sweden (1867-1869). BARTON, CLARA HARLOWE (182 1- 19 12). Founder and first president (1882-1904) of the American Red Cross. In 1869, she went to Geneva as a member of the International Red Cross, and, in 1870, represented the German Red Cross during the Franco-Prussian War. She won membership in the international body for the American group. BASSETT, EBENEZER DON CARLOS (1833-1908). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Haiti (1869-1877) and consul general at Port au Prince, Haiti (1874). Born in Litchfield, Connecticut, Bassett was the first African American to be appointed to a foreign diplomatic post. BATCHELLER, GEORGE SHERMAN (1837-1908). Soldier, jurist, diplomat. Born in Saratoga County, New York, he was a member of the New York State Assembly (1859, 18731874, 1886, 1888-1889) and served as a colonel in the Union army during the Civil War. He served as minister to Portu-

48 BAXTER, HENRY

gal (1890-1892) and was U.S. judge on the international tribunal that administered the laws of Egypt (1876-1885, 18981908). BAXTER, HENRY (1821-1873). Soldier and diplomat. He was a general in the Union army during the Civil War, and afterward served as U.S. minister to Honduras (1869-1873). BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS (1828-1 898). Attorney, politician, and statesman. He was secretary of state in the first administration of President Grover Cleveland (1885-1889), and became the first American to hold the rank of ambassador when he was appointed ambassador to Great Britain (1893-1897). As secretary of state, he appointed qualified diplomatic representatives and spent much of his time with the fisheries issue and the Bering Sea controversy. Bayard also attempted, unsuccessfully, to resolve the AlaskaCanadian Boundary Dispute and the Venezuela Boundary Dispute. In the second Cleveland administration, as ambassador to Great Britain, he worked to improve AngloAmerican relations, especially during the continuing Venezuela boundary crisis. BAYARD-CHAMBERLAIN PACT (1888). A compromise on the fisheries issue, signed February 1888 by Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard and British colonial secretary Joseph Chamberlain, after delicate negotiations. The British and Canadians worked for a pact in which imports of Canadians fish would be granted reciprocity in exchange for which American fishermen would be entitled to fish in Canadian waters. Ultimately, the pact stated that Americans could fish in designated Canadian and Newfoundland waters and specified what their rights would be. If "free fish" were restored, the pact stated, Americans could buy supplies and also transship fish or crews at Canadian and Newfoundland ports and get free fishing licenses. The U.S. Senate rejected the treaty, in part because of pressure fkom the fishery lobby but also because it was a presidential election year and Re-

B E A U P ~ARTHUR , MATTHIAS 49 publicans, in an effort to pander to the Irish vote, painted the pact as pro-British. See also PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1888. BAYONET CONSTITUTION (1887). The pejorative nickname given to the liberal constitution that the reform cabinet of foreigners, led by Lorrin Thurston and William Green, had imposed on King Kalakaua of Hawaii. When Queen Liliuokalani became monarch in 1891, she sought to replace the reform constitution. BEALE, EDWARD FITZGERALD (1822-1893). Frontiersman and diplomat. He served in the U.S. Navy and in 1848 was the courier who brought news of the California gold strike to the East Coast. Later, he led an army experiment in the use of camels. ARer the Civil War, he served as U.S. minister to Austria-Hungary (1876-1877). In 1882, former president Ulysses S. Grant recommended Beale as secretary of the navy, but President Chester Arthur chose William E. Chandler instead. Beale was the father of Truxton Beale. BEALE, TRUXTUN (1856-1936). Diplomat and attorney. Born in San Francisco, he was the son of Edward Fitzgerald Beale and became the son-in-law of James G. Blaine. He served as minister to Persia (1891-1892), and then minister (1892-1894) and envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary (1893-1894) to Greece, Romania, and Serbia. In 1912, he was a delegate to the Republican National Convention. BEARDSLEY, RICHARD (1838-1876). Diplomat. He served as U.S. consul general to Egypt (1872-1876). B E A U P ~ ARTHUR , MATTHIAS (1853-1919). Lawyer and diplomat. He served as consul general and secretary (18971899) to the U.S. legation to Guatemala and Honduras. He then served as the arbitrator in a dispute between Great Britain and Honduras (1899). He subsequently became con-

50 BELIZE

sul general and secretary of the U.S. legation to Colombia (1899-1903) and then minister to Colombia (1903-1904) during the Panama Revolution. Afterward, he was minister to Argentina (1904-1908), Luxembourg (1908-191I), and the Netherlands (1908-191I), and also member of the arbitrative council of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (190819 11). His final appointment was as minister to Cuba (19 111913).

BELIZE. See BRITISH HONDURAS. BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH (1829-1890). Politician and cabinet officer. Born in Orange County, New York, he served as a Republican member of the Iowa state legislature (1857-1858) and as a general in the Union army during the Civil War. He served as secretary of war under President Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1876). He was impeached in 1876 by the House of Representatives for taking bribes. Although he had resigned on 2 March 1876, the Senate held an impeachment trial and, on 1 August 1876, voted 35 to 25 for his conviction, short of the necessary two-thirds. BELL, ISAAC JR. (1846-1889). Diplomat. A resident of Rhode Island, he served as U.S. minister to the Netherlands (18851988). BELMONT, PERRY (1 850-1947). Banker, politician, and diplomat. The son of American financier August Belmont, he served as a Democratic member of Congress from New York (188 1-1888) and was chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Relations (1885-1888). He subsequently served as minister to Spain (1888-1889) and was a delegate to four Democratic National Conventions (1892, 1896, 1904, and 1912). BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP (1811-1884). Lawyer and Confederate statesman. He was born in St. Croix, Virgin Islands, served as senator from Louisiana (1853-1861) and, for the

BERING SEA CONTROVERSY 5 1

Confederate States of America, attorney general (1861), secretary of war (1861-1862), and secretary of state (18621865). He strove unsuccessfully to gain diplomatic recognition and loans for the Confederacy. After the war he avoided capture and took up residence in England, where he resumed his law practice. See also CIVIL WAR, INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF. BENJAMIN, SAMUEL GREENE WHEELER (1837-1914). Author, artist, and diplomat. Born in Greece and a resident of Vermont, he was the author or essays, poems, and stories and contributed articles and illustrations to various magazines. A Republican, he served as the first U.S. minister to Persia (1883-1885). BENNETT, JAMES GORDON, JR. (1841-1918). Publisher of the New York Herald. In pursuit of greater circulation for his newspaper, he sponsored numerous foreign expeditions, including one in search of the Northwest Passage and, most famously, of Henry Stanley's expedition into Africa (18701871) in search of explorer David Livingstone. Afterward, Bennett funded Stanley's successful expedition (1874) to cross Africa from Zanzibar to the mouth of the Congo River. In 1877, Bennett established the International Herald Tribune in Paris. BERGHOLZ, LEO ALLEN (b. 1857). Consular representative. A Republican, he served as U.S. consul general in Beirut (1905-1906), Tientsin, China (19O5), Canton (Guangzhou) China (c. 1906-1912), Kingston, Jamaica (19l2), Winnepeg (1913), Dresden (1913-1917), and Seoul (1918-1919). BERING SEA CONTROVERSY. A dispute between the United States and Canada over the hunting of fur seals in the Bering Sea. After the purchase of Alaska, Americans had hunted seals on the Pribilof Islands during breeding season. The animals were so valuable for their skins and oil that soon Canadian competitors were hunting pelagic seals--on

52 BERLIN, TREATY OF

open sea, in international waters-causing prices to drop. In retaliation, in 1886 and 1887, U.S. revenue cutters seized a number of Canadian sealing vessels. The resulting Anglolcanadian-American controversy enflamed Anglophobia and jingoism in the United States. Secretary of State James G. Blaine engaged in a protracted exchange of complex diplomatic notes with his British counterpart, but ultimately the issue was turned over to arbitration. In 1893, the arbitration tribunal ruled against the United States. See also ALASKA COMMERCIAL COMPANY. BERLIN, TREATY OF (1899). An agreement by which Great Britain and Germany renounced their claims over the eastern islands of Samoa in favor of the claims by the United States. The treaty went into effect on 16 February 1900. BEWIN CONFERENCE (1889). Called by German chancellor Otto von Bismarck to resolve Anglo-German-American tensions over Samoa. Secretary of State James G. Blaine's insistence on Samoan autonomy blocked a formal division and annexation of the islands, and so the conference agreed, on 14 June 1889, to a protectorate by the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, with Samoans having nominal sovereignty. BEVERIDGE, ALBERT (1862-1927). Senator and historian. As a Republican senator from Indiana (1899-1911), he opposed the Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909), which helped to cause his defeat in the 1910 election. In domestic matters he was generally a progressive (helping to found the Progressive Party in 1912), while in matters of foreign policy he was jingoistic and imperialistic. "The March of the Flag" was Beveridge's most famous campaign speech. BIDDLE, THOMAS (1827-1875). Diplomat. A resident of Pennsylvania, he served as U.S. minister to El Salvador (1871-1873).

BIMETALLISM 53

BIDLACK-MALLARINO TREATY (1846). Treaty between the United States and New Granada (later Colombia). It was negotiated by Benjamin A. Bidlack, U.S. charge d'affaires in New Granada (1845-1849). The treaty abolished discriminatory tariff duties between the two countries, permitted a right of way across the Isthmus of Panama, and insured New Granada's rights over the isthmus and the neutrality of the isthmus. The treaty was ratified in 1848. In 1903, with revolution in Panama imminent, John Bassett Moore, an authority on international law, advised President Theodore Roosevelt that the treaty gave the United States the right to construct an isthmian canal. In addition, the "vested property right" that the United States claimed as a result of the treaty was used to justify the use of American troops to protect traffic across the isthmus during the postbellum era. BIG STICK POLICY. President Theodore Roosevelt asserted in 1900 that "I have always been fond of the West African proverb: 'Speak softly, and carry a big stick, and you will go far."' The phrase was adopted by journalists to characterize what they described as Roosevelt's aggressive foreign policy and has been used by historians ever since. In particular, the phrase has been used to describe Roosevelt's foreign policy in the Caribbean and Latin America. BIGELOW, JOHN (18 17-19 11). Author and diplomat. After coediting (with William Cullen Bryant) the New York Post (1848-1861), he served as U.S. consul at Paris (1861-1864) and U.S. minister to France (1864-1 867), playing a key role in preventing French recognition of the Confederate States during the Civil War. He also skillfblly managed problems arising from Napoleon 111's attempt to establish Maximilan as puppet ruler of Mexico. BIMETALLISM. The use of both gold and silver as monetary standards. Bimetallism was usually proposed as an alternative to a "gold standard." Supporters of the People's Party (Populists) in 1892 wanted bimetallism in terms of "free and

54 BINGHAM, JOHN ARMOR

unlimited coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of 16 to 1." Republicans, on the other hand, called for bimetallism on a parity basis, in which the values of the two metals in circulation were equivalent. The expectation and hope was that this would be a worldwide standard. See also PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1892. BINGHAM, JOHN ARMOR (1815-1900). Politician and diplomat. Born in Mercer County, Pennsylvania, he served as a Republican member of Congress from Ohio (1855-1863, 1865-1873). He then served as U.S. minister to Japan (1873-1885) and participated in Commodore Robert Shufeldt's negotiations with Korea. BIRCH, THOMAS HOWARD (1875-1929). Diplomat and public servant. Born in Burlington County, New Jersey, he was a leader of the New Jersey Democratic Party and served as an aide to Woodrow Wilson when he was governor of New Jersey (1912-1913). He subsequently served as U.S. minister to Portugal (19 13-1922). BIRNEY, JAMES M. (1817-1888). Lawyer and diplomat. He served as a Michigan circuit court judge (1860-1963) and as lieutenant governor of Michigan (1861). He was a delegate from Michigan to the Republican National Convention (1872) and Michigan's commissioner to the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition (1876). He subsequently served as minister to the Netherlands (1876-1882). BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE (1830-1893). Politician and statesman. He had been a newspaper editor in Maine and a founder and chairman of the Maine Republican Party. He served in the Maine House of Representatives (1859-1862) and was its speaker (1861-1862). He then served as a Republican member of Congress from Maine (1863-1876), speaker of the House of Representatives (1869-1875), and chairman of the House Rules Committee. A leader of the reform wing of the Republican Party, he tried but failed to gain the Re-

BLAIR, JACOB BEESON 55

publican nomination for president in 1876 and 1880, in part because of a bribery scandal that came to light in 1876. He served as senator from Maine (1876-1881), and then as secretary of state under President James Garfield (1881). As Garfield's secretary of state, he tried unsuccessfully to end the War of the Pacific involving Peru, Chile, and Bolivia (1879-1883). When Garfield was assassinated, and President Chester A. Arthur cancelled a Pan-American Conference that Blaine had advocated, he resigned as secretary. He then ran and was defeated as the Republican candidate for president in 1884 against Grover Cleveland. Blaine later served as secretary of state under President Benjamin Harrison (1889-1892). In that post, he demonstrated an activist foreign policy and an understanding of the role of American global leadership. He significantly strengthened U.S. relations with Latin America, working for a Pan-American Union and supporting international reciprocity agreements to encourage trade. He guided the settlement of the dispute with Germany and Great Britain over Samoa, conducted negotiations with Great Britain over the Bering Sea Controversy, and resolved disputes with Chile and Italy over the murder of American citizens. An "internationalist" at a time when many in his party looked with suspicion upon international involvement, he understood the importance of international trade for the future of American and global development. His leadership as secretary of state is alternately seen as "visionary," or simply "spirited," while he is sometimes described as an architect of 20th-century American empire. Controversial during his lifetime and a man who engendered either fierce loyalty or revulsion, he remained throughout his career one of the leading figures in Republican Party politics from 1865 to the 1890s. BLAIR, JACOB BEESON (1821-190 1). Politician and diplomat. He was a Unionist congressman from Virginia and West Virginia (1861-1865) and served as U.S. minister to Costa Rica (1868-1873). Later, he was a justice of the

56 BLAKE,MAXWELL

Wyoming territory Supreme Court (1876) and a judge in Utah (1892). BLAKE, MAXWELL (1877-1959). Foreign service official. Born in Kansas City, Missouri, he was U.S. consul in Funchal, Madeira Islands (1906-1907) and in Dumfermline, Scotland (1907-191O), consul general at Bogata, Colombia (1910), Tangier, Morocco (1910-1921, 1926-1932) and Melbourne, Australia (1924), and U.S. diplomatic agent to Morocco (1 917). BLATCHFORD, RICHARD MILFORD (1798-1875). Attorney and diplomat. He served as a member of the New York legislature (1856-1862), and was a member of the Union Defense Committee at the opening of the Civil War. He served as U.S. minister to the Papal States (1862-1863). BLOCKADE. The act by a belligerent power of closing the ports of its enemy, usually through the use of naval power. The Declaration of Paris of 1856 had proclaimed that blockades had to be effective in order to be considered binding. See also BLOCKADE RUNNING, CONFEDERATE; CIVIL WAR, INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF. BLOCKADE RUNNING, CONFEDERATE. In April 1861, President Abraham Lincoln announced a blockade of the Confederate coastline from Virginia to Texas, and throughout the Civil War the Union struggled to effectively close the South to foreign trade. Historians long debated the statistical effectiveness of the Union blockade but today generally agree that it had an impact on the Southern ability to wage war, regardless of the number of ships slipping through the blockade at any given point. BLOUNT, JAMES HENDERSON (1837-1903). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. He served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. Afienvard, he was a delegate to the Georgia state constitutional convention and a Democratic

BONAPARTE, CHARLES J. 57

member of Congress (1873-1893). He was appointed special commissioner, and then minister to Hawaii (1893), and his report on the circumstances surrounding Queen Liliuokalani's overthrow convinced President Grover Cleveland to oppose Hawaii annexation at that time. BLOW, HENRY TAYLOR (1817-1875). Businessman, politician, and diplomat. Engaged in the paint, oil, and lead business, he served in the Missouri state senate (1854-1858) and was a Unionist and Republican congressman from Missouri (1863-1867). Later, he was U.S. minister to Brazil (18691871). BOER WARS (1880-1881, 1899-1902). Wars fought by Great Britain with the Transvaal and Orange Free State in southem Africa. The difficulties in southern Africa arguably encouraged the British to resolve the Venezuela boundary dispute peacefully, contributed to the Great Rapprochement between the United States and Britain, and were a factor (because the United States did not support the Boers) in British acquiescence in American moves in Panama. BOKER, GEORGE HENRY (1823-1890). Poet, dramatist, and diplomat. During the Civil War, he published patriotic poems and founded the Union Club of Philadelphia (November 1862) to help raise money for the war and enlistments. He served as U.S. minister to Turkey (1871-1875), helping to strengthen U.S.-Ottoman relations and assisting archaeologists Heinrich Schliemann and Frank Calvert to get permits to excavate at the ancient city of Troy. He also served as minister to Russia (1875-1879), where he developed a personal friendship with Tsar Alexander 11. BONAPARTE, CHARLES J. (1851-192 1). Attorney, civil service reformer, and cabinet officer. He served as one of President Theodore Roosevelt's secretaries of the navy (19051906). A colorful figure in the Roosevelt cabinet, he came to the post with little naval background. He had little opera-

58 BONIN ISLANDS

tional influence on the movement of the fleet during the tensions in the Dominican Republic and the revolt in Cuba in 1906. Although he had no technical knowledge of ships, he supported the dominant view within the administration that the United States had to build big ships to match the Dreadnought-class of battleship being laid down in Great Britain at the time. He moved slowly on large-scale administrative reform within the navy, generally supported the naval view of Roosevelt and the bureau chiefs, and is usually considered one of Roosevelt's more effective secretaries of the navy. BONIN ISLANDS. A group of about 30 volcanic islands in the central Pacific, about 500 miles southeast of Japan. Iwo Jima is the largest island in the group. It was sighted by Spanish explorers in the 16th century and visited by an American whaler in 1823. Over the next three decades, various British and American settlers arrived. In June 1853, Commodore Matthew C. Perry reached Bonin with his fleet of warships, en route to Japan. The first Japanese settlers arrived in 1861, and the islands were taken over by Japan in 1875. BORDEN, JAMES WALLACE (18 10-1882). Jurist and diplomat. He was a circuit judge in Indiana (1841-1850), a delegate to the Indiana state constitutional convention (18501851), a common pleas court judge in Indiana (1851-1857, 1864), and a delegate from Indiana to the Democratic National Convention (1856). During the presidency of James Buchanan, Borden served as U.S. diplomatic commissioner to the Hawaiian Islands (1858-1861). BORIE, ADOLPH E. (1809-1880). Businessman and cabinet officer. Born in Philadelphia, as a young man he served as a vice consul in Belgium. His only other public office was as secretary of the navy under President Ulysses S. Grant (1869), a position he held for 15 weeks. Grant had appointed his friend largely as a figurehead, to allow Admiral David D. Porter to serve as the de facto head of the department.

BOXER REBELLION 59

BORNEO. The largest island in the East Indies, southwest of the Philippines. The United States had negotiated a treaty with Borneo in 1850, and in February 1880 Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt protested to the sultan of Borneo that his actions granting private individuals ownership over parts of the territory violated that treaty. BOWEN, HERBERT WOLCOTT (1856-1927). Lawyer and diplomat. Born in Brooklyn, New York, and a resident of Woodstock, New York, he served as consul general at Barcelona (1895-1899), minister to Persia (1899-1901), and envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Venezuela (1901-1905). As minister to Venezuela, he secured the release of foreign nationals who had been arrested during the revolt against Cipriano Castro. While minister, he also served as special commissioner for Venezuela in that nation's negotiations with Germany over Venezuela's debt. Bowen took a hard line against Germany, ultimately moving the standoff toward arbitration. But in 1905, he was discharged because of the discovery of incriminating documents in Caracas, even as he was charging that his predecessor in Caracas, Francis Loomis, had profited from financial deals regarding compensation for alleged damages to foreign property in Venezuela during periods of civil unrest. BOXER REBELLION (1899-1900). A nationalist and antiWestern uprising in China against the Dowager Empress and the "spheres of influence" that had been established by European nations. In May 1900, Christians and foreign nationals were killed, and in June the nationalists laid siege to foreign legations in Peking (Beijing). In August 1900, a joint force of American, British, French, German, Japanese, and Russians suppressed the uprising. Afterward, the United States exacted an indemnity of $25 million from the Chinese government, although much of the money was later returned or used to educate Chinese students in the United States. See also OPEN DOOR POLICY.

60 BOYD, SEMPRONIUS HAMILTON

BOYD, SEMPRONIUS HAMILTON (1828-1894). Politician and diplomat. Born near Nashville, Tennessee, he was a mayor of Springfield, Missouri (1856), and a Unionist congressman from Missouri (1863-1865). He was a delegate to the Republican National Convention (1864), a member of the Republican National Committee (1864-1868), a Missouri state court judge (1865), and a Republican member of Congress (1869-1871). In addition, he served as minister resident and consul general in Siam (1890-1892). BRAGG, EDWARD STUYVESANT (1827-1912). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Otsego County, New York, he served in the Union army during the Civil War and was a Democratic congressman from Wisconsin (1877-1883, 1885-1887). He served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1888l889), and U.S. consul general in Havana, Cuba (19O2), and Hong Kong (1903-1906). BRAZIL. The largest country in South America, bounded by Colombia, Venezuela, French Guyana, Surinam, the Atlantic Ocean, Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Peru. Brazil was a Portuguese colony from 1500 until independence in 1822, when Don Pedro, son of the Portuguese king, became the first emperor. From 1865 to 1870, Brazil allied with Argentina and Uruguay in their successful effort to bring down Paraguayan dictator Francisco Solano L6pez. Beginning in 1871, the government took steps to end slavery, culminating in full abolition in 1888. On 15 November 1889, a revolution deposed the emperor and installed a provisional government under General Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca (1827-1892). A national congress proclaimed a new constitution in 1891. General Fonseca became the first president under the new constitution, but he was forced to resign on 23 November 1891, in the face of the incipient Brazilian Naval Revolt. After the revolt was suppressed, by April 1894, a civilian, Prudente Moraes Barros, was elected president, with the support of the government. In 1914, Brazil joined with Argentina and Chile to form the A.B.C. Powers.

BRAZILIAN NAVAL REVOLT 4

BRAZIL MAIL STEAMSHIP COMPANY. See UNITED STATES AND BRAZIL MAIL STEAMSHIP COMPANY. BRAZILIAN NAVAL, REVOLT (1893-1894). When General Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca resigned in 1891, he was replaced by Vice President Floriano Peixoto (1842-1895). Fear that Peixoto was scheming to be his own successor produced strong opposition to the new president, and the Brazilian congress passed a bill to make such succession illegal. Peixoto vetoed the bill on constitutional grounds, and revolts broke out, principally in southern Brazil, most significantly the naval revolt. In September 1893, the Brazilian naval force at Rio de Janeiro, led by Admiral Custodio de Mello, revolted. The rebellion pitted governmentlrepublican forces against navallmonarchist proponents. The rebel squadron (Aquidaban, Jupiter, and Republica) blockaded the harbor, disrupting the nonnal exchange of goods, and periodically bombarded the city for many months, eventually taking Santa Catarina. President Peixoto declared a state of siege and arrested many of the insurrectionists. The Grover Cleveland administration, despite the urging of the Brazilian minister in Washington and the U.S. minister in Rio, refused to grant belligerent status to the rebels but dispatched the Charlestown and the Detroit to Rio to protect American life and property. But Commodore Oscar F. Stanton, commanding the South Atlantic Squadron, opposed the use of force. Instead, he fired a salute to the insurgents, received and repaid a visit from one of de Mello's aides, and then twice conferred with Admiral de Mello. The Brazilian government protested, and the Cleveland administration immediately recalled Stanton. Cleveland's critics viewed the incident as typical administration blundering. Rear Admiral Andrew E. K. Benham arrived in January 1894 and, with his ships poised between the rebel vessels and the shore, ordered American goods be landed, essentially daring the rebels to oppose. The rebels replied by firing a blank warning over the American ships. Benham replied by firing a real shell into the rebel ship and warning that fur-

62 BRECKINRIDGE, CLIFTON RHODES

ther interference would result in the sinking of the ship. The American public applauded and Secretary of State Walter Q. Gresham formally approved Benham's actions. By March and April 1894, the naval rebellion had been suppressed. BRECKINRIDGE, CLIFTON RHODES (1846-1932). Planter, politician, and diplomat. He served in the Confederate army during the Civil War and as a Democratic congressman from Arkansas (1883-1894). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Russia (1894-1897) and was a delegate to the Arkansas state constitutional convention (1917). BRIDGMAN, GEORGE H. (1853-1925). Physician and diplomat. A resident of New Jersey, he served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1898-1902). He represented the United States in Bolivia during a time of difficult relations between Bolivia and Chile, which were clashing over the "Bolivian littoral"-a section of the coastline claimed by Bolivia but occupied by Chile. He warned the U.S. government (1899-1900) that, in his view, Bolivia's existence was threatened by recent treaties signed between Peru and Chile. Later, he was involved in the successful negotiation of a U.S.-Bolivian extradition treaty (negotiated 1900, proclaimed 1901). BRITISH AGGRESSIONS IN VENEZUELA. OR THE MONROE DOCTRllVE ON TRIAL. See SCRUGGS, WILLIAM L.

BRITISH HONDURAS. Also known as Belize, a British colony located in Central America between Yucath, Guatemala, and the Caribbean. Settled by woodcutters from Jamaica in the early 17th century, the area experienced growing British influence in the antebellum period, but the United States failed to invoke the Monroe Doctrine even when Great Britain declared the area a crown colony in 1862.

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BRITISH WEST INDIES. Part of the chain of islands stretching 1,600 miles from the coast of North America to the coast of South America. In the 19th century, the most important British possessions in this chain included Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad, and the Bahamas. As British colonies, they served as both a lightning rod for and prototype of AngloAmerican relations during the period. The British islands in particular controlled lines of communication and trade between American Gulf ports and South America, the Gulf ports and East Coast ports, and the East Coast and South America. They took only a small portion of American trade but were nevertheless among America's top trading partners at mid-century. During the Civil War they served as centers of blockade running. See also WEST INDIES. BROWN, PHILIP MARSHALL (1875-1966). Diplomat. Born in Penobscot County, Maine, he served as U.S minister to Honduras (1908- 1910). Immediately after World War I, he was a member of the American military mission in Hungary. Later, he was a professor of international law at Princeton University. BROWNE, JOHN ROSS (c. 1821-1875). Illustrator, writer, and diplomat. Born in Ireland, he emigrated to Kentucky with his parents (1832). He later became a resident of California, where he was an agent for the U.S. Treasury Department. He served as minister to China (1868-1869) during the last year of Andrew Johnson's presidency. BRYAN, CHARLES PAGE (1856-19 18). Diplomat. He received a recess appointment as minister to China (1897), but the appointment was withdrawn before the Senate could act. He served as minister to Brazil (1898-1902), Portugal (1903-1910), and Belgium (1910-191 I), and then ambassador to Japan (191 1-1912). BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS (1860-1925). Politician and secretary of state. As a congressman from Nebraska (1891-

64 BRYCE, JAMES

1895) he spoke against the protective tariff and in favor of free silver. He ran unsuccessfully for president in 1896, 1900, and 1908. In the 1900 campaign against President William McKinley, Bryan made imperialism (after the Spanish-American War) an issue, arguing that expansionism endangered American republican institutions, but McKinley easily won reelection during a period of good economic conditions and general satisfaction with the outcome of the war. Bryan was defeated for a third time in 1908. In 1912 he managed to turn the Democratic nomination toward Woodrow Wilson, who, when elected, appointed Bryan secretary of state (1913-1915). In that post, he advocated "cooling off' treaties in which signatories would agree that if they could not resolve a dispute they would wait a year before resorting to war. He strove to prevent American entry into World War I, and, believing that President Wilson's protest over the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 was inflammatory, resigned as secretary. A pacifist and idealist with a limited understanding of the realities of international politics, he nevertheless was able to work toward good Latin America-U.S. relations. His critics derided his opposition to alcoholic beverages and called his policies "Grape Juice Diplomacy." See also BIMETALLISM. BRYCE, JAMES (1838-1922). British ambassador to the United States (1907-1913) who published his observations on American politics as The American Commonwealth (1888). He described a democracy threatened by local corruption but strong because of widespread property ownership and its de-emphasis of class structure. BRYCE, LLOYD STEPHENS (185 1-1917). Author and diplomat. Born in Flushing, Queens County, New York, he was editor of the North American Review (1889-1896) and Democratic representative to Congress (1887-1889). He later served as minister to Luxembourg and the Netherlands (191 1-1913) and in 1913 was a delegate to the Opium Conference.

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BUCHANAN, JAMES M. (1803-1876). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Denmark (1858-1861). He was a cousin of President James Buchanan. BUCHANAN, WILLIAM INSCO (1852-1909). Businessman and diplomat. He was chief of four exhibit divisions at the World's Columbian Exposition (1893). He later served as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Argentina (1894-1899) and, in 1901, he was director general of the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo. He was a delegate to the Second International conference of American States at Mexico City (1901), and he was the first U.S. minister to Panama (1903-1904). Buchanan was a commercial expansionist who helped strengthen hemispheric relations and goodwill. BUCK, ALFRED ELIAB (1832-1902). Politician and diplomat. Born in Piscataquis County, Maine, he served in the Civil War, leading several African-American regiments. Afterward, he was a delegate to the Alabama constitutional convention and a Republican congressman from Alabama (1869-1871). He served as U.S. minister to Japan (18971902). BUCK, CHARLES WILLIAM (1849-1930). Lawyer and diplomat. Born in Vicksburg, Mississippi, he was a resident of Louisville, Kentucky. He served as U.S. minister to Peru (1885-1889) and was the author of Under the Sun; or The Passing of the Incas (1902). BUCKALEW, CHARLES ROLLIN (1821-1899). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Columbia County, Pennsylvania, he was a Democratic state senator in Pennsylvania (1851-1856, 1858, 1870-1872). He was a commissioner appointed to exchange ratifications of a treaty between the United States and Paraguay, and he served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (1858-1861). Later, he was a senator from Pennsylvania (1863-1869), an unsuccessful candidate for gover-

66 BUCKNER,GEORGE WASHINGTON

nor (1872), and congressman from Pennsylvania (18871891). BUCKNER, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1855-1943). Physician, politician, and diplomat. Born into slavery, he served as consul general at Monrovia, Liberia (1914) and U.S. minister to Liberia (1913-1915). BUNAU-VARILLA, PHILIP JEAN (1859- 1940). Engineer who worked on the French Isthmian canal project. He was obsessed with the idea that Panama should be the route, and became one of the prime lobbyists on its behalf. He argued that Nicaragua's volcanic activity would endanger any canal. In 1902, a volcano erupted in Martinique, killing 30,000, followed by an eruption of Nicaragua's Momotombo. Bunau-Varilla cleverly found Nicaraguan postage stamps depicting a smoking Momotombo and sent them to members of Congress as a way of suggesting that a route without volcanoes-specifically Panama-was the preferable choice. BURLINGAME, ANSON (1820-1870). Diplomat and politician. Born in Chenango County, New York, he served as a Republican and American Party congressman from Massachusetts (1853-1861). In 1861 he was appointed US. minister to Austria, but the Austrian government refused to accept the appointment because of Burlingame's views regarding Hungary. He then became minister to China (1861-1867), afterward serving as China's envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary. In that capacity he negotiated treaties with the United States, Great Britain, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Prussia. His work in China contributed significantly to improved Sino-American relations during the period. See also BURLINGAME TREATY. BURLINGAME TREATY (1868). Treaty between the United States and China, named after Anson Burlingame. The treaty established free immigration between the two countries, "most favored nation" status regarding travel, resi-

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dence, and education, and noninterference by the United States in Chinese affairs. The Chinese Exclusion Acts modified some of these terms. BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862-1947). President of Columbia University (1902-1945) and a prominent member of the world peace movement in the decades before World War I. He helped to create the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, becoming its trustee and later president (1925-1945). In 1931, he won, with Jane Addams, the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his work for disarmament and international peace. Fundamentally, Butler was a conservative internationalist who believed in the power of education to promote world peace. BYINGTON, HOMER MORRISON (1879-1966). Consular representative. Born in Washington, D.C., he was a resident of Fairfield County, Connecticut. He served as vice consul at Naples, Italy (1900-1908) and at Rome (1908-1909). He then served as consul in Bristol (1909-19 13), Leeds (19 131917), Hull (1917-1910), Palermo (1919-1920), and Naples (1920-1921). His final overseas appointments were as consul general in Naples (1923-1929), Antwerp (1935), and Montreal (1936-1938). In the 1930s he served in the office of chief of personnel of the Department of State.

CALDWELL, JOHN CURTIS (1833-19 12). Soldier and diplomat. A resident of Maine, he served as a general in the Union army during the Civil War. Afienvard, he was U.S. minister to Paraguay (1874) and Uruguay (1874-1876), charge d'affaires to Paraguay (1876) and Uruguay (1876-1882), and minister to Persia (1914-1921). CALDWELL, JOHN WATSON (1809-1896). Diplomat. A resident of Ohio, He served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1868-1869).

68 CALHOUN, WILLIAM JAMES

CALHOUN, WILLIAM JAMES (1848-1916). Attorney and diplomat. Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and a resident of Illinois, he served as special commissioner to Venezuela (1905) and as minister to China (1909-1913). He was a delegate from Illinois to the Republican National Convention in 1916. CAMERON, JAMES DONALD (1833-1918). Politician and cabinet official. Son of Simon Cameron and a resident of Pennsylvania, he served as secretary of war under President Ulysses S. Grant (1876-1877). Cameron resigned the position to become Republican senator from Pennsylvania (1877-1897), in which capacity he served as chair of the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs. CAMERON, SIMON (1799-1889). American entrepreneur, diplomat, and politician. He served as a senator from Pennsylvania (1845-1849, 1857-1861), and then served briefly as President Abraham Lincoln's secretary of war (1861-1862). Cameron's administration was corrupt and ineptly managed, characterized by political favoritism in awarding contracts. After less than a year, President Lincoln appointed him minister to Russia (January-November 1862) to avoid further political embarrassment at home. He returned to the U.S. Senate (1867-1877), where he chaired the committee on foreign relations (1871-1877). He resigned so that his son, James Donald Cameron, could succeed him. CAMPBELL, JAMES HEPBURN (1820-1895). Politician and diplomat. Born in Williamsport, Wyoming County, Pennsylvania, he was a Whig and Republican congressman from Pennsylvania (1855-1857, 1859-1863), and served as U.S. minister to Sweden (1864-1867). In 1867 he was offered a diplomatic post to Colombia, but he declined the position. CANADA. The second-largest nation in the world, in terms of area, Canada is bounded by the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans, and by the United States on the south. By the British

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North America Act (1867) it became a confederation with full responsibility for domestic affairs. Minor rebellions occurred in 1869-1870 and 1885. In 1870, the province of Manitoba was formed and the Northwest Territories came under control of the national government. British Columbia, which had briefly toyed with union with the United States at the time of confederation, joined in 1871. In 1873, Prince Edward Island joined the confederation, and, in 1880, Britain turned the Arctic regions over to the national government. The Canadian-Pacific Railway opened in 1885-1886, tying the provinces together and facilitating the transcontinental shipment of wheat from the prairies to the east. In 18971898, the Klondike gold rush brought a boom period to the Yukon region. Alberta and Saskatchewan joined the confederation in 1905. See also CANADA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. CANADA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. Canada and the United States share what has often been described as the world's longest undefended border, yet during the 19th century Canada served as, in historian Samuel Flagg Bemis's phrase, the "coupling pin" of Anglo-American relations. During the Civil War, the British feared a U.S. invasion of Canada, especially during the Trent crisis. Nevertheless, Canadians tended to be pro-North because of the slavery issue. British fears over Canada's vulnerability to U.S. expansion led to the British North America Act, which created, effective 1 July 1867, a Canadian confederation with responsibility for domestic affairs. Great Britain nevertheless maintained responsibility for issues of defense and foreign relations. Some Americans argued that creating the confederation constituted a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, and the U.S. House of Representatives passed a resolution to that effect in March 1867. For the next 50 years, CanadianAmerican relations were relatively amicable, marred by a number of continuing challenges: disputes over fisheries, the Bering sea controversy, border incursions (especially the Fenian invasions), border disputes (Alaska-Canadian

70 CANADIAN RECIPROCITY

boundary dispute, Northwest Water boundary dispute), continuing Canadian fears over U.S. expansionism, and reciprocity. Nevertheless, armed conflict, despite occasional inflamed rhetoric, was never a real possibility during the period. See also ST. ALBANS RAID. CANADIAN RECIPROCITY. In 1854, the United States and Canada signed a reciprocity treaty, the Marcy-Elgin Treaty. At the end of the Civil War, however, in part for economic reasons and in part out of retaliation for wartime conflicts, the United States abrogated the treaty (effective 1866). In 1909, when Congress passed the high Payne-Aldrich Tariff, sentiment for retaliation grew in Canada. Therefore, in January 1911, President William Howard Taft negotiated a broad reciprocity arrangement with Canada that lowered or eliminated the duties on many commodities, especially foodstuffs. American timber, grain, and fishing interests objected strenuously, and even though the House of Representatives ratified the measure, the Senate declined to take action. Finally, Congress, called into special session by Taft, passed the agreement. But when American expansionists boasted that reciprocity was a step toward annexation of Canada, the anti-reciprocity Conservative Party made sweeping gains in the 1911 Canadian general election, and the Canadian parliament rejected the pact. The Taft administration's foreign policy had been given a black eye, contributing to Taft's defeat in 1912. See also CLARK, JAMES BEAUCHAMP. CANAL ZONE. The 10-mile strip of land cutting through the Isthmus of Panama. The United States acquired the territory in the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903). See also PANAMA CANAL. CANTON ISLAND. Part of the Phoenix Group of islands, 660 miles southwest of Hawaii, half way between Hawaii and Australia, in the Pacific Ocean. In the early 1870s, Commander Richard W. Meade of the USS Narragansett named Canton Island in memory of an American whaler by that

CARIBBEAN POLICY 7 1

name that had gone aground some years earlier. The United States and Great Britain exercised joint control over the island from 1939 until 1989. CAPITALISM. Historian Carl Degler wrote that "capitalism came in the first ships." Certainly the United States has historically been an entrepreneurial nation and "capitalism" part of the American creed. Some historians have argued that the Civil War stimulated the growth of industry in the United States, and the postbellum era is often described as the era of the "rise of big business." It was, too, an era that saw the growth of multinational corporations and the growth of foreign commerce, even as it was also an era of generally high tariffs. American sense of "mission," the spreading of American ideals, included the spreading of American notions of capitalism. This mission resulted in numerous conflicts with and interventions in the affairs of other nations, especially in Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia. CAREY, HENRY CHARLES (1793-1879). American journalist and economist. He began as an advocate of laissez-faire and free trade policies, but he came to advocate tariff protection. His writings, including The Past, the Present, and the Future (1848), influenced the Morrill Tariff Act (1861). CARIBBEAN POLICY. U.S. policymakers have long claimed a special interest in the affairs of the Caribbean. The Monroe Doctrine (1823) asserted that the United States would not tolerate new European colonies in the Caribbean specifically or Latin America generally. In addition, U.S. interests in an Isthmian canal, connecting the Caribbean with the Pacific, have been longstanding. In the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) the United States and Great Britain foreswore intentions of exclusive control over any such canal. But Britain gradually withdrew from the region in the 1850s and 1860s, assuring U.S. hegemony. The Caribbean became one of the most important areas for U.S. foreign policy throughout the period from the Civil War to World War I.

72 CARIBBEAN-UNITED STATES RELATIONS

Secretary of State Richard Olney asserted a significant expansion of American authority in 1895, and as a result of the Spanish-American War the United States acquired Puerto Rico and began a 30-year era of intervention in Cuba. See also BIG STICK POLICY; BRITISH WEST INDIES; COLOSSUS OF THE NORTH; DOLLAR DIPLOMACY; GOETHALS, GEORGE W.; HAITI; HAY-BUNAUVARZLLA TREATY; HAY- HERR.^ TREATY; HAYPAUNCEFOTE TREATY; LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE; NICARAGUA; OSTEND MANIFESTO; PANAMA CANAL; PLATT AMENDMENT; REED, WALTER; ROOSEVELT COROLLARY; SANTO DOMINGO.

CARIBBEAN-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. The United States has traditionally had important diplomatic relationssometimes warm, sometimes strained-with the islands and nations of the Caribbean. Although Washington extended belated diplomatic recognition to Haiti only in 1862, during the Civil War, throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries the region was a focus of U.S. diplomacy in terms of transportation, communication, and economic development. President Ulysses S. Grant unsuccessfully sought to annex Santo Domingo (1869-187O), and for three decades U.S. initiatives gradually moved the nation closer and closer to building and controlling an Isthmian canal. The SpanishAmerican War (1898), the events surrounding the acquisition of the Panama Canal, the big stick policy, and dollar diplomacy shaped U.S. relations with the region for much of the 20th century. See also CARIBBEAN POLICY. CARLISLE, JOHN GRIFFIN (1835-1910). American politician, congressman, senator, and cabinet official. He was a Democratic congressman from Kentucky (1877-1890), Speaker of the House (1883-1889), and Democratic senator from Kentucky (1890-1893). In the second administration of President Grover Cleveland he served as secretary of the treasury (1893-1897). An anti-imperialist and economic conservative, he favored "hard money" and tariff reform.

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CARNEGIE, ANDREW (1835-19 19). Scottish-born American industrialist who made a vast fortune in the steel industry and then, in his later years, focused on philanthropy. He was a member of the Anti-Imperialist League and established the Carnegie Endowment For International Peace. CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE. Established by Andrew Carnegie in 1910 with a gift of $10 million, the endowment provides financial support for research, publications, and conferences on world peace. The endowment was designed to support efforts at world peace through "scientific" approaches rather than through more traditional approaches of moral reform and religion. Its intellectual godfathers included such conservative internationalists as Elihu Root and Nicholas Murray Butler, who argued that world peace could be achieved through international law and realpolitik. At the outbreak of World War I, leaders of the endowment spoke in favor of the Allied powers and U.S. intervention-in contrast to the antiinterventionist stance of more traditional peace organizations. CAROLINE ISLANDS. Archipelago in Micronesia, south of the Philippines, covering an area of about 3,740 square miles and comprising some 550 islands of about 830 square miles. These islands, the largest being Belau, Yap, Truk, and Ponape, were typically the haunts of whalers fkom San Francisco and buccaneers. The main trading cargos were pearl and oyster shells, sugar cane and coffee beans, although the islands are rich in minerals, especially deposits of phosphate, guano, bauxite, and iron. First reached in the 16th century by Spanish explorers and named in honor of King Charles V, they were visited on occasion by naval vessels. They came under Spanish control in 1886 when a conflict with Germany regarding influence over many Pacific islands was settled in Spain's favor after the intervention of Pope Leo XIII. Under Spain, both Germany and Great Britain were granted trading rights and coaling privileges in the Carolines-an

74 CARPENTER,FRED WARNER

expansion of European influence that concerned U.S. policy makers. In 1899, following her defeat in the SpanishAmerican War, Spain sold the islands to Germany, which increasingly began to exploit the natural resources of the chain. The United States built a meteorological station on the island of Yap in 1905, and, in October 1914, a Japanese naval squadron took possession of the Carolines and established naval garrisons on a number of the islands. CARPENTER, FRED WARNER (1873-1957). Lawyer, public servant, and diplomat. Born in Stearns County, Minnesota, he became a resident of Marin County, California. He was private secretary to William Howard Taft when he was governor of the Philippines, secretary of war, and president. Later, Carpenter served as U.S. minister to Morocco (19101912) and minister to Siam (1912-1913).

CARR, CLARK EZRA (1836-1919). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Denmark (1889-1893). CARRANZA, VENUSTIANO (1859-1920). Mexican revolutionist and political leader. After serving as a senator and governor, he led the Constitutionalists in a rebellion against Victoriano Huerta and was recognized as "first chief' among the group of three leaders of the rebellion (including Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata). As provisional president, he issued a decree for social reform (1915). His government received diplomatic recognition from the United States (19 1 9 , but Villa and Zapata continued their revolutionary activities. Carranza was elected president in 1917 and kept Mexico neutral in World War I. He ran for reelection in 1920 but was assassinated. See also MEXICAN REVOLUTION; ZlMMERMANN TELEGRAM. CARTER, JOHN RIDGELY (1862-1944). Financier and diplomat. He served as minister to Romania and Serbia (1909) and other diplomatic posts fi-om 1894 to 1911. In 1911, he declined an appointment as minister to Venezuela because,

CENTRAL AMERICAN ARBITRATION TREATY 75

he said, the rent on a suitable house would equal his salary. He settled in Paris in 1914 and became a senior partner of J.P. Morgan and Company, Paris. CARTTER, DAVID KELLOGG (1812-1887). Politician, jurist, and diplomat. Born in Jefferson County, New York, he was a Republican congressman from Ohio (1 849-1853), U.S. minister to Bolivia (1861-1862), and chief justice of the District of Columbia Supreme Court (1863). CARUTH, GEORGE WILLIAM (b. 1842). He served as U.S. minister to Portugal (1893-1897). CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION (1876). The first world's fair in the United States, and the Western Hemisphere's most ambitious to that date. It was held in Philadelphia to commemorate the centenary of U.S. independence. Forty-six nations participated. Exhibits featured a mClange of architectural styles and the latest examples of American science and technology, including Alexander Graham Bell's telephone. The exposition highlighted to both Americans and the rest of the world U.S. technological accomplishments and contributed to the growth of American confidence and enthusiasm-and ultimately expansionism-during the late 19th century. CENTRAL AMERICA. The term usually applied to the region between Mexico and Colombia. It was one of the most important areas for U.S. foreign policy throughout the mid and late 19th century. British movements were a continuing concern to U.S. diplomats. Much of U.S. diplomacy focused on securing transit rights across the Isthmus, and an Isthmian canal. American economic penetration in the region grew throughout the period. See also UNITED FRUIT COMPANY. CENTRAL AMERICAN ARBITRATION TREATY (1907). A treaty signed on 20 December 1907 in Washington, D.C.,

76 CHADWICK, FRENCH ENSOR

by five Central American states (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua). The treaty established a court of arbitration, with representatives from each of the signatories, who agreed to submit disputed matters to arbitration. CHADWICK, FRENCH ENSOR (1844-1919). Naval officer. He became the chief of the Office of Naval Intelligence of the U.S. Navy (1882) and served as the first US. naval attachC to London (1882-1889). He participated in the naval investigation into the sinking of the battleship Maine (1898) and, in the Spanish-American War, took part in the battle of Santiago. In January 1900, he became president of the Naval War College. CHAMBERLAIN, GEORGE AGNEW (1879-1966). Novelist and diplomat. Born in Brazil to missionaries, he served as U.S. consul at Rio de Janeiro (1904), Lourenco Marques (Maputo), Mozambique (19 14-19 16), and consul general at Mexico City (19 17-1919). He also published 36 novels. CHANDLER WILLIAM EATON (1835-19 17). Politician, attorney, and cabinet officer. In 1865, he became solicitor and judge advocate general of the Navy Department, and served as assistant secretary of the treasury (1865-1867). As secretary of the navy under President Chester A. Arthur (1882-1885) he launched the revival of the U.S. Navy by inaugurating a program of building steel warships.

CHARGE D'AFFAIRES. A diplomatic representative, lower in rank than an ambassador or minister. A charge is usually put in charge of a mission's business in the absence of the ambassador or minister, or is sent to a nation not deemed significant enough for a representative of a higher rank. CHICAGO TRIBUNE. Established in 1847. In 1914, Robert R. McCormick, an isolationist, gained control of the newspaper.

CHINESE EXCLUSION ACTS 77

CHICAGO WORLD'S FAIR, 1893. See WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. CHINA. From 1644 until 1912, China-the "Celestial Empire''-was ruled by its last dynasty, the Qing (Ch'ing). In the 19th century, as the Qing dynasty declined, China found itself increasingly at the mercy of expansionist Western powers. The United States alternated between protector and exploiter of China. Traditional American policy toward China, dating back to the 1840s, was to maintain an "open door" that would allow equal access for all powers in China-to the benefit of the United States. In 1910, U.S. Secretary of State Philander Knox got a syndicate of U.S. financiers, including J. Pierpont Morgan, to be included in the financing of the new Hukuang Railroad. Knox was concerned that if the financing of the project was dominated by European banks, the United States would ultimately lose access to China. See also BURLINGAME TREATY; CHINA TRADE; DOLLAR DIPLOMACY; OPEN DOOR POLICY; SINO-JAPANESE WAR. CHINA TRADE. A lucrative trade that began at the conclusion of the War for Independence and peaked in the 1820s. By 1860, most favored nation status had been secured, and the United States had established a number of "treaty ports" that were open to American trade. Trade and other contacts continued to grow throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries but remained relatively insignificant in comparison to contacts with Europe, South America, and Canada. CHINESE EXCLUSION ACTS (1882, 1892, 1902). SinoAmerican relations ebbed and flowed throughout the 19th century. After positive and friendly developments at midcentury, by the late century relations were taking a turn for the worse. Anti-Chinese violence in California led to the passage of the first Exclusion Act in 1882, which modified the Burlingame Treaty by closing the United States to Chinese laborers for 10 years. This exclusion was extended in

78 CHOATE. JOSEPH HODGES

1892, and once more, indefinitely, in 1902. As a result, the Chinese population in the United States declined dramatically. See also CHINA. CHOATE, JOSEPH HODGES (1832-1917). American attorney and diplomat. Born in Salem, Massachusetts, Choate had a distinguished legal career. He served as U.S. ambassador to Great Britain (1899-1905) and was U.S. representative at the second Hague Peace Conference (1907). He later served as vice president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. CHRISTIANCY, ISAAC PECKHAM (1812-1890). Politician, jurist, and diplomat. Born in Fulton County, New York, he was a Free Soil member of the Michigan Senate (18501852). In 1854, he became one of the founders of the Republican Party. He then served on the Michigan Supreme Court (1858-1875), part of that time (1 872-1873) as chief justice. Later, he was a Republican senator from Michigan (18751879) and was U.S. minister to Peru (1879-188 1). CHRISTMAS ISLAND. A coral island of about 200 square miles, 105 miles north of the equator and about 1,160 miles south of Honolulu. Captain James Cook encountered and named the island in December 1777, and over the next century numerous whaling ships visited the island in search of safe anchorage and provisions and many ships were wrecked on its coral reefs. In the 1850s, the island was examined for guano by Captain John Stetson of New Haven, Connecticut, and on 11 May 1857, Captain J. L. Pendleton of the John Marshall took possession of the island for A. G. Benson and Associates, who, in turn, transferred rights to the island to the U.S. Guano Company. in November 1858. That company mined the island for several years and transferred its lease to the Anglo-Australian Guano Company in 1865. The company cancelled its lease four years later. The lease then was granted to Alfred Houlder in 1871, but his representa-

CIPHER MESSAGES 79

tive arrived on the island in July 1872 to find three employees of the American Guano Company. At around the same time, Commander Richard W. Meade of the USS Narragansett visited the island, found it firmly controlled by the American Guano Company, and consequently recognized it as "the actual possessors of the Island." Meade had, in effect, taken formal possession of the island for the United States. However, in 1888 Captain William Wiseman of HMS Caroline declared the island annexed to Great Britain, despite protests from the U.S. government. The British, in turn, leased the island to Pacific Plantations, Ltd., of Lever Brothers, which planted coconut palms on the island. In 1913, Britain turned the island over to Father Emmanuel Rougier, who, in turn, transferred control to Central Pacific Coconut Plantations, Ltd., in 1914. This convoluted history of a relatively insignificant island demonstrates that the "control" that the United States exercised over remote outposts under the Guano Islands Act could be tenuous, at best, when the island was of tangential value. CIPHER MESSAGES. Cipher messages are those designed to conceal the contents by replacing one letter with another by either a simple or a complex scheme. Senders and receivers have codebooks, or, in some instances (and particularly from the 19th century onward), decoder devices, to "decipher" the message. Since the Roman Empire, cipher systems have been used in diplomatic dispatches during peace and war. In the late 19th century, cipher messages were adapted to new technologies, specifically the telegraph and cable. This marriage of old and new technologies affected the conduct of U.S. diplomacy by enabling the government in Washington to have more direct contact and control over the actions of its representatives (both civilian and military) and by reducing the delay that sometimes allowed passions to cool. See also NORTH ATLANTIC SQUADRON IN THE CARZBBEAN, 1895; TRENT AFFAIR; ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM.

80 CIVIL WAR, INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF

CIVIL WAR, INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF. Both the Union and the Confederacy understood the critical importance of developing a strong diplomatic front. For the North, that effort included preventing, at all costs, European recognition of the Confederate States of America, minimizing activities of European nations that assisted the Confederate war effort, and isolating the Confederacy economically. The Union was fortunate to have diplomatists of exceptional ability-including Secretary of State William Seward and Minister to Great Britain Charles Francis Adams. Union diplomats maintained throughout the war that the conflict was a domestic affair, of no concern to foreign powers. Certainly, the Great Powers of Europe would not have been unhappy to see the upstart North American republic split into two weaker units, but European governments also understood the dangers involved in actively and openly supporting such a split. Southern leaders, for their part, also understood that the Confederacy's success would to a large extent depend on its connections to the outside world. Confederate president Jefferson Davis, Secretary of State Judah Benjamin, and other Confederate policy-makers, based their international strategy on several ultimately flawed assumptions. Southern leaders believed that they could depend on British recognition and support because of the British aristocracy's purported affinity with southern society and culture. That British revulsion for the institution of slavery counterbalanced such cultural affinities seemed to have escaped southern understanding. In addition, the South believed it could pursue a policy of "King Cotton diplomacy" that would force the British government to recognize the Confederacy and ensure its prompt independence. Again, the Confederates miscalculated. An oversupply of cotton, because of bumper crops immediately before the outbreak of the war, muted much of the impact that the wartime cotton shortage might have had. In addition, the British began to develop alternative sources of the fiber, particularly from Egypt, that provided a further cushion against a shortfall of southern cotton. The Confederates also failed to take into ac-

CIVIL WAR, INTERNATIONAL IMPACT OF 8 1

count the diplomatic power of the North's primary agricultural export, wheat, which the British needed as much as or more than they needed southern cotton. Although British policy was always the prime factor in Union and Confederate diplomatic strategy, the actions of other European powers had potential if not actual significance in the course of events. Many of the small German states were openly pro-Union, while Russia acquired a reputation for pro-Union sentiments largely because it, out of strategic necessity, brought its fleets to New York and San Francisco in the autumn of 1863. Nevertheless, Russia did reject proposals for Anglo-French-Russian intervention in the war. On the other hand, France and Spain both took advantage of the North American disruption-France by moving into Mexico and Spain by attempting to re-annex Santo Domingo. Anglo-French-Spanish intervention in Mexico, under the terms of the Convention of London in late 1861, further stirred turbulent diplomatic waters but only marginally diverted Union and Confederate diplomatic attentions away from their main goals. In the end, Britain recognized Southern belligerency but never extended the more critical diplomatic recognition. The Confederacy was hard-pressed as a result to obtain critical loans, while the British were able to observe, in varying degrees, the blockade. Although the four years of war were replete with diplomatic crises and challenges ( T m t Affair, St. Albans raid, Laird Rams, Confederate cruisers, Alabama claims), once any possibility of diplomatic recognition had passed, there was little likelihood of a cataclysmic Anglo-American or Franco-American meltdown. See also BRITISH WEST LNDIES; COMMERCE RAIDING DURING THE CIVIL WAR, FOREIGN WAR PANACEA MYTH; MAXIMILIAN. CIVIL WAR, INTERNATIONAL IMPACT OF. In 1858, Senator William H. Seward had referred to a coming war between the North and the South as "an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces." When war did break

82 CIVIL WAR, INTERNATIONAL IMPACT OF

out in 1861, governments and people around the world understood that they were witnessing a conflict between two civilizations. Nor did they miss the significance of the triumph of the industrial, commercial, racially diverse, democratic, and free-labor civilization of the North over the agrarian, aristocratic, slave-labor civilization of the South. In a sense, then, the Civil War's impact was to highlight what the future was to be politically, socially, and economically. In a further symbolic sense, the war demonstrated that the republican form of government-in a world of monarchy and erstwhile dictators-would indeed survive, and let the monarchies of the world take note. In a real sense, too, the downfall of the Slave Power freed the United States to move to a world stage with a renewed claim as a "City on a Hill" that could stand for high ethical and moral principles and human freedom and equality. To 2 1st-century readers, such language might sound like classic late-19th-century hyperbole, but Americans of the era felt a renewed sense of "mission" to create a better world in an American image. But in a more practical, less cosmic, sense, the Civil War had international implications. It demonstrated beyond any doubt the nature of modem warfare: war with mass, mechanized armies, inflicting massive destruction through "total war"; and war employing mechanical sea monsters with massive firepower and seemingly invulnerable protection. The war also announced to the world the emergence of a great new industrial and military giant, now prepared to stride the world to achieve its goals with little likelihood of resistance-the "Colossus of the North," to nations of Central and South America. Evidence that the European powers took the might of the newly reunited nation seriously came quickly: the swift collapse of Maximilian's government once the United States turned its diplomatic and military muscle in the direction of Mexico after the war; and Great Britain's creation of a Canadian confederation (1867) to ensure the security of its territories north of the United States. Finally, although the dominant focus for most Americans in the decades after the war was on internal

CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS 83

development, American expansionist sentiment remained, and emerged at century's end in full throttle, freed of the taint of expansion for the sake of the extension of slavery. The ultimate international implication of the Civil War was that American hegemony could be neither doubted nor stopped. CLAIMS AGAINST CLAIMS.

BRITAIN,

U.S.

See ALABAMA

CLARK, ALEXANDER (1826-1891). Editor, attorney, and diplomat. He was vice president of the Iowa Republican convention (1869), chaired a committee to present the pension claims of African-American soldiers and seamen to the U.S. Senate (1869), and was a delegate from Iowa to the Republican National Convention (1872). An ownerleditor of the Chicago Conservator, he was active in Republican Party politics and spoke and wrote against post-Civil War racial discrimination in the South. In 1884 he acquired a law degree from the University of Iowa and at the end of his life served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1890-1891). CLARK, JAMES BEAUCHAMP (CHAMP) (1850-1921). U.S. attorney and politician. As speaker of the House of Representatives (19 11-19 19), he supported Canadian reciprocity but at the same time predicted that "the American flag will float on every square foot of the British North American possessions clear to the pole." His jingoism helped to bring about the defeat of reciprocity. He lost the Democratic nomination for president in 1912 to Woodrow Wilson. CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903). Editor, politician, and diplomat. A southerner who was a prominent abolitionist in the antebellum period, he published an antislavery newspaper, was a Whig member of the Kentucky legislature (1835-1840), and was a founder of the Republican Party (1854). He served as minister to Russia (1861-1862, 18631869). Objecting to the Reconstruction policies of the Re-

84 CLAY, THOMAS HART

publican Party, in 1872 he became one of the founders of the Liberal Republican Party. He supported the Democratic Party in 1876 and 1880 but returned to the Republican Party in 1884. CLAY, THOMAS HART (1803-1871). Diplomat. The son of Senator Henry Clay (1777-1852), he served as U.S. minister to Honduras and Nicaragua (1863). CLAYTON, POWELL (1833-1914). Politician and diplomat. Born in Pennsylvania, he served in the Union army during the Civil War and afterward moved to Arkansas, where he was governor (1868) and U.S. senator (1871-1877). In addition, he was a member of the Republican National Committee (1872-1912), during which time he also served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1897-1 898) and ambassador to Mexico (1898-1905). CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY (1850). Treaty negotiated by U.S. secretary of state John M. Clayton and British minister to the United States Sir Henry Bulwer. The two nations agreed that any Isthmian canal should be neutral and that neither the United States nor Great Britain would attempt to control the Isthmus. In the view of some Americans, the treaty violated the spirit and intentions of the Monroe Doctrine. Nevertheless, the treaty reduced Anglo-American rivalry over a canal and shaped developments in the Isthmus for the next half-century. See also HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY. CLEVELAND, (STEPHEN) GROVER (1837-1908). U.S. president. Cleveland held two nonconsecutive terms as president and is noted for his steadfast support of tariff reform and his resistance to expansionism. During his first term (1885-1889), his secretary of state was Thomas F. Bayard and his secretary of the navy was William C. Whitney. During that term he withdrew from the Senate the Frelinghuysen-Zavala Treaty with Nicaragua, which had

COAL 85

given the United States the right to build a canal through Nicaragua. He also dealt with the North Atlantic fisheries dispute, the Alaska-Canadian boundary dispute, and the Bering Sea controversy. Toward the end of his first term, he sent three U.S. warships to Samoa in response to German encroachment there, actions eventually leading to a tripartite condominium with Great Britain and Germany. In his reelection campaign (1888) he supported a lower tariff. Although he was defeated in 1888, Cleveland was elected to a second term in 1892, in part over the tariff issue. During his second term (1893-1897), his secretaries of state were Walter Q. Gresham (1893-1895) and Richard Olney (1895-1897), and his secretary of the navy was Hilary A. Herbert. During this second term, the WilsonGorman Tariff Act (1894) was enacted without Cleveland's signature. In foreign affairs, especially in his second term, he pursued a widening but cautious role, particularly in Latin America, which bubbled with turmoil: the Cuban insurrection; the complex difficulties in Nicaragua; the Venezuela boundary dispute. In that dispute, he accepted Venezuela's request that he arbitrate. When the British resisted, he promulgated his "twenty-inch gun blast" by way of the Olney interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine and sent U.S. warships, pushing the British to accept arbitration. He tried to have Liliuokalani restored to the throne after the Hawaiian Revolution but then turned the matter over to Congress when she remained unrepentant. In the end, Cleveland resisted the "imperialist" trend of the era by refusing, despite considerable pressure, to approve the annexation of Hawaii. See also MCKINLEY TARIFF ACT.

COAL. In the 19th century, coal was the world's primary fossil fuel. The United States possesses about half the world's resources of recoverable coal, and in the late 19th century in particular, as American industrialization increased, the U.S. coal industry grew. As steamships became more widely used in both naval and merchant fleets, issues of coal supplies became more critical. See also COALING STATIONS.

86 COALING STATIONS

COALING STATIONS. As navies gradually adopted steampowered vessels in the second half of the 19th century, governments had a new challenge: how to provide fuel--coalfor ship engines. The United States had the world's largest supply of coal, but the nation, with no extensive network of colonies or outposts, had few safe and guaranteed sources of coal in strategic locations. Throughout the postbellum era, therefore, military necessity and political reality tugged against each other as naval leaders strove to convince political leaders of the need for the nation to acquire secure coaling stations in remote locations around the globe. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, UNITED STATES. A government bureau (formerly known as the Survey of the Coast, and the U.S. Coast Survey), created in 1807 for the purpose of gathering data to assist navigators along the East Coast of the United States. It was placed under the Navy Department during the War of 1812, became the Coast and Geodetic in 1878, and was transferred to the Department of Commerce and Labor in 1903. Its job was to maintain charts of the coastline and make new surveys. COGGESHALL, WILLIAM TURNER (1824-1867). Journalist, novelist, politician, and diplomat. Born in Pennsylvania and a resident of Ohio, he served as Ohio state librarian (1856-1862) and served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (18661867). He died of tuberculosis in Guapolo, Ecuador. COINAGE ACT OF 1873. Also known as the Demonetization of Silver Act, it ended bimetallism and established a de facto gold standard. COLLIER, WILLIAM MILLER (1867-1956). Lawyer, educator, and diplomat. Born in Seneca Country, New York, he served as minister to Spain (1905-1909) and ambassador to Chile (1921-1928). He published works on bankruptcy law, taught law, and was president of George Washington University (1918-1921).

COLOMBIAN REPARATION TREATY 87

COLOMBIA. South American republic, lying between Panama and the Caribbean Sea on the north, Venezuela and Brazil on the east, Peru and Ecuador on the south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. For nearly 400 years, it was part of the Spanish empire, becoming independent in 1811. At first joined with Venezuela and Ecuador, when those two nations withdrew the republic of New Granada was founded in 1831. The name changed to United States of Colombia in 1863, and a new constitution was adopted in 1886. Throughout much of the late 19th century, Colombian politics were characterized by widespread violence and conflict, including, most destructively, a civil war between the two main political factions-the Conservative and Liberal parties. The War of a Thousand Days (1899-1902) resulted in some 100,000 deaths. Panama became independent of Colombia in 1903 in a U.S.-supported revolution that poisoned ColombianAmerican relations for many years thereafter. See also BIDLACK-MALLARINO TREATY; COLOMBIAN REPARATION TREATY. COLOMBIAN REPARATION TREATY (19 1411922). An attempt by the United States and Colombia to achieve cordial relations in the wake of the Panama Revolution. Colombia had asked for arbitration to resolve its claims against the United States, but the American government had consistently refused and relations remained frozen. Finally, under President Woodrow Wilson, Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, through U.S. minister Thaddeus A. Thomson, negotiated a treaty in which the United States expressed "sincere regret" for its role in the Panama Revolution and agreed to pay $25 million in reparations. The treaty, also known as the Thomason-Urrutia Treaty, was signed on 6 April 1914, but the Senate refused to ratify it. Former president Theodore Roosevelt called the agreement "blackmail," and many Americans objected to the expression of regret that it included. It was not until 1921, under the administration of President Warren G. Harding, that the Senate returned to the treaty, deleted the expression of regret,

88 COLONIES

and ratified the amended result. The treaty was proclaimed on 30 March 1922, nearly two decades after the events that necessitated it. COLONIES. American expansionism had largely focused on continental expansion, with the acquisition of contiguous territory. The last of the contiguous territorial acquisitions had been the purchase of 45,000 square miles from Mexico in 1853. Under the Guano Islands Act of 1856, the United States acquired a number of small atolls, reefs, and islets, although the extent of U.S. "control" over some of those territories is questionable. In 1867, the United States bought Alaska from Russia and acquired Midway Island in the Pacific. Acquisition of colonies proceeded in fits and starts, mainly over small appurtenances of tangential importancesuch as Great Swan (1863), Little Swan (1865), and Navassa (1865). American influence (described as an "informal empire" by some historians in the 1960s and 1970s) grew in such areas as Samoa and Hawaii although the United States resisted establishing formal political obligations. The great era of insular acquisition was the two-decade period from 1898 to 1917. In 1898, Wake Island, Hawaii, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Palmyra Island were acquired; in 1899, American Samoa; in 1903, the Canal Zone; in 1914, the Corn Islands; and, in 1917, the Virgin Islands. See also CUBA; SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. COLOSSUS O F THE NORTH. See CARIBBEAN POLICY. COMBS, LESLIE (1852-1940). Politician and diplomat. A resident of Kentucky, he was a delegate frm Kentucky to the Republican National Convention (1904). He served as U.S. minister to Honduras (1902- l9O7), Guatemala (1902-19O7), and Peru (1906-191 1). COMLY, JAMES MONROE STEWART (1832-1887). Diplomat. A resident of Ohio, he served in the Union infantry during the Civil War and participated in the Battle of Anti-

COMMERCE, FOREIGN 89 etam (1862). Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to the Hawaiian Islands (1877-1882). COMMERCE, FOREIGN. In 1860, the two major centers of U.S. foreign trade were New Orleans (cotton) and New York (wheat). During the Civil War Southern exports were reduced to a trickle; in the postbellum era revival was a slow but steady process. The port of New York dominated American foreign and coastwise trade throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The American merchant marine had grown steadily in the early 19th century but began to decline in the immediate antebellum decades. Confederate commerce raiding accelerated the decline of the merchant marine-which continued until World War I. During the Civil War, Southern trade languished because of the Union blockade, while Northern trade continued despite threats from Confederate commerce raiding. After the war, trade continued to grow (although not in American bottoms), with exports increasing in volume from $434 million in 1866 to $1.5 billion in 1900. The main exports during this postbellum period were cotton (which continued to be the single largest export), meat, grain (especially wheat), mineral products, re-exports, and, especially from the late 19th century onward, refined petroleum and machinery. Throughout much of the period, the United States remained a net importer of manufactured goods. Although manufactured or semi-manufactured products typically accounted for two-thirds of American imports, the nation began to import more raw materials as U.S. industries developed in the postbellum era. After 1889, the United States began running a trade surplus because of the growth in exports. Despite American dreams of a lucrative "China trade" and hopes for developing markets in Latin America and the Caribbean, the main U.S. trading partners continued being its traditional partners: Europe and Canada. Finally, the United States remained a debtor nation until World War I, maintaining a balance of payments deficit because of a shortage of domestic capital for investment at a time of dra-

90 COMMERCE RAIDING DURING THE CIVIL WAR

matic growth. See also OIL INDUSTRY; SHIPPING; TARIFF. COMMERCE RAIDING DURING THE CIVIL WAR. The Confederate States of America, a putative nation with a small navy and no official political standing internationally, set about using a longstanding technique to inflict damage on the merchant ships of the Union. The Declaration of Paris (1856) had outlawed privateering, but the Confederacy employed both privateers and government vessels to stop, capture, and sometimes burn American shipping. Commerce raiding devastated the U.S. merchant marine and complicated Union diplomacy during the Civil War. See also ALABAMA CLAIMS. CONCILIATION TREATIES OF 1913-1914. The last of many efforts in the years before World War I to establish a mechanism for the peaceful resolution of international disputes. These 30 treaties were negotiated by Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan and proclaimed that the signatories agreed to submit "all disputes between them, of every nature whatsoever, which diplomacy shall fail to adjust," to an international commission. Twenty-one of the 30 treaties came into force. See also ARBRITRATION. CONGER, EDWIN HURD (1843-1907). Politician and diplomat. He served as a Republican member of Congress (18851891) and then became U.S. minister to Brazil (1891-1893, 1897-1898). He was minister to China (1898-1905) during the siege of the Peking (Beijing) legations. He was the U.S. negotiator after the capture of Peking by the Western powers, and he later served as U.S. ambassador to Mexico (1905). CONSTITUTION, UNITED STATES. A number of articles, sections, and paragraphs of the Constitution create the legal and constitutional framework for the conduct of U.S. foreign relations. The Preamble itself indicates that part of the pur-

CONSULAR SERVICE 9 1

pose of creating the Constitution was to "provide for the common defense9'-an acknowledgment of one of the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation that had preceded the Constitution. Article I, in effect, makes the conduct of foreign affairs an exclusively national rather than state responsibility. Article I, Section 8, grants Congress wide authority in matters pertaining to foreign affairs: to "lay . . . and collect imposts and excises," "provide for the common defense," "regulate commerce with foreign nations," "establish naturalization laws," "define and punish Piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations," "declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water," and "provide and maintain a navy." Section 10 prevents states from entering into foreign treaties, granting letters of marque and reprisal, and erecting trade barriers. Article 11, Section 11, designates the president as commander in chief of the army and navy, and gives him the power "with the advice and consent of the Senate" to make treaties and to make ambassadorial, ministerial, or consular appointments. Article I11 establishes federal authority over issues arising from treaties, cases affecting diplomatic representatives of the United States, and admiralty and maritime cases. Article III also defines treason as "levying war against" the United States or giving "aid and comfort" to the enemies of the United States. Article IV,Section 3, the so-called Territorial Clause, grants Congress the "power to make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property" of the United States. CONSULAR SERVICE. Throughout the 19th century, there were two separate types of representatives of the U.S. Department of State: ministers/ambassadors and consuls. Consuls, stationed at consulates in major seaport cities or commercial centers, had practical duties: processing immigration forms; returning the remains of deceased American tourists or sailors; and keeping track of American and foreign shipping at their port. But because of the limited size of

92 CONVENTION OF 1909

the American diplomatic corps, consuls were often the main eyes and ears of the Department of State, reporting on significant political developments in their region. Yet consuls were often political appointees-with limited training, skill, and disposition for the arts of diplomacy-who changed with every new presidential administration. The Pendleton Act (1883) began a process of professionalization and depoliticization by including the consular service in the new merit system. After 1906, consuls had to pass a written examination to enter the foreign service, and, in 1924, the Rogers Act merged the consular and diplomatic corps, putting consuls on a fully professional merit basis.

CONVENTION OF 1909. An attempt at settling the longstanding fisheries controversy. Secretary of State Elihu Root engaged in tough negotiations with the British and was able to produce an agreement by which the disputed issues were to be sent to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague. CONVENTION OF LONDON (1861). See LONDON, CONVENTION OF. COOK, FREDERICK A. (1865-1940). New York physician who participated in the polar expedition of Robert E. Peary (1891-1892). Cook later claimed to have discovered the North Pole in 1908, but after a bitter controversy Peary's claim to that distinction was established. COOK ISLANDS. Archipelago in the South Pacific, about 1,800 miles northeast of New Zealand. Captain Cook reached the islands in 1773, Great Britain annexed them in 1888, and New Zealand annexed them in 1901. COOLIDGE, JOHN GARDNER (1863-1936). Diplomat. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, he served as U.S. minister to Nicaragua (1 908).

CORN, EXPORT OF 93

COOLIDGE, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1831-1920). Manufacturer and diplomat. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, and the grandson of President Thomas Jefferson, he was president of the Acheson, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad. He also served as U.S. minister to France (1892-1893) and as a member of the joint high commission to adjudicate disputes between the United States and Canada (1898). COOMBS, FRANK LESLIE (1853-1934). Politician and diplomat. He served as a Republican member of the California state assembly (1887-1889, 1891-1897, 1921-1923, 19251927), was US. district attorney for the northern district of California (1899-1901), and was a congressman from California (1901-1903). He served as U.S. minister to Japan (1892-1893). COPYRIGHT PROTECTION. Federal protection of literary property was established in 1890, but not until 1891 was the International Copyright Act passed, capping a long struggle against intellectual piracy. In 1909, another law was passed applying to works of literature, music, and art. The law established a 28-year term of protection with the possibility of renewal for another 28 years. CORINTO INCIDENT (1895). In April 1895, British troops occupied the port of Corinto, Nicaragua, and seized its customs house. The British demanded that the Nicaragua government pay reparations for damages that had occurred during recent domestic disturbances. The government paid, and British troops quickly withdrew, but coming as it did in the midst of the Venezuela boundary dispute, the incident convinced many Americans that the Monroe Doctrine was being tested by Great Britain. See also GREAT RAPPROCHEMENT; MOSQUITO COAST CONTROVERSY. CORN, EXPORT OF. Also known as Indian corn or maize, corn is an indigenous grain of the Americas. It produces a higher food yield per acre than other grains and has many

94 CORN ISLANDS

uses: food, starch, glucose, alcohol, and livestock feed. Although some Americans predicted great increases in corn exports in the postbellum period, corn's potential remained unrealized until the 20th century. Exports from 1860 to 19 14 were mainly indirect, through animals and animal products. See also WHEAT, EXPORT OF. CORN ISLANDS. Two small (four square miles) islands (Great Corn and Little Corn) located 30 miles off the southeast coast of Nicaragua. In 1914, as part of a treaty with Nicaragua, the United States leased the islands for 99 years. In accordance with the lease, the Corn Islands became subject to American laws and administration, but in practice the United States permitted Nicaragua to administer the islands. The lease was officially terminated in 1971. CORWIN, THOMAS (1794-1 865). Statesman and orator. He served as a Whig congressman from Ohio (183 1-1840), governor of Ohio (1840-1842), and senator from Ohio (18451850). He also served as secretary of the treasury (18501853). Having joined the Republican Party, he then served as Republican congressman from Ohio (1859-1861) and was chair of the House committee on Foreign affairs (18591860). His final position was as U.S. minister to Mexico (1861-1864). During his first year in that post, Mexico suspended payments on foreign loans, precipitating the threat of joint British-French-Spanish intervention. Convin and Secretary of State William Seward at first hoped that a compromise might be arranged by treaty-avoiding the necessity of American intervention. See also LONDON, CONVENTION OF; MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES, 1860s. COTTON, EXPORT OF. The main U.S. export, by value, in the antebellum era, cotton exports were virtually eliminated by the Union blockade of the southern coastline during the Civil War. In the postwar era, however, exports soon exceeded prewar peaks. Cotton maintained its status as the sin-

CROSBY, ELISHA OSCAR 95

gle largest item of export from 1803 to 1937 except for the Civil War years and two other years. COX, SAMUEL SULLIVAN (1824-1889). Politician and diplomat. He served as secretary of legation at Lima, Peru (1855), and then became a Democratic congressman from Ohio (1857-1 865). He was a delegate to the Democratic National Conventions of 1864 and 1868, and then served as a congressman from New York (1869-1885), serving as chair of the Committee on Foreign Relations (1879-1880), Speaker of the House (1876), and chair of the Committee on Naval Affairs (1883-1884). Under President Grover Cleveland, he served as U.S. minister to Turkey (1885-1886). Afterward, he again served as a Democratic congressman from New York (1886-1889). COXE, MACGRANE (1859-1923). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Honduras (1896) and Guatemala (18961897). CRAMER, MICHAEL JOHN (1835-1898). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Denmark (1870-1876), chargk d'affaires to Denmark (1876-188 1) and to Switzerland (1881-1 882), and minister to Switzerland (1882-1884). CROSBY, ELISHA OSCAR (1818-18%). Attorney and diplomat. A prominent New York specialist in admiralty law, he moved to California around 1848 and practiced law in mining camps. He was a delegate to the first California constitutional convention (1849) and a member of the first state senate (1849). He traveled to Guatemala (1859-1860) and then served as U.S. minister to that country (1861-1864). His mission was, in part, to convince President Rafael Carrera (1814-1865) to allow the United States to send freed American slaves to Guatemala. The hope in Washington had been that gradual emancipation would reduce the burden on the South and therefore encourage Southerners, especially in the border states, to remain loyal to the Union. Nothing came of

96 CROSBY, JOHN SCHWLER

the plan, however. While serving as U.S. minister, Crosby also served, at the request of Great Britain and Honduras, as presiding judge of a mixed commission to adjudicate Guatemalan claims over the Bay Islands and Mosquito Coast. The work of the commission successfully prevented war between the two nations. CROSBY, JOHN SCHUYLER (1839-1914). Soldier, politician, and consular representative. Born in Albany, New York, he served as a colonel in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he was an aide-de-camp to General Philip Sheridan in the Indian campaigns. He also served as U.S. consul at Florence, Italy (1876-1882) and governor of Montana territory (1883-1884). CROSSLAND, JOHN R. A. (1864-1950). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1902-1903). CROXTON, JOHN THOMAS (1837-1874). Soldier and diplomat. Born in Bourbon County, Tennessee, he served as a general in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he was U.S. minister to Bolivia (1873-1874). He died in office. CRUM, WILLIAM DEMOS (1859-1912). Physician, politician, and diplomat. He was a delegate to the Republican National Convention from South Carolina (1900). In 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt named him collector of the port of Charleston, South Carolina, a controversial appointment because Crum was African American. Roosevelt vigorously defended the appointment. Crum later served as U.S. minister to Liberia (19 10-19 12) under President William Howard Taft. CUBA. The largest island in the Caribbean, sometimes known as the "pearl of the Antilles." Located southeast of Florida, the island is separated from Haiti on the east by the Windward Passage. It is a fertile island that has been one of the world's

CUBAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS, 1850-1898 97 premier producers of sugar and tobacco. From the arrival of Columbus in October 1492, until the Spanish-American War (1898)--except for a brief period of British control (1762-1763)-Cuba was a Spanish dependency. It has long played a role in the power struggles of the great powers of the Atlantic world. See also CUBAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS. CUBAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS, 1850-1898. Beginning especially in the 1850s, some Americans-and occasionally officials of the U.S. government-spoke of Cuba as a target of American expansionism. Cuba's strategic location, resources, and trade potential fired the imagination of many Americans. In the 1870s and 1880s, political turmoil on the island-a longstanding guerrilla movement against the colonial government of Spain-provided a minor irritant in Spanish-American relations but, at the same time, revived American visions of territorial expansion. In 1868, a rebellion against Spanish rule commenced. President Ulysses S. Grant announced a policy of nonintervention, but many Americans, including some military officers, envisioned the opportunities inherent in a possible Spanish-American clash. The revolt lasted for a decade, but the Spanish eventually were able to suppress it with considerable brutality. Nevertheless, the rebellion bubbled beneath the surface for the next two decades. The McKinley Tariff, which had worked a hardship on Hawaii, benefited the Cuban sugar industry, but in 1894 Congress passed the Wilson-Gorman Tariff, which reimposed the tax on Cuban sugar, giving Hawaii an advantage. Cuba's economy collapsed. Cubans blamed Spain, and in February 1895, violence erupted once again, with bandits and destruction providing dramatic propaganda against Spanish rule. Spain dispatched General Valeriano Weyler to crush the rebellion, which he proceeded to do with oppressive force. Particularly objectionable to many Americans was Weyler's policy of reconcentration. The Grover Cleveland administration pursued a cautious policy to avoid

98 CUBAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS, 1898

conflict with Spain even though movements of the U.S. squadron in the Caribbean under its firebrand Admiral Richard W. Meade threatened such cautious policy. In addition, William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer exploited the Cuban situation in their New York circulation war, exaggerating Spanish brutality. Conflict, nevertheless, was averted. However, three years later, a different president, William McKinley, was less inclined to ignore the crisis. He soon began pressuring Spain to improve its treatment of the Cubans. A more liberal Spanish administration took power in October 1897, recalled Weyler, and began reforming the "rec~ncentration'~ policy. American interventionist sentiment began to wane. See also MANIFEST DESTINY; OSTEND MANIFESTO; VIRGINIUS AFFAIR; YELLOW JOURNALISM. CUBAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS, 1898. In 1898, as American interventionist sentiment regarding Cuba seemed to be waning, two events occurred that stoked the fires. On 9 February 1898, the De LGme letter was published. A week later, on 15 February 1898, the American battleship Maine exploded and sank in Havana harbor killing 260 American sailors. William Randolph Hearst7snewspaper blamed the Spanish. Capping these events, Vermont senator Redfield Proctor returned from Cuba with vivid details of horrifying conditions there. On 27 March, President William McKinley demanded an end to the Cuban "reconcentration7' policy, an armistice until 1 October, and immediate peace negotiations. The following day the president demanded Cuban independence from Spain. By 9 April, Spain had conceded all demands except independence, and, on 10 April, Stewart L. Woodford, U.S. minister to Spain, informed Washington that he believed Spain would concede on that point too. Nevertheless, McKinley sent a warlike message to Congress on 11 April, and, on 20 April, Congress demanded immediate Spanish withdrawal and Cuban independence. At the same time, Congress gave the president authority to use

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force if necessary. The Spanish government, in response, declared war on 24 April 1898, and the Spanish-American War began. As a result of the war, Cuba gained its independence, first under a military government and then, after 1902, as a republic. CUBAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS, 1898-1914. After the Spanish-American War, Cuba gained independence but remained an effective U.S. protectorate until 1934. Although the United States had pledged in the Teller Amendment (1898) that it would not annex Cuba as the result of any war with Spain, under the Platt Amendment the United States asserted the right to intervene in Cuban affairs-a right that it exercised from 1906 to 1909, and from 1917 to 1923. The United States withdrew its troops from Cuba in exchange for the insertion of the Platt Amendment into the Cuban constitution. But because of an insurrection in 1906, the United States again took temporary control of Cuban affairs from September 1906 to January 1909. U.S. marines landed on the island again in 1917 and were stationed there until 1922. See also GUANT~NAMOBAY. CULVER, ERASTUS DEAN (1803-1889). Politician, jurist, and diplomat. Born in Clinton Country, New York, he was a member of the New York legislature (1838), a Whig congressman from New York (1845-1847), a judge of the city court of Brooklyn (1854-1861), and U.S. minister to Venezuela (1862-1866). CURRY, JABEZ LAMAR MONROE (1825-1903). Educator and statesman. Born in Lincoln County, Georgia, he served as a congressman from Alabama (1857-1861), a delegate from Alabama to the Confederate provisional congress (1861-1862), and a representative from Alabama to the Confederate congress (1862-1864). He also served as a colonel in the Confederate army during the Civil War. Afterward, he served as minister to Spain (1885-1888) and ambassador

100 CURTIN, ANDREW GREGG

extraordinary to Spain on the occasion of the king's coming of age (1902).

CURTIN, ANDREW GREGG (1815-1894). Politician and diplomat. Born in Centre County, Pennsylvania, he served as a Whig presidential elector (1848 and 1852) and as the Republican governor of Pennsylvania (1861-1867). He was a candidate for the Republican nomination for vice president (1868) and served as minister to Russia (1869-1872) under President Ulysses S. Grant. Later, he was a Republican congressman from Pennsylvania (188 1-1887). CURTIN, JEREMIAH (1835-1906). Linguist, ethnologist, writer, and diplomat. Born in Greenfield, Wisconsin, he served as secretary of the U.S. legation at St. Petersburg (1865-1870), acting consul at St. Petersburg (1865-1866), and vice consul at St. Petersburg, Russia (1874). He was considered one of the leading linguists and folklorists of his time and published widely. CUSHING, CALEB (1800-1879). Politician and diplomat. He negotiated the first commercial treaties between China and the United States in the 1840s and espoused expansionism and Manifest Destiny in the 1850s. Afier the Civil War he was U.S. counsel to the Alabama Claims Commission at Geneva (1871-1872), and then minister to Spain (18741877) at a time of ongoing revolution in Spain's prize colony, Cuba.

DAGGETT, ROLLIN MALLORY (1831-1901). Politician and diplomat. Born in St. Lawrence County, New York, he served as a Republican congressman from Nevada (18791881) and as U.S. minister to the Hawaiian Islands (18821885).

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DANIELS, JOSEPHUS (1862-1948). Journalist and politician. He was the chief Democratic Party publicist during the 1908 and 1912 presidential campaigns. President Woodrow Wilson appointed him secretary of the navy (1913-1921). As secretary, he advocated building two new battleships a year to create a "navy second to none." Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt he served as ambassador to Mexico (19331942). DANISH WEST INDIES, PLANS FOR ANNEXATION OF. In the late months of the Civil War, Secretary of State William H. Seward began negotiations to acquire the Virgin Islands, owned by Denmark as the Danish West Indies. The islands include the excellent harbor at St. Thomas, and Seward feared that the islands might be acquired by Prussia or Austria. In October 1867, Denmark agreed to a treaty by which the United States would take possession of the islands for $7,500,000. But the popular press ridiculed the idea of insular acquisitions, President Andrew Johnson was struggling with opposition to his domestic plans, and the nation generally cared more about postwar reconstruction than overseas military bases. Denmark ratified the treaty, but the U.S. House of Representatives refused to appropriate the funds and the Senate refused ratification. Fifty years later, however, when the nation had embraced overseas expansion, had developed a powerful navy, and had acquired an Isthmian canal that it needed to protect, the United States viewed the islands in a different light. World War I had begun and there were concerns that Germany might conquer Denmark and then take the islands, and so President Woodrow Wilson quickly agreed to an annexation at the cost of $25 million. See also PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1896. DAVIS, (JOHN CHANDLER) BANCROFT (1822-1907). Statesman. Born in Worcester, Massachusetts, he served as secretary and chargC d'affaires at the American legation in Great Britain (1849-1852), and was a member of the New York legislature (1868-1869). He had three appointments as

102 DAVIS, RICHARD HARDING

assistant secretary of state (1869-1871, 1873-1874, 18811882) and was secretary and U.S. agent at the Alabama claims tribunal (187 1-1872) in Geneva, Switzerland. He then served as U.S. minister to Germany (1874-1877) and later was a judge of the U.S. Court of Claims in Washington, D.C. (1883-1902). DAVIS, RICHARD HARDING (1864-1916). Journalist. The most famous reporter of his day, he was well known for his swashbuckling travel and war accounts, including the GrecoTurkish, Spanish-American, Boer, and Russo-Japanese Wars, and World War I. DAWSON, THOMAS CLELAND (1865-1912). Diplomat. A resident of Iowa, he served as secretary of the U.S. legation to Brazil (1897-1904). He then became minister resident and consul general to the Dominican Republic (1904-1907). He also served as minister to Colombia (1907-1909), Chile (1909), and Panama (1910). Afterward, he was chief of the Division of Latin American Affairs of the Department of State (1909). DAWSON, WILLIAM, JR. (1885-1972). Foreign service officer. Born in St. Paul, Minnesota, he served as US. consul in Rosario, Argentina (1914-19 17), Montevideo (1919), and Danzig (1921). He then became consul general in Mexico City (1929). Finally, he served as US. to Ecuador (19301935), Colombia (1934-1937), and Uruguay (1937-1939). DAY, WILLIAM RUFUS (1849-1923). Jurist and statesman. Born in Portage County, Ohio, he was an Ohio state court judge (1886). On 28 April 1898, he succeeded John Sherman as secretary of state and served until 16 September 1898. He was able to secure the neutrality of France and Germany in the Spanish-American War and also signed the protocol that ended the fighting. He resigned as secretary to chair the U.S. peace commission in Paris following the war. In that capacity, he insisted that the United States purchase

the Philippines for $20 million rather than claim the islands by conquest. Afterward, he became a judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals (1899-1903) and an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1903-1922). After retiring from the Court, he was an umpire in the U.S.-German Mixed Claims Commission (1922-1923). DAYTON, WILLIAM LEWIS (1807-1864). Politician and diplomat. Born in Somerset County, New Jersey, he was a Whig senator from New Jersey (1842-185 I), Republican candidate for vice president (1856), and New Jersey state attorney general (1857). During the Civil War he served as U.S. minister to France (1861-1864). As minister, he confronted the possibilities of French intervention in the Civil War and managed the crisis over Maximilian. DAYTON, WILLIAM LEWIS, JR. (1839-1897). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1 882-1885). DECLARATION OF PARIS (1856). See PARIS, DECLARATION OF. DE LEON, DANIEL (1852-19 14). College professor and Marxist revolutionist. He taught Latin American diplomacy at Columbia University (1883-1886), helped to lead the Socialist Labor Party, and was one of the founders of the Industrial Workers of the World (1905). His views are said to have influenced Lenin in his structuring of the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution.

DE LIMA V. BID WELL (1901). One of the so-called Insular cases. The Supreme Court ruled that Puerto Rico is not a foreign country within the meaning of generally accepted tariff law. DE L ~ M ELETTER (1898). A letter written by the Spanish minister to the United States, Dupuy De Lame, to a friend in Cuba. De Lame described President William McKinley as

104 DE LONG, CHARLES E.

"weak, and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd." The letter-which was private and unofficial-was stolen fi-om a Havana post office by Cuban rebels and published on 9 February 1898 in William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal, causing a sensation and further enflaming jingoistic war sentiment in the United States. De LGme soon resigned. The letter is typically seen as one of the factors moving the president toward a declaration of war. DE LONG, CHARLES E. (1832-1877). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in New York, he served in the state assembly of California (1858-1860) and was a delegate from Nevada to the Republican National Convention (1868). He was a member from Nevada of the Republican National Committee (1868-1870), served as U.S. minister to Japan (1869), and practiced as an attorney in Silver City, Nevada, in the 1870s. DEMOCRATIC PARTY, FOREIGN POLICY OF. The Democratic Party traces its roots to the origins of the American political party system in the early years of the federal government, when advocates of two opposing views gravitated to either Alexander Hamilton (the Federalists) or Thomas Jefferson (the anti-Federalists). Anti-Federalists at first dubbed themselves "Republicans" (no relation to the modern-day Republican Party, founded in 1854), and then "Democratic-Republicans." During the presidency of Andrew Jackson, the modern Democratic Party evolved as the party that advocated strong presidential leadership, low tariffs, and states rights. The conflict over slavery-and the resulting Civil War-brought about a political realignment. The Democratic Party split in 1860, and the six-year-old Republican Party was able to elect its candidate, Abraham Lincoln. During the postbellum era until 1896, the national parties tended to be fairly evenly divided; national campaigns were hotly contested; and presidential elections were close. The Democratic Party remained, marginally, a minority party in that it was able to elect only one president between

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1861 and 1912, Grover Cleveland, although electoral margins were often razor-thin and Congress was usually divided. The Republicans, for the most part, successfully characterized the Democratic Party as the party of rebellion. The watershed election of 1896, however, ushered in an era of Republican national dominance. To the extent that issues of foreign policy registered in national politics during the era, the tariff issue was the continuing subject of debate. The Democratic Party tended to support "tariff reform" (a lowering of tariff rates). The party also tended to be less expansionist and more favorable to collective security and improved Anglo-American relations. See also PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGNS OF 1860-19 12; REPUBLICAN PARTY-FOREIGN POLICY OF. DENBY, CHARLES HARVEY (1830-1904). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Virginia, he was a Democratic member of the Indiana House of Representatives (1857), a colonel in the Union army during the Civil War, and a delegate from Indiana to the Democratic National Conventions of 1876 and 1884. He served as US. minister to China (1885-1898), in which post he advocated a more active American role to counter the potential partition of China by European powers. He was particularly concerned about the status and welfare of American missionaries in China and traveled widely throughout the empire to meet them and learn about their work. In the process, he developed a reputation for being a "friend" of missionaries. While in China, through the efforts of the great Chinese general and statesman Li Hung Chang (1823-1901), Denby was awarded the Order of the Golden Dragon. Denby was U.S. minister during the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and played a significant role in arbitrating the conflict. In all, the stature of his work in China is reflected in the fact that he remained U.S. minister for 13 years in four administrations-the two of Grover Cleveland and those of Benjamin Harrison and William McKinley. Afterward, he was a member of the commission to investigate the Spanish-American War

106 DEPARTMENT OF STATE

(1898) and a member of the civil commission to investigate affairs in the Philippines (1899). See also OPEN DOOR POLICY. DEPARTMENT OF STATE. Established in 1789 as the Department of Foreign Affairs, the first executive department established under the new Constitution, it soon became known as the Department of State. It is headed by a secretary of state, usually considered the top-ranking cabinet official in the government. Since the conduct of foreign affairs is a presidential responsibility, the secretary of state is, typically, the second most influential individual in foreign policy, after the president. However, for certain presidents less interested in foreign affairs, or where the secretary was highly trusted by the president, the department could exert considerably greater influence. The Department of State oversees all matters relating to foreign affairs. It is also in charge of coordinating the work of ambassadors, ministers, and consuls. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the department was usually a small office with a limited staff. DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY. Created by Congress in 1798, the Navy Department was a separate cabinet-level department of the executive branch until the Department of Defense merged the Army and Navy Departments in 1947. The Navy Department was headed by a secretary of the navy, who was assisted during the Civil War and again beginning in 1890 by an assistant secretary. Some secretaries during the second half of the 19th century were dynamic, fonvardlooking, efficient administrators who wielded considerable influence on both naval and foreign policy. The overall administration of the department throughout much of the era devolved upon separate bureaus that sometimes operated as independent fiefdoms and at times created a bureaucratic morass. Significant reforms of the department's administrative procedures came in the 1890s and afterward.

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DEPARTMENT OF WAR. The cabinet department responsible for administering the army and coordinating military planning. In 1903 a general staff corps was created to coordinate all branches of the service. See also ROOT, ELIHU; WAR, SECRETARIES OF. DEWEY, GEORGE (1837-1917). Naval officer. An 1858 graduate of the Naval Academy, Dewey had a typical career, from the Civil War until the Spanish-American War, for an officer of his generation. His great fame came from one noteworthy victory in the Spanish-American War while he commanded the Asiatic Squadron, the battle of Manila Bay. An outclassed Spanish fleet was easily defeated, eight Spanish ships being destroyed at the cost of only eight Americans wounded. Dewey became a national hero, the strength of the U.S. fleet was demonstrated, and the United States became a major Pacific power. D ~ Z PORFIRIO , (1830-19 15). Mexican general and statesman. He had participated in the opposition to Maximilian and in the decade after Maximilian's departure staged several revolts against elected Mexican presidents, finally succeeding in driving President Sebastib Lerdo de Tejada out of office in 1876. He served as provisional president (18761877) and became president in May 1877. As president (1877-1880, 1884-1911) he restored order and began an era of prosperity. Since he was not eligible for immediate reelection, he was succeeded by General GonzSlez (1880-1884) but was elected again in 1884. Once the constitution had been amended to permit a president to succeed himself, Diaz was reelected in 1888, 1892, 1896, 1900, 1904, and 1910. His regime became increasingly autocratic and repressive even as it brought foreign investment-including American money-to Mexico. He was overthrown in 1911 by Francisco Madero, the leader of the Mexican Revolution. DICHMAN, ERNEST (ERNST) (d. 1885). Businessman and diplomat. A resident of Wisconsin, he had a background in

108 DICKINSON, ANDREW B.

business and the U.S. Navy. He served as U.S. minister to Colombia (1878-1881). Lacking in diplomatic skills and arriving in Colombia with a poor reputation, he had testy relations with the government of Colombia.

DICKINSON, ANDREW B. (d. 1873) Politician and diplomat. A resident of Steuben County, New York, he served in the New York state senate (1840-1843, 1854-1855) and was U.S. minister to Nicaragua (1861-1863, 1863-1869). While he was minister, the United States negotiated a treaty reinforcing American interests in constructing a canal across Nicaragua. DICKINSON, CHARLES MONROE (1842-1924). Journalist and diplomat. Manager of the Binghamton, New York, Republican from 1878 until 1911, he was one of the organizers of the Associated Press. President William McKinley appointed him consul general to Turkey (1897), and he later served as diplomatic agent to Bulgaria (1901) and consul general at large for the Middle East (1906). DICKINSON, JACOB MCGAVOCK (185 1-1928). Attorney and statesman. Born in Mississippi, he served in the Confederate army during the Civil War, did legal work with various railroads in the 1890s, and was assistant attorney general of the United States (1895-1897). He was counsel for the United States at the Alaska Boundary Tribunal (1903), and then served as president of the American Bar Association (1907-1908). He was an organizer of the American Society of International Law and served on its executive council (1907-19 10) and as its vice president (19 10). As secretary of war under President William Howard Taft (1909-191I), he proposed that foreign students be admitted to service academies, advocated annuities for civil service retirees, and argued that one way of reducing alcoholism and venereal disease in the military was to not pay soldiers who were unfit for duty because of those diseases.

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DICKINSON-AYON TREATY (1867). Treaty, signed in June 1867, between the United States and Nicaragua. Nicaragua granted the United States a nonexclusive right of transit across the Isthmus, and the United States, in exchange, agreed to protect the route. The Senate ratified the treaty in 1868, which advanced American canal policy and remained in effect for nearly 50 years. See also PANAMA CANAL. DIMITRY, ALEXANDER (1805-1883). Journalist, linguist, educator, and diplomat. Born in New Orleans, in the 1840s he organized Louisiana's public school system. he was a translator at the State Department (1856) and served as U.S. minister to Costa Rica and Nicaragua (1859-1861). After service for the Confederate Post Office during the Civil War, he was assistant superintendent of the New Orleans public schools (1868) and taught languages at Pass Christian College at Pass Christian, Mississippi (1868-1870). DINGLEY TARIFF ACT (1897). The highest protective tariff in American history up to that time, an average of 49 percent with some rates as high as 57 percent. It raised tariffs in almost all categories and replaced the Wilson-Gorman Tariff (1893). The act also expanded the president's authority to negotiate reciprocity agreements. In turn, it was revised by the Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909). The high rates reflected the strongly pro-business and pro-protectionist ideologies of the Republican Party. DINSMORE, HUGH ANDERSON (1850-1930). Politician and diplomat. Born in Benton County, Arkansas, he served as U.S. minister to Korea (1887-1890) and was a Democratic congressman from Arkansas (1893-1905). DISARMAMENT CONFERENCES. See HAGUE CONFERENCES (1899,1907). DM, JOHN ADAMS (1798-1879). Politician and diplomat. A leader of the Democratic Party in New York during the 1830s

110 DODGE, HENRY PERCIVAL

and 1840s, he was New York State secretary of state (183339), a member of the state assembly (1842), and a U.S. senator (1845-1849). He served as assistant treasurer of the United States (1853) and would have been named secretary of state or U.S. minister to France by President Franklin Pierce, but because he had run (unsuccessfully) for governor of New York on the Free Soil ticket, Southern Democrats opposed his appointment. He later served as secretary of the treasury under President James Buchanan (January-March 1861) and was a major general in the Union army during the Civil War. After the war, he was U.S. minister to France (1866-1869) and governor of New York (1873-1875).

DODGE, HENRY PERCJYAL (1870-1936). Diplomat. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, he served as U.S. minister to Honduras (1907-1908). Morocco (1909-191O), Panama (191 1l9l3), and El Salvador (1907-1909). After World War I, he was U.S. minister to the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (19191926) and Denmark (1926-1930). DOLE, SANFORD BALLARD (1844-1926). Jurist and Hawaiian political leader. Born in Honolulu of American missionary parents, Dole served in the Hawaiian legislature in the 1880s and was a leader of the 1887 constitutional reforms that limited the power of the Hawaiian monarchy. In 1893, he became head of the revolutionary provisional government that overthrew Queen Liliuokalani. He became the first president of the Republic of Hawaii (1894) and in that capacity attempted to have Hawaii annexed by the United States. In 1898, he headed a commission to recommend legislation for Hawaii after American annexation. He was appointed Hawaii's first governor (1900-1903) when the Territory of Hawaii was organized, and afterward he served (1903-1915) as U.S. district court judge in Hawaii. His cousin, James Dole, created the Hawaiian Fruit and Plant Company in 1900 to grow pineapples.

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DOLLAR, ROBERT (1844-1932). Shipowner. He bought his first ship in 1893 for lumber transportation in California, and began a cargo line to Asia in 1901. The Dollar Line became the main U.S. trans-Pacific shipping line in the early 20th century. DOLLAR DIPLOMACY. The name given to the foreign policies of President William Howard Taft. The Taft administration supported the expansion of American businesses and American investment abroad, especially in Latin America and the Pacific, arguing that in such rivalries with foreign powers the United States had a strategic interest. Officially, Taft described the policy as "substituting dollars for bullets." Taft's successor, Woodrow Wilson, officially repudiated the policy but continued the practice of U.S. interventions. Dollar Diplomacy can be seen at work in a number of instances in the early 20th century. In 1909, U.S. economic interests conspired against the head of Nicaragua, JosC Santos Zelaya. The arrival of U.S. marines led to Zelaya's exile and a U.S. military presence in Nicaragua until 1933. In Honduras, some 80 percent of the land had come under the control of U.S. companies by 1910. In Mexico, nationalist resentment of U.S., British, and German economic investment led to a revolution and a decade of political instability beginning in 1911. In addition, according to some historians, U.S. economic interests in China, and American interests in maintaining the Open Door to preserve the "China market," mitigated against U.S. support of revolutionary forces in the early decades of the 20th century. See also CAPITALISM; CHINA, HAITI; HONDURAS; KNOX, PHILANDER C.; NICARAGUA. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. See SANTO DOMINGO. DOOLEY V. UNITED STATES (1901). One of the so-called Insular cases. In this decision and that of Armstrong v. United States (1901) the Supreme Court declared that the presidentially imposed war tariff on goods exported from the

112 DOOLEY, MARTIN ("MR. DOOLEY").

United States to Puerto Rico ended upon the ratification of the peace treaty under which Puerto Rico became subject to U.S. sovereignty.

DOOLEY, MARTIN ("MR. DOOLEY"). See DUNNE, FINLEY PETER. DORR K UNITED STATES (1904). One of the so-called Insular cases. The Supreme Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial was inapplicable in the Philippines. The Court propounded its definition of "fundamental rights" by describing them as "inherent, although unexpressed principles which are the basis of all free government."

DOUGLASS, FREDERICK (1817-1895). Lecturer, escaped slave, antislavery editor, and diplomat. Douglass served as chargC d'affaires to Santo Domingo (1889-189l), and minister to Haiti (1889-1891) at a time when the United States was demonstrating renewed interest in Haiti's harbor at M61e Saint Nicholas. However, he tended to neglect his diplomatic responsibilities and allowed himself to be manipulated by Secretary of State James G. Blaine. DOWNS K BID WELL (1901). One of the so-called Insular cases. The Supreme Court declared that a tariff imposed by Congress on goods imported from Puerto Rico into the United States did not violate the Uniformity Clause of the Constitution. "Even in cases where there is no direct command of the constitution which applies, there may nevertheless be restrictions of so fundamental a nature that they cannot be transgressed, although not expressed in so many words in the Constitution," the Court wrote. Although Congress does have the authority to create governments for territories, it did not have the authority, in the process, to abridge "fundamental" rights.

DRAG0 DOCTRINE (1902). A corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. It was formulated by Luis M. Drago, foreign minister

DROPPERS, GARRETT 113 of Argentina, during a dispute over the collection of Venezuelan debts. Drago asserted that European military force should not be employed to collect international debts in the Western Hemisphere. "The public debt," he declared, "cannot occasion armed intervention nor even the actual occupation of the territory of American nations." The doctrine strengthened the Monroe Doctrine and was accepted by the Permanent Court of Arbitration (Hague Tribunal). See also PORTER, HORACE. DRAPER, WILLIAM FRANKLIN (1842-1910). Politician and diplomat. He was a delegate to the Republican National Convention of 1876 and a Republican congressman from Massachusetts (1893-1897). Afterward, he served as U.S. ambassador to Italy (1897-1900).

DREADNOUGHT. British battleship, launched 1906. It displaced 17,900 tons, had 11-inch thick armor, 10 12-inch guns, five torpedo tubes, and a maximum speed of over 21 knots. It gave its name to a class of heavy, "all big gun" battleships and became symbolic of the naval race that led up to World War I. DREYFUS, LOUIS GOETHE, JR. (1889-1973). Foreign service officer. Born in Santa Barbara, California, he served as U.S. consul at Budapest (1914), Paris (1919), and Palermo (1920-1921). He was U.S. minister to Iran (1939-1944), Afghanistan (1940-1942), Iceland (1944-1946), and Sweden (1946-1947). His final posting was as U.S. ambassador to Afghanistan (1949-195 1). DROPPERS, GARRETT (1860-1927). Educator, politician, and diplomat. Born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, he was chair of the Department of Political Economy and Finance at the University of Tokyo (1889-1898) and then president of the University of South Dakota (1899-1906). Later, he was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Democratic National

114 DRYER, THOMAS JEFFERSON

Convention (1912) and served as U.S. minister to Montenegro and Greece (19 14-1920). DRYER, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1808-1879). Journalist and diplomat. A native of Ulster County, New York, he edited the Whig newspaper Weekly Oregonian in the 1850s while serving as a member of the Oregon territorial legislature. He also was a member of the Oregon state constitutional convention and, in 1860, was a presidential elector for Abraham Lincoln. He then served as U.S. commissioner to the Hawaiian Islands (1861-1863). DUAL CITIZENSHIP. Possessing citizenship in two nations at the same time. The United States does not recognize dual citizenship. See also EXPATRIATION. DUBOIS, JAMES TAYLOR (185 1-1920). Diplomat. A resident of Pennsylvania, he served as U.S. consul at Leipzig (c. 1883-1886) and, later, as U.S. minister to Colombia (191 11913). DUDLEY, IRVING BEDELL (186 1-191 1). Diplomat. A resident of San Diego, California, he served as minister to Peru (1897-1907) and ambassador to Brazil (1907-191 1). DUKE, JAMES BUCHANAN (1856-1925). American businessman. In the late 19th century he established a worldwide organization for the manufacture and distribution of tobacco products and created the American Tobacco Company in 1890. See also MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS. DUN, EDWIN (1848-1931). Rancher and diplomat. In 1873, after the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate, the new Japanese government asked Dun, an Ohio rancher, to come to Japan to help establish a ranching industry on the island of Hokk a i d e p a r t of a new approach of "Westernizing" the nation. As a result, Dun introduced American ranching techniques and livestock breeding to Japan. Dun became secretary of

legation and deputy chief of mission in Tokyo (1889-1893) and then served as U.S. minister to Japan (1893-1 897). Then, after 25 years in Japan, he returned briefly to the United States. But he soon returned to Japan and lived in retirement near Oiso. DUNCAN, ISADORA (1878-1927). Internationally acclaimed American dancer, who embodied the philosophies and modes of modern dance. Her international prominence was part of a growing U.S. cultural influence during the 20th century. DUNNE, FINLEY PETER (1867-1936). American journalist and satirist. Dunne created the character "Mr. Dooley" (Martin Dooley), an Irish saloon keeper whose comments about imperialism and other political issues entertained and provoked American readers for two decades. DU PONT, SAMUEL FRANCIS (1803-1865). American naval officer. During the Civil War, he commanded the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. DURHAM, JOHN STEPHENS (1861-19 19). Educator and diplomat. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he graduated from the Institute for Colored Youth in Philadelphia (1876) and taught school in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. He was the first African-American graduate of the University of Pennsylvania (1876), where he received the sophomore declamation prize. He also was a reporter on the Philadelphia Times and was assistant editor of the Philadelphia Evening Bulletin (1886-1890). Durham then served as U.S. consul general and chargC d'affaires to Santo Domingo (1890) and minister to Haiti (1891-1893). Afterward, he wrote a critique, published in Atlantic Monthly (1898), of how white labor tended to align against black labor.

DVO-, ANTONIN (1841-1904). Czech-born composer. As director of the National Conservatory of Music in New York

116 EADS, JAMES BUCHANAN

(1892-1895) he encouraged the development of national music and the use of "indigenous" themes. Dvofak's prominence and use of American themes helped to establish the United States on the world cultural stage at the turn of the 20th century, at the same time that it was taking center stage in geopolitical affairs.

EADS, JAMES BUCHANAN (1820-1887). American engineer and entrepreneur. Eads gained fame for the ironclad gunboats that he designed during the Civil War. ARer the war, he headed the project to build what later became known as the Eads Bridge spanning the Mississippi River at St. Louis. He then designed the New Orleans jetties that connected New Orleans to the ocean, thereby transforming the city into an "ocean" port. He earned a worldwide reputation for his technical knowledge of harbors and his contributions to the improvements of the harbors of Liverpool, Toronto, Tampico, and Veracruz. He favored a canal route across the Mexican isthmus of Tehuantepec but died before he could bring that project to fruition. EDDY, SPENCER FAYETTE (1874-1939). Diplomat. A native of Illinois, he had positions at the American embassies in London (1899) and Paris (1899-1901) and was first secretary of the American legations at Constantinople (190 11903), St. Petersburg (1903-1906), and Berlin (1906-1907). He then served as minister to Argentina (1908-1909) and minister to Romania, Serbia, and Bulgaria (1909). EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN (1828-1919). Lawyer and politician. He was a Republican member of the Vermont House of Representatives (1854-1859) and the Vermont Senate (1861-1862). In 1864, Secretary of State William H. Seward appointed Edmunds as special counsel in the negotiations over the St. Albans raid. Although Edmunds failed to win the extradition of the Confederate raiders, his efforts

ELIUNS, STEPHEN BENTON 117

boosted his reputation. In 1866, he joined the U.S. Senate from Vermont (1866-1891) and in that position chaired the Judiciary Committee for nearly 20 years. He was also the chair of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (18811883). In both 1880 and 1884, he was an unsuccessful candidate for the Republican nomination for president. President Ulysses S. Grant offered to appoint him minister to England, but he refused, citing the position's low salary. As a member of the Republican Party, he represented that party's anti-imperialist, anti-expansionist, wing, even though he espoused policies of economic imperialism. EGAN, MAURICE FRANCIS (1852-1924). Poet and diplomat. He was a professor of English literature at the University of Notre Dame (1885-1895) and Catholic University of America (1895-1907). Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he became a close acquaintance of President Theodore Roosevelt. He served as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Denmark (1907-1918), in which position he participated in the negotiations leading to the U.S. purchase of the Virgin Islands (19 16-1917). EGAN, PATRICK (1841-1919). Politician and diplomat. Born in Ireland, he was involved in Irish nationalist political activities before coming to the United States in 1883. He was a founder of the Irish National League of America (1883) and its president for two years (1884-1886). He served as U.S. minister to Chile (1889-1893), during the Baltimore affair, and handled the crisis prudently and skillfully. EINSTEIN, LEWIS DAVID (1877-1967). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Costa Rica (191 1) and Czechoslovakia (1921-1930). A resident of New York City, he was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. ELKINS, STEPHEN BENTON (1841-191 1). American legislator, entrepreneur, and secretary of war. He served as a Republican delegate from New Mexico Territory to the U.S.

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Congress (1873-1877). After amassing a fortune in West Virginia railroad, timber, and coal enterprises, he became an adviser to James G. Blaine in his 1884 bid for the presidency. He served as President Benjamin Harrison's secretary of war (1891-1893), in which position he improved army efficiency and pay and modernized the army's weaponry and organization. He later served as senator fi-om West Virginia (1895-191 1) and became a supporter of the protective tariff typically championed by his Republican Party. ELLICE ISLANDS. Coral islands about 2,500 miles southwest of Hawaii and northeast of Australia in the Pacific Ocean. The first Europeans to see the islands were the Spanish in the 16th century. In 1819, an American ship captain named the islands after a British politician who owned the cargo on the ship. Pacific labor traders kidnapped hundreds of island residents in the 1860s to work in Peruvian guano mines. In the late 19th century the islands came under British influence as major powers divided the Pacific up into their own spheres. In 1877, Great Britain established the Western Pacific High Commission, which had jurisdiction over Ellice and other islands, and, in 1892, Britain declared a joint protectorate over both the Ellice and Gilbert Islands. EL SALVADOR. Republic in Central America, bounded by Guatemala on the northwest and Honduras on the north. El Salvador became independent of Spain in 1821 and throughout the 19th century suffered frequent revolutions and wars with other Central American states. A new constitution was implemented in 1886. In 1906, war began between Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. Theodore Roosevelt and Mexican president Porfirio Diaz offer to help resolve the conflict, an offer that led to an armistice and, ultimately, the Central American Arbitration Treaty. In 1913, the government of El Salvador joined with those of Costa Rica and Honduras to protest U.S. policy toward Nicaragua, arguing that a proposed treaty would turn Nicaragua into a U.S. protectorate.

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EMBALMED BEEF SCANDAL (1898). During the SpanishAmerican War, the problems of supplying an army with food were highlighted by this scandal over tainted meat. Troops were issued, in some instances, half-decomposed meat that had been adulterated with chemical preservatives-"preservatine." Theodore Roosevelt had been suspicious of the cans of gray meat being served to his Rough Riders. After the war, Major General Nelson A. Miles and other officers brought charges, and a court of inquiry investigated. The scandal contributed to the movement for the Pure Food and Drug Law of 1906. See also ALGER, RUSSELL ALEXANDER. ENDERBURY ISLAND. A low-lying island of less than three square miles, part of the Phoenix group of islands, north of Samoa, 37 miles east-southeast of Canton Island and 186 miles south of the equator, in the Central Pacific. Named in 1823 by a Nantucket sea captain commanding a British whaler, the island was visited in 1840-1841 by vessels of the US. Exploring Expedition. Guano mining began in the 1860s, peaked in the 1870s, and ended in 1877. Great Britain leased the island to the Pacific Islands Company in 1899, but the company apparently never made use of the lease. ENDICOTT, WILLIAM CROWNINSHIELD (1826-1900). Politician and jurist. Born in Salem, Massachusetts, he was a candidate for Massachusetts state attorney general in 1866, 1867, and 1868. He then was a Democratic candidate for the U.S. House of Representatives (1870). He served as a justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Court (1873-1882) and as secretary of war under President Grover Cleveland (18851889). In 1894, he was a Democratic candidate for governor of Massachusetts. EUSTIS, JAMES BIDDLE (1834-1899). Politician and diplomat. During the Civil War, he served in France as an agent of the Confederacy. After the war, he was a member of the Louisiana House of Representatives (1866-1868, 1872-1874)

120 EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

and the state senate (1874-1877) and served as a Democratic senator from Louisiana (1877-1879, 1885-1891). He then served as U.S. ambassador to France (1893-1897). EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL (1818-190 1). American attorney and diplomat. During the Civil War, Evarts helped to prosecute the crew of the Confederate privateer Savannah, and then argued before the Supreme Court that captured Confederate blockade runners were legitimate prizes of war. He also assisted Charles Francis Adams, the Union's minister to Great Britain, in preventing the departure of Confederate commerce raiders from British shipyards. Having defended President Andrew Johnson at his impeachment trial, Evarts served as Johnson's attorney general (1868). In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant appointed him counsel to Bancroft Davis at the Alabama claims arbitration in Geneva. Largely because of his oral arguments, the tribunal awarded $15.5 million to the United States. As secretary of state under President Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-188O), he was one of the president's most trusted advisers. With his influence, Hayes initiated the policy that any Isthmian canal had to be under American control. EWING, HUGH BOYLE (1826-1905). Soldier and diplomat. Born in Ohio, in 1849 he joined an expedition to rescue immigrants stranded by snow in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. He practiced law in Missouri (1854-1856) and then managed his father's salt works in Ohio. He served as a general in the Union army during the Civil War and was U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1866-1870). EWING, JAMES STEVENSON (1835-19 18). Politician and diplomat. A resident of Bloomington, Illinois, he was a delegate from Illinois to the Democratic National Convention (1876) and served as U.S. minister to Belgium (1893-1897). EWING, JOHN (1857-1923). Diplomat. Born in Mobile, Alabama, and a resident of Louisiana, he served as deputy regis-

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ter of chancery (1878-1892) and deputy collector of customs (1892-1893) of Mobile, and later was U.S. minister to Honduras (1913-1918). EXECUTIVE AGREEMENTS. In diplomacy, these are agreements reached between the president of the United States and the head of another government. The president has the constitutional authority to negotiate such agreements. They have the legal standing of a treaty although they need not be ratified by the Senate and, as such, are frequently of lesser importance than formal treaties. EXPANSIONISM. The United States has been "expansionist" from its earliest years, and the history of the United States from 1803 to 1853 was the history of expansion across the continent. This tendency was by no means unanimously applauded within the country even at the time. The tension between expansionists and anti-expansionists continued throughout the antebellum period and resurfaced in the postbellum years, particularly as the United States began to look beyond its continental limits for new territory. Alaska was the final continental acquisition in 1867. Between that time and World War I, the United States acquired Midway Island, Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the Panama Canal Zone, the Corn Islands, the Virgin Islands, and hosts of small atolls throughout the Pacific. In the view of some, "expansionism" had become "imperialism," but the arguments against such a method of adding to American territory remained the same: that such acquisition was contrary to and destructive of American values and institutions. Similarly, arguments in favor of expansion continued to point to American mission and destiny to help transform the world by bringing American values and institutions to "lesser" peoples. See also ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, ON EXPANISONISM; CARIBBEAN POLICY; PACIFIC OCEAN.

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EXPATRIATION. Voluntary surrender of one's citizenship, usually upon adopting the citizenship of another nation. Since the United States does not recognize dual citizenship, naturalized U.S. citizens must expatriate themselves. Congress, in 1868, declared expatriation to be a "natural and inherent right of all people" and indicated that the United States would protect naturalized U S . citizens in foreign lands--even if it were the nation of which the individual was formerly a citizen. EXTRATERRITORIALITY. Immunity from local law enforcement, usually granted to members of the diplomatic corps and heads of state when they are on foreign soil. In the late 19th century, it became an emblem of weakness for certain nations-China, Japan, Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, Persia, Siam, for example-as Western powers expanded at their expense. Under the rule of extraterritoriality, foreign nationals were subject to the laws of their own country rather than those of their host nation and lived in their own enclaves. See also OPEN DOOR NOTES.

FAIR, ELISHA YOUNG (1809-1886). Diplomat. A resident of Montgomery, Alabama, he served as U.S. minister to Belgium (1858-1861) but resigned in June 1861 to join the Confederacy. After the Civil War, he was a delegate to the Alabama constitutional convention (12-30 September 1865).

FAIRCHILD, LUCIUS (1831- 1896). Politician, soldier, and diplomat. Born in Kent, Ohio, he went to California during the gold rush (1849-1855). He served in the Union army during the Civil War and lost his left arm at the Battle of Gettysburg. Afterward, he served as Republican secretary of state (1864-1865) and governor (1866-1872) of Wisconsin. He was U.S. consul at Liverpool (1872-1878), consul general at Paris (1878-1880), and minister to Spain (1880-1882). Afterward, he was a presidential elector (1888) and a mem-

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ber of the board of commissioners to negotiate the purchase of land from the Cherokee Indians (1890). FEARN, JOHN WALKER (1832-1899). Diplomat and educator. Born in Alabama, he was secretary of the American legation in Belgium (1853-1856) and Mexico (1856-1859), practiced law in Mobile, Alabama (1859-1860), and was secretary to Confederate agents William Yancey, Pierre Rost, and A. Dudley Mann in Europe (186 1-1862). After brief service in the Confederate army, he was secretary to the Confederate mission to Emperor Maximilian in Mexico (1864). After the war, Fearn practiced law in New Orleans (18661885) and served as administrator of the University of Louisiana (1879-1880). Afterward, he served as U.S. minister and consul general to Romania, Serbia, and Greece (18851889). In addition, he was a member of the Department of Foreign Affairs of the World's Colombian Exposition (1891-1893) and a member of the International Mixed Tribunal in Egypt (1893-1896). FENIAN INVASIONS (1866-1870). Unofficial forays across the border into Canada by militia groups of Irish descent. Unemployed Union army veterans, inspired by the republican revolutionary movement in Ireland, became convinced that striking at Canada would be a way of striking at England. In April 1866, an invasion was stopped at the Maine border. In June 1866, a few hundred men crossed the Niagara River between New York and Ontario and won a minor victory at the "Battle of Limestone Ridge" before fleeing back to New York. Although the Fenians were arrested they were soon released because of political pressure. Four years later, in May 1870, U.S. marshals arrested a Fenian "army" under "General" John O'Neill in northern Vermont, effectively ending the movement. The invasions caused panic among border communities. While the invasions failed to deter the British government from its policy of having Canada pay for its own defense (part of British imperial withdrawal from North America in the middle decades of the 19th cen-

124 FERGUSON, THOMAS BARKER

tury), they muddied Anglo-American relations. Believing that the U.S. government was tolerating the invasions, the British foreign secretary, Lord Clarendon, claimed in 1870 that the situation was "evidence of unfriendliness as great as the escape of the Alabama." As such, they became a factor in Canadian confederation (1867) and the Treaty of Washington (1871). FERGUSON, THOMAS BARKER (1841-1922). Diplomat. A resident of South Carolina, he served as a captain in the Confederate infantry during the Civil War. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Sweden (1894-1898). FIELD, CYRUS (18 18-1892). American financier and entrepreneur. Field is best known for his work in laying the first Atlantic cable, and for his later promotion of Pacific undersea cables. FINCH, WILLIAM RUFUS (1847-19 13). Publisher and diplomat. A resident of Wisconsin, he served as U.S. minister to Paraguay (1897-1905) and Uruguay (1898-1905). FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893). Attorney and statesman. He was a Whig congressman from New York (1843-1845), lieutenant governor (1848) and governor (1849-185 1) of New York, and U.S. senator from New York (185 1-1857). While serving as secretary of state under President Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1877), he skillfully negotiated the Treaty of Washington (1871) and successfully soothed U.S. relations with Cuba, averting a conflict with Spain over the Virginius affair. FISH, NICHOLAS (1846-1902). Diplomat. Born in New York City, he entered diplomat service in 1871 and served as U.S. chargC d'affaires to Switzerland (1877-188 1) and minister to Belgium (1882-1885). He was the eldest son of Hamilton Fish.

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FISHERIES. The fisheries issue has been called "the most persistently vexatious dispute in American diplomatic history." Fishing off the Newfoundland coast has been an important economic activity since the colonial era, and consequently conflicts between Great BritaidCanada and the United States over Atlantic coast fishing began as soon as American independence had been achieved. In the Convention of 1818, American fishermen were granted privileges in Newfoundland waters. But those privileges were revoked in 1854. After the Civil War, the Treaty of Washington (1877) gave American fishermen more extensive fishing privileges, allowed British fishermen to fish as far south as the 39th parallel, and agreed that a sum, to be determined later, would compensate Britain. In 1877, a fishery commission meeting at Halifax awarded Britain $5.5 million in compensation for what she had yielded in the Treaty of Washington. The United States thought the award was unfair but paid the sum. Nevertheless, Canadian fishermen were not pleased, believing that their local rights had been bartered away. The settlement soon ended, however, when on Sunday, 6 January 1878, irate citizens of Fortune Bay repelled several American herring boats. The friction continued for nearly a decade, and in November 1887, an Anglo-American commission met to attempt once again to resolve the issue. Unfortunately the US. Senate rejected the resulting compromise, the BayardChamberlain Pact (signed February 1888), and Republicans made the controversy an issue in the presidential campaign of 1888. Two decades later, with the controversy still unresolved, Secretary of State Elihu Root engaged the British in tough negotiations that produced the Convention of 1909, in which the two nations agreed to submit all disputed issues to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague. The court's decision in 1910 was a compromise in which New England fishermen were to be protected against "unreasonable" local regulations, and Newfoundlanders were acknowledged to have local jurisdiction on fishing. This decision was confirmed in 1912 by an Anglo-American con-

126 FLETCHER, HENRY PRATHER

vention, which, in turn, established a permanent body to deal with future disputes. See also BERING SEA CONTROVERSY; FORTUNE BAY AFFAIR; RETALIATION ACT.

FLETCHER, HENRY PRATHER (1873-1959) Attorney and diplomat. Born in Franklin County, Pennsylvania, he served with the Rough Riders during the Spanish-American War and then with the volunteer infantry in the Philippines (18991901). He was second secretary of the American legations to Cuba (1902-1903) and China (1903-19O5), secretary of the legation to Portugal (1905-1907), and first secretary to the American legation to China (1907-1909). He then served as minister to Chile (1909-1914), and ambassador to Chile (19 14-1916) and Mexico (19 16-1919). He served concurrently as ambassador to Belgium (1922-1924) and also minister to Luxembourg (1923-1924). His final diplomatic post was as U.S. ambassador to Italy (1924-1929). Afterward, he was chairman of the Republican National Committee (19341936) and delegate fi-om Rhode Island to the 1940 Republican National Convention. FLYING SQUADRON. See SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. FOOTE, LUCIUS HARWOOD (1826-1913). Lawyer and diplomat. He served as consul at Valparaiso, Chile (1878-188 1) and in 1882 served in Central America on a special diplomatic mission. He was envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Korea (1883-1885), the first minister from a Western power to Korea. As minister, he helped to protect Japanese and Chinese nationals during an 1883 nationalist uprising in Seoul. He resigned his post when he was informed that Congress had lowered the rank of the diplomatic post. FORAKER ACT (1900). A congressional act that provided for the government of Puerto Rico. The US. president was to appoint an 11-member executive council, which shared legislative authority with an elected house of delegates. Laws of

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the United States, except where inapplicable, were to be the laws of Puerto Rico. Tariff rates were reduced to 15 percent of the Dingley Tariff rates. Inhabitants of Puerto Rico were given legal status as "citizens of Puerto Rico." FOREIGN RELATIONS COMMITTEE. Congressional responsibility for foreign affairs was typically vested in the House Committee on Foreign Relations and its counterpart in the Senate. The power of congressional foreign relations committees depended upon the corresponding power of the presidency at any given moment. During the period from the Civil War to World War I, presidents tended to be weak in foreign affairs-with the notable exceptions of Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt, and Woodrow Wilson. At the same time, the House Foreign Relations committee was led by some 20 different congressmen, mainly members of the dominant Republican Party. Since the House of Representatives has authority over budget appropriations, the House Foreign Affairs Committee can play a potentially significant role. At the same time, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee was led by a dozen senators, including such strong-willed figures as Charles Sumner, Simon Cameron, and John Sherman. The Senate, in particular, has the authority to give "advice and consent" to treaties and highlevel presidential appointments. During the years between the Civil War and the Spanish-American War, the Senate ratified only a few treaties-mainly those having to do with immigration. FOREIGN TRADE. See COMMERCE, FOREIGN. FOREIGN TRAVELERS TO THE UNITED STATES. Travelers, especially from Europe, have visited the United States since the early days of independence to report on what American life, culture, and politics are all about. It has been in part from these accounts that Europeans have gleaned their understanding of the United States, and as such it has been these accounts that have helped to shape the European

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response to America in the world. Typically, such observers have criticized the hectic pace and lack of culture that they found in America. The two most noteworthy European observers of American life in the late 19th century were the British historian James Bryce and the French journalist Paul Bourget.

FOREIGN WAR PANACEA MYTH. On 1 April 1861, Secretary of State William H. Seward submitted a memo to President Abraham Lincoln, "Some thoughts for the President's consideration." Southern states had seceded from the Union to form the Confederate States of America, the Lincoln administration was barely a month old, and European nations were showing interest in intervening in Western Hemispheric affairs. Meanwhile, Lincoln had shown little interest in foreign policy. Seward's memo argued that the nation needed to adopt a vigorous, aggressive foreign policy. The government should demand "explanations" from Spain, France, Great Britain, and Russia, regarding hemispheric violations, and send agents into Canada, Mexico, and Central America to create a "spirit of independence" there. If, Seward argued, Spain and France failed to provide satisfactory "explanations," the president should ask Congress for a declaration of war that would deal with the international threat and at the same time might reunite the nation in a common cause. Out of this memo developed the myth that the secretary of state was attempting to become, essentially, a "prime minister," with Lincoln a mere figurehead, and that Seward was a bellicose warmonger. More recent reevaluations of the memo point to Seward's consistent wish that the United States demonstrate unity and strength in the face of foreign threats, and to the fact that he did indeed demand "explanations" and received them-and in the process was able to stave off foreign intervention that would have benefited the Confederacy. See also CIVIL WAR, INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF; CIVIL WAR, INTERNATIONAL IMPACT OF.

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FORTUNE BAY AFFAIR (1878). On Sunday, 6 January 1878, irate citizens of Fortune Bay, Newfoundland, repelled several American herring boats. Their actions reignited the longstanding fisheries dispute between the United States, Canada, and Great Britain that policymakers had hoped the Treaty of Washington (1871) had settled. The locals were incensed not only by the sight of Americans fishing on Sunday, contrary to local ordinance, but also by their use of seines (nets) to catch the herring. U.S. secretary of state William M. Evarts vehemently protested the fracas and, citing damages to nets and loss of fishing revenues, presented the British with a $100,000 bill. British foreign secretary Lord Salisbury promptly rejected the American claim. The issue became treaty law versus local law, with the Americans maintaining that treaty law invariably predominated and the British holding the opposite position. Finally, after Prime Minister William E. Gladstone and Foreign Secretary Lord Granville returned to power in April 1880, the deadlock began to weaken. Both Gladstone and Granville were more sympathetic to American arguments. In May 1880, President Rutherford B. Hayes released the Fortune Bay correspondence and suggested that the United States should reinstitute its duty on Canadian fish. But Congress took no action. In February 1881, Secretary of State Evarts threatened that British intransigence might very well lead to American military action. Finally, at the end of May 1881, the British government agreed to an indemnity of £15,000, which was paid on 2 June 1881. FOSTER, JOHN W. (1836-1917). Lawyer and diplomat. Foster served as minister to Mexico (1873-1880), Russia (18801881) and Spain (1883-1885). Under President Benjamin Harrison, Foster served as secretary of state (1892-1893) and was U.S. agent in the Bering Sea arbitration, Paris (1893). Later, he participated in the peace negotiations between Japan and China at the invitation of the emperor of China (1895). In addition, was a member of the AngloCanadian Commission (1898), U.S. agent before the Alaska

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Boundary Tribunal, London (1903), and representative of China at the second Hague Conference (1907). FOX, WILLIAMS CARLTON (1855-1925). Diplomat. A resident of New Jersey, he served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (1907-1911). FRANCE-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. Political relations between France and the United States have fluctuated between warmth and tension since the American war for independence. During the Civil War, the perception on the part of Northern policymakers was that the French government was pro-Confederacy. Certainly, Napoleon I11 took advantage of the situation to install Maximilian on the Mexican throne, a blatant violation of the Monroe Doctrine that the United States easily reversed within two years of the war's conclusion. Although the Statue of Liberty (1884) was intended as a gift of the French people to the American people, by the latter decades of the 19th century as the power relationship of the two nations changed in favor of the United States, occasional tensions increased in frequency. Nevertheless, in the 1906 Morocco Crisis, the United States sided with France at the resulting Algeciras Conference, and at the outbreak of World War I the United Statesjoined with Great Britain and France to oppose Germany. See also FRENCH SPOLIATION CLAIMS. FRANCIS, CHARLES SPENCER (1853-1911). Journalist and diplomat. He was city editor of the Troy (N.Y.) Daily Times (c. 1880). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Greece (19011902), and while a resident in Athens was also accredited to Romania and Serbia (1900). He was also ambassador to Austria-Hungary (1906- 1910). FRANCIS, JOHN MORGAN (1823-1897). Journalist and diplomat. Born in Prattsbugh, Steuben County, New York, he edited the Troy (N.Y.) Daily Budget (1846-1 849), an influential Free Soil newspaper. In 1851 he founded the Troy

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(N.Y.) Daily Times,and in 1856 was one of the founders of the New York State Republican Party. He was a member of the state constitutional convention (1867-1868) and served as U.S. minister to Greece (1871-1 873). From 1875 to 1876 he took a world tour, especially to China and other parts of Asia. Later, he was U.S. minister to Portugal (1882-1884) and Austria-Hungary (1884-1885). FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN JOSEPH (1839-1898). Soldier, politician, and consular representative. He was a member of the Kansas state senate (1860), served in the Confederate army during the Civil War, and was a Democratic congressman from Missouri (1875-1879). He served as U.S. consul in Hankow (Wuhan) China (1885-1890) and later was governor of Arizona territory (1896-1897). FREEDOM OF THE SEAS. One of the traditional principles of U.S. foreign policy. The United States, a mercantile nation, has traditionally argued that neutral merchant shipping should be free from interference during wartirnespecifically, that foreign nations should not interfere with American ships. Since American economic security has typically been viewed as critical to American political security, the concept of "freedom of the seas" has been tied to three traditional American foreign policy goals: economic prosperity, diplomatic neutrality, and military security. FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE (18 171885). Jurist and statesman. He was secretary of state under President Chester Arthur (1881-1885). As secretary, he articulated the longstanding American aversion to insular possessions when he wrote to the American minister to Haiti, John M. Langston, on 20 June 1883: "The policy of this government, as declared on many occasions in the past, has tended toward avoidance of possessions disconnected from the main continent."

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FRENCH SPOLIATION CLAIMS. Claims presented by U.S. citizens against France, Spain, and the Netherlands, for shipping losses incurred between 1797 and 1801. As a result of the Louisiana Purchase treaty of 1803, the United States was to assume payment for most of the claims against France. But by the l88Os, the claims had still not been fully resolved, and, in 1885, Congress charged the U.S. Court of Claims to hear the cases. The court presented its findings to Congress, which, in turn, sent them to a committee for further review. Eventually, Congress appropriated funds in 1891, 1899, 1902, and 1905, to pay the claims, although some remained unsettled for another two decades. FRENCH WEST INDIES. A group of French possessions in the Caribbean, part of the Lesser Antilles. The major islands include Guadeloupe and Martinique. FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910). American jurist. Born in Augusta, Maine, in 1856 he moved to Chicago, where he practiced law and became active in Democratic Patty politics. He supported Stephen Douglas's campaign for the Senate (1858) and for the presidency (1860), was a delegate to the Illinois state constitutional convention (1862), and served as a Democratic member of the Illinois House of Representatives (1863). He was a delegate from Illinois to the Democratic National Convention of 1876, where he nominated Thomas A. Hendricks for vice president. He was appointed by President Grover Cleveland to be chief justice of the Supreme Court (1888-1910). In 1899 he was a member of the Paris arbitration commission adjudicating the Venezuela-Guiana boundary dispute. He also served as a member of the Hague Tribunal, the Permanent Court of Arbitration (1800-1910). FURNISS, HENRY WATSON (1868-1955). Physician and diplomat. A resident of Indianapolis, Indiana, he served as U.S. minister to Haiti (1905-1913).

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FURUSETH ACT. See LA FOLLETTE SEAMAN'S ACT.

GAGE, HENRY TIFFT (1852-1924). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Geneva, New York, and educated in Minnesota, he moved to California in 1874 and practiced law in Los Angeles, where his clients included the Southern Pacific Railroad. He was a delegate at large to the Republican National Convention (1888), where he seconded the nomination of Levi P. Morton for vice president. In 1891, in the wake of the Baltimore affair, President Benjamin Harrison appointed him to prosecute the crew of the Itata, but Gage declined the appointment because he believed that the government was wrong. After the Spanish-American War, Gage argued that the United States should annex the territories it had won from Spain. As governor of California (1899-1903), he developed a reputation for being a servant of railroad interests. Later, he served as minister to Portugal (1909-1911). GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-188 1). Politician and U.S. president. He was elected 20th president as a Republican in November 1880, shot on 2 July 1881 by a disappointed office seeker, died 11 weeks later, and was succeeded by Chester A. Arthur. Because of his short term, he had limited impact on foreign affairs. His secretary of state was James G. Blaine and his secretary of the navy was William H. Hunt. He appointed James Russell Lowell as U.S. minister to Great Britain and Lew Wallace as minister to Turkey. GARNETT, HENRY HIGHLAND (1815- 1882). Clergyman and orator. Born into slavery in Maryland, he escaped to freedom in 1825 and became a Presbyterian minister. Before the Civil War he was a nationally known voice of radical black liberation and advocated a worldwide cotton boycott that, he believed, would lead to a collapse of the cotton market and subsequently the slave system. In 1843 he preached

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in the rotunda of the Capitol in Washington, D.C., and in 1865 he became the first African American to speak before the House of Representatives. Toward the end of his career, he became an advocate of black emigration back to Africa. He served as minister to Liberia (1881-1882) but died there after only two months at his post. GARRELS, ARTHUR (b. 1873). Diplomat. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, he served as U.S. consul at Zanzibar (1908), Catania, Italy (1910-19l2), and Alexandria, Egypt (1912-1919). He then served as consul general in Athens (1924-1926), Melbourne (1926-1WO), and Tokyo (c. 1938). GARRETT, JOHN WORK (1872-1942). Banker and diplomat. In 1899 he was a member of the Johns Hopkins University medical mission to the Philippines to study tropical diseases. He was secretary to the American legation in the Netherlands and Luxembourg (1903-1905), second secretary in the U.S. embassy at Berlin (1905-1908), and first secretary in the U.S. embassy at Rome (1908-19 11). He served as minister to Venezuela (19 10-19 1I), to Argentina (19 111914), and to the Netherlands and Luxembourg (19 17-19 19). During World War I he headed war refugee and prisoner of war programs through the American embassy in Paris. In 1920 and 1924, he was a delegate from Maryland to the Republican National Convention. Although he had retired from the diplomatic corps, he returned under President Herbert Hoover as U.S. ambassador to Italy (1929-1933). At the end of his life he was a trustee of Johns Hopkins University (1937-1942). GARRISON, LINDLEY MILLER (1864-1932). Attorney and cabinet officer. Born in Camden, New Jersey, he practiced law in Camden (1900) and served as vice chancellor of New Jersey (1904-19 13). He was secretary of war under President Woodrow Wilson (1913-1916), during a time of tension with Mexico and war in Europe. He resigned on 10 February

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1916 because he had been unable to persuade the president to adopt his preparedness program. GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN (1818-1903). Inventor and physician. He invented the weapon known as the "Gatling gun," which was first built and used during the Civil War. The gun, which has multiple revolving barrels that can fire at a rapid rate, was later used by European powers in their Asian and African colonies. GAUSS, CLARENCE EDWARD (1887-1960). Foreign service officer. He served as U.S vice consul in Shanghai, China (1912-1915). He was then U.S. consul in Shanghai (1916), Amoy (1916-1920), and Tsinan (1920-1923). He then became consul general in Mukden (1923-1924), Tsinan (1924-1926), Shanghai (1926-1927, 1935-1%8), Tientsin (1927-193 I), and Paris (1935). He was the first U.S. minister to Australia (1940-1941) and was ambassador to China (1941-1944). GENEVA CONVENTION (1864). InterNational Convention signed by various European nations to reduce needless suffering of troops in wartime. By the terms of the convention, medical facilities and personnel were granted neutral status on battlefields. GENEVA TRIBUNAL. The tribunal of arbitration established by the Treaty of Washington (1871) to resolve the Alabama claims. GENTLEMEN'S AGREEMENT (1907). An agreement between the United States and Japan, under which Japan agreed to restrict Japanese immigration to the United States. Through an exchange of diplomatic notes, President Theodore Roosevelt was able to placate anti-Japanese sentiment in California and at the same time soothe Japanese resentment over California's discriminatory practices. The agreement went into effect in 1908.

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GEORGE, HENRY (1839-1897). Journalist, economist, and reformer. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he settled in California (1857) and worked as a journalist and editor there. A leading proponent of the "single tax" theory, he was the author of Progress and Poverty (1879) and ran for mayor of New York City (1886, 1897). GERARD, JAMES WATSON (1867-195 1). Jurist and diplomat. Born in Geneseo, New York, he served as a justice of the New York Supreme Court (1908-1913) and was a candidate for senator from New York (1914). He served as ambassador to Germany during the opening years of World War I (19 13-19 17), helping to manage U.S.-German relations during that difficult period. When in 1916 German foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann warned Gerard that U.S. entry into the war against Germany would cause a half million German Americans to join Irish Americans in a revolution against the American government, Gerard reportedly responded that there were a half million lampposts on which to hang such Germans. The following year, Gerard resigned from his position when diplomatic relations were broken off and the United States entered World War I on the side of the Allies. Afterward, he was a candidate for the Democratic nomination for president (1920), a delegate to the Democratic National Convention (1924-1948), and treasurer of the Democratic National Committee (1929-1932). GERMANY-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. The United States and the various German states were linked with strong political and cultural ties throughout the 19th century. Millions of German immigrants arrived between mid-century and the turn of the 20th century. Many Americans studied in German universities and returned to the United States deeply influenced by German thought and culture. Many German states were openly pro-Union during the Civil War, and many Americans were strongly pro-Prussia in its late century wars. After German unification in 1871, however, as the German Empire became more aggressive on the world scene,

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political and military rivalry between the United States and Germany increased. German naval development was one of the many motivations behind American naval growth late in the century, and the two nations clashed occasionally over trade issues. The most serious tension between the two nations came over Samoa, an issue that was resolved in 1899. At the same time, American relations with Great Britain were warming in the Great Rapprochement. At the outbreak of World War I, therefore, despite the official US. declaration of neutrality, it is arguable that many Americans, and President Woodrow Wilson, favored the Allied side, an inclination that was intensified by German attacks at sea and the Zimmermann Telegram. GIBBONS, JAMES (1834-1921). Roman Catholic prelate. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, he was ordained archbishop of Baltimore in 1877 and cardinal in 1886. He was a leading voice of Roman Catholicism in the United States during the great late-19th century wave of immigration that brought many Catholics to the country and fed ethnic tensions. He was also an adviser to several U.S. presidents on Catholic affairs. GIBBS, RICHARD (1819-1894). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Peru (1875-1 879) and Bolivia (1883-1 885) at the outset of the War of the Pacific between Chile and Bolivia (1879-1881). GILBERT ISLANDS. Archipelago of Micronesia in the Pacific Ocean, east of the Solomons and New Guinea, north of the Ellice Islands. In 1892, Great Britain declared a joint protectorate over both the Ellice and Gilbert Islands. GILDED AGE. The epithet often used to describe the several decades of U.S. history following the end of the Civil War. The phrase comes from a novel of the same name by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, published in 1873. The era is often seen as a boom period characterized by a brash,

138 GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE

individualistic, opportunistic, and optimistic national outlook. GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE (1831-1902). Journalist and author. He founded The Nation in 1865, editing it until 1899, and was editor of the New York Evening Post (1883-1900). Godkin featured Anglo-American relations in his newspaper's editorial columns and was a prominent member of the Anti-Imperialist League. GODWIN, PARKE (1816-1904). Journalist and author. Born in Paterson, New Jersey, he edited the New York Evening Post (1878-1881) and was married to the daughter of poet William Cullen Bryant. GOETHALS, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1858-1928). Chief engineer of the American project to construct the Panama Canal. Goethals has usually been credited with the success of the project, in contrast to previous efforts by a French company led by Ferdinand de Lesseps. GOFF, NATHAN, JR. (1843-1920). Lawyer, jurist, and politician. Born in Clarksburg, Virginia (now West Virginia), he was a major in the Union army during the Civil War. He was a member of the West Virginia House of Delegates (1867-1868) and a delegate from West Virginia to the Republican National Convention (1872, 1876, 1880). He was also a candidate for governor of West Virginia (1876, 1888) and U.S. attorney for West Virginia (1868-1881, 18811882). He served as interim secretary of the navy in the last three months of Rutherford B. Hayes's presidency (7 January 1881 to 6 March 1881). Afterward, he served as a Republican congressman from West Virginia (1883-1889), a judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals (1892-1913), and a U.S. senator from West Virginia (19 13-1919). GOLD RUSHES. The second half of the 19th century was the great era of the gold rush in the United States. The major

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gold strikes were in California (1849), Colorado (1859), Nevada (186O), Idaho (186l), Montana (1863), South Dakota (1876), Arizona (1877), Colorado (1892), and Alaska (1899). The gold rushes fueled the development of western regions of the United States, increased the political influence of those regions, and, in turn, brought the Pacific world closer to the concerns of American policymakers. See also ALASKA-CANADIAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE; KLONDIKE GOLD RUSH. GOLD STANDARD. Economic theory that a nation's currency should be backed by gold. See also BIMETALLISM. GOMPERS, SAMUEL (1850-1924). Labor leader. He was the first president of the American Federation of Labor (18861894, 1896-1924). Gompers developed an international reputation in the trade union movement. He served on the council of national defense set up by President Woodrow Wilson as part of the preparedness campaign. GONZALES, WILLIAM ELLIOTT (1866-1937). Editor, soldier, and diplomat. Born in Charleston, South Carolina, during the 1890s, he worked on The State, a Columbia daily newspaper founded by his brothers, Ambrose Elliott Gonzales and Narciso Gener Gonzales. The newspaper was a vocal opponent of lynching and a proponent of child labor laws, better education, and social and political reform. Gonzales served in the U.S. Army during the Spanish-American War. Later, he was U.S. minister to Cuba (1913-1919) and ambassador to Peru (1919). After his brothers died (1903, l926), he published The State until his own death. GOODLOE, WILLIAM CASSIUS (1841-1889). Politician and diplomat. He served in the Union mounted infantry during the Civil War. Afterward, he was a delegate from Kentucky to the Republican National Convention (1868, 1872, 1884) and a member (and at times chairman) of the Republi-

140 GORGAS, WILLIAM CRAWFORD

can National Committee (1872-78). He served as U.S. minister to Belgium (1878-1880). GORGAS, WILLIAM CRAWFORD (1854-1920). Physician. A native of Alabama, he served in the Army medical corps and became an expert on sanitation and insect control. Gorgas served in Cuba as chief sanitary officer for Havana (1899-1902), where he greatly improved sanitary conditions. He was then posted to Panama (1904), where he was responsible for successfully conquering the threat of yellow fever and malaria, enabling the construction of the Panama Canal. On behalf of the Transvaal Chamber of Mines, he visited South Africa (1913-1915) to recommend ways of controlling pneumonia among the native workers. He was promoted to surgeon general of the U.S. Army (19 15). Afier retiring from the army, he became an adviser to the International Health Board, traveling to South and Central America for further work on yellow fever (19 16). GORHAM, CHARLES T. (1812-1901). Banker, politician, and diplomat. Born in New York City, he moved to Michigan, where in the 1840s he became one of the advocates for the Crosswhite family, fugitive slaves in Marshall, Michigan, who became the center of a legal battle. In the 1850s he was a Michigan state senator, and in 1854 he was vice president at the first Republican convention. He was a Republican congressman from Michigan during the Civil War and a presidential elector from Michigan in 1868. He served as U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1870-1875) and as assistant secretary of the interior (c. 1877). GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW (1817-1886). Temperance advocate. Born in Kent, England, he came to the United States in 1829 and lived in Oneida County, New York, and New York City. From the 1840s to the 1870s, he lectured widely in the United States and Great Britain and was possibly the best-known public speaker in those two nations and

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an important figure in the transatlantic social reform movement. GRACE, WILLIAM RUSSELL (1832-1904). Industrialist and shipping magnate. He immigrated to the United States from Ireland in 1865 and proceeded to build a fortune on his transactions with Peru. By 1895, virtually every Latin American country had some dealings with W. R. Grace & Company. His shipping company, founded in 1891 as New York and Pacific Steamship Company, later Grace Steamship Company, had extensive trading contacts with Latin America. Grace was elected twice (1880 and 1884) as a reform mayor of New York City. GRAIN TRADE. Throughout the 19th century and into the first decade of the 20th, exports of wheat from the Midwest and West typically constituted the second largest export, by value, of the United States. Although the volume of grain exports continued to grow, the value relative to overall exports declined because of the increasing value of manufactured exports. GRAND BANKS. Region of the North Atlantic, southeast of Newfoundland. It has long been a prime fishing area and consequently was the site of Anglo-American conflicts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. See also FISHERIES. GRANT, FREDERIC JAMES (1862-1894). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1892-1893). He was also the author of History of Seattle (1891). GRANT, FREDERICK DENT (1850-1912). Solder and diplomat. Son of Ulysses S. Grant, he served as minister to Austria-Hungary (1889-1 893) and was later police commissioner of New York City (1895-1897). During the SpanishAmerican War, he served in the army in Puerto Rico. When the Philippine Insurrection began (1899), he participated in operations against the insurgents in Luzon.

142 GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON

GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885). Military officer and president. Born in Ohio, during the Civil War he became commander of all Union forces and accepted General Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House, Virginia (1865). After the war, he aligned himself with the Republican Party and served as interim secretary of war (1867) and then as 18th president (1869-1877). His secretaries of state were Elihu B. Washburne (1869) and Hamilton Fish (1869-1877), Grant's most distinguished cabinet member. His secretaries of the navy were undistinguished: Adolph E. Borie (1869) and George M. Robeson (1869-1877). The focus during the Grant administration was on domestic affairs, while in foreign affairs, Grant generally followed Fish's advice. The president's attempt to annex the Dominican Republic (1869) was rejected by the Senate and caused much dissention within his Republican Party. Two noteworthy accomplishments included the successful negotiation of the Treaty of Washington (1871) and the resolution of the Alabama claims. When insurrection broke out in Cuba, Grant, at the insistence of Fish, remained neutral despite his inclination to support the Cuban rebels. Congress, in turn, rejected a resolution that recognized the revolutionary regime. The administration was, however, able to peacefully settle the Wrginius affair (1873). GRANVILLE, LORD (1815-189 1). George Granville LevesonGower, English statesman. He was secretary for foreign affairs (1870-1874), during which time Great Britain signed the Treaty of Washington (1871)' and was foreign secretary under Gladstone (1880-1885). GRAPE JUICE DIPLOMACY. See BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS. GRAVES, CHARLES HINMAN (1839-1928). Diplomat. Born in Springfield, Massachusetts, he served in the Union army during the Civil War and was severely wounded at the Battle of Gettysburg. After the war, he moved to Duluth, Min-

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nesota, and served as a member of the state senate (18731876). Later, he served as minister to Sweden (1905-1913) and to Norway (1905-1906) when it gained its independence from Sweden. GRAY, ISAAC PUSEY (1828-1895). Soldier, politician, and diplomat. Born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, he served as a colonel in the Union army during the Civil War. He moved to Indiana and served as a member of the state senate (1869-1871), lieutenant governor of Indiana (1877-1SO), and governor of Indiana (1880-1881, 1885-1889). He was also an unsuccessful candidate for senator from Indiana (188 1) and candidate for the Democratic nomination for vice president (1888, 1892). At the end of his career he served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1893-1895). GREAT BRITAIN-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. Historians of 20th century U.S. foreign relations often refer to the "special relationship" between the United States and Great Britain. But for the bulk of the 19th century, that relationship was more strained than strong and Anglophobia colored American views of the British. Resentment from the War for Independence and the War of 1812 lingered, and points of conflict on the border with Canada, on the high seas, and in the Western Hemisphere provided frequent irritants. During the Civil War, Union uncertainties over British interventionist inclinations formed the bases of the greatest international crises of those years, especially the Trent affair and the Laird-Ram crisis. In the decade after the war, the Alabama claims and the fisheries issue heightened tensions between the two nations. Yet after the final clash over the Venezuela boundary dispute in the mid-1890s, the relationship warmed, and the two governments put their differences behind them, focusing on common bonds and laying the groundwork for the muchtouted "special relationship" of the 20th century. In consequence, Britain supported the United States in the SpanishAmerican War and adjusted its Isthmian goals in a way

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that gave the United States a green light to build and control a Panama Canal. Although the Arbitration Treaty of 1897 (Olney-Pauncefote Treaty) failed in the Senate, the two nations began to work together through the Permanent Court of Arbitration (Hague Tribunal, 1899) and were able to settle the long-smoldering Alaska-Canadian boundary dispute (1899-1903). The lack of any significant clash over China and Samoa, and British acquiescence in the U.S. Open Door Policy collectively marked the emergence of what historians have called the Great Rapprochement of Anglo-American relations. GREAT RAPPROCHEMENT. The warming of AngloAmerican relations beginning in the late 1890s. A convergence of conditions created this new relationship between the "English-speaking peoples," after a century of discord. Fundamentally, the two nations came to realize that transatlantic accord was a more productive situation than transatlantic conflict, because policymakers increasingly identified a commonalty of interests. Economic ties were strong (Britain being the main destination for U.S. goods). Personal and cultural ties fed into a renewed emphasis on AngloSaxonism. In addition, Great Britain, fearing that its global power was ebbing, understood the benefits of a positive relationship with a rising superpower. GREAT SWAN. A tiny island of about one square mile, 97 miles northeast of Honduras and 320 miles west of Jamaica in the Caribbean. In 1863, Great Swan was certified as appertaining to the United States, under the Guano Islands Act of 1856. Guano was exported for many years. It was also claimed by Honduras. GREAT WHITE FLEET (1907-1909). The term describing the portion of the Atlantic fleet sent on a world cruise from 16 December 1907 to 22 February 1909 by President Theodore Roosevelt. The purposes of the cruise included: testing naval readiness; demonstrating American sea power and the need

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for U.S.-controlled coaling stations; and generating international good will. The fleet of 16 new battleships-all painted white for the occasion-included Connecticut, Vermont, Kansas, Minnesota, Georgia, Nebraska, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Louisiana, Virginia, Missouri, Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, and Kearsarge. The voyage covered 46,000 miles and attracted considerable attention, although the vessels suffered from mechanical problems and were already obsolete in the new era of the Dreadnought. GREELEY, HORACE (18 11-1872). Journalist. He founded the New York Journal in 1841 and edited it until his death. During the Civil War, he criticized President Abraham Lincoln's wartime policies. In January 1863, Greeley and William C. Jewett undertook private negotiations with the French minister to the United States, Henri Mercier, with the hope that France would offer to mediate the conflict. The talks failed. In the presidential election of 1872, he ran on the Democratic and Liberal Republican lines but demonstrated himself to be erratic and unpredictable and lost by a large margin. GREELY, ADOLPHUS WASHINGTON (1844-1935). Arctic explorer. During his 1881-1884 expedition, he reached a higher latitude than any explorer before him (1882). His expedition had to be rescued by Captain Winfield S. Schley (1884). GREENE, ROGER SHERMAN (1881-1947). Consular representative. Born in Worcester, Massachusetts, he served as vice consul at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1903-1904), Nagasaki, Japan (1904-1905), and Kobe, Japan (1905). He was also consul at Vladivostok, Russia, (1907), and Harbin, China (1909-191I), and consul general in Hankow (Wuhan), China (191 1-1914). GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTIN (1832-1895). Jurist and statesman. He served as secretary of state in the second ad-

146 GRESHAM-YANG TREATY

ministration of Grover Cleveland (1893-1895). As secretary, he was conciliatory and anti-expansionist. He opposed the annexation of Hawaii and the annexation treaty that had been left on the president's desk by President Benjamin Harrison. On Gresham's advice, Cleveland sent James H. Blount on a fact-finding mission to Hawaii. Gresham died in office just as the Venezuela boundary dispute was coming to a head. See also BRAZILIAN NAVAL REVOLT; MOSQUITO COAST CONTROVERSY. GRESHAM-YANG TREATY (1894). Treaty between the United States and China. The agreement ended the immigration of Chinese laborers to the United States for 10 years. GREVSTAD, NICOLAY ANDREW (185 1-1940). Journalist and diplomat. He edited Dagbladet in Norway (1880-1883) but was forced to resign because he had supported the liberal Norwegian leader John Sverdrup. Grevstad emigrated to the United States and became chief editorial writer for the Minneapolis Tribune (1888-1890). In 1892, he joined the staff of Skandinaven, a powerful voice of the Norwegian immigrant community. He served as editor of the newspaper (1892191I), which had a generally Republican perspective on issues of the day, and then was appointed U.S. minister to Paraguay and Uruguay (191 1-1914). In 1930, he again became editor of Skandinaven. G R I M K ~ARCHIBALD , HENRY (1849-1930). Lawyer, publicist, and diplomat. He served as consul to Santo Domingo (1894-1898). He was a prominent leader in the fight against racial discrimination and won the Spingarn medal of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (19 19). GRINGO. Derogatory term sometimes used in Latin America to refer to foreigners, especially Americans.

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GRISCOM, LLOYD CARPENTER (1872-1959). Attorney and diplomat. Born in Burlington County, New Jersey, and a resident of Pennsylvania, he toured South and Central America with Richard Harding Davis and Somers Somerset from January to April 1895, months when tensions over the Venezuela-Guiana boundary dispute were building. He served in the U.S. Army during the Spanish-American War. Afterward, he served as secretary of legation (1899) and chargC d'affaires (1899-1901) at Constantinople. He then became U.S. minister to Persia (1901-1902) and Japan 1902-l9O6), and ambassador to Brazil (1906- l9O7), and Italy (1907-1909). During World War I, he was a liaison officer on General John Pershing's staff in London. After he left the diplomatic corps, he published the Daily Democrat of Tallahassee, Florida (1929-1959). GRUBB, EDWARD BURD (1841-19 13). Diplomat. A resident of New Jersey, he was a general in the Union army during the Civil War and later served as U.S. minister to Spain (1890-1892). GUAM. The largest of the Mariana Islands, about 209 square miles, 1,499 miles from Manila and 5,053 miles from San Francisco. The first European to encounter the island was Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. Spain ruled Guam from 1564 until the end of the Spanish-American War (1898). By the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1898), Spain ceded the island to the United States, and from 1899 until 1941 it was under U.S. naval administration. GUANO ISLANDS ACT OF 1856. Passed by Congress on 18 August 1856, the act provides that an island on which guano is discovered by a U.S. citizen and which is not claimed by another government may be considered, at the discretion of the president, as "appertaining to the United States." The discoverer of a guano island could be given the exclusive right to mine guano for U.S. citizens, and this right would be passed to the heirs of the discoverer. The act provided legal

148 G U A N T ~ A M OBAY

and military protection for American entrepreneurs mining guano for use in the United States, although criminal acts on the islands were to be treated as if they had been committed on the high seas, on U.S. vessels-a provision that effectively skirted the issue of the application of constitutional protections to such territories. Guano, or seabird droppings, is rich in phosphates and minerals and was a prime source of fertilizer for American agriculture. America's most important trade with South America in the late 19th century was in guano. See also BAJO NUEVO, BAKER ISLAND; CHRISTMAS ISLAND; COLONIES; GREAT SWAN; HOWLAND ISLAND; INSULAR CASES; JARVIS ISLAND; JOHNSTON ATOLL; KINGMAN REEF; LITTLE SWAN; NAVASSA ISLAND; PALMYRA ATOLL; PETREL ISLAND; PHOENIX GROUP; QUITA ~ U E f i 0 BANK; RONCADOR CAY; SAND REEF; SERRANILLA BANK. G U A N T ~ A M OBAY. One of the finest harbors in the Caribbean, at the southeastern tip of Cuba. In 1903, the United States acquired the right to maintain a naval base there. In 1934, a formal treaty reconfirmed the arrangement in perpetuity. See also PLATT AMENDMENT. GUATEMALA. Nation in Central America. It is bounded on the north and northwest by Mexico, on the east by Belize, Honduras, and the Gulf of Honduras, on the southeast by El Salvador, and on the southwest by the Pacific Ocean. Guatemala had become an independent republic in the decades before the American Civil War. Thereafter, it engaged in several wars with El Salvador and Honduras. In 1906, war broke out again. Theodore Roosevelt and Mexican president Porfirio Diaz offered to help resolve the conflict. This offer led to an armistice and, ultimately, to the Central American Arbitration Treaty. GUILD, CURTIS, JR. (1860-1915). Journalist, politician, soldier, and diplomat. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, he joined

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his father's financial newspaper, the Commercial Bulletin, after graduation from Harvard College (1881). He was an army colonel in the Spanish-American War (1898) and, in 1902, took over ownership and editorial control of the Commercial Bulletin. He served as lieutenant governor and, briefly, governor of Massachusetts (1903-1907) and was a candidate for the Republican vice presidential nomination (1908). Later, he served as U.S. ambassador to Russia (191 11913). GUGGENHEIM, DANIEL (1856-1930). Industrialist and philanthropist. Under his direction, the family firm, M. Guggenheim's Sons, became the largest lead smelter in the world. In the 1890s, the company expanded its operations in Mexico, having extracted concessions from President Porfirio Diaz. By the turn of the 20th century, American Smelting and Refining Company, controlled by the Guggenheim family, had built a multinational business empire of mines, smelters, and refineries in the United States, Mexico, Chile, and the Belgian Congo. See also MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS.

GUMME&, SAMUEL RENE (1849-1920). Diplomat. He had objected to the illegal issuance of American citizenship papers by the U.S. consul at Tangiers, and so he was appointed consul general at Tangier, Morocco (1898-1905). Because of his role in successfully resolving the Perdicaris Affair, he was appointed the first U.S. minister to Morocco (19051909). In that position, he represented the US. Open Door policy at a time when France, Germany, and Spain desired to increase their influence in Morocco. As the U.S. minister, Gumrnerk participated in the Algeciras Conference (1906), called to resolve the clash over Moroccan independence. GUNBOAT DIPLOMACY. The term sometimes used to describe the use of naval force (marines, guns on warships) to settle small diplomatic controversies. Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States relied on this

150 GUTHRIE, GEORGE WILKINS

approach in, for example, Alaska, Panama, Samoa, and Santo Domingo. GUTHRIE, GEORGE WILKINS (1848-1917). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, he served as the Democratic mayor of Pittsburgh (1906-1909) and a delegate from Pennsylvania to the Democratic National Convention (1912). He was also U.S. ambassador to Japan (1913-1917).

HAGUE CONFERENCE OF 1899. International meeting at The Hague, Netherlands, called by Tsar Nicholas I1 of Russia to promote world peace and arms limitations. Twenty-six nations (including the United States) participated in the conference, which met from 18 May to 29 June 1899. The tsar proposed that national armaments be reduced, or at least their increases halted; that the cruelties of modern warfare be mollified by eliminating submarines and certain classes of explosives and missiles, and by assigning neutral status to relief parties; and that a permanent court of arbitration be established. Conference participants agreed to arms reductions but provided no mechanism to achieve the goal. The conference also adopted conventions (including the principles of the Geneva Convention of 1864) aimed at making land and maritime war more humane. A Permanent Court of Arbitration (the Hague Tribunal) was established, with arbitrators from each of the signatory powers. HAGUE CONFERENCE O F 1907. The second international meeting at The Hague, Netherlands, proposed by President Theodore Roosevelt and called by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to promote world peace. Forty-four nations participated in the conference, which met from 15 June to 18 October 1907. The United States was represented by Joseph Choate, and China was represented by former U.S. secretary of state John W. Foster. The conference approved conventions on

the peaceful settlement of international disputes; an international prize court; neutral rights on land and at sea; use of submarines in laying mines and balloons in discharging explosives; bombarding towns from ships at sea; use of merchant vessels as warships; and the extension of the Geneva Convention to maritime war. Although Germany, Russia, and Austria avoided the issue of disarmament, the conference recommended arms limitations. Participants also recommended that a third conference meet to continue the work of the first two, but World War I interrupted such international efforts at world peace. HAGUE TRIBUNAL. See PERMANENT COURT OF ARBITRATION.

HAITI. Republic in the western portion of the island of Hispaniola, in the Caribbean. In the postbellum era, U.S. interest in the excellent harbor at Male St. Nicolas on the Windward Passage manifested itself several times, first under Secretary of State William H. Seward and later under Secretary of State James G. Blaine. In 1868, President Ulysses S. Grant urged that the United States purchase Haiti, but Congress was uninterested. The following year, the House Foreign Relations Committee defeated a proposal to extend American protection to Haiti and Santo Domingo whenever they requested it or whenever the president believed that they wanted it. In 1883, as interest in strategic approaches to a potential Isthmian canal increased, President Chester A. Arthur and his cabinet discussed sending a naval vessel to investigate a naval base at M61e St. Nicolas, but annexationist sentiment was still not strong. In the early 20th century, U.S. interest in Haiti changed. In 1910, President William H. Taft's secretary of state, Philander C. Knox, convinced four American banks to invest in the Haitian National Bank as a way of funding the Haitian national debt. In 1915, after years of political instability and turmoil, President Guillaume Sam was murdered. U.S. marines landed in July 1915

152 HALDEMAN, JACOB SAMILS

to put down the ongoing revolution, facilitate the collection of debt payments, and avert European intervention. HALDEMAN, JACOB SAMILS (1827-1889). Banker, politician, and diplomat. President of the Harrisburg National Bank of Pennsylvania, he was a delegate from Pennsylvania to the Republican National Convention (1860) and served as U.S. minister to Sweden (1861-1 864). HALDERMAN, JOHN ACOMING, JR. (1833-1908). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Missouri and raised in Kentucky, he moved to Kansas in 1854. He served as private secretary to the first governor of Kansas (1854-1855), judge of Kansas probate court, mayor of Leavenworth, member of the state senate (1870), and regent of the state university of Kansas. In 1880, Halderman was appointed U.S. consul at Bangkok, Siam. He became consul general in 1881 and served as U.S. minister to Siam (1883-1885). While serving in Siam, he worked to end the illegal liquor trade that existed under the U.S. flag. In recognition of that work, the king of Siam honored him as Knight Commander of the White Elephant. In addition, King Norodom of Cambodia awarded Halderman the Commander of the Royal Order of Cambodia in recognition of his efforts to introduce mail and telegraph service to that country and Cochin China. HALE, EDWARD JOSEPH (1839-1922). Journalist, soldier, politician, and diplomat. Born in Cumberland County, North Carolina, he served as a major in the Confederate army during the Civil War. He was the editor of the Fayetteville, N.C., Obsewer (1882-1885) and was a delegate from North Carolina to the 1884 Democratic National Convention, where he drafted the tariff plank of the party's platform. He then served as U.S. consul in Manchester, England (1885l889), an important post because of the cotton interests linking that city to the southern United States. After his consular position, he traveled to India on behalf of the North England Trust Company to investigate the indigo industry (1889-

HAMLIN, HANNIBAL 153 1890). He then moved to New York City, where he was a commissioner of the Manchester Ship Canal in North America (1890-1891). Afterward, he resumed editing the Fayetteville Observer (1892) and was, again, a delegate from North Carolina to the Democratic National Convention (1896, 1912). Under President Woodrow Wilson, he served as U.S. minister to Costa Rica (1913-19 17). HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806-1873). Politician and diplomat. He was U.S. attorney for New Hampshire (1834-1MI), a Democratic congressman (1843-1845), a Free Soil senator (1847-1853, 1855-1865) from New Hampshire, and a Free Soil candidate for president (1852). Known for his strong antislavery views, he was an organizer of the Republican Party in the 1850s. During the 1850s, he campaigned to bring about the abolition of flogging in the navy, and in the 1860s to end the grog ration. During the Civil War he was chair of the Senate Naval Affairs Committee. He later served as U.S. minister to Spain (1865-1869). HALL, ALLEN A. (1802-1867). Journalist and diplomat. He served as U.S. charge d'affaires in Venezuela (1841-1844). In the 1850s, he was the editor of the Nashville Daily News, an antislavery Whig newspaper. Hall gained notoriety when, on 18 November 1859, he shot the editor of the Nashville Union and American, George Gilmer Poindexter, over a vitriolic editorial battle on the slavery issue. Hall fled Nashville and was never tried. He supported the Union during the Civil War, and served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1863-1867), where he died as a result of an epidemic. HALL, HENRY COOK (1820-1901). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to the Central American states (1882-1889), accredited individually to Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala. HAMLIN, HANNIBAL (1809-1891). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. A resident of Maine, he was a Democratic member

154 HANNA, BAYLESS W

of the Maine House of Representatives (1836-1840, 1847), a Democratic congressman from Maine (1843-1847), a U.S. senator from Maine (1848-1857, 1857-1861, 1869-1881), and governor of Maine (1857). He left the Democratic Party in 1856 and served as vice president in the first term of President Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865). He served as collector of the port of Boston (1865-1 866) and, later, U.S. minister to Spain (1881-1882). HANNA, BAYLESS W. (1830-1891). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. He was a Democratic member of the Indiana House of Representatives (1863) and the state senate (18651867) and served as Indiana attorney general (1870-1872). He was also a delegate from Indiana to the 1876 Democratic National Convention. In 1880, he was defeated in an election for Congress. He served as U.S. minister to Argentina (18851889). For many years, Hanna also served as the general attorney of the Indianapolis and St. Louis Railroad.

HANNA, PHILIP C. (b. 1857). Clergyman and consular representative. Born in Iowa, he served as U.S. consul general at La Guaira, Venezuela (1889-1894), Trinidad (1897), and Puerto Rico (1897-1898). While serving in Venezuela, Hanna achieved the release of the Russian, French, and Belgian consuls, who had been arrested by the Venezuelan government. He served as consul general at Monterrey, Mexico, (1899-1917) during a time of political turbulence and strained Mexican-American relations. In April 19 14, when U.S. forces occupied Veracruz, a Mexican police force entered the U.S. consulate in Monterrey and took Hanna prisoner. A military court charged him with sympathizing with the Constitutionalist forces in their struggle with Federal forces. Hanna might have been executed, but Constitutionalist forces captured Monterey and released him. In June 1916, the consulate was closed because of poor Mexican-American relations and the dispute over Pancho Villa. Hanna, in turn, established a temporary consular office in San Antonio.

HARRIMAN, EDWARD HENRY 155

HARDY, ARTHUR SHERBURNE (1847-1930). Author, mathematician, college professor, and diplomat. Born in A dover, Massachusetts, he taught mathematics at Dartmouth College (c. 1875-1893). He edited Cosmopolitan (18931895) and served as U.S. minister to Persia (1897-1899), Romania (1899), Serbia (1899), Greece (1899-1901), and Switzerland (1901-1903). He was offered the post of assistant secretary of state, but he preferred instead to serve as U.S. minister to Spain (1902-1905) during a period of intense anti-American sentiment in the wake of the SpanishAmerican War. He published widely-novels, poetry, and books on mathematics. His best-known work, Passe Rose, is a romance set in the court of Charlemagne. HARPER'S NEW MONTHLY MAGAZINE. Magazine founded in 1850 by James Harper of Harper and Brothers publishers. It had a distinguished international reputation for the quality of its contributors, who included Herman Melville, William Dean Howells, and Woodrow Wilson. HARPER'S WEEKLY. A political and literary magazine, founded in 1857. It was well known for its pictorial and news features, including the political cartoons of Thomas Nast. HARRIMAN, EDWARD HENRY (1848-1909). Entrepreneur. Born in Nassau County, New York, he was known mainly for his involvement in railroad development in the late 19th century. Harriman came to control the Union Pacific, Southern Pacific, and other major railroads within the continental United States and, by the early decades of the 20th century, had developed a vision of a global transportation network that included domination of the Manchurian railroads, which, in turn, became one component of expanded U.S. influence in China. Harriman was a delegate from New York to the 1904 Republican National Convention.

156 HARRIS, ADDISON CLAY

HARRIS, ADDISON CLAY (1840-1916). Politician and diplomat. Born in Wayne County, Indiana, he was a member of the state senate (1877-1879), an unsuccessful candidate for Congress (1886), and a presidential elector for Indiana (1896). He served as U.S. minister to Austria-Hungary (1899-1901). HARRIS, ERNEST LLOYD (1870-1946). Consular representative. Born in Jasper County, Iowa, and a resident of Rock Island, Illinois, he served in Eibenstock, Germany, as consular agent (1898-1902) and commercial agent (1902-1905). He lectured on commerce at the University of Chicago (1905-1906) and was U.S. consul at Chernnitz, Germany (1905-1906) and Smyrna (Izmir), Turkey (1906-1908). He then served as consul general at Smyrna (1908-1911), Stockholm (1911-1916), and Irkutsk (1918-1921). While in Russia, he also served on the staff of the National City Bank of New York, Moscow Branch (1917). He then served as consul general at Singapore (192 1-1925), Vancouver (1925l929), and Vienna (1932). HARRIS, HEATON W. (b. 1858). Attorney and consular representative. Born in Alliance, Ohio, he served as U.S. consul at Mannheim, Germany (1899-1907) and Nuremberg, Germany (1907-1908). He was also consul general at Frankfurt am Main, Germany (1912-1917), Stockholm (1917-18), and Havana (1918-1920). HARRIS, TOWNSEND (1804-1878). Merchant and diplomat. Born in Sandy Hill (Hudson Falls), New York, he was the first U.S. consul general to Japan (1855-1858) following the 1854 treaty negotiated by Commodore Matthew C. Perry. In 1856, he negotiated a treaty between the United States and Siam, and, in 1858, he concluded the first commercial treaty between the United States and Japan. He served as minister to Japan (1859-1861).

HART, CHARLES BURDETT 157 HARRISON, BENJAMIN (1883-1901). Lawyer and president. Born in North Bend, Ohio, he served as a Republican senator from Indiana (1881-1887) and was elected 23rd president of the United States in 1888. His cabinet included Secretary of the Navy Banjamin F. Tracy, usually viewed as one of the "fathers" of the "new navy," and Secretary of State James G. Blaine, an activist with a global view of U.S. foreign policy. John W. Foster succeeded Blaine during the last year of the Harrison administration (1892-1893). Harrison pursued a vigorous foreign policy during his one-term presidency (1889-1893). He convened the first Pan-American Conference (1889) and resolved the conflict over Samoa by arranging a tripartite condominium with Great Britain and Germany. He pushed a conflict with Chile over the Valparaiso incident toward a resolution that was favorable to the United States, and he confronted Great Britain and Canada over the seals of the Bering Sea. Furthermore, he appointed Frederick Douglass, the most prominent African American of his day, as minister to Haiti, continued the expansion of the navy, and negotiated eight reciprocal trade agreements. He failed, on the other hand, to secure a coaling station in Hawaii, and Congress balked at Hawaiian annexation and guaranteeing bonds for the construction of an Isthmian canal. Congress did, however, pass the McKinley Tariff during the Harrison administration. He was defeated for reelection by Grover Cleveland, whom Harrison had defeated in 1888. Afterward, he lectured and served as chief counsel for Venezuela in its boundary dispute with Great Britain. HART, CHARLES BURDETT (1850-1930). Newspaper editor and diplomat. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, he resided in Philadelphia and worked on the Chronicle, Inquirer, North American, and Press in the 1870s. He moved to Wheeling, West Virginia, and became editor of the Intelligencer (1882c. 90). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Colombia (18971903).

158 HARTMAN, CHARLES SAMPSON

HARTMAN, CHARLES SAMPSON (1861-1929). Jurist, politician, and diplomat. He was a Montana state court judge (1884-1886), a delegate to the Montana constitutional convention (1888), and a Republican congressman from Montana (1893-1899). He was also a delegate to the Republican National Convention of 1896. In 1900, he joined the Democratic Party and was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention of that year. In 1910, he was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (1913-1922). HARVEY, JAMES E. (b. 1820). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Portugal (186 1-1869). HASELTON, SENECA (1848-1921). Diplomat and attorney. A resident of Burlington, Vermont, he was a city judge of Burlington, a member of the Vermont House of Representatives (1886), and mayor of Burlington (1890). He served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1894), and, afterward, was an associate judge of the Vermont Supreme Court (c. 1902-19 13) HASSAUREK, FREDERICK (1832-1 885). Politician and diplomat. Born in Vienna, Austria, and a resident of Cincinnati, Ohio, he was a delegate from Ohio to the Republican National Convention (1860, 1868), and served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (1861-1866). HATHAWAY, CHARLES MONTGOMERY, JR. (18741954). College professor and consular representative. Born in Deposit, New York, and a resident of Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania, he taught English at Adelphi College (1902-1903) and Columbia University (1903-1905), and was an instructor of English and law at the United States Naval Academy (1905-1911). He served as United States consul at Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic (19 11-19 13), Hull (19 141917), Queenstown (1917-1920), Bombay (1921-1922), and Dublin (1922-1924). He was also consul general at Dublin (1924-1926) and Munich (1929-1938).

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HAWAII. A group of about 20 islands in the North Pacific, 2,000 miles southwest of San Francisco. Midway island, about 1,300 miles northwest of Honolulu, was sometimes considered part of the chain but typically was dealt with separately. The largest islands in the chain are Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, and Molokai. The earliest American settlers in the Hawaiian Islands (also known as the Sandwich Islands) were the families of Christian missionaries, whose influence on the Hawaiian economy grew over the years. By the terms of the Hawaiian Reciprocity Treaty (18X), the United States granted free entry to Hawaiian sugar. In 1887, the same year that the Hawaiian legislature instituted reforms that limited the power of the monarchy, a treaty between Hawaii and the United States gave Pearl Harbor to the United States as a naval base. However, in 1890, the McKinley Tariff (in part aiming to stimulate the American sugar beet industry) imposed a tariff on Hawaiian sugar and gave a bonus of two cents per pound on domestic sugar. The duty hurt American sugar companies in Hawaii. American sugar growers in Hawaii responded by lobbying for American annexation, a demand rejected by Queen Liliuokalani, who, instead, moved to msd her own authority and d c e U.S. influence in the islands. In 1893, American sugar executives led by Sanford Dole staged a coup, seizing the government (with the assistance of American marines who marched through Honolulu to "protect American lives and property") and requesting American annexation. President Benjamin Harrison was receptive, but he was soon succeeded by Grover Cleveland, who rejected the request, suspecting that native Hawaiians did not desire it, and also being reluctant to engage in expansionism. In 1898, however, in the midst of the SpanishAmerican War, the United States annexed the islands. See also BAYONET CONSTITUTION; HAWAII ANNEXATION. HAWAII ANNEXATION. Efforts at American annexation of Hawaii had begun even before the Civil War. An attempt in

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1854 under President Franklin Pierce had failed. In the 189Os, however, the island nation became increasingly dependent economically on the United States. When Queen Liliuokalani moved to regain native prerogatives, the white elite devised plans for her abdication and U.S. annexation, plans encouraged by the cabinet of President Benjamin Harrison in 1892. In 1893, when the queen proclaimed a new constitution, the annexationists revolted and made Sanford Dole president. According to U.S. Minister to Hawaii John L. Stevens, who had invited marines from the USS Boston to land in support of the provisional government, "The Hawaiian pear is now fully ripe and this is the golden hour for the United States to pluck it." An annexation treaty (which was to pay Liliuokalani a $20,000 annuity for life) was sent to the U.S. Senate in February 1893, but after President Grover Cleveland was inaugurated in March, he withdrew the treaty. A special investigation by James Henderson Blount revealed that the revolution had come about largely because of Stevens and that the natives opposed annexation. Cleveland removed Minister Stevens and replaced him with Albert Willis, whose charge was to restore Liliuokalani and extract from her a promise of amnesty. But when Dole announced that only armed force would get him to leave, Cleveland referred the matter to Congress, which decided to do nothing. When President William McKinley took office in 1897, a new annexation treaty was signed, but this time opposition from Japan stalled ratification. But in 1898, after Commodore George Dewey's victory at Manila Bay, pro-annexation sentiment carried the day. A joint resolution easily passed Congress, and McKinley signed it on 7 July 1898. According to McKinley, "Annexation is not change; it is consummation." HAWAII V. MANIKICHI (1903). One of the so-called Insular cases. The Supreme Court declared that the Fifth Amendment requirement for indictment by a grand jury and the Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial were inapplicable in Hawaii.

HAY-BUNAU-VAIULLATREATY 16 1

HAWAIIAN RECIPROCITY TREATY (1875). Treaty signed by the United States and Hawaii. The terms provided that the United States would allow Hawaiian sugar to be sold in the U.S. duty-free, and Hawaii would not permit any other power to establish a foothold on the islands. The U.S. Senate had defeated an earlier reciprocity treaty in 1867. HAY, JOHN MILTON (1838-1905). Writer and diplomat. He served as assistant private secretary to President Abraham Lincoln, first secretary of legation at Paris (1865-1867), chargC d'affaires at Vienna (1867-1869), secretary of legation at Madrid (1869-1870), and assistant secretary of state (1879-1881). President William McKinley appointed him ambassador to Great Britain (1897-1898) and then secretary of state (1898-1905). He helped to negotiate the Treaty of Paris that concluded the Spanish-American War, which he had described as a "splendid little war." He is also credited with enunciating and promoting the Open Door Policy. See also HAY-BUNAU-VARILLA TREATY; HAY -HE& TREATY; HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY. HAY-BUNAU-VARILLA TREATY (1903). Signed in November 1903 by the United States and the newly independent nation of Panama, after the Panama Revolution. The United States recognized Panamanian independence and was granted rights to a 10-mile-wide canal zone. Philippe Bunau-Varilla, the French engineer who had been involved in Isthmian canal construction efforts for two decades, had been appointed minister plenipotentiary for Panama, with authority to negotiate the terms of a canal treaty. Secretary of State John Hay led the U.S. negotiation team. In part because of Bunau-Varilla's eagerness to gain a treaty that would protect French investment in the canal, the United States won even better terms than it had originally requested, including the lease on a 10-mile zone, in perpetuity, and the right to use troops to intervene in Panama. In exchange, the United States agreed to guarantee Panamanian independ-

162 HAY-HE-

TREATY

ence, provide a payment of $10 million, and pay an annual rent of $250,000. Bunau-Varilla agreed to the terms before the official Panamanian delegation arrived to review the treaty, and so for years afterward the treaty was derided by some Panamanians as "the treaty that no Panamanian ever signed."

HAY- HERR^ TREATY (1903). An agreement negotiated in January 1903 by the United States and Colombia. According to its terms, the United States received a 99-year renewable lease on an Isthmian canal at a cost of $10 million and $250,000 per year. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, but the Colombian senate rejected it, arguing that Colombia deserved $109 million. The failure of the treaty precipitated the Panama Revolution of 1903. HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY (1901). Signed between the United States and Great Britain, the agreement replaced the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty by guaranteeing open passage for any nation through the proposed Isthmian canal. Negotiations were concluded on 18 November 1901, and the ratifications were exchanged on 21 February 1902. The treaty granted the United States the right to construct a canal but also guaranteed that the canal would be neutral, open to the ships of all nations "on terms of entire equality." The United States agreed that it would not blockade the canal but at the same time gained the right "to maintain such military police along the canal as may be necessary to protect it against lawlessness and disorder." A previous version of the treaty, which had not permitted fortification of a canal, had been rejected by the U.S. Senate. HAYES, RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD (1822-1893). Lawyer, statesman, president. A Republican from Ohio, he was elected 19th president in 1876 and served one term (18771881), refusing to run for reelection. His secretary of state was William M. Evarts, and his secretaries of the navy were Richard W. Thompson (1877-1880) and Nathan

HEARD, WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON 163 Goff (1881). For the most part, there were few major new foreign policy initiatives during his administration. He supported arbitration efforts and worked for the expansion of American trade, especially in the Pacific. One significant area of interest related to an Isthmian canal. Hayes saw the need for American sponsorship of a canal and the dangers inherent in allowing French efforts (under Ferdinand de Lesseps) to proceed unchecked. In February 1880, Hayes dramatically strengthened the American stake in a possible trans-Isthmian canal by announcing that such a canal "is part of our general system of defensive works" and "essential for national defense," and that it had to be under American control. With regard to Mexico, facing escalating border raids and skirmishes, Hayes allowed U.S. forces to cross the border in pursuit of Mexican nationalists. The policy further complicated Mexican-American relations. In the Pacific, Hayes pursued rights to a coaling station in Pago Pago, Samoa, and began negotiations with China on immigration restriction. He also vetoed legislation that would have prevented Chinese laborers from immigrating to the United States. See also CHINESE EXCLUSION ACTS.

HEARD, AUGUSTINE (1827-1905). Merchant and diplomat. Heard, who had worked much of his life in the China trade, requested appointment as minister to China, but Secretary of State James G. Blaine believed that China, as the most important post in Asia, required an experienced diplomat. Heard, consequently, reluctantly accepted an appointment as U.S. minister to Korea (1890-1893), a nation he admitted to knowing nothing about. Korea, nominally independent but still viewed by China as a vassal state, was under pressure by Japan-which invaded after Heard's departure. As minister, then, Heard worked to address the many issues of maintaining and encouraging independence. HEARD, WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON (1850-1937). Clergyman, politician, educator, and diplomat. Born into slavery on a plantation in Elbert County, Georgia, he became

164 HEARST, WILLIAM RANDOLPH

a bishop in the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) and was active in Republican politics. Heard taught school (c.1870), was the county chairman of the Republican Party, and ran as a Republican for the South Carolina legislature (1872). He was a South Carolina state senator (1876-1877), began preaching (1879), worked as a railway postal clerk (1880), and was ordained a deacon (188 1). He served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1895-1898), and while in Monrovia he continued to preach and build the AME church there. Afterward, he returned to the United States to become the pastor of Zion Mission, Philadelphia (1898-1899), presiding elder of the Long Island AME District (1899-1900), and pastor of the Allen Temple, Atlanta, Georgia (1901-1904). He was elected bishop in the AME church in 1908 and the following year traveled again to West Africa. HEARST, WILLIAM RANDOLPH (1863-195 1). Newspaper publisher. His New York Journal became one of the exemplars of yellow journalism, targeting Irish and German readers, and propagating Anglophobia and fears of Asian immigration. His newspapers fanned pro-Cuban and antiSpanish sentiment during the Cuban Revolution and the Spanish-American War. He served in the House of Representatives (1903-1907) and ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination for president (1904).

H E I M ~ WILLIAM , (1847-1931). Attorney, soldier, and diplomat. Born in France, he served in the Union army during the Civil War. Later, he was a purchasing and import agent for the Mexico Central Railway (1881-1882) and general manager of the Durango Telephone Company and Chihuahua Phone Company (1883-1 887). He then began several decades of diplomatic work. He served as U.S. vice consul (1887-1 892) and consul (1892-1893) in Chihuahua. He was second secretary of the American legation at Mexico City (1897) and secretary of the American legation, Bogot6, Colombia (1906). He served as U.S. minister to Guatemala (1908-1909) and Salvador (1909-1914) and then became

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chief of the division of Latin American affairs at the Department of State (1914-1915). After retiring from the State Department, he became president of the American Coast and Car Lighting Company (19 15-19 17) and during World War I was a lobbyist in Washington, D.C., for various American, European, and Latin American import-export businesses. Finally, he served as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to represent the United States in the celebrations of Peru's independence centenary (1921). HEINTZLEMAN, PERCIVAL STEWART (b. 1880). Consular representative. He was U.S. vice consul at Canton (Guangzhou), China (1904-1906) and at Shanghai, China (1908-1909). He was also consul general in Mukden (Shenyang), China (1914-1916), Canton (1916-1918), Tientsin (1918-1919), Hankow (1920-1924), and Winnipeg, Canada (1926-1929). HERBERT, HILARY ABNER (1834-1919). Attorney, politician, and cabinet officer. Born in Laurens County, South Carolina, he served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. After the war, he moved to Montgomery, Alabama, and served as a Democratic congressman from Alabama (1877-1893). While a congressman, he was chairman of the House Committee on Naval Affairs (1885-1893). He served as secretary of the navy in President Grover Cleveland's second administration (1893-1 897), in which position he implemented Cleveland's cautious Caribbean policy by extending more direct control over the actions of his top naval officers. See also CUBAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS, 18501898; NORTH ATLANTIC SQUADRON IN THE CARIBBEAN, 1895. HERRICK, MYRON TIMOTHY (1854-1929). Lawyer and diplomat. Born in Huntington, Ohio, he was president of Swan Lamp Manufacturing Company (1885-1894) and active in Republican Party politics. He was instrumental in the nomination and election of President William McKinley,

166 HICKS, JOHN

was Republican governor of Ohio (1904-1906), a delegate from Ohio to the Republican National Convention (1908, l92O), and an unsuccessful candidate for the Senate (19 16). He also served as ambassador to France twice (1912-1914, 1921-1929). HICKS, JOHN (1847-19 17). Journalist and diplomat. Born in New York, he moved to Oshkosh, Wisconsin in 1867 to work for the Oshkosh Northwestern. He eventually bought the newspaper (1870) and published it until 1889. He served as U.S. minister to Peru (1889-1893) and Chile (1905-1909). HILL, DAVID JAYNE (1850-1932). Educator and diplomat. Born in Plainfield, New Jersey, he was an ordained Baptist minister who wrote widely on political science and rhetoric. He was president of Bucknell University (1879-1888) and the University of Rochester (1888-1896). He served as assistant secretary of state under presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt (1898-19O3), minister to Switzerland (1903-19O5), the Netherlands (1905-19O8), and Luxembourg (1905-1908), and ambassador to Germany (19081911). An authority on international law, Hill was a delegate to the Hague Conference of 1907 on international peace. Later, he opposed U.S. membership in the League of Nations and the World Court. HILLIARD, HENRY WASHINGTON (1808-1892). Lawyer and politician. Born in Fayetteville, North Carolina, he served as a member of the Alabama House of Representatives (1836-1838), participated in the Whig National Convention of 1839, and was a Whig presidential elector in 1840. He was chargC d'affaires to Belgium (1842-1844) and then was a Whig member of Congress from Alabama (18451851). He served in the Confederate army during the Civil War and later served as U.S. minister to Brazil (1877-1881). HIRSCH, SOLOMON (1839-1902). Diplomat. Born in Wiirtemberg, Germany, in 1853 he emigrated to the United

HOFFMAN, WICKHAM 167

States. He lived in New York City, New Haven, Connecticut, and Rochester, New York, and then moved to Oregon (1858), where he ran a dry goods company from the late 1850s until 1874. He served as a Republican member of the state senate (1874-1886) and was chairman of the Republican Party Central Committee of Oregon (1882). He also served as U.S. minister to Turkey (1889-1892). HITCHCOCK, ETHAN ALLEN (1835-1909). Diplomat and cabinet officer. Born in Mobile, Alabama, after graduating from a Connecticut military academy (1855) he headed the Hong Kong office of Olyphant & Company of St. Louis. After he retired from Olyphant (1872), he headed several railway, mining, and manufacturing businesses. He served as minister to Russia (1897-1898) and became the first U.S. ambassador (1898) when the Russian legation was elevated to ambassadorial rank. As representative to Russia, his goal was to increase Russian-American trade. Afterward, he served as secretary of the interior under presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt (1898-1907). HITT, ROBERT STOCKWELL REYNOLDS (1876-1938). Diplomat. A resident of Illinois, he served as U.S. minister to Panama (1909-1910). He was then appointed minister to Venezuela but preferred instead to become minister to Guatemala (1910-1913). HOAR, GEORGE FRISBIE (1826-1904). Lawyer and politician. He served in the House of Representatives (1869-1877) and the Senate (1877-1904). He was one of the prominent opponents of expansionism during the administration of President William McKinley, opposing the annexation of Hawaii. He opposed the Chinese Exclusion Acts and was a staunch advocate of the protective tariff. HOFFMAN, WICKHAM (1821-1900). Lawyer, soldier, and diplomat. Born in New York City, he served as a colonel in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he was as-

168 HOLLAND, JOHN PHILIP

sistant secretary (1866) and first secretary of legation, Paris (1867-1874), and secretary of legation, London (1874-1877) and St. Petersburg (1877-1883). He then served as U.S. minister to Denmark (1883-1885). HOLLAND, JOHN PHILIP (1840-19 14). Inventor. He is credited with the development of the modern submarine. Under a contract with the U.S. Navy, he built the Holland and six other submarines that could make extensive underwater m s . He also built submarines for the British, Russian, and Japanese governments. HOLLAND, PHILIP (b. 1877). Lawyer and consular representative. He served as U.S. consul at Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic (1910-191I), Saltillo, Mexico (191 1-1913), Basel, Switzerland (1913-1923), and Guatemala (1923). He was also consul general in Guatemala (1924-1926) and Liverpool (1929-1942). HOLLIS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1866-1830). Consular representative. Born in Chelsea, Massachusetts, he was U.S. consul at Lourenco Marques (Maputo) [Mozambique] (18981909). He also served as U.S. consul in Capetown and Pretoria, and consul general in Dundee (1909-19 10). He was consul general in Beirut (19 10-19 17), London (19 19-1EO), and Lisbon (1920-1926). HOLLISTER, GIDEON HIRAM (1817-188 1). Politician and diplomat. Born in Washington, Connecticut, he was clerk of the Connecticut courts (1844-1845, 1847-1850) and served as a member of the state senate (1856). He also served as U.S. minister to Haiti (1868-1869). Hollister was the author of plays, historical novels, and a history of Connecticut. HONDURAS. Central American republic, bounded by Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and the Caribbean. Honduras, independent since 1823, was of tangential interest to the United States during much of the 19th century. In the early

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20th century, however, it became an example of U.S. dollar diplomacy. In 1906, war between Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras impelled President Theodore Roosevelt and Mexican president Porfirio Diaz to offer to help resolve the conflict. Their offer led to an armistice and, ultimately, to the Central American Arbitration Treaty. In 1909, President William Howard Taft attempted to gain U.S. control over Honduras by buying up that nation's debts to British bankers. On 10 January 1911, the United States signed a treaty with Honduras to refinance the Honduras debt through new loans from New York banks. The Honduran government failed to ratify the treaty. HOPKINS, MOSES AARON (1846-1886). Diplomat. Born into slavery in Virginia, he escaped to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and became a clergyman. After the Civil War, Hopkins moved to North Carolina, where he worked to build churches and schools. He served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1885-1886). HORTON, GEORGE (b. 1859). Editor and consular representative. Born in Fairville, New York, he served as U.S. consul at Athens (1893-1898, 1905-1906) and Salonika (Thessaloniki), Greece (1910-1911), and consul general at Athens (1906-1910) and Smyrna (Izmir), Turkey (191 1-1917, 19191922). He was also the literary editor of the Chicago TimesHerald (1899-1901) and editor of the Chicago American literary supplement (190 1-1903). HOVEY, ALVIN PETERSON (1821-1891). Jurist, politician, and diplomat. Born in Posey County, Indiana, he served in the army in both the Mexican War and the Civil War. He was a delegate to the Indiana state constitutional convention (1850) and was a circuit court judge (185 1-1858) and a justice of the Indiana Supreme Court (1854). He served as U.S. attorney for Indiana but was removed from that position by President James Buchanan (1858). Hovey served as minister

170 HOWARD, HENRY CLAY

to Peru (1865-1870) and later served in Congress (18871889) and as governor of Indiana (1889-1891). HOWARD, HENRY CLAY (1860-1928). Diplomat. He served as US. minister to Peru (1911-1913). HOWLAND ISLAND. A coral island of about 400 acres, 36 miles northwest of Baker Island and 1,650 miles southwest of Honolulu, in the Pacific Ocean. When it was encountered in 1842 by New England whaler George Netcher-who named it after the ship's lookout who spotted it-the island was overrun with rats &om a shipwreck. But the island was rich in guano deposits, and so Netcher informed Americans associated with the American Guano Company who, in 1857, claimed it for themselves under the Guano Islands Act and formed the U.S. Guano Company A struggle between the competing companies followed, and in 1861 the employees of the American Guano Company were expelled by the rival U.S. Guano Company The State Department refused to get involved, and as a result of an 1865 Supreme Court ruling, the two competitors were forced to coexist on the island. They managed to do so, to the extent that by 1878 they had exhausted the guano supply and abandoned the island. HUBBARD, ELBERT (1856-1915). Founder of an artist colony in East Aurora, New York, where he established his Roycroft Shop. He edited the Philistine (1895-1915), an inspirational magazine, and wrote "A Message to Garcia" (1899), an homage to dedication and determination that captured the spirit of the United States at an optimistic moment of economic and territorial expansion. He died in the sinking of the Lusitania. HUBBARD, RICHARD BENNETT (1832-190 1). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. He was U.S. district attorney in Texas (1857-1859), a Texas state senator (1859-1861)' a colonel in the Confederate army during the Civil War, lieu-

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tenant governor of Texas (1873-1876) and governor of Texas (1876-1879). He served as U.S. minister to Japan (1885-1889). HUDSON, SILAS A. (1815-1886). Diplomat. A resident of Iowa, he served as U.S. minister to Guatemala (1869-1872). HUERTA, VICTORIANO (1854-1916). Mexican soldier, revolutionary, and politician. He served under Porfirio Diaz to suppress a number of revolts but, on 18 February 1913, proclaimed himself provisional president of Mexico. Refusing American demands that he hold a new election, he instead dissolved the chamber. The next year, he further alienated the United States by giving preferential treatment to British businessmen and by the Tampico Incident. After the United States refused to extend diplomatic recognition to his government, Huerta was forced to resign on 15 July 1914 and went into exile, first in Europe and then the United States. He was arrested on 27 June 1915 at Newman, New Mexico, on charges of inciting revolution against Mexico and died while in American custody. See also MEXICAN REVOLUTION. HUNT, WILLIAM H. (d. c. 1932). Consular representative. He served as U.S. vice consul (1899-1901) and consul (19011906) at Tamatave, Madagascar. He was also consul at St. Etienne, France (1906-1926), Guadeloupe (1926-1929), St. Michaels, Azores (1929-193I), and Monrovia (193 1-1932). HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1823-1884). Politician, cabinet officer, and diplomat. He served in the Confederate army during the Civil War and was a Louisiana state attorney general (1876) and judge of the U.S. Court of Claims (1878). He was secretary of the navy under Presidents James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur (1881-1882), and then minister to Russia (1882-1884), in which post, in St. Petersburg, he died.

172 HUNTER, WHITESIDE GODFREY

HUNTER, WHITESIDE GODFREY (1841- 1917). Physician, politician, and diplomat. Born in Belfast, Ireland, he emigrated to the United States in 1858 and served as a surgeon in the Union army during the Civil War. He was a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives (1874), a delegate from Kentucky to the Republican National Convention (1880), and a Republican congressman from Kentucky (1887-1889, 1895-1897, 1903-1905). He served as U.S. minister to Honduras and Guatemala (1897-1903). HURLBUT, STEPHEN AUGUSTUS (1815-1882). Soldier, politician, and diplomat. Born in Charleston, South Carolina, he moved to Illinois in 1845. He was a Whig delegate to the Illinois constitutional convention (1847) and served in the Union army during the Civil War. After the war, he was a founder of the Grand Army of the Republic and served as a Republican congressman from Illinois (1873-1877). In addition, he served as U.S. minister to Colombia (1869-1872) and Peru (1881-1882).

IDE, HENRY CLAY (1844-1921). Jurist and diplomat. He served as U.S. commissioner to Samoa (1891) and was chief justice of American Samoa (1893-1 897). He was a member of the Taft Commission charged with establishing civil government in the recently acquired Philippines (1900) and then was secretary of finance and justice (1901), vicegovernor (1904-19O5), acting governor (1905-19O6), and governor general (1906) of the Philippines. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Spain (1909-1913). IMMIGRATION. Except for the Civil War years and periods of economic depression in the 1890s and 1907-1908, a steady stream of immigrants entered the United States from 1820 to 1924. From the end of the Civil War to 1890, 10 million immigrants arrived, mainly from England, Wales, Ireland, Germany, and Scandinavia. From 1890 until the be-

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ginning of World War I in 1914, 15 million immigrants arrived, largely from eastern and southern Europe (Poles, Russian Jews, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Croatians, Slovenes, Hungarians, Romanians, Italians, and Greeks). These "new immigrants" (as opposed to the "old immigration" from northern Europe) tended to be of peasant background, with fewer skills than the "old immigrants." For the most part, the immigrants came for economic opportunities. In the West and on the West Coast, influxes of Asian immigrants-largely Chinese and Japanese-and Mexicans also came for economic advancement. Nativism, long an undercurrent in some aspects of American social and political life, resurfaced in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in response to the different characteristics of the "new immigration." These new anti-immigrant sentiments manifested themselves in movements for immigration restriction and discriminatory legislation. See also CHINESE EXCLUSION ACTS; GENTLEMEN'S AGREEMENT; IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION LEAGUE. IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION LEAGUE. An organization founded in Boston in 1894 to lobby for legislation that would limit the immigration of southern and eastern Europeans into the United States. With leadership drawn from the Boston elite, the league reflected racist, nativist tendencies of the era and drew upon the eugenics movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Fearing the "new immigration" from southern and eastern Europe, members of the league advocated literacy tests for all immigrants. Congress passed such a requirement in 1897, but President Grover Cleveland vetoed the measure. A similar bill eventually passed Congress in 1917 over the veto of President Woodrow Wilson. In the years after World War I, the league lost much of its influence. IMPERIALISM. See ANTI-IMPERIALISM; EXPANSIONISM.

174 INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY, THE

INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY, THE. See MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER.

INFORMAL EMPIRE. The term used to describe what some historians argue was the American alternative to formal colonial empires in the style of the British, French, or, earlier, Spanish colonial empires. Rather than creating formal political and military linkages to noncontiguous territories around the globe, Americans built economic and, later, cultural ties that made many areas of the world effective colonial dependencies. See also ANTI-IMPERIALISM; EXPANSIONISM. INSULAR CASES. A series of Supreme Court cases that, collectively, defined the constitutional status of U.S. insular possessions and the rights and privileges of residents of such possessions. The cases included Downes v. Bidwell (1901), De .Lima v. Bidwell (1901), Armstrong v. United States (190 I), Dooley v. United States (190 l), Hawaii v. Manikichi (1903), Dorr v. United States (1904), Rasmussen v. United States (1905), Ocampo v. United States (19 l4), and Balzac v. Porto Rico (1922). The Court declared that whether rights under the Constitution apply to a territory depends on two factors: whether the right is considered "fundamental," and whether Congress has legislatively extended the Constitution to the territory in question. Fundamental rights that apply to anyone subject to U.S. sovereignty are "inherent, although unexpressed principles which are the basis of all free government." Such "fundamental" rights, therefore, inherently apply to any citizen of a territory, while other rights-those that are not "fimdamental"apply only when Congress has specifically applied them through legislation. INSULAR POSSESSIONS. Noncontiguous and extracontinental territories over which the United States exercises sovereignty. The major U.S. insular possessions-all acquired between the Civil War and World War I-included

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Hawaii, Samoa, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. See TERRITORIES; TRUST TERRITORIES. INTER-BANK CONFERENCE AGREEMENT (1912). An agreement that created a Japanese-Hong Kong-RussianGennan-French-American banking consortium. The consortium was to facilitate "reorganization loans" for China. This was a return to an "open door" policy, after the RootTakahira Agreement of 1908. INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE. When the Civil War ended, the United States was, as it had historically been, a net importer of merchandise. Cotton exports, the nation's main export, had collapsed during the war, and Congress had imposed high protective tariffs. Throughout most of the postbellum period, high tariffs were the norm, while exports of manufactured goods grew steadily. Cotton remained the largest single item of export, with grain (wheat) and mineral products also important. But after 1889, exports exceeded imports, and calls for tariff reduction became louder. See also INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT; MOST FAVORED NATION STATUS. INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT ACT (1891). See COPYRIGHT PROTECTION. INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT. Until 1914, the United States ran a balance of payments deficit. The United States was a debtor nation in international accounts, owing more to foreigners than foreigners owed to Americans. Until 1875, most foreign holdings were in federal, state, county, and municipal securities. In addition, railroads, mining operations, cattle ranches, and meat packing and flour processing industries needed capital to develop. Foreign investment in the United States was mainly in bonds or bank lendingwithout concomitant control or influence-and to a lesser extent in direct investment, equity shares, which did bring control or influence. U.S. investment abroad, at the same

176 INTERNATIONAL MERCANTILE MARINE COMPANY

time, was mainly in the form of direct investment but also included nonequity investment. World War I changed the flow of investment, however. The British sold their American assets to pay for the war, German investment in the United States ended, and the United States had to lend money to the Allies for arms and other war costs. See also MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS.

INTERNATIONAL MERCANTILE MARINE COMPANY (IMM). A combine of North Atlantic steamship companies in the early decades of the 20th century. A major trend in American business at this period was the development of the trust, a large business organization that tried to control all the production or distribution capacity of a given industry. Trusts began to dominate the oil, steel, tobacco, sugar, and beef industries, and the International Mercantile Marine Company was an attempt at doing the same thing in North Atlantic shipping, which had been characterized by cutthroat competition. Backed by the great American financier J. Pierpont Morgan, the IMM eventually controlled the Leyland, White Star, Red Star, North German Lloyd, Dominion, and American lines, among others, and by 1904 controlled 130 vessels. But the combine failed to achieve one of its primary goals, enactment of a significant subsidy bill by Congress, and although it had captured the bulk of North Atlantic passenger tonnage, it consistently lost money. The trust eventually fell apart as component parts withdrew and as the Atlantic shipping industry suffered the uncertainties associated with the outbreak of World War I. Nevertheless, for a few years after the turn of the century the IMM was the source of some degree of Anglo-American tension over British fears of an apparent U.S. economic threat. See also OCEAN MAIL SUBSIDY BILL. INTERNATIONAL NEWS SERVICE. A news service founded in 1906 by William Randolph Hearst for the benefit of his own newspapers. It later began selling news stories to other newspapers and, in 1958, merged with the United

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Press to form United Press International. See also ASSOCIATED PRESS. INTEROCEANIC CANAL COMMISSION. Appointed in 1872 by President Ulysses S. Grant to consider possible Central American canal sites. In 1876, the commission recommended the Nicaragua route. This recommendation shaped American assumptions and policy about a canal for the balance of the 19th century. INTERVENTIONS, EUROPEAN. European interests in intervening in the Western Hemisphere, and American suspicions that such interests existed, were strongest in the first half of the 19th century. But during the Civil War, France directly intervened in Mexican affairs by installing a puppet emperor on the Mexican throne, and Spain sent troops to Santo Domingo in an effort at reannexation. There were no serious attempts at Western Hemispheric intervention for the balance of the 19th century. See also MEXICO, U.S. AND, 1860s. INTERVENTIONS, UNITED STATES. Throughout most of the 19th century-with the exception of the era of the Civil War-the United States possessed a relatively small military establishment. U.S. interventions into the affairs of foreign nations were, at the same time, sporadic, limited in scope, and generally of the gunboat diplomacy variety. Such an approach served the goals of American foreign policy well. The major departures from this approach came in the Spanish-American War (1898)-called a "splendid little war" by Secretary of State John Hay-and World War I, which fundamentally altered the American approach to the rest of the world. See CHINA; COLOMBIA; CUBA, HAITI; HAWAII; HONDURAS; KOREA; MEXICO; NICARAGUA; PANAMA; SAMOA; SANTO DOMINGO; TRWIDAD. IRISH AMERICANS. Between 1820 and 1920, over 4,400,000 Irish emigrated to the United States. The numbers were small but steady in the early decades of the century and bal-

178 IRWIN, JOHN NICHOL

looned in the 1840s as a result of the Irish potato blight. In the antebellum era, Irish immigrants became coal miners, built the railroads, and tended to support the Democratic Party. During the Civil War, about 170,000 men born in Ireland served in the Union army, while about 40,000 fought for the Confederacy. After the Civil War, Irish voters in many large cities were able to build powerful political machines, while some Irish-Americans established their power and influence through careers in business. Throughout it all, nativist sentiment in some segments of the population drew upon the presence of a large Irish-born segment of the population for political advantage and to complicate AngloAmerican relations. See ANGLOPHOBIA; MURCHISON LETTER.

IRWIN, JOHN NICHOL (1847-1905). Politician and diplomat. Born in Butler County, Ohio, he served in the Union army during the Civil War. He was a Republican member of the Iowa House of Representatives (1875), mayor of Keokuk, Iowa (1876, 1887), and governor of Idaho territory (25 April-15 May 1883) and Arizona territory (1891-1892). He served as U.S. minister to Portugal (1899-1900). ISOLATIONISM. The term traditionally applied to the American policy of noninvolvement in exclusively European affairs. It was this policy, especially, that was at the center of the controversy over U.S. participation in World War I. President Woodrow Wilson argued in an address to Congress in September 1914 that the war "affects us directly and palpably almost as if we were participants in the circumstances which gave rise to it." Many Americans disagreed, but the tradition of noninvolvement ended forever in 19 17 when the United States did enter the war. Many historians today plausibly argue that "noninvolvement" was more a state of mind than a statement of geopolitical reality for the United States from the very beginning of the American Republic.

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ISTHMIAN CANAL. See PANAMA CANAL. ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Created in May 1904 by President Theodore Roosevelt to build the Panama Canal. It is sometimes known as the Second Walker Commission because it, like the first American Isthmian Canal Commission, was headed by Rear Admiral John Grimes Walker. Commission members included Walker, for the navy; General George W. Davis, who had been vicepresident of the Nicaragua Canal Construction Company, and civilian engineers William H. Burr, Benjamin Harrod, Carl Grunsky, and William Barclay Parsons. The commission itself was under the supervision of Secretary of War William Howard Taft. As an arm of the Department of War, it clashed with the Department of State over policymaking issues regarding the canal and the Canal Zone, but the commission existed until it was dissolved early in 1914 by President Woodrow Wilson. ISTHMUS OF PANAMA. See PANAMA, ISTHMUS OF.

JACKSON, HENRY ROOTES (1820-1898). Jurist, attorney, politician, and diplomat. He was U.S. district attorney for Georgia (1844), fought in the U.S.-Mexican War (18461848), and served as a justice of the Georgia Supreme Court (1849-1853). He then served as U.S. chargC d'affaires to Austria (1853-1854) and U.S. minister to Austria (18541858). He was a delegate from Georgia to the Democratic National Convention (1860), a Georgia presidential elector (1860), a Georgia secession convention delegate (1861), and a general in the Confederate army during the Civil War. Finally, he served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1885-1886). JACKSON, JOHN BRINCKERHOFF (1862-1920). Diplomat. Born in Newark, New Jersey, in 1902 he was appointed U.S. minister to Chile but declined the position. He then

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served as U.S. minister to Romania (1902-1905, 1911-1913), Greece (1902-1907), Serbia (1902-1905, 1911-1913), Montenegro (1905-19O7), Persia (1907-19O9), and Cuba (19101911). In addition, he was U.S. diplomatic agent to Bulgaria (191 1-1913). JACOB, CHARLES DONALD (1838-1898). Politician and diplomat. He was mayor of Louisville, Kentucky (18731878, 1882-1884, 1888-1890), and served as U.S. minister to Colombia (1885-1886). JAECKEL, THEODORE (1882-1935). Lawyer and consular official. He served as U.S. consul at Stavanger, Norway (1914-1915), Stettin (1915-1917), and Bordeaux (19191923). He then became consul general at Hamburg (1923l924), Warsaw (1924-1926), Milan (1927-1928), Halifax (1928-1929), Rome (1930-1933), and Victoria (1934-1936). JAMAICA INCIDENT, THE (1907). On 14 January 1907, a serious earthquake hit Kingston, Jamaica, killing hundreds of people and destroying the business district of Kingston. J. Alexander Swettenham, the British governor of Jamaica, asked the British minister in Havana for medical supplies. The minister, in turn, asked the provisional governor of Cuba, then occupied by the United States. The provisional governor, in turn, asked Admiral Robley D. Evans to send a torpedo boat with supplies. Evans ordered two battleships and a destroyer-all under the command of Rear Admiral Charles H. Davis, division commander of the First Squadron, U.S. Atlantic Fleet. When the first American warship arrived at Jamaica, Governor Swettenham accepted the provisions but declined the need for the Americans to land in order to assist. When Davis arrived, he met with Swettenham's secretary, and with his acquiescence sent a force of Americans to work under Jamaican supervision to provide supplies and maintain order. Governor Swettenham indicated a preference that Davis proceed no W h e r and that American forces withdraw, but Davis, seeing the situation in Kingston as an

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emergency, tried to work around the governor's resistance. The governor, nevertheless, insisted that American forces withdraw. Davis acceded, but the sarcastic tone of the governor's request triggered a minor Anglo-American incident when reports were printed in the newspapers a few days later. President Theodore Roosevelt personally intervened to prevent the incident from damaging Anglo-American relations-which neither government wanted. This minor incident illustrates Roosevelt's personal style in diplomacy and also the strength of the Anglo-American relationship at this early stage of the "great rapprochement."

JAMES, WILLIAM (1842-19 10). American philosopher and psychologist. He acquired an international reputation as one of the great authorities in the field of psychology and as the major American philosopher of his time. He was a prominent member of the Anti-Imperialist League. JAPAN. From the mid-19th century to the first decades of the 20th century, the United States had an on-again off-again relationship with Japan. The two naval expeditions of Commodore Matthew C. Perry (1853 and 1854) "opened" Japan with a commercial treaty. In the wake of that development, the Tokugawa shogunate was abolished in 1867 (the Meiji Restoration) and Japan embarked on a period of modernization and expansion. At the end of the 19th century, many American missionaries and educators were interested in Japan. U.S.-Japan interactions occurred in Hawaii, as Japanese immigration to those islands increased. U.S. policy toward Japan initially focused on the "open door," and, at the same time, the territorial integrity of China. But in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, rapid Japanese military development, Japan's expansionist tendencies, and the apparent imminent partition of China strained U.S.-Japan relations. See also JAPANESE EXCLUSION ACTS; LANSING-ISHII AGROOT-TAKAHIRA AGREWIENT; RUSSOJAPANESE WAR 1904-1905; SINO-JAPANESE WAR 1894-1895; TAFT-KATSURA AGREEMENT.

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JAPANESE AND KOREAN EXCLUSION LEAGUE. An organization that was formed in California in 1905 in reaction to growing Japanese and Korean immigration. See also GENTLEMEN'S AGREEMENT; JAPANESE EXCLUSION ACTS. JAPANESE EXCLUSION ACTS. Discriminatory federal acts or agreements, or state laws (especially in California) to limit or bar Japanese immigration to the United States, or limit their rights once in the United States. In the late 19th century, growing Japanese immigration to western states, especially California, produced hostility by labor and civic groups and petitions to Congress to limit immigration. In 1906, San Francisco passed a law that required Asian children to attend separate schools. See also GENTLEMEN'S AGREEMENT. JARVIS ISLAND. A tiny island (two miles long and one mile wide) about 1,350 miles south of Honolulu in the Pacific Ocean. In 1832, American whaler Michael Baker sighted the island, located guano on it, and claimed it for the United States. Baker, who had also located Baker Island, later sold his interest in the island to a group that became the American Guano Company. In 1856, the company claimed the island under the Guano Islands Act. Having exhausted the guano supplies by the 1880s, the company abandoned the island. JARVIS, THOMAS JORDAN (1836-19 15). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Jarvisburg, South Carolina, he served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. Afterward, he was a delegate to the North Carolina constitutional convention (1865, l875), a member of the North Carolina House of Representatives (1868), lieutenant governor of North Carolina (1877-1879), and governor of North Carolina (1879-1885). Jarvis served as U.S. minister to Brazil (18851888) and, later, senator from North Carolina (1894-1895) and delegate from North Carolina to the Democratic National Convention (1896).

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JAY, JOHN (1817-1894). Lawyer, diplomat, and writer. He was active in the antislavery movement before the Civil War and was a founder of the New York State Republican Party. He served as U.S. minister to Austria (1869-1 874) and later was a member of the New York State Civil Service Commission (1884-1887) and president of the American Historical Association (1890). JEFFERSON, BENJAMIN LAFAYETTE (187 1-1950). Dentist, politician, and diplomat. Born in Columbus, Georgia, he moved to Colorado, served as a Democratic member of the Colorado House of Representatives (1898-1900) and the state senate (1900-1908), and was a presidential elector for Colorado (1908). He served as U.S. minister to Nicaragua (1913-1921) and afterward was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic nomination for governor of Colorado (1922). JENKINS, DOUGLAS (1880-1961). Consular official and diplomat. A resident of South Carolina, he served as U.S. consul at Riga, Latvia (19 14-19 17) and Harbin, China (19191921). He also was consul general at Canton (1924-1929) and London (1938), and minister to Bolivia (1939-1941). JEWELL, JOHN F. (fl. c. 1900). Consular official. He served as U.S. consul at Martinique (1906), Vladivostok, Russia (19 14), Chefoo (Yantai), China (19 16), Lourenco Marques (1917), Batavia, Dutch East Indies (19l9), and Birmingham (1922-1924). JEWELL, MARSHALL (1825-1883). Industrialist, politician, cabinet officer, and diplomat. He served as postmaster general under President Ulysses S. Grant (1874-1876), was elected governor of Connecticut three times (1869-1872), and served as U.S. minister to Russia (1873-1874). He unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for president in 1876 and was chairman of the Republican National Com-

184 JEWETT, WILLIAM C.

mittee (1880-1883). In addition, he served as president of the Connecticut Telephone and Telegraph Company, and president of Southern New England Telephone Company

JEWETT, WILLIAM C. See GREELEY, HORACE. JINGOISM. Bellicose nationalism, usually associated with warmongering. The term was first used during the RussoTurkish War (1877-1878) by segments of the British population dissatisfied with their government's attempt to maintain neutrality. A music-hall song attributed to G. H. MacDermott declared: "We don't want to fight 1 But, by Jingo, if we do, / We've got the ships, 1 We've got the men, / We've got the money, too." Later in the century, the term was used to describe the attitude of some Americans regarding Spain and Cuba. The so-called jingo press agitated for war against Spain in the 1890s, a factor in the Spanish-American War (1898). See also YELLOW JOURNALISM. JOHANNA. Also known as Anjouan, one of the Comorro group of islands in the Mozambique Channel east of Africa. It was governed by a sultan until 1912, when the archipelago became a French colony. On 4 October 1879, Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt signed a treaty of amity and commerce with the sultan. The treaty provided most favored nation status for trade; protection for Americans and their property; a shipwreck convention; and the appointment of an American consul who would try Americans for crimes committed in Johanna. On 27 February 1880, President Rutherford B. Hayes submitted the treaty to the Senate, which failed to ratify it. See also EXTRATERRITORIALITY. JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808-1875). Senator and president. A Democrat from Tennessee, he was serving in the Senate at the outbreak of the Civil War and chose to remain loyal to the Union and President Abraham Lincoln. As a southern War Democrat, he was chosen to be Lincoln's second vice president. When Lincoln died on 15 April 1865, Johnson be-

JOHNSON, JAMES WELDON 185 came the 17th president. During four years of domestic political crisis, the nation's foreign policy was ably conducted by William H. Seward, who remained secretary of state. Diplomatic successes during these years included the purchase of Alaska, the solution of the Maximilian affair, discussions over the Florida claims, and improved AngloAmerican relations. Although the Senate approved (amidst controversy) the purchase of Alaska, it balked at attempts to purchase the Virgin Islands, Hawaii, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Greenland, and Iceland. Johnson's secretary of the navy continued to be Gideon Welles. Similarly, Johnson kept Secretary of War Edwin Stanton in the cabinet until August 1867, when he dismissed him. In turn, Radical Republicans in the Senate restored Stanton the following January and used the dismissal as a pretext for impeaching the president. Johnson was acquitted, completed his term, but was not nominated for a term in his own right. JOHNSON-CLARENDON CONVENTION (1869). An agreement signed on 14 January 1869 by U.S. secretary of state William Seward and British foreign secretary Lord Clarendon (George W. F. Villiers). The terms of the agreement were designed to settle the Alabama claims against Great Britain for damages to the U.S. merchant marine by Confederate cruisers during the Civil War. The United States held Britain partially responsible because many of the vessels had been British-built, but because British concessions were viewed as slight, the U.S. Senate, led by Charles Sumner, rejected the convention. The issue was finally settled in the Treaty of Washington (1871). JOHNSON, JAMES WELDON (187 1-1938). Attorney, composer, author, and diplomat. Born in Jacksonville, Florida, he served as American consul at Puerto Cabello, Venezuela (1906-1909) and at Corinto, Nicaragua (1909-19 13). In Nicaragua during a period of revolution, Johnson helped U.S. marines defeat the rebels. When Woodrow Wilson became president, Johnson resigned from his post, and the dip-

186 JOHNSON, NELSON TRUSLER

lomatic corps, because he believed that further advancement would be impossible during a Wilson administration. Later, Johnson was founder and secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) (1916-1930). In 1920 he traveled to Haiti to investigate conditions under the U.S. occupation. His findings were published in article format for The Nation and then as a book, Self-Determining Haiti (1920). He also wrote poetry and fiction. JOHNSON, NELSON TRUSLER (1887-1954). Diplomat. After passing his entrance examination in 1907, Johnson went to Peking (Beijing) to study Chinese as a member of the Student Interpreter Corps (c. 1907-1909). He served as vice consul in Shanghai, China (1914), and U.S. consul in Changsha (1916-1917). Later, he became chief of the division of Far Eastern affairs at the U.S. Department of State (1925l927), assistant secretary of state (1927-1929), minister (1929-1935) and ambassador (1935-1941) to China, and minister to Australia (1941-1945). JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796-1876). American lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Annapolis, Maryland, he served as a senator from Maryland (Whig, 1845-1849; Democrat, 1862-1868), and attorney general under President James K. Polk (1849-1 850). He served in the state House of Representatives (1860-1861), was a member of a commission in Washington, D.C., to prevent the oncoming Civil War (1861), and was a Democratic senator from Maryland (18631868). Johnson was minister to Great Britain (1868-1869), where he negotiated the Johnson-Clarendon Convention to settle the Alabama claims. The Senate defeated the convention, however, and Johnson was recalled in 1869. JOHNSTON ATOLL (Johnston Island). An atoll of several small islands about 717 miles west-southwest of Honolulu in the Pacific Ocean. Westerners first encountered the island in 1796, and, in March 1858, the American captain of a schoo-

JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO 187

ner searching for guano on the atoll raised the American flag and claimed the atoll for the United States under the Guano Islands Act. Three months later, however, a Hawaiian party tore down the U.S. flag and hoisted the Hawaiian flag. In July, the island was officially claimed for King Kamehameha IV of Hawaii. Shortly thereafter, the king learned of the prior U.S. claim and revoked the guano lease he had given to the Hawaiian party. Over the next 50 years, most of the guano on the island was removed, and by 1920 Johnston Atoll was abandoned. JONES, GEORGE WALLACE (1804-1896). Lawyer, soldier, and diplomat. Born in Vincennes, Indiana, he moved to Montana and was a miner and storekeeper. He served in the U.S. Army during the Black Hawk War (1832), was a delegate to Congress from Michigan territory (1835-1836) and from Wisconsin territory (1836-1839), and a senator from Iowa (1848-1859). Jones served as U.S. minister to New Grenada (Columbia) (1859-186 1). Because of correspondence with his friend Jefferson Davis, in which Jones complained about the Republicans, he was arrested for disloyalty by Secretary of State William H. Seward in 1861 but was released after two months by President Abraham Lincoln. JONES, JOSEPH RUSSELL (1823-1909). Politician and diplomat. A resident of Chicago and Galena, Illinois, he was a delegate from Illinois to the Republican National Convention (1868) and a member from Illinois of the Republican National Committee (1868-1870). A close personal friend of Ulysses S. Grant, whose career Jones promoted, he served as U.S. minister to Belgium during the Grant administration (1869-1875).

JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO (1806-1872). Mexican political leader. A Zapotec Indian born to Mexican peasants, Juarez served two terms as president of Mexico (1861-1 863, 18671872). During his first term of office, French forces arrived with plans to establish a puppet regime under Maximilian.

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Juarez and his government, after fierce fighting, were forced to retreat to the northern reaches of Mexico. Throughout Maximilian's rule, Juarez and his supporters refused to accept the foreign regime, and when Maximilian was defeated in 1867, Juarez was reelected president. He was reelected again in 1871, although during his final years as president many of the Mexican states were in rebellion against the government. JUDD, NORMAN BUEL (1815-1878). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Rome, New York, he moved to Chicago (1836) where he became a city attorney (1837-1838) and, later, an Illinois state senator (1844-1860). He was an Illinois delegate to the Republican National Convention and was Abraham Lincoln's campaign manager in the race for the Republican presidential nomination in 1860. He served as U.S. minister to Prussia (1861-1865) and then served two terms in Congress (1867-1871). He also served as collector of the port of Chicago (1872-1878)

KASSON, JOHN ADAM (1822-19 1O). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Austria-Hungary (1877-1881), in which position he dealt with many issues having to do with tainted pork imports and tariffs. As minister to Germany (1884-1885) he participated in the Berlin Conference and was part of the negotiations ending the controversy over Samoa. Earlier, he had been a delegate from Iowa to the Republican National Convention (1860), a congressman from Iowa (1863-1867, 1873-1877, 1881-1884), and a member of the Iowa state legislature (1868). KEENA, LEO JOHN (1878-1967). Foreign service officer. He served as U.S. consul at Florence (1914) and Valparaiso (19 16), and then consul general at Valparaiso (19 17), Zurich (1919-192O), Warsaw (1921-1922), and Havana (1929). He

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was also U.S. minister to Honduras (1935-37) and South Africa (1937-1942). KERENS, RICHARD C. (1842-19 16). Entrepreneur, politician, and diplomat. Born in County Meath, Ireland, he served as a transportation director in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he became a wealthy railroad entrepreneur, investing in the Iron Mountain and Texas and St. Louis Railroads. He was a member from Missouri of the Republican National Committee (1892-1900) and, later, served as U.S. ambassador to Austria-Hungary (19 10-19 13). KILPATRICK, HUGH JUDSON (1836-1881). Soldier and diplomat. Born in Deckertown, New Jersey, he graduated from the U.S. Military Academy (West Point) (1861) and served in the Union cavalry during the Civil War. He served as U.S. minister to Chile (1866-1868), was recalled, and lectured and spoke on behalf of the Republican Party. He ran unsuccessfully for Congress (1880) and was reappointed as minister to Chile by President James A. Garfield (188 1). A strong-willed and unpredictable individual, Kilpatrick clashed with U.S. minister to Peru Stephen A. Hurlbut when, disregarding instructions by Secretary of State James G. Blaine, Kilpatrick sided with Chile in its escalating crisis with Peru. He died of kidney disease while serving in Santiago, Chile. KING COTTON DIPLOMACY. The central assumption of Confederate foreign policy during the Civil War. Confederate policymakers believed that a significant shortage of southern cotton would cripple British mills, causing the English working classes to rise up and force the British government to recognize the Confederacy and ensure its prompt independence. However, an oversupply of cotton caused by bumper crops immediately before the war softened much of the impact of the wartime cotton shortage. In addition, Great Britain began to develop alternative sources of the fiberparticularly from Egypt-that provided a further cushion

190 KING, HAMILTON

against a shortfall of cotton from the South. Confederates also failed to take into account the diplomatic power of the North's primary agricultural export, wheat. KING, HAMILTON (1852-1912). Diplomat. Born in St. John's, Newfoundland, and a resident of Michigan, he served as U.S. consul general and then minister to Siam (1898-1912). KING, RUFUS (18 14-1876). Soldier, journalist, and diplomat. Born in New York City, he moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin (1845), and became editor of the Milwaukee Sentinel and Gazette (1845-1861). He was a member of the state constitutional convention of 1848 that led to Wisconsin's admission as a state. He was appointed U.S. minister to the Papal States in 1861, took a leave of absence to serve as a general in the Union army during the Civil War, and then resumed his post at the Papal States (1863-1868). KINGMAN REEF. A triangular atoll about 900 miles south of Honolulu and 35 miles north of Palmyra in the Pacific Ocean. An American whaler first encountered the island in 1798. In 1860, the U.S. Guano Company claimed the island under the Guano Islands Act, although the reef apparently had no supplies of guano. In 1922, the Palmyra Copra Company claimed the atoll for use as a fishing base.

KIRK, ROBERT C. (1821-1898). Politician and diplomat. A native of Mt. Pleasant Township, Ohio, he served as Republican lieutenant governor of Ohio (1860-1862). In 1862, his colleagues from Ohio, including Senator John Sherman, petitioned President Abraham Lincoln to appoint Kirk U.S. consul at Tangier. Lincoln appointed him, instead, to be U.S. minister to Argentina (1862-1866, 1869-1871). He also served as minister to Uruguay (1869-1870). Later, President Ulysses S. Grant appointed him collector of internal revenue for the 13th district.

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KLONDIKE GOLD RUSH (1897-1898). A stampede into the Yukon territory of northwest Canada after the discovery of gold on Klondike Creek in 1896. By 1898, some 18,000 people had rushed to the area, creating both human and diplomatic challenges. See ALASKA-CANADIAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE; GOLD RUSHES. KNABENSHUE, PAUL (1883-1942). Consular official and diplomat . He served as U.S. vice consul at Cairo (191419 17), consul at Beirut (19 19-1926), consul general at Jerusalem (1929-1932), and minister to Iraq (1932-1942). KNOWLES, HORACE GREELEY (1863-1913). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Serbia (1907), Romania (19O7), the Dominican Republic (1909-191O), and Bolivia (1910-1913). KNOX-CASTRILLO CONVENTION (1911). Signed on 6 June 1911 between the United States and Nicaragua to reh n d Nicaraguan debt through new loans from New York banks (Brown Brothers and J and W. Seligman & Company). Although the Nicaraguan government ratified the treaty, the U.S. Senate rejected it. The Department of State then requested that the bankers negotiate private loan contracts without the guarantee of a treaty, which the bankers agreed to do. KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853-1921). Attorney, politician, and statesman. He served as secretary of state under President William Howard Taft (1909-19 13). He is traditionally considered the father of Taft's policy of dollar diplomacy. In 1909, in a return to the open door policy and a retreat from the assumptions of the Root-Takahira Agreement, he proposed that Manchuria be neutralized. As secretary, he oversaw resolution of the Bering Sea and Atlantic fisheries controversies but failed to achieve Canadian reciprocity. After World War I, as a U.S. senator, he joined

192 KOERNER,GUSTAVUS

those strongly opposed to ratification of the Treaty of Versailles and American participation in the League of Nations. KOERNER, GUSTAVUS (1809-1896). Jurist, politician, and diplomat. Born in Germany, he emigrated to Belleville, New Jersey, in 1833 because of his political activities. He served in the Illinois legislature (1842-1844) and was a justice of the Illinois Supreme Court (1845-1848) and lieutenant governor of Illinois (1853-1857). He was a delegate from Illinois to the Republican National Convention (1860), where he helped write the strong antislavery plank of his party's platform. He served as U.S. minister to Spain (1862-1864) and was an unsuccessful candidate for governor of Illinois (1872). KOREA, OPENING OF. The "opening" of Korea was, arguably, the most important work of the U.S. Navy in the Far East during the late 19th century. Even before the Civil War, Congress had evinced interest in commercial relations with Korea. In the decade after the war, a number of merchant vessel wrecked on the Korean coast. In some instances crews were sent to China. In one notorious incident in 1866, Koreans burned the General Slocum, with its crew aboard. Despite pressure to retaliate, the U.S. government took no action, but, in 1867, Commander Robert W. Shufeldt was sent to investigate. After two attempts, however, Shufeldt had still been unsuccessful in contacting the king. Consequently, Rear Admirals Stephen C. Rowan and John Rodgers proposed sending a squadron to Korea, in the style of Commodore Matthew Perry's 1854 Japan expedition. In response, the U.S. government sent Frederick F. Low, U.S. minister to China, to negotiate. Two days after Low arrived in Korea with Admiral Rodgers (30 May 1871) Korean troops fired on an American flotilla surveying the Nan River, 30 miles from Seoul. Two Americans were killed, 20 Koreans wounded, and many more killed. In retaliation, the Americans captured or destroyed five Korean forts and captured 20 Koreans. Nevertheless, Korean officials continued

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to resist a meeting. The squadron departed a month later, and although the Navy Department approved the actions it cautioned against going fiuther. In 1874, however, a new Korean king took the throne, and, in 1876, Japan successfully negotiated a treaty that opened two Korean ports to Japanese trade. Nevertheless, an April 1878 Senate resolution to negotiate a Korea treaty died in committee. At the end of 1878, Navy secretary Richard W. Thompson ordered Commodore Shufeldt on a mission to the Far East, with instructions to negotiate a commercial treaty with Korea. Shufeldt enlisted the assistance of U.S. Minister to Japan John A. Bingham, the Japanese minister of foreign affairs, and Chinese viceroy Li Hongzhang, but strong reluctance on the part of the Korean government slowed the negotiations. Finally, at the end of 1881, Korea indicated it was willing to negotiate. Negotiations were conducted through Li Hongzhang and in the shadow of increasing Japanese pressure on the Korean Peninsula. On 22 May 1882, Shufeldt signed a treaty of "peace, amity, commerce and navigation" that recognized Korea as an independent state. See also KOREA, UNITED STATES TREATY WITH. KOREA, UNITED STATES TREATY WITH (1882). Signed on 22 May 1882 by Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt and two commissioners for Korea, Shin Chen (president of the Royal Cabinet) and Chin Hong-chi (member of the Royal Cabinet). The treaty was a treaty of "peace, amity, commerce and navigation." U.S. citizens could trade at the open ports of Korea and could erect residences and warehouses in those ports. The United States could fix rates of tariff; grant the usual privileges contained in shipwreck conventions; establish diplomatic and consular representation; and prohibit traffic in opium. The agreement also gave American consuls in Korea extraterritorial jurisdiction and established most favored nation status. The powerful Li Hongzhang, who had acted as Korea's intermediary, failed to get agreement on language that would have described Korea as a "depend-

194 KOSSUTH, LOUIS

ent state" of China, and Korea was recognized as an independent state. The treaty, which culminated four years of onagain off-again negotiations, was transmitted by President Chester A. Arthur to the Senate on 29 July 29 1882, was ratified on 9 January 1883, and proclaimed on 4 June 1883. The treaty established the model that Korea was to follow in agreements signed soon thereafter with Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Russia, France, Austria, and China. KOSSUTH, LOUIS (1802-1894). Hungarian nationalist. A leader of the movement to end the union between Austria and Hungary, he became president of Hungary when its parliament declared Hungarian independence in 1847. But when Russia intervened in 1849, he was forced to resign and flee. He lived in exile in Turkey before being transported by an American frigate first to Gibraltar and then to Great Britain. Afterward, he lived in the United States from 185 1 to 1852. When he landed in New York City in December 1851, he thanked the U.S. government for his liberation and praised the United States as a defender of freedom and the downtrodden. He then embarked on a popular six-month tour of the United States.

LA FOLLETTE, ROBERT MARION (1855-1925). Politician and progressive reformer. An isolationist, he voted against U.S. entry into World War I and later opposed U.S. participation in the League of Nations. While serving in the Senate (1906-1925), he sponsored the La Follette Seaman's Act. LA FOLLETTE SEAMAN'S ACT (1915). An act of Congress regulating working conditions on merchant vessels of U.S. registry. It extended to seamen the same basic rights that factory workers had won, ended the crime of desertion when a ship was in a safe harbor, dramatically changed wage scales, set minimum standards for food, worker safety, and living conditions shipboard, established a nine-hour workday in

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port, and guaranteed seamen the right to join a union. The measure had a revolutionary effect on the U.S. merchant marine in the 20th century, especially in the postwar slump in shipping.

LAIRD RAM CRISIS (1863). One of the peaks of AngloAmerican tension during the Civil War. When the United States learned that armored rams were being constructed at the Laird shipyard in Liverpool, a violation of neutrality, US. minister Charles Francis Adams delivered a famous ultimatum to Lord Russell on 5 September 1863: "It would be superfluous in me to point out to your lordship that this is war." Although historians have debated the meaning and implications of Adams's sentence, Russell had decided to detain the rams two days before receiving the minister's note. LAKE MOHONK CONFERENCES ON INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION. One of the most famous outgrowths of the peace movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first conference was held in 1895 at the Mohonk Mountain House on Mohonk Lake in the Hudson Valley of New York. Between 1895 and 1916, many prominent Americans, including William Jennings Bryan, William Howard Taft, and Andrew Carnegie attended the conferences, which generated enthusiasm for the Hague Conferences and provided an opportunity for Carnegie to found the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. See also ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. LAKE, SIMON (1866-1945). Inventor. In 1894, he invented an even-keel submarine torpedo boat and, in 1897, introduced the Argonaut, the first submarine to successfully operate on the open sea. The U.S. Navy preferred designs by John P. Holland, but ships based on Lake designs were used by Germany during World War I and were later adopted by the United States.

196 LAMONT, DANIEL S.

LAMONT, DANIEL S. (185 1-1905). Politician and financier. Born in Cortland County, New York, he was chief clerk of the New York Department of State (1875-1882) and was associated with the Albany Argus (1877-1882). He served on the Staff of Governor Grover Cleveland and became private secretary when Cleveland became president (1885). Lamont worked with William C. Whitney on various business ventures (1889) and, in the second Cleveland administration, served as secretary of war (1893-1897). Afterward, he served as vice president of the Northern Pacific Railway (18981904). LANGSTON, JOHN MERCER (1829-1897). Lawyer, educator, and diplomat. Born in Louisa County, Virginia, he practiced law in Oberlin, Ohio. After the Civil War, he became inspector general of the Freedman's Bureau (1868), was a professor of law, dean, vice president, and acting president of Howard University (1869-1876), and was a member of the Board of Health of Washington, D.C. Probably the second most prominent African American of his time after Frederick Douglass, he was a delegate to the Republican National Convention of 1876. He then served as U.S. minister to Haiti (1877-1885) and chargC d'affaires to Santo Domingo (1883-1 885). Langston left the diplomatic corps when the Democratic administration of President Grover Cleveland proposed to reduce his salary by 30 percent. Later, he served as a Republican member of Congress from Virginia (1890-1891). LANSINGISHII AGREEMENT (19 17). An agreement between the United States and Japan in which the United States indicated it would acknowledge Japan's "special interest" in China if Japan, in return, respected the American Open Door Policy LANSING, ROBERT (1864-1928). American attorney and authority on international law. He was an associate counsel for the United States in the Bering Sea fur seal arbitration

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(1892-1893), founded the American Journal of International Law in 1907, and was appointed counselor for the Department of State in 1914. As acting secretary under William Jennings Bryan (19 14-19 15), he was responsible for writing many of Bryan's official notes. When Bryan resigned over the Lusitarzia crisis, he became secretary of state (19151920). He negotiated the Lansing-Ishii Agreement (1917) and split with President Woodrow Wilson over American participation in the League of Nations. LATIN AMERICA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. Over the years, the United States has had a relationship with Latin America that has been both intimate and distant. The United States was reluctant to support or recognize the independence movements of the early 19th century, and the 1823 Monroe Doctrine asserted that Washington had special interests in the region. American continental expansion in the 1840s came at the expense of Mexico and brought about a war with that country. In the decades before the Civil War, some Americans looked to Cuba and other Caribbean islands as potential acquisitions, and policymakers grew increasingly concerned about the strategic importance of a canal through the Isthmus of Panama. However, during the Civil War, violations of the Monroe Doctrine in Mexico and Santo Domingo went unaddressed because of the immediate crisis of the war itself. After the Civil War, some American policymakers expressed renewed interest in acquiring Santo Domingo and other islands, largely for strategic reasons, while growing trade with Latin America attracted the interest of U.S. business leaders. Vanguard American multinational corporations, such as United Fruit, Standard Oil, and W. R. Grace, increased American investments in Central and South America. All of these strengthening ties led to growing interest in a Pan-American Union. At the same time, the Cuban Revolution drew the United States into conflict with Spain that culminated in the Spanish-American War, and in the early years of the 20th century traditional interest in an Isth-

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mian canal came to a head with the Panama Revolution and the building of the Panama Canal. Meanwhile, political instability in Mexico provided a continuing irritant in the relationship between the two countries. When World War I broke out, most Latin American nations, at the suggestion of the United States, either broke off diplomatic relations with or declared war on Germany. Nevertheless, they played a minor role in the military course of events during the war. See also COLOMBIA and VENEZUELA BOUNDARY DISPUTE; UNITED STATES AND BRAZIL MAIL STEAMSHIP COMPANY. LAWRENCE, ALBERT GALLATIN (1836-1887). Diplomat. A resident of Rhode Island, he served as American attach6 to Vienna before the Civil War and was a brigadier general in the Union army during the war. Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Costa Rica (1867-1868). LAWTON, ALEXANDER ROBERT (1818-1896). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Beaufort County, South Carolina, he practiced law in Savanna, Georgia, (1843-1854) and was president of the Augusta and Savannah Railroad (1849-1854). He was a Democratic member of the Georgia House of Representatives (1855-1860) and the state senate (1860-1861), and a general in the Confederate army during the Civil War. After the war, he served in the Georgia state legislature (1870-1875), chaired the Georgia state electoral college (1876), and was vice president of the Georgia constitutional convention (1877). Lawton was a delegate from Georgia to the Democratic National Convention (1880, 1884), was defeated as Democratic candidate for the U.S. Senate (1880), and was president of the American Bar Association (1882). He served as U.S. minister to AustriaHungary (1887-1889). LAY, JULIUS GARECHE (1872-1939). Foreign service officer. Born in Washington, D.C., he served as U.S. consul general at Barcelona (1902), Canton (Guangzhou) (1906),

LESSEPS,FERDINAND DE 199 Rio de Janeiro (1914), Berlin (1916-1917), and Calcutta (1926). He subsequently became minister to Honduras (1929-1935) and Uruguay (1935-1937).

LE MAMEA TREATY (1878). Treaty between the United States and Samoan chief Le Mamea Maaka, who came to Washington for the negotiations. The United States gained a coaling station at Pago Pago, Samoa, and in exchange promised to protect Samoa in controversies with foreign powers. The Senate, which had rejected the Meade Treaties out of concern that they established too firm an obligation on the part of the United States, ratified this treaty and thereby created one of the cornerstones of U.S. Pacific policy for the balance of the century. LEAVELL, WILLIAM HAYNE (1850-1930). Clergyman and diplomat. Born in Newbeny County, South Carolina, and a resident of Mississippi, he was an ordained Baptist minister. He served as U.S. minister to Guatemala (19 13-19 18). LEE, JOSEPH WILCOX JENKINS (1870-1949). Diplomat. A resident of Maryland, he served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (1905-1907) and Guatemala (1907). LEISHMAN, JOHN G. A. (1857-1924). Industrialist and diplomat. A resident of Pennsylvania, he was president of Carnegie Steel Company (1886-1897). Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Switzerland (1897-1900) and Turkey (190019O6), and ambassador to Turkey (1906-1909) when the post was raised to ambassadorial status (1906). While ambassador to Turkey, he used his personal funds to purchase property for the U.S. embassy. He also served as ambassador to Italy (1909-1911) and Germany (191 1-1913). LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE (1 805-1895). French diplomat, engineer, and canal builder. He had won fame with the successful completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, and turned to the Isthmus of Panama to repeat his success. But the engi-

200 LEWIS, CHARLES HANCE

neering challenges of the Isthmus proved too great for de Lesseps's company, whose 1889 bankruptcy rocked France. LEWIS, CHARLES HANCE (b. 1816). Diplomat. A resident of Virginia, he served as U.S. minister to Portugal (18701875). LEWIS, EDWARD PARKE CUSTIS (1837-1892). Diplomat. A resident of New Jersey, he served as U.S. minister and consul general to Portugal (1885-1889). LIBERAL REPUBLICAN PARTY (1872). A group formed largely in distrust of and opposition to President Ulysses S. Grant. A heterogeneous group, the party included both advocates of free trade and those who favored high protection. After losing the presidential campaign of 1872, the party dissolved. LIBERIA. Nation on the western coast of Africa. Liberia was founded in 1822 by freed American slaves and was declared independent in 1845. The United States extended diplomatic recognition in 1862, and established its first official diplomatic mission, under Rev. John Seys, in 1862. Throughout the bulk of the 19th century, Liberians of American background tended to dominate Liberian politics, while Great Britain dominated the Liberian economy. In 1878, the British government requested that an American naval officer act as arbitrator, if necessary, in negotiations over the border between Liberia and Sierra Leone. Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt was chosen for the duty and spent several months on the West African coast awaiting the call of the boundary commission. However, at the last session in April 1880 the British denied the very existence of Liberia as a sovereign state, the boundary commission concluded its work without a resolution, and Shufeldt continued on his cruise. Liberia's boundaries were finally established by agreements with Great Britain (1885, 1903) and France (1892-1907).

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Meanwhile, British loans to Liberia in 1870 and 1906 turned the nation into an effective British protectorate. But in May 1909, the United States sent a commission to investigate conditions in Liberia. The commission recommended that Washington take steps to establish true Liberian independence. Although President William Howard Taft supported the plan, in May 1910, the Senate defeated a treaty that would have provided assistance to Liberia. Taft, in turn, had the State Department arrange private loans from a consortium of American, British, French, and German banks. In addition, an American would oversee Liberian customs operations and Americans would supervise the training of the Liberian military. In effect, then, the United States assumed general control of various aspects of Liberian administration and foreign relations. For the first three decades of the 20th century, therefore, Liberia was the main focus of U.S. policy regarding Africa.

LIBERTY, STATUE OF. Officially "Liberty Enlightening the World." It is a 305-foot copper figure, gift of France to the United States in commemoration of the centennial of American independence (1876). It was placed on a 154-foot pedestal on Bedloe's Island, New York harbor, in 1886. It was a gesture of France's respect and friendship but soon became a symbol of freedom to millions of immigrants entering New York harbor. LI HONGZHANG (1823-1901). Chinese statesman. He was governor general of Nanking Province (1865-1866), Tientsin Province (1870-1882, 1883-1895, 1900-1901), Canton Province (1889-1895, 1899-1900), Wuhan Province (1869-1870), and Chengtu Province (1876). Often described as the most powerful man in China, and the "Bismarck of the East," Li represented both China and Korea in the negotiations with Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt that produced Korea's first commercial treaty with a Western power. See also KOREA, OPENING OF.

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LILIUOKALANI (1838-1917). Queen of Hawaii (1891-1893). She acted to reduce American influence in the islands and restore autocratic power to the throne by reversing the liberal reforms of 1887. In 1893, she was deposed by a contingent of U.S. marines in an operation engineered by U.S. minister John L. Stevens and Hawaiian-American business interests. She formally renounced her throne in 1895. See also BAYONET CONSTITUTION; HAWAII ANNEXATION. LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865). President. As a congressman from Illinois (1847-1849), he opposed the Mexican War. He served as 16th president (1861-1865), confronting the greatest challenge in American history, the Civil War. His vice presidents were Hannibal Hamlin (18611865) and Andrew Johnson (1865), his secretary of state was William H. Seward, and his secretary of the navy was Gideon Welles. During the war, his actions significantly expanded the power of the presidency, while his support of Secretary of State Seward moved the United States increasingly onto the global stage as a preeminent military and economic power. It was Lincoln who understood above all that emancipation was the key to preventing European intervention in the war, and the official promulgation of the Emancipation Proclamation on 1 January 1863 effectively ended the likelihood of British intervention. His relationship with Secretary of State Seward evolved from one of testy formality to warm respect and cooperation and, in all, American diplomacy during the war years was remarkably successfid. The main challenges that went unresolved because of the demands of the war were Spanish occupation of Santo Domingo and French attempts at creating a client state in Mexico by placing Maximilian as Mexican emperor. Lincoln was shot on 14 April 1865, five days after the end of the war. He died on 15 April and was succeeded by Vice President Johnson. LINCOLN, ROBERT TODD (1843-1926). Businessman, attorney, and diplomat. The son of President Abraham Lin-

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coln, he was born in Springfield, Illinois. He practiced law in Chicago and served as secretary of war under Presidents James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885). He later served as minister to Great Britain (1889-1893) under President Benjamin Harrison. As minister to Britain during the Bering Sea controversy, he was primarily a conduit for diplomatic exchanges between Secretary of State James G. Blaine and the British government. After his diplomatic service, he was counsel (1893-1897) to and president (18971911) of the Pullman Palace Car Company. LINE ISLANDS. Islands in the central Pacific, south-southwest of Hawaii. Of the islands (Christmas, Flint, Malden, Starbuck, Vostok Islands; and Caroline Atoll) only Christmas Island is inhabited. They were claimed by both the United States and Great Britain. LINERS. A ship that carries passengers and cargo on a scheduled route. The advent of steamships in the 1840s allowed vessels to travel on precise schedules, and the late 19th and early 20th centuries became the great era of oceanic liner travel, tying especially the Atlantic world closer together than had ever before been possible. One of these liners was the ill-fated Lusitania. See also ATLANTIC CROSSING; WHITE STAR LINE. LITTLE SWAN. Island 97 miles northeast of Honduras. A tiny (1% x % miles) uninhabited island, Guano was exported from the island for many years, and it was certified as appertaining to the United States in 1863, under the Guano Islands Act. The island continued to be claimed by Honduras. LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850-1924). Politician and writer. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, he edited the North American Review (1873-1 876) and received one of the first Ph.D. degrees awarded by Harvard University (1876). He lectured on American history at Harvard (1876-1879) and joined the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1880-188 1).

204 LOGAN, CORNELIUS AMBROSE

Lodge served as a Republican congressman (1887-1893) and senator (1893-1924) from Massachusetts, during which time he was a close adviser to Theodore Roosevelt. He was chairman of the Senate Committee on Immigration (18951913), Committee on the Philippines (1899-19 1I), and Committee on Foreign Relations (1919-1924). In addition, he served as a member of the Alaska boundary tribunal (1903) and was a representative to the Conference on Limitation of Armament (191 1). Lodge was a conservative internationalist who believed that the United States should take a prominent place in world affairs. He advocated an enlarged army and navy to protect America's strategic and commercial interests. He supported war with Spain in 1898 and the acquisition of the Philippines. He also supported U.S. participation in World War I, but opposed President Woodrow Wilson's plans for peace. As chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee he became a leading opponent of the covenant of the League of Nations at the end of World War I and a political adversary of President Wilson when the president refused to compromise. LOGAN, CORNELIUS AMBROSE (1832-1899). Physician and diplomat. Born in Deerfield, Illinois, and a resident of Kansas, he edited the Leavenworth Medical Herald for 12 years. He served as U.S. minister to Chile (1873-1876, 18821885) and to Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala (1879-1882). As minister to Chile, Logan generally supported that nation in its conflict with Peru during the War of the Pacific involving Peru, Chile, and Bolivia (1879-1883), putting himself at odds with the administrations of James A. Garfield and Chester Arthur, which tended to lean toward Peru. LONDON, CONVENTION O F (1861). An agreement signed in October 1861 by Britain, France, and Spain to send a joint military force to Mexico to collect payments on debt. The Mexican government of Benito Juarez had suspended payment in July. In December 1861, therefore, Great Britain,

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France, and Spain landed troops in Veracruz. Britain and Spain withdrew their forces when they saw Napoleon 111's larger plans for Maximilian and a Catholic empire in Latin America. See also MEXICO, UNITED STATES AND, 1860; SPAIN-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. LONG, BOAZ WALTON (1876-1962). Diplomat. Born in Warsaw, Indiana, he moved to New Mexico in 1885 and later to Las Vegas. Over the next few decades, Long traveled in the western United States, Mexico, Central America, and Cuba. In 1913 he became the chief of the Division of Latin American Affairs of the Department of State. He then served as U.S. minister to El Salvador (1914-1919), Cuba (1919192l), Nicaragua (1936-1938), and Ecuador (1938-1942). He later became ambassador to Ecuador (1942-1943) and Guatemala (1943-1945). LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838-1915). Lawyer, statesman, and cabinet officer. Born in Oxford County, Maine, he practiced law in Maine and Massachusetts and served as a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1875-1878). He then served as Republican lieutenant governor (1879) and governor (1880-1882) of Massachusetts. He was a member of Congress from Massachusetts (1883-1889) and served as secretary of the navy under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt (1897-1902). He also published widely, including poetry, poetry translations, collections of his own speeches, books on current political topics, studies of the merchant marine and the navy, and a biography of Abraham Lincoln. LONGSTREET, JAMES (1821-1904). Military officer and diplomat. Born in South Carolina and later a resident of New Orleans, he served in the Mexican-American War and then had a noteworthy military career in the Confederate army during the Civil War. After the war, he joined the Republican Party, entered business in New Orleans, and then held a number of federal positions. President Ulysses S. Grant ap-

206 LOOMIS, FRANCIS BUTLER

pointed him surveyor of customs of the port of New Orleans (1869). He served on the Levee Commission of Engineers (1873-1877), was deputy collector of internal revenue (1878), and served as postmaster of Gainesville, Georgia (1878-1880). He served as U.S. minister to Turkey (18801881) and then became U.S. marshal for Georgia (18811884). His final federal appointment was as U.S. cornmissioner of railroads (1897-1904). LOOMIS, FRANCIS BUTLER (1861-1948). Journalist and diplomat. He worked for the New York Tribune, Philadelphia Press, and Cincinnati Daily Tribune. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1897-1901) and minister to Portugal (1901-1902). He also served as assistant secretary of state (1902) and interim secretary of state (1905), and conducted the negotiations over the acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone. While he was serving in the State Department, his successor in Venezuela, Herbert Wolcott Bowen, charged that Loomis had been involved in questionable financial deals regarding compensation for alleged damages to foreign property in Venezuela during periods of civil unrest. LORD, WILLIAM PAINE (1839-191 1). Politician and diplomat. Born in Dover, Delaware, he served in the Union army during the Civil War. After the war, he led the U.S. military force to Sitka, Alaska (1867), to take possession of the new American colony. After serving as Republican governor of Oregon (1895-1899), he became U.S. minister to Argentina (1899-1903). LORTNG, GEORGE BAILEY (1870-189 1). Physician, politician, and diplomat. Born in North Andover, Massachusetts, he practiced medicine and then served as a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1866), a delegate from Massachusetts to the Republican National Convention (1868), a member of the state senate (1873), and U.S. congressman from Massachusetts (1877-1881). Afterward, he served as US. minister to Portugal (1889-1890).

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LOTHROP, GEORGE VAN NESS (1817-1897). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Fairfield County, Connecticut, he became a resident of Detroit, Michigan, where inherited real estate holdings provided the source of his substantial wealth. He was a Michigan state attorney general (18481841), an unsuccessful candidate for Congress (1856, 1860), a delegate from Michigan to the Democratic National Convention, and a delegate to the Michigan constitutional convention. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Russia (18851888). LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION (1904). Held from 30 April 1904 to 1 December 1904 in St. Louis, Missouri, in commemoration of the centenary of the purchase of the Louisiana territory. It was the largest fair held in the United States up to that time. Many foreign nations participated, and the fair's main theme was mechanical and industrial progress. LOW, FREDERICK FERDINAND (1828-1894). Businessman, politician, and diplomat. Born in Frankfort, Maine, he moved to California and became involved in the shipping business (1849-1854), and achieved the merger of most of the San Francisco Bay and Sacramento River steamship lines. From 1854 to 1861, he expanded his activities to banking in the San Francisco region. He served as a Unionist Republican congressman from California (1862-1863), collector of the port of San Francisco (1863), and governor of California (1863-1867). He served as U.S. minister to China (1869-1873). While serving as minister, Low was sent to Korea to negotiate a treaty of commerce and navigation and obtain promises for the "protection and good treatment" of American sailors. This first official interaction between Korea and the United States yielded no treaty but set the stage for the eventual "opening" of the "Hermit Kingdom." See also KOREA, OPENING OF.

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LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL (1819-1891). Writer, poet, editor, and statesman. Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, he was a prominent abolitionist and opponent of the MexicanAmerican war before the Civil War. He was the first editor of the Atlantic Monthly (1857-1862) and was editor of the North American Review (1863-1 872). Lowell, who was fluent in Spanish and had wide knowledge of Spanish literature, culture, and history, served as minister to Spain (1877-1880) under President Rutherford B. Hayes. He published his dispatches and recollections in The Century Magazine (November 1898) as "Impressions of Spain." He also served as minister to Great Britain (1880-1885) under Presidents Hayes, James A. Garfield, and Chester A. Arthur. Well known in British intellectual circles, he was a popular public speaker in England on literary topics and American life and culture. LUSITANIA. The Cunard ocean liner that was torpedoed by a German submarine off the coast of Ireland on 7 May 1915. The German government had placed advertisements in New York newspapers warning Americans not to travel on vessels of Allied registry, but 128 Americans were among the 1,198 Lusitania passengers who died. President Woodrow Wilson sent a series of diplomatic notes to the German government demanding pledges for future shipping and travel, but no settlement was reached. Wilson's secretary of state, William Jennings Bryan, resigned in protest over what he felt was the bellicose tone of Wilson's notes to Germany. The Lusitania sinking inflamed anti-German sentiment in America, a neutral power at this point, and formed part of the backdrop to eventual United States entry into World War I (1917). LYON, ERNEST (1860-1938). Clergyman, editor, and diplomat. Born in Belize, he emigrated to the United States and attended several missionary colleges in New Orleans, including Straight University (1880), Gilbert Seminary (18811883), and New Orleans University. He became pastor of Mallalieu Chapel, Thomson Chapel, and Simpson Chapel in

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New Orleans, and from 1891 to 1892, was the general Sunday school agent for the Methodist Episcopal Church in Louisiana. He also spoke out on issues of race relations in New Orleans. He then became pastor of St. Mark's Methodist Episcopal Church in New York City (1892). Later, Lyon served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1903-1910) and consul general at Monrovia, Liberia (1906). After returning from diplomatic service, he became pastor of the Ames Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland. He was also a founder of the Maryland Industrial and Agricultural School (later Bowie State Normal School), a delegate to the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and chairman of the commission that laid the cornerstone of Douglass High School in Baltimore.

MACMILLAN, DONALD BAXTER (1874-1970). American polar explorer. He participated in Admiral Robert Peary's expedition to the North Pole (1908-1909) and explored Greenland (1913-1917). Over more than four decades, he led or participated in almost 30 expeditions to polar regions. His efforts were emblematic of continuing American interests in polar explorations throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. MACVEAGH, ISAAC WAYNE (1833-1917). Politician and diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to the Ottoman Empire (1870-187I), attorney general under President James A. Garfield (1881), and ambassador to Italy (1893-1897). He was also the chief U.S. counsel in the Hague tribunal arbitration concerning the claims of Great Britain, Germany, and Italy against Venezuela (1903). MADAGASCAR Island east of South Africa, separated from the continent by the Mozambique Channel. As a result of a war with France (1883-1885), it became a French protectorate. The United States negotiated a treaty with Madagascar

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in 1867, and, in September 1879, Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt negotiated an agreement with the Malagasy and Sakalava tribes, which had not been included in the 1867 pact. Shufeldt's agreement provided for protection of American whalers and traders, prohibited slave trading under the American flag, and gave the United States the right to establish a coaling station at Tullear Bay. The Senate failed to ratify the agreement. MADERO, FRANCISCO (1873-1913). Mexican political leader and president. After making a fortune as a cotton planter, he entered politics and worked for liberal reform of the authoritarian government. He opposed Porfirio Diaz in the 1910 election, was arrested, and escaped to the United States. As a result of the Mexican Revolution, Diaz resigned and Madero, as leader of the Constitutional Progressive Party, was elected president in 1911. He was deposed and imprisoned in February 1913 by Victoriano Huerta and was shot on a street of Mexico City. MAGEE, RUFUS (145-1929). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Logansport, Indiana, he was the editor of the Logansport Pharos and served as a member of the state senate (1883-1885). He then became U.S. minister to Sweden (1885-1889), later serving a second time in the state senate (1891-1893). MAGOON, CHARLES EDWARD (1861-1920). Attorney and diplomat. Born in Owatonna, Minnesota, he was a resident of Nebraska. He served as general counsel of the Isthmian Canal Commission (1904-1905), governor of the Canal Zone (1905-19O6), U.S. minister to Panama (1905-19O6), and provisional governor of Cuba (October 1906-January 1909). As governor, he faced serious economic and political crises on the island. He was able to institute new laws for a functional judiciary and legislature, and he implemented public works projects, especially road building, to reduce unemployment. In the process, however, his administration

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spent liberally and diminished the public treasury. At the same time, the Magoon administration was known for widespread corruption, which came to be known as "magoonism." MAKAN, ALFRED THAYER (1840-1914). Naval officer. At the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island, in the 1880s and 1890s, Mahan lectured on naval history, emphasizing the importance of sea power in the success of great imperial powers. His ideas reached a larger audience through a series of articles and books, notably The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (1890), and The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution, 1793-1812 (2 vols.,1892). The notoriety that he gained from his lectures and writing transformed him into a de facto spokesman for and prophet of a new American world role that included an expanded navy and global political, economic, and military reach. He influenced the thinking of his friend Theodore Roosevelt and leaders in Germany, England, and Japan. MAHANY, ROWLAND BLENNERHASSETT (1864-1937). Journalist, lawyer, and diplomat. Born in Buffalo, New York, he was associate editor of the Buffalo Express (1888). He was appointed secretary of the U.S. legation in Chile, but he declined the appointment (1890). ARer running unsuccessfully for Congress in 1892, he was appointed U.S. minister to Ecuador (1892-1893). As minister, Mahany helped to negotiate a convention that settled a controversy over proceedings by the Ecuadorian government against Emilio Santos, a naturalized American citizen. Later, Mahany was a congressman from New York (1895-1899), harbor commis-. sioner of Buffalo (1899-1906), and editor of the Buffalo Enquirer (1910-1911). He was also a member of the Foreign Trades Relation Committee of the Department of State (19 19) and U.S. representative to the International Commission on Immigration and Emigration at Geneva (1920). In addition, he was an alternate delegate (1924) and delegate

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(1928) from the District of Columbia to the Democratic National Convention. MAHIN, FRANK WEBSTER (b. 1851). Lawyer, newspaper editor, and consular representative. Born in Muscatine, Iowa, he served as U.S. consul at Reichenberg (1898-1902) and Amsterdam (1910-1913, 1915-1924). MAIL CONTRACTS. Subsidies to shipping lines were a standard method of ensuring the delivery of the mail on a timely schedule. Two acts in the 1840s had subsidized selected steamship lines for this purpose. In the wake of a precipitous decline in the American merchant marine in the postbellum era, Congress occasionally turned to these mail contracts as a politically acceptable approach to reviving shipping. In May 1864, Congress approved a $150,000 per year contract with the United States and Brazil Mail Steamship Company to transport mail through the Caribbean to Rio de Janeiro. In February 1865, the Pacific Mail Steamship Company was allocated a contract for Pacific mail delivery, and, in 1868, Congress approved a transatlantic steamship mail route. But in 1874, after it was discovered that Pacific Mail had spent $1,000,000--some of it in bribes-to lobby for a renewal of its contract, congressional enthusiasm for mail subsidies evaporated until the 1891 Ocean Mail Act. See also OCEAN MAIL SUBSIDY BILL. MAINE, DESTRUCTION OF THE (1898). The Maine was a typical example of the late-19th-century U.S. Navy, originally an armored-cruiser that had been reclassified a secondclass battleship. The vessel had been sent to Havana harbor in January 1898 because of ongoing political instability associated with the Cuban war for independence against Spain. The ship exploded and sank on 15 February 1898, with the loss of 260 of its crew. A navy court of inquiry reported on 22 March that the Maine's sinking had been caused by "the explosion of a submarine mine, which caused the partial explosion of two or more of her forward maga-

MANEY, GEORGE EARL 2 13

zines." The "jingo press" (See jingoism) seized upon the explosion as a justification for war against Spain, and the popular slogan became "Remember the Maine, and to hell with Spain!" The ship was raised in 1910 and, in 1911, a court of inquiry ruled that an underwater mine had caused the explosion rather than internal sabotage. In 1976, a re-examination of the evidence demonstrated that a fire in a coal bunker had caused shipboard ammunition to explode, in turn causing the blast that sank the vessel. See also SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. MANCHURIA. Region of northeastern China, north of Korea. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Manchuria was the focus of Japanese expansionist interest. Through the Open Door Policy, the United States strove to ensure both Chinese sovereignty in and American access to the region. See also LANSING-ISHII AGREEMENT; PORTSMOUTH, TREATY OF; ROOT-TAKAHIRA AGREEMENT. MANEY, GEORGE EARL (1826-1901). Soldier, lawyer, and diplomat. Born in Franklin, Tennessee, he served in the army in the Mexican-American War and was a general in the Confederate army during the Civil War. After the war, he was president of the Tennessee and Pacific Railroad (1868-1876) and was active in the Republican Party. He was nominated to serve as minister to Ecuador (1875), but his nomination was withdrawn before the Senate could act on it. In 1876, he was a Republican candidate for governor of Tennessee, but he withdrew before the election. Maney then served as U.S. minister to Colombia (188 1-1882) and minister to Bolivia (1882-1 889), his appointment to Bolivia coming shortly after that nation's defeat by Chile in the War of the Pacific. Maney arrived at his post late, delaying negotiations with Chile and Peru, to the dissatisfaction of U.S. ministers in those countries. Afterward, he served as minister to Paraguay and Uruguay (1889-1894).

214 MANIFEST DESTINY

MANIFEST DESTINY. The view, common in the antebellum era of American history, that the United States was evidently and obviously destined to expand westward across the North American continent. Manifest Destiny had almost religious overtones as Americans spoke of the nation's divinely inspired mission to expand and thereby bring the fruits of American civilization and Christianity to the "less fortunate." The concept fueled U.S. expansion into Texas, California, and Oregon. It was still a point of reference when Secretary of State William Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska in 1867 and other Americans in the immediate postbellum era advocated the acquisition of various Caribbean islands. The concept evolved into an "imperialist" mode later in the 19th century with the eventual acquisition of non-contiguous colonies in the Caribbean and Pacific. See also EXPANSIONISM; IMPERIALISM. MANILA BAY, BATTLE OF (1898). The great Pacific victory of the Spanish-American War. On 1 May 1898, Commodore George Dewey's Pacific Squadron easily defeated the Spanish squadron without the loss of a single American vessel. Although the Spanish had more vessels, the American squadron was technologically far superior, and the contest was, in fact, an unequal match between a rising superpower and a declining imperial power. MANNING, THOMAS COURTLAND (1825-1887). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Edenton, North Carolina, he moved to Alexandria, Louisiana, where he practiced law. He was a representative to the Louisiana Secession convention as a states-rights Democrat (1861). During the Civil War he served in the Confederate army, as adjutant general of Louisiana (1863-1864), and as associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court (1865-1865). After the war he was a presidential elector (1872), vice president of the Democratic National Convention (1876), and served on the Louisiana Supreme Court (chief justice, 1877-1880; associ-

MARIANAS ISLANDS 2 15

ate justice 1882-1886). He then and served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1886-1887). MANSFIELD, FRANCIS MILTOUN (b. 1871). Newspaper correspondent, author, and consular representative. Born in Lynn, Massachusetts, he served as U.S. vice consul at Barcelona (1913-1914). MARBURG, THEODORE (1862-1946). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Belgium (1912-1914) and, after World War I, was the author of several works on the League of Nations. MARCH OF THE FLAG, THE (1898). Campaign speech of Albert Beveridge. It is typically cited as a classic representation of American imperialism at the close of the 19th century. Beveridge describes the United States as a "noble land that God has given us," Americans as "a mighty people. . . [sprung] from the most masterful blood of history," and God's "chosen people," and America's history and "mission" as glorious. "Shall the American people continue their march toward the commercial supremacy of the world? Shall free institutions broaden their blessed reign as the children of liberty wax in strength until the empire of our principles is established over the hearts of all mankind?'he asks. After describing the spreading of the American flag from the colonial era to the Spanish-American War, he concludes with the exhortation, "We cannot retreat from any soil where Providence has unfurled our banner; it is ours to save that soil for liberty and civilization." MARIANAS ISLANDS. One of the three major archipelagoes of Micronesia, approximately 1,600 miles east of the Philippines. The main islands in this 600-mile chain are Agrihan, Pagan, Antahan, Saipan, Tinian, Rota, and Guam. The islands were encountered by Magellan in 1521 and were Spanish possessions until 1899, when the United States took pos-

2 16 MARKBREIT, LEOPOLD

session of Guam and the remaining islands were sold to Germany. MARKBREIT, LEOPOLD (1842-1909). Lawyer, soldier, and diplomat. Born in Vienna, Austria, he emigrated to Cincinnati, Ohio (1848), became a law partner of Rutherford B Hayes, and served in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (18691873), edited the Volksblatt (c. 1890), and served as mayor of Cincinnati (1908-1909). MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS (1801-1882). Attorney, philologist, diplomat, and politician. Born in Woodstock, Vermont, he served as a Whig member of Congress from Vermont (1842-1849). He next served as U.S. minister to Turkey (1849-1853), aiding rehgees from the European revolutions of 1848. While in Turkey he was also engaged in a special mission to Greece (1852) and traveled to Egypt and Palestine to collect items for the Smithsonian Institution's collection. Afterward, Marsh returned to the United States and was fish commissioner (1857) and railroad commissioner (1857-1859) of Vermont. He then became the first U.S. minister to a united Italy (1861-1882). Serving in Italy during the Civil War, he had to deal with the many confederate sympathizers among the American and British expatriate communities. A specialist in Icelandic and other Scandinavian languages, Marsh also was the author of Man and Nature (1864), a work of physical geography that remains a classic early environmental work. MARSHALL ISLANDS. One of the three major archipelagoes of Micronesia, north of the Gilbert Islands and east of the Caroline Islands. They consist of about 32 coral atolls with a total area of 65 square miles. Europeans encountered the islands in 1529 and captains John William Marshall and Thomas Gilbert explored them in 1788. They were annexed by Germany in 1886 and were transferred to Japan as a League of Nations mandate after World War I.

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MARYE, GEORGE T. (1857-1933). Banker and diplomat. A resident of California, he served as U.S. ambassador to Russia (1914-1916). Appointed in July 1914 on the eve of World War I and a critical moment in Russian history, Marye had no background in Russian affairs. The Russian government was lukewarm about his appointment. Marye, whose main goal was to strengthen U.S.-Russian commercial ties, recognized the revolutionary pressures bubbling beneath the surface of Russian society but believed that no revolution would occur until after the conclusion of the war. He communicated that assessment to the U.S. government. MASON, JAMES MURRAY (1798-1 871). Politician and Confederate diplomat. He and John Slidell were sent as Confederate commissioners to Great Britain and France in 1861, a voyage that was interrupted by the Trent affair. MAURY, DABNEY HERNDON (1822-1900). General and statesman. Born in Fredericksburg, Virginia, he served in the army during the Mexican-American War and later served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. Afterward, Maury was U.S. minister to Colombia (1885-1889). MAXIMILIAN (1832-1867). Austrian archduke and brother to Emperor Franz Josef. He was sent by France's Napoleon III to become emperor of Mexico (1864-1867), taking advantage of the Civil War to violate America's Monroe Doctrine. U.S. protests during the war went unheeded, but, after the war, stronger U.S. warnings and the presence of an American army force on the Mexican border convinced France to withdraw its troops and support. Maximilian's power quickly collapsed and he was captured and shot by the Mexican opposition. This episode highlighted the massive military power and potential diplomatic clout of the newly reunited United States. MAYNARD, HORACE (1814-1882). Politician and diplomat. Born in Westborough, Massachusetts, he was a congressman

2 18 MCBRIDE, JAMES

from Tennessee (Independent, 1857-1863; Republican, 1866-1875). He served as U.S. minister to Turkey (18751880) during a period of revolt by Bosnia and Herzegovina against Turkish rule, rioting in the capital of Istanbul, and the Russo-Turkish War. Turkey's defeat in the war-and the loss of Bulgaria, Serbia, and Romania-mher complicated an already turbulent situation. In addition to managing American interests during the upheavals, Maynard assisted archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, a German-born naturalized U.S. citizen, in his request to excavate the ancient city of Troy. After his diplomatic duties, Maynard became postmaster general (1880-1881) under President Rutherford B Hayes. MCBRIDE, JAMES (1802-1875). Clergyman, physician, and diplomat. Born near Nashville, Tennessee, and a resident of Oregon, he was one of the founders of the Oregon Republican Party and a member of the Oregon territorial council (1850). As U.S. minister to the Hawaiian Islands (18631866), he strengthened U.S.-Hawaiian relations, countering growing British influence and firmly managing U.S.-British relations there. He also monitored the movements of Confederate cruisers, particularly the Florida. Based on interactions that he had with Russian sailors and merchants stopping in Hawaii, McBride recommended that the U.S. government might have an opportunity of purchasing Alaska from Russia. MCCOLLEY, JAMES H. (d. 1869). Consular representative. A resident of Pennsylvania, he served as U.S. consul at Callao, Peru (1864-1869). He died of yellow fever in Lima, Peru, on 17 April 1869. MCCOOK, EDWARD MOODY (1833-1909). General and statesman. Born in Ohio, he served as a member of the Kansas territorial House of Representatives (1859) and then had a distinguished career in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to the Hawaiian

MCCREERY, WILLIAM B. 2 19

Islands (1866-1869, and then Republican governor of the territory of Colorado (1869-1873, 1874-1875). He was also a member of the Republican National Committee in 1872. MCCORMICK, ROBERT SANDERSON (1849-1919). Diplomat. A resident of Illinois, he was appointed U.S. minister to Austria (1901) and became the first U.S. ambassador to Austria-Hungary in 1902. He served as ambassador to Russia (1902-1905) during the Russo-Japanese War and as ambassador to France (1905-1907). MCCOY, WILLIAM D. (1853-1893). Diplomat. A resident of Indiana, he served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1892-1893). He died in Monrovia, Liberia, of fever. MCCRARY, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1835-1890). Jurist and legislator. Born near Evansville, Indiana, he was a member of the Iowa House of Representatives (1857) and the Iowa state senate (1861-1865). He then served as a Republican congressman from Iowa (1869-1877) and was a member of the Republican National Committee (1870-1872). He served as secretary of war (1877-1879) under President Rutherford B. Hayes, and was a judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals (1880-1884). MCCREERY, FENTON REUBEN (1866-1940). Diplomat. Born in Flint, Michigan, he served as U.S. minister to Santo Domingo (1907-1909) and to Honduras (1909-19 11). MCCREERY, WILLIAM B. (1836-1896). Politician, banker, and consular representative. Born in Livingston County, New York, he served in the Union army during the Civil War. After the war, he was mayor of Flint, Michigan (18651867), a director of the First National Bank of Flint, and Michigan state treasurer (1875-1878). He served as U.S. consul to Valparaiso Chile (1890).

220 MCDONALD, ALEXANDER

MCDONALD, ALEXANDER (1827-1897). Diplomat. A resident of Virginia, he served as U.S. minister to Persia (18931897). MCGOODWIN, PRESTON BUFORD (1880-1945). Diplomat. Born in Caldwell County, Kentucky, he served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1913-1921). MCKENZIE, JAMES ANDREW (1840-1904). Politician and diplomat. A resident of Hardin County, Kentucky, he served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. After the war, he was a Democratic member of the Kentucky House of Representatives (1867), a congressman from Kentucky (1877-1883), and Kentucky secretary of state (1883-1887), and a commissioner from Kentucky to the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago (1893). He also served as U.S. minister to Peru (1893). MCKINLEY, WILLIAM (1843-1901). President. Born in Niles, Ohio, he served in the Union army during the Civil War and practiced law in Canton. He served as a Republican congressman from Ohio (1877-1884, 1885-1@I), was a delegate to the Republican National Conventions of 1884, 1888, and 1892, and served as governor of Ohio (18921897). He then served as 25th president (1897-1901), with John D. Long as his secretary of the navy and John Sherman, William R. Day, and John Hay as his secretaries of state. A steadfast proponent of protectionist legislation, especially high tariffs, during his first year as president he called a special session of Congress to pass the Dingley Tariff, which raised rates to a new high. In his final speech, just before his assassination, however, he revealed a switch to reciprocity. He also moved the United States, which had been increasingly "looking outward" throughout the postCivil War era, fully to the front stage of world powers as a result of the Spanish-AmericanWar. McKinley neither openly resisted nor eagerly embraced the rush to war advocated by the jingo press (see jingoism),

MCLANE, ROBERT MILLIGAN 221 but rather took the nation into war after all other options, in his estimation, had been exhausted. During his presidency, the United States acquired Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam as a result of the Spanish-American War, annexed Hawaii (which McKinley's predecessor, Grover Cleveland, had rejected) in 1898, and saw Cuba gain its independence from Spain. In Asia, the McKinley adrninistration followed the Open Door Policy and contributed troops to suppress the Boxer rebellion in China. His assassination in September 1901, the first year of his second term, brought Theodore Roosevelt to the presidency. See also MCKINLEY TARIFF ACT. MCKINLEY TARIFF ACT (1890). A high protective tariff designed to protect existing industries and foster new ones. The tariff placed a two-cent-a-pound tax on Hawaiian sugar cane, helping to bring about the collapse of the sugar industry there and encouraging sugar-growing interests to work toward U.S. annexation of Hawaii. On the other hand, the law authorized the president to negotiate reciprocal tariff agreements. MCKINNEY, LUTHER FRANKLIN (1841-1922). Politician and diplomat. Born in Newark, Ohio, he served as a Democratic congressman from New Hampshire (1887-1889, 18911893) and was an unsuccessful candidate for New Hampshire governor (1892). He then served as U.S. minister to Colombia (1893-1896). Afterward, he was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress (from Maine) (1898, 1899) and served as a member of the Maine House of Representatives (1907). MCLANE, ROBERT MILLIGAN (1815-1898). Diplomat and politician. Born in Wilmington, Delaware, he served in the artillery during the Seminole War (1837-1838) and was a member of Congress fkom Maryland (1847-185 I), supporting President James K. Polk's policies in the MexicanAmerican War. He served as U.S. commissioner and minis-

222 MCMAHON, MARTIN THOMAS

ter to China (1853-1855), and was also accredited at the same time to Japan, Siam, Korea, and Cochin China. He served in China during a period of dynastic turmoil and successfully renewed the Sino-American commercial treaty with enhanced terms that were the equivalent of those that the British had won. McLane was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention of 1856 and active in the Democratic presidential campaign of that year. He served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1859-1860), arriving a year after the Mexican government had severed relations with the United States. McLane was instructed to recognize the government of Benito Juarez if appropriate. He did, and negotiated a new commercial treaty with the Juarez government. After the Civil War, McLane again served as a Democratic member of Congress from Maryland (1879-1883) and governor of Maryland (1883-1885). He then served as U.S. minister to France (1885-1889), where he was generally acknowledged as an informed, effective, and popular diplomat. MCMAHON, MARTIN THOMAS (1838-1906). Attorney, soldier, and diplomat. Born in Laprarie, Quebec, and a resident of New York, he served as a general in the Union army during the Civil War and received a medal of honor for action at Black Oak Swamp, Virginia, 30 June 1862. After the war, McMahon served as U.S. minister to Paraguay (18681869). MCMILLIN, BENTON (1845-1933). Politician, jurist, and diplomat. Born in Monroe County, Kentucky, he served as a member of the Tennessee House of Representatives (1874), a Tennessee state court judge (1877), a congressman from Tennessee (1879-18W), and governor of Tennessee (18991903). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Peru (1913-1919) and Guatemala (19 19-192 1). After his diplomatic service, McMillin engaged in the insurance business in Nashville, Tennessee and was a delegate from Tennessee to the Democratic National Convention (1928).

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MEADE, RICHARD KIDDER (1803-1862). Politician and diplomat. Born near Lawrenceville, Virginia, he served as a member of the state senate (1835) and a congressman from Virginia (1847-1853). He then served as U.S. minister to Brazil (1857-1861). MEADE, RICHARD WORSAM, I11 (1837-1897). Naval officer. Born in New York City, he graduated from the United States Naval Academy (1856) and served on the Africa and Pacific stations before the Civil War. During the Civil War, he served in blockading squadrons and the Mississippi Squadron. Afterward, while commanding the gunboat Saginaw (1868-1869), he performed one of the first American surveys of the coast of newly purchased Alaska. As commander of the Narragansett (1871-1873), he negotiated treaties with Samoa, pursued labor traders, and engaged in surveying and gunboat diplomacy. While commanding the Vandalia (1879-1882), he helped to smooth CanadianAmerican relations in the wake of the Fortune Bay affair. As commander of the North Atlantic Squadron, he clashed with the Grover Cleveland administration and Secretary of the Navy Hilary Herbert during his cruise to the Caribbean (1895). Meade represented the moderate reform wing of the navy during the post-Civil War era and also exemplified the characteristics of naval diplomacy during the decades leading up to the Spanish-American War. See also MEADE TREATIES; NORTH ATLANTIC SQUADRON IN THE CARTBBEAN, 1895. MEADE TREATIES (1872). Commercial, harbor, and confederation treaties negotiated by Commander Richard W. Meade and leaders of Samoa in 1872. Meade, commanding the USS Narragansett on the Pacific Station, had gone to Samoa to "locate a coal depot" and secure "a foothold for America7'-actions largely of his own making. On 17 February 1872, he signed a harbor treaty granting the United States rights to a naval station at Pago Pago. But the treaty died in the Senate. Expansionist sentiment had temporarily

224 MEDILL, JOSEPH

been crushed by the scandals surrounding the purchase of Alaska, and senators feared the level of commitment they believed the treaty implied. Nevertheless, less than six years later the United States ratified the LeMamea treaty, which built on Meade's work. Commander Meade also worked to establish "commercial regulations"-a combination of economic and social regulation-for the islands: Samoan protection for foreigners and foreign consuls; a degree of extraterritoriality in that an appropriate foreign consul rather than a Samoan official was to handle any shipwreck or resulting loss of property; a port commission that included foreign consuls and the agent of William H. Webb's steamship company to levy port fees; prohibition of work on Sundays except the coaling of steamships; prohibition of all alcoholic beverages; and reduction of prostitution. Meade's third agreement was a confederation in which the four chiefs of Tutuila pledged to maintain peace. These articles of confederation strengthened the position of the Tutuila chiefs, suggested to the Samoans generally that the United States would protect them against foreign incursions, and, ultimately, helped to bring Samoa within the American orbit. Meade's efforts provided an important "first start" for the United States in Samoa and, quite possibly, prevented German annexation of the islands in the early 1870s. MEDILL, JOSEPH (1823-1899). Publisher. He transformed the Chicago Tribune into a major voice of the American Midwest, and a major influence in U. S. politics in the late 19th century. Under Medill, the Tribune supported the policies of the Republican Party. MERCHANT MARINE. See SHIPPING. MERRILL, AYRES PHILLIPS (1826-1887). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Belgium (1876-1877).

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MERRILL, GEORGE W. (b. 1837). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to the Hawaiian Islands (1885-1889). MERRY, WILLIAM LAWRENCE (1842-19 11). Diplomat. He served as minister to Salvador (1897-1907), Nicaragua (1897-19O8), and Costa Rica (1897-19 11). He published The Nicaraguan Canal. The Gateway Between the Seas (1895), advocating the Nicaragua route for a proposed Isthmian canal. MESSAGE TO GARCIA, A (1899). An essay by Elbert Hubbard, written in the glow of American victory in the Spanish-American War. Hubbard describes the actions of Lieutenant Andrew S. Rowan, sent by President William McKinley to deliver a message to Garcia, the leader of the Cuban insurgents. Rowan delivers the message without questioning, without second-guessing, and without the need for clarification. Rowan's qualities, according to Hubbard's essay, included dedication, efficiency, loyalty, and determination-qualities that Americans, arguably, liked to believe described themselves as a nation. Although the essay became, at the time, widely popular among the business community-with a circulation of 40 million by 1913-it also reflects a view that served expansionist Americans well at the turn of the 20th century. METCALF, VICTOR HOWARD (1853-1936). Lawyer, politician, and cabinet officer. He served as secretary of the navy under President Theodore Roosevelt (1906-1908). MEXICAN BORDER CAMPAIGN (1916). Instability in the Mexican government plagued United States-Mexican relations in the first decades of the 20th century. The United States recognized the government of Venustiano Carranza, head of the Mexican Constitutional Party, in 1914, but insurgent bandit Francisco (Pancho) Villa took advantage of instability to stage a series of raids across the Texas-Mexico border. The U.S. government, in turn, had warned Ameri-

226 MEXICAN REVOLUTION

cans to leave Mexico. President Woodrow Wilson's policy of Watchful Waiting came under congressional scrutiny, however, when Villa's forces killed 18 Americans. In response, Wilson ordered an expedition under General John J. Pershing to enter Mexico and capture and punish Villa. Villa escaped, and the violation of Mexican sovereignty further strained Mexican-American relations. With American entry into World War I imminent, Wilson withdrew U.S. troops fiom Mexico. See also MEXICAN REVOLUTION; MEXICO-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. MEXICAN REVOLUTION (1910 et. seq.). Mexico was led from 1877 to 1911 by Porfirio Diaz, a repressive autocrat whose success in attracting foreign investment (including American) did little to improve the lot of Mexican peasants. In November 1910, revolution broke out. After a long struggle, the rebels, led by Francisco Madero, took Ciudad Jukrez, established a government there, and forced Diaz to resign. Madero was elected president on 12 October 1911. Then, in 1913, he was deposed, imprisoned, and subsequently shot. General Victoriano Huerta took power, but the United States refused to recognize the new government. Although Washington had previously embargoed arms shipments to Mexico, President Woodrow Wilson lifted the embargo in the expectation that Huerta's opponents would now be able to buy weapons. The opposition was split among three factions, led, in turn, by Venustiano Carranza, Francisco (Pancho) Villa, and Emiliano Zapata. Many US. businesses hoped that President Wilson would act to protect American interests in Mexico, but the president resisted the use of force. However, after the Tampic0 incident he did send American troops to Mexico. But the Veracruz incident, in turn, diverted U.S. attention. Huerta was soon forced from office and Carranza formed a new government. Nevertheless, Villa and Zapata continued their resistance to the government. Violence spread across the U.S. border in 1916. Throughout all the turmoil, hundreds of thousands of Mexicans escaped across the border to

MEXICO-UNITED STATES RELATIONS 227

the United States in search of jobs and a respite from the violence. See also MEXICAN BORDER CAMPAIGN. MEXICO, UNITED STATES AND, 1860s. A crisis had been brewing in Mexico-U.S. relations even before the outbreak of the U.S. Civil War. President James Buchanan, in 1859, asked the Senate to authorize sending troops into Mexico to protect American life and property. Indeed, Mexico had been tom by internal political turmoil and some Mexican factions had advocated foreign intervention. Then, on 17 July 1861, Mexico suspended payment on its foreign loans. In response, Great Britain, France, and Spain signed the Convention of London and began to discuss joint military action, even inviting the United States to participate. Secretary of State William Seward, however, rejected joint intervention. Britain and France soon withdrew from the convention, leaving France's Napoleon I11 to invade and install Maximilian on the throne of Mexico. Native Mexicans resisted and the United States protested. But it was not until the Civil War had ended that Washington was in a position to take stronger action. General Ulysses S. Grant ordered General Philip Sheridan to take 50,000 American troops to the Mexican border, and Secretary Seward sent General John M. Schofield to France, instructing him, "I want you to get your legs under Napoleon's mahogany and tell him he must get out of Mexico." In February 1866 Seward essentially demanded that Napoleon withdraw French troops, and a few months later the French government announced that it would withdraw its troops over the next 19 months. For a number of years thereafter, Mexico-U.S. relations warmed. MEXICO-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. Relations between the United States and Mexico were in large measure a product of a number of ingredients beginning with the troubled legacy of the U.S.-Mexican War (1846-1848). In addition, the widely different levels of economic development of the two nations and feelings of racial superiority among

228 MEYER, GEORGE VON LENGERKE

many Americans of European ancestry made cordial relations difficult. Furthermore, traditional U.S. expansionism, continuing political instability within Mexico, and U.S. proprietary feelings about the other nations of the Western Hemisphere, strained Mexican-American bonds. Arguably, the greatest challenge to the relationship came during the Civil War when Napoleon I11 placed Maximilian on the Mexican throne. Thereafter the two nations coexisted, largely uneasily. See also BIGELOW, JOHN; CARRANZA, VENUSTIANO; CORWIN, THOMAS; D ~ Z PORFIRIO; , FOSTER, JOHN W.; GUGGENHEIM, DANIEL; HUERTA, VICTORIANO; JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO; MADERO, FRANCISCO; MEXICAN BORDER CAMPAIGN; MEXICAN REVOLUTION; MEXICO, UNITED STATES AND, 1860s; TAMPICO INCIDENT; VERACRUZ INCIDENT; VILLA, FRANCISCO (PANCHO); ZAPATA, EMILIANO; ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM. MEYER, GEORGE VON LENGERKE (1858-1918). Politician and diplomat. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, he was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1892-1896). Later,he served as American ambassador to Italy (1900-1905) and Russia (1905-19O7), and secretary of the navy under President William Howard Taft (19091913). MIDDLE EAST-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. Although Americans had political and military encounters in the Middle East during the early 19th century, for the most part in the late 19th century the region was of scant concern to the U.S. government. The main interest was on the part of American missionaries, who founded Robert College in Turkey in 1863 and Syrian Protestant College in Beirut in 1866. Toward the end of 1879, the USS Ticondevoga, under Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt, entered the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates River, becoming the first American ship of war to visit those waters.

MIZNER, LANSING BOND 229

MIDWAY ATOLL (Midway Island). A coral atoll (comprising Sand and Eastern Islands) 1,200 miles northeast of Honolulu in the Pacific Ocean. Captain N. C. Brooks encountered the atoll in 1859. In 1867, the US. Navy sent Captain William Reynolds to claim the island for a coaling station. Two years later, Congress appropriated $50,000 to build a naval station on the island. Midway, although technically in the Hawaiian chain, was not claimed by the Kingdom of Hawaii. In 1887, the foreign minister of Hawaii informed Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard that Hawaii claimed all islands in the chain except Midway. The United States did not formally respond to this information, however. In 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt placed the island under the control of the U.S. Navy. MINISTERS, DIPLOMATIC. Until 1893, the highest-ranking members of the U.S. diplomatic corps held the title of minister. In 1850, the United States had only 27 diplomatic ministers worldwide, and, by 1900, the number had increased to 41. In 1893, Congress elevated some of the nation's key diplomatic posts to the rank of ambassador. MISSIONARIES. In the 19th century, the American missionary impulse took missionaries to the Pacific and Africa. American missionaries, who were particularly active in Hawaii, China, and the Middle East, saw themselves as taking "civilization" and salvation to benighted "heathens." Among the American Protestant denominations well-represented in missionary ranks were members of the Congregationalist, Methodist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches. A number of missionary organizations from different denominations merged in 1826 to form the American Missionary Society, which grew significantly in membership in the late 19th century even as it lost its interdenominational character and became increasingly Congregationalist. MIZNER, LANSING BOND (1825-1893). Diplomat. A resident of California, he was collector of the port of San Fran-

230 MOE, ALFRED KEAN

cisco, president of the California state senate, and a presidential elector before beginning his diplomatic service. He served as U.S. minister to Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala (1889-1890).

MOE, ALFRED KEAN (b. 1874) Lawyer and consular representative. Born in Buffalo, New York, and a resident of Union County, New Jersey, he served as U.S. consul at Tegucigalpa, Honduras (1902- l9O4), Dublin, Ireland (1904-l9O9), and Bordeaux, France (1909-1914). Beginning in 1926 he was commissioner of public works of Elizabeth, New Jersey. He was also the author of Honduras: A Geographical Sketch (1904). MOMOTOMBO. A volcano in Nicaragua that erupted in May 1902, strengthening lobbying efforts on behalf of a canal through Panama. MONGREL TARIFF. See TARIFF OF 1883. MONROE, JAMES (1821-1898). Politician and consular representative. Born in Plainfield, Connecticut, and a resident of Oberlin, Ohio, he was a prominent abolitionist before the Civil War and a professor of rhetoric and belles lettres at Oberlin College (1849-1862). He was also a member of the Ohio House of Representatives (1856-1859) and the state senate (1860-1862), and a delegate from Ohio to the Republican National Convention (1860). He served as U.S. consul at Rio de Janeiro (1863-1869). In Brazil during the Civil War, he was responsible for documenting the activities of Confederate cruisers-especially the Alabama-in the South Atlantic. The data that he maintained would later be used in the Alabama claims. After the war, he served as interim chargC d'affaires in Brazil (1869) and was a Republican congressman from Ohio (1871-1881). He then returned to Oberlin College as a professor of political economy and modern history (1881-1896).

MOONEY, DANIEL FRANCIS 23 1

MONROE DOCTRINE (1823). A cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy, first articulated by President James Monroe in 1823. Although it had little impact at the time, it became central to American diplomacy in later years. It posited that North America was not to be considered for future colonization by any European power; the political systems of the Old and New Worlds were different, and any extension of the Old World system to the New World was dangerous; the United States would not interfere with existing European colonies, and European powers, in turn, should not interfere with the governments of the New World; and the United States would not interfere with exclusively European affairs. The first significant application of the doctrine came in response to France's installation of Maximilian as puppet ruler of Mexico. In 1895, in the midst of the Venezuela boundary dispute, Secretary of State Richard Olney announced the Olney interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine, in effect a sweeping expansion of the doctrine. President Theodore Roosevelt's Roosevelt Corollary further expanded the scope of the doctrine in 1904. By the early years of the 20th century, therefore, the United States had established a special and dominant relationship with other powers of the Western Hemisphere. MOODY, WILLIAM HENRY (1853-1917). Politician, jurist, and cabinet officer. He was secretary of the navy (19021904) and U.S. attorney general (1904-1906) under President Theodore Roosevelt. MOODY, WILLIAM VAUGHAN (1869-19 10). American academic and poet. His anti-imperialist verses at the turn of the 20th century made him one of the leaders of the group that opposed American colonial acquisitions and expansion at that period. MOONEY, DANIEL FRANCIS (1865-1930). Politician and diplomat. Born in Auglaize County, Ohio, he was a member

232 MOONLIGHT, THOMAS

of the state senate (1908-1910, 1912-1913). Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Paraguay (19 14-1921). MOONLIGHT, THOMAS (1833-1899). Soldier, politician, and diplomat. Born in Forfarshire, Scotland, he served as a colonel in the Union army during the Civil War. After the war, he settled in Kansas and became active in Republican Party politics. He was a Republican presidential elector (1864) and Kansas secretary of state (1868). Around 1870, Moonlight switched to the Democratic Party. Later, he served as Kansas adjutant general (1883-1984), was an unsuccessful candidate for governor of Kansas (1886), and served as governor of Wyoming territory (1887-1989). Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1894-1998). MORAN, BENJAMIN (1820-1886). Diplomat. Born in Lancaster County, Pennsylvani, he was private secretary to James Buchanan, the US. minister to Great Britain (1854). Moran then served as secretary to the U.S. legation in London (1855-1874). His Journal (kept while serving at the American embassy, London, but published only in 1948) offers a keen perspective on the American Civil War as seen from abroad. Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Portugal (1875-1876) and chargC d'affaires to Portugal (18761882). Moran published The Foot-Path and Highway, or Wanderings of an American in Great Britain (1853). MORGAN, EDWIN VERNON (1865-1934). Diplomat. A resident of New York, he taught at Western Reserve University in Ohio and then held a number of minor diplomatic posts in Samoa, Korea, St. Petersburg, and Manchuria. He served as U.S. minister to Korea (1905), finding himself responsible for closing the mission when Japan occupied the country in the Russo-Japanese War. Morgan then served as minister to Cuba (1905-191O), Paraguay (1909-191 I), Uruguay (1909191I), and Portugal (191 1-1912), and ambassador to Brazil (1912-1933).

MORGENTHAU, HENRY 233 MORGAN, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1820-1893). Politician and diplomat. Born in Pennsylvania and a resident of Knox County, Ohio, he served in the army in the MexicanAmerican war. He was U.S. consul at Marseilles (1855), and minister to Portugal (1858-1861) and then served in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he was defeated as the Democratic candidate for governor of Ohio (1865) and was a congressman from Ohio (1867-1868, 1869-1873). MORGAN, J. PIERPONT. Financier. He was considered the greatest American financier of his era. Secretary of State Philander Knox convinced him to be part of the syndicate financing the building of the Hukuang Railroad in China (1910). It was Morgan who attempted to create a combine of all Atlantic steamship companies with the International Mercantile Marine Company. MORGAN, PHILIP HICKY (1825-1900). Jurist and diplomat. Born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, he was a judge of New Orleans district court (1855-1861), U.S. district attorney for the eastern district of Louisiana (c. 1865-1873), and a justice of the Louisiana State Supreme Court (1873-1877). Subsequently, Morgan was a U.S. representative to the international tribunal meeting in Cairo to implement a new code of laws in Egypt. Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1880-1885). MORGENTHAU, HENRY (1856-1946). Lawyer, businessman, and diplomat. Born in Germany, he was active in Democratic Party politics, chairing the finance committee of the Democratic National Committee in 1912 and 1916. He served as U.S. ambassador to Turkey (1913-1916) and reported to Washington on Turkish excesses against the Armenian population. He argued that the United States could not be neutral in the matter. In the early years of World War I, still serving in Turkey, he played a significant role in managing Allied diplomatic affairs. At the peace conference following the war, he served as an adviser on Middle East and

234 MORRILL TARIFF

East European affairs. Later, he led efforts to raise relief funds for the Middle East (19 12-192 1) and chaired the Greek Refugee Settlement Commission (1923). MORRILL TARIFF (1861). A high protective tariff, averaging 18.8 percent. For the next 70 years, American trade policy was dominated by high protective tariffs. The Underwood-Simmons Tariff (19 13) was the sole exception to high protective tariff legislation. MORRIS, EDWARD JOY (1815-188 1). Author, politician, and diplomat. Born in Philadelphia, he was a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives (1841-1843, 1856) and was one of the organizers of the Republican Party before the Civil War. He served in Congress (Whig, 1843-1845; Republican, 1857-186l), and was chargC d'affaires to Naples (1850-1853). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Turkey (1861-1870). He was the author of Notes of a Tour through Turkey, Greece, Egypt, Arabia Petrea, to the Hold Land (1842) and other works and translations. MORRIS, IRA NELSON (1875-1942). Diplomat. Born in Chicago, he served as U.S. minister to Sweden (1914-1923). He was also the author of With the Trade Winds. A Jaunt in Venezuela and West Indies (1897) and articles in popular magazines. MORRIS, LELAND BURNETTE (1886-1950). Foreign service officer and interpreter. Born in Kinney County, Texas, he became a resident pf Pennsylvania. He served as U.S. vice consul at Smyrna (Izmir), Turkey (19 14-19 17) and then served as consul at Salonika (1919-1922), Cologne (1926), and Athens (1929). Later, he was consul general at Athens (1932), minister to Iceland (1942-1944), chargC d'affaires in Berlin (1Wl), and ambassador to Iran (1944-1945). MORTON PAUL (1857-1911). Businessman and cabinet officer. Born in Detroit, Michigan, and raised in Nebraska, he

MOSQUITO COAST CONTROVERSY 235

worked for the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad and eventually became president of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad. Originally a Democrat, he switched to the Republican Party around 1900. He became secretary of the navy (1904- 1905) under President Theodore Roosevelt despite knowing little about naval affairs. He resigned when the Interstate Commerce Commission charged that he had engaged in illegal activities while head of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, but he was never prosecuted. Afterward, he was vice chairman of the Moody Commission to reorganize the navy (1909). MORTON, LEV1 PARSONS (1824-1920). Banker and politician. Born in Shoreham, Vermont, and a resident of New York City, he was a Republican member of Congress from New York (1879-1881). He served as U.S. minister to France (1881-1885), driving the first rivet in the Statue of Liberty (1881). He became vice president of the United States under President Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893), and afterward he was governor of New York (1895-1896). MOSES, GEORGE HIGGINS (1869-1944). Diplomat and politician. Born in Lubec, Maine, and a resident of Concord, New Hampshire, he served as U.S. minister to Montenegro (1909-1912) and Greece (1909-1912) and was a senator from New Hampshire (1918-1933). In addition, he was a delegate from New Hampshire to each Republican National Convention from 1908 to 1944. MOSQUITO COAST CONTROVERSY (1894-1895). The "Mosquito Coast" was the area of Nicaragua's Caribbean coast occupied by the Mosquito Indians. In the 1840s, Great Britain, claiming a protectorate over the region, seized San Juan (at the mouth of the San Juan River) and renamed it Greytown. Controversy over this protectorate continued for decades. Then, in 1894, Nicaragua moved to reassert sovereignty over the coast by expelling some of the region's British and American residents. The Americans, but not the Brit-

236 MOST FAVORED NATION STATUS

ish, were allowed to return, and Britain demanded an apology. Instead, Nicaragua appealed to the United States to resolve the controversy. When the British seized Corinto on 27 April 1895 and President Grover Cleveland failed to take action, the American press denounced the president for his foreign policy's impotence. See also CORINTO INCIDENT. MOST FAVORED NATION STATUS. A standard clause in American commercial and trade agreements in which the signatories agree that each party will enjoy terms equivalent to the best negotiated with any other nation. Although the concept was at variance with the high protective tariff policies that the United States followed from the 1860s to the 1930s, it nevertheless embodies the free-trade doctrines of Adam Smith. MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814-1877). Historian and diplomat. Born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, he was a specialist in the history of Holland who published novels, articles, and numerous historical studies. He served as secretary of the American legation at St. Petersburg (1841) and, in his later years, served as U.S. minister to Austria (1861-1867) and Great Britain (1869-1870). As minister to Great Britain, he tended to ignore instructions from Secretary of State Hamilton Fish and was known to be politically aligned with Senator Charles Sumner. In consequence, President Ulysses S. Grant replaced Motley in 1870. MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS. From the colonial period through the 19th century, many U.S. businesses had international connections or engaged in international trade. But especially after 1870, American business moved abroad and established more overseas operations and units. By the late 19th century, the American multinational corporation had emerged. Companies such as Standard Oil of New Jersey, Singer, International Harvester, Western Electric, and Ford Motors all had significant production facilities outside the United States by 1914.

MURPHY, HENRY CRUSE 237

MURCHISON LETTER (1888). A letter that capitalized on ethnic politics in the United States. In the midst of the presidential campaign of 1888, California Republican George Osgoodby wrote to Lionel Sackville-West, British ambassador to the United States. Osgoodby pretended to be a naturalized U.S. citizen of Irish birth, Charles F. Murchison. His letter solicited the British ambassador for guidance on how to vote in the upcoming election between President Grover Cleveland and Republican Benjamin Harrison. SackvilleWest foolishly replied with the suggestion that "Murchison" should vote for Cleveland. The Republicans published the response, destroying Sackville-West's effectiveness as a diplomat and, according to traditional accounts, shifting enough Irish-American votes away from Cleveland to give Harrison the election. See also ANGLOPHOBIA. MURPHY, DOMINIC I. (1847-1930). Lawyer, editor, publisher, and consular representative. Born in Philadelphia, he was commissioner of the U.S. Pensions Office (1896-1897), editor and publisher of The New Century (1903-1905), and secretary of the Isthmian Canal Commission (1904-1905). In addition, he served as U.S. consul at Amsterdam (19141915), Bordeaux (1905-19O9), St. Gall, Switzerland, (19091914), Amsterdam (1914-1915), Sofia (1915-1917), and Stockholm (1919-1922). MURPHY, HENRY CRUSE (18 10-1882). Politician, editor, and diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1857-1861). He held several political posts, including mayor of Brooklyn, New York (1842), Democratic congressman from New York (1843-1845, 1847-1849), delegate to the New York constitutional convention (1846, l867), New York state senator (1862-1873), and delegate from New York to the Democratic National Convention (1876). He was also a founder and editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle and published numerous works on the early history of New Netherland.

238 MUSCAT

MUSCAT. A sultanate on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula, on the Gulf of Oman. In November 1879, Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt conducted several interviews with the sultan, who agreed to permit an American consul to reside at the capital.

NABOTH'S VINEYARD (1870). Address by Senator Charles Sumner in the U.S. Senate on 21 December 1870. In the address, Sumner denounces the proposed annexation of Santo Domingo. Sumner took his title from the Old Testament story of the Jezreelite who was stoned to death for refusing to allow King Ahab to have his vineyard. The royal family, in turn, was cursed for future generations because of Ahab's acquisitive greed. Sumner's speech exemplifies the intensity of opposition against overseas expansion that existed in the United States at the time. NAST, THOMAS (1840-1902). Political cartoonist and illustrator. Born in Germany, he worked at some of the major American periodicals of the late 19th century, including Harper's Weekly, and had an immense influence on American attitudes toward the events of the day. The Democratic Party donkey and the Republican Party elephant were his creations. NATION, CARRY AMELIA MOORE (1846-191 1). American temperance advocate. Her fiery speeches and destruction of saloons earned her national notoriety. She lectured throughout the United States and many parts of Europe. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF MANUFACTURERS (NAM). Founded in 1895, a powerful business lobbying organization. The NAM favored high tariffs to protect domestic industries.

NATIVISM 239

NATIONAL DEFENSE ACT (1916). As World War I raged in Europe, Americans debated the extent to which they should participate or remain aloof from the struggle. In 1916, Congress passed the National Defense Act, which expanded the army to 175,000, strengthened the national guard, and established a reserve officer corps. The use of conscription-a "draft"-during the Civil War had proven unpopular, and the National Defense Act demonstrated a determination to remain true to the nation's historic dependence on a volunteer army rather than a standing army of conscripts. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. Founded in 1888, the organization reflected a growing national interest in research and exploration beyond U.S. borders. Its National Geographic Magazine quickly established itself as a source of well-written and popular accounts of overseas exploration and travel. NATIONALISM. A devotion to national interests and independence. Since the War for Independence, American "nationalism" has evolved and manifested itself in different ways. From a bluff and bumptious pride in American institutions, geographic characteristics, continental expansion, and individualism, American nationalism emerged in the second half of the 19th century into an optimistic and brash global view that embraced overseas colonial acquisition-an "American" variant of the era's "imperialism." At the same time, although the development of the United States in the second half of the 19th century was, essentially, the story of the growth of American nationalism, the nation-its government and its citizens-tended to display general insensitivity to growing nationalism throughout the world. American nationalism, like American democratic ideals, proved to be a paradox that Americans were uncomfortable applying beyond the United States. See also JINGOISM. NATIVISM. The policy of favoring "native-born" citizens of a country over immigrants. In the United States, nativism has

240 NAVAL WAR COLLEGE

taken a number of forms, usually in relationship to the dominant immigrant group at any particular time. In the early 19th century, nativist sentiment was directed mainly toward Roman Catholic (especially Irish Catholic) groups. Toward the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, the focus on the West Coast especially was on Asianparticularly Chinese and Japanese-groups. See also CHINESE EXCLUSION ACTS; GENTLEMEN'S AGREEMENT; IMMIGRATION; JAPANESE EXCLUSION ACTS. NAVAL WAR COLLEGE. Established in Newport, Rhode Island (1884), for the study of naval strategy and tactics and international law. Its founding reflected an awakened desire within the United States to transform the navy into a modern fighting force and to upgrade the education of the officer corps. Commodore Stephen B. Luce was its first president, and Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan taught there in its early years. NAVASSA ISLAND. A pear-shaped island of two square miles, in the Caribbean Sea between Haiti and Jamaica, about 100 miles south of Guantainamo Bay, Cuba. Peter Duncan reached the island in 1857 and claimed it for the United States under the Guano Islands Act. In 1865, the United States certified the island as appertaining to the United States under that act. The Navassa Phosphate Company dominated guano mining during the next decade. Working and living conditions were grim and, in 1889, the laborers rioted against the company, killing one company officer. One laborer was tried and convicted in a federal court in Baltimore for the murder. Guano mining continued from 1865 until 1898, when operations were abandoned and the islands became, essentially, uninhabited. However, after the opening of the Panama Canal, ship traffic in the area increased dramatically, and in 1913, Congress authorized funds for a lighthouse on the island. In 1916 President Woodrow Wilson declared Navassa under sole U.S. jurisdiction, reserved

NAVY, UNITED STATES 24 1

for "lighthouse purposes . . . deemed necessary in the public interest." The lighthouse was built in 1917 and operated until 1996. NAVY, SECRETARY OF. The chief civilian administrator of the U.S. Navy. The position was a cabinet-level position until after World War 11, and as such the secretary of the navy had considerable potential influence on the making of U.S. foreign policy. On the other hand, secretaries themselves varied considerably in terms of skill and understanding of naval affairs, and during much of the late 19th century many but not all secretaries were appointed as political rewards rather than for their expertise. Among the more proficient and influential during the period fi-om the Civil War to World War I were William E. Chandler, Josephus Daniels, Hilary A. Herbert, Benjamin F. Tracy, Gideon Welles, and William C. Whitney. See also BONAPARTE, CHARLES J.; BORIE, ADOLPH E.; GOFF, NATHAN, JR; HUNT, WILLIAM H.; LONG, JOHN D.; METCALF, VICTOR H.; MEYER, GEORGE VON L.; MOODY, WILLIAM H.; MORTON, PAUL; NEWBERRY, TRUMAN H.; ROBESON, GEORGE M.; THOMPSON, RICHARD W.; APPENDIX IV. NAVY, UNITED STATES. Throughout most of American history, the navy has been the primary vanguard of U.S. foreign policy and diplomacy. At the middle of the 19th century, it was small and underfunded but had a proud history of heroism and achievement. It expanded rapidly at the outset of the Civil War, and during the war a massive armada made a crucial contribution to the Union war effort. By 1865, the Union navy was one of the largest, most powerful, and technologically advanced in the world. But almost immediately, most of the ships built for the war were scrapped, and for most of the next two decades naval administrators patched together the antiquated wooden sailing ships that were supposed to represent American naval strength. The next era of naval prestige and was not to begin until the 1880s, culmi-

242 NELSON, THOMAS HENRY

nating in the victories of the Spanish-American War. Nevertheless, the navy had important tasks throughout the era: exploring and surveying; protection of U.S. commerce around the world and U.S. citizens abroad; and, in a broad sense, the conduct of "naval" or "gunboat" diplomacy. The navy fulfilled its functions well. See also GREAT WHITE FLEET; MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER; NAVY, SECRETARY OF; VIRGINIUS AFFAIR. NELSON, THOMAS HENRY (1820-1896). Politician and diplomat. Born in Mason County, Kentucky, he was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for Congress from Indiana (1860) and then served as U.S. minister to Chile (18611866). When Santiago Cathedral burned on 6 December 1864, Nelson helped to rescue numerous people. In addition, he acted as mediator in the war between Chile and Spain (1864-1866) and suggested arbitration in the dispute between Bolivia and Chile. Afterward, he served as minster to Mexico (1869-1873). NEUTRAL RIGHTS. Claims asserted by governments to be entitled to trade peacefully with belligerent nations in wartime. Given traditional U.S. foreign policy and the relationship of the United States to other nations during the 19th century, such neutral rights were always vigorously defended by American foreign policymakers and diplomats. Blockades typically complicate claims to neutral rights and significantly strained Northern relations with Great Britain during the Civil War and U.S. relations with both Germany and Britain prior to American entry into World War I. See also DECLARATION OF PARIS; HAGUE CONFERENCES. NEWBERRY, TRUMAN H. (1864-1945). Industrialist and cabinet official. Born in Detroit, Michigan, he was the manager of the Detroit, Bay City, and Alpena Railroad (18851887) and the president of Detroit Steel and Spring Company (1887-1901). He served in the navy during the Span-

NEW YORK TIMES

243

ish-American War and later served as assistant secretary (1905-1908) and secretary (1908-1909) of the navy under President Theodore Roosevelt. Newbeny later became a Republican senator &om Michigan (19 19-1922). NEWEL, STANFORD (1839-1907). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Providence, Rhode Island, and a resident of St. Paul, Minnesota, he was a delegate from Minnesota to the Republican National Convention (1884, 1892). Later, he served as U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1897-1905) and Luxembourg (1903-1905). He was also a member of the U.S. commission to the Hague Conference of 1899. NEW GRANADA. See COLOMBIA. NEW ORLEANS WORLD'S FAIR (1884-1885). Officially known as the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, held in New Orleans, Louisiana. NEW YORK HERALD. Founded in 1835 by James Gordon Bennett, and run by his son, James Gordon Bennett, Jr., after 1872. The Herald was a mass circulation newspaper that was sometimes thought of as an unofficial organ of the Republican Party in the late 19th century. The paper was also known for sponsoring Henry M. Stanley's expedition to Africa to find David Livingstone. NEW YORK TIMES. Founded in 1851 by Henry J. Raymond, it had a modest circulation during most of the late 19th century. It was responsible in 1871 for exposing the corruption in municipal government under Democratic political boss William Marcy Tweed, and, in 1872, it began to bill itself as the "only Republican newspaper in New York." In 1896, it was purchased by Adolph S. Ochs, who began to transform the Times into the mass circulation newspaper of record that it became in the 20th century.

244 NEW YORK TRIBUNE

NEW YORK TRIBUNE. Founded in 1841 by Horace Greeley. Under the leadership of Whitelaw Reid (1869-1905) it became an influential voice of the Republican Party. NEW YORK WORLD. Founded in 1866 as a religious newspaper, but run, after 1883, by Joseph Pulitzer. Under Pulitzer, it was considered a pioneer in yellow journalism. NICARAGUA. Republic in Central America, bounded on the north by Honduras, on the south by Costa Rica, on the east by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. U.S. relations with Nicaragua from the mid-19th century until the turn of the 20th century were largely dominated by plans to construct or interest in constructing an Isthmian canal. Topographic surveys were undertaken in 1826, 18371838, and 1872-1873. In 1867, Washington signed the Dickinson-Ay6n Treaty with Nicaragua. The two nations signed a treaty in 1884 for construction of a canal, but the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the pact. As a result, Nicaragua granted a 100-year concession to the Nicaragua Canal Construction Company, an American company that attempted to proceed with construction from 1889 to 1892, when it went bankrupt. By the turn of the century, various factors turned American interest to the Panama route and away from Nicaragua. In the meantime, the nation became a small element in AngloAmerican relations and, in the early 20th century, in the evolving U.S. policy of dollar diplomacy. U.S. marines occupied the country for much of the period from 1913 to 1933. See also AMERICAN ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION; CORINTO INCIDENT; KNOX-CASTRELO CONVENTION; MOMOTOMBO; MOSQUITO COAST CONTROVERSY. NONENTANGLEMENT. One of the continuing traditions of U.S. foreign policy throughout the 19th century and to the eve of World War I. It was one of the basic principles articulated by both President George Washington and President Thomas Jefferson and implied in the Monroe Doctrine.

NORTHCOTT, ELLIOTT 245

In the name of this principle, many American politicians and statesmen opposed treaties that were perceived to obligate the United States in some kind of relationship with a foreign power. NORTH AMERICAN REWEW Literary and topical monthly magazine, published from 1815 to 1939. It was a respected and influential publication, whose editors included Charles Eliot Norton, Henry Adams, and Henry Cabot Lodge. NORTH ATLANTIC SQUADRON I N THE CARIBBEAN, 1895. The cruise of the U.S. North Atlantic Squadron to the Caribbean in the early months of 1895 illustrates a convergence of factors in U.S. diplomacy in the years immediately preceding the Spanish-American War. The squadron's firebrand admiral, Richard W. Meade 111, clashed with the more cautious administration of President Grover Cleveland, illustrating the occasional fragility of civil-military relations. The admiral wished to take his ships to Caribbean hot spots while the administration wanted to keep the situation as cool as possible. The cruise also illustrated new strategic approaches for the U.S. Navy, because the ships were actually functioning like a coordinated naval squadron. In addition, new communication technology, specifically cipher cables, were enabling the administration in Washington to exercise much more direct control than previous naval administrations had been able to exercise. See also CORINTO INCIDENT. NORTHCOTT, ELLIOTT (1869-1946). Politician, jurist, and diplomat. A resident of Huntington, West Virginia, he served as U.S. minister to Colombia (1909-1910), Nicaragua (191 I), and Venezuela (191 1-19 13). He was the chair of the West Virginia Republican Party (1904-19O8), U.S. district attorney for the southern district of West Virginia, and judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 4th Circuit (1927-1939).

246 NORTHWEST WATER BOUNDARY DISPUTE

NORTHWEST WATER BOUNDARY DISPUTE. Dispute between the United States and Great Britain over ownership of the San Juan Islands, southeast of Vancouver Island. In the Treaty of Washington (1871), the dispute was submitted for arbitration by the German emperor. In 1872 the emperor ruled in favor of the American claim, setting Haro Strait as the diving line between the United States and Canada. As a result, the United States gained the bulk of the archipelago. NORTON, THOMAS HERBERT (1851-1941). Chemist and diplomat. He was a professor of chemistry at the University of Cincinnati (1883-1900), and he served as U.S. consul at Chemnitz, Germany (1906-1914). While serving as consul, he studied the European chemical industry and issued a report, Dyestuff Census, that was used in establishing an American dyestuff industry during World War I. NOYES, EDWARD FOLLANSBEE (1832-1890). Politician and diplomat. He served in the Union army during the Civil War and, afterward, was governor of Ohio (1872-1874). He then served as U.S. minister to France (1877-188 1).

O'BRIEN, EDWARD CHARLES (1860-1927). Diplomat. A resident of New York, he served as U.S. minister to Paraguay (1905) and Uruguay (1905-1909). O'BRIEN, THOMAS JAMES (1842-1933). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Denmark (1905-19O7), ambassador to Japan (1907-191 I), and ambassador to Italy (191 11913). OCAMPO K UNITED STATES (1914). One of the so-called Insular cases. The Supreme Court ruled that Fifth Amendment protections regarding a grand jury were not included in

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the guarantees of due process, and not applicable in the Philippines. OCEAN MAIL ACT O F 1891. An act providing mail contracts to selected steamship lines. The act intended to protect and encourage jobs for American seamen, revive the merchant marine by encouraging the development of new steamship lines, and provide timely delivery of U.S. mail. During the first two years of a mail contract, one-quarter of the crew of a subsidized ship had to be American; in the next three years, one-third; and one-half thereafter. Iron or steel steamships of over 8,000 gross tons and capable of sustained speeds of 20 knots would receive a subsidy of $4.00 per mile on the outward trip; iron or steel steamers of over 5,000 tons and averaging 16 knots received $2.00 per mile; iron or steel ships of over 2,500 tons averaging 14 knots received $1.00 per mile; and wood, iron, or steel ships of at least 1,500 tons and averaging 12 knots received 66 213 cents per mile. Despite the subsidies, the act failed to revive the merchant marine, much less encourage new lines. See also OCEAN MAIL SUBSIDY BILL. OCEAN MAIL SUBSIDY BILL (1902). An attempt to support the U.S. merchant marine by providing subsidies to steamship companies. The bill was passed by the U.S. Senate on 17 March 1902, but died in committee in the House of Representatives in 1903. See also MAIL CONTRACTS. OCEANIC PASSENGER TRAVEL. In the decades after the Civil War, oceanic passenger travel increased dramatically, for several reasons. Political and economic conditions in Europe and Asia motivated millions of people to leave their homelands and make the long voyage across the seas to the United States. Oceanic steamships increased in size, speed, and comfort, encouraging people of all classes to leave terra ferma for a sea voyage. Steamship companies engaged in vigorous competition for passengers and for dominance on major shipping routes. The result of these developments was

248 OIL INDUSTRY

a world, especially an Atlantic world, that was increasingly closely interconnected, just at the time that a rising new power, the United States, was increasingly "looking outward." See also IMMIGRATION; LINERS.

OIL INDUSTRY. The development of the commercial petroleum industry began in 1859 with a well in Titusville, Pennsylvania. The industry grew rapidly during the Civil War, and by the late 19th century it was responsible for the emergence of vast industrial organizations-trusts-and spectacular fortunes, most notably that of John D. Rockefeller. Despite this dramatic growth during the period 1861-1914, three important characteristics of the U.S. petroleum industry remained relatively constant: imports were negligible until World War I; exports were never more than about four million barrels a year; and the bulk of petroleum production was used for illumination (kerosene) and lubrication of steam engines. It was not until the turn of the 20th century, with the development of the internal combustion engine and the automobile, that the contours of domestic demand began to change significantly. Merchant steam vessels remained predominantly coal-fired well into the 20th century, and admiralties slowly experimented with oil-fired warships in the decades leading up to World War I. For most naval powers, admiralty preferences for oilfired warships ran square into the political realities that their governments now needed to ensure supplies of oil. Great Britain, of course, had ample supplies of coal but no domestic oil resources. For the United States, however, domestic petroleum reserves seemed limitless, and, in 1914, the U.S. Navy decided to adopt oil-firing engines for all future warships. The result of these realities was that oil was of virtually no significance in U.S. foreign policy or diplomacy from the Civil War to World War I-in stark distinction to the situation that predominated throughout much of the 20th century from World War I onward. See also SHIPPING.

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OIUNAWA. The largest of the Ryukyu Islands, southwest of Japan in the Pacific Ocean. It was under Chinese control until 1875, when Japan took control of the island. OLNEY, RICHARD (1835-19 17). American attorney and statesman. He served the administration of President Grover Cleveland as attorney genera1 (1893-1895) and secretary of state (1895-1897). As secretary of state, he helped to negotiate the Venezuela boundary dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela and, in a significant departure from the Cleveland administration's usual cautious foreign policy, announced the most sweeping expansion of the Monroe Doctrine since its original articulation in 1823. See also ARBITRATION TREATY, 1897; OLNEY NTERPRETATION OF THE MONROE DOCTRINE. OLNEY INTERPRETATION OF THE MONROE DOCTRINE (1895). The most sweeping expansion of the Monroe Doctrine prior to the 20th century. In a dispatch to Ambassador Thomas Bayard in London, Secretary of State Richard Olney propounded his view of the Venezuela boundary dispute and the role of the United States in the Western Hemisphere. The United States, he asserted, "is practically sovereign on this continent, and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its interposition." President Grover Cleveland called the 10,000-word note a "twenty-inch gun blast," but the British rejected its assumptions. OLNEY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY (1897). See ARBITRATION TREATY, 1897. OPEN DOOR NOTES. A series of diplomatic notes sent by Secretary of State John Hay to Germany, Great Britain, and Russia in 1899, and Italy, France, and Japan in 1900. Collectively, the notes enunciated the Open Door Policy.

250 OPEN DOOR POLICY

OPEN DOOR POLICY. Policy articulated by Secretary of State John Hay in the Open Door Notes (1899-1900). The policy, enunciated at a time of concern over the territorial integrity of China, asserted the need for equal opportunity and commercial treatment in international affairs, in contrast to the growing tendency toward the creation of spheres of influence and special privileges. In truth, the policy was not a new one for the United States, but was cast with new language in light of new international conditions. O'REAR, JOHN DAVIS (1870-1918). Diplomat. Born in Audrain County, Missouri, he served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (19 13-19 18), where he died of smallpox. OREGON, VOYAGE OF THE (1898). On 19 March 1898, in the weeks leading to a declaration of war against Spain, the battleship Oregon departed San Francisco on an historic trip around Cape Horn, arriving at Jupiter Inlet, Florida, on 24 May 1898. The 67-day voyage of 14,700 miles was designed in part as a speed run, a trial of endurance for men and machines. The voyage demonstrated the need for an Isthmian canal to enable warships to move from ocean to ocean quickly, and also demonstrated the significance of battleships to many skeptics. ORR, JAMES LAWRENCE (1822-1873). Politician and diplomat. Born in Anderson County, South Carolina, he was a Democratic member of Congress from South Carolina (1848-1859), and was elected to the senate of the Confederate States of America (December 1861). After the war he was, at first, a supporter of President Andrew Johnson and later a supporter of the Radical Republicans. He served as minister to Russia for a few months (1872-1873) before dieing of pneumonia in St. Petersburg. ORTH, GODLOVE STEIN (1817-1882). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born near Lebanon, Pennsylvania, and a resident of Lafayette, Indiana, he served in the Union army dur-

OSTEND MANIFESTO 25 1

ing the Civil War. He was a Republican member of Congress from Indiana (1863-1871, 1873-1875, 1879-1882), chairing the House Foreign Relations Committee from 1873 to 1874. He also served as U.S. minister to AustriaHungary (1875-1876). OSBORN, THOMAS ANDREW (1836-1898). Politician and diplomat. Born in Meadville, Pennsylvania, and a resident of Kansas, he was a Republican member of the state senate (1861) and lieutenant governor (1863) and governor (18371877) of Kansas. He served as U.S. minister to Chile (18771881) and Brazil (188 1-1886). In Chile, he faced serious diplomatic challenges arising from the ongoing ArgentineChilean border dispute, which he attempted to resolve, and the War of the Pacific involving Peru, Chile, and Bolivia (1879-1883). In 1880, he chaired a conference aboard the USS Lackawanna in the Bay of Arica to try to resolve the conflict. OSBORN, THOMAS OGDEN (1832-1904). Lawyer, soldier, diplomat. Born in Ohio, he practiced law in Chicago, served as a general in the Union army during the Civil War, and then resumed his law practice. He was a member of the international committee to resolve claims between the United States and Mexico, and he served as U.S. minister to Argentina (1874-1 885). Afterward, he was involved in railroad development in Brazil. OSTEND MANIFESTO (1854). The American ministers to Great Britain, France, and Spain (James Buchanan, John Y. Mason, and Pierre SoulC, respectively) met in Ostend, Belgium, in 1854 and issued a declaration that unless Spain agreed to sell Cuba to the United States, the United States would be "justified in wresting it from Spain." The three diplomats, all proslavery Democrats, were interested in acquiring the island for slavery expansion. The manifesto was quickly repudiated by President Franklin Pierce. See also CARIBBEAN POLICY; CUBA; EXPANSIONISM.

252 PACHECO, ROMUALDO

PACHECO, ROMUALDO (1831-1899). Jurist, politician, and diplomat. Born in Santa Barbara, California, he was a California superior court judge (1853-1857), a California state senator (1857, 1861-1863, 1869-1870), California state treasurer (1863-1866), Republican lieutenant governor (1871-1875) and governor (1875), and a congressman from California (1877-1878, 1879-1883). He served as U.S. minister to the Central American States (1890-1891) and then minister to Guatemala and Honduras (189 1-1893). PACIFIC LABOR TRADE. The Pacific labor trade was in its infancy in the early 1870s, peaked in the early 1880s, and lasted until 1911. The trade aimed primarily at engaging contract workers for labor-starved Australia. In most instances, natives voluntarily signed on for a term at one of Australia's large plantations, but often the captain of the labor-trading vessel had to use force to meet his quota of "recruits." For all practical purposes, therefore, many of these "labor recruiters" were Pacific versions of the Atlantic slave traders. However, while plantation owners in Australia might have desired the extension of the trade, their counterparts on many Pacific islands saw it as endangering their own economic survival. American naval officers on the Pacific Station typically spent some of their cruise pursuing reputed labor recruiters, although accumulating irrefutable evidence against them was a difficult undertaking. American commanders were typically moved by the moral and ethical implications of the labor trade, but it is also clear that the trade damaged American economic interests. In part, American whalers and oil traders found a hostile environment on many islands because of native reactions against the trade. The British government in the late 1870s began to deal with the situation. PACIFIC OCEAN. Trade with the Pacific has captured the American imagination since the first American merchant

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vessels rounded the Horn in the years immediately after the Revolution. Throughout the early and mid-19th century, American whalers, missionaries, and merchantmen made the American presence visible in Asia and on scores of Pacific islands large and small. In the 1850s, the Guano Islands Act provided the United States with the legal pretext for acquiring authority over a number of small islands and reefs, while such naval officers as Matthew C. Perry and Robert W. Shufeldt "opened" China and Korea to American trade. After the Civil War, the pace and significance of U.S. involvement and territorial acquisition increased. In 1867, the United States purchased Alaska and annexed Midway Islands. In the 1870s, largely because of the aggressive actions of several naval officers (especially Richard W. Meade) U.S. involvement in the affairs of Samoa increased exponentially. Meanwhile, Hawaii came under increasing American influence, culminating in annexation in 1898. In the same year, in the wake of the Spanish-American War, the United States acquired the Philippines, Guam, Samoa, and Wake Island. Concurrently, three other elements were changing the complexion of U.S.-Pacific affairs. The European powersespecially Great Britain, France, and Germany-were demonstrating growing interest in establishing their own "spheres of influence" in the Pacific. China found itself in the throes of the turmoil of dynastic decline while Japan was emerging from self-imposed isolation to transform into a major Pacific power. And the United States itself, increasingly cognizant of its position as a "two-ocean" power, gradually turned its attention to the creation of an Isthmian canal under American control-which was to culminate in the construction of the Panama canal in the first decades of the 20th century-at which point the Pacific might rightly be described as an "American lake." See also EXPANSIONISM. PACIFIC STATION, PACIFIC SQUADRON. See SQUADRONS, UNITED STATES NAVAL.

254 PACKET BOATS

PACKET BOATS. Term sometimes applied to the merchant steam ships that made regular voyages between set ports, carrying mail, passengers, and cargo. PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853-1922). Lawyer, author, and diplomat. Born in Hanover County, Virginia, he served as U.S. ambassador to Italy (1913-1919). He was also the author of several novels of the Old South, and Italy and the World War (1920), an account of his service in Italy. PAGE, WALTER HINES (1855-1918). Diplomat and journalist. He had been a strong supporter of Woodrow Wilson's campaign for the Democratic nomination for president, and when Wilson was elected he appointed Page ambassador to Great Britain (19 13-19 18). An unabashed Anglophile, Page lobbied vigorously for the Allies in the first years of World War I, inappropriate behavior given the official status of the United States as a neutral power. PALMER, ELY ELIOT (1887-1977). Foreign service officer. Born in Providence, Rhode Island, he served as U.S. vice consul at Paris (1914), consul at Madrid (1917-1920) and Bucharest (1926), and consul general in Bucharest (1929), Vancouver (1932), and Sydney (1943). He then served as U.S. minister (1945-1948) and ambassador (1948-1949) to Afghanistan. PALMER, ROBERT M. (1820-1862). Politician. Born in Pottsville, Pennsylvania, he was a Republican state senator and a delegate from Pennsylvania to the Republican National Convention (1860). He then served as U.S. minister to Argentina (1861-1 862). PALMER, THOMAS WITHERELL (1830-19 13). Politician and diplomat. Born in Detroit, Michigan, he engaged in lumber and agricultural businesses and served as a Republican state senator (1879-1880), and a U.S. senator from

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Michigan (1883-1889). He then served as U.S. minister to Spain (1889-1890). PALMYRA ATOLL. A Pacific atoll, about 1,000 miles south of the Hawaiian group, about six miles long and one mile wide (including water). The captain of the American ship Palmyra reached the atoll in 1802. In 1860, it was claimed under the Guano Islands Act (1856), but the claim was not considered valid because the claimant had apparently never actually been on the island and there was no significant source of guano. Shortly thereafter, Captain Bent claimed the island for the Kingdom of Hawaii. Rights to the island were later sold to the Pacific Navigation Company, which paid taxes on the island to the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1885 to 1888. By 1898, Palmyra had become identified as part of the Republic of Hawaii, and so the joint congressional resolution that annexed Hawaii included Palmyra in the annexation. In 1911, the Pacific Navigation Company conveyed its rights to Judge Henry Cooper, who in 1912 was declared the owner of the island. Judge Cooper, in turn, sold parts of the island to Leslie and Ellen Fullard-Leo in 1922 for $15,000. PANAMA. Republic of Central America, occupying the Isthmus of Panama. It was part of the Spanish empire in Central America for 300 years, until Colombian independence in 1821, and then a province of Colombia until the U.S.engineered Panama Revolution of 1903. PANAMA CANAL (constructed 1907-19 14). Throughout most of the second half of the 19th century, construction of an Isthmian canal was one of the most important foci of U.S. foreign policy. Initially, the United States strove to ensure that no European power-particularly Great Britain or France-would have exclusive control over any canal. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) bought the United States. time by establishing such a guarantee. In the 1880s, however, American concerns quickened as a French company

256 PANAMA CANAL

under Ferdinand de Lesseps began work on a canal that would have strong French influence. But de Lesseps's company failed in 1889, buying American planners more time. During the Spanish-American War, the strategic dilemmas of being a two-ocean power and fighting a two-ocean war were dramatically highlighted. The voyage of the Oregon from Puget Sound to Cuba around South America took 67 days, too long for the battleship to play any major role during the war. As a result, Congress passed a bill in 1899 to build a canal through Nicaragua. The first step was to renegotiate the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, which was replaced in 1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, establishing the canal's neutrality but granting the United States the right to build it. The bankrupt De Lesseps Panama Company initially demanded $106 million for construction rights through Panama, but when the American Isthmian Canal Commission in December 1901 recommended Nicaragua as a cheaper and therefore preferable route compared to Panama, the Panama Company dropped its price to $40 million. President Theodore Roosevelt, in turn, persuaded the commission to switch its recommendation to Panama. In the meantime, however, the House of Representatives had voted in January 1902 for the Nicaragua route. After intense lobbying by Philip Bunau-Varilla on behalf of Panama, the United States chose that route. But when the Colombian government rejected the Hay-Herrain Treaty that would have granted American control over a Panamanian canal, the United States engineered a Panama Revolution (1903), which ended in Panamanian independence and U.S. control of a proposed canal. Roosevelt, who had called the leaders of Colombia "corrupt bandits," "foolish and homicidal cormpti~nists~" and "contemptible little creatures," later boasted, "I took the Canal Zone." In 1906 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began construction of the canal, with the project directed by chief engineer George Washington Goethals. One early challenge, conquering malaria and yellow fever on the isthmus, was overcome by Dr. William C. Gorgas. Colombia recognized

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Panamanian independence on 5 January 1909, and canal construction was completed in 1914 at a cost of $366,650,000, and officially opened in July 1915. See also ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. PANAMA, ISTHMUS OF. The isthmus that connects North and South America and separates the Pacific Ocean from the Caribbean Sea. PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION (19 15). A world's fair held in San Francisco highlighting the opening of the Panama Canal and the 400th anniversary of Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa's arrival at the Pacific Ocean. The fair was held in San Francisco, California, from 20 February 1915 to 4 December 1915. PANAMA REVOLUTION (1903). Precipitated by Colombia's rejection of the Hay-Herrhn Treaty. Sometimes known as the Waldorf-Astoria Coup for the hotel in New York City where it was planned, it was a bloodless revolution involving 300 section hands from the Panama Railroad and a fire brigade from the city of Panama. The Colombian admiral on the Panama station had been bribed to sail away, and the USS Nashville was present to prevent Colombian troops from landing at Col6n. In the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of November 1903 the United States recognized Panamanian independence and gained rights over an Isthmian canal. Although the United States and Colombia maintained diplomatic relations throughout all of these events, it was not until 1922 and the Colombian Reparation Treaty (which, in part, established that the United States would pay Colombia $25 million) that good relations were restored. PAN-AMEFUCAN CONFERENCES. Secretary of State James G. Blaine called the first International Conference of American States in 1889, in part to create a hemispheric customs union and in part to establish a mechanism for settling international disputes. Eighteen nations were represented.

258 PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION

The conference rejected Blaine's two main objectives, seeing them as benefiting mainly the United States, but the 1889 conference initiated the creation of the Pan-American Union. PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION (190 1). World's fair held at Buffalo, New York. The purpose of the fair was to highlight the benefits of hydroelectric power from nearby Niagara Falls, and the theme was pan-Americanism, the linkage of the nations of the Western Hemisphere. President William McKinley was shot at the exposition on 6 September 1901 and died eight days later. PAN-AMERICAN UNION (1890). A hemispheric reciprocal trade area, established at the first Pan-American Conference. The union was a longstanding goal of James G. Blaine, secretary of state under Benjamin Harrison. The union also served as an inter-herican agency that might more closely link the nations of the Western Hemisphere through a more systematic exchange of ideas and information. PAN-AMERICANISM. The concept of cooperation-largely economic but also political-among the nations of the Westem Hemisphere. It was a primary objective of Secretary of State James G. Blaine, who called the first modern PanAmerican Conference (1889) that led to the Pan-American Union (1890). But Blaine's vision of hemispheric amity conflicted with larger American economic and military interests, as manifested in the Platt Amendment, the big stick policy, and dollar diplomacy. PANIC OF 1873. A sharp economic contraction that ushered in a depression (1873-1879). It began with a collapse of the railroad boom that had dominated the American economy after the Civil War. A continuing deficit in the balance of trade further destabilized the economic system. When railroad stocks began to lose their value, the financial collapse

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spread throughout the general economy. Prices fell in general and wheat prices collapsed. PANIC OF 1883. A crash that originated in the overdevelopment of railroads. A mild depression resulted (18821885). PANIC OF 1893. An economic collapse associated with the withdrawal of European investment in the United States, the collapse of the stock market, and dwindling U.S. gold reserves. PANIC OF 1907. Two large corporations failed, precipitating this economic collapse and the mild recession that followed. PAPAL STATES. The territory in central Italy ruled by the pope. During the first half of the 19th century, it was an independent political entity within the Italian peninsula. The United States maintained consular relations with the Papal States from 1797 to 1870, and diplomatic relations with the pope as head of the Papal States from 1848 to 1868. There was widespread discomfort among many Americans over official U.S.-papal relations-in part because of concerns over the separation of church and state, but in part, too, because of anti-Catholic prejudice. After Italy's Victor Emrnanuel seized most of the papal territories in 1860, and then Rome itself in 1871, papal temporal power was more evidently in dispute, and U.S.-papal relations waned for most of the rest of the century. During the Civil War, both the North and the South cultivated relations with the pope, while the Vatican silently supported the North. Nevertheless, in 1867, Congress rejected funding for a U.S. legation, in part to embarrass President Andrew Johnson. Relations continued to languish. In 1902, the U.S. governor of the Philippines, William Howard Taft, headed a mission to the Vatican to attempt to solve church-state conflicts in the Philippines. Even then, however, President Theodore Roosevelt had to present the mission as "nondiplomatic" in nature. See also

260 PARIS, DECLARATION OF

ROMAN CATHOLIC C m C H AND UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY. PARIS, DECLARATION OF (1856). Issued at the Congress of Paris on 16 April 1856, it was the first attempt at establishing the rules of maritime warfare. The four main principles of the declaration were: privateering would no longer be considered legal; the flag of a neutral nation protected goods (except contraband) of a belligerent power being transported on a neutral vessel; neutral goods (except contraband) were not subject to capture when being transported on the ship of a belligerent power; and a blockade was to be considered binding only if it was effective-that is, if it prevented access to the coast of the enemy. The United States refused to sign the declaration but in effect adopted it during the Civil War and Spanish-American War. See also NEUTRAL RIGHTS. PARIS, TREATY OF (1898). Treaty signed on 10 December 1898 between the United States and Spain, ending the Spanish-American War. The United States gained possession of the Philippines in exchange for $20 million, and Puerto Rico and Guam were placed under U.S. control. Spain relinquished control of Cuba and agreed to assume $400 million in Cuban debt. The Senate ratified the treaty by a bare two-thirds vote, after a campaign against the agreement by the Anti-Imperialist League. PARKER, WILLIAM HARWAR (1826-1896). Naval officer and diplomat. Born in New York City and later a resident of Washington, D.C., he served in the U.S. Navy and then joined the Virginia navy and then Confederate navy during the Civil War. After the war, he was the master of a Pacific Mail Steamship Company vessel and president of Maryland Agricultural College. He also served as U.S. minister to Korea (1886). He was the author of Recollections of a Naval Oficer, 1841-1865 (1883), an account of his naval career.

PATTON, KENNETH STUART 26 1

PARKHURST, JOHN GIBSON (1824-1906). Politician and diplomat. Born in Oneida County, New York, he became a resident of Branch County, Michigan, he was a delegate from Michigan to the Democratic National Convention (1860) and then served in the Union army during the Civil War. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Belgium (18881889). PARTRIDGE, FRANK CHARLES (1861-1943). Businessman, politician, and diplomat. Born in East Middlebury, Vermont, he served as private secretary to Secretary of War Redfield Proctor (1889-1890) and solicitor for the Department of State (1890-1893). He served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1893-1894) and consul general at Tangier, Morocco (1897-1898). He was a Vermont state senator (18981900) and a Republican US. senator from Vermont (19301931). He was also president of the Vermont Marble Company, president of Clarendon & Pittsford Railroad, director and president of Proctor Trust Company, director of National Life Insurance Company of Vermont, and director of Rutland Railroad Company. In addition, he was the author of The Future of International Law (1917). PARTRIDGE, JAMES RUDOLPH (1823-1884). Diplomat. Born in Baltimore, Maryland, he was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates (1856) and Maryland secretary of state (1858-1861). He was also state director of the Annapolis and Elk Ridge Railroad (1859). A unionist during the Civil War, he served on a commission to the Exhibit of the Industries of All Nations in London (1862) and then served as U.S. minister to Honduras (1862), El Salvador (1863), Venezuela (1869), and Brazil (1871-1877). Later, he was a member of the diplomatic mission to negotiate a peace settlement between Chile and Peru (1882-1883). PATTON, KENNETH STUART (1 882-1960). Foreign service officer. Born in Salem, Virginia, and a resident of Charlottesville, Virginia, he served as U.S. vice consul at Rome

262 PAUNCEFOTE,JULIAN

(1909-19 12), Ceiba, Honduras (1912), and Lisbon (1912). He then served as consul at Cognac (1913-1915), La Rochelle (1915-1916), Calais (19 l6-1919), Belgrade (19191922), and Leipzig (1929). Later, he was U.S. minister to New Zealand (1944-1945). PAUNCEFOTE, JULIAN (1828- 1902). British diplomat. He served as minister (1889-1893) and then the first ambassador from Great Britain to the United States (1893-1902), previous representatives having held the rank of minister. As his nation's representative to Washington, he steered Anglo-American relations through the Spanish-American War, Bering Sea controversy, and Panama Canal question, helping in the process to shape the Great Rapprochement. PAYNE-ALDRICH TARIFF ACT (1909). A high protective tariff, with an average duty of 40.73 percent. The Republican Party platform of 1908 had stood for tariff reform, but many Americans saw the Payne-Aldrich Act as retrograde. The party suffered big losses in the 1910 congressional elections and President William Howard Taft was defeated for reelection in 1912. See also CANADIAN RECIPROCITY. PAYSON, CHARLES (d. 1913). Diplomatic representative. A resident of Massachusetts, he served as U.S. chargd d'affaires to Denmark (1881-1882). PEACE MOVEMENT. At the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th, a new movement for world peace arose. Leaders of this movement, such as Elihu Root and Nicholas Murray Butler, differed from their predecessors in that they tended to be "legalists" who believed international law and international arbitration could substitute for force in the settling of international disputes. The American Society for International Law was founded to popularize the concept of international law and to provide a formal body that might engage in "scientific" scholarship to explore the legal bases of

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world peace. The Lake Mohonk Conferences on International Arbitration began in 1895, and the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace was established in 1910. The outbreak of World War I dampened the optimism of the leaders of the movement, but they continued after the end of the war. PEALE ISLAND. See WAKE ISLAND. PEARSON, RICHMOND (1852-1923). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Yadkin County, North Carolina, and a resident of Asheville, North Carolina, he served as U.S. consul to Verviers and Likge, Belgium (1874-1877). Later, he was a North Carolina state representative (1884-1886) and a Republican congressman from North Carolina (1895-1899, 1900-1901). He also served as U.S. minister to Persia (1902l9O7), Montenegro (1907-1909), and Greece (1907-1909). PEARY, ROBERT EDWIN (1856-1920). Naval officer and explorer. He is best known for his arctic expeditions. He explored the interior of Greenland (1886, 1892, 1897), returning with significant ethnographic, geographic, and geological information. He made several expeditions to the North Pole (1898-1902, 1905-1906, 1909), reaching his objective on 6 April 1909. PECK, HENRY EVERARD (1821-1867). Educator, abolitionist, and diplomat. Born in Rochester, New York, he was a professor of sacred rhetoric at Oberlin College (185 1-1865) and co-edited the Loraine County News (1862-1863). In those positions, he developed a reputation as a militant abolitionist. In 1858, he rescued an escaped slave who had fled to Ohio. Peck was, in consequence, charged with "infringement of the Fugitive Slave Act" but was never tried. During the Civil War he aided recruiting efforts on behalf of the Union. Later, he served as U.S. commissioner and consul general (1865-1866) and minister to Haiti (1866-1867). He died in Haiti of yellow fever.

264 PECK, WILLYS RUGGLES

PECK, WILLYS RUGGLES (1882-1952). Consular representative and diplomat. Born in Tientsin, China, of American parents, he served as U.S. vice consul at Hankow (Wuhan) China (1914-1915), consul at Tsingtao China (1914, 1916, 1921), and minister to Thailand (1941). PEIRCE, HERBERT HENRY DAVIS (1849-19 16). Diplomat. Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, he served as U.S. minister to Norway (1906-1911). Prior to that, he was minister of foreign affairs for the Kingdom of Hawaii (1878). PENDLETON ACT (1883). The act creating the Civil Service Commission, which was to oversee the hiring of many federal employees through a merit system rather than patronage. The act placed the consular service on a merit-based system, which contributed significantly to the professionalization of the American diplomatic corps. PENDLETON, GEORGE HUNT (1825-1889). Politician and diplomat. He was a congressman from Ohio (1857-1865) and a senator from Ohio (1879-1885). An advocate of civil service reform, he sponsored the Pendleton Act (1883). He later served as U.S. minister to Germany (1885-1889). PENFIELD, FREDERIC COURTLAND (1855-1922). Diplomat and journalist. Born in Connecticut and a resident of Philadelphia, he was U.S. diplomatic agent and consul general at Cairo, Egypt (1893-1897), and ambassador to Austria-Hungary (19 13-19 17). PERDICARIS AFFAIR (1904). Controversy surrounding the capture of an apparently naturalized American citizen in Morocco. In May 1904, a Moroccan chieftain named Raisuli captured Ion Perdicaris, reportedly a naturalized American citizen. President Theodore Roosevelt sent U.S. warships to Tangiers in an exercise of the big stick. At the same time, Secretary of State John Hay informed the Moroccan government that it was to produce "Perdicaris alive or Raisuli

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dead." The Moroccan government released Perdicaris, although he was later revealed to be a Greek citizen. See also GUMMERE, SAMUEL RE&. PERKINS, MAHLON FAY (b. 1882). Consular representative. Born in North Adams, Massachusetts, he served as U.S. vice consul at Chefoo (Yantai), China (191 1-1912) and Shangai (1915-19 17), and was consul at Changsha (19 18-1920). PERMANENT COURT OF ARBITRATION AT THE HAGUE (1899). Established by the Hague Conference of 1899 as a method of resolving international disputes peacefully. Each party to a dispute was to select two arbitrators from those constituting the permanent court, and those four would, in turn, select a fifth to serve as president of the tribunal. See also ARBITRATION. PERSHING, JOHN JOSEPH (1860-1948). Soldier. He conducted the campaign against the Moro in the Philippines (1899-1903) and led the expedition in search of Pancho Villa as part of the Mexican Boarder Campaign (1916). In World War I, he led the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). PETREL ISLAND. See BAJO NUEVO. PETTIS, SOLOMON NEWTON (1827-1900). Politician, jurist, and diplomat. Born in Lenox, Ohio, and a resident of Meadville, Pennsylvania, he was a delegate from Pennsylvania to the Republican National Convention (1860), a justice of the Colorado territorial Supreme Court (186 1-1862), and a congressman from Pennsylvania (1868-1869). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1878-1879). PHELPS, EDWARD JOHN (1822-1900). Jurist and diplomat. Born in Burlington, Vermont, he practiced law in Burlington in the 1850s and was second comptroller of the U.S. Treasury (1853). He was a professor of law at Yale University

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(1881-1900) and was a founder and then president (18801881) of the American Bar Association. A Whig who joined the Democratic Party in the wake of the political realignments that occurred just before the Civil War, Phelps was a conservative anti-expansionist. He served as U.S. minister to Great Britain (1885-1889) and then was senior U.S. counsel in the Bering Sea seal arbitration (1893). His closing speech, summarizing the American case, lasted 11 days. PHELPS, SETH LEDYARD (1824-1885). Naval officer and diplomat. He served in the U.S. Navy (1841-1864) and later was U.S. minister to Peru (1883-1885). PHELPS, WILLIAM WALTER (1839-1894). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in New York City and a resident of Englewood, New Jersey, in the 1860s he was counsel to a number of banks and railroads. He then served as a Republican member of Congress from New Jersey (1873-1875, 1883-1889), and became known as a political ally of James G. Blaine and an effective congressional debater. He also served as U.S. minister to Austria-Hungary (188 1-1882) and Germany (1889-1 893). PHILIP, HOFFMAN (1872-195 1). Foreign service officer. Born in Washington, D.C., he served in the U.S. Army during the Spanish-American War. He served as U.S. consul general at Tangiers (1906). He then became U.S. minister to Abyssinia (1908-19 1O), Columbia (1917-1922), Uruguay (1922-1925), Persia (1925-1928), and Norway (1930-1935). Finally, he served as U.S. ambassador to Chile (1935-1937). PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. Collectively, two commissions established by the U.S. government to restructure Philippine government and society in the wake of independence from Spain. The first, the Schurman Commission (1899), declared independence as a goal of the Filipino people but urged that the United States retain the Philippines until Filipinos were able to exercise "the rights and duties of independent sover-

eignty." The commission then proceeded to recommend a structure for civilian government. The second, the Taft Commission (appointed 1900), became the upper house of the Philippines legislature in the 1902 Philippine Organic Act. See also SCHLTRMAN, JACOB GOULD. PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION (1899-1902). Following the United States defeat of Spain in the Philippines during the Spanish-American War, Filipino nationalists commenced an insurrection against American occupation. As the insurrection dragged on and became bitter and deadly, American techniques in suppressing it were criticized as imperialistic. The struggle became a guerrilla war, with violence and atrocities on both sides. After Emilio Aguinaldo was captured (March 1902), President Theodore Roosevelt declared an official end to the war (4 July 1902). Nevertheless, fighting continued on some of the Philippine Islands for over a decade. PHILIPPINE ORGANIC ACT (1902). An act of Congress that established basic political principles for the Philippines. The act extended Bill of Rights protections to Filipinos and established a bicameral legislature. The lower house, popularly elected, was the Philippine Assembly. The upper house, appointed by the president of the United States, was the Philippine Commission. The act also established the principle of separation of church and state and disestablished the Roman Catholic Church. PHILIPPINES. A group of 7,100 volcanic islands, the northernmost of the Malayan Archipelago. Spain ruled the islands from 1565 until 1898, when they were ceded to the United States as a result of the Spanish-American War. Even in the early 1870s, American naval officers-both Commander Richard W. Meade 111 and Commander George Dewey, for example-anticipated that should war with Spain ensue, U.S. naval ships on the Pacific station would promptly strike at Spanish commerce in the Philippines or, indeed,

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take the Philippines. When the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898, U.S. naval forces did strike their Spanish counterparts at the battle of Manila, and once the United States had defeated Spain, the United States chose to hold the islands rather grant independence to a strategic area that would be susceptible to control by European nations. Civil administration, overseen by William Howard Taft, proceeded to institute political reforms and attempted to create a stable government, but the Philippine insurrection that had broken out almost immediately continued against U.S. rule. Formal independence did not occur until 1946. See also PHILIPPINE COMMISSION; PHILIPPINE ORGANIC ACT. PHOENIX GROUP. A group of islands and atolls, 1,660 miles southwest of Hawaii, midway between Hawaii and Australia in the central Pacific Ocean. The group includes Bernie, Canton, Enderbury, Gardiner, Hull, McKean, Sydney, and Phoenix islands. The group was probably named after an American vessel of that name, commanded by Captain Moore, that visited the region in 1794. British and American explorers visited the islands between 1823 and 1840, and on 14 March 1859, C.A. Williams and Company (later known as the Phoenix Guano Company) informed the U.S. Department of State that it had taken possession of the island in the name of the U.S.. Guano mining began in April 1859. Commander Richard W. Meade of the USS Narragansett visited Phoenix Island in 1872 and reported that "The buildings, flagstaff, and wharf of the Phoenix Guano Company are still standing, but the island has been worked out and was abandoned in August last. I saw no vegetation on the island, except a little grass here and there." In 1889, Great Britain annexed the islands. PIERCE, GILBERT ASHVILLE (1839-1901). Politician, author, and diplomat. Born in Cattaraugus County, New York, he served as a colonel in the Union army during the Civil War. A Republican, he was governor of Dakota territory

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(1884-1886) and first senator from North Dakota (18891893). He served as U.S. minister to Portugal (January-May 1893), resigning because of illness. PIERCE, HENRY AUGUSTUS (1808-1885). Diplomat. A resident of Massachusetts, he served as U.S. minister to the Hawaiian Islands (1869-1877). A fervent American expansionist, he was close to the shipping interests of William H. Webb and understood the strategic and commercial value of Samoa. In 1872, Pierce transmitted these sentiments to Commander Richard W. Meade, suggesting that the commander should secure Pago Pago for the United States. PIERREPONT, EDWARDS (1817-1892). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in New Haven, Connecticut, he served as a state court judge of New York (1857-1860). During the Civil War, he served on a panel to expedite President Abraham Lincoln's executive order to release political prisoners (1862) and helped to organize support for Lincoln among Democrats during the election of 1864. After the war, he was a delegate to the New York State constitutional convention (1867-1868) and was attorney general (1875-1876) under President Ulysses S. Grant. As U.S. minister to Great Britain (1876-1877), he signed the October 1877 AngloAmerican convention for the protection of trademarks. PIKE, JAMES SHEPARD (1811-1882). Journalist and diplomat. A resident of Maine, he was a well-known antislavery journalist for the New York Tribune. He served as U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1861-1866), where he was a source of intelligence about Confederate privateers in Europe and the Caribbean. In 1873, the Tribune sent Pike to South Carolina to assess the Reconstruction government there. His reports, published as Prostrate State: South Carolina under Negro Government (1874)' criticized black Reconstruction governments and represented a backlashpartially racially motivated-against Radical Reconstruction.

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PILE, WILLIAM ANDERSON (1829-1889). Politician, clergyman, and diplomat. Born in Indianapolis, Indiana, he served as a general in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he was a Republican congressman from Missouri (1867-1869), a member from Missouri of the Republican National Committee (1866-68), and governor of New Mexico territory (1869-1871). He then served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1871-1874). PITKIN, JOHN ROBERT GRAHAM (1841-190 1). Diplomat. Born in New Orleans, Louisiana, he was briefly the principal of a New Orleans public school (1861-1863) and then he practiced law in New Orleans (1863-1889). In addition, he served as Louisiana register of bankruptcy (1867-187 I), and was U.S. marshal for Louisiana (1876-1877). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Argentina (1889-1893). PLATFORMS, POLITICAL PARTY. See PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGNS, 1860-1912. PLATT AMENDMENT (1902). An amendment to the Cuban constitution, originally formulated by Secretary of War Elihu Root and drafted by Connecticut senator Orville H. Platt, that gave the U.S. extensive and direct influence on Cuban affairs after Cuba gained nominal independence from Spain as a result of the Spanish-American War. All Cuban treaties and trade agreements had to be approved by the United States. The United States was to have "the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty." The amendment, a de facto violation of the Teller Amendment of 1898, was inserted into the Cuban constitution in exchange for the withdrawal of U.S. troops, and remained in effect until 1934. POLAR EXPEDITIONS. Throughout the 19th century and into the early 20th century, expeditions to the North and South Poles captured the imaginations of people and governments

PORTER, HORACE 27 1 around the world. Polar exploration was undertaken for scientific knowledge, for national prestige, and for adventure. America's most famous polar explorer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries was Admiral Robert Peary, who made numerous voyages between 1890 and 1909. See also COOK, FREDERICK A.; MACMILLAN, DONALD BAXTER. PORTER, ALBERT GALLATIN (1824-1897). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Dearborn County, Indiana, he was a Republican congressman from Indiana (1859-1863) and governor of Indiana (1881-1885). He was a delegate from Indiana to the Republican National Convention (1888), where he officially nominated Benjamin Harrison for president. Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Italy (1889-1892). PORTER, DAVID D. (1813-1891). Naval officer. After a distinguished naval career before and during the Civil War, Porter became an influential figure in American naval affairs for the bulk of the late 19th century. For a brief period he was the de facto secretary of the navy under the titular secretary Adolph E. Borie (1869). PORTER, HORACE (1837-1921). General and diplomat. Born in Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, he served in the Union army during the Civil War. After the war, he served as executive secretary (1869-1873) to President Ulysses S. Grant, was vice president of the Pullman Palace Car Company, and was active in other railroad enterprises (1873, ff). He served as U.S. ambassador to France (1897-1905). He then was U.S. delegate to the Hague Conference (1907), where he proposed an amendment to the Drago Doctrine, by which strong nations with debt claims against weaker nations would be obligated to submit their claims to arbitration before resorting to force. He was also the author of a book of verse, West Point Life (1866), and Campaigning with Grant (1897).

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PORTER, JAMES DAVIS, JR. (1828-1912). Politician and diplomat. Born in Henry County, Tennessee, he served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. He was a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention (187O), a Tennessee circuit court judge, and governor of Tennessee (18741879). He was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention (1880) and then served as president of the Nashville, Chattanooga, and St. Louis Railroad (1880-1884). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Chile (1893-1894). PORT0 RICO. See PUERTO RICO. PORTSMOUTH, TREATY OF (1905). Treaty between Japan and Russia, signed on 5 September 1905 in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, ending the Russo-Japanese War. President Theodore Roosevelt engineered the conference and the treaty, for which efforts he won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906. In the war, Russia had suffered a string of humiliating defeats, while Japan began to struggle under the financial burden of waging war. In the treaty, both Russia and Japan agreed to evacuate Manchuria, which was returned to Chinese sovereignty. In addition, Russia acknowledged that Japan possessed "paramount political, military and economical interests" in Korea. POTTER, WILLIAM (1852-1926). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Italy (1892-1894). Afterward, he was president of Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia. POWELL, WILLIAM FRANK (1848-1920). Educator, consular representative, and diplomat. Born in Troy, New York, he graduated from the Collegiate Institute of New Jersey (1865). He taught freedmen at the Presbyterian Board of Home Mission, Leesburg, Virginia, and established the first African-American state school in Alexandria, Virginia (1884). In the early 1880s, he was principal of a school in Bordentown, New Jersey, and then became district superintendent of schools of Camden, New Jersey. In that capacity,

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he introduced manual training to the curriculum and advanced industrial training and teacher training. He then taught at Camden High and Training School (1886-1894). He served as U.S. chargC d'affaires at Santo Domingo (1897-1904) and minister to Haiti (1897-1905). PREPAREDNESS. Movement in the United States in the early years of World War I to prepare for the possibility of war. The U.S. Navy was strong but the U.S. Army ranked 15th among world armies. Former president Theodore Roosevelt was one of the leaders of the preparedness campaign. President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, at the outset, showed little enthusiasm for the movement, but Wilson and Bryan drew apart as German U-boat activity increased and Wilson moved toward an acceptance of preparedness. PRESIDENT. The individual who performs the functions of both head of state and head of government in the U.S.. Article 11, Section 11, of the constitution designates the president as commander in chief of the army and navy, and gives him the power "with the advice and consent of the Senate" to make treaties and to make ambassadorial, ministerial, or consular appointments. Foreign policy is, therefore, preeminently a presidential responsibility. At the same time, during much of the late 19th century, domestic affairs took priority over foreign affairs, and many presidents were disinclined to be activists in foreign diplomacy. The administration of Abraham Lincoln was marked by a full diplomatic agenda, but most of that agenda related to managing the foreign response to the Civil War. Although Secretary of State William Henry Seward was the visible agent of the administration's hard-nosed foreign policy, historians more recently have demonstrated that Lincoln and Seward worked as a partnership on such matters. Afterward, Presidents Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow

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Wilson had conspicuously activist approaches to the world beyond the United States. Even though the president is constitutionally the lead "maker" of American foreign policy, the constitutional system of checks and balances enables Congress to place its imprint on the process and, oftentimes, curb the president's actions. Congress could and did refuse to approve presidential plans or presidentially endorsed agreements with foreign powers. Efforts by President Ulysses S. Grant, for example, to acquire Santo Domingo came to naught because of congressional resistance, and President Wilson's plans for U.S. participation in a League of Nations were squelched by opposition in the Senate. Nevertheless, presidents were able to circumvent opposition, on occasion, through the use of executive agreements. Finally, presidents shape American foreign policy and diplomacy because it is they who appoint ambassadors, ministers, and many other foreign service personnel. In the late19th century, diplomatic positions at all levels were often doled out in appreciation for political support or campaign contributions. Ministers and consuls were inclined, therefore, to be personally loyal to the president and his party, but when presidents changed or, on rare occasions, a different party took power, there would be corresponding shifts among the representatives of the United States around the globe. See also ARTHUR, CHESTER A.; CLEVELAND, GROVER, GARFIELD, JAMES A.; HAYES, RUTHERFORD B.; JOHNSON, ANDREW; APPENDIX A. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1860. A bitterly contested four-way race, leading to the election of Abraham Lincoln. The main issue was the extension of slavery. The Democratic Party split, and the so-called Breckinridge Democratic faction-the southem-dominated faction-advocated the acquisition of Cuba "on such terms as shall be honorable to ourselves and just to Spain, at the earliest practicable moment." That was the only plank in one of the four major party platforms that explicitly addressed an issue of foreign

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affairs. The Republican Party's platform addressed mainly issues related to slavery and internal development. PRESIDENTIAL, CAMPAIGN OF 1864. Conducted while the Civil War still raged, this campaign resulted in the reelection of Abraham Lincoln, with Andrew Johnson as his vice president. The two main parties addressed almost exclusively war-related domestic issues. The Democratic Party platform made no references to foreign affairs, focusing exclusively on war-related domestic issues. The platform of the Republican Party touched two issues that extended beyond the nation's borders: a resolution that foreign immigration "should be fostered and encouraged," and an extended resolution that acknowledged the traditions of the Monroe Doctrine, slapped the British and French on the wrist for entertaining the possibility of meddling in the war, alluded to the installation of Maximilian as emperor of Mexico, and foreshadowed the power and might of the United States in the postwar era: "we approve the position taken by the Government that the people of the United States can never regard with indifference the attempt of any European Power to overthrow by force or to supplant by fraud the institutions of any Republican Government on the Western Continent and that they will view with extreme jealousy, as menacing to the peace and independence of their own country, the efforts of any such power to obtain new footholds for Monarchical Government, sustained by foreign military force, in near proximity to the United States." PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1868. This was the first presidential election of the postbellum era. The Democratic Party platform addressed the tariff issue by advocating a revenue tariff that would also provide "incidental protection to domestic manufactures." The Republican Party platform again advocated a policy that "fostered and encouraged" foreign immigration and spoke out in favor of full protection of naturalized American citizens against "arrest or imprisonment by any foreign power, for acts done or words spoken in

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this country." Republican General Ulysses S. Grant was elected, with Schuyler Colfax of Indiana as vice president. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1872. Because of splintering of the two major parties, six parties ran national candidates in 1872. The Liberal Republican Party hedged on the tariff issue by saying that, "recognizing that there are in our midst honest but irreconcilable differences of opinion with regard to the respective systems of Protection and Free Trade, we remit the discussion of the subject to the people in their Congress Districts, and to the decision of Congress thereon, wholly free of Executive interference or dictation." The Liberal Republicans, further, argued that in its dealings with foreign nations the government should "cultivate the friendship of peace, by treating with all on fair and equal terms, regarding it alike dishonorable either to demand what is not right, or to submit to what is wrong." The Democratic Party asserted that "it is the duty of the Government, in its intercourse with foreign nations, to cultivate the friendships of peace by treating with all on fair and equal terms, regarding it alike dishonorable either to demand what is not right or to submit to what is wrong." The Labor Reform Party argued that "Congress should modify the tariff so as to admit free such articles of common use as we can neither produce nor grow, and lay duties for revenue mainly upon articles of luxury, and upon such articles of manufacture as we, having the raw material in abundance, will assist in further developing the resources of the country." The party also launched the campaign for Chinese exclusion by resolving, "That the presence in our country of Chinese laborers imported by capitalists in large numbers for servile use, is an evil entailing want and its consequent train of misery and crime on all classes of the American people, and should be prohibited by legislation." The Prohibition Party called for a reduction in "the rates of inland and ocean postage . . . to the lowest practicable point." The Republican Party declared, first, that the federal government "should seek to maintain honorable peace with

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all nations, protecting its citizens everywhere, and syrnpathizing with all people who strive for greater liberty." Second, the party reiterated that federal revenues should come, largely, from tariffs on imports, "the details of which should be so adjusted as to aid in securing remunerative wages to labor, and to promote the industries, prosperity, and growth of the whole country." Finally, the party's platform asserted: "It is the duty of the general Government to adopt such measures as may tend to encourage and restore American commerce and ship-building." In the end, President Ulysses S. Grant was reelected, with Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts as vice president. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1876. In its platform, the Democratic Party said, "We denounce the present tariff levied upon nearly four thousand articles as a masterpiece of injustice, inequality and false pretense." Further, Democrats asserted that "we denounce the policy which . . . discards the liberty-loving German and tolerates the revival of the coolietrade in Mongolian women for immoral purposes, and Mongolian men held to perform servile labor contracts, and demand such modification of the treaty with the Chinese Empire, or such legislation within constitutional limitations, as shall prevent further importation or immigration of the Mongolian race." The Independent (Greenback) Party said, "We most earnestly protest against any further issue of gold bonds for sale in foreign markets, by which we would be made for a long period 'hewers of wood and drawers of water' to foreigners." The Prohibition Party called for "the reduction of the rates of inland and ocean postage . . . to the lowest practical point by force of laws." More significantly, the platform announced its support for the "introduction into all treaties, hereafter negotiated with foreign Governments, of a provision for the amicable settlement of international difficulties by arbitration." The Republican Party reiterated its previous support for a tariff that would provide the bulk of federal revenue. In addition, the party asserted that it was "imperative" that the

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government renegotiate treaties with European powers so that "the same protection shall be afforded to the adopted American citizen that is given to native-born." Finally, the party called for Congress ''fidly to investigate the effects of the immigration and importation of Mongolians on the moral and material interests of the country." In this disputed election, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes became president, with William A. Wheeler of New York as vice president. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1880. The Democratic Party platform called for "free ships and a living chance for American commerce on the seas." The party also called for "Amendment of the Burlingame Treaty. No more Chinese immigration, except for travel, education, and foreign commerce, and that even carefully guarded." The Greenback Party asserted that "Slavery being simply cheap labor, and cheap labor being simple slavery, the importation and presence of Chinese serfs necessarily tends to brutalize and degrade American labor, therefore immediate steps should be taken to abrogate the Burlingame Treaty." The Republican Party indicated that it regarded "the unrestricted irnrnigration of the Chinese as a matter of grave concernment" and said that the party "would limit and restrict that immigration by the enactment of such just, humane and reasonable laws and treaties as will produce that result." Again, the Republicans won, and former general James A. Garfield of Ohio was elected. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1884. Six parties fielded candidates in this election. Among the smaller parties, the Anti-Monopoly Party platform said that "we denounce the present tariff as being largely in the interest of monopoly, and demand that it be speedily and radically reformed in the interest of labor instead of capital." The Greenback Party announced, "While we favor a wise revision of the tariff laws, with a view to raising a revenue from luxuries rather than necessaries, we insist that as an economic question its importance is insignificant as compared with financial issues." The

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Prohibition Party, called for the "legal suppression" of the "importation, manufacture, supply and sale of alcoholic beverages." The party also announced that "international differences should be settled by arbitration." The Democratic Party platform announced its program by contrasting the actions of the Republican Party. According to the Democrats, the Republicans had demanded "restoration of our Navy" but had nevertheless "squandered hundreds of millions to create a navy that does not exist." Furthermore, according to the Democrats, although the Republican platform "calls upon Congress to remove the burdens under which American shipping has been depressed," that party "imposed and has continued those burdens." The Democrats charged that the Republican Party "proffers a pledge to correct the irregularities of our tariff. It created and has continued them." In contrast, the Democratic platform asserted, the Democrats "denounce the abuses of the existing tariff." Further, "We favor an American continental policy based upon more intimate commercial and political relations with the 15 sister Republics of North, Central, and South America, but entangling alliances with none." In a sweeping condemnation of Republican foreign policy, the Democratic platform said, "This country has never had a well-defined and executed foreign policy save under Democratic administration; that policy has ever been, in regard to foreign nations, so long as they do not act detrimental to the interests of the country or hurtful to our citizens, to let them alone; that as a result of this policy we call the acquisition of Louisiana, Florida, California, and of the adjacent Mexican territory by purchase alone, and contrast these grand acquisitions of Democratic statesmanship with the purchase of Alaska, the sole fruit of a Republican administration of nearly a quarter of a century." The Democrats also contrasted what they said was the dramatic growth of the American merchant marine under Democratic administrations, with what had happened under the Republicans: "Under twenty years of Republican rule and policy, our commerce has been left to

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British bottoms, and almost has the American flag been swept off the high seas." The Republican Party addressed the tariff issue by pledging "to correct the inequalities of the tariff' and by supporting a tariff that not only raised "the requisite revenues for the government" but that at the same time would "afford security to our diversified industries and protection to the rights and wages of the laborer." The party also called for "an international standard, which shall fix for all the relative value of gold and silver coinage." The platform also denounced "the importation of contract labor, whether from Europe or Asia" and pledged "to sustain the present law restricting Chinese immigration, and to provide such further legislation as is necessary to carry out its purpose." The platform, further, called for the "restoration of the navy "to its old-time strengths and efficiency" and the removal of "the burdens under which American shipping has been depressed," and announced that "the Republican party favors a policy which shall keep us from entangling alliances with foreign nations, and which gives us the right to expect that foreign nations shall refrain from meddling in American affairs; a policy which seeks peace and trade with all powers, but especially with those of the Western Hemisphere." In the end, Grover Cleveland became the first president elected by the Democratic Party since 1856 by defeating Republican James G. Blaine. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1888. Incumbent president Grover Cleveland was defeated for reelection by Republican Senator Benjamin Harrison, in an election fought mainly over the tariff. In addition, Anglophobia played a role when the so-called Murchison Letter was used to suggest that Britain favored Cleveland because of his low-tariff policy. The American Party's platform focused on antiimmigrant themes: it was imperative "that the people of the United States of America should take full and entire control of their government, to the exclusion of revolutionary and incendiary foreigners . . . The best 'protection' is that which

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protects the life and life blood of the republic from the degrading competition with and contaminations by imported foreigners . . ." Furthermore, "no passport shall be issued . . . to any person who, in the judgment of the consul, is not likely to become a desirable citizen of the United States . . ." The Democratic Party emphasized the accomplishments of the Cleveland administration, including "the reconstruction of the American Navy upon a system which forbids the recurrence of scandal and insures successful results;" and the "exclusion from our shores of Chinese laborers." In addition, the platform emphasized the party's support of tariff reform-meaning reduction in tariff rates. The Prohibition Party continued to advocate the prohibition of "the manufacture, importation, exportation, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages." The Republican Party, in part as a way of reminding voters that they were the party of Lincoln and emancipation, sent "fraternal congratulations to our fellow Americans of Brazil upon their great act of emancipation," and indicated that "We earnestly hope that we may soon congratulate our fellow-citizens of Irish birth upon the peaceful recovery of home rule for Ireland." The party reaffirmed its support of protectionist tariffs-calling them "the American system of protection." The platform also declared the party's "hostility to the introduction into this country of foreign contract labor and of Chinese labor, alien to our civilization and constitution" and support of the "rehabilitation of our American merchant marine" and "the early rebuilding of our navy." The Republican platform blasted Cleveland's foreign policy: "The conduct of foreign affairs by the present Administration has been distinguished by its inefficiency and its cowardice . . . Professing adherence to the Monroe Doctrine it has seen with idle complacency the extension of foreign influence in Central America and of foreign trade everywhere among our neighbors. It has refused to charter, sanction or encourage any American organization for construction of the Nicaragua Canal." The platform further criticized the Cleveland administration for "its weak and unpatriotic treatment

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of the fisheries question, and its pusillanimous surrender of the essential privileges to which our fishing vessels are entitled in Canadian ports." The Union Labor Party focused on issues of monopoly, finance, and labor but also supported "such legislation as will absolutely exclude the Chinese from the United States." Meanwhile, the United Labor Party alluded to no matters of foreign policy in its platform. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1892. Former President Grover Cleveland ran once again, this time defeating incumbent president Benjamin Harrison. The Democratic Party platform denounced the McKinley Tariff "as the culminating atrocity of class legislation" and advocated a reduction of tariff rates. Referring to a theme of its 1884 platform, the 1888 platform asserted: "The Democratic party is the only party that has ever given the country a foreign policy consistent and vigorous, compelling respect abroad and inspiriting confidence at home. While avoiding entangling alliances, it has aimed to cultivate friendly relations with other nations, and especially with our neighbors on the American Continent, whose destiny is closely linked with our own, and we view with alarm the tendency to a policy of irritation and bluster which is liable at any time to confront us with the alternative of humiliation or war." The platform also singled out several oppressed peoples. It condemned "the oppression practiced by the Russian Government upon its Lutheran and Jewish subjects," and called upon the U.S. government "to use its prompt and best efforts to bring about a cessation of these cruel persecutions." Furthermore, the Democrats offered their "profound and earnest sympathy" to the Irish in their struggle for home rule. The Prohibition Party continued to call for "the entire suppression of the manufacture, sale, importation, exportation and transportation of alcoholic liquors." In addition, the party asserted that "foreign immigration has become a burden upon industry," and that "therefore our immigration laws should be revised

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and strictly enforced," the naturalization period extended, and nonresident aliens prohibited from owning property. The Republican Party reaffirmed "the American doctrine of protection" and that "all articles which cannot be produced in the United States, except luxuries, should be admitted free of duty." The platform also supported "the wise and patriotic steps already taken . . . to secure an international conference" on bimetallism based on parity in the value of gold and silver throughout the world. Turning specifically to issues of foreign relations, the Republican Party reiterated its support for a revived merchant marine and navy, "friendly relations with all foreign powers; entangling alliances with none," and the protection of American fishermen. In addition, the party declared that the construction of an Isthmian canal-specifically in Nicaragua-was "of the highest importance" to American commerce and defense, and that such a canal should be controlled by the United States. The Socialist Labor Party presented sweeping demands for social and political change but suggested no policies with regard to foreign relations. For its part, the People's Party (the Populist Party) presented a radical critique of and set of proposals for American society, with only one suggestion that had foreign policy implications: that "All land . . . now held by aliens, should be reclaimed by the government and held for actual settlers only." PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1896. In a campaign fought primarily over monetary policy, Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan argued in favor of bimetallism, while the Republicans, represented by William McKinley, committed themselves to the gold standard. In addition, the Democratic Party continued to argue in favor of lower tariffs while the Republican Party argued the advantages of a high tariff. McKinley won the election, which is seen as a watershed of American political history, ushering in a generation of Republican Party national dominance. The Democratic Party platform adopted a plank from the 1892

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People's Party arguing for "the free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1 without waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation." The platform denounced the McKinley Tariff and called for a tariff for revenue only, not a protective tariff. To protect American labor, the platform argued, the government should "prevent the importation of foreign pauper labor." The platform explicitly alluded to the situation in Cuba by citing the party's "sympathy to the people of Cuba in their heroic struggle for liberty and independence" and support of the Monroe Doctrine as "a permanent part of the foreign policy of the United States." The National Democratic Party, largely a group of Democrats who split from the main party over the silver issue, denounced a protective tariff. The National Party supported revision of immigration laws to exclude paupers and criminals, and, further, took up the fight for the prohibition of alcohol. The People's Party expressed its sympathy to the people of Cuba, going so far as to assert that "the time has come when the United States . . . should recognize that Cuba is, and of right ought to be, a free and independent state." The Prohibition Party continued to urge the prohibition of "the manufacture, importation, exportation, and instate transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages." The Republican Party once again supported "protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of American development and prosperity" and reiterated its support for the reciprocity agreements that had been negotiated by the administration of President Benjamin Harrison. "Protection and Reciprocity are twin measures of American policy and go hand in hand. Democratic rule has recklessly struck down both, and both must be reestablished." American foreign policy, the Republican platform declared, "should be at all times firm, vigorous and dignified, and all our interests in the western hemisphere should be carellly watched and guarded." The platform called for United States possession of Hawaii, a U.S.-built and owned canal through Nicaragua, and the purchase of

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the Danish West Indies for the purpose of acquiring a naval station. Republicans also expressed indignation over the recent Turkish massacre of Armenians, announcing that "the United States should exercise all the influence it can properly exert to bring these atrocities to an end." At the same time, the platform reaffirmed its adherence to the Monroe Doctrine and "the rights of the United States to give the Doctrine effect by responding to the appeal of any American State for friendly intervention in case of European encroachment." While claiming that "we have not interfered and shall not interfere, with the existing possession of any European power in this Hemisphere," the Republicans expressed "sympathy" for "the struggles of other American peoples to free themselves fi-om European domination." In particular, the platform praised "the heroic battles of the Cuban patriots against cruelty and oppression" and asserted, "The government of Spain, having lost control of Cuba, and being unable to protect the property or lives of resident American citizens . . . ,we believe that the . . . United States should actively use its influence and good offices to restore peace and give independence to the Island." The Republicans also pledged their support for "the continued enlargement of the navy." The Socialist Labor Party's platform presented a radical platform for transforming American society but included no proposals that touched on American foreign policy. The National Silver Party, Republicans who favored free silver, promulgated a platform that denounced the gold standard. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1900. President William McKinley ran for reelection against, once again, William Jennings Bryan. Bryan, the Democratic candidate, again campaigned against the gold standard and added antiimperialism to his platform, a reaction to the outcome of the Spanish-American War. McKinley easily won reelection. The Democratic Party platform began by blasting the Republican Party for its policy in Puerto Rico, acquired from Spain two years earlier. The "Porto Rican law, enacted by a

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Republican Congress against the protest and opposition of the Democratic minority," the platform asserted, was the "first act" of the Republican Party's "imperialistic programme" by which that party "seeks to commit the United States to a colonial policy, inconsistent with republican institutions." The Democrats also condemned President McKinley's Philippine policy, which "has involved the Republic in an unnecessary war, sacrificed the lives of many of our noblest sons, and placed the United States . . .in the false and un-American position of crushing with military force the efforts of our former allies to achieve liberty and selfgovernment." The party proclaimed that it was "unalterably opposed to seizing or purchasing distant islands to be governed outside the Constitution, and whose people can never become citizens." Democrats also declared their support for a Nicaraguan canal, constructed and owned by the United States, and their opposition to the Hay-Pauncefote treaty "as a surrender of American rights and interests not to be tolerated by the American people." Joining with the Democratic Party, the "fusion faction" of the People's Party denounced the Republican administration for "changing a war for humanity into a war of conquest." Populists also expressed "sympathy and moral support" for the Boers. The "Middle-of-the-Road" faction of the Populist Party published a short platform with a few brief domestic plans and no reference to foreign affairs. The Prohibition Party continued to argue for the prohibition of all intoxicating beverages. Prohibitionists expressed heightened concern that the United States was now countenancing the export of intoxicating beverages to the Philippines and Cuba. The Republican Party platform continued to support a protectionist tariff, a revival of the merchant marine, and an American-built and constructed Isthmian canal. The platform applauded President McKinley's accomplishments in Samoa, Hawaiian annexation, and American participation at the Hague Peace Conference. The Silver Republican Party expressed sympathy with the Boers and denounced the Puerto Rican tariff "to be not

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only a serious but a dangerous departure from the principles of our form of government." The party also declared that it was "opposed to the importation of Asiatic laborers." The Social Democratic Party focused on class conflict and radical reform, but also included a plank advocating "Abolition of war and the introduction of international arbitration." The Socialist Labor Party platform spoke mainly about class relations within the United States. See also ANTI-IMPEFUALISM; INSULAR CASES. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1904. President Theodore Roosevelt, who had become president upon the death of President William McKinley, easily defeated Democratic candidate Alton B. Parker of New York. The Democratic Party platform announced that the party supported the Open Door Policy "without unnecessary entanglement in Oriental and European affairs." The platform also stated that the United States "ought to do for the Filipinos what we have done already for the Cubans," by which the platform meant "set the Filipino people upon their feet, free and independent, to work out their own destiny." The party continued to oppose high tariffs and promised to "construct the Panama Canal speedily, honestly, and economically." The platform denounced shipping subsidies and supported "the upbuilding of a merchant marine without new or additional burdens upon the people." Democrats also supported Canadian reciprocity and "the maintenance of the Monroe Doctrine in its full integrity." The People's Party, focusing mainly on domestic issues, denounced "the spirit of force and militarism which is shown in ill-advised and vainglorious boasting." The Prohibition Party continued to favor "laws prohibiting and abolishing the manufacture, importation, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages." In addition, the party favored "an omnipartisan commission" to deal with the tariff issue, and use of international arbitration as a method of resolving disputes between nations.

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The Republican Party platform touted the party's accomplishments since 1897-in particular with reference to the Spanish-American War and the situations in Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and the Panama Canal. The platform reaffirmed that "protection . . . is a cardinal policy of the Republican party." The platform also supported legislation to build up the merchant marine, and asserted that maintaining a strong navy "is the fixed policy of the Republican party." In highlighting the foreign policy of Theodore Roosevelt, the platform asserted that under Roosevelt's "guidance we find ourselves at peace with all the world, and never were we more respected or our wishes more regarded by foreign nations." Both the Socialist Labor Party and the Socialist Party focused on domestic issues having to do with capital and labor. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1908. President Roosevelt's secretary of war and chosen successor William Howard Taft of Ohio easily defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan. The Democratic Party platform supported "immediate revision of the tariff by the reduction of import duties." The party also argued in favor of "upbuilding of the American merchant marine without new or additional burdens upon the people" and building a navy "sufficient to defend the coasts of this country and protect American citizens wherever their rights may be in jeopardy." It urged the "speedy completion" of the Panama Canal, condemned "the experiment in imperialism" in the Philippines "as an inexcusable blunder," and favored strengthened pan-American relations and trade. Finally, it opposed "the admission of Asiatic immigrants who can not be amalgamated with our population, or whose presence among us would raise a race issue and involve us in diplomatic controversies with Oriental powers." The Independence Party supported tariff revision, opposed "Asiatic immigration which does not amalgamate with our population, creates race issues . . . and which reduces wages and tends to lower the high standard of living and the high standard of morality which American

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civilization has established"; and favored international arbitration, and supported "the speedy building of a navy sufficiently strong to protect at the same time both the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts of the United States." The People's Party demanded "the exclusion from American shores of foreign pauper labor, imported to beat down the wages of intelligent American workingmen." The Prohibition Party continued to advocate for a constitutional amendment that would prohibit "the manufacture, sale, importation, exportation, or transportation of alcoholic liquors." The Republican Party continued to praise accomplishments under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. Its platform supported tariff revision that preserved the principle of protection, a strong and efficient navy, strengthening "Pan-American commerce and comity," the arbitration treaties that had been passed between 1908 and 1911, the revival of the American merchant marine, and Republican policies in Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Panama. Meanwhile, the Socialist Labor Party and Socialist Party focused on domestic issues having to do with capital and labor. PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1912. The Republican Party split, resulting in a three-way election among Theodore Roosevelt on the Progressive Party ticket, President William Howard Taft on the Republican ticket, and Woodrow Wilson on the Democratic Party ticket. Wilson defeated his two opponents and became the first Democratic Party president since Grover Cleveland. The Democratic Party platform supported "the immediate downward revision of the existing high and in many cases prohibitive tariff duties" and the growth of the merchant marine. It also condemned "the experiment in imperialism" in the Philippines "as an inexcusable blunder, which has involved us in enormous expense, brought us weakness instead of strength, and laid our nation open to the charge of abandonment of the fundamental doctrine of self-government." The Progressive Party, which had broken away from the Republican Party, favored

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"the development of friendship and commerce between the United States and Latin America," "a protective tariff which shall equalize conditions of competition between the United States and foreign countries," and "an immediate downward revision" of tariff schedules that were "unjust or excessive." In addition, the Progressives favored judicial rather than military means of resolving disputes between nations, and international agreements that would limit the size of naval forces. The Republican Party, meanwhile, supported its traditional policy of a protective tariff, construction of additional naval warships, "American ships, and plenty of them, to make use of the great American Inter-Oceanic canal now nearing completion," and a continuation of Republican policies toward the Philippines. The Socialist Labor Party and Socialist Party focused on domestic issues having to do with capital and labor. PRESTON, WILLIAM (1816-1887). Politician and diplomat. Born near Louisville, Kentucky, he served in the army during the Mexican War. He was a Democratic member of Congress from Kentucky (1852-1855) and served as U.S. minister to Spain (1859-1861). During the Civil War, he was a general in the Confederate army and served as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary from the Confederacy to Maximilian of Mexico. PREVOST, L. V. (d. 1867). Consular representative. Born in Maryland, he served as U.S. consul at Guayaquil, Ecuador (1863-1867), where he died on 23 May 1867.

PRICE, WILLIAM JENNINGS (1873-1922). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Lancaster, Kentucky, he was a presidential elector for Kentucky (1900) and an alternate delegate from Kentucky to the Democratic National Convention (1908). Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Panama (1913-1921).

PUERTO RICO 29 1

PRIVATEERING. A technique in wartime in which private vessels, fitted out with guns, prey on the commerce of the enemy. Privateering was considered different from piracy because governments issued letters of marque and reprisal to authorized privateers. The Declaration of Paris of 1856 outlawed privateering, although the United States did not sign the declaration and the Confederacy, with a limited navy, made considerable use of the technique during the Civil War. PROCTOR, REDFIELD (1831-1908). Politician and cabinet officer. He served as a member of the Vermont House of Representatives (1867-1868), a Vermont state senator (18741875), lieutenant governor (1876-1878), and governor (1878-1880) of Vermont. He served as secretary of war under President Benjamin Harrison (1889-189 1). As a republican U.S. senator from Vermont (1891-1908), he visited Cuba (1898), and his account of conditions there influenced the administration of President William McKinley in its decision to commence the Spanish-AmericanWar. PROTECTIVE TARIFF. A tariff designed largely to protect domestic industries from foreign competition. For much of the late 19th century, the United States had a high protective tariff, especially on manufactured products. The Republican Party remained a staunch supporter of such policy. See PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGNS OF 1868, 1872, 1876, 1884,1888, 1892,1896. PRUYN, ROBERT HEWSON (1815-1882). Diplomat. A native of Albany, New York, and member of an old Dutch lineage family, he served as U.S. minister to Japan (1861). He was also a founder of Albany Law School (185 1). PUERTO RICO. Sometimes spelled Porto Rico. The easternmost island of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean. First visited by Columbus in 1493, Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony until it became a U.S. territory in 1898 as a result of

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the Spanish-American War. Slavery had been introduced during the early years of Spanish rule and continued until 1873. PULITZER, JOSEPH (1847-19 11). Hungarian-born American journalist. As publisher of the New York World, he engaged in sensationalist journalism, particularly with regard to the events in Cuba leading to the Spanish-American War. His coverage of events in Cuba, along with coverage by William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal, contributed to sentiment for war in the U.S.. Pulitzer later abandoned the technique, known as yellow journalism, and went on to endow the Columbia School of Journalism and the Pulitzer prizes. PUMPELLY, RAPHAEL (1837-1923). Geologist. He made official geographical surveys in Japan and China (18611865) and conducted an expedition to Central Asia to study its physical geography and archaeology (1903-1904). PUTNAM, JAMES OSBORNE (1818-1903). Diplomat. Born in Attica, New York, he was postmaster of Buffalo, New York (1851-1853), a member of the state senate (18531857), and a Republican presidential elector (1860). He served as U.S. consul at Le Havre, France (1861), where he communicated with U.S. naval commanders regarding the activities of Confederate cruisers. He served as U.S. minister to Belgium (1880-1882) and was a delegate for the United States to the International Industrial Property Congress in Paris (1881). He also was a founder of the Buffalo Fine Arts Academy (1862) and the Buffalo Historical Society, and a chancellor of the University of Buffalo.

QUEZON, MANUEL LUIS (1878-1944). Filipino statesman and political leader. He participated in the Philippine Insurrection of 1898, served in the Philippine assembly (19071908) as the president of the Philippine senate (1916-1935),

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and as first president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines (1935-1944). QUINBY, WILLIAM EMORY (1 8 13-1908). Diplomat. A resident of Michigan, he served as U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1893-1897). QUITA S U E ~ OBANK. An uninhabited island between Nicaragua and Jamaica, in the Caribbean Sea. The United States claimed it under the Guano Islands Act (1856) until signing a treaty with Colombia in 1972.

RAMSEY, ALEXANDER (18 15-1903). Attorney, politician, and cabinet officer. Born near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, he was a congressman from Pennsylvania (1843- 1847), governor of Minnesota territory (1849-1853), mayor of St. Paul, Minnesota (18%), governor of Minnesota (1860-1863), and Republican senator from Minnesota (1863-1875). He served as secretary of war under President Rutherford B. Hayes (1879- 1881) and was a delegate to the centennial celebration of the adoption of the Constitution (1887). RANDALL, ALEXANDER W. (18 19-1872). Politician and diplomat. Born in Montgomery County, New York, he was a delegate to the Wisconsin state constitutional convention (1846), a member of the Wisconsin state assembly (1855), and a Wisconsin circuit judge (1856). He served as governor of Wisconsin (1858-1861), U.S. minister to the Papal States (1 86 1-1863), and postmaster general (1866-1869)under President Andrew Johnson. RANSOM, MATT WHITTAKER (1826-1904). Politician, lawyer, and diplomat. Born in Warren County, North Carolina, he was a presidential elector for North Carolina (1852), North Carolina attorney general (1853-1855), a member of the North Carolina House of Commons (1858-1860), and a

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major general in the Confederate army during the Civil War. Afterward, he served as senator from North Carolina (1872-1895) and was U.S. minister to Mexico (1895-1897).

RASMUSSEN V. UNITED STATES (1905). One of the socalled Insular cases. The Supreme Court declared that Hawaii and Alaska were incorporated dependencies. RAWLINS, JOHN AARON (183 1-1869). Lawyer and military officer. Born in Galena, Ilinois, he served as a general in the Union army during the Civil War and was secretary of war under President Ulysses S. Grant (1869). RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869). Editor and politician. Born in Livingston County, New York, he founded the New York Times in 1851 and ran it until his death. He also served as a member of the New York State Assembly (18501851, 1862) and was lieutenant governor of New York (1855-1856). A radical antislavery Whig, he was one of the founders of the Republican Party (1856) and served as a Republican congressman from New York (1865-1867). In 1867 he was offered but rehsed the post of U.S. minister to Austria. RECIPROCITY. Agreements in international commerce in which reductions of the tariff rates of one country are granted in exchange for similar concessions from another country. Canadian reciprocity opened the U.S. market to Canadian agricultural products (especially grain) in exchange for certain fishing and navigation rights. One of the purposes of the Pan-American Union was to inaugurate reciprocity within the Western Hemisphere. See also MOST FAVORED NATION STATUS. RECIPROCITY TREATY OF 1875. See HAWAIIAN RECIPROCITY TREATY.

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RECONCENTRATION. Policy of General Valeriano Weyler in Cuba, 1896-1898. To control civilians suspected of aiding the rebels in the Cuban Revolution, Weyler herded thousands of Cubans into barbed wire "reconcentration camps." The camps had poor hygienic conditions, and many of the inmates died. Americans, calling Weyler "Butcher," were outraged, and the pro-war faction within the United States found another justification for war with Spain. See also SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. RECONSTRUCTION. The era immediately after the end of the Civil War. The Reconstruction period is usually considered to have ended in 1877 when the last Federal troops were withdrawn from southern states. The period was dominated by an ascendant Congress and a weakened presidency under Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant. REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839-1902). Politician. He served as a Republican member of Congress (1877-1899) and was speaker of the House of Representatives (18891891, 1895-1899). He opposed imperialism and resigned from Congress rather than serving in a body that supported American expansionism. REED, WALTER (185 1-1902). Physician. While a professor of bacteriology at the Army Medical School, he headed a commission to study yellow fever in Cuba (1901). He demonstrated that the disease was transmitted by the mosquito, a discovery that made it possible to virtually eliminate yellow fever from Cuba and the United States. REID, WHITELAW (1837-19 12). Journalist and diplomat. Born in Greene County, Ohio, he edited (1869-1872) and then controlled (1872-1905) the New York Tribune, making it one of the nation's leading newspapers. He served as minister to France (1889-1892) and was the unsuccessful Republican candidate for vice president in 1892. He was a special U.S. ambassador to Great Britain on the jubilee of Queen

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Victoria (1897), a member of the peace commission following the Spanish-American War (1898), and a special ambassador to Great Britain on the occasion of the coronation of King Edward VII (1902). Afterward, he became U.S. ambassador to Great Britain (1905-1912). He also wrote several works on foreign affairs, including Some Consequences of the Last Treaty of Paris (1899) and Problems of Expansion (1900). REINSCH, PAUL SAMUEL (1869-1923). Politician and diplomat. Born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, he served as U.S. minister to China (1913-19 19) and was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for the Senate fiom Wisconsin (1920). REMEMBER THE MAINE. The popular cry after the explosion aboard and sinking of the battleship Maine, one of the events that precipitated the Spanish-American War. The full slogan was "Remember the Maine, and to hell with Spain!" REMINGTON, FREDERIC (186 1-1909). Painter and illustrator. He was best known for his popular illustrations of American Indians, cowboys, and western plains scenes. He was sent by William Randolph Hearst to Cuba to provide illustrations of the ongoing Cuban Revolution and the Spanish-American War. REPUBLICAN PARTY-FOREIGN POLICY OF. The Republican Party was founded in 1854 by a coalition of antislavery Democrats and Whigs. It elected its first president with Abraham Lincoln in 1860 and dominated presidential politics from that time until 1932, including Presidents Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt. During the postbellum era until 1896, the national parties tended to be fairly evenly divided, national campaigns were hotly contested, and presidential elections were close. The

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Republican Party tended to dominate the presidency, while control of Congress was often split. The watershed election of 1896, however, ushered in an era of Republican national dominance. The Republican Party, with its roots in antebellum Free Soil, Whig, and nativist politics, tended to support a high protective tariff, a "nationalistic" policy toward other nations, and unilateralism. Although there was always a strong isolationist wing to the party, national Republican leaders tended throughout the period to be favorable toward expansion, to the extent that expansionism was popular with anyone during most of the years before the Spanish-American War. In consequence, the leading figures of American foreign policy during the period were Republicans. and the major diplomatic initiatives occurred during Republican administrations. The presidents with the most activist foreign policies were Lincoln, Harrison, McKinley, and Roosevelt, while the leading secretaries of state were William H. Seward, John Hay, and Elihu Root. In addition, the major territorial acquisitions of the period-Alaska, Hawaii, and the Panama Canal-were the products of a Republican internationalist understanding of America's global role. See also DEMOCRATIC PARTY-FOREIGN POLICY OF; PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGNS OF 1860-19 12. RETALIATION ACT (1887). Part of the fisheries controversy between the United States and Great Britain. In 1886, Canadian authorities stepped up their efforts to stop Americans who were fishing in Canadian territorial waters. The Canadians seized a number of American vessels and the national government authorized the capturing of American vessels that were simply preparing to fish. Congress, in retaliation, early in 1887, authorized the president to ban Canadian ships, Canadian fish, or Canadian fish products. President Grover Cleveland signed the measure on 3 March 1887. REYNOLDS, ROBERT MCCONNELL (1826-1885). Politician, educator, and diplomat. Born in Muskingham County,

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Ohio, he was the principal of several private schools in Illinois and Iowa, and then of North Protestant College in Henry, Illinois, before the Civil War. During the war, he served in the Union army. Afterward, he moved to Alabama, where he served as a delegate to the Alabama constitutional convention (1867) and as Alabama state auditor (1868). He was a delegate from Alabama to the Republican National Convention (1868, 1872), a collector of the port of Mobile (1872), and then U.S. minister to Bolivia (1874-1876). Afterward, he served as an auditor in the U.S. Department of the Treasury (1878-1885). RICHMOND, LEWIS (1824-1894). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Portugal (1884-1885). RIDDLE, JOHN WALLACE (1864-1941). Foreign service officer. He served as agent and consul general in Egypt (1903-19O5), U.S. minister to Romania and Serbia (19O5), and ambassador to Russia (1907-1909) and Argentina (19211925). RISLEY, JOHN EWING (b. 1840). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Denmark (1893-1897). ROACH, JOHN (1815-1887). Shipbuilder and shipping entrepreneur. He was a leader of the U.S. maritime industries and principal in the United States and Brazil Mail Steamship Company. A major contractor to the U.S. Navy, in the 1880s, he built the first American steel warships. ROBERTS, WILLIAM RANDALL (1830-1897). Politician and diplomat. Born in County Cork, Ireland, he emigrated to the United States in 1849 and engaged in mercantile activities until 1869. He became president of the Fenian Brotherhood and participated in the Fenian Invasion of 1866, for which he was arrested. Later, he was a Democratic congressman from New York (1871-1875), a delegate from New York to the Democratic National Convention (1876), and a

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member of the New York City Board of Aldermen (1877). He served as U.S. minister to Chile (1885-1889). ROBESON, GEORGE MAXWELL (1829-1897). Lawyer, politician, and cabinet official. He was secretary of the navy (1869-1877) under President Ulysses S. Grant. Robeson's administration of the navy department developed a reputation for mismanagement and corruption (especially at navy yards). Political supporters were rewarded with contracts, while the navy itself retreated into decrepitude. Later, Robeson was a Republican member of Congress from New Jersey (1879-1 883). ROBINSON, CHRISTOPHER (1806-1889). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Providence, Rhode Island, he practiced law in Woonsocket, Rhode Island (1833-54) and then served as Rhode Island attorney general (1854) and a Republican congressman from Rhode Island (1859-1861). Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Peru (1861-1 865). ROCKEFELLER, JOHN DAVISON (1839-1937). Industrialist and philanthropist. He built the Standard Oil Company into an industrial empire that dominated the global petroleum market. After 1890, he increasingly devoted his time to philanthropies. See also MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS; OIL INDUSTRY. ROCKHILL, WILLIAM WOODVILLE (1854-19 14). Diplomat and author. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he was secretary of legation in Beijing (1885-1886)? assistant secretary of state (1894-1897), and minister to Romania, Serbia, and Greece (1897-1899). He then served as special envoy (July 1900) and minister (1905-1909) to China. His final assignments were as ambassador to Russia (1909-1911) and ambassador to Turkey (19 11- 1913). ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH AND UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY. In the late 19th century, evidence of

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American nativism resurfaced in state and national politics. Anglophobia interacted with nativist fears of the "new immigration," and some segments of the Protestant population feared that growing participation by "new immigrants" (often Roman Catholic) would open American politics up to control from Rome. The Murchison Letter during the election of 1888 injected nativist, anti-Irish, anti-English, concerns into the political brew. Ten years later, during the Spanish-American War, there was some danger that certain European nations might view the war as a campaign by a Protestant power against a Catholic power, although there is little evidence that such concerns influenced American policymakers. See also PAPAL STATES. RONCADOR CAY. An uninhabited island located between Nicaragua and Jamaica in the Caribbean Sea. The United States claimed it under the Guano Islands Act (1856) until signing a treaty with Colombia in 1972. ROOSEVELT COROLLARY TO THE MONROE DOCTRINE. President Theodore Roosevelt's assertion in 1904 that, in accord with the Monroe Doctrine, the United States had the right to police Caribbean areas. He announced to Congress in December 1904 that "Chronic wrongdoing . . . may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power." See also SANTO DOMINGO. ROOSEVELT, ROBERT BARNWELL (1829-1906). Author, politician, and diplomat. Born in New York City, he served as fish commissioner of New York State, edited the New York Citizen, and was a Democratic congressman from New York (1871-1873). He later served as U.S. minister to the

ROOSEVELT, THEODORE 301 Netherlands (1888-1890). He was the uncle of Theodore Roosevelt. ROOSEVELT, THEODORE (1858-1919). President. He served as assistant secretary of the navy (1897-1898) under President William McKinley, resigned to command the Rough Riders during the Spanish-American War, and was elected vice president for McKinley's second term of office. He became 26th president (1901-1909) in September 1901 after McKinley's assassination, and was elected in his own right in 1904. Assisted by two strong secretaries of state-John Hay (1901-1905) and Elihu Root (1905)-he put his imprint on the American approach to the world. His six secretaries of the navy-John D. Long (1901-1902), William H. Moody (1 902-19O4), Paul Morton (1904-19O5), Charles Bonaparte (1905-19O6), Victor Metcalf (19061908), and Truman Newberry (1908-1909) administered an expanding Department of the Navy as Roosevelt reorganized both the army and the navy to prepare for an internationalist role, especially to use the navy in a more active rather than passive role. He also reformed the State Department, installing more competent officers in the department while at the same time maneuvering to get foreign ambassadors who were his own friends. His foreign policy has sometimes been characterized as the "big stick policy" and, more recently, a policy of "velvet on iron." It was under Roosevelt's leadership that the United States acquired the Panama Canal and established protectorates in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Haiti. He was willing to use American military strength to implement his foreign policies-as he did, notably, in Cuba and Panama. In other parts of the world, Roosevelt offered his assistance in negotiating a peaceful settlement (the Treaty of Portsmouth) to the Russo-Japanese War (for which he won a Nobel Peace Prize) and defusing the confrontation between France and Germany over Morocco. In brief, certainly, he was a "power internationalist" in that he saw the United States as having an important role to

302 ROOT, ELIHU

play in international politics and that he saw power, rather than abstract laws and morality, as ruling in the interactions of nations. He saw American power as a method of creating "order" in an otherwise chaotic international system, and, like Secretary of State Root, he believed that arbitration, rather than war, should and could settle international disputes. See also ROOSEVELT COROLLARY TO THE MONROE DOCTRINE. ROOT, ELIHU (1845-1937). Attorney and statesman. He served as secretary of war under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt (1899-1904), in which position he oversaw a revamping of the military, the creation of a general staff, army reorganization, expansion of West Point, creation of the Army War College, and strengthening of the National Guard. He was also instrumental in designing the Platt Amendment and the Foraker Act, established governments for the territories acquired from Spain as a result of the Spanish-American War, and served on the tribunal that settled the Alaska-Canadian boundary dispute. He served as secretary of state under President Theodore Roosevelt (1905-1909). As secretary, he strengthened U.S. ties to Latin America in the aftermath of the Panama Revolution, and negotiated the Root-Takahira Agreement with Japan. He helped to resolve one of the fisheries disputes and negotiated the Arbitration Treaties of 1908-1909. In 1912, Root received the Nobel Peace Prize. He served as U.S. senator from New York (1909-1915), was president of the Hague Tribunal (1913), and president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (19 10-1925). During World War I Root headed a diplomatic mission to Russia to keep that nation in the war, and was consulted in the drafting of the Covenant of the League of Nations (although he opposed its final form). Root was, at base, a conservative internationalist who believed that world peace could be achieved through international law and realpolitik. See also BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY; CONVENTION OF 1909.

ROSE-FISH MEMORANDUM 303 ROOT, JOSEPH POMEROY (1826-1885). Physician, politician, and diplomat. Born in Greenwich, Massachusetts, he was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives (1855) and then moved to Kansas in the rush to create a free state there. He served as a member of the Kansas territorial council (1857) and as lieutenant governor of Kansas (1861). He served in the Union army during the Civil War, and afterward as U.S. minister to Chile (1870-1873). Later, he was a delegate fi-om Kansas to the Republican National Convention (1884). ROOT-TAKAHIRA AGREEMENT (1908). An exchange of diplomatic notes between U.S. Secretary of State Elihu Root and Takahira Kogoro, Japanese ambassador to Washington. The agreement was an attempt at resolving issues that had strained U.S. relations with Japan in the early years of the 20th century, including spheres of influence in the Far East, the treatment of Japanese living in the United States, and American opposition to Russian reparations after the RussoJapanese War. The agreement included a pledge to maintain the status quo in the Far East, recognition of Chinese territorial integrity, support for the Open Door Policy, and an agreement to consult each other in the event of future difficulties. In effect, the agreement accepted an increasing Japanese dominance in Manchuria, and future secretaries of state backed away from its implications. ROSECRANS, WILLIAM STARKE (1819-1898). General and statesman. Born in Kingston, Ohio, he graduated from the United States Military Academy (1847), served in the army (1843-1854), and engaged in civil engineering, oil, and coal enterprises (1854-1861). He was a general in the Union army during the Civil War and later served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1868-1869). Afterward, he served in Congress as a Democratic congressman from California (188 1-1885). ROSE-FISH MEMORANDUM (1871). An unofficial agreement between Canadian minister of finance Sir John Rose

304 ROUGH RIDERS

and U.S. secretary of state Hamilton Fish regarding an approach to settling the Alabama claims. The memorandum proposed that all issues should be submitted to a joint commission. The memorandum, a summary of a conversation between Rose and Fish on 9 January 1871, became the basis for the Treaty of Washington. ROUGH RIDERS. Officially the First Regiment of U.S. Cavalry Volunteers, they were part of the U.S. expeditionary force to Cuba in the Spanish-American War. Led by Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, they were a flamboyant group, recruited largely by Roosevelt. They received wide publicity in American newspapers for their charge up San Juan Hill during the Spanish-American War. ROUSSEAU, RICHARD HILAIRE (1815-1872). Attorney and diplomat. A resident of Louisville, Kentucky, where he practiced law, he served as U.S. minister to Honduras (18661869). RUNYON, THEODORE (1822-1896). Politician and diplomat. A resident of Newark, New Jersey, he was a delegate from New Jersey to the Democratic National Convention (1864). Later, he served as US. minister (1893) and ambassador (1893-1896) to Germany. RUSSELL, CHARLES WELLS (1856-1927). Lawyer and diplomat. Born in Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia), he worked in the U.S. justice department overseeing the French spoliation cases (1886). He was involved with many foreign legal issues, especially the Puerto Rico evacuation commission (1898) and the transfer of rights and concessions regarding the Panama Canal (1902), and was U.S. legal advisor in the Canal Zone (1904). He was special assistant attorney general for insular and territorial affairs (1902-1905), heading an investigation of the French Panama Canal Company,

RUSSIA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS 305

and assistant U.S. attorney general (1905-1909). In addition, he served as U.S. minister to Persia (1909-19 14). RUSSELL, LORD JOHN (1792-1878). English statesman. He served as foreign secretary in Lord Palmerston's cabinet (1859-1865), during which time he was a significant influence in maintaining British neutrality during the Civil War. Afterward, he served as prime minister (1865-1866). RUSSELL, THOMAS JR. (1825-1887). Diplomat. A resident of Massachusetts, he served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1874-1877). RUSSELL, WILLIAM WORTHINGTON (1859-1944). Diplomat. Born in Washington, D.C., he served as U.S. minister to Colombia (1904-19O5), Venezuela (1905-19O9), the Dominican Republic (1910-1913, 1915-1925), and Siam (19251926). RUSSIA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. For most of the late 19th century, relations between Russia and the United States were cordial. During the Civil War, Russia supported the North and, indeed, had rejected the 1862 proposal of Anglo-French-Russian intervention to produce an armistice. In the autumn of 1863, the presence of two Russian fleets (in New York and San Francisco) convinced some Americans of strong pro-American feelings on the part of the Russian government, although in actuality the Russians had simply needed to get their ships out of Baltic ports as a Polish uprising loomed. The Russian willingness to sell Alaska seemed to bespeak a commonality of interests. Indeed, Russian policy had been to support the United States at the expense of Great Britain, while American policy had not yet arrived at its "great rapprochement" toward Britain. Yet at the very end of the century, as Russian expansionism affected China and Japan, American sympathies toward Russia began to cool. The Open Door Notes had been directed, in part, at the Russian government, and the United States demonstrated

306 RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

sympathy toward Japan in its conflict with Russia. But it was not until after the Russian Revolution in 1917 that a real break between Russia and the United States occurred. See also RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR (1904-1905). Conflict fought between Russia and Japan, in part over the Russian presence in Manchuria and northern Korea, and Japanese expansionism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Japan attacked Port Arthur, on the Liaotung Peninsula, by surprise in February 1904 and achieved a string of military successes, capped by the destruction of the Russian fleet at Tsushima Strait in May 1905. Although Russia was losing militarily, the war was nearly bankrupting Japan, and so the antagonists accepted the offer of mediation made by President Theodore Roosevelt. A peace conference, held in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, resulted in the Treaty of Portsmouth. RYAN, THOMAS (1837-1914). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Chenango County, New York, he served in the Union army during the Civil War and moved to Kansas in 1865. He was an assistant US. attorney for Kansas (18731877) and a Republican congressman from Kansas (18771889). He served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1889-1893), working to improve Mexican-American relations. Afterward, he was assistant secretary of the interior (1897-1907). RYUKYU ISLANDS. A chain of 64 islands southwest of Japan. The largest is Okinawa. The islands belonged to China until 1874, when Japan annexed them.

SACKVILLE-WEST, LIONEL (1827-1888). English diplomat. He served as minister to the United States (1881-1888). He was recalled by the British government in the wake of the controversy over the Murchison Letter.

SAMANA BAY 307

ST. ALBANS RAID (1864). An invasion of Vermont by a small band of Confederates. The group had slipped into Canada and then crossed the border back into the United States at St. Albans, Vermont. The provincial government seized them when they returned to Canada after the raid. The United States, charging that the Canadians had been half-hearted in preventing the raid and patrolling the borders, increased security at border crossings and hinted that the Great Lakes, demilitarized as a result of the Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817, might have to be refortified. The war ended before such threats could materialize, and the episode, in the end, proved a minor irritant in Anglo-American relations during the Civil War but was part of the background to a rethinking of the U.S.-Canadian relationship that evolved after Canadian confederation (1867) and contributed to the Treaty of Washington (1871). SALISBURY, LORD (1830-1903). Robert Arthur Talbot Gascope-Cecil, Marquis of Salisbury, English statesman. He became foreign secretary in 1878 and served as prime minister (1885-1886, 1886-1892, 1895-1900, and 1900-1902) and at the same time foreign secretary during much of the time. A foreign policy realist who understood that British imperial power was waning even as American global power ascended, he steered Great Britain toward an acceptance of the new American role and was prepared to defer to the United States as necessary. His realism contributed to not only the "great rapprochement" of Anglo-American relations at the end of the 19th century, but also the rise of arbitration as an effective tool in international affairs. SAMANA BAY. A harbor in Santo Domingo with great potential as a naval base. In 1870, as part of the negotiations for annexation of Santo Domingo, President Ulysses S. Grant instructed his emissary, Orville Babcock, to accept a fallback position of a naval station at Saman6 Bay if full annexation fell through. Congress balked at any annexationist

308 SAMOA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS

schemes, however. See also SANTO DOMINGO, PLANS FOR ANNEXATION OF. SAMOA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. In the late 1860s and early 187Os, Americans became increasingly interested in the Samoan Islands. American shipping magnate William H. Webb had become attracted to the islands for his new trans-pacific steamship line. Meanwhile, tribal warfare was spreading, and Samoans found that the best way to acquire guns was to sell their land-at low prices-to Western (and especially German) business interests. Although an uneasy truce held for a few years prior to 1872, random fighting began once again in February of that year. In that month, Commander Richard W. Meade arrived aboard the USS Narragansett, shortly thereafter negotiating harbor and commercial treaties. Although the treaties died in the Senate, from this beginning American involvement in Samoa grew. After several expeditions to Samoa by Colonel Albert Steinberger, and a trip to Washington by Samoa's chief LeMamea, the Senate in January 1878 ratified a treaty that committed the United States to protect Samoa. In the succeeding years, German and British interest in the islands grew, fiuther heightening tensions. Conflict between Germany, Great Britain, and the United States over interests in the Samoan Islands grew in the 1880s. In 1887, Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard organized a conference in Washington to try to resolve the issue, but the meeting broke up without a solution when the German representative suggested that the nation with dominant commercial interests in Samoa-Germany-be allowed to control the islands. By 1889, tensions were so high that American, British, and German warships squared off in Apia harbor, but a hurricane destroyed most of the warships before a clash erupted. Meanwhile, German chancellor Otto von Bismarck had called for a conference in Berlin to resolve the issue. The Berlin Conference established a threenation protectorate over Samoa, an awkward arrangement that was modified in 1899, in the wake of the Spanish-

SANFORD,HENRY SHELTON 309 American War. See also AMERICAN SAMOA; BERLIN, TREATY OF; MEADE TREATIES; WAKEMAN REPORT. SAMPSON, ARCHIBALD JOHNSON (1839-192 1). Diplomat. Born in Harrison County, Ohio, he served in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he was Colorado attorney general (1877-1879) and served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (1897-1905). SAMPSON, WILLIAM THOMAS (1840-1902). Naval officer. He was superintendent of the United States Naval Academy (1885-189O), and president of the naval board of inquiry into the sinking of the battleship Maine (1 898). As commander of the North Atlantic Squadron (April 1898), he commanded the American fleet off Cuba in the Spanish-American War. See also MAINE, DESTRUCTION OF; SANTIAGO, BATTLE OF. SAND REEF. A coral reef in the Wake and Midway chain. The United States claimed Sand Reef under the Guano Islands Act. The claim was disputed by the Hawaiian government. Guano was extracted during the late 19th century but by the early 20th century the reef had been abandoned. SANDS, WILLIAM FRANKLIN (1874-1946). Diplomat. Born in Washington, D.C., he served as U.S. minister to Guatemala (1909-1910). SANFORD, HENRY SHELTON (1823-1891). Diplomat. Born in Woodbury, Connecticut, he was secretary of the American legation in Paris (1849-1853), chargC d'affairs in Paris (1853-1854), and U.S. minister to Belgium (1861-1869). While serving in Belgium, he negotiated a treaty of commerce and navigation, the first consular convention between the United States and Belgium, and trademark and naturalization conventions. He was also a founder of the International African Association (1877) and was a member of its

3 10 S A N JUAN HILL, BATTLE OF

executive committee. He represented the committee in Washington, D.C., in 1884, and was a U.S. delegate to the Berlin Conference on the Congo (1885-1886). SAN JUAN HILL, BATTLE O F (1898). The major land battle of the Spanish-American War, 1 July 1898. The Rough Riders were able to take the top of the hill, permitting U.S. forces to bombard Santiago. See also SANTIAGO, BATTLE OF SANTIAGO, BATTLE O F (1898). The major naval engagement of the Spanish-American War, 3 July 1898. The Spanish had decided that the position of their ships in Santiago Harbor was untenable and attempted to break out to open sea. In a four-hour battle with ships of the U.S. North Atlantic Squadron, the Spanish fleet was destroyed. See also SAMPSON, WILLIAM T. SANTO DOMINGO. The oldest city in the Western Hemisphere, and also the name commonly given to the Dominican Republic, which shares the island of Hispaniola with Haiti. Ruled at times by France, at times by Spain, and at times by Haiti, the nation became an independent republic in 1844. It was unstable for most of the rest of the century, and typically in financial difficulty. During the Civil War Spain sent troops to the island in an effort at reannexation. Harsh diplomatic notes from Secretary of State William Seward failed to deter the Spanish, and the United States, preoccupied with its own struggle, was not in a position to do more than offer verbal protests. But a vehement anti-Spanish revolt on the part of the Dominicans themselves, and the end of the American Civil War, convinced the Spanish to withdraw their troops in 1865. Dominican political and financial affairs were in a constant state of turmoil for much of the rest of the century, and the country was bankrupt by 1900. In 1904, when the Dominican government defaulted on its loans and debts, the United States took over the customs service. The intervention-the occasion for the announcement

SARGENT, AARON AUGUSTUS 3 11 of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrinebrought stability and averted European intervention but also generated charges of American imperialism. See also, SANTO DOMINGO, PLANS FOR ANNEXATION OF; SANTO DOMINGO RECEIVERSHIP. SANTO DOMINGO, PLANS FOR ANNEXATION OF. Over the years, expansionist Americans had included Santo Domingo in their plans. Some Americans thought of it as a location for the resettlement of freedmen after the Civil War, while diplomatic and naval leaders desired, in particular, the fine naval facilities at Samani Bay. In 1870, with his nation in bankruptcy, Buenaventura Baez, ruler of the Dominican Republic, approached the United States with an annexation scheme. Although Secretary of State Hamilton Fish was skeptical of the offer, President Ulysses S. Grant sent his adviser and private secretary, Orville Babcock, to investigate the offer. Babcock, ultimately, negotiated a treaty of annexation. The Senate, however, refhed to ratify the treaty. SANTO DOMINGO RECEIVERSHIP. The Dominican Republic had essentially declared bankruptcy in 1904, and the United States feared that Santo Domingo's financial problems would be an opportunity for intervention by its European creditor nations. Instead, President Theodore Roosevelt used the situation as an opportunity to announce the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine and, in turn, take over, as a receiver, the Dominican customs service. SARGENT, AARON AUGUSTUS (1827-1887). Politician and diplomat. Born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, he moved to California in 1849 as part of the Gold Rush, engaged in mining, and edited the Nevada Journal. He was a member of the state senate (1856), a delegate from California to the Republican National Convention, and also its vice president (186O), a congressman from California (186 1-1863, 18691873), and senator from California (1873-1879), in which position he was known as "the Senator for the Southern Pa-

3 12 SAUER, EMIL

cific Railroad." He served as U.S. minister to Germany (1882-1 884), but when the German government banned the importation of American pork, he resigned in protest. At the same time, he refused an appointment as minister to Russia. SAUER, EMIL (b. 1881). Consular representative. Born near Stonewall, Texas, he served as the first U.S. consul at Baghdad (191 l-l913), and consul at Goteborg, Sweden (19131915), Cologne (1915-1917, 1919-1925), Maracaibo (19171919), Copenhagen (1919), Sherbrooke (1925), and Toronto (1925-1932). He later became consul general at Rio de Janeiro (1935) and Frankfort am Main (1938). Sauer was also the author of several works on Canadian finance. SCHENCK, ROBERT CUMMING (1809-1890). Politician, general, and diplomat. Born in Warren County, Ohio, he was a member of Congress from Ohio (1 843-1851) and served as U.S. minister to Brazil, with accreditation to Uruguay, Argentina, and Paraguay (1851-1853). He served as a general in the Union army during the Civil War and afterward, he again served as a member of Congress from Ohio (18631871). Under President Ulysses S. Grant, he served as U.S. minister to Great Britain (1871-1876). At the time, he was a director of the Emma Silver Mining Company, and he allowed the company, while he was minister, to use his name in marketing fraudulent shares to British citizens. He was able to sell his own shares just before the price collapsed. Because of his diplomatic immunity, he was never prosecuted for fraud, but he resigned from his ministerial position under congressional investigation. SCHLEY, WINFIELD SCOTT (1839-1911). Naval officer. In 1884, he led the expedition to rescue Adolphus Washington Greely. In the Spanish-American War he commanded the Flying Squadron and directed the fighting in the battle of Santiago.

SCHURMAN,JACOB GOULD 3 13 SCHMEDEMAN, ALBERT G. (1864-1946). Politician and diplomat. Born in Madison, Wisconsin, he served as U.S. minister to Norway (1913-1921). Later, he was governor of Wisconsin (1933-1935). SCHOFIELD, JOHN MCALLISTER (1831-1906). Soldier and cabinet official. Born in Chautauqua County, New York, he taught natural and experimental philosophy at the United States Military Academy, West Point (1855-1860) and physics at Washington University, St. Louis (1860-1861), and served in the Union army during the Civil War. After the war, he was sent on a special mission to France to discuss the presence of French troops in Mexico (June 1865-May 1866). He served as secretary of war (1868-1869), was superintendent of the United States Military Academy (18761881), and served as commanding general of the army (1888-1895). SCHOMBURGK LINE. The boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana, as determined in a survey by Sir Robert Schomburgk in 1840. The British had commissioned the survey, but because Venezuela refused to accept Schomburgk's survey the Venezuela boundary dispute continued for the rest of the 19th century. SCHROEDER, SEATON (1849-1922). Naval officer. He was appointed the first U.S. naval governor of Samoa (10 February 1900), and he later served as commander in chief of the Atlantic fleet (1909-191 1). SCHURMAN, JACOB GOULD (1854-1942). Educator and diplomat. He was professor of English literature at Acadia College (1880-1882), of metaphysics at Dalhousie College (1882-1 886), and of philosophy at Cornell University (18861892). He became president of Cornell in 1892. At the time of the Spanish-American War, he was known to be an antiexpansionist, but because he had privately informed President William McKinley that American capture of the China

3 14 SCHURMAN COMMISSION

trade "is undoubtedly our most important foreign question at the present time," the president appointed Schurman to chair the U.S. Philippine Commission (1898). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Greece and Montenegro (191219 13) and became ambassador to Germany in 1925. SCHURMAN COMMISSION (1899). See PHILIPPINE COMMISSION; SCHURMAN, JACOB GOULD. SCHURZ, CARL (1829-1906). Statesman and political reformer. Born in Germany and a political refugee to the United States after the failure of the German revolutionary movement of 1848-1849, he served as minister to Spain (1861-1862). Later, he was senator from Missouri (18691872) and secretary of the interior (1877-1881), and was active in the reform wing of the Republican Party. SCHUYLER, EUGENE (1840-1890). Diplomat and author. A resident of New York, he was secretary of the American legation at St. Petersburg (1870-1876) and at Constantinople (1876-1878), and was chargC d'affaires at Bucharest, Romania, and then minister to Romania, Serbia, and Greece (1882-1884). Later, he served as assistant secretary of state (1889) and was consul general at Cairo (1889-1890). Schuyler traveled throughout Central Asia (1873) and published a number of books, including Turk Stan (1876), Peter the Great (2 vols., 1884), and American Diplomacy (1886). SCHUYLER, MONTGOMERY JR. (1877-1955). Consular representative and diplomat. Born in Stamford, Connecticut, he served as U.S. consul general at Bangkok (1904-1906) and minister to Ecuador (1913). During World War I, he served in the U.S. Army. Afterward, he was U.S. minister to El Salvador (1921-1925). SCOTT, CHARLES LEWIS (1827-1899). Politician and diplomat. Born in Richmond, Virginia, he moved to California in 1849 during the Gold Rush. He served in the state assem-

SENATE, UNITED STATES 3 15

bly (1854-1856), was a Democratic congressman from California (1857-1861), and served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. After the war, he moved to Alabama and became involved in agricultural pursuits. He was a delegate from Alabama to each Democratic National Convention from 1868 to 1896. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1885-1889).

SCRUGGS, WILLIAM L. (1836-1912). Diplomat and pamphleteer. He served as U.S. minister to Colombia (18731876; 1882-1885) and to Venezuela (1889). In 1894, he published an inflammatory pamphlet, British Aggressions in Venezuela. Or the Monroe Doctrine on Trial, in response to the Venezuela boundary dispute that, ultimately, contributed to U.S. actions in that dispute. SEAY, WILLIAM AUSTIN (1831-1888). Educator and diplomat. He taught Greek and constitutional and international law at the Seminary of Learning of the State of Louisiana, was the school's superintendent (1863), and later was on its academic board (1868-1869). He served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1885-1887) and was also the author of Statutes of the State of Louisiana (1884). SEMMES, RAPHAEL (1809-1877). Attorney and naval commander. He commanded the Surnter and the Alabama for the Confederacy during the Civil War and was responsible for considerable damage to the U.S. merchant marine during the war. See also ALABAMA CLAIMS. SENATE, UNITED STATES. The U.S. Senate is the upper house of the U.S. Congress, each state sending two senators. Until the ratification of the 17th Amendment to the Constitution, in 1913, senators were elected indirectly-usually through selection by state legislatures. By provisions in Article I1 of the Constitution, the Senate plays an important role in the making and conduct of U.S. foreign policy and diplomacy. It is charged with giving the president its "advice and

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consent" on treaties and ambassadorial, ministerial, and consular appointments. Since much of the Senate's work on these matters occurs first in the Foreign Relations Committee, that group, in turn, has a crucial role in the process. During the period from the Civil War to World War I, presidents frequently found themselves at odds with the Senate, which sometimes would provide its advice but not its consent to presidential actions-most notably rejecting plans to annex Santo Domingo and the Danish West Indies, an early Samoa treaty, the Johnson-Clarendon Convention, a treaty with Nicaragua for construction of a canal, and the Olney-Pauncefote Treaty. Later of, course the Senate rejected American participation in the League of Nations. Senatorial recalcitrance was the product of a number of factors. In part, senators, representing a state rather than a national perspective, were sometimes more isolationist that the president. In part, too, while the presidency was generally in the hands of the Republican Party during this period, the Democratic Party sometimes held a majority in Congress. Then, too, some strong-willed senators chose to be obstructionist for personal or political reasons and were, by the rules of the Senate, able to shape the response that the legislative body had to requests from the executive branch of the govemment. SERRANILLA BANK. A circular coral bank, 180 miles southwest of Jamaica, 210 miles north-northeast of Nicaragua, in the Caribbean Sea. The United States claimed the island under the Guano Islands Act. SETTLE, THOMAS (1831-1888). Politician and diplomat. Born in Rockingham County, North Carolina, he was a member of the North Carolina House of Commons (18541859), a presidential elector for James Buchanan (1856), and a delegate to the North Carolina secession convention (1861). Settle opposed secession but after it had occurred joined a Confederate regiment from North Carolina. After the war, he served as a Republican state senator from North

SEWARD, WILLIAM HENRY 3 17

Carolina (1866-1868) and associate justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court (1868-1871). He served as U.S. minister to Peru (1871-1872). Afterward, he again served as an associate justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court (1872-1876) and was a judge of the U.S. district court for Florida (1877-1888). SEWALL, HAROLD MARSH (1860-1924). Politician and diplomat. Born in Bath, Maine, he served as U.S. minister to the Hawaiian Islands (1897-1898). He was also a member of the Maine House of Representatives (1896, 1903-1907)' a delegate from Maine to the Republican National Convention (1896), a Maine state senator (1907-1909), a congressman from Maine (1914), and a member from Maine of the Republican National Committee (1924). SEWARD, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1830-1915). Lawyer and cabinet officer. He was the son of William Henry Seward and served as assistant secretary of state (1861-1869, 1877-188 1). During the Civil War he handled much of his father's diplomatic correspondence. During the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson, Frederick Seward testified that many of the president's interim diplomatic appointments were made out of necessity. Seward's memoirs were Reminiscences of a Wartime Statesman and Diplomat, 1830-1915 (1916). SEWARD, GEORGE FREDERICK (1840-1910). Diplomat. A resident of California, he was the nephew of William Henry Seward. He became U.S. consul in China (1861) and consul general (1863), and served as U.S. minister to China (1876-1880). SEWARD, WILLIAM HENRY (1801-1872). Politician and statesman. Born in Orange County, New York, he was governor of New York (1839-1843) and Whig senator from New York (1849-1861), serving for a time on the Foreign Relations Committee. He was a leading abolitionist leader of his

3 18 SEWARD'S ICE BOX

party who declared in 1850 that there was a "higher law than the Constitution" regarding the issue of slavery, and described, in 1858, an "irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces." He was one of the founders of the Republican Party and a front-runner for the Republican presidential nomination in 1860, but he lost the nomination to Abraham Lincoln. When Lincoln offered to appoint Seward secretary of state, he accepted reluctantly because he had little faith in the new president's abilities. The LincolnSeward relationship, consequently, was initially stiff and formal, but it evolved into a trusting, even warm association, as Seward, who conferred almost every day with the president, became one of Lincoln's few close acquaintances during the war years. As secretary of state under both Presidents Lincoln and Andrew Johnson (1861-1869), Seward practiced a firm and sometimes aggressive diplomacy. During the Civil War, he adroitly handled and defused the Trent affair, fended off foreign diplomatic recognition of the Confederacy, prevented British or French involvement on the side of the Confederacy, and convinced the French to withdraw their forces from Mexico. After the war, he stood as one of the few voices for American expansionism. He negotiated the purchase of Alaska from Russia and acquired the Midway Islands. He is typically viewed as one of the great secretaries of state of American history. See also FOREIGN WAR PANACEA MYTH. SEWARD'S ICE BOX. See ALASKA, PURCHASE OF. SEYS, JOHN (c. 1810-c. 1870). Missionary and diplomat. Born in the West Indies and later a resident of Ohio, he was long associated with the American Colonization Society. He was a missionary to the Oneida Indians and then ran a mission in Liberia (1834-1845). While there, he became embroiled in Liberian politics, leading the opposition to Joseph Roberts, who was to become Liberia's first president. In 1845, Seys became pastor of the Bedford Street Methodist Episcopal

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Church of New York City, and, in 1850, he became director of the Maryland Colonization Society. He returned to Liberia in 1856 to examine the country's interior for the purpose of finding new areas for the settlement of emigrants. President James Buchanan appointed him U.S. agent on the coast of Africa (1858), and he returned again to Liberia briefly in 1858. Seys served as U.S. agent for liberated Africans at Monrovia (1860-1865) and became the first U.S. minister to Liberia (1866-1870). SHANNON, RICHARD CUTTS (1839-1920). Soldier, politician, and diplomat. Born in new London, Connecticut, he was a colonel in the Union army during the Civil War. He served as secretary of the U.S. legation at Rio de Janeiro (187 1-1875) and as U.S. minister to Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Nicaragua (1891-1893). He was the vice president, general manager, and president of the Botanical Garden Railroad Company (1876-1883), an American company in Brazil. He was also a congressman from New York (18951899). SHARP, WILLIAM GRAVES (1859-1922). Politician, diplomat, and businessman. Born in Morrow County, Ohio, he was a prosecuting attorney of Lorrain County, Ohio (18851888), a Democratic member of Congress from Ohio (19091913), and a delegate to the Democratic National Convention of 1904. Later, he served as U.S. ambassador to France (1914-1919). SHELLABARGER, SAMUEL (1817-1896). Politician and diplomat. Born in Clark County, Ohio, he was a member of the Ohio House of Representatives (1852-1853) and then served as a Republican congressman from Ohio (18611863). He was U.S. minister to Portugal (1869-1870) and then served again as a congressman (1865-1869, 18711873). Afterward, he was a member of the United States Civil Service Commission (1874-1875).

320 SHENANDOAH, CSS

SHENANDOAH, CSS. Confederate raider that in, 1864-1865, cruised the North Pacific, capturing 38 ships before sailing for England at war's end and surrendering at Liverpool. When British officials released the vessel's officers and crew, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles protested to Secretary of State William Seward that the ship was a pirate ship and her crew should have been treated as pirates. The Shenandoah had fatally crippled the American Pacific whaling industry. SHERMAN, JOHN (1823-1900). Statesman and financier. Born in Lancaster, Ohio, he was the brother of William Tecumseh Sherman and one of the founders of the Republican Party. He served as senator from Ohio (1861-1877, 1881-1897) and as secretary of the treasury under President Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881). Despite increasing age and infirmity, he accepted the position of secretary of state (1897-1898) under President William McKinley. During his brief tenure, he advanced American ideas of most favored nation status in trade, and the Open Door Policy in Asia before Secretary of State John Hay coined the phrase. He resigned in 1898, in part because of health and in part because of his own opposition to the Spanish-American War. SHERMAN, WILLIAM TECUMSEH (1820-189 1). Military leader and statesman. He is considered one of the great generals of the Civil War. Later, he served as secretary of war under President Ulysses S. Grant (1869). SHERRILL, CHARLES HITCHCOCK (1867-1936). Diplomat. Born in Washington, D.C., he served as minister to Argentina (1909-1910) and ambassador to Turkey (1932-1933). SHIMONOSEKI, TREATY OF (1895). Signed on 17 April 1895 between China and Japan, ending the Sino-Japanese War. China recognized the independence of Korea and renounced any claims to the Peninsula. China also agreed to pay Japan a war indemnity and to open various ports and

SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR 32 1 rivers to international trade. Many governments, including the United States, disapproved of the treaty's harsh treatment of China. SHIPPING. The American merchant marine had grown steadily in the early 19th century but began to decline in the immediate antebellum decades. Confederate commerce raiding accelerated the decline of the merchant marine, which continued until World War I. During these same years, the British merchant marine gained a monopoly of the oceanic transportation of American goods, in part because of British technological advantages: an earlier adoption of steam propulsion and ironlsteel construction. The coastwise trade, meanwhile, remained in the hands of American-registered shipping because of federal cabotage laws closing that trade to foreignowned vessels. See also LINERS; PACKET BOATS; STEAMSHIPS. SHUFELDT, ROBERT WILSON (1822-1895). Naval officer and diplomat. He is considered one of the 19th century American navy's most eminent diplomats. He served an initial 15 years (1839-1854) in the navy, resigning to enter the merchant marine. During the Civil War he was consul general to Havana (1861-1862) and then served on a special confidential mission to Mexico in response to the Maximilian affair. He reentered the navy as a commander in 1863. He was naval attach6 in Beijing, China (188 1-1882) and in 1882 he negotiated a commercial treaty with Korea. In 1878, he was briefly involved in the delimitation of the border of Liberia. See also JOHANNA; MADAGASCAR; MUSCAT; ZANZIBAR. SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (1825-19 14). Soldier, politician, and diplomat. Born in New York City, he served in Congress from New York (1857-1861), distinguished himself in the Army of the Potomac during the Civil War, and served as U.S. minister to Spain (1869-1874). Later, he again was a member of Congress fiom New York (1893-1895).

322 SILL, JOHN MAHEIM BERRY

SILL, JOHN MAHEIM BERRY (1831-1901). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Korea (1894-1897). SINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-1895). War between China and Japan, mainly over the control of Korea. China was able to offer little resistance to a modem Japanese army that had been restructured on European models. The United States remained neutral in the war but favored Japan. Japan took the Liaotung Peninsula (Manchuria), but European nations successfully forced Japan to return Liaotung. The war ended with the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 1895). The war, and the apparent imminent carving up of China by European powers, threatened the traditional American policy of an "open door" in China and contributed, ultimately, to the articulation of the Open Door Policy by Secretary of State John Hay. SKINNER, ROBERT PEET (1866-1960). Consular representative and diplomat. A resident of Ohio, he served as U.S. consul general at Marseille (1906), Berlin (1914), and London (1916-1924). He then became U.S. minister to Greece (1926-1932), Estonia (1931-1933), Latvia (193 1-l933), and Lithuania (193 1-1933). Finally, he served as U.S. ambassador to Turkey (1933-1936). SLIDELL, JOHN (1783-187 1). Politician and Confederate diplomat. He was appointed minister to Mexico (1845) but declined the position. During the Civil War he was sent by the Confederacy to France to negotiate for loans and diplomatic recognition. See also Trent affair. SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842-1908). Journalist and statesman. Born in Mansfield, Connecticut, he moved to Albany, New York, and taught at the Albany Academy (18621865). He was editor of the Albany Express (1865-1870) and was then on the staff (1870-1876) and served as editor (1876-1880) of the Albany Journal. He then was editor and

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part owner of the Philadelphia Press (1880-1908). Smith was also active in Republican Party politics, serving as a delegate to the Republican National Conventions of 1876 and 1896 and drafting the party's platforms at those conventions. He served as U.S. minister to Russia (1890-1892), where he was responsible for the distribution of food and money to Russian victims of famine. Later, he was postmaster general under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt (1898-1901). SMITH, EZEKIEL EZRA (1842-1933). Educator, preacher, and diplomat. Born into slavery in Faison, Duplin County, North Carolina, he taught school (1870) and preached (1879), serving as principal of the Goldsborough, North Carikuba, grade school (1879-1883) and the Fayetteville, North Carolina, state normal school for African Americans (1883). He also was secretary of the North Carolina Baptist Convention (1876-1883) and served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1888-1890). SMITH, MADISON ROSWELL (1850-1919). Politician and diplomat. Born in Bollinger County, Missouri, he taught school and practiced law in Missouri and was prosecuting attorney of Bollinger County (1878-1882). He served as a Democratic congressman from Missouri (1907-1909) and later became U.S. minister to Haiti (1913-1914). SMITH, OWEN LUN WEST (1851-1926). Diplomat. Born into slavery in Sampson County, North Carolina, he was a resident of Wilson County, North Carolina. He served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1898-1902). SMYTH, JOHN HENRY (1844-1908). Lawyer, educator, and diplomat. Born in Richmond, Virginia, to a father who was a slave and a mother who was a free black, he studied at the Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts (1858) and the Institute for Colored Youth (1859-1862). He taught in public schools in Philadelphia, Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania, and Pottsville,

324 SMYTHE, HENRY MAXWELL

Pennsylvania, traveled to London to study acting, and then studied at Howard University Law School, graduating in 1872. He was a delegate to the Virginia constitutional convention (1875), practiced law in Washington, D.C., and worked in the office of the U.S. comptroller (1876). He campaigned on behalf of Rutherford B. Hayes in the 1876 presidential election, and came to the attention of Frederick Douglass. Douglass, in turn, recommended Smyth for the position of U.S. minister to Liberia (1878-1881, 1882-1885). He was awarded an honorary LL.D. degree from Liberia College and was named Knight Commander of the Liberian Humane Order of African Redemption. After his service in Liberia, he worked in real estate in Washington, D.C., edited the Richmond, Virginia, Reformer (c. 1896) and founded and headed the Virginia Manual Labor School, whose purpose was to instill a work ethic among African American youths (1897-1908). SMYTHE, HENRY MAXWELL (1844-1932). Journalist and diplomat. He was publisher of the Clinch Valley News of Virginia (1876-1884). He served as U.S. chargC d'affaires to Santo Domingo and minister to Haiti (1893-1897). Later, he edited and published the Pocahontas Field Headlight of Tazewell County, Virginia (c. 1909). SNOWDEN, ARCHIBALD LOUDON (1837-1912). Diplomat. A resident of Pennsylvania, he served as U.S. minister to Greece, Romania, and Serbia (1889-1892), and minister to Spain (1892-1893). SORSBY, WILLIAM BROOKS (1858-1912). Diplomat. A resident of Mississippi, he served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1902-1908), and minister to Honduras (1908). SPAIN-UNITED STATES RELATIONS. During the second half of the 19th century, Spain was an empire and a monarchy in decline. Spanish political history of the period consisted of sporadic political disorders. The queen abdicated in

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1868. From 1868 to 1875 there were attempts at modernization, and in 1873 the Cortes proclaimed a republic, but a Bourbon king regained the throne in 1875 and a conservative constitution was promulgated in 1876. Meanwhile, relations with the United States were largely defined by Spanish interests in the Western Hemisphere. Spain took advantage of the American Civil War to attempt a reannexation of Santo Domingo, but the Dominicans revolted and Spanish forces withdrew in 1865. Also during the Civil War, Spain had participated in the signing of the Convention of London (1861) and Spanish forces had occupied Vera Cruz, Mexico, in late 1861, in events leading to the Maximilian affair. Spanish possession of Cuba proved a continuing irritant, ultimately culminating in the Spanish-American War. See also OSTEND MANIFESTO; VIRGINIUS AFFAIR. SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898). The "splendid little war" that began on 25 April 1898 was a war that had been long anticipated in the United States, and a war for which the Navy was well prepared. The U.S. Army, on the other hand, had no plans for mobilization. The Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey was in Hong Kong, with orders to engage the Spanish in the Philippines. On 1 May, in the seven-hour battle of Manila Bay, four U.S. cruisers and two gunboats confronted Spanish naval forces. The Spanish lost 381 men and all Spanish vessels were destroyed or captured, while only eight Americans were wounded. On 13 August, the U.S. Army, assisted by Emilio Aguinaldo (who had been sent by Commodore Dewey), seized Manila. Meanwhile, in the Caribbean, on 19 May, the Spanish fleet slipped by American ships and entered Santiago harbor. The U.S. fleet under Admiral William T. Sampson bottled the Spanish fleet up in Santiago Bay but, because of the presence of the harbor's fortifications, had to wait until the fleet was out of the harbor to engage it in battle. A U.S. expeditionary force (including the Rough Riders) of about 17,000 regulars and volunteers sailed from Tampa on 14 June, landing on the southeast coast of Cuba, east of Santi-

326 SPERRY, WATSON ROBERTSON

ago and winning the battle of San Juan Hill. After the American victory, U. S. ships engaged the Spanish fleet on 3 July, in the battle of Santiago Bay, a four-hour battle that destroyed the Spanish forces and ended the fighting. In all, the United States lost only 379 in combat, but over 5,000 to disease or accidents. Elsewhere, on 4 July, U.S. troops took Wake Island; on 7 July Hawaii was annexed; and on 25 July Puerto Rico was occupied. Spain requested France to negotiate an armistice. The United States demanded that Spain relinquish Cuba and cede Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States. The war was formally ended under the Treaty of Paris (1898), and the United States eventually paid Spain $20 million for the Philippines. See also ANTI-IMPERIALISM; CUBAN-AMERICAN RELATIONS; PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1900. SPERRY, WATSON ROBERTSON (1842-1926). Journalist and diplomat. A resident of Delaware, he graduated from Yale University and was an editor of the New York Evening Post (c. 1871-c. 1880). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Persia (1892-1893). SPHERES O F INFLUENCE. Areas in which the authority of outside powers is considered superior to the power of the actual local political authority. In the late 19th century, European powers, especially, began to develop spheres of influence in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific region. With the Open Door Policy, the United States hoped to ensure that it, too, would have equal opportunity to develop spheres of influence. "SPLENDID LITTLE WAR." Phrase used by John Hay to describe the Spanish-American War. SPRECKELS, CLAUS (1828-1908). Sugar industry entrepreneur. As head of the California sugar trust, he exercised a near monopoly over the Pacific Coast American sugar indus-

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try and became known as the "Sugar King." Because of his extensive holdings in Hawaii, he had immense influence in the politics of Hawaii from 1876 to 1908. He was a powerful adviser to King Kalakaua and worked to restore Queen Liliuokalani aRer her 1893 overthrow. SQUADRONS, UNITED STATES NAVAL. Until the 1890s, "squadrons" in the U.S. Navy were administrative units rather than operational entities. Squadrons rarely functioned together as operational units, but rather constituted the naval vessels serving on a given "station7'-which was a geographical designation. Such squadrons existed mainly to patrol the seas to protect American commerce. At mid-century, the navy had six "squadrons": Mediterranean Squadron (Mediterranean Sea); Pacific Squadron (the Pacific from California to Hawaii); East India Squadron (from Hawaii to China coast); Brazil Squadron (from Rio around Cape Horn to the Pacific or around Cape of Good Hope); African Squadron (the Atlantic, mainly slave patrol); and the Home Squadron (Gulf of Mexico). These squadrons varied in size and desirability or attractiveness. During the Civil War the federal naval force was divided into four blockading squadrons (West Gulf, East Gulf, North Atlantic, and South Atlantic) and a Flying Squadron (West India Squadron). In June 1865, the European Squadron, operating in the Atlantic south of Scotland and west of Denmark, to the Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries, was established. In July 1865, the East India squadron was established to patrol the area from the Strait of Sunda to the shores of Japan. In August 1865, the Brazil Squadron was established to protect U.S. interests in the South Atlantic. Later in the 19th century, the Squadron of Evolution, North Atlantic Squadron, and North Pacific Squadron were created. By the 1890s, these units were evolving, by strategic design, into true operational units. SQUIERS, HERBERT GOLDSMITH (1859-191 1). Diplomat. Born in Madoc, Ontario, he served in the U.S. Army (18771891) and was a military instructor at St. John's College of

328 STALLO, JOHN BERNHARD

Fordham University (1885-1890). He was second secretary at the U.S. legation in Berlin (1894) and first secretary at the U.S. legation in Beijing (1898-1902). In 1900, during the "Siege of the Legations" episode of the Boxer Rebellion in China, Squiers helped to maintain order and defuse racial tensions. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Cuba (19021905) and Panama (1906-1909). STALLO, JOHN BERNHARD (1823-1900). Diplomat. Born in Sierhausen, Germany, he emigrated to the United States in 1839 and taught school in Cincinnati, Ohio, and New York City (1839-1847). He served as a judge of the Cincinnati Court of Common Pleas (1853-1855), and later served as U.S. minister to Italy (1885-1889). Stallo was also the author of General Principles of the Philosophy of Nature (1848) and Concepts and Theories of Modern Physics (1882). STANLEY, HENRY MORTON (1841-1904). Journalist and explorer. His most famous expedition was to equatorial Africa (1870-1871) to search for Scottish missionary David Livingstone. Afterward, he continued his explorations and greatly increased the knowledge of African geography in the Lake Victoria region. See also AFRICA-UNITED STATES RELATIONS; BENNETT, JAMES GORDON. STANTON, EDWIN MCMASTERS (1814-1869). Jurist, politician, and statesman. He served as secretary of war under both Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson (1862-1868). Johnson suspended him in August 1867, but the Senate restored him the following January. STATE, SECRETARY OF. The head of the U.S. Department of State, typically the individual responsible for the development and oversight of U.S. foreign policy, and often described as the nation's "top diplomat." The secretary of state advises the president on all matters relating to diplomacy and foreign policy and often speaks for the president at highlevel events. In the 19th century, when American foreign

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contacts were more limited than was the case after World War 11, the secretary of state often directly handled official correspondence with American representatives-ministers and ambassadors-abroad. Since, during the years between the Civil War and World War I, foreign affairs sometimes took a back seat to domestic concerns, not all secretaries of state were prominent and active. On the other hand, the nation could boast some first-rate "top diplomats" during these years. William H. Seward (1861-1869) often gets much of the credit for the Union's successful wartime diplomacy, and afterward he stood as an early proponent of late-century expansionism. Hamilton Fish (1869-1 877), an outstanding secretary in the otherwise dismal cabinet of President Ulysses S. Grant, skillfully resolved a number of sticky diplomatic problems and was able to avoid war with Spain. James G. Blaine (1881, 18891892) began the serious movement toward closer hemispheric ties and articulated an internationalism that was to characterize the new American approach to the world by the turn of the 20th century. Richard Olney (1895-1897) significantly expanded the principles of the Monroe Doctrine and, in the process, placed the United States in a new and expanded role in Latin America. John Hay (1898-1905) not only established the principle that was to guide U.S. policy in Asia, especially, for many decades, but he also engaged in the diplomatic spade work that produced a canal, under American control, in the Isthmus of Panama. Elihu Root (1905- 1909) represented the conservative internationalism that was to mark much of 20th century U.S. foreign policy. All of these secretaries practiced a "vigorous" foreign policy that helped to transform America's role in the world. See also BACON, ROBERT; BAYARD, THOMAS; BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS; DAY, WILLIAM R.; EVARTS, WILLIAM M.; FOSTER, JOHN W.; FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK T.; GRESHAM, WALTER Q.; KNOX, PHILANDER C.; SHERMAN, JOHN; WASHBURNE, ELIHU B.; APPENDIX B.

330 STATIONS, U.S. NAVAL

STATIONS, U.S. NAVAL. See SQUADRONS, U.S. NAVAL. STATUE OF LIBERTY. See LIBERTY, STATUE OF. STEAMSHIPS. In the decades after the Civil War, steam conquered the Atlantic, as steamships became faster, larger, and safer, and gained an increasing dominance of oceanic transportation. Steamships became essential to the expansion of international trade. At the same time, the period was an era of American maritime decline. The American merchant marine remained predominantly sail until the end of the century. U.S. shipyards could not compete technologically with European yards, and the cost of building ships was considerably higher in the United States than in Europe. Several patterns emerged from these developments. Although shipping in high volume, low-value items continued to be dominated by sailing fleets, steamships dominated those cargoes that were low volume, high value--especially mail, specialized manufactured products, and human cargo. Despite U.S. efforts to provide shipping subsidies--often through mail contracts-U.S. steamship companies had difficulty competing. As a result, by 1914, United States-flag vessels carried only one-quarter of all tonnage in and out of American ports. See also OCEAN MAIL ACT OF 1891; OCEAN MAIL SUBSIDY BILL; OCEANIC PASSENGER TRAVEL; UNITED STATES AND BRAZIL MAIL STEAMSHIP COMPANY. STEEL INDUSTRY. The steel industry was the great growth industry of the post-Civil War U.S. economy. It was essential to all other industrial development of the period. In 1867, the United States produced 19,000 tons of steel. In 1900, the United States led the world in steel production, at 10 million tons. The first billion dollar corporation was formed in 1901 when J. Pierpont Morgan created U.S. Steel Corporation out of Carnegie Steel and other companies. See also CARNEGIE, ANDREW.

STIMSON, HENRY LEWIS 33 1

STEVENS, JOHN LEAVITT (1820-1895). Diplomat and journalist. He served as U.S. minister to Paraguay and Uruguay (1870-1874), and to Norway and Sweden (1877-1 883). He then served as minister resident and envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Hawaii (1889-1893). In February 1893, Stevens recognized the provisional government of Sanford Dole that replaced Queen Liliuokalani, and requested that marines fi-om the USS Boston land to support the new government. When President Grover Cleveland took office the following month, however, the new president withdrew the annexation treaty that Stevens had championed and recalled the minister for his role in the events. See also HAWAII ANNEXATION. STILWELL, THOMAS NEEL (1830-1874). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Butler County, Ohio, he practiced law in Indiana, was a member of the Indiana House of Representatives (1856), and served in the Union army during the Civil War. After the war, he was a Republican congressman from Indiana (1865-1867), served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1867-1868), and was president of the First National Bank of Anderson, Indiana. (1869-1874). STIMSON, FREDERIC JESUP (1855-1943). Lawyer, author, and diplomat. Born in Dedham, Massachusetts, he was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for Congress (1902) and then was a professor of law at Harvard University (19031914). Stimson next served as ambassador to Argentina (19 14-192 I), the first American representative to Argentina to hold that rank. STIMSON, HENRY LEWIS (1867-1950). Lawyer and statesman. Born in New York City, he was a law partner of Elihu Root and served as secretary of war (191 1-1913) under President William Howard Taft. Appointed secretary in the midst of a crisis in Mexican-American relations, he continued Root's work of reorganizing the army to make it more efficient. Later, he served as secretary of state (1929-1933)

332 STOCKTON, JOHN POTTER

under President Herbert Hoover, and secretary of war (19401945) under Presidents Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman. STOCKTON, JOHN POTTER (1826-1900). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Princeton, New Jersey, he was a state reporter to the New Jersey Court of Chancery (18521858) and served as U.S. minister to the Papal States (18581861). He was also a delegate to the Democratic National Conventions of 1864 and 1876 and served as a Democratic senator from New Jersey (1869-1875) and attorney general of New Jersey (1877-1897). STORER, BELLAMY (1847-1922). Politician and diplomat. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, he was a Republican congressman from Ohio (1891-1895) and then served as U.S. minister to Belgium (1897-1899), minister to Spain (1899-1902), and ambassador to Austria-Hungary (1902-1906). He was recalled from Austria-Hungary in 1906 because of "undue activity in ecclesiastical matters." STOUGHTON, EDWIN WALLACE (18 18-1882). Attorney and diplomat. Born in Springfield, Vermont, he was admitted to the bar (1840) and practiced in New York City. After the Civil War, he was active in Republican Party politics and became a staunch defender of Presidents Ulysses S. Grant and Rutherford B. Hayes. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Russia (1878-1879). STRAIGHT, WILLARD (1880-19 18). Banker and diplomat. Born in Oswego, New York, he graduated from Cornell (1901) and worked for the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service in Nanking. He then became private secretary to Sir Robert Hart in Peking (Beijing). During the RussoJapanese War, he worked as a correspondent for Reuters News Service and the Associated Press (1904-1905). Afterward, he was private secretary to Edwin V. Morgan, the American minister to Korea, and also served as vice consul

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in Seoul. Straight followed Morgan to Havana shortly thereafter and served as secretary to the American legation there. He then became consul general at Mukden, Manchuria (1906-1908). He served as acting chief of the division of Far Eastern affairs at the Department of State in Washington (1908), and then returned to Peking as the representative of a consortium of American bankers exploring investment opportunities in China (1909-191 1). Straight then became an analyst of Far Eastern affairs for J. P. Morgan Company in Peking. Throughout all this activity, and after, Straight worked to promote American business development in China. In the opening phases of World War I, Straight was among those Americans with a broad strategic understanding of the connection between the security of the British fleet and the security of the United States. In addition, he viewed the war as a commercial and banking opportunity for the United States, at the expense of the British. Consequently, he was among early American interventionists. STRAUS, OSCAR SOLOMON (1850-1926). Merchant, politician, and diplomat. Born in Germany, he emigrated to the United States, settled in Georgia, and then moved to New York City after the Civil War. He served as U.S. minister to Turkey (1887-1889, 1898-1899) and as the first U.S. ambassador to Turkey (1909-1910). In 1902, he was appointed to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. He also served as secretary of commerce and labor (1906-1909) under President Theodore Roosevelt and was the author of The Origin of the Republican Form of Government in the United States of America (1886). STROBEL, EDWARD HENRY (1855-1908). Diplomat. A resident of New York, he served as third assistant secretary of state (1893) and was U.S. minister to Ecuador (1894) and Chile (1 894-1897). STRONG, JOSIAH (1847-1916). Clergyman and writer. His Our Country is viewed as one of the key works of liberal

334 STUART. GRANVILLE

Christianity, sometimes called "Christian Socialism," and the spirit of his ideas about Anglo-Saxon moral destiny, if not actually his words, constituted part of an optimistic imperialist surge in the United States in the late 19th century. STUART, GRANVILLE (1834-19 18). Diplomat. A resident of Montana, he served as U.S. minister to Paraguay (1894) and Uruguay (1894-1898). STUTESMAN, JAMES FLYNN (1860-1917). Politician and diplomat. Born in Peru, Indiana, he was a member of the Indiana House of Representatives (1895, 1901-1903) and served as U.S. minister to Bolivia (1908-1910). SUGAR INDUSTRY. By the 1890s, the U.S. sugar industry had become consolidated into a trust that held monopolistic control of virtually all domestic American sugar refining. The sugar industry throughout the late 19th century actively lobbied for protective tariff legislation. It also took an interest in events in Hawaii. SULLIVAN, JAMES MARK (1873-1933). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to the Dominican Republic (19131915). He participated in the Easter Uprising in Ireland (19 16); he was arrested but then released because of his diplomatic status. SULLIVAN, PETER JOHN (1821- 1883). Soldier and diplomat. Born in Cork, Ireland, he emigrated with his parents to Philadelphia in 1823. He served in the U.S. Army in the Mexican-American War, was official stenographer for the U.S. Senate, and practiced law in Cincinnati, Ohio. During the Civil War, he helped to organize volunteer regiments from Ohio, and he served as a colonel in the Union army. After the war, he served as U.S. minister to Colombia (18671869).

SWIFT, JOHN FRANKLIN 3 3 5

SUMNER, CHARLES (18 11-1874). Senator from Massachusetts. He was a leader of the U.S. Senate in its rejection of the Johnson-Clarendon Convention in 1869, and in the Senate's demand for $2.125 billion in collateral damages from Great Britain in the Alabama claims. Toward the end of his political career he developed a reputation as a petty obstructionist and was eventually removed as chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Some interpretations have argued that Sumner's removal paved the way for improved Anglo-American relations later in the century. See also GREAT RAPPROCHEMENT; NABOTH'S VINEYARD. SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM (1840-1910). Theologian and political scientist. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, he was one of the most prominent spokesman for laissez-faire economic policies SURVEY OF THE COAST. See COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, UNITED STATES. SWAIN'S ISLAND. A two-square-mile island, about 200 miles northwest of Samoa, usually included as part of the Samoan Group of islands. It was acquired by the United States in 1925. See also AMERICAN SAMOA. SWENSON, LAURITZ SELMER (1865-1947). Politician and diplomat. Born in Sweden, he served as U.S. minister to Denmark (1897-19O5), Switzerland (1909-191I), Norway (191 1-1913, 1921-1930), and the Netherlands (1931-1934). He was also a delegate from Minnesota to the Republican National Convention (1896). SWIFT, JOHN FRANKLIN (1829-1891). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Japan (1889-1891).

336 TAFT, ALPHONSO

TAFT, ALPHONSO (1810-1891). Jurist and politician. A resident of Cincinnati, Ohio, he was a delegate to the Republican National Conventions of 1856 and 1860, and served as a superior court judge of Ohio (1865-1862). Afterward, he served as secretary of war (March-May 1876) and attorney general (1876-1877) under President Ulysses S. Grant. Later, he was U.S. minister to Austria-Hungary (1882-1884) and Russia (1884-1885). He was the father of William Howard Taft. TAFT, WILLIAM HOWARD (1857-1930). Lawyer, jurist, and president. Son of Alphonso Taft, he was president of the Taft Commission (1900-1901) and civil governor of the Philippines (1901-1904). As civil governor, he helped to resolve a church-state controversy by acquiring the former lands of the Roman Catholic Church and selling them to landless Filipinos. He then served as secretary of war under President Theodore Roosevelt (1904-1908), to whom Taft was a close adviser. A Republican, he was elected 27th president in 1908, serving one term (1909-1913). Philander C. Knox served under him as secretary of state, and George von Lengerke Meyer as secretary of the treasury. As president, Taft signed the protectionist Payne-Aldrich Tariff, despite public calls for tariff reform. His foreign policy, essentially, continued the policies of Theodore Roosevelt, contributing the concept of dollar diplomacy to Caribbean and Pacific affairs. As a committed internationalist, he negotiated arbitration treaties despite the opposition of some members of his party, especially Henry Cabot Lodge, and a reciprocity agreement with Canada. He was defeated for reelection in 1912, but later served as chief justice of the Supreme Court (1921-1930). TAFT COMMISSION (1900-1901). A board appointed on 16 March 1899 by President William McKinley to provide civil government for the Philippines. The commission was

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given the authority to implement the recommendations of the Schurman Commission. William Howard Taft chaired the commission, which, within 18 months, had created the structure of local government for the islands. Taft then became the first civil governor of the Philippines (1901-1904). See also PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. TAFT-KATSURA AGREEMENT (1905). In July 1905, Secretary of War William Howard Taft traveled to Tokyo to meet with Japan's premier Katsura Taro. As a result of their discussions, Katsura assured Taft that Japan would respect U.S. sovereignty in the Philippines, and Taft, in turn, pledged that the United States would accept Japanese control in Korea and Manchuria. TAMPICO INCIDENT (1914). On 6 April 1914, troops loyal to Victoriano Huerta arrested several U.S. marines in Tampico, Mexico, and marched them through the streets. Although the Mexican government apologized for the incident, it rejected a request by Rear Admiral Henry Mayo that there be a Mexican salute to the American flag. The United States responded by bombarding and occupying the city. See also MEXICAN REVOLUTION. TARAWA. Island in the north Gilbert Islands. Great Britain declared a protectorate over the islands in 1892. See also ABAIANG, AMERICAN SHELLING OF; ELLICE ISLANDS. TARIFF. A tax on goods being imported into a country, levied by the nation importing the products. In general, tariffs can be levied both to raise revenue (revenue tariffs) and to protect domestic industries (protective tariffs). In the United States, tariffs were typically used to protect sugar, tobacco, and manufactured goods. See also MOST FAVORED NATION STATUS; RECIPROCITY; TARIFF ISSUE.

338 TARIFF ISSUE, THE

TARIFF ISSUE, THE. The dominant continuing issue of American politics from the Civil War to World War I. Just before the Civil War, Congress passed a tariff with very low rates, almost making the United States a free trade nation. But rates rose to nearly 50 percent during the Civil War and remained high for the balance of the century. Tariff "reform"-meaning lowering tariff rates-became an issue in every presidential campaign beginning in the 1880s, with the Republican Party (some of its roots being in the protectionist Whig Party) consistently supporting protection, and the Democratic Party supporting reform. See also DINGLEY TARIFF; MCKINLEY TARIFF; MORRILL TARIFF; PAYNE-ALDRICH TARIFF; PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGNS; PROTECTIVE TARIFF; TARIFF OF 1883; WILSON-GORMAN TARIFF; UNDERWOOD TARIFF. TARIFF OF 1883. Also known as the "mongrel tariff." President Chester A. Arthur had attempted to convince Congress to lower tariff rates by about 25 percent, but instead Congress passed a tariff that lowered some rates, raised others, and in effect implemented barely a 1.5 percent reduction. Arthur signed the bill, which had been passed by a lameduck Congress, without enthusiasm. See also TARIFF ISSUE. TAUSSIG, FRANK WILLIAM (1859-1940). College professor and authority on international trade. He was an advocate of lowering tariff rates. TAYLOR, [JAMES] BAYARD (1825-1878). Author, journalist, statesman. Born in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, he served as a master's mate with commodore Matthew C. Perry's expedition to Japan (1853). He traveled in Europe for the New York Tribune, wrote poems and novels, taught at Cornell University, and translated Goethe. Later, Taylor served as U.S. minister to Germany (1878).

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TAYLOR, CHARLES HENRY JAMES (1857-1898). Attorney, journalist, and diplomat. Born in Alabama, he attended Oberlin College, campaigned for General Wade Hampton in the 1876 South Carolina gubernatorial election, studied law in Michigan, and then moved to Kansas. He served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1887), which he afterward described in gloomy terms as a nation without currency, transportation, or industry. He was active in Democratic Party politics, and edited the Kansas City, Kansas, American Citizen. In 1893, President Grover Cleveland nominated Taylor as U.S. minister to Bolivia but had to withdraw the nomination in the face of racially motivated congressional opposition. Afterward, Cleveland appointed him as recorder of deeds of Washington, D.C. (1894), where he also practiced law. Taylor served as dean of the law department of Morris Brown college in Atlanta, and was owner and editor of the Atlanta Appeal. TAYLOR, HANNIS (1851-1922). Lawyer and diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Spain (1893-1897) and was a professor of constitutional and international law at George Washington University (1904- 1906). He was U.S. special counsel before the Spanish Treaty Claims Commission in 1902 and a U.S. counsel in the Alaska boundary case (1903). Taylor was the author of numerous works, including a biography of Cicero. TELEGRAPH. Invented in 1844 by Samuel F. B. Morse, the telegraph was the primary means of swift communication throughout the late 19th century. Undersea telegraph cables significantly altered the nature of international diplomacy and control over fleet operations. Whereas, traditionally, naval officers were semi-independent of their civilian leaders because of the length of time that dispatches took to get from land headquarters to a vessel on the high seas, now communication could be almost instantaneous, or at least very swift. Commanders, therefore, could be directed and controlled

340 TELEPHONE

from the shore and had less independent authority. See also ATLANTIC CABLE. TELEPHONE. Patented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, telephones were becoming increasingly common in business and government by the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first commercial transatlantic telephone service was not instituted until 1927, however. TELLER AMENDMENT (1898). An amendment to the U.S. declaration of war on Spain (25 April 1898), drafted by Colorado senator Henry M. Teller, that claimed that the United States had no intentions of annexing Cuba as a result of a war. According to the amendment, the United States "hereby disclaims any disposition of intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over [Cuba] except for pacification thereof, and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to leave the government and control of the island to its people." The desire for annexation of Cuba had long been a theme of U.S. diplomacy and Teller's amendment was designed, in part, to reassure anti-imperialists who would have opposed war against Spain if they believed it would result in territorial acquisitions. The Platt Amendment of 1902 superceded the Teller Amendment. See also ANTIIMPERIALISM; G U A N T ~ A M O BAY; OSTEND MANIFESTO; SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. TERRELL, ALEXANDER WATKINS (1827-1912). Jurist, politician, and diplomat. Born in Patrick County, Virginia, he practiced law in Austin, Texas, and was a Texas district court judge (1857-1862). Although a unionist who opposed secession, he served as a general in the Confederate army during the Civil War. Afterward, he was a Texas state senator (1875-1882) and served as U.S. minister to Turkey (1893-1896). TERRELL, EDWIN HOLLAND (1848-1910). Diplomat. Born in Brookville, Indiana, he moved to Texas in 1871. After

THOMAS, CLAUDE M. 341 graduating from Harvard Law School (1873), he studied international law and modern languages at the Sorbonne, Paris, and then practiced law in Indianapolis (1874-1877). In 1877, he moved to San Antonio, Texas, where he was vice president of the San Antonio Gas Company and the San Antonio Board of Trade. He served as U.S. minister to Belgium (1889-1893). During the same time, he was the U.S. representative to the International Congress on the Slave Trade (1889-1890) and to the International Conference on Customs Tariffs (1890), and served on the Commission Technique, which revised the tariff features of the 1885 Treaty of Berlin. In 1891, through negotiations with Belgium's king Leopold 11, Terrell arranged a treaty of commerce, amity, and navigation between the United States and the Congo Free State. In 1892, he served as a U.S. delegate to the International Monetary Conference. In addition, he was a delegate to the Republican National Conventions of 1880, 1888, and 1904. TERRITORIES. Divisions of the United States that have not yet become states and therefore are administered by the federal government. Until after the Civil War, most territories acquired by the United States became full states. Of the territories acquired since the Civil War, only Alaska and Hawaii have gained statehood. See also AMERICAN SAMOA; MIDWAY ISLAND; PANAMA CANAL; PUERTO RICO; TRUST TERRITORIES; VIRGIN ISLANDS; WAKE ISLAND. THAYER, SAMUEL RICHARD (1837-1909). Diplomat. A resident of Minnesota, he served as U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1889-1893). THOMAS, ALLEN (1830-1907). Soldier and diplomat. During the Civil War, he served in the Confederate army. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1895). THOMAS, CLAUDE M. (d. 1936). Politician and consular representative. He served as a member of the Kentucky state

342 THOMAS, FRANCIS

legislature and was a presidential elector for Kentucky in 1888 and 1892. He then served as U.S. consul in Marseille (1893-1 897). THOMAS, FRANCIS (1799-1876). Attorney, politician and diplomat. Born in Frederick County, Maryland, he was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates (1822, 18271829), Democratic congressman from Maryland (1831-1841, 1861-1869), governor of Maryland (1841-1845), and delegate to the Maryland constitutional convention (1850). After the Civil War, he served as U.S. minister to Peru (18721875). THOMAS, LORENZO (1804-1875). General. Born in New Castle, Delaware, he graduated from the United States Military Academy (1823) and served in the army in Florida, the Mexican War, and the Civil War. He was appointed by President Andrew Johnson to be secretary of war (1868) to replace Edwin M. Stanton, but when Stanton refused to resign and Congress backed him, Thomas declined to serve. THOMAS, WILLIAM WIDGERY, JR. (1839-1927). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Portland, Maine, he was a member of the Maine House of Representatives and a Maine state senator. He was studying law when he became a U.S. bearer of dispatches to carry a treaty to Turkey (Spring 1862). He then became vice consul general at Constantinople, acting consul at Galatz, Moldavia, and consul at Gothenburg, Sweden (1862-1865). Thomas was admitted to the bar in 1866 and later served as commissioner of immigration for Maine (1870), recruiting a colony of Swedes to establish New Sweden, Aroostook County, Maine. He served as U.S. minister to Sweden and Norway (1883-1885, 1889-1894, 1898-1905). Thomas was the first U.S. minister to address the king in Swedish. As minister, he helped to establish a steamship line between the United States and Sweden, to arrange the appointment of a Swedish jurist as chief justice of Samoa, under the Treaty of Berlin, and the appointment of

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a Norwegian to the Bering Sea Tribunal of Arbitration, and to lower Swedish tariffs on U.S. grain and pork. He was also the author of numerous articles for Harper's Monthly and Cosmopolitan. THOMPSON, DAVID EUGENE (1854-1942). Diplomat. A resident of Nebraska, he served as U.S. minister (1902-1905) and ambassador (1905) to Brazil, and ambassador to Mexico (1906-1909). THOMPSON, DAVID PRESTON (1834-1901). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Turkey (1892-1893). THOMPSON, JOHN E. W. (1855-1918). Physician and diplomat. A graduate of Yale Medical School, he served as U.S. chargC d'affaires to Santo Domingo (1885-1889), and minister to Haiti (1885-1889). Later, he served on the board of directors of McDonough Memorial Hospital in New York City, an institution established to care for indigent patients. THOMPSON, RICHARD WIGGINTON (1809-1900). Politician, jurist, and cabinet officer. He served as a member of the Indiana House of Representatives (1834-1836), and Indiana state senator (1836-1838), a congressman from Indiana (1841-1843, 1847-1849), and an Indiana state court judge (1867-1869). Thompson later served as secretary of the navy under President Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1880), who appointed him to pay off a political debt to Republican leaders in Indiana. As secretary of the navy, he tended to defer to Congress on matters of shipbuilding, allowing the navy to stagnate during his tenure. When Thompson accepted $25,000 from the French canal company headed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, Hayes fired him at the end of December 1880. THOMPSON, THOMAS LARKTN (1 838-1898). Politician and diplomat. He served as a delegate from California to the Democratic National Convention (1880, 1892), California

344 THOMSON, THADDEUS AUSTIN

secretary of state (1883-1887) and congressman from California (1887-1889), and California commissioner to the World's Columbian Exposition (1891). Later, he was U.S. minister to Brazil (1893-1897) under President Grover Cleveland. THOMSON, THADDEUS AUSTIN (1853-1927). Lawyer and diplomat. A delegate to the Democratic National Convention of 1912, he was appointed by President Woodrow Wilson as U.S. minister to Colombia (19 13-1916). As minister, he negotiated the Colombian Reparation Treaty, a reconciliation treaty that awarded Colombia $25 million for its loss of Panama and apologized for U.S. actions in acquiring the territory. TILLMAN, JAMES DAVIDSON (b. 1841). Diplomat. A resident of Tennessee, he served in the Confederate infantry during the Civil War. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (1895-1897) under President Grover Cleveland. TOBACCO INDUSTRY. One of the earliest commercial crops of colonial America, tobacco became part of the trend toward "big business" in the late 19th century. Toward the end of the century, James B. Duke created a tobacco trust that controlled production and distribution of tobacco. Although the trust was broken up in 1911 by the U.S. Supreme Court, tobacco was on its way to becoming a multinational business. TORBERT, ALFRED THOMAS ARCHIMEDES (18331880). Soldier and diplomat. Born in Delaware, he graduated from the United States Military Academy (1855) and served in the army in Texas, Florida, the Western United States, and the Civil War. After the war, he was U.S. minister to Salvador (1869-1871), and consul general at Havana (1871-1873) and Paris (1873-1878). Afterward, he was the president of a mining company operating in Mexico.

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TOTTEN, RALPH JAMES (1877-1949). Consular representative and diplomat. He served as U.S. consul at Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic (19O8), Maracaibo, Venezuela (19 10191I), Trieste (191 1-19 13), and Montevideo, Uruguay (19 13- 19 14). He then served as consul general at Barcelona (1922-1924). He was also consul general at Cape Town (1926-1930) and minister to South Africa (1929-1937). TOWER, CHARLEMAGNE (1848-1823). Businessman and diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Austria-Hungary (1897-1899), ambassador to Russia (1899-1902), and ambassador to Germany (1902-1908). TOWNSEND, LAWRENCE (1860-1954). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Portugal (1897-1899) and Belgium (1899-1905). TRACY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1830-1915). Lawyer, politician, and cabinet officer. He served as a general in the Union army during the Civil War, a U.S. district attorney for the eastern district of New York (1866-18V), and a judge of the New York Court of Appeals (188 1-1883). As secretary of the navy under President Benjamin Harrison (18891893), he instituted reforms to make the navy more efficient, and pushed for the construction of new and modern warships. Tracy is typically viewed as one of the founders of the modem steel navy. In 1899, he defended Venezuela in the boundary arbitration. TRADE. See CHINA TRADE; COMMERCE, FOREIGN; WEST INDIES TRADE. TREATY OF BERLIN (1899). See BERLIN, TREATY OF TREATY OF PARIS (1898). See PARIS, TREATY OF. TREATY OF PORTSMOUTH (1905). See PORTSMOUTH, TREATY OF.

346 TREATY OF WASHINGTON

TREATY OF WASHINGTON (1871). See WASHINGTON, TREATY OF. TREE, LAMBERT (1832-19 10). Jurist and diplomat. He was an Illinois circuit judge (1870) and later served as U.S. minister to Belgium (1885-1888) and Russia (1888-1889).

TRENT AFFAIR. (1861) The first major diplomatic conflict between the United States and Great Britain during the Civil War. On 8 November 1861, two Confederate diplomats, John Slidell and James Mason, were en route to France and Great Britain aboard the British mail steamer Trent when the vessel was stopped in the Bahama Channel and boarded by the crew of the USS San Jacinto, commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes. Mason and Slidell, on a mission to enlist British and French support for the Confederacy, had boarded the Trent in Havana. Wilkes's crew removed the commissioners from the Trent and took them to Boston where they were detained in Fort Warren. By not seizing the ship itself and bringing it in for admiralty adjudication-but rather simply searching the ship and seizing the Confederates-Wilkes had, essentially, violated international law regarding neutral rights in wartime. Wilkes returned to the United States to receive the wild acclaim of Northerners and the thanks of the House of Representatives. Meanwhile the British began drafting a harsh protest that demanded release of the prisoners and an official apology. The final version of the protest, considerably softened by Prince Albert (on his deathbed with typhus), objected to Wilkes's actions as a violation of neutral rights, and demanded the release of Mason and Slidell along with an official explanation from the U.S. government. British minister to Washington Lord Lyons, in turn, relayed the substance of the note but delayed delivering the actual text for a few days, in a classic example of the art of diplomacy put to work to avoid conflict. Prince Albert's efforts, Lyons's delay, and the delay caused by transatlantic communication (the Atlantic Cable had gone dead) combined to permit tempers to cool.

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The war that many observers feared was inevitable could then be averted. The United States released Mason and Slidell and officially disavowed Wilkes's actions-stopping short of a full apology but nevertheless satisfymg the diplomatic necessities. By resolving the crisis peacefully, the United States and Britain were able to strengthen their relationship and maintain peace for the duration of the war. Secretary of State William H. Seward, whose reputation for bellicose policies had concerned the British from the start, gained new respect as the top American diplomatist, in part because of his skillful handling of the crisis. TRIPP, BARTLETT (1842-1911). Jurist and diplomat. He served as a delegate to the South Dakota constitutional convention (1883) and a justice of the Dakota territorial Supreme Court (1886-1889). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Austria-Hungary (1 893-1897). TRUST TERRITORIES. Islands and atolls in the Pacific Ocean, grouped as the Caroline, Marshall, and Mariana Islands. They were German territories before World War I. Japan took them over after the war, under a League of Nations mandate, and after World War I1 the United States administered them for the United Nations. TURNER, JAMES MILTON (1840-19 15). Activist and diplomat. Born into slavery, he gained his freedom when his mother was freed in 1843. He studied at Oberlin College in Ohio and became a noted postbellum leader of the AfricanAmerican community. He served as secretary of the Missouri Equal Rights League (1865), and worked for electoral rights and educational opportunities for blacks in Missouri. He served as U.S. minister to Liberia (1871-1878). TWAIN, MARK [Samuel Langhorne Clemens] (1835-1910). Writer. Twain was internationally acclaimed for his humorous and realistic stories of American frontier life. He was the

348 TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS

man, more than any other individual, who gave a face to American society for readers around the world. TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS (1915). An ultimatum by the Japanese government to China. The ultimatum essentially demanded that China accept being a Japanese protectorate. The demands violated both the Root-Takahira Agreement (1908) and the Open Door Policy.

UHL, EDWIN FULLER (1841-1901). Politician and diplomat. He served as mayor of Grand Rapids, Michigan (18901892)' and then was assistant secretary of state (1893) and interim secretary of state (1895). Later, he served as U.S. ambassador to Germany (1896-1897). UNDERWOOD TARIFF (1913). A tariff that essentially reversed the tariff policy of the United States since the Civil War. The tariff significantly reduced rates by an average of 10 percent and put iron, steel, raw wool, and sugar on a free list. UNITED FRUIT COMPANY. Company founded as Boston Fruit Company in 1885 by Lorenzo Dow Baker and Andrew Preston and then restructured as United Fruit Company in 1899. The company built railroads and maintained a steamship fleet, and controlled some 75 percent of the U.S. banana market. The company became known for its economic exploitation of Central America, with the political and sometimes economic cooperation of the United States, peaking in the second decade of the 20th century. In 1901, the government of Guatemala hired the United Fruit Company to manage the nation's postal service. In 1904, the company gained a 99-year concession to construct and maintain Guatemala's main railroad line.

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UNITED PRESS (UP). International news agency organized in 1907 by Edward W. Scripps and Milton A. McRae to provide member newspapers with news. See also ASSOCIATED PRESS; INTERNATIONAL NEWS SERVICE. UNITED STATES AND BRAZIL MAIL STEAMSHIP COMPANY (1864-1893). The United States and Brazil Mail Steamship Company had three incarnations, two under the leadership of John Roach, one of the most prominent shippers and shipbuilders in the United States. Later associates in the enterprise included William R. Garrison and Collis P. Huntington. In May 1864, Congress approved a $150,000 per year contract with the United States and Brazil Mail Steamship Company to transport mail through the Caribbean to Rio de Janeiro. But congressional interest in mail contracts waned and American entrepreneurs searched in vain for the basis of a lucrative trade with the largest nation in Latin America. Ultimately, then, the Brazil Mail failed as a profitable enterprise. But the undertaking illustrates developing trade links between the United States and South America and stands in a central position in the debate over shipping subsidies during the postbellum era. See also OCEAN MAIL ACT OF 1891; OCEAN MAIL SUBSIDY BILL; OCEANIC PASSENGER TRAVEL. UNITED STATES COAST SURVEY. See COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES SENATE. See SENATE, UNITED STATES. UNION (TOKELAU) ISLANDS. A group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, south of the Phoenix Group. The group includes Nukunono, Atafu, and Fakaofu Atolls. They were claimed by the United States and New Zealand and were eventually administered by New Zealand.

350 VALKENBURGH, ROBERT BRUCE VAN

VALKENBURGH, ROBERT BRUCE VAN (1821- 1888). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Steuben County, New York, he was a member of the New York State Assembly (1852, 1857-1858), a Republican congressman from New York (1861-1865), and a colonel in the Union army during the Civil War. After the war, he served as acting commissioner of Indian affairs (1865) and U.S. minister to Japan (1866-1869). Later, he was an associate justice of the Florida Supreme Court (1874-1888). VAN DYKE, HENRY (1852-1933). Clergyman, educator, and diplomat. Born in Germantown, Pennsylvania, he was the pastor of Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City (1883-1899) and a professor of English literature at Princeton University (1899-1923). He served as U.S. minister to the Netherlands (1913-19 16) and Luxembourg (19 13-1917). VATICAN. See PAPAL STATES. VENEZUELA. Republic in northern South America, bordered by the Caribbean Sea on the north, Guyana on the east, Brazil on the south and southeast, and Colombia on the southwest and west. It gained its independence from Spain in 1821 and became part of a federation with Colombia until 1830. From the 1850s until the end of the 19th century, the region was subject to internal strife and civil war. Juan Gomez ruled as dictator of Venezuela from 1909 until his death in 1935. See also VENEZUELA BOUNDARY DISPUTE; VENEZUELAN DEBTS CONTROVERSY. VENEZUELA BOUNDARY DISPUTE (1895). A dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana had simmered since 1814, but toward the end of the 19th century gold was discovered in the disputed area, and the controversy heated up. Venezuela turned to the United States with a request that it mediate the dispute. The United States agreed, but the Brit-

VERACRUZ INCIDENT 35 1

ish rejected the American offer. Secretary of State Richard Olney responded with a note to U.S. ambassador Thomas F. Bayard that asserted that the British were violating the Monroe Doctrine, outlined the American position on the issue, and implied a significant expansion of scope of the doctrine in what has come to be called the Olney interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine. When the British government rejected Olney's assertions, President Grover Cleveland asked Congress, in December 1895, to create a boundary commission to settle the controversy. The threat of U.S. involvement pushed the issue far enough to convince Great Britain to accept arbitration. Many historians mark this episode as the turning point in Anglo-American relations leading almost directly to the "great rapprochement."See also SCHOMBURGK LINE; SCRUGGS. WILLIAM L. VENEZUELAN DEBTS CONTROVERSY (1902). Venezuela had amassed a large financial obligation to various European powers. By 1902, the actual amount was in dispute and little progress had been made in resolving the disagreement. In late 1902, in an effort to push the issue to a sohtion, British and German warships blockaded several Venezuelan ports. President Theodore Roosevelt worked behind the scenes to resolve the standoff, and the parties eventually accepted arbitration.The matter was then sent to the Hague Tribunal, which handed down a decision in favor of Venezuela. VERACRUZ INCIDENT (1914). Veracruz is a Mexican port city. In 1914, having learned that a German ship carrying weapons was headed for Veracruz, President Woodrow Wilson acted to prevent the weapons from reaching General Victoriano Huerta by ordering U.S. troops to capture the city. On 21 April 1914, U.S. marines and seamen landed at Veracruz and captured the customs house, power plant, and waterfront buildings. By the next day, U.S. forces controlled the port and the city. The A.B.C. Powers offered to settle the dispute, but General Huerta, already losing power, was soon

352 VIDAL, MICHEL

forced out of office and a new Mexican government was formed. Consequently, U.S. forces withdrew from Veracruz. See also MEXICAN REVOLUTION.

VIDAL, MICHEL (b. 1824). Politician, newspaper editor, and consular representative. Born in Carcassonne, France, he emigrated to Texas and then moved to Louisiana. He edited various French-language newspapers in the United States and Canada before the Civil War. Afterward, he served as registrar for the city of New Orleans (1865-1 866) and was a delegate to the Louisiana state constitutional convention (1867-1868), a Republican congressman from Louisiana (1868-1869), and a commissioner to adjudicate claims between citizens of the United States and Peru. Later, he served as U.S. consul at Tripoli (1870-1876). VILLA, FRANCISCO (PANCHO) (1877-1923). Mexican revolutionist. He joined the revolt against Porfirio Diaz in 1910, was captured by the forces of Victoriano Huerta, escaped into the United States, and, in 1914, joined Venustiano Carranza against Huerta. After Huerta resigned, Villa and Carranza struggled for power. On 6 March 1916, Villa staged a raid on Columbus, New Mexico, in which 16 people were killed. He was assassinated in 1923. See also MEXICAN BORDER CAMPAIGN; MEXICAN REVOLUTION. VIRGIN ISLANDS. A group of islands, including St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. John, Tortola, and numerous small islands, in the Caribbean east of Puerto Rico. In 1917, the United States purchased them from Denmark for $25 million. See also DANISH WEST INDIES, PLANS FOR ANNEXATION OF.

WRGINIUS AFFAIR (1873). On 3 1 October 1873, a Spanish warship captured the Vivginius, a Cuban-owned schooner illegally flying the American flag and transporting arms and materiel to Cuban insurgents. Spanish authorities took the

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schooner's crew, which included a number of Americans, to Cuba, executing 30 of them. The incident prompted a loud outcry in the United States, and American naval vessels headed for the region. But the antiquated U.S. Navy proved an embarrassment, and the rendezvous of the rotting shipscalled "the big slow7'-highlighted America's precipitous naval decline. In addition, there was little sentiment among policymakers for a military course of action. Spain agreed to pay an indemnity, and war was averted. See also CUBANAMEIUCAN RELATIONS, 1850-1898. VOPICKA, CHARLES JOSEPH (1857-1935). Diplomat. Born in Bohemia, he served as U.S. minister to Bulgaria (1913-1919), Romania (1913-1921), and Serbia (19131919).

WAKE ATOLL (Wake Islands). Three small islands (including Wilkes and Peale Islands) with a land area of two and onehalf square miles, 2,000 miles west of Honolulu in the Pacific Ocean. The atoll is named for a British sea captain who visited the island in 1796. During the Spanish-American War, Brigadier General Francis Greene, en route to the Philippines, stopped at Wake and raised the American flag. In 1899, Commander Edward D. Taussig took possession of the island for the United States. It was used as a cable station and then, in the 1930s, as a reheling base for trans-Pacific flights. WAKEMAN REPORT (1872). In 1870, American shipping and shipbuilding magnate William H. Webb began plans for his United States, New Zealand, and Australia Steam Navigation Company, a lengthy trans-Pacific run requiring a coaling station. In preparation, he commissioned a report from Captain Edgar Wakeman. Wakeman's report reiterated the praise given to Pago Pago harbor, Samoa, as early as the U.S. Exploring Expedition (Wilkes Expedition) of 1838-

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1842. Webb, in turn, forwarded a copy of the report to President Ulysses S. Grant. The information contributed to growing U.S. interest in Samoa in these years, leading eventually to clashes with Great Britain and Germany. See also MEADE TREATIES. WALDORF-ASTORIA COUP (1903). Name sometimes given to the Panama Revolution because Room 1162 of the hotel was the headquarters of Philip Bunau-Varilla, who planned the coup. WALKER COMMISSION. See AMERICAN ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. WALLACE, LEWIS (1827-1905). General, diplomat, and author. Born in Brookville, Indiana, he served in the Mexican War and the Civil War. Afterward, he was a member of the court-martial of conspirators in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln and participated in a movement to assist the forces of Beniot Juarez against Maximilian. He was governor of New Mexico territory (1878-1 881) and then served as chargk d'affaires to Paraguay and Uruguay (188 1) and minister to Turkey (1881-1885). Wallace was the author of a campaign biography of Benjamin Harrison and Ben-Hur (1880), one of the most popular American novels of the 19th century. WAR, SECRETARY OF. The secretary of war has been a member of the president's cabinet since Washington's administration. At first, he was responsible for all military affairs. In 1798, the secretary of the navy was added to the cabinet, and the responsibilities of the war office were reduced to a general concern with the U.S. Army. In 1947, the departments were recombined under the secretary of defense. The secretary of war was replaced by the secretary of the army, a noncabinet position under the secretary of defense. In many instances, secretaries of war from the Civil War to World War I were political appointments, but three secre-

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taries during the period stand out for their accomplishments. Redfield Proctor (1889-1891) was responsible for significant modernization within the military establishment. Elihu Root (1899-1904) enlarged the United States Military Academy (West Point), founded the Army War College, and began the modern reforms that improved the army's efficiency. Henry L. Stimson (191 1-1913), in turn, continued Root's work in improving army efficiency. The cumulative effect of the work of these secretaries was to be witnessed in U.S. military operations in World War I. See also ALGER, RUSSELL A.; BELKNAP, WILLIAM W.; CAMERON, J. DON; CAMERON, SIMON; DICKINSON, JACOB M.; ELKINS, STEPHEN B.; ENDICOTT, WILLIAM C.; GARRISON LINDLEY M.; GRANT, ULYSSES S.; LAMONT, DANIEL S.; LINCOLN, ROBERT T.; MCCRARY, GEORGE W.; RAMSEY, ALEXANDER; RAWLINS, JOHN A.; SCHOFIELD, JOHN M.; SHERMAN, WILLIAM T.; STANTON, EDWIN M.; TAFT, ALPHONSO; TAFT, WILLIAM H.; THOMAS, LORENZO; WRIGHT, LUKE E.; APPENDIX C. WARREN, FITZ HENRY (1816-1878). Soldier, journalist, and diplomat. Born in Brimfield, Massachusetts, he became a journalist, working for, among other newspapers, the New York Tribune at the opening of the Civil War. He served as a general in the Union army during the war. Afterward, he was a member of the Iowa state senate (1866), U.S. minister to Guatemala (1867-1868), and a Democratic presidential elector (1872). WASHBURN, CHARLES AMES (1822-1889). Politician, journalist, novelist, and diplomat. He moved to California during the Gold Rush of 1849 and edited the Alta Californian and The Times. In 1860, he was a presidential elector for California. He served as U.S. minister to Paraguay (1863), serving during that nation's war with Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.

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WASHBURNE, ELIHU BENJAMIN (1816-1887). Lawyer and statesman. Born in Androscoggin County, Maine, he was a Whig and then Republican member of Congress from Illinois (1853-1869), and a delegate to the Whig National Conventions of 1844 and 1852. President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Washburne secretary of state (5 March-17 March 1869) even though he had no qualifications for the job, and after the appointment was roundly criticized in the press Washburne resigned to accept the position of U.S. minister to France (1869-1877). He served in France during the Franco-Prussian War and remained in Paris throughout the siege of the capital and the period of the Commune. WASHINGTON, TREATY OF (1871). Negotiated by Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, the agreement provided for a mechanism to resolve the Northwest Water boundary dispute, the Fisheries dispute, and the Alabama claims. WATCHFUL WAITING. The phrase used by President Woodrow Wilson to describe his policy toward Mexico at the beginning of the regime of Victoriano Huerta. WATTS, HENRY MILLER (1805-1890). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Austria (1868-1869). WEBB, JAMES WATSON (1802-1884). Journalist and diplomat. He served in the army (18 19-1827) and then published the Morning Courier and New York Courier and Enquirer (1829-c. 1869). He served as U.S. chargC d'affaires to Austria (1849-1 850) and was appointed U.S. minister to Austria (1849), although the appointment was not confirmed. Later, he served as minister to Brazil (1861-1869). While serving in that position, he traveled secretly to France and negotiated a French troop withdrawal from Mexico (1864). WEBB, WILLIAM H. (1816-1899). American shipping and shipbuilding magnate. He was one of the foremost shipbuilders in the United States during the late 19th century. In

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1870, Webb began plans for his United States, New Zealand, and Australia Steam Navigation Company, a trans-Pacific run requiring a coaling station. He commissioned a report on the island of Samoa from Captain Edgar Wakeman, which praised Pago Pago harbor and which he forwarded to President Ulysses S. Grant. In 1894, Webb opened the Webb Academy and Home for Shipbuilders, which later became the Webb Institute of Naval Architecture. See also WAKEMAN REPORT. WEDDELL, ALEXANDER WILBOURNE (1876-1948). Foreign service officer. Born in Richmond, Virginia, he served as U.S. consul at Catania, Italy (1914), and consul general at Athens (19 16-1920), Calcutta (192 1- 1924), and Mexico City (1926). He also served as ambassador to Argentina (19331938) and Spain (1939-1942). WEITZEL, GEORGE THOMAS (1873-1936). Diplomat. Born in Frankfort, Kentucky, he served in the U.S. Army during the Spanish-American War. Later, he served as U.S. minister to Nicaragua (19 11-19 13). WELLER, JOHN B. (1812-1875). Politician, soldier, and diplomat. He served as a Democratic congressman from Ohio (1839-1845), and a colonel in the U.S. army during the Mexican-American War (1848). Afterward, he was an unsuccessful candidate for governor of Ohio (1848), served as a member of the commission to establish the boundary between California and Mexico (1849-1850), and was governor of California (1858-1860). In addition, he served as U.S. minister to Mexico (1860-1861). WELLES, GIDEON (1802-1879). Politician and cabinet officer. Born in Glastonbury, Connecticut, he was a Connecticut state legislator (1827-1835), Connecticut state comptroller (1835-1836, 1842-1844), member fi-om Connecticut of the Republican National Committee, and a delegate from Connecticut to the Republican National Convention (1860). He

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served as secretary of the navy under Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson (186 1-1869), directing the Union's naval efforts during the Civil War. He was an effective naval administrator who successfully managed a rapid naval buildup and worked closely with President Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward to implement the Union's wartime military and foreign policy goals. WELSH, JOHN (1805-1886). Merchant and diplomat. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, he engaged in the West India trade and was president of the Philadelphia Board of Trade. During the Civil War, he was active in relief and sanitary activities. Active in Republican Party politics, he served as U.S. minister to Great Britain (1877-1 879). WEST INDIES. Archipelago southeast of North America stretching from the Bahama Islands off Florida to Trinidad off the coast of Venezuela. The islands are usually grouped as the Bahama Islands, the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica), and the Lesser Antilles (the remaining smaller islands). Some of the islands, notably Cuba and Puerto Rico, were Spanish possessions until 1898, some of the smaller islands were French, Dutch, and Danish possessions, and some (Jamaica and the Bahamas, notably) were British. See also BRITISH WEST INDIES; FRENCH WEST INDIES. WEST INDIES TRADE. Commerce with the islands of the Caribbean that was a key part of the "triangular trade" during the colonial period. After the American Revolution, however, many West Indian ports were closed to American ships, and the trade collapsed. It languished throughout the 19th century. WEYLER, VALERIANO. (1838-1930). Spanish general. He fought against the insurrectionists in the Cuban Revolution (1868-1878) but was recalled because of reports of his extreme cruelty. He returned as captain-general of the Spanish

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forces in Cuba (1896-1897) and became infamous in the United States (where he was known as "butcher") for his reconcentration camps. See also SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. WHALING. They heyday of American whaling occurred in the decades before the Civil War. The market for whale oil and whale bone boomed during the years from 1830 to 1860, but the industry declined in the postbellurn era. Whales had been overhunted, making whale operations uneconomical. At the same time, the demand for whale oil declined as other lubricants and illuminants-especially petroleum-based-grew in popularity. As a result, the American whale fleet shrank in the late 19th century, even as it shifted the focus of its operations from Atlantic waters to the Pacific and competition from non-American whalers employing Norwegian-style explosive harpoons increased. WHEAT, EXPORT OF. The leading United States export of breadstuffs from 1860 to 1914, and the second largest export item after cotton. During the Civil War, wheat exports increased ninefold. Exports decreased somewhat in the immediate postwar years but grew rapidly again after 1880. Aside from the massive increase in value of wheat exports during these years, two other changes were noteworthy. First, improvements in transportation greatly cut the costs of moving wheat. By 1914, moving a ton of wheat from Minneapolis to Liverpool cost less than moving it 100 miles had 30 years earlier. In addition, by 1914, half by value of all wheat exports were in the form of processed flour, whereas earlier most had been exported as unprocessed grain. WHITE STAR LINE. One of the most prominent transatlantic steamship lines of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It began as a line serving Australia but, in 1867, was purchased by Thomas Henry Ismay, who transformed the line into a transatlantic legend. White Star vessels emphasized comfort and safety rather than speed, and the line owned some of the

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most acclaimed passenger steamships of the day, including the Olympic, the Titanic and the Gigantic. The line was taken over by J. Pierpont Morgan's International Mercantile Marine Company in 1902, and in 1904, White Star's Bruce Ismay became president of IMM. Despite the company's emphasis on safety, it was a White Star liner, the Titanic, that hit an iceberg on her maiden voyage and sank, at the cost of over 1,500 lives, in April 1912. White Star eventually withdrew from the IMM combine and, in 1935, joined with Cunard Line to form Cunard White Star Line. WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832-1918). Politician, educator, and statesman. He served as the first president of Cornell University (1867-1885), minister (1879-188 1) and then ambassador (1897-1902) to Germany, and minister to Russia (1892-1894). He was instrumental in convincing Andrew Carnegie to build the Palace of Justice at The Hague, and at the first Hague Conference he headed the American delegation (1899). WHITE, CHARLES DUNNING (1868-1954). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Honduras (191 1-1913). WHITE, HENRY (1850-1927). Diplomat. He was secretary of the American legation at Vienna (1883-1884), second secretary (1884-1886) and then secretary (1886-1893) of the American legation at London, and secretary of the embassy at London (1897-1905). He then served as ambassador to Italy (1905-1907) and France (1907-1909). He headed the American delegation to the Algeciras Conference (1906), was regional director of the Red Cross in Washington (19 171918), and was a delegate to the Versailles Peace Conference at the end of World War I. He is sometimes described as America's first "career diplomat." WHITE, JULIUS (1816-1890). Soldier and diplomat. He was a general in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, he served as U.S. minister to Argentina (1872-1873).

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WHITLOCK, BRAND (1869-1934). Attorney, journalist, and diplomat. He served as mayor of Toledo, Ohio (1906-1913) and afterward was U.S. minister to Belgium (1914-1919) and ambassador to Belgium (1919-1922). WHITNEY, WILLIAM COLLINS (1841-1904). Attorney, businessman, and cabinet official. As secretary of the navy under President Grover Cleveland (1885-1889), he laid the foundations for the modern American navy by restructuring the department so that it might run on "business principles," and by pushing to build a modern naval force of larger warships. WICKERSHAM, JAMES PYLE (1825-1891). Educator and diplomat. Born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, he was principal of the Marietta, Pennsylvania, Academy (1845), first country superintendent of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania (1854), founder of the normal school at Millersville, Pennsylvania (1855), and Pennsylvania state superintendent of public instruction (1866-1871). He served as U.S. chargC d'affaires and minister to Denmark (1882). Wickersham was also the author of School Economy (1864), Methods of Instruction (1865), and History of Education in Pennsylvania (1886), and edited the Pennsylvania School Journal (18711881). WILBER, DAVID FORREST (1859-1928). Businessman, politician, and consular representative. A resident of Oneonta, New York, he was vice president and director of the Wilber National Bank of Oneonta, and served as a Republican congressman from New York (1895-1899). He served as U.S. consul at Barbados (1903-1905) and consul general at Singapore (1905-19O7), Halifax (1907-19O9), Kobe, Japan (1909-1910), Vancouver (1910-1913), Zurich (1913-1915), Genoa (1915-1921), and Wellington (1921-1922). Later, he served as a member of the New York Republican state committee (1924-1927).

362 WILEY, JOHN MCCLURE

WILEY, JOHN MCCLURE (1846-19 12). Politician and consular representative. Born in Londondeny, Ireland, he emigrated to the United States with his parents in 1850. He served as a Democratic member of the New York State Assembly (1871-1872), a delegate from New York to the Democratic National Convention (1884, 1888, 1892), and a congressman from New York (1889-1891). Afterward, he served as U.S. consul at Bordeaux (1893-1897). WILKES ISLAND. See WAKE ISLAND. WILKES, CHARLES (1798-1877). Naval officer. During the Civil War he precipitated the Trent affair and later commanded a naval squadron in the West Indies. WILLARD, JOSEPH EDWARD (1865-1924). Politician and diplomat. Born in Washington, D.C., he served in the army during the Spanish-American War, and was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates and lieutenant governor of Virginia (1902-1906). Afterward, he served as minister to Spain (1913) and was the first American representative to Spain with the rank of ambassador (1913-1921). WILLIAMS, ALPHEUS STARKEY (1810-1878). General, politician, and diplomat. He fought in the MexicanAmerican War and the Civil War, served as minister to El Salvador (1866-1869), and was a Democratic member of Congress from Michigan (1875-1878). He was also a Michigan state court judge (1840-1844), editor of the Detroit Daily Advertiser (1843-1847), and an unsuccessful candidate for governor of Michigan (1866). WILLIAMS, GEORGE FRED (1852-1932). Politician and diplomat. He was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1890), a Democratic congressman from Massachusetts (189 1-1893), and an unsuccessful candidate for governor of Massachusetts (1895, 1896, 1897). After-

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ward, he served as U.S. minister to Greece (1913-1914) and Montenegro (19 13- 1914). WILLIAMS, JAMES (1796-1869). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Turkey (1858-1861). WILLIAMS, WILLIAM (1821-1896). Politician and diplomat. Born near Carlisle, Pennsylvania, he managed the Bank of Warsaw (Indiana) and was a director of the Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway (1854-1856). He was an unsuccessful candidate for lieutenant governor of Indiana (1853) and a Republican congressman from Indiana (1867-1 875). Later, he served as U.S. chargC d'affaires to Paraguay (1882-1885) and Uruguay (1882-1885). WILLIAMSON, GEORGE MCWILLIE (1829-1882). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. Born in Fairfax, South Carolina, he was a delegate to the Louisiana secession convention (1861) and a colonel in the Confederate army during the Civil War. After the war, he served as U.S. minister to Costa Rica (1873-1879), Guatemala (1873-1879), Honduras (1873-1879), Nicaragua (1873-1879), and El Salvador (1873-1879). WILLIS, ALBERT SHELBY (1843-1897). Politician and diplomat. Born in Shelbyville, Kentucky, he served as a congressman from Kentucky (1877-1887). Later, he served as U.S. minister to the Hawaiian Islands (1893-1897) under President Grover Cleveland. WILSON, HENRY LANE (1857-1932). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Chile (1897-1904), minister to Belgium (1905-1909), and ambassador to Mexico (1909-1912). WILSON, JAMES (1825-1867). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Crawfordsville, Indiana, he served in the army during the Mexican-American War, was a congressman from Indiana (1857-1861), and served as a lieutenant

364 WILSON, (THOMAS) WOODROW

colonel in the Union army during the Civil War. Afterward, Wilson served as U.S. minister to Venezuela (1866-1867). WILSON, (THOMAS) WOODROW (1856-1924). Statesman and president. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he taught at Princeton University and served as its president (19021910). He served as Democratic governor of New Jersey (191 1-1913) and then as 28th president (1913-1921) of the United States. As president, he saw his role in world affairs to be as a spokesman for American democratic ideals and is therefore often described as an exemplification of the "democratic internationalist" school of American foreign policy. The Wilsonian world-as articulated, for example, in Wilson's Fourteen Points of 8 January 1918-included selfdetermination and democracy; open door and free market competition; collective security through a world organization (the League of Nations); and faith in a better future. Wilson began his presidency believing that military forces were not important, put pacifists in charge of the Departments of the Navy (Josephus Daniels) and War (Lindley M. Garrison and Newton D. Baker), and appointed William Jennings Bryan secretary of state. Nevertheless, during his administration the United States took an activist and interventionist role in the Caribbean, particularly Nicaragua, Haiti, and Santo Domingo. His policy of watchful waiting with regard to Mexico led to punitive expeditions against Pancho Villa. When World War I began in Europe, he was initially determined to keep the United States out of the war. But as the war stalled and American security was endangered by a continental Europe dominated by Germany and American commerce on the Atlantic was interrupted by German U-boat activities, Wilson moved toward preparedness and support of the Allied cause. WILSON-GORMAN TARIFF (1894). A high protective tariff, which began as a bill to lower rates but was transformed in committee into a tariff with an average 40 percent rate. President Grover Cleveland denounced the tariff, refused to

WOLCOTT, HENRY MERRILL 365 sign it, but allowed it to become a law without his signature because it was a marginal improvement over the previous McKinley Tariff of 1890. Rates on tobacco and sugar increased significantly, damaging the Cuban economy as a result. WINANS, CHARLES SUMNER (b. 1863). Merchant and consular representative. He served as U.S. consul at Iquique, Chile (1900-19O7), Seville (1909-1914), and Nuremberg (1914-1917). WING, EDWARD RUMSEY (1845-1874). Diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (1869-1874). Wing, who holds the distinction of being the youngest chief of a U.S. diplomatic mission, died of alcoholism while serving in Ecuador. WINSHIP, NORTH (1885-1968). Lawyer and foreign service officer. Born in Macon, Georgia, he served as U.S. consul at Tahiti (1910), Owen Sound (1913-1914), St. Petersburg (1914-1917), Milan (1917-1921), Bombay (1921-1922), Fiume (1923), and Cairo (1924); consul general at Copenhagen (1928-193 1) and Montreal (1945-1947). He was also minister (1948- 1949) and ambassador (1949) to South Africa. WINSTON, FREDERICK HAMPDEN (1830-1904). Politician and diplomat. A resident of Chicago, Illinois, he was delegate from Illinois to the Democratic National Convention (1876). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Persia (1885-1886). WOLCOTT, HENRY MERRILL (b. 1879). Consular representative. Born in Chittenden County, Vermont, he served as U.S. vice consul at Santiago de Cuba (1906) and Mexico City (1912-1914). In addition, he was U.S. consul in Havana (1916), Lagos (1917), Bilbao (1919), Caracas (1926-1929), and London (1938).

366 WOOD, BRADFORD RIPLEY

WOOD, BRADFORD RIPLEY (1800-1889). Attorney, politician, and diplomat. Born in Westport, Connecticut, he served as solicitor (1827) and chancellor (1830) of the court of chancery of New York. He then became a counselor in the New York Supreme Court (1835) and the U.S. Supreme Court (1845). Wood was a Democratic congressman from New York (1845-1847), but he became one of the founders of the New York Republican Party (1856). After the Civil War, he served as U.S. minister to Denmark (186 1-1865). WOOD, JOHN QUINBY (b. 1867). Educator and consular representative. Born in Bucksport, Maine, he served as U.S. vice consul at Milan (1909-1910), consul at Venice (1910) and consul at Tripoli (1910-1913). He then was U.S. consul general at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (19 13-1914), consul at Chemnitz, Germany (19 14-1917). Later, he was consul at Marseille (1917), Saint Michaels (1917-19l9), Tiflis (19l9), Havre (19 19), Frankfort-am-Main (192 1-1922), Vera Cruz (1922-1926), and Messina (1929). WOOD, LEONARD (1860-1927). Physician and army surgeon. He served with the Rough Riders (1898), was military governor of Cuba (1899-1902), commanded U.S. forces in the Philippines (1906-1908), and was chief of staff of the U.S. Army (1910-1914). Later, he was governor general of the Philippines (1921-1927), where he was criticized for rejecting local autonomy. WOODFORD, STEWART LYNDON (1835-1913). Lawyer, soldier, diplomat. Born in New York City, he was a general in the Union army during the Civil War, lieutenant governor of New York (1867-1868), unsuccessful candidate for governor of New York (1870), Republican congressman from New York (1873-1874), and U.S. district attorney for the southern district of New York (1877-1883). Later, he served as U.S. minister to Spain (1897-1898) at the time of the Spanish-American War. He resigned on 20 September 1898, one week after the Spanish Cortes ratified the protocol

WORLD WAR I 367

of peace and four days after the Spanish and U.S. commissioners for the peace treaty were appointed. WOODS, CYRUS E. (1861-1938). Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. He served as U.S. minister to Portugal (1912-1913) and ambassador to Spain (1921-1923) and Japan (19231924). He also was a Pennsylvania state senator (1901-1908) and secretary of the commonwealth of Pennsylvania (19151921). WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION (1893). An international exposition held in Chicago, from May to November 1893, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Columbus's arrival in America. The exposition highlighted American technological progress and art and drew 27 million visitors. A highlight of the event was that it showcased the first widespread use of electric lighting. WORLD'S FAIRS. President William McKinley said that "expositions are timekeepers of progress," and throughout the generally optimistic and buoyant era between the Civil War and World War I, the United States hosted a number of major international expositions. See also, CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION; LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION; PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION; PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION; WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. WORLD WAR I. World War I began in Europe in August 19 14, and the United States immediately, on 4 August 19 14, issued a proclamation of neutrality. President Woodrow Wilson went further, however, telling Americans that they should be neutral in thought as well as in deed. But the war was almost inevitably to involve Americans, as Great Britain expanded its contraband list and began a blockade of Germany, and Germany undertook submarine warfare, a lethal new form of war at sea. All the while, Wilson allowed Americans to travel anywhere on any ships. In truth, by ex-

368 WORTHINGTON, HENRY GAITHER

ercising "neutrality" the United States was actually aiding Great Britain. The president was pro-British and antiGerman, something British leaders knew, and American loans to the Allies further entangled American interests with Europe. Yet, at the same time, Wilson desperately wanted to avoid involvement in the European war. He reluctantly adopted a preparedness campaign and struggled to assert American neutral rights in the face of submarine warfare that was rewriting the old rules of maritime conflict. Although Wilson won his 1916 reelection campaign with the slogan "He kept us out of war," the sinking of the Lusitania, a propaganda campaign that emphasized German cruelty, the Zimmermann telegram, fading chances of Allied victory, and the growing possibility of German dominance on the European continent eventually convinced Wilson that the only way for Americans to have a place at the table where the postwar world would be restructured would be for the United States to join the war on the Allied side. On 2 April 1917, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war, which he received on 6 April. WORTHINGTON, HENRY GAITHER (1828-1909). Politician and diplomat. Born in Cumberland, Maryland, he was a member of the California House of Representatives (18621863) and Republican congressman from Nevada (18641865). He then served as U.S. minister to Argentina (18681869) and Uruguay (1868-1869). WRIGHT, JOSEPH ALBERT (18 10-1867). Politician and diplomat. Born in Washington County, Pennsylvania, he was a member of the Indiana House of Representatives (18331834, 1836-1837), an Indiana state senator (1839-1840), a Democratic congressman from Indiana (1843-1845), and governor of Indiana (1849-1857). He also served as Unionist U.S. senator from Indiana (1862-1863). He served as U.S. minister to Prussia (1857-1861, 1865-1867) and as U.S. commissioner to the Hamburg Exhibition (1863).

YELLOW JOURNALISM 369

WRIGHT, LUKE EDWARD (1846-1922). Lawyer and diplomat. Born in Memphis, Tennessee, he served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. Later, he served as governor general of the Philippines (1905), the first American ambassador to Japan (1906-1907), and secretary of war under President Theodore Roosevelt (1908-1909). WULLWEBER, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM JURGEN (1833-1877). Diplomat. Born in Hagenow, Germany, he emigrated with his family to Dubuque, Iowa, in 1850, taught at Alexander College (1853-1856), and went back to Germany for his college education. He then returned to the United States (1858), attended and graduated from Harvard Law School (1859), and practiced law in Dubuque. He served on the Dubuque board of education (1864-1 874) and then served as U.S. minister to Ecuador (1875-1876).

YEAMAN, GEORGE HELM (1829-1908). Jurist, politician, and diplomat. Born in Hardin County, Kentucky, he served as a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives (1861) and a Unionist congressman from Kentucky (18621865). He served as U.S. minister to Denmark (1865-1870). Afterward, he settled in New York City and lectured on constitutional law at Columbia College. He was the author of The Study of Government (1871). YELLOW JOURNALISM. A term applied to newspapers that emphasize sensationalist reporting to increase their circulation. The phrase originated in an 1896 battle between William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's New York World over the popular comic strip "The Yellow Kid" and then became more widely applied as those newspapers seized on the revolution in Cuba as a way of boosting circulation. Newspapers of the Yellow Journalism mould exaggerated Spanish brutality, portrayed the Cubans as noble freedom fighters, and sometimes invented news.

370 YERBY, WILLIAM JAMES

For example, Frederick Remington, sent to Cuba to sketch scenes of the war, reported back to Hearst that he could find no war. In turn, Hearst reputedly replied, "You supply the pictures, I'll supply the war." Or, in another example, Hearst charged that Evangelina Cisneros, who had been imprisoned by the Spanish as a spy, was innocent. He then sent an agent to Cuba who bribed jailers and smuggled her out of the country. See also JINGOISM. YERBY, WILLIAM JAMES (b. 1867). Physician and consular official. Born in Oldtown, Arkansas, he served as U.S. consul at Sierra Leone (1906-19 15), Dakar (19 15-1924), La Rochelle (1925-1926), Oporto (1926-193O), and Nantes (19301932). YOUNG, EVAN ERASTUS (1878-1946). Lawyer and foreign service officer. Born in Hardin County, Ohio, he served as U.S. consul at Harput, Turkey (1905-1908) and Salonika (Thessaloniki), Greece (1908-1909). Later, he was minister to Ecuador (191 1-1912) and the Dominican Republic (19251929). In addition, he served as consul general at Halifax (19 13-1919) and Constantinople (1920). After his diplomatic career, he was a vice president of Pan-American Airways (1936). YOUNG, JAMES BARCLAY (b. 1884) Consular official. Born in Washington, D.C., he served as U.S. vice consul at Milan (1909-191 1) and Genoa (1914). Later, he was consul at Belgrade (19 16), Fiume (1916-1917), Venice (1920l929), and Southampton (1929-1933). YOUNG, JOHN RUSSELL (1840-1899). Journalist and diplomat. He wrote for the Philadelphia Press, the New York Herald, and the New York Tribune, of which he was also managing editor (1866-1869). He served as U.S. minister to China (1882-1885), participating in the negotiations that led to a French protectorate in Indochina. Later, he was librarian

ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM 37 1

of Congress (1897-1899). He was the author of Around the World with General Grant (1879). YOUNG, PIERCE MANNING BUTLER. (1836-1896). Politician and diplomat. Born in Spartansburg, South Carolina, he was a major general in the Confederate army during the Civil War, a congressman from Georgia (1868-1869, 18701875), a delegate from Georgia to the Democratic National Convention (1872, 1876, 1880), and US. commissioner to the Paris Exposition (1878). He served as U.S. consul general at St. Petersburg (1885-1887) and minister to Honduras (1893-1896) and Guatemala (1893-1896).

ZANZIBAR. Island off East Africa. In 1833, American envoy Edmund Roberts arranged a treaty with the sultan of Muscat. In November 1879, the sultan of Zanzibar presented Commodore Robert W. Shufeldt with a letter to the president in which the sultan affirmed that he accepted the Roberts treaty. In 1890, the island became a British protectorate. ZAPATA, EMILIANO (1877-19 19). Mexican revolutionist. He joined the rebellion against Porfirio Diaz, later struggling with other revolutionists. He organized Indians into the "Death Legion," issued a plan of agrarian reform, and briefly occupied Mexico City three times (19 14-1915). He was killed by forces of Venustiano Carranza on 10 April 1919. ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM (19 17). A diplomatic note sent on 19 January 1917 by German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann to the German minister to Mexico. Zimmermann proposed that if the United States went to war against Germany, the minister should work for a GermanMexican alliance, with the hint that Mexico might regain its lost territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The note was intercepted and deciphered by the British, turned over to the U.S. government, and then published on 1 March 1917.

Publication of the telegram caused a sensation in the United States and enflamed anti-German sentiment, moving the nation one step closer to entering World War I on the side of the Allies.

ZIONISM. A movement that began in the late 19th century to create a Jewish "homeland." Zionist leaders argued that the Jews were a people without a home, and that Palestine should be that home. Richard Gottheil, a Columbia University professor and president of the American Federation of Zionists, was one of the organizers of the movement in the United States.

Appendix A U.S. Presidents, 1861-1914 Abraham Lincoln (1861- 1865) Andrew Johnson (1865-1869) Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1877) Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-188 1) James A. Garfield (188 1) Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885) Grover Cleveland (1885-1889) Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893) Grover Cleveland (1893-1897) William McKinley (1897-190 1) Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1 909) William H. Tafi (1909-1913) Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921)

Appendix B U.S. Secretaries of State, 1861-1914 William H. Seward (1861-1869) Elihu B. Washburne (1869) Hamilton Fish (1869-1877) William M. Evarts (1 877-188 1) James G. Blaine (188 1) Frederick T. Frelinghuysen (1881-1885) Thomas F. Bayard (1885-1889) James G. Blaine (1889-1892) John W. Foster (1892-1893) Walter Q. Gresham (1893-1895) Richard Olney (1895-1897) John Sherman (1897-1898) William R. Day (1898) John Hay (1898-1905) Elihu Root (1905-1909) Philander C. Knox (1 909- 19 13) William J. Bryan (19 13-1915)

Appendix C U.S. Secretaries of War, 1861-1914 Simon Cameron (1 86 1-1862) Edwin M. Stanton (1862-1867) Ulysses S. Grant (1 867) Lorenzo Thomas (1868) John M. Schofield (1868-1869) John A. Rawlins (1869) William T. Sherman (1869) William W. Belknap (1869-1876) Alphonso Taft (1 876) J. Don Cameron (1876-1877) George W. McCrary (1877-1879) Alexander Ramsey (1 879-188 1) Robert T. Lincoln (1881-1885)

Appendix D U.S. Secretaries of the Navy, 1861-1914 Gideon Welles (186 1-1869) Adolph E. Borie (1869) George M. Robeson (1869-1877) Richard W. Thompson (1877-188 1) Nathan Goff Jr (1881) William H. Hunt (1881-1882) William E. Chandler (1 882-1885) William C. Whitney (1885-1889) Benjamin F. Tracy (1889-1893) Hilary A. Herbert (1893-1897) John D. Long (1 897-1901) William H. Moody (1902-1904) Paul Morton (1904-1905) Charles J. Bonaparte (1905-1906) Victor H. Metcalf (1906-1908) Truman H. Newbeny (1908-1909) George Von L. Meyer (1909- 1913) Josephus Daniels (19 13-1921)

Appendix E U.S. Diplomatic Corps, 1861-1914 Algiers Edward L. Kingsbury (Consul, 1863-1870) William L. M. Burger (Consul, 1874) Daniel S. Kidder (Consul, 1902) Dean B. Mason (Consul, 1914-19 17) Ren6 L. J. Boisson (Vice Consul, 1914) Antigua George Sawter (Consul, 1902) Samuel Galbraith (Vice Consul, 1902) Argentina Robert M. Palmer (Minister, 1861-1862) Robert C. Kirk (Minister, 1862-1866)

382 Appendix E Alexander Asboth (Minister, 1866-1868) Henry G. Worthington (Minister, 1868-1869) Robert C. Kirk (Minister, 1869-1871) Julius White (Minister, 1872-1873) Thomas 0. Osborn (Minister, 1874-1885) Bayless W. Hanna (Minister, 1885-1889) John R. G. Pitkin (Minister, 1889-1893) William I. Buchanan (Minister, 1894-1899) William P. Lord (Minister, 1899-1903) John Barrett (Minister, 1903-1904) Arthur M. Beauprk (Minister, 1904-1908) Spencer F. Eddy (Minister, 1908-1909) Charles H. Sherrill (Minister, 1909-1910) John W. Garrett (Minister, 1911-19 13) Frederic J. Stimson (Ambassador, 1914-1921) Buenos Aires: George C. Cole (Consul General, 1906), Walter F. Walker (Vice Consul, 1906), Richard M. Bartleman (Consul General, 19 14), Eli Taylor (Vice Consul, 1914), George R. Wending Jr. (Vice Consul, 1914) Rosario: William Dawson (Consul, 1914-1917) Australia

Hobart: Henry D. Baker (Consul, 1907-19lO), George M. Hanson (Consul, l9l4), Charles Ernest Webster (Vice Consul, 1914) Melbourne: John P. Bray (Consul General, 1906), William C. Magelssen (Consul, 1914-19 17) Newcastle: George B. Killmaster (Consul, 1914) Sydney: Robert D. Merrill (Consul, l857-1861), Edward Leavenworth (Consul, 1861-1865), Eliott V. Richardson (Consul, 1914-1916), John P. Bray (Consul General, 1914)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 383 Austria 1 Austria-Hungary John Lothrop Motley (Minister, 1861-1 867) Henry Miller Watts (Minister, 1868-1869) John Jay (Minister, 1869-1874) Godlove S. Orth (Minister, 1875-1876) Edward Fitzgerald Beale (Minister, 1876-1877) John A. Kasson (Minister, 1877-188 1) William W. Phelps (Minister, 1881-1882) Alphonso Taf? (Minister, 1882-1884) John Morgan Francis (Minister, 1884-1885) Alexander Robert Lawton (Minister, 1887-1889) Frederick Dent Grant (Minister, 1889-1893) Bartlett Tripp (Minister, 1893-1897) Charlemagne Tower (Minister, 1897-1899) Addison C. Harris (Minister, 1899-190 1) Robert S. McConnick (Minister, 190 1-1902 Ambassador 1902) Bellamy Storer (Ambassador, 1902-1906) Charles Spencer Francis (Ambassador, 1906-1910) Richard C. Kerens (Ambassador, 19 10-19 13) Frederic Courtland Penfield (Ambassador, 19131917) Vienna: William A. Rublee (Consul, General, 19O6), Charles Denby (Consul General, 1914), Robert W. Heingartner (Vice Consul, 19141922) Bahamas Isaac J. Merritt (Consul, 1857-186 1) Samuel Whiting (Consul, 1861-1863) Seth C. Hawley (Consul, 1863) Henry D. Baker (Consul, 1912-19 13) William F. Doty (Consul, 1914-19 17) Eric V. Solomon (Vice Consul, 1914)

384 Appendix E Belgium Elisha Y. Fair (Minister, 1858-1861) Henry Shelton Sanford (Minister, 186 1-1869) J. Russel Jones (Minister, 1869-1875) Ayres Phillips Merrill (Minister, 1876-1877) W. Cassius Goodloe (Minister, 1878-1880) James Osborne Putnam (Minister, 1880-1882) Nicholas Fish (Minister, 1882-1885) Lambert Tree (Minister, 1885-1888) John G. Parkhurst (Minister, 1888-1889) Edwin Holland Tenell (Minister, 1889-1893) James S. Ewing (Minister, 1893-1897) Bellamy Storer (Minister, 1897-1899) Lawrence Townsend (Minister, 1899-1905) Henry L. Wilson (Minister, 1905-1909) Charles Page Bryan (Minister, 1909-191 1) Larz Anderson (Minister, 1911-1912) Theodore Marburg (Minister, 1912-19 14) Brand Whitlock (Minister, 1914-19 19) Antwerp: James Riley Weaver (Consul, 1874), Ernst Fuchs (Vice Consul, 1874), George F. Lincoln (Consul General, Antwerp 1902), Church Howe (Consul General, 1906), Henry W. Diederich (Consul General, 1914-19 17), Harry Tuck Sherman (Vice Consul, 1914-1929) Brussels: George Sauer (Consul, 1863-1866), John Wilson (Consul, 1874), George W. Roosevelt (Consul, l9O2), George W. Roosevelt (Consul General, 19O6), (Consul General, 1914-19 17), Charles Roy Nasmith (Vice Consul, 19 14-19 17) Ghent: Marinus J. Levison (Consu1,1861-1871), Julius A. Van Hee (Vice Consul, 1906-1914), Frank R. Mowrer (Consul, 1906), Henry Abert Johnson (Consul, 1914-19 17)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 385 Likge: James C. McNally (Consul, 19O6), Alexander Heingartner (Consul, 1914-1917), Victor H. Duras (Vice Consul, Belgium 1914)

Belize George Raymond (Consul, 1861-1862) William L. Avery (Consul, 1902-1919) Christopher Hempstead (Vice Consul, 1902) John H. Biddle (Vice Consul, 19 14-1929)

Bolivia David K. Carter (Minister, 186 1-1862) Allen A. Hall (Minister, 1863-1867) John W. Caldwell (Minister, 1868-1869) Leopold Markbreit (Minister, 1869-1873) John T. Croxton (Minister, 1873-1874) Robert M. Reynolds (Minister, 1874-1876) S. Newton Pettis (Minister, 1878-1879) Charles Adams (Minister, 1880-1882) George Maney (Minister, 1882-1883) Richard Gibbs (Minister, 1883-1885) William A. Seay (Minister, 1885-1887) Samuel S. Carlisle (Minister, 1887-1889) Thomas H. Anderson (Minister, 1889-1892) Frederic J. Grant (Minister, 1892-1893) Thomas Moonlight (Minister, 1894-1898) George H. Bridgman (Minister, 1898-1902) William B. Sorsby (Minister, 1902-1908) James F. Stutesman (Minister, 1908-1910) Horace G. Knowles (Minister, 1910-1913) John D. O'Rear (Minister, 1913-1918)

Brazil J. Watson Webb (Minister, 1861-1869)

386 Appendix E Henry T. Blow (Minister, 1869-1870) James Rudolph Partridge (Minister, 1871-1877) Henry Washington Hilliard (Minister, 1877-188 1) Thomas A. Osborn (Minister, 1881-1885) Thomas Jordan Jarvis (Minister, 1885-1888) Robert Adams Jr. (Minister, 1889-1890) Edwin H. Conger (Minister, 1890-1893) Thomas L. Thompson (Minister, 1893-1897) Edwin H. Conger (Minister, 1897-1898) Charles Page Bryan (Minister, 1898-1902) David Eugene Thompson (Minister, 1902-1905; Ambassador, 1905) Lloyd C. Griscom (Ambassador, 1906-1907) Irving Bedell Dudley (Ambassador, 1907-19 11) Edwin V. Morgan (Ambassador, 1912-33) Bahia (Salvador): David R. Birch (Consul, 19l4), Edward P. W. Duder (Vice Consul, 1914), Robert Frazer Jr. Parh (BelCm): George H. Pickerel1 (Consul, 19141924) Pernambuco: P. Merrill Griffith (Consul, 1914), Enrique Bachilleres (Vice Consul, 1914) Rio de Janeiro: James Monroe (Consul, 18621870), Roger S. Greene (Vice Consul, 19031904), George E. Anderson (Consul General, 1906-191O), Eugene Seeger (Consul General, l9O6), Julius G. Lay (Consul General, l9l4), Albro L. Burnell (Vice Consul, 1914) Santos: Jesse H. Johnson (Consul, 1906) Maddin Summers (Consul, 1914) William H. Lawrence (Vice Consul, 1914-1Wl), James W. Reeves (Vice Consul, 19 14)

Bulgaria John B. Jackson (Minister, 1911-19 13) Charles Joseph Vopicka (Minister, 1913-1919)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 387 Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Colombo: Charles K. Moser (Consul, 1914) Chile Thomas H. Nelson (Minister, 1861-1866) Hugh Judson Kilpatrick (Minister, 1866-1870) Joseph P. Root (Minister, 1870-1873) Cornelius A. Logan (Minister, 1873-1876) Thomas A. Osborn (Minister, 1877-188 1) Hugh Judson Kilpatrick (Minister, 1881) Cornelius A. Logan (Minister, 1882-1885) William R. Roberts (Minister, 1885-1889) Patrick Egan (Minister, 1889-1893) James D. Porter Jr. (Minister, 1893-1894) Edward H. Strobe1 (Minister, 1894-1897) Henry L. Wilson (Minister, 1897-1904) John Hicks (Minister, 1905-1909) Thomas C. Dawson (Minister, 1909) Henry P. Fletcher (Minister, 1909-1914; Ambassador, 1914-1916) Iquique: Charles S. Winans (Consul, 1900-19O7), Percival Gassett (Consul, 1914), Edward E. Muecke (Vice Consul, 19 14) Punta Arenas: Charles L. Latham (Consul, 19 14), Thomas Smith Boyd (Vice Consul, 1914-19 17) Valparaiso: William B. McCreery (Consul, 1890), Alfred Hamilton West (Vice Consul, 1914), Alfred A. Winslow (Consul, 1914) China Anson Burlingame (Minister, 1861-1 867) J. Ross Browne (Minister, 1868-1869) Frederick F. Low (Minister, 1869-1873)

388 Appendix E Benjamin P. Avery (Minister, 1874-75) George F. Seward (Minister, 1876-1880) James B. Angel1 (Minister, 1880-188 1) John Russell Young (Minister, 1882-1885) Charles H. Denby (Minister, 1885-1898) Edwin H. Conger (Minister, 1898-1905) William Woodville Rockhill (Minister, 1905-1909) William J. Calhoun (Minister, 1909-19 13) Paul S. Reinsch (Minister, 1913-19 19) Amoy (Xiamen): William Irwin (Consul, 1864l865), Joseph J. Henderson (Consul, 1874), N. C. Stevens (Vice Consul, 1874), John H. Fesler (Consul, 1902), George E. Anderson (Consul, 1905-1906) Canton (Guangzhou): P. Stewart Heintzleman (Vice Consul, l904-1906), Julius G. Lay (Consul General, l9O6), Leo Allen Bergholz (Consul General, 1906), Wilfred H. Webber (Vice Consul, 19 14), John K. Davis (Vice Consul, 1914) Chefoo (Yantai): E. T. Sanford (Consul, 18651868), John Fowler (Consul General, l9O6), Mahlon Fay Perkins (Vice Consul, 1911- 1912), Julean H. Arnold (Consul, l9l4), George C. Hanson (Vice Consul, 19l4), Crawford M. Bishop (Vice Consul, 1914) Chungking (Chongqing): Mason Mitchell (Consul, 19O6), E. Carleton Baker (Consul, 1914) Foochow (Fuzhou): Thomas P. Thompson (Vice Consul, 1914), John Fowler (Consul, 19l4), Samuel L. Gracey (Consul, 1906) Hankow (Wuhan): Benjamin Joseph Franklin (Consul, 1885-1890), George E. Anderson (Consul, 1904-19O5), William Martin (Consul General, 1906), Roger S. Greene (Consul General, 19 11- 19 14), J. Paul Jameson (Vice

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 389 Consul, 1914), Willys R. Peck (Vice Consul, 1914-1915) Harbin: Roger S. Greene (Consul, 1909-191 I), Southard P. Warner (Consul, 1914) Mukden (Shenyang): Fleming D. Cheshire (Consul General, 1906), Fred D. Fisher (Consul General, 1914), P. Stewart Heintzleman (Consul General, 1914-1916) Nanking (Nanjing): Thornwell Haynes (Consul, 19O6), Albert W. Pontius (Consul, 1914), Alvin W. Gilbert (Vice Consul, 1914-19 16) Newchwang (Yingkou): Thomas Sammons (Consul General, 19O6), William P. Kent (Consul, 19 14), George F. Bickford (Vice Consul, 1914) Shanghai: James Linn Rodgers (Consul General, 1906), P. Stewart Heintzleman (Vice Consul, 1908-1909), Clarence E. Gauss (Vice Consul, 1912-19 15), Nelson T. Johnson (Vice Consul, 1914), Amos P. Wilder (Consul General, 1914) Swatow: Joseph C. A. Wingate (Consul, 1863l873), Charles L. L. Williams (Consul, 1914) Tientsin: Leo Allen Bergholz (Consul General, 1905), James W. Ragsdale (Consul General, 19O6), Samuel S. Knabenshue (Consul General, 19 14), Paul R. Josselyn (Vice Consul, 1914), Fred D. Fisher (Consul General, 1916-1917) Tsingtao: Willys R. Peck (Consul, 1914, 1916, 1E l ) , James C. McNally (Consul, 1914), John A. Bristow (Vice Consul, 1914) Colombia (New Grenada) George W. Jones (Minister, 1859-1861) Allan A. Burton (Minister, 186 1-1866) Peter J. Sullivan (Minister, 1867-1869) Stephen A. Hurlbut (Minister, 1869-1872)

390 Appendix E William L. Scruggs (Minister, 1873-1876) Ernest Dichman (Minister, 1878-188 1) George Maney (Minister, 1881-1882) William L. Scruggs (Minister, 1882-1885) Charles D. Jacob (Minister, 1885-1886) Dabney H. Maury (Minister, 1886-1889) John T. Abbott (Minister, 1889-1893) Luther F. McKinney (Minister, 1893-1896) Charles Burdett Hart (Minister, 1897-1903) Arthur M. Beaupre (Minister, 1903) William W. Russell (Minister, 1904-1905) John Barrett (Minister, 1905-1906) Thomas C. Dawson (Minister, 1907-1909) Elliott Northcott (Minister, 1909-1910) James T. DuBois (Minister, 1911-1913) Thaddeus Austin Thomson (Minister, 1913-1916) Barranquilla: Isaac A. Manning (Consul, 191419 16) Julius A. Freund (Vice Consul, 19 14) Bogota: Alban G. Snyder (Consul General, 1906) Maxwell Blake (Consul General, 1910) Cartagena: John C. Ingersoll (Consul, 1902) Luther T. Ellsworth (Consul, 19O6), William B. MacMaster (Vice Consul, 1906), Henry P. Starrett (Consul, 19 14), Charles W. Doherty (Vice Consul, 1914)

Congo Boma: Clarence Rice Slocum (Consul General, 1906-19O7), James A. Smith (Consul General, 1907), Harry A. McBride (Vice Consul, 19141916)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 391 Costa Rica Charles N. Riotte (Minister, 1861-1867) Albert G. Lawrence (Minister, 1867-1868) Jacob B. Blair (Minister, 1868-1873) George Williamson (Minister, 1873-1879) Cornelius A. Logan (Minister, 1879-1882) Henry C. Hall (Minister, 1882-1889) Lansing B. Mizner (Minister, 1889-1890) Romualdo Pacheco (Minister, 1890-1891) Richard Cutts Shannon (Minister, 1891-1893) Lewis Baker (Minister, 1893-1897) William L. Merry (Minister, 1897-1911) Lewis Einstein (Minister, 1911) Edward J. Hale (Minister, 1913-1 917) Port Limon: Chester Donaldson (Consul, 19061917), Henry 0. Easton (Vice Consul, 1914) Croatia Fiume (Rijeka): Samuel H. Shank (Consul, 1914) Attilio J. Clementi (Vice Consul, 19 14) Cuba Herbert G. Squiers (Minister, 1902-1905) Edwin V. Morgan (Minister, 1905-1910) John B. Jackson (Minister, 1910-19 11) Arthur M. Beauprk (Minister, 1911-19 13) William Elliott Gonzales (Minister, 1913-1919) Cienhegos: Max J. Baehr (Consul, 1902-19 l4), Buenaventura Carbo (Vice Consul, 1914) Havana: Edward S. Bragg (Consul General, 1902l9O3), Frank Steinhart (Consul General, l9O6), Joseph A. Springer (Vice Consul, 1914-192 I),

392 Appendix E James Linn Rodgers (Consul General, 19141917) Denmark James M. Buchanan (Minister, 1858-186 1) Bradford Ripley Wood (Minister, 1861-1865) George Helm Yeaman (Minister, 1865-1870) Michael John Cramer (Minister, 1870-1876; ChargC d' Affaires, 1876-188 1) Charles Payson (ChargC d' Affaires, 1881-1882) James Pyle Wickersham (Charge d'affaires, 1882; Minister, 1882) Wickham Hoffman (Minister, 1883-1885) Rasmus Bji5rn Anderson (Minister, 1885-1889) Clark Ezra Carr (Minister, 1889-1893) John Ewing Risley (Minister, 1893-1897) Lauritz S. Swenson (Minister, 1897-1905) Thomas James O'Brien (Minister, 1905-1907) Maurice Francis Egan (Minister, 1907-1917) Copenhagen: Henry B. Ryder (Consul, 1874), Olof Hansen (Vice Consul, 1874), Albert Michelson (Vice Consul, 1906), Edward D. Winslow (Consul General, 19 14-19 17) Dominican Republic (Santo Domingo) John M. Langston (ChargC d'Affaires, 1883-1885) John E. W. Thompson (ChargC d'Affaires, 18851889) Frederick Douglass (ChargC d' Affaires, 1889-189 1) John S. Durham (ChargC d'Affaires, 1891-1893) Henry M. Smythe (ChargC d'Affaires, 1893-1897) William F. Powell (ChargC d'Affaires, 1897-1904) Thomas C. Dawson (Minister, 1904-1907) Fenton R. McCreery (Minister, 1907-1909)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 393 Horace G. Knowles (Minister, 1909-1910) William W. Russell (Minister, 1910-19 13) James Mark Sullivan (Minister, 1913-1915) Puerto Plata: Ralph J. Totten (Consul, 19O8), Philip Holland (Consul, 1910-191I), Charles M. Hathaway Jr. (Consul, 1911-19 13), Frank Anderson Henry (Consul, 1914-19 17), JosC Maria Esteva (Vice Consul, 19 14) Santo Domingo: Campbell L. Maxwell (Consul, 1892-1898), Archibald H. GrimkC (Consul, 1894-1898), Campbell L. Maxwell (Consul General, 1898-19O4), Thomas C. Dawson (Consul General, 1906), Frank Bohr (Vice Consul, 1911-1913), William Walker Smith (Consul General, 1914), Charles H. Albrecht (Vice Consul, 1914)

Ecuador Charles R. Buckalew (Minister, 1858-1861) Frederick Hassaurek (Minister, 1861-1 866) William T. Coggeshall (Minister, 1866-1867) E. Rumsey Wing (Minister, 1869-1874) Christian Wullweber (Minister, 1875-1876) Rowland B. Mahany (Minister, 1892-1893) Edward H. Strobe1 (Minister, 1894) James D. Tillman (Minister, 1895-1897) Archibald J. Sampson (Minister, 1897-1905) Joseph W. J. Lee (Minister, 1905-1907) Williams C. Fox (Minister, 1907-191 1) Evan E. Young (Minister, 1911- 1912) Montgomery Schuyler Jr. (Minister, 1913) Charles S. Hartman (Minister, 1913-1922) Guayaquil: L. V. Prevost (Consul, 1863-1867), Herman R. Dietrich (Consul General, 1906),

394 Appendix E Frederic W. Goding (Consul General, 19 141924), Charles F. Baker (Vice Consul, 1914)

George H. Butler (Agent, 1870) Richard Beardsley (Agent, 1872) John A. Anderson (Agent, 189 1) Olney Arnold (Agent, 19 13) Alexandria: Arthur Garrels (Consul, 1912-19 19), Francis L. Romeo (Vice Consul, 19 14) Cairo: Lewis M. Iddings (Consul General, 1906), Paul Knabenshue (Vice Consul, 1914-19 17), Olney Arnold (Consul General, 1914) Port Said: Edward Lye11 Bristow (Consular Agent, 1914-1919) El Salvador James Rudolph Partridge (Minister, 1863) Alpheus Starkey Williams (Minister, 1866-1869) Alfred Thomas Archimedes Torbert (Minister, 1869) Thomas Biddle (Minister, 1871) George Williamson (Minister, 1873-1879) Cornelius A. Logan (Minister, 1879-1882) Henry C. Hall (Minister, 1882-1889) Lansing B. Mizner (Minister, 1889-1890) Romualdo Pacheco (Minister, 1890-1891) Richard Cutts Shannon (Minister, 189 1-1893) Lewis Baker (Minister, 1893-1897) William L. Merry (Minister, 1897-1907) H. Percival Dodge (Minister, 1907-1909) William HeimkC (Minister, 1909-1914) Boaz Long (Minister, 1914-1919)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 395 San Salvador: John Jenkins (Consul General, 1906), Thomas Hinckley (Consul General, 1914), Anthony J. Perrone (Vice Consul, 19 14)

Estonia Reval (Tallinn): R. E. A. Radau (Consular Agent, 1914)

Ethiopia (Abyssinia) Hoffman Philip (Minister, 1908-1910) Addis Ababa: John Q. Wood (Consul General, 1913-1914)

Finland Helsingfors (Helsinki): Victor Ek (Vice Consul, 1902; Consular Agent, 1914-1917)

France William L. Dayton (Minister, 1861-1 864) John Bigelow (Minister, 1865-1866) John Adams Dix (Minister, 1866-1869) Elihu B. Washburne (Minister, 1869-1877) Edward Follansbee Noyes (Minister, 1877-1881) Levi P. Morton (Minister, 188 1-1885) Robert Milligan McLane (Minister, 1885-1889) Whitelaw Reid (Minister, 1889-1892) T. Jefferson Coolidge (Minister, 1892-1893) James B. Eustis (Ambassador, 1893-1897) Horace Porter (Ambassador, 1897-1905) Robert S. McCormick (Ambassador, 1905-1907) Henry White (Ambassador, 1907-1909) Robert Bacon (Ambassador, 1909-19 12)

396 Appendix E Myron T. Herrick (Ambassador, 1912-19 14) William G. Sharp (Ambassador 1914-19 19) Bordeaux: Benjamin Gerrish Jr. (Consul, 1874), V. Olgiati (Vice Consul, 1874), John McClure Wiley (Consul, 1893-1897), Dominic I. Murphy (Consul, 1905-19O9), Alfred K. Moe (Consul, l909-1914), John Douglas Wise (Vice Consul, 1914-1919), George A. Bucklin Jr. (Consul, 1914-1919) Cognac: George H. Jackson (Consul, 1908), Kenneth S. Patton (Consul, 1913-1915), ElisCe Jouard (Vice Consul, 19 14) La Rochelle: George H. Jackson (Consul, 18991908) Lyon: Carlton Bailey Hurst (Consul, 1914), Marin Vachon (Vice Consul, 19 14) Marseille: Claude M. Thomas (Consul, 1893-1897), Robert P. Skinner (Consul General, 1906), Alphonse Gaulin (Consul General, 1914-1920), Paul H. Cram (Vice Consul, 1914) Nantes: Joseph I. Brittain (Consul, 1897-19O2), Walter H. Schulz (Consul, 1914), Hiram D. Bennett (Vice Consul, 1914), William Harrison Bradley (Consul, 1889-1893) Nice: William Dulany Hunter (Consul, 1914-l92O), Harry A. Lyons (Vice Consul, 1914-1920) Paris: Frank H. Mason (Consul General, 1906), Ely E. Palmer (Vice Consul, 1914), Charles P. Pressly (Vice Consul, 1914-1919), Alexander M. Thackara (Consul General, 1914-1922) St. Etienne: William H. Hunt (Consul, 1906-1926)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 397 Germany Joseph Albert Wright (Minister, 1857-1861) Norman Buel Judd (Minister, 1861-1865) Joseph Albert Wright (Minister, 1865-1867) George Bancroft (Minister, 1867-1874) Bancroft Davis (Minister, 1874-1877) Bayard Taylor (Minister, 1878) Andrew D. White (Minister, 1879-188 1) Aaron Augustus Sargent (Minister, 1882-1884) John A. Kasson (Minister, 1884-1885) George H. Pendleton (Minister, 1885-1889) William W. Phelps (Minister, 1889-1893) Theodore Runyon (Minister, 1893; Ambassador, 1893-1896) Edwin F. Uhl (Ambassador, 1896-1897) Andrew D. White (Ambassador, 1897-1902) Charlemagne Tower (Ambassador, 1902-1908) David J. Hill (Ambassador, 1908-1911) John G. A. Leishman (Ambassador, 1911- 1913) James W. Gerard (Ambassador, 19 13-19 17) Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen): Emory P. Beauchamp (Consul, 1874), Edward Sternberg (Vice Consul, 1874), Frank M. Brundage (Consul, l9O2), William J. Reuters (Vice Consul, 1902), Robert J. Thompson (Consul, 1914), Henry Quadflieg (Vice Consul, 1914-1916), Henry C. A. Damm (Consul, 1916-1917) Louis F. Dilger (Vice Consul, 1917) Berlin: Alexander M. Thackara (Consul, General at 1906), Robert P. Skinner (Consul General, 1914), De Witt C. Poole Jr. (Vice Consul, 1914) Bremen: William T. Fee (Consul, 19 14-1917), Frederick Hoyermann (Vice Consul, 1914), Brunswick: John Greenwood Jr. (Consul, 1874), A. M. Simon (Vice Consul, l874), Talbot J.

398 Appendix E Albert (Consul, 1914-19 16), Julius Seckel (Vice Consul, 1914) Chernnitz: Ernest L. Harris (Consul, 1905-19O6), E. Kilboume Foote (Vice Consul, 1914-1917), Thomas H. Norton (Consul, l9l4), John Q. Wood (Consul, 1914-1917) Coburg: Frank Dillingham (Consul General, 19O6), Joseph I. Brittain (Consul General, 1913-1914), William Herbert Murphy (Vice Consul, 19 14) Cologne (Koln): Charles A. Holder (Consul, 1914), Charles Lesimple (Vice Consul, Germany 1914) Dresden: Lorenzo Brentano (Consul, 1874), W. Knoop (Vice Consul, 1874), Charles L. Cole (Consul General, 1902), T. St. John Gaffney (Consul General, 1906), Leo Allen Bergholz (Consul General, 1913-19 17), James L. A. Burrell (Vice Consul, 1914) Erfurt: Ralph C. Busser (Consul, 1909-1913), Graham H. Kemper (Consul, 1914-1916), Alfred Hoffman (Vice Consul, 19 14) Frankfort-on-the-Main (Frankfix? am Main) Richard Guenther (Consul General, 19O6), Heaton W. Harris (Consul General, 1912-19 17) Hamburg: Hugh Pitcairn (Consul General, 1906) , Henry H. Morgan (Consul General, 1914-1917), E. H. L. Mummenhoff (Vice Consul, 1914) Hanover: Ingersoll Lockwood (Consul, 1862-1865), Albert Michelson (Consul, 1914) Kehl: Max J. Baehr (Consul, 1898-1899), Joseph I. Brittain (Consul, 1902-19O7), Milo A. Jewett (Consul, 1914-1917) Leipzig: Nicholas R. Snyder (Consul, 19 14), Rudolph Fricke (Vice Consul, 1914) Magdeburg: Max J. Baehr (Consul, 1900-19O2), Ernest L. Ives (Vice Consul, 1914), Alfred W. Donegan (Consul, 19 14-19 17)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 399 Mannheim: Heaton W. Harris (Consul, 1899-1907), William C. Teichmann (Consul, 1914-1916), Samuel Berger (Vice Consul, 1914), William F. Wright (Consul General, 1906) Munich (Miinchen): Abraham Schlesinger (Vice Consul, 19l4), T. St. John Gaffhey (Consul General, 1914) Nuremberg: George E. Baldwin (Consul, 19O6), Heaton W. Harris (Consul, 1907-19O8), George N. Iff? (Consul, 1914), Charles S. Winans (Consul, 1914-1917), Ralph W. Dox (Vice Consul, 1914) Plauen: Robert Brent Mosher (Consul, l9l4), Arthur C. Roth (Vice Consul, 1914) Stuttgart: Edward H. Ozmun (Consul, 19O6), Edward Higgins (Consul, 1914-19 16), Ernest Entenrnann (Vice Consul, 1914) Great Britain (United Kingdom) Charles Francis Adams (Minister, 1861-1 868) Reverdy Johnson (Minister, 1868-1869) John. Lothrop Motley (Minister, 1869-1870) Robert C. Schenck (Minister, 1870-1876) Edwards Pierrepont (Minister, 1876-1877) John Welsh (Minister, 1877-1879) James Russell Lowell (Minister, 1880-1885) Edward John Phelps (Minister, 1885-1889) Robert Todd Lincoln (Minister, 1889-1893) Thomas F. Bayard (Ambassador, 1893-1897) John Milton Hay (Ambassador, 1897-1898) Joseph Hodges Choate (Ambassador, 1899-1905) Whitelaw Reid (Ambassador, 1905-19 12) Walter Hines Page (Ambassador, 1913-1918) Greece Charles Keating Tuckerman (Minister, 1868-1871)

400 Appendix E John Morgan Francis (Minister, 1871-1873) John Meredith Read Jr. (Minister, 1873-1877; ChargC d'Affaires, 1877-1879) Eugene Schuyler (Minister, 1882-1884) J. Walker Fearn (Minister, 1885-1889) A. Loudon Snowden (Minister, 1889-1892) Truxtun Beale (Minister, 1892-1893) Eben Alexander (Minister, 1893-1897) William Woodville Rockhill (Minister, 1897-1899) Arthur S. Hardy (Minister, 1899-1901) Charles Spencer Francis (Minister, 190 1-1902) John B. Jackson (Minister, 1902-1907) Richmond Pearson (Minister, 1907-1909) George H. Moses (Minister, 1909-19 12) Jacob Gould Schurman (Minister, 19 12-1913) George Fred Williams (Minister, 19 13-1914) Garrett Droppers (Minister, 1914-1920) Athens: George Horton (Consul, 1893-1898), Daniel E. McGinley (Consul, 1902), George Horton (Consul, 1905-19O6), George Horton (Consul General, 1906-l9lO), William H. Gale (Consul General, 19l4), Bernard Melissinos (Vice Consul, 1914) Patras (Pktrai): Arthur B. Cooke (Consul, 19141919) Salonika (Thessaloniki): Evan E. Young (Consul, 1908-1909), George Horton (Consul, 1910191I), John E. Kehl (Consul, 1914-1917)

Guatemala Elisha 0. Crosby (Minister, 1861-1864) Fitz Henry Warren (Minister, 1865-1869) Silas A. Hudson (Minister, 1869-1872) George Williamson (Minister, 1873-1879) Cornelius A. Logan (Minister, 1879-1882)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 401 Henry C. Hall (Minister, 1882-1889) Lansing B. Mizner (Minister, 1889-1890) Romualdo Pacheco (Minister, 1890-1893) Pierce M. B. Young (Minister, 1893-1896) Macgrane Coxe (Minister, 1896-1897) W. Godfrey Hunter (Minister, 1897-1903) Leslie Combs (Minister, 1903-1907) Joseph W. J. Lee (Minister, 1907) William Heimk6 (Minister, 1908-1909) William F. Sands (Minister, 1909-1910) R. S. Reynolds Hitt (Minister, 1910-19 13) William Hayne Leave11 (Minister, 1913-1 9 18) Alfred A. Winslow (Consul General, 1906) George A. Bucklin Jr. (Consul General, 19 10-19 14) William Owen (Vice Consul, 1914) Guiana Georgetown: Rea Hanna (Consul, 19l4), Lester W. Collins (Vice Consul, 1914) Haiti Benjamin F. Whidden (Commissioner, 1862-1865) H. E. Peck (Commissioner, 1865-1866; Minister, 1866-1867) Gideon H. Hollister (Minister, 1868-1869) Ebenezer D. Bassett (Minister, 1869-1877) John M. Langston (Minister, 1877-1885) John E. W. Thompson (Minister, 1885-1889) Frederick Douglass (Minister, 1889-1891) John S. Durham (Minister, 1891-1893) Henry M. Smythe (Minister, 1893-1897) William F. Powell (Minister, 1897-1905) Henry W. Furniss (Minister, 1905-1913) Madison R. Smith (Minister, 1913-19 14) Arthur Bailly-Blanchard (Minister, 1914-1921)

402 Appendix E Cape Hatien (Cap-Haitien): Lemuel W. Livingston (Consul, 1894-1919), Theodore Behrmann (Vice Consul, 1906) Port au Prince: Ebenezer D. Bassett (Consul General, 1874), John B. Terres (Consul, 19 141920)

Hawaii James W. Borden (Commissioner, 1858-1861) Thomas J. Dryer (Commissioner, 1861-1863) James McBride (Minister, 1863-1866) Edward M. McCook (Minister, 1866-1868) Henry A. Peirce (Minister, 1869-1877) James M. Comly (Minister, 1877-1882) Rollin M. Daggett (Minister, 1882-1885) George W. Merrill (Minister, 1885-1889) John L. Stevens (Minister, 1889-1893) James H. Blount (Minister, 1893) Albert S. Willis (Minister, 1893-1897) Harold M. Sewall (Minister, 1897-1898)

Honduras James Rudolph Partridge (Minister, 1862) Thomas Hart Clay (Minister, 1863) Richard Hilaire Rousseau (Minister, 1866) Henry Baxter (Minister, 1869-1873) George Williamson (Minister, 1873-1879) Cornelius A. Logan (Minister, 1879-1882) Henry C. Hall (Minister, 1882-1889) Romualdo Pacheco (Minister, 1890-1893) Pierce M. B. Young (Minister, 1893-1896) Macgrane Coxe (Minister, 1896) W. Godfiey Hunter (Minister, 1897) Leslie Combs (Minister, 1902) H. Percival Dodge (Minister, 1907-1908)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 403 Philip Marshall Brown (Minister, 1908-19 10) Fenton R. McCreery (Minister, 1909-191 1) Charles Dunning White (Minister, 1911-19 13) John Ewing (Minister, 1913-18) Ceiba: Kenneth S. Patton (Vice Consul, 19 12) Puerto Cortes: William E. Alger (Consular Agent, 189 1-1902), William E. Alger (Consul, 1902l9O4), David J. D. Myers (Consul, 1914) Tegucigalpa: Alfred K. Moe (Consul, 1902-19O4), William E. Alger (Consul, 1904-19O9), Ezra M. Lawton (Consul, 1914-1917)

Hungary Budapest: Frank Dyer Chester (Consul, 1902; Consul General, l9O6), Louis G. Dreyfus Jr. (Consul, l9l4), William Coffin (Consul General, 19 14-19 17), Frank E. Mallett (Vice Consul, 1914)

India Bombay: R. T. Greener (Consul, 1898), Henry D. Baker (Consul, 1913-1914), Selby S. Coleman (Vice Consul, 19 14-19 17) Calcutta: William H. Michael (Consul General, l9O6), James A. Smith (Consul General, 19141920), John Stuart Hunt (Vice Consul, 1914) Madras: Jose de Olivares (Consul, 19 14)

Indonesia Batavia (Jakarta): Bradstreet S. Rairden (Consul, 1914-19 16), Percy W. Rairden (Vice Consul, 1914)

404 Appendix E Iraq Baghdad: Emil Sauer (Consul, 1911-1913), James Scott Levack (Vice Consul, 1914) Ireland Dublin: Wilson King (Consul, 1874), John Shew (Vice Consul, 1874), Alfred K. Moe (Consul, 1904-19O9), Edward L. Adams (Consul, 19141919) Queenstown (Cobh): Edwin N. Gunsaulus (Consul, l9O6), George E. Chamberlin (Consul, l9l4), Herbert K. Cruikshank (Vice Consul, 19 14) Italy George Perkins Marsh (Minister, 186 1-1882) William Waldorf Astor (Minister, 1882-1885) John Bernhard Stallo (Minister, 1885-1889) Albert Gallatin Porter (Minister, 1889-1892) William Potter (Minister, 1892-1894) Isaac Wayne MacVeagh (Ambassador, 1893-1897) William Franklin Draper (Ambassador, 1897-1900) George V. L. Meyer (Ambassador, 1900-1905) Henry White (Ambassador, 1905-1907) Lloyd C. Griscom (Ambassador, 1907-1909) John G. A. Leishman (Ambassador, 1909-191 1) Thomas James O'Brien (Ambassador, 1911-1913) Thomas Nelson Page (Ambassador, 1913-1919) Catania: Arthur Garrels (Consul, 1910- 19 12), Alexander W. Weddell (Consul, 1914), Robert Y. Barkley (Vice Consul, 1914) Florence: John Schuyler Crosby (Consul, 18761882), Leo J. Keena (Consul, 19 14), William Wright Burt (Vice Consul, 19 14)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 405 Genoa: James B. Young (Vice Consul, 1914), John Edward Jones (Consul General, 1914) Leghorn (Livorno): John Hutchinson (Consul, 1865-1869), James A. Smith (Consul, 1897l9O7), Benjamin F. Chase (Consul, l9l4), Leon Bohm de Sauvanne (Vice Consul, 1914) Milan: James B. Young (Vice Consul, 1909-1911) John Q. Wood (Vice Consul, 1909-1910), 110 C. Funk (Vice Consul, 1914-1917), Nathaniel B. Stewart (Consul, 1914) Naples: Homer M. Byington (Vice Consul, 1900lgO8), Jay White (Consul, 1914-1917) Palenno: Hernando de Soto (Consul, 1914) Rome: Horatio de V. Glentworth (Consul, 18581861), Hector de Castro (Consul General, 1906), Homer M. Byington (Vice Consul, 1908-19O9), Kenneth S. Patton (Vice Consul, 1909-1912), Chapman Coleman (Consul, 19 14) Trieste: Frederick W. Hossfeld (Consul, 1906), Ralph J. Totten (Consul, 1911-1913), Ralph C. Busser (Consul, 1913-1917), Orestes de Martini (Vice Consul, 1914) Turin: Charles B. Perry (Consul, 1914) Venice: John Q. Wood (Consul, 191O), James Verner Long (Consul, 1914) Jamaica

Kingston: Leo Allen Bergholz (Consul General, 19 12), Thomas W. Peters (Consul, 1914) Japan

Townsend Harris (Minister, 1859) Robert Hewson Pruyn (Minister, 1861) Robert Bruce Van Valkenburgh (Minister, 18661869)

406 Appendix E Charles E. De Long (Minister, 1869) John Armor Bingham (Minister, 1873) Richard B. Hubbard (Minister, 1885) John Franklin Swift (Minister, 1889-1891) Frank L. Coombs (Minister, 1892-1893) Edwin Dun (Minister, 1893) Alfred Eliab Buck (Minister, 1897) Lloyd C. Griscom (Minister, 1902-1906) Luke Edward Wright (Ambassador, 1906-1907) Thomas James O'Brien (Ambassador, 1907-19 11) Charles Page Bryan (Ambassador, 1911) Larz Anderson (Ambassador, 1912-19 13) George W. Guthrie (Ambassador, 1913-1917) Kobe: Roger S. Greene (Vice Consul, 1905), David F. Wilber (Consul General, 1909-19 1O), George N. West (Consul, 1914-1916) Nagasaki: Roger S. Greene (Vice Consul, 1904l9O5), Carl F. Deichman (Consul, 1914) Yokohama: Henry B. Miller (Consul General, 1906), George H. Scidmore (Consul General, 1914-1922), Hasell H. Dick (Vice Consul, l9l4), Joseph W. Ballantine (Vice Consul, 1914)

Korea Lucius H. Foote (Minister, 1883-1885) William H. Parker (Minister, 1886) Hugh A. Dinsmore (Minister, 1887-1890) Augustine Heard (Minister, 1890-1893) John M. B. Sill (Minister, 1894-1897) Horace N. Allen (Minister, 1897-1905) Edwin V. Morgan (Minister, 1905) Seoul: Gordon Paddock (Consul General, l9O6), Ransford S. Miller (Consul General, 1914-19 17)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 407

Latvia Riga: William S. Rowland (Consul, 1858-1862), Douglas Jenkins (Consul, 1914-19 17) Lebanon Beirut: Leo Allen Bergholz (Consul General, 19051906), W. Stanley Hollis (Consul General, 19111917), Ralph F. Chesbrough (Vice Consul, 1914-1917)

Liberia John Seys (Minister, 1866-1870) J. Milton Turner (Minister, 187 1-1878) John H. Smyth (Minister, 1878-188 1) Henry Highland Garnet (Minister, 1881-1882) John H. Smyth (Minister, 1882-1885) Moses A. Hopkins (Minister, 1885-1886) Charles Henry James Taylor (Minister, 1887) Ezekiel Ezra Smith (Minister, 1888-1890) Alexander Clark (Minister, 1890-1891) William D. McCoy (Minister, 1892-1893) William H. Heard (Minister, 1895-1898) Owen Lun West Smith (Minister, 1898-1902) John R. A. Crossland (Minister, 1902-1903) Ernest Lyon (Minister, 1903-1910) William D. Crum (Minister, 1910-1912) George W. Buckner (Minister, 1913-1915) Monrovia: Ernest Lyon (Consul General, 19O6), George W. Buckner (Consul General, l9l4), John H. Reed (Vice Consul, 1914)

Libya Tripoli: Michel Vidal (Consul, 1870-1876), John Q. Wood (Consul, 1910-1913), W. Roderick

408 Appendix E Dorsey (Consul, 1914-1 916), Arthur E. Saunders (Vice Consul, 19 14) Luxembourg Stanford Newel (Minister, 1903-1905) David J. Hill (Minister, 1905-1908) Arthur M. Beauprk (Minister, 1908-191 1) Lloyd Bryce (Minister, 1911-1913) Henry van Dyke (Minister, 1913-1917 Desirk Derulle (Consular Agent, 1914-1919) Madagascar Tamatave: William H. Hunt (Vice Consul, 18991901), William H. Hunt (Consul, 1901-1906), James G. Carter (Consul, 1906-19 16), Gustave Streuli (Vice Consul, 1914) Malta James Oliver Laing (Consul, 1914) James A. Turnbull (Vice Consul, 1914-19 17) Mexico John B. Weller (Minister, 1860-1861) Thomas Convin (Minister, 1861-1864) Marcus Otterbourg (Minister, 1867) William S. Rosecrans (Minister, 1868-1869) Thomas H. Nelson (Minister, 1869-1873) John W. Foster (Minister, 1873-1880) Philip Hicky Morgan (Minister, 1880-1885) Henry R. Jackson (Minister, 1885-1886) Thomas Courtland Manning (Minister, 1886-1887) Edward S. Bragg (Minister, 1888-1889) Thomas Ryan (Minister, 1889-1893)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 409 Isaac P. Gray (Minister, 1893-1895) Matt W. Ransom (Minister, 1895-1897) Powell Clayton (Minister, 1897-1898; Ambassador, 1898-1905) Edwin H. Conger (Ambassador, 1905) David Eugene Thompson (Ambassador, 19061909) Henry L. Wilson (Ambassador, 1909-1912) Henry P. Fletcher (Ambassador, 1916-1919) Acapulco: John A. Sutter Jr. (Consul, l874), Clement S. Edwards (Consul, 1914-1917), Harry K. Pangburn (Vice Consul, 19 14-1929) Aguascalientes: Gaston Schmutz (Consul, 19 141917), Harold G. Bretherton (Vice Consul, 1914-1922) Chihuahua: Marion Letcher (Consul, 1914-1916), Edward A. Powers (Vice Consul, 1914) Ciudad Juarez: Thomas D. Edwards (Consul, 19141917), Guillenno Zoeller (Vice Consul, 1914) Durango: Theodore C. Hamm (Consul, 1914) Ensenada: Everett E. Bailey (Consul, l9O2), Claude E. Guyant (Vice Consul, l9l4), Frederick R. Sawday (Vice Consul, 1914) Frontera: Alphonse J. Lespinasse (Consul, 19 14), Edward M. Watson (Vice Consul, 1914) Guadalajara: William B. Davis (Vice Consul, 19141917) Guaymas: William L. Baker (Consul, 1861-1863), Charles D. Taylor (Consular Agent, 1914-1917) Hermosillo: Louis Hostetter (Consul, 1914-19 17), Robert S. Van R. Gutman (Vice Consul, 19141917) La Paz: Lucien N. Sullivan (Consul, l9l4), J. C. Ingram (Vice Consul, 1914) Manzanillo: Richard M. Stadden (Vice Consul, 1914-1917)

410 Appendix E Matamoros: Jesse H. Johnson (Consul, 1914-1917), Emilio J. Puig (Vice Consul, 1914-1917) Mazatlan: A. Gordon Brown (Vice Consul, 1914l9l7), William E. Alger (Consul, 1914-1916) Mexico City: Alfred L. M. Gottschalk (Consul General, 19O6), Henry M. Wolcott (Vice Consul, 1912-1914), Arnold Shanklin (Consul General, 1914) Monterrey: Philip C. Hanna (Consul General, 18991917), T. Ayres Robertson (Vice Consul, 19141917) Nogales: Thomas D. Bowman (Vice Consul, 19111914), Frederick Simpich (Vice Consul, Mexico 1914) Nuevo Laredo: Alonzo B. Garrett (Consul, 19141917), Shelby J. Theriot (Vice Consul, 19 141917) Progreso: Wilbur T. Gracey (Consul, 1914), William P. Young (Vice Consul, 1914) Salina Cruz: Warren W. Rich (Vice Consul, 19141916) Saltillo: Philip Holland (Consul, 19 11-19 13), John R. Silliman (Vice Consul, 1914) San Luis Potosi: George A. Bucklin Jr. (Consul, 1908-19lO), Wilbert L. Bonney (Consul, 191019 16), Frank A. Dickinson (Vice Consul, 19 14) Tampico: Franklin Chase (Consul General, 18681870), Thomas H. Bevan (Vice Consul, 19121916), Clarence A. Miller (Consul, 19 14), Neil1 E. Pressly (Vice Consul, 1914) Tapachula: Charles A. Lesher (Vice Consul, 1914) Vera Cruz: William W. Canada (Consul, 19141917), Ernesto Lux (Vice Consul, 19 14-19 17)

Montenegro John B. Jackson (Minister, 1905-1907)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 41 1 Richmond Pearson (Minister, 1907-1909) George H. Moses (Minister, 1909-19 12) Jacob Gould Schurman (Minister, 1912-19 13) George Fred Williams (Minister, 19 13-19 14) Garrett Droppers (Minister, 1914-1920)

Morocco Samuel RenC Gummere (Minister, 1905-1909) H. Percival Dodge (Minister, 1909-19 10) Fred Warner Carpenter (Minister, 1910-19 12) Tangier: Frank Charles Partridge (Consul General, 1897-1898), Hoffman Philip (Consul General, l9O6), Maxwell Blake (Consul General, 19101921) Arthur Gassett (Vice Consul, 1914-1917)

Mozambique Lourenco Marques (Maputo): Caleb Cooke (Consul, 1865-1884), W. Stanley Hollis (Consul, 1898-19O9), George A. Chamberlain (Consul, 1914-19 16), James Owen Spence (Vice Consul, 1914-1917)

Netherlands Henry C. Murphy (Minister, 1857-1861) James S. Pike (Minister, 1861-1866) Albert Rhodes (ChargC d'Affaires, 1866) Hugh Ewing (Minister, 1866-1870) Charles T. Gorham (Minister, 1870-1875) James M. Birney (Minister, 1876-1882) William L. Dayton (Minister, 1882-1885) Isaac Bell Jr. (Minister, 1885-1818) Robert B. Roosevelt (Minister, 1888-1889) Samuel R. Thayer (Minister, 1889-1893)

412 Appendix E William E. Quinby (Minister, 1893-1897) Stanford Newel (Minister, 1897-1905) David J. Hill (Minister, 1905-1908) Arthur M. Beauprk (Minister, 1908-191 1) Lloyd Bryce (Minister, 1911-19 13) Henry van Dyke (Minister, 1913- 19 17) Amsterdam: Charles Mueller (Consul, 1874), A. Vinke (Vice Consul, 1874), Frank W. Mahin (Consul, 19 10-19 13), Dominic I. Murphy (Consul, 1914-1915) Rotterdam: Soren Listoe (Consul General, 19061920), Gerhard H. Krogh (Vice Consul, 19141917) New Zealand Auckland: Frank Dillingham (Consul, 1902), Leonard A. Bachelder (Vice Consul, 19021929), William A. Prickitt (Consul General, 1906-19 14), Joseph I. Brittain (Consul General, 1914-1915) Nicaragua Alexander Dimitry (Minister, 1859-186 1) Andrew B. Dickinson (Minister, 1861-1863) Thomas Hart Clay (Minister, 1863) Andrew B. Dickinson (Minister, 1863-1869) Charles N. Riotte (Minister, 1869-1873) George Williamson (Minister, 1873-1879) Cornelius A. Logan (Minister, 1879-1882) Henry C. Hall (Minister, 1882-1889) Lansing B. Miner (Minister, 1889-1890) Romualdo Pacheco (Minister, 1890-1891) Richard Cutts Shannon (Minister, 1891-1893) Lewis Baker (Minister, 1893-1897) William L. Merry (Minister, 1897-1908)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 413 John Gardner Coolidge (Minister, 1908) Elliott Northcott (Minister, 1911) George Thomas Weitzel (Minister, 1911-1913) Benjamin Lafayette Jefferson (Minister, 19131921) Bluefields: Arthur J. Clare (Consul, 19l4), William A. Deverall (Vice Consul, 1914) Corinto: James W. Johnson (Consul, 1908-19O9), Harold D. Clum (Consul, 1914) Norway Charles Hinman Graves (Minister, 1905-1906) Herbert Henry Davis Peirce (Minister, 1906-191 1) Lauritz S. Swenson (Minister, 1911- 19 13) Albert G. Schmedeman (Minister, 1913-1921) Bergen: Bertil M. Rasmusen (Consul, l9l4), Alfred 0.Tittmann (Vice Consul, 1914) Christiania (Oslo): Henry Bordewich (Consul General, 1902), Michael J. Hendrick (Consul General, 1914), Haakon E. Dahr Jr. (Vice Consul, 19 14) Stavanger: T. Falk (Consular Agent, 1874), Theodore Jaeckel (Consul, 1914-19 15), Frithjof C. Sigmond (Vice Consul, 1914), Walter A. Leonard (Consul, 19 14)

Oman Maskat (Masqat): George W. Wood (Consul, 18641880), Archibald Mackirdy (Consul, l9O2), Homer Brett (Consul, 191I), Mahomed Faze1 (Vice Consul, 19 14) Pakistan Karachi: Stuart K. Lupton (Consul, 1914)

4 14 Appendix E Palestine Jerusalem: Albert Rhodes (Consul, 1863-1865), Samuel Edelman (Vice Consul, 1914) Panama William I. Buchanan (Minister, 1903-1904) John Barrett (Minister, 1904-1905) Charles E. Magoon (Minister, 1905-1906) Herbert G. Squiers (Minister, 1906-1909) R. S. Reynolds Hitt (Minister, 1909-1910) Thomas C. Dawson (Minister, 1910) H. Percival Dodge (Minister, 1911-19 13) William Jennings Price (Minister, 1913-1 921) Alban G. Snyder (Consul, General, 1914-1920) Daniel J. Waters (Vice Consul, 1914) Colon: James C. Kellogg (Consul, 19 14; Lindsey L. Jewel (Vice Consul, 1914) Papal States John P. Stockton (Minister, 1858-1861) Alexander W. Randall (Minister, 1861-1863) Richard Milford Blatchford (Minister, 1862) Rufus King (Minister, 1863) D. Maitland Armstrong (ChargC d'Affaires, 1869) Paraguay Charles Ames Washburn (Minister, 1863) Martin T. McMahon (Minister, 1868) John L. Stevens (Minister, 1870) John C. Caldwell (Minister, 1874; ChargC d' Affaires, 1876) William Williams (ChargC d' Affaires, 1882-1885)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 415 John E. Bacon (ChargC d' Affaires, 1885; Minister, 1888) George Maney (Minister, 1889) Granville Stuart (Minister, 1894) William R. Finch (Minister, 1897-1905) Edward C. O'Brien (Minister, 1905) Edwin V. Morgan (Minister, 1909-191 1) Nicolay A. Grevstad (Minister, 1911- 1914) Daniel Francis Mooney (Minister, 19 14-1922) Asuncion: G. R. Usher (Consul, 1874), Lucien A. Wait (Consul, 1874), J. N. Ruffin (Consul, 1897-l9O7), Maximo F. Croskey (Vice Consul, 1914-1917)

Persia S. G. W. Benjamin (Minister, 1883-1885) Frederick H. Winston (Minister, 1885-1886) E. Spencer Pratt (Minister, 1886-1891) Truxtun Beale (Minister, 1891-1892) Watson R. Sperry (Minister, 1892-1893) Alexander McDonald (Minister, 1893-1897) Arthur S. Hardy (Minister, 1897-1899) Herbert W. Bowen (Minister, 1899-190 1) Lloyd C. Griscom (Minister, 1901-1902) Richmond Pearson (Minister, 1902-1907) John B. Jackson (Minister, 1907-1909) Charles W. Russell (Minister, 1909-1914) John L. Caldwell (Minister, 1914-1921) Tabriz: Gordon Paddock (Consul, 19 14-19 19) Teheran: Ralph H. Bader (Vice Consul, 19121918), Craig W. Wadsworth (Consul General, 1914)

4 16 Appendix E Peru Christopher Robinson (Minister, 1861-1 865) Alvin P. Hovey (Minister, 1865-1870) Thomas Settle (Minister, 1871-1872) Francis Thomas (Minister, 1872-1875) Richard Gibbs (Minister, 1875) Isaac P. Christiancy (Minister, 1879-188 1) Stephen A. Hurlbut (Minister, 1881-1882) Seth Ledyard Phelps (Minister, 1883-1885) Charles William Buck (Minister, 1885-1889) John Hicks (Minister, 1889) James A. McKenzie (Minister, 1893) Irving Bedell Dudley (Minister, 1897) Leslie Combs (Minister, 1906) H. Clay Howard (Minister, 1911-1913) Benton McMillin (Minister, 1913-19 19) Callao: James H. McColley (Consul, 1864-1869), William W. Handley (Consul General, 19 1419 16), Luther K. Zabriskie (Vice Consul, 1914) Poland Breslau (Wroclaw): Herman L. Spahr (Consul, l9l4), Gustav Wiese (Vice Consul, 1914) Danzig (Gdansk): Ernst A. Claaszen (Consular Agent, 1914) Stettin (Szczecin): John E. Kehl (Consul, 19O6), Henry C. A. Damm (Consul, 1914), Emil Schmidt (Vice Consul, 1914) Warsaw: Witold Fuchs (Vice Consul, 1914-1 917), Thomas E. Heenan (Consul, 19 14) Portugal George W. Morgan (Minister, 1858-1861)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 417 James E. Harvey (Minister, 1861-1869) Samuel Shellabarger (Minister, 1869-1870) Charles Hance Lewis (Minister, 1870-1875) Benjamin Moran (Minister, 1875-1876; ChargC d' Affaires, 1876-1882) John Morgan Francis (Minister, 1882-1884) Lewis Richmond (Minister, 1884-1885) Edward Parke Custis Lewis (Minister, 1885-1889) George Bailey Loring (Minister, 1889-1890) George Sherman Batcheller (Minister, 1890-1892) Gilbert Ashville Pierce (Minister, 1893) George William Caruth (Minister, 1893-1897) Lawrence Townsend (Minister, 1897-1899) John Nichol Irwin (Minister, 1899-1900) Francis Butler Loomis (Minister, 1901- 1902) Charles Page Bryan (Minister, 1903-1910) Henry T. Gage (Minister, 1910) Edwin V. Morgan (Minister, 19 11- 19 12) Cyrus E. Woods (Minister, 1912-1913) Thomas Howard Birch (Minister, 1913-1922) Lisbon: Kenneth S. Patton (Vice Consul, 19 12), Will L. Lowrie (Consul General, 1914-1920), Ramon I. Janer (Vice Consul, 1914) Oporto (Porto): Henry W. Diman (Consul, 18621869), William H. Stuve (Consular Agent, 1914)

Romania Eugene Schuyler (ChargC d' Affaires, 1880; Minister, 1882) J. Walker Fearn (Minister, 1885-1889) A. Loudon Snowden (Minister, 1889-1892) Eben Alexander (Minister, 1893-1897) William Woodville Rockhill (Minister, 1897) Arthur S. Hardy (Minister, 1899) Charles Spencer Francis (Minister, 1900)

418 Appendix E John B. Jackson (Minister, 1902-1905) John W. Riddle (Minister, 1905) Horace G. Knowles (Minister, 1907) Spencer F. Eddy (Minister, 1909) John Ridgely Carter (Minister, 1909) John B. Jackson (Minister, 1911-1913) Charles Joseph Vopicka (Minister, 1913-1921) Bucharest Thomas E. Moore (Consul General, 1906), Charles Campbell Jr. (Consul General, 1914), William G. Boxshall (Vice Consul, 1914)

Russia John Appleton (Minister, 1860-186 1) Cassius M. Clay (Minister, 1861-1862) Simon Cameron (Minister, 1862) Cassius M. Clay (Minister, 1863-1869) Andrew G. Curtin (Minister, 1869-1872) James L. O n (Minister, 1872-1873) Marshall Jewel1 (Minister, 1873-1874) George H. Boker (Minister, 1875-1878) Edwin W. Stoughton (Minister, 1878-1879) John W. Foster (Minister, 1880-188 1) William H. Hunt (Minister, 1882-1884) Alphonso Taft (Minister, 1884-1885) George V. N. Lothrop (Minister, 1885-1818) Lambert Tree (Minister, 1888-1889) Charles Emory Smith (Minister, 1890-1892) Andrew D. White (Minister, 1892-1894) Clifton R. Breckinridge (Minister, 1894-1897) Ethan A. Hitchcock (Minister, 1897-1898; Ambassador, 1899) Charlemagne Tower (Ambassador, 1899-1902) Robert S. McCormick (Ambassador, 1902-1905) George V. L. Meyer (Ambassador, 1905-1907) John W. Riddle (Ambassador, 1907-1909)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 419 William Woodville Rockhill (Ambassador, 19091911) Curtis Guild Jr. (Ambassador, 1911- 19 13) George T. Marye (Ambassador, 1914-19 16) Archangel: Edmund Brandt (Consul, 1874) Moscow: John H. Snodgrass (Consul General, 1914-1917), Alfied W. Smith (Vice Consul, 1914) Omsk: Adolph F. Reinecke (Consular Agent, 1914) St. Petersburg (Petrograd): North Winship (Consul, l914-1917), George Pomutz (Consul, 1874), J. Curtin (Vice Consul, 1874), Ethelbert Watts (Consul General, 1906), Paul Bartlett (Vice Consul, l9l4), H. Custis Vezey (Vice Consul, 1914), Jacob E. Comer (Consul, 1914) Vladivostok: R. T. Greener (Consul, 1898), Roger S. Greene (Consul, 1907), John F. Jewel1 (Consul, 19 14), Harold F. Newhard (Vice Consul, 1914-19 17) Samoa Apia: George Heirnrod (Consul General, l9O6), Norman H. Macdonald (Vice Consul, 1914), Mason Mitchell (Consul, 1914-1919) Senegal Dakar: James W. Johnson (Consul, 1907-1908) Serbia Eugene Schuyler (Minister, 1882-1884) J. Walker Fearn (Minister, 1885-1889) A. Loudon Snowden (Minister, 1889-1892) Eben Alexander (Minister, 1893-1897)

420 Appendix E William Woodville Rockhill (Minister, 1897) Arthur S. Hardy (Minister, 1899) Charles Spencer Francis (Minister, 1900) John B. Jackson (Minister, 1902-1905) John W. Riddle (Minister, 1905) Horace G. Knowles (Minister, 1907) John Ridgely Carter (Minister, 1909) John B. Jackson (Minister, 19 11-19 13) Charles Joseph Vopicka (Minister, 1913-1919) Belgrade: Thomas Ewing Moore (Consul General, 1906), Lewis W. Haskell (Consul, l9l4), Samuel Weiss (Vice Consul, 1914-19 17) Siam (Thailand) John Acoming Haldennan Jr. (Minister, 1882-1885) Jacob T. Child (Minister, 1886) Sempronius Hamilton Boyd (Minister, 1890) John Barrett (Minister, 1894-1898) Hamilton King (Minister, 1898-1912) Fred Warner Carpenter (Minister, 19 12-19 13) Bangkok: Hamilton King (Consul General, 1902), Montgomery Schuyler Jr. (Consul General, 1904-1906), Sheldon L. Crosby (Consul General, l9l4), Carl C. Hansen (Vice Consul, 1914-1929) Sierra Leone Freetown: John T. Williams (Consul, 1898-19O6), James A. L. Trice (Vice Consul, 1902), William J. Yerby (Consul, 1906-19 15), Charles Perinaux (Vice Consul, 1914)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 421 Singapore A. G. Studer (Consul, 1874) David F. Wilber (Consul General, 1905-1907) Edwin S. Cunningham (Consul General, 1914) South Africa Cape Town: Daniel M. Huckins (Consul, 1860l862), Thomas McDowell (Consul, l862), Walter Graham (Consul, 1863-1866), Horace Lee Washington (Consul General, 1906), William A. Haygood (Vice Consul, 1914) Durban: Hugh S. Hood (Vice Consul, 1914-1929) Johannesburg: Edwin N. Gunsaulus (Consul, 19141916) Port Elizabeth: Ernest A. Wakefield (Consul, 1914-1917) Spain William Preston (Minister, 1859-1861) Carl Schurz (Minister, 1861) Gustavus Koerner (Minister, 1862-1864) John P. Hale (Minister, 1865-1869) Daniel E. Sickles (Minister, 1869-1874) Caleb Cushing (Minister, 1874-1877) James Russell Lowell (Minister, 1877-1880) Lucius Fairchild (Minister, 1880-1881) Hannibal Hamlin (Minister, 1881- 1882) John W. Foster (Minister, 1883-1885) Jabez Lamar Monroe Curry (Minister, 1885-18 18) Perry Belmont (Minister, 1888-1889) Thomas W. Palmer (Minister, 1889-1890) E. Burd Grubb (Minister, 1890-1892) A. Loudon Snowden (Minister, 1892-1893) Hannis Taylor (Minister, 1893-1897)

422 Appendix E Stewart L. Woodford (Minister, 1897-1898) Bellamy Storer (Minister, 1899-1902) Arthur S. Hardy (Minister, 1902-1905) William Miller Collier (Minister, 1905-1909) Henry C. Ide (Minister, 1909-1913) Joseph Edward Willard (Ambassador, 1913-1 921) Barcelona: Julius G. Lay (Consul General, 1902), Benjamin H. Ridgely (Consul General, 19O6), Francis M. Mansfield (Vice Consul, 1913-1914), Carlton Bailey Hurst (Consul General, 19141920) Bilbao: James S. Bourke (Consular Agent, 1914) Cadiz: James Sanderson (Consular Agent, 1914) Madrid: JosC Maria Gay (Vice Consul, 19 14), Frederick T. F. Dumont (Consul, 1914) Malaga: Robert Frazer Jr. (Consul, Spain 1914), Thomas R. Geary (Vice Consul, Spain 1914) Seville: Charles S. Winans (Consul, Spain 19091914), Harris N. Cookingham (Vice Consul, Spain 1914)

Sweden Benjamin F. Angel (Minister, 1857-1861) Jacob S. Haldeman (Minister, 1861-1864) James Hepburn Campbell (Minister, 1864-1867) Joseph Jackson Bartlett (Minister, 1867-1869) Christopher Columbus Andrews (Minister, 18691877) John L. Stevens (Minister, 1877-1883) William Widgery Thomas Jr. (Minister, 1883-1885) R u h s Magee (Minister, 1885-1889) William Widgery Thomas Jr. (Minister, 1889-1894) Thomas Barker Ferguson (Minister, 1894-1898) William Widgery Thomas Jr. (Minister, 1898-1905) Charles Hinman Graves (Minister, 1905-19 13)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 423 Ira Nelson Morris (Minister, 1914-1923) Goteborg: Emil Sauer (Consul, 1913-19 15), Wilhelm Hartman (Vice Consul, Sweden 19141917) Stockholm: Edward L. Adam (Consul General, 1906), Ernest L. Harris (Consul General, 19111916), Per Torsten Berg (Vice Consul, 19141919)

Switzerland Theodore Sedgwick Fay (Minister, 1853-186 1) George G. Fogg (Minister, 1861-1865) George Harrington (Minister, 1865-1869) Horace Rublee (Minister, 1869-1876; ChargC d' Affaires, 1876) Nicholas Fish (ChargC d' Affaires, 1877-1881) Michael John Cramer (ChargC d' Affaires, 18811882; Minister, 1882-1885) Boyd Winchester (Minister, 1885-1889) John Davis Washburn (Minister, 1889-1892) Person C. Cheney (Minister, 1892-1893) James 0. Broadhead (Minister, 1893-1895) John Lee Peak (Minister, 1895-1897) John G. A. Leishman (Minister, 1897-1900) Arthur S. Hardy (Minister, 190 1-1903) David J. Hill (Minister, 1903-1905) Brutus J. Clay (Minister, 1905-1910) Lauritz S. Swenson (Minister, 1910-1911) Henry S. Boutell (Minister, 1911-1913) Pleasant Alexander Stovall (Minister, 1913-1919) Basel: Philip Holland (Consul, 1913-1923), Arnold Zuber (Vice Consul, l9l4),

424 Appendix E Berne: Leo J. Frankenthal (Vice Consul, l9l4), Max J. Baehr (Consul, 19 14-1915), George Heimrod (Consul, 19 14) Geneva: William Fell Giles Jr. (Consul, 1858186I), Francis B. Keene (Consul, 1914) St. Gall: Thomas W. Peters (Consul General, 1906), Dominic I. Murphy (Consul, 1909-1914), Eugene Nabel (Vice Consul, 19 14) Zurich: Samuel H. M. Byes (Consul, 1874), Ephraim L. Corning (Vice Consul, 1874), David F. Wilber (Consul General, 19 13-19 15), Frank Bohr (Vice Consul, 1913-1918)

Syria Aleppo: Jesse B. Jackson (Consul, l908-1923), Lorenzo Y. Manachy (Vice Consul, 19 14-19 17)

Trinidad Philip C. Hanna (Consul, 1897) Andrew J. McConnico (Consul, 1914-1916) John V. Swearingen Jr. (Vice Consul, 1914-1917)

Tunisia Tunis: Amos Peny (Consul, 1862-1867), G. H. Heap (Consul, 1874), St. Leger A. T. Touhay (Vice Consul, 1902)

Turkey (Ottoman Empire) James Williams (Minister, 1858-1861) Edward Joy Morris (Minister, 1861-1 870) Isaac Wayne MacVeagh (Minister, 1870-1871) George H. Boker (Minister, 1871-1875)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 425 Horace Maynard (Minister, 1875-1880) James Longstreet (Minister, 1880-188 1) Lewis Wallace (Minister, 1881-1885) Samuel S. Cox (Minister, 1885-1886) Oscar S. Straus (Minister, 1887-1889) Solomon Hirsch (Minister, 1889-1892) David Preston Thompson (Minister, 1892-1893) Alexander Watkins Terrell (Minister, 1893-1896) James B. Angel1 (Minister, 1897-1898) Oscar S. Straus (Minister, 1898-1899) John G. A. Leishman (Minister, 1900-1906; Ambassador, 1906-1909) Oscar S. Straus (Ambassador, 1909-1910) William Woodville Rockhill (Ambassador, 19111913) Henry Morgenthau (Ambassador, 1913-19 16) Constantinople (Istanbul): J. H. Goodenow (Consul General, 1874), D. Stamatiades (Vice Consul, 1874), Charles M. Dickinson (Consul General, l9O6), Oscar S. Heizer (Vice Consul, l9l4), Gabriel Bie Ravndal (Consul General, 19 141924) Harput: Evan E. Young (Consul, l905-1908), William W. Masterson (Consul, 1914), William E. D. Ward (Vice Consul, 1914) Mersina (Icel): Edward I. Nathan (Consul, 19141917), John Debbas (Vice Consul, 1914-1917) Smyrna (Izrnir): Enoch J. Smithers (Consul, at Smyrna (Izmir) 1874), J. Griffith (Vice Consul, 1874), Ernest L. Harris (Consul, 1906-19O8), Ernest L. Harris (Consul General, 1908-19 1I), George Horton (Consul General, 1911- 1917), Leland B. Morris (Vice Consul, 1914-19 17)

426 Appendix E Ukraine Odessa: T. C. Smith (Consul, 1874), Stephen Ralli (Vice Consul, l874), Thomas E. Heenan (Consul, 19O2), John H. Grout (Consul, 19 14), David John Howells (Vice Consul, 1914), John A. Embry (Vice Consul, 1916-19 17) John A. Ray (Consul, 1916-19 17) Uruguay Alexander Asboth (Minister, 1867-1868) Henry G. Worthington (Minister, 1868-1869) Robert C. Kirk (Minister, 1869-1870) John L. Stevens (Minister, 1870-1873) John C. Caldwell (Minister, 1874-1876; ChargC d' Affaires, 1876-1882) William Williams (ChargC d'Affaires, 1882-1885) John E. Bacon (ChargC d' Affaires, 1885-1886; Minister, 1886-1818) George Maney (Minister, 1889-1894) Granville Stuart (Minister, 1894-1898) William R. Finch (Minister, 1898-1905) Edward C. OBrien (Minister, 1905-1909) Edwin V. Morgan (Minister, 1909-191 1) Nicolay A. Grevstad (Minister, 19 11- 1914) Montevideo: Richard H. Gayle (Consul, 1858186I), Hiram Tuttle (Consul, 1862-1866), John W. O'Hara (Consul, 1906), Ralph J. Totten (Consul, 1913-19 14), Albert G. Ebert (Vice Consul, 19 14) Venezuela Erastus Dean Culver (Minister, 1862) James Wilson (Minister, 1866-1867) Thomas N. Stilwell (Minister, 1867-1868)

U.S. Diplomatic Corps 427 James Rudolph Partridge (Minister, 1869) William Anderson Pile (Minister, 1871-1 874) Thomas Russell Jr. (Minister, 1874-1877) Jehu Baker (Minister, 1878-188 1) George W. Carter (Minister, 188 1) Jehu Baker (Minister, 1882-1885) Charles Lewis Scott (Minister, 1885-1889) William L. Scruggs (Minister, 1889) Frank Charles Partridge (Minister, 1893-1894) Seneca Haselton (Minister, 1894) Allen Thomas (Minister, 1895) Francis Butler Loornis (Minister, 1897-1901) Herbert W. Bowen (Minister, 1901-1905) William W. Russell (Minister, 1905-1909) John W. Garrett (Minister, 1910-191 1) Elliott Northcott (Minister, 19 11-19 13) Preston Buford McGoodwin (Minister, 1913-1921) La Guaira: Philip C. Hanna (Consul, 1891-1894), Thomas P. Moffatt (Consul, 1906), Thomas W. Voetter (Consul, 1914), Cyrus N. Clark (Vice Consul, 19 14) Maracaibo: Eugene H. Plurnacher (Consul, l9O6), Ralph J. Totten (Consul, 1910-191 I), John K. Baxter (Consul, 1914), Werner J. Leitner (Vice Consul, 1914) Puerto Cabello: James W. Johnson (Consul, 1906l9O7), Herbert R. Wright (Consul, 1908-1917), Lodewyk J. Verhelst (Vice Consul, 1914) Vietnam Saigon: Lauritz I. Stang (Commercial Agent, 1906), Miller Joblin (Vice Consul, 19 14-1917), Hubert G. Baugh (Vice Consul, 1914)

428 Appendix E

Yemen Aden: Edwin S. Cunningham (Consul, l9O2), W. H. Lockerman (Vice Consul, 1902), Felix Willoughby Smith (Consul, 1914), Paul Nalin (Vice Consul, 1914)

Zanzibar (Tanzania) William G. Webb (Consul, 1859-1861) William S. Speer (Consul, 1861-1863) William E. Hines (Consul, 1863-1865) W. W. Goodhue (Vice Consul, 1864) Stephen B. Dow (Vice Consul, 1865-1867) Edward D. Ropes (Consul, 1865-1869) Frederic MacMaster (Consul, 1906) Arthur Garrels (Consul, 1908) Perry C. Hays (Consul, 1914) Frank W. Vining (Vice Consul, 19 14)

Bibliography Introduction Two generations ago, the period covered by this book might legitimately have been considered a "neglected era" of American diplomatic history. Not so today. There has been an explosion of works, especially since the 1960s. The era continues to attract considerable scholarly interest. A thorough survey of the literature, then, would require a book several times larger than this Dictionary itself. The bibliography that follows, therefore, is necessarily selective. Readers wanting a thorough survey should consult Robert L. Beisner, American Foreign Relations since 1600. A Guide to the Literature, a superlative annotated bibliography. Readers would do well to begin with some of the fine interpretive surveys that have been produced in the past several decades. Among the most solid are Charles S. Campbell, The Transformation of American Foreign Relations; Walter LaFeber, The Searchfor American Opportunity; Milton Plesur, America's Outward Thrust. Approaches to Foreign Affairs, 1865-1890; David M. Pletcher, The Awkward Years: American Foreign Relations under Garfield and Arthur; and Robert L. Beisner, From the Old Diplomacy to the New.

430 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Two works that command a profound understanding of big strategic issues and that are, therefore, well worth consulting are Kenneth Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America; and J.A.S. Grenville and George Berkeley Young, Policy, Strategy, and American Diplomacy: Studies in Foreign Policy, 1873-191 7. Three other "big issues" or themes of American diplomacy-mission, race, and revolution-are explored in Michael Hunt, Ideology and US. Foreign Policy. Four recent books that have received considerable coverage, are aimed at a broad audience, and are well worth examining, are Walter McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776, which gives high marks to 19th century American foreign policy for its effectiveness and for avoiding the moralistic crusading that often characterized the 20th century American approach to the world; Walter Russell Mead, Special Providence. American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World, which identifies four unique American approaches to foreign affairs and argues that U.S. foreign policy has been remarkably successful; Max Boot, The Savage Wars of Peace. Small Wars and the Rise of American Power, which focuses on the "low-intensity conflicts" and their role in U.S. history; and Warren Zimmennann, First Great Triumph. How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power, which focuses on John Hay, Alfred T. Mahan, Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Elihu Root. The great American crisis of the 19th century was, of course, the Civil War. Valuable studies of Civil War diplomacy include Lynn M. Case and Warren F. Spencer, The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy, an excellent, thoroughly researched work, with a broad European perspective; D. P. Crook, The North, The South, and the Powers, 1861-1865; Norman Ferris, Desperate Diplomacy: William H. Seward's Foreign Policy, 1861; Howard Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War or his Union in Peril: The Crisis over British Intervention in the Civil War; Charles M. Hubbard, The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy; and Emory Thomas, Confederate Nation, 1861-1865, a good basic overview.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 43 1

Any examination of postbellum U.S. foreign policy has to include studies of James G. Blaine. Two of the best recent studies are David F. Healey, James G. Blaine and Latin America; and Edward P. Crapol, James G. Blaine: Architect of Empire. An excellent overview of the 1890s is H. W. Brands, The Restless Decade. On the Spanish-American War, readers should turn first to David F. Trask, The War with Spain in 1898, the best survey, especially on military topics, and a thorough and balanced account. A cornerstone of the literature is still Julius W. Pratt, Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands. An excellent work that puts Cuba back into the story of the Spanish-American War is Louis A. PCrez Jr. The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography. It is also productive to explore the relations between the United States and several specific nations during these years. On the relationship with Great Britain, see Charles S. Campbell, From Revolution to Rapprochement: The United States and Great Britain, 1783-1900, an excellent overview; and Bradford Perkins, The Great Rapprochement. England and the United States, 1895-1914. A good general survey of Franco-American relations is Henry Blumenthal, France and the United States: Their Diplomatic Relations, I 789-19I 4. A comprehensive and detailed survey of Russo-American relations is Norman E. Saul, Concord and Conflict: The United States and Russia, 1867-1914. James W. Cortada provides a general overview of SpanishAmerican relations in Two Nations over Time. Spain and the United States, 1776-1977. One of the major American scholars of U.S. relations with Latin America, Lester Langley, provides a reliable survey in his America and the Americas: The United States in the Western Hemisphere. A standard survey of SinoAmerican relations is Warren I. Cohen, America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations. The two towering figures of U.S. political and diplomatic history in the first decades of the 20th century were, of course, Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. A good starting point on either of these presidents would be the biographies of H.

432 BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Brands: TR: The Last Romantic and Woodrow Wilson. Arthur Link, Wilson the Diplomatist, still stands as a solid achievement by the major Wilson scholar of the 20th century. Finally, no one attempting an immersion in American diplomatic history can neglect the annual collection published by the U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, a treasure trove of official government documents.

Guides Beisner, Robert L., ed. American Foreign Relations since 1600. A Guide to the Literature. 2nd ed. Santa Barbara, Calif.. ABC CLIO, 2003. Bums, Richard Dean, ed. Guide to American Foreign Relations since 1700. Santa Barbara, Calif. ABC-CLIO, 1983.

Reference Works and Compilations Albion, Robert G. Makers of Naval Policy, 1798-1947. Ed. Rowena Reed. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1980. Bartlett, Ruhl J., ed. The Record of American Diplomacy. Documents and Readings in the History of American Foreign Relations. 4th ed. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1964. Bemis, Samuel Flagg. American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy. 10 vols. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 19271929; reprinted New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1963. Berner, Brad. The Spanish-American War. A Historical Dictionary. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1998. Bevans, Charles I., ed. Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776-1949. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 1968-1976. Bradford, James C. ed. Makers of the American Naval Tradition, 1840-1880: Captains of the Old Steam Navy. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1986. . Makers of the American Naval Tradition, 1880-1930: Admirals of the New Steel Navy Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1990.

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Coletta Paolo Enrico, ed. American Secretaries of the Navy. 2 vols. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1980. Cooney, David M. A Chronology of the U S . Navy: 1775-1965. New York: Franklin Watts, 1965. Ferrell, Robert H., ed. America as a World Power, 1872-1945. New York: Harper & Row, 1971. Furer, Howard B., ed. James A. Garfield (1831-1881):Chester A. Arthur (1830-1886): Chronology-Documents-BibliographicalAids. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y. : Oceana Publications, 1970. Garraty, John, and Mark Carnes, eds. American National Biography. 24 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Malloy, William M. ed. Treaties, Conventions, International Acts, Protocols and Agreements between the United States of America and Other Parties, 1776-1909. 2 vols. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1910. Malone, Dumas, and Allen Johnson, eds. Dictionary of American Biography. 20 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928-. Merli, Frank J., and Theodore A. Wilson, eds. The Makers of American Diplomacy. From Benjamin Franklin to Alfred Thayer Mahan. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974. Porter, Kirk Harold, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National Party Platforms 1840-1968. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1970. Richardson, James Daniel, Comp. A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897. 10 vols. Washington, D.C.: Published by Authority of Congress, 1898-1899. Richter, William L. Historical Dictionary of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2004. United States. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office, 1861, ff. . General Accounting Office. U S . Insular Areas. Application of the Constitution. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, November 1997.

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. Navy Department. American Naval Policy as Outlined in Messages of the Presidents of the United States, from 1790. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1922. . Navy Department. Annual Report of the Secretary. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 18611897. General Works Bauer, K. Jack. A Maritime History of the United States. The Role of America's Seas and Waterways. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988. Beker, Henry, and Fred Piper. Cipher Systems. The Protection of Communications. New York: John Wiley, 1982. Bemis, Samuel Flagg. The Latin American Policy of the United States. An Historical Interpretation. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1943. Boot, Max. The Savages Wars of Peace. Small Wars and the Rise ofAmerican Power. New York: Basic Books, 2002. Brebner, John Bartlett. Canada: A Modern History. Rev ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970. . North Atlantic Triangle. The Interplay of Canada, the United States and Great Britain. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1945. Bryant, Samuel W. The Sea and the States. A Maritime History of the American People. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1967. Callahan, James Morton. American Foreign Policy in Canadian Relations. New York: Macmillan, 1937. Campbell, Charles S. From Revolution to Rapprochement: The United States and Great Britain, 1783-1900. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974. . The Transformation of American Foreign Relations, 1865-1900. New York: Harper & Row, 1976. Cole, Wayne S. An Interpretive History of American Foreign Relations. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press, 1968.

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Collum, Richard Strader. History of the United States Marine Corps. Philadelphia: L.R. Harnmersly, 1890. Cortada, James W. Two Nations over Time. Spain and the United States, 1776-1977. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978. Curti, Merle E. Peace or War: The American Struggle, 16361936. New York: W. W. Norton, 1936; reprinted New York: Garland, 1972. DeConde, Alexander. Ethnicity, Race, and American Foreign Policy: A History. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992. . A History of American Foreign Policy. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1963. Dulles, Foster Rhea. America in the Paczjk. A Century of Expansion. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1938. . Prelude to World Power: American Diplomatic History, 1860-1900. New York: Macmillan 1965. . The Imperial Years. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1956. Fairbank, John King. The United States and China. 4th ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983. Ferrell, Robert H., American Diplomacy: A History. Rev. ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 1969. Field, James A., Jr. America and the Mediterranean World, 1776-1882. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Flayhart, William Henry, 111. The American Line (1871-1902). New York: W. W. Norton, 2000. Grenville, J. A. S., and George Berkeley Young. Policy, Strategy, and American Diplomacy: Studies in Foreign Policy, 1873-1917. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1966. Hagan, Kenneth J. This People's Navy: The Making of American Sea Power. New York: The Free Press, 1991. Heffer, Jean. Trans. W. Donald Wilson. The United States and the Paczjk History of a Frontier. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002.

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Horsman, Reginald. Race and Manifest Destiny. The Origins of Racial Anglo-Saxonism. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981. Hoyt, Edwin P. PaciJic Destiny: The Story of America in the Western Sea from the Early 1800s to the 1980s. New York: Norton, 1981. Hunt, Michael H. Ideology and U. S. Foreign Policy. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987. . The Making of a Special Relationship. The United States and China to 1914. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. Hutchinson, William R. Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Iriye, Akira. Across the Pacific: An Inner History of AmericanEast Asian Relations. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1967. Jacobson, Matthew Frye. Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876191 7. New York: Hill & Wang, 2000. Johnson, Emory Richard, T.W. Van Meter, G. G. Huebner, and D. S. Hanchett. History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the United States. 2 vols. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1951. Johnson, Robert Erwin. Thence Round Cape Horn: The Story of United States Naval Forces on PaciJic Station, 1818-1923. Annapolis, Md.: United States Naval Institute, 1963. Kennedy, Charles Stuart. The American Consul: A History of the United States Consular Service, 1 776-1914. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Kilmarx, Robert A., ed. America's Maritime Legacy: A History of the US. Merchant Marine and Shipbuilding Industry since Colonial Times. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1979. LaFeber, Walter. The Search for American Opportunity, 18651913. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. . The New Empire, An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898. Ithaca, N.Y .: Cornell University Press, 1963; rev. ed. 1998.

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Long, David. Gold Braid and Foreign Relations: Diplomatic Activities of U S . Naval Officers, 1798-1883. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1988. Lopez, Bany. Arctic Dreams. Imagination and Desire in a Northern Landscape. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1986. May, Ernest R. Imperial Democracy: The Emergence of America as a Great Power. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World, 1961. McDougall, Walter A. Promised Land, Crusader Sate: The American Encounter with the World since 1776. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997. Mead, Walter Russell. Special Providence. American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 200 1. O'Connor, Richard. PaciJic Destiny. An Informal History of the US. in the Far East, 1776-1968. Boston: Little, Brown, 1969. Paullin, Charles Oscar. Diplomatic Negotiations of American Naval OfJicers 1778-1883. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1912; reprinted Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1967. Perkins, Dexter. The Monroe Doctrine, 1867-1907. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1937. Plesur, Milton. America's Outward Thrust. Approaches to Foreign Affairs, 1865-1890. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1971. Pletcher, David M. The Awkward Years: American Foreign Relations under Garfield and Arthur. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1962. . "1 861-1898: Economic Growth and Diplomatic Adjustment." In Economics and World Power: An Assessment of American Diplomacy since 1789, ed. William H. Becker and Samuel F. Wells, Jr., New York: Columbia University Press, 1984. Pratt, Fletcher. Secret and Urgent. The Story of Codes and Ciphers. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1939.

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Rydell, Robert W. All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-191 6. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. Small, Melvin. Democracy & Diplomacy: The Impact of Domestic Politics on US. Foreign Policy, 1789-1994. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. Smith, Peter H. Talons of the Eagle: Dynamics of US.-Latin American Relations. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Stephanson, Anders. Manifest Destiny: American Expansionism and the Empire of Right. New York: Hill & Wang, 1995. Still, William N., Jr. American Sea Power in the Old World: The United States Navy in European and Near Eastern Waters, 1865-19I 7. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980. Swam, Leonard Alexander, Jr. John Roach. Maritime Entrepreneur. The Years as Naval Contractor, 1862-1886. Annapolis, Md.: United States Naval Institute, 1965. Taussig, Frank W. The Tariff Histoy of the United States. 8th ed. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1931. Tucker, Robert W., Charles B. Keely, and Linda Wrigley, eds. Immigration and U S . Foreign Policy. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990. Vale, Vivian. The American Peril. Challenge to Britain on the North Atlantic, 1901-04. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984. Van Alstyne, Richard W. American Diplomacy in Action. Rev. ed. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1947. . The Rising American Empire. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1965. Varg, Paul A. America, from Client State to World Power: Six Major Transitions in United States Foreign Relations. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990. Vevier, Charles. "American Continentalism: An Idea of Expansion, 1845-19 10." American Historical Review 65 (January 1960): 323-335. Weber, Ralph E. United States Diplomatic Codes and Ciphers 1775-1938. Chicago: Precedent Publishing, 1979.

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Williams, William Appleman. The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society. New York: Random House, 1969. . The Tragedy of American Diplomacy. 2nd ed. New York: Dell Publishing, 1972; reprinted New York: W.W. Norton, 1988. Zimmermann, Warren. First Great Triumph. How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power. New York: Farm, Straus & Giroux, 2002.

Diplomacy of the Civil War

Books Adams, Ephraim D. Great Britain and the American civil War. 2 vols. New York: Longmans, Green, 1925. Baker, George E., ed. The Works of William Henry Seward. 5 vols. New York: Redfield, 1853-1884; reprinted AMS Press, 1972. Ball, Douglas B. Financial Failure and Confederate Defeat. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991. Beale, Howard K., ed. The Dia y of Edward Bates, 1859-1866. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1933. . The Diary of Gideon Welles: Secretary of the Navy under Lincoln and Johnson. 3 vols. New York: W.W. Norton, 1960. Bernath, Stuart L. Squall Across the Atlantic: American Civil War Prize Cases and Diplomacy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970. Bigelow, John. Retrospections of an Active Life. 5 vols. New York: Baker & Taylor, 1909-19 13. Bourne, Kenneth. Britain and the Balance of Power in North America, 1815-1908. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. Browning, Robert M., Jr. From Cape Charles to Cape Fear: The North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1993.

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Bulloch, James D. The Secret Service of the Confederate States in Europe: Or, How the Confederate Cruisers Were Equipped. 2 vols. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1884. Carpenter, John A. Ulysses S. Grant. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1970. Carroll, Daniel B. Henri Mercier and the American Civil War. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971. Case, Lynn M., and Warren F. Spencer. The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970. Case, Lynn M., ed. French Opinion on the United States and Mexico, 1860-1867: Extracts from the Reports of the Procureurs GBnBraux. New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936. Cook, Adrian. The Alabama Claims: American Politics and Anglo-American Relations, 1865-1872. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1975. Cortada, James W. Spain and the American Civil War: Relations at Mid-Century, 1855-1868. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1980. Courtemanche, Regis A. No Need of Glory: The British Navy in American Waters, 1860-1964. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1977. Crook, D. P. Diplomacy during the American Civil War. New York: Wiley, 1974. . The North, the South, and the Powers, 1861-1865. New York: Wiley, 1974. Cullop, Charles P. Confederate Propaganda in Europe, 18611865. Coral Gables, Fla.: University of Miami Press, 1969. Daddysman, James W. The Matamoros Trade: Confederate Commerce, Diplomacy, and Intrigue. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1984. Dalzell, George W. The Flight from the Flag: The Continuing Effect of the Civil War upon the American Carrying Trade. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1940. Donald, David Herbert. Charles Sumner and the Rights of Man. New York: Alfi-ed A. Knopf, 1970. .Lincoln. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995.

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Duberman, Martin. Charles Francis Adams, 1807-1886. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961. Du Pont, Henry A. Rear-Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont, US. Navy. A Biography. New York: National Americana Society, 1926. Durkin, Joseph T. Stephen R. Mallory: Confederate Navy ChieJ: Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1954. Evans, Eli N. Judah P. Benjamin, The Jewish Confederate. New York: The Free Press, 1988. Ferris, Norman B. Desperate Diplomacy: William H. Seward's Foreign Policy, 1861. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976. . The Trent Affair: A Diplomatic Crisis. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977. Foner, Philip S. British Labor and the American Civil War. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1981. Fox, Gustavus Vasa. Confidential Correspondence of Gustavus Vasa Fox, Assistant Secretary of the Navy 1861-186.5, ed. Robert Means Thompson and Richard Wainwright. 2 vols. New York: Naval History Society, 1918-19 19. Hanna, Alfred Jackson, and Kathryn Abbey Hanna. Napoleon 111 and Mexico: American Triumph over Monarchy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971. Hearn, Chester G. Gray Raiders of the Sea. How Eight Confederate Warships Destroyed the Union's High Seas Commerce. Camden, Maine: International Marine Publishing, 1992. Hesseltine, William B. Ulysses S. Grant, Politician. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1935. Hyman, Harold M., ed. Heard Round the World: The Impact Abroad of the Civil War. New York: Knopf, 1969. Jenkins, Brian. Britain and the War for the Union. 2 vols. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1974-1980. Jones, Howard. Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.

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. Union in Peril: The Crisis over British Intervention in the Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Jones, Virgil Carrington. The Civil War at Sea. 3 vols. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1960-1962. Jones, Wilbur D. The Confederate Rams at Birkenhead: A Chapter in Anglo-American Relations. Tuscaloosa, Ala.: Confederate Publishing, 1961. Lester, Richard I. Confederate Finance and Purchasing in Great Britain. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1975. Mason, Virginia. The Public Life and Diplomatic Correspondence of James M. Mason: With Some Personal History. Roanoke, Va.: Stone Printing, 1903. May, Robert E., ed. The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim. West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1995. McFeely, William S. Grant: A Biography. New York: Norton, 1981. McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Meade, Robert D. Judah P. Benjamin, Confederate Statesman. New York: Oxford University Press, 1943. Merli, Frank J. Great Britain and the Confederate Navy, 18611865. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1970. Monahan, Jay. Diplomat in Carpet Slippers: Abraham Lincoln Deals with Foreign Affairs. Indianapolis, Ind.: BobbsMerrill, 1945. Niven, John. Gideon Welles Lincoln's Secretary of the Navy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Owsley, Frank L. King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America. 2d ed., rev. Harriet Chappell Owsley. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959. Randall, James G., and Donald, David Herbert. The Civil War and Reconstruction. 2nd ed. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1969.

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Schoonover, Thomas D. Dollars over Dominion: The Triumph of Liberalism in Mexican- United States Relations, 1861-1867. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978. Seward, Frederick William. Reminiscences of a War-Time Statesman and Diplomat, 1830-1915. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1916. Sideman, Belle Becker, and Lillian Friedman, eds. Europe Looks at the Civil War. New York: Orion Press, 1960. Spencer, Warren F. The Confederate Navy in Europe. University: University of Alabama Press, 1983. . Raphael Semmes: The Philosophical Mariner. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1997. Stern, Philip Van Doren. When the Guns Roared: World Aspects of the American Civil War. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965. Taylor, John M. Confederate Raider: Raphael Semmes of the Alabama. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 1994. . William Henry Seward: Lincoln's Right Hand. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. Thomas, Emory M. The Confederate Nation, 1861-1865. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. United States. Naval Records Office. Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion. 30 vols. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1894-1922. Van Deusen, Glyndon G. William Henry Seward. New York: Oxford University Press, 1867. Warren, Gordon H. Fountain of Discontent: The Trent Affair and Freedom of the Seas. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1981. Wise, Stephen R. Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running during the Civil War. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988. Woodman, Harold D. King Cotton and His Retainers: Financing and Marketing the Cotton Crop of the South, 1800-1925. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1968.

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Articles Alvarez, David J. "The Papacy in the Diplomacy of the American Civil War." Catholic Historical Review 69 (April 1983): 227248. Blumberg, Arnold. "United States and the Role of Belgium in Mexico, 1863-1867." Historian 26 (February 1964): 206-227. Blume, Kenneth J. "Coal and Diplomacy in the British Caribbean during the Civil War." Civil War History 41 (June 1995): 116141. . "The Flight fiom the Flag: The American Government, the British Caribbean, and the American Merchant Marine, 1861-1865." Civil War History 32 (March 1986): 44-55. Blumenthal, Henry. "Confederate Diplomacy: Popular Notions and International Realities." Journal of Southern History 32 (May 1966): 151-171. Bourne, Kenneth. "British Preparations for War with the North, 1861-1862." English Historical Review 76 (October 1961): 600-632. Brauer, Kinley J. "British Mediation and the American Civil War: A Reconsideration." Journal of Southern History 38 (February 1972): 49-64. Ferris, Norman B. "William H. Seward and the Faith of a Nation." In Traditions and Values: American Foreign Policy, 17901865, ed. Norman A. Graebner, 153-177. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1985. Gentry, Judith Fenner. "A Confederate Success in Europe: The Erlanger Loan." Journal of Southern History 36 (May 1970): 157-188. Graebner, Norman A. "Northern Diplomacy and European Neutrality." In Why the North Won the Civil War, ed. David Herbert Donald, 49-75. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press; reprinted New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. Homan, Gerlof D. "Netherlands-American Relations during the Civil War." Civil War History 3 1 (December 1985): 353-364.

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Hubbard, Charles M. The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1998. Jones, Wilbur D. "The British Conservatives and the American Civil War." American Historical Review 58 (April 1953): 527-543. Lebergott, Stanley. "Why the South Lost: Commercial Purpose in the Confederacy." Journal of American History 70 (June 1983): 58-74. Kushner, Howard I. "The Russian Fleet and the American Civil War: Another View." Historian 34 (August 1972): 633-649. Merli, Frank J., and Thomas W. Green. "Great Britain and the Confederate Navy, 1861-1865." History Today 14 (October 1964): 687-695. Onell, Laurence J. "A 'Favorable Interval': The Polish Insurrection in Civil War Diplomacy." Civil War History 24 (December 1978): 332-350. Schmidt, Louis B. "The Influence of Wheat and Cotton on AngloAmerican Relations during the Civil War." Iowa Journal of History and Politics 16 (July 1918): 400-439. Spencer, Warren F., "The Jewett-Greeley Affair: A Private Scheme for French Mediation in the American Civil War. New York History 5 1 (April 1970): 238-268. Valone, Stephen J. "'Weakness Offers Temptation': William H. Seward and the Reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine." Diplomatic History 19 (Fall 1995): 583-599.

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General Works Beisner. Robert L. From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 18651900. 2nd ed. Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1986. Davies, Robert B. "'Peacefully Working to Conquer the World7: The Singer Manufacturing Company in Foreign Markets, 1854-1889." Business History Review 43 (Autumn 1969): 299-325.

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Dozer, Donald M. "Anti-Expansionism during the Johnson Administration." Pacijk Historical Review 12 (September 1943): 253-275. Eckes, Alfred W., Jr. Opening America 's Market. U S . Foreign Trade Policy since 1776. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. Healy, David F. US. Expansionism: The Imperialist Urge in the 1890s. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970. Morgan, H. Wayne. From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877-1896. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1969. Nichols, Jeannette P. "The United States Congress and Imperialism, 1861-1897." Journal of Economic History 21 (December 1961): 526-538. Paullin, Charles Oscar. Diplomatic Negotiations of American Naval Officers 1778-1883. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1912; reprinted Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1967. Perkins, Dexter. The Monroe Doctrine, 1867-1907. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1937. Plesur, Milton. America's Outward Thrust. Approaches to Foreign Affairs, 1865-1890. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1971. Pletcher, David M. The Awkward Years: American Foreign Relations under Garfield and Arthur. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1962. . "Rhetoric and Results: A Pragmatic View of American Economic Expansionism, 1865-1900." Diplomatic History 5 (Spring 1981): 93-106. Reitano, Joanne R. The Tariff Question in the Gilded Age: The Great Debate of 1888. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994. Ricard, Serge, ed. An American Empire: Expansionist Cultures and Policies, 1881-191 7. Aix-en-Provence: UniversitC de Provence, 1990. Schonberger, Howard B. Transportation to the Seaboard: The "Communication Revolution" and American Foreign Policy, 1860-1900. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1971.

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Schott, Marshall E. "The South and American Foreign Policy, 1894-1900: New South Prophets and the Challenge of Regional Values." Southern Studies 4 (Fall 1993): 295-308. Verdier, Daniel. Democracy and International Trade: Britain, France, and the United Stats, 1860-1990. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994. Wilkins, Mira. The History of Foreign Investment in the United States to 1914. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989.

Biographies and Autobiographies Books Adler, Jacob. Claus Spreckels: The Sugar King in Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1966. Armstrong, William M. E. L. Godkin and American Foreign Policy, 1865-1900. New York: Bookman Associates, 1957; reprinted Albany: State University of New York Press, 1974. . E. L. Godkin: A Biography. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1978. Barnard, Harry. Rutherford B. Hayes, and His America. Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1954. Barrows, Chester L. William M. Evarts. Lawyer, Diplomat, Statesman. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941. Calhoun, Charles W. Gilded Age Cato. The Life of Walter Q. Gresham. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988. Castel, Albert. The Presidency of Andrew Johnson. Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1979. Cleveland, Grover. Letters of Grover Cleveland, ed. Allan Nevins. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1933. Clymer, Kenton J. John Hay: The Gentleman as Diplomat. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975. Contosta, David R., and Jessica R Hawthorne, eds. Rise to World Power: Selected Letters of Whitelaw Reid, 1895-1912. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1986.

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Cooling, Benjamin Franklin. Benjamin Franklin Tracy: Father of the Modern American Fighting Navy. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1973. Crapol Edward P. James G. Blaine. Architect of Empire. Wilmington, Del.: SR Books, 2000. Damon, Ethel M. Sanford Ballard Dole and His Hawaii. With an Analysis of Justice Dole's Legal Opinions. Palo Alto, Calif.: Pacific Books for the Hawaiian Historical Society, 1957. Davison, Kenneth E. The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972. Devine, Michael J. John W. Foster: Politics and Diplomacy in the Imperial Era, 1873-1917. Athens: Ohio University Press. Dobson, John M. Reticent Expansionism: The Foreign Policy of William McKinley. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Duquesne University Press, 1988. Doenecke, Justus D. The Presidencies of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur. Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1981. Drake, Frederick C. The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Rear Admiral Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984. Dyer, Brainerd. The Public Career of William M. Evarts. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1933. Eckenrode, Hamilton James. Rutherford B. Hayes: Statesman of Reunion. New York: Dodd, Meade, 1930. Eggert, Gerald G. Richard Olney. Evolution of a Statesman. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1974. Foster, John Watson. Diplomatic Memoirs. 2 vols. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1909. Fry, Joseph A. Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1982. Ganaty, John A. Henry Cabot Lodge: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953. Gresham, Matilda. Life of Walter Quintin Gresham, 1832-1895. 2 vols. Chicago: Rand, McNally, 1919. Hayes, Rutherford Birchard. Diary & Letters of Rutherford Birchard Hayes-Nineteenth President of the United States,

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ed. Charles Richard Williams. 5 vols. n.p.: Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, 1922-1926. Healey, David F. James G. Blaine and Latin America. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 200 1. Hirsch, Mark D. William C Witney: Modern Warwick. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1948. Hoar, George F. Autobiography of Seventy Years. 2 vols. New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1903. Hoogenboom, Ari. The Presidency of Ruthe$ord B. Hayes. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988. . Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995. Johnson, Andrew. 77ae Papers of Andrew Johnson, eds. LeRoy P. Graf and Ralph W. Haskins. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1967-1999. Mahan, Alfi-ed Thayer. From Sail to Steam: Recollections of Naval Life. New York: Harper, 1907. McFeely, William S. Frederick Douglass. New York: Norton, 1991. Merrill, Horace Samuel. Bourbon Leader: Grover Cleveland and the Democratic Party. Boston: Little, Brown, 1957. Morgan, H. Wayne. William McKinley and His America. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1963. Muzzey, David Saville. James G. Blaine. A Political Idol of Other Days. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1934; reprinted Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1963. Nevins, Allan. Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1966. Paolino, Ernest N. The Foundations of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U S . Foreign Policy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1973. Peskin, Allan. Garfield: A Biography. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1978. Peterson, Harold F. Diplomat of the Americas: A Biography of William I. Buchanan (1852-1909). Albany: State University of New York Press. Reeves, Thomas C. Gentleman Boss: The Life of Chester Alan Arthur. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975.

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Richardson, Leon Burr. William E. Chandler, Republican. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1940. Roll, Charles. Colonel Dick Thompson. The Persistent Whig. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau, 1948. Seager, Robert, 11. Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and His Letters. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1977. Sievers, Hany J. Benjamin Harrison Hoosier President The White House and After. Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1968. Socolofsky, Homer E., and Allan B. Spetter. The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987. Tansill, Charles Callan. The Foreign Policy of Thomas F. Bayard, 1885-1897. New York: Fordham University Press, 1940. Tyler, Alice Felt. The Foreign Policy of James G. Blaine. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1927; reprinted Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1965. Welch, Richard E., Jr. George Frisbie Hoar and the Half-Breed Republicans. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971. . The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988. Williams, T. Hany, ed. Hayes: The Diary of a President, 18751881. New York: D. McKay, 1964. Younger, Edward. John A. Kasson: Politics and Diplomacy from Lincoln to McKinley. Iowa City: State Historical Society of Iowa, 1955. Articles Chapin, James B. "Hamilton Fish and American Expansion." In Makers of American Diplomacy Vol. I: From Benjamin Franklin to A p e d Thayer Mahan, ed. Frank J. Merli and Theodore A. Wilson, 223-25 1. New York: Scribner's, 1974.

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Coletta, Paolo E. "French Ensor Chadwick: The First American Naval Attache, 1882-1889." American Neptune 39 (April 1979): 126-141. Dahl, Victor C. "Granville Stuart in Latin America: A Montana Pioneer's Diplomatic Career." Montana Magazine of Western History 2 1 (Summer 1971): 18-33. Goldberg, Joyce S. "Patrick Egan: An Irish-American Minister to Chile" Eire-Ireland 14 (Fall 1979): 83-95. Muller, Dorothea R. "Josiah Strong and American Nationalism: A Reevaluation." Journal of American History 53 (December 1966): 487-503.

Military and Naval Diplomacy Bradford, James C., ed. Admirals of the New Steel Navy: Makers of the American Naval Tradition, 1880-1930. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1990. . Captains of the Old Steam Navy: Makers of the American Naval Tradition, 1840-1880. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1986. Coletta, Paolo E. "The 'Nerves' of the New Navy." American Neptune 38 (April 1978): 122-130. Cooling, Benjamin Franklin. Gray Steel and Blue Water Navy : The Formative Years of America's Military-Industrial Complex, 1881-191 7. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1979. Donvart, Jeffrey M. The Ofice of Naval Intelligence: The Birth of America's First Intelligence Agency, 1865-1918. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1979. Hagan, Kenneth James. American Gunboat Diplomacy and the Old Navy 1877-1889. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973. Herrick, Walter R., Jr. The American Naval Revolution. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1966. Long, David. Gold Braid and Foreign Relations: Diplomatic Activities of US. Naval Ofjcers, 1 798-1883. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1988.

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Alaska Bailey, Thomas A. "Why the United States Purchased Alaska." PaciJic Historical Review 3 (March 1934): 39-49. Holbo, Paul S. Tarnished Expansion. The Alaska Scandal, the Press, and Congress, 1867-1871. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983. Jensen, Ronald J. The Alaska Purchase and Russian-American Relations. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975. Shiels, Archibald Williamson. The Purchase of Alaska. College: University of Alaska Press, 1967. Welch, Richard W., Jr. "American Public Opinion and the Purchase of Russian America." American Slavic and East European Review 17 (December 1958): 48 1-494.

Africa Duignan, Peter, and L. H. Gann. The United States and Africa: A History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Jacobs, Sylvia M., ed. Black Americans and the Missionary Movement in Africa. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982. Myer, Lysle E. The Farther Frontier: Six Case Studies of Americans and Africa, 1848-1936. Selinsgrove, Pa.: Susquehanna University Press, 1992. Pierson, Gerald J. "U.S. Consuls in Zanzibar and the Slave Trade, 1870-1890." Historian 55 (Autumn 1992): 53-68. Skinner, Elliott P. African Americans and US. Policy toward Africa, 1850-I924: In Defense of Black Nationality. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1992.

Middle East Bryson, Thomas A. American Diplomatic Relations with the Middle East, 1784-1975: A Suwey. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977.

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. Tars, Turks, and Tankers: The Role of the United States Navy in the Middle East, 1800-1979. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1980. Daniel, Robert L. American Philanthropy in the Near East, 1820-1960. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1970. Gordon, Leland James. American Relations with Turkey, 18301930: An Economic Interpretation. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1932. Europe Anderson, Stuart. Race and Rapprochement: Anglo-Saxonism and Anglo-American Relations, 1895-1904. Rutherford, N.J.: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1981. Blumenthal, Henry. France and the United States: Their Diplomatic Relations, 1 789-1914. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1970. . A Reappraisal of Franco-American Relations, 18301871. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959. Carstensen, Fred V. American Enterprise in Foreign Markets: Studies of Singer and International Hawester in Imperial Russia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. Cortada, James W. Two Nations over Time. Spain and the United States, 1 776-1977. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978. Crapol, Edward P. America for Americans: Economic Nationalism and Anglophobia in the Late Nineteenth Century. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973. Grenville, J.A.S. Lord Grenville and Foreign Policy: The Close of the Nineteenth Century. London: University of London, Athlone Press, 1964. Healy, Ann E. "Tsarist Anti-Semitism and Russian-American Relations." Slavic Review 42 (Fall 1983): 408-425. Jonas, Manfred. The United States and Germany: A Diplomatic History. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984.

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Moss, Kenneth. "The United States and Central Europe, 18611871: Some American Approaches to National Development and the Balance of Power." Historian 39 (February 1977): 248-269. Orde, Anne. The Eclipse of Great Britain: The United States and British Imperial Decline, 1895-1956. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996. Saul, Norman E. Concord and Conflict: The United States and Russia, 1867-1914. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996. Smith, Goldwin. The Treaty of Washington 1871: A Study in Imperial History. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1941. Wilson, Beckles. America's Ambassadors to England (1 7851929): A Narrative of Anglo-American Diplomatic Relations. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1929. . America's Ambassadors to France (1 777-1927): A Narrative of Franco-American Diplomatic Relations. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1928.

Canada Bogue, Margaret Beattie. "To Save the Fish: Canada, the United States, the Great Kales, and the Joint Commission of 1892." Journal ofAmerican History 79 (March 1993): 1492-1454. Bothwell, Robert. Canada and the United States: The Politics of Partnership. New York: Twayne, 1992. Brown, Robert C. Canada's National Policy, 1883-1900: A Study in Canadian-American Relations. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1964. Busch, Briton Cooper. The War against the Seals: A History of the North American Seal Fishery. Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1985. Gay, James Thomas. American Fur Seal Diplomacy: The Alaskan Fur Seal Controversy. New York: Peter Lang, 1987.

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Jenkins, Brian. Fenians and Anglo-American Relations during Reconstruction. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1969. Preston, Richard A. The Defense of the Undefended Border: Planning for War in North America, 1867-1939. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1977. Senior, Hereward. The Last Invasion of Canada: The Fenian Raids, 1866-1870. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1991. Shi, David E. "Seward's Attempt to Annex British Columbia, 1865-1869." Paczjk Historical Review 47 (May 1978): 217238. Stuart, Reginald C. United States Expansionism and British North America, I 775-1871. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988. Tansill, Charles Callan. Canadian-American Relations, 18751911. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1943. Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall. Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies. 3rd ed. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2002. Warner, Donald F. The Idea of Continental Union: Agitation for the Annexation of Canada to the United States, 1849-1893. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1960.

Latin America and the Caribbean Benjamin, Jules. The United States and Cuba: Hegemony and Dependent Development, 1880-1934. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977. Bradford, Richard H. The Virginius Affair. Boulder, Colo.: Associated University Press, 1980. Calhoun, Charles W. "American Policy toward the Brazilian Naval Revolt of 1893-94: A Reappraisal." Diplomatic History 4 (Winter 1980): 39-56. Cleveland, Grover. The Venezuelan Boundary Controversy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1913. Coatsworth, John H. Central America and the United States: The Clients and the Colossus. New York: Twayne, 1994.

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Dozier, Craig L. Nicaragua's Mosquito Shore: The Years of British and American Presence. University: University of Alabama Press, 1985. Ewell, Judith. Venezuela and the United States: From Monroe's Hemisphere to Petroleum's Empire. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996. Fifer, J. Valerie. United States Perceptions of Latin America 1850-1930: A "New West " South of Capricorn? New York: Manchester University Press, 1991. Findling, John E. Close Neighbors, Distant Friends: United States-Central American Relations New York: Greenwood Press, 1987. Gilderhus, Mark T. The Second Century: US.-Latin American Relations since 1889. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2000. Goldberg, Joyce S. The "Baltimore " Affair. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986. Joseph, Gilbert M., Catherine C. LeGrand, and Ricardo D. Salvatore, eds. Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of U S .-Latin American Relations. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998. LaFeber, Walter. Inevitable Revolutions: l%e United States in Central America. New York: W. W. Norton, 1983. Langley, Lester D. America and the Americas: The United States in the Western Hemisphere. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989. . Struggle for the American Mediterranean: United States-European Rivalry in the Gulf-Caribbean, I 776-1904. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1976. . The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992. Langley, Lester D., and Thomas D. Schoonover. The Banana Men: American Mercenaries and Entrepreneurs in Central America, 1880-1930. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995. Leonard, Thomas M., ed. United States-Latin American Relations, 1850-1903: Establishing a Relationship. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999.

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Logan, Rayford W. The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776-1891. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941. McGann, Thomas F. Argentina, the United States, and the InterAmerican System, 1880-1914. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957. Montague, Ludwell Lee. Haiti and the United States, 1714-1938. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1940. Nelson, William Javier. Almost a Territory. America's Attempt to Annex the Dominican Republic. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1990. Parks, E. Taylor. Colombia and the United States, 1765-1934. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1935; reprinted New York: Arno Press, 1970. PCrez, Louis A., Jr. Cuba between Empires, 1878-1902. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1983. Peterson, Harold F. Argentina and the United States, 1810-1960. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1964. Pletcher, David M. The Diplomacy of Trade and Investment: American Economic Expansion in the Hemisphere, 18651900. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1998. Randall, Stephen J. Colombia and the United States: Hegemony and Interdependence. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992. Sater, William F. Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990. Schoonover, Thomas D. The United States in Central America, 1860-1911: Episodes of Social Imperialism and Imperial Rivalry in the World System. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991. Schoultz, Lars. Beneath the United States: A History of U S . Policy toward Latin America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998. Smith, Joseph. Illusions of Conflict: Anglo-American Diplomacy toward Latin America, 1865-1896. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979.

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Smith, Robert Freeman. The Caribbean World and the United States: Mixing Rum and Coca-Cola. New York: Twayne, 1994. Tansill, Charles Callan. The Purchase of the Danish West Indies. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1932. Topik, Steven C. Trade and Gunboats: The United States and Brazil in the Age of Empire. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996. Wicks, Daniel H. "Dress Rehearsal: United States Intervention on the Isthmus of Panama, 1885." Paczjk Historical Review 49 (November 1980): 581-605. Mexico Cosio Villegas, Daniel. The United States versus Porfirio Dim. Trans. Nettie Lee Benson. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1963. Hanna, Alfred Jackson, and Kathryn Abbey Hanna. Napoleon 111 and Mexico: American Triumph over Monarchy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971. Pastor, Robert A., and Jorge G. Castaiieda. Limits to Friendship: The United States and Mexico. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988. Pletcher, David M. Rails, Mines, and Progress: Seven American Promoters in Mexico, 1867-191 1. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1958. Schmitt, Karl M. Mexico and the United States, 1821-1973: Conflict and Coexistence. New York: John Wiley, 1974.

Hawaii Baker, George W., Jr. "Benjamin Harrison and Hawaiian Annexation: A Reinterpretation." Paczjk Historical Review 33 (August 1964): 295-309.

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Calhoun, Charles W. "Morality and Spite: Walter Q. Gresham and U.S. Relations with Hawaii." PaciJic Historical Review 52 (August 1983): 292-3 11. Conroy, Hilary. The Japanese Frontier in Hawaii, 1868-1898. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1953. Kuykendall, Ralph S., and A. Grove Day. Hawaii: A History, from Polynesian Kingdom to American State. Rev. ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1961. Osborne, Thomas J. "Empire Can Wait ":American Opposition to Hawaiian Annexation, 1893-1898. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1981. Pratt, Julius W. Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1936. Stevens, Sylvester Kirby. American Expansion in Hawaii, 18421898. Harrisburg: Archives Publishing Co. of Pennsylvania, 1945; reprinted New York: Russell & Russell, 1968. Tate, Merze. Hawaii: Reciprocity or Annexation. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1968. . The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom: A Political History. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1965.

Samoa and the Pacific Anderson, Stuart. "'Pacific Destiny' and American Policy in Samoa, 1872-1899." Hawaiian Journal of History 12 (1978): 45-60. Calhoun, Charles W. "Rehearsal for Anti-Imperialism: The Second Cleveland Administration's Attempt to Withdraw from Samoa, 1893-1895." Historian 48 (February 1986): 209-224. Gilson, Richard P. Samoa 1830 to 1900: The Politics of a MultiCultural Community. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970.

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Kennedy, Paul. The Samoan Tangle: A Study in Anglo-GermanAmerican Relations, 1878-1900. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1974. Masterman, Sylvia. The Origins of International Rivaly in Samoa, 1845-1884. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1934. Rigby, Barry R. "The Origins of American Expansion in Hawaii and Samoa, 1865-1900." International History Review 10 (May 1988): 221-237. Skaggs, Jimmy M. The Great Guano Rush: Entrepreneurs and American Overseas Expansion. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Wakeman, Edgar A. Report of Capt. E. Wakeman to lT? H. Webb, on the Islands of the Samoa Group. New York: Slote & Janes, 1872.

Asia Anderson, David L. Imperialism and Idealism: American Diplomats in China, 1861-1898. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985. Beasley, W. G. Japan Encounters the Barbarian: Japanese Travelers in America and Europe. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995. Cohen, Warren I. America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations. 4th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. . East Asian Art and American Culture: A Study in International Relations. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992. . The United States and China. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. Chay, Jongsuk. Diplomacy of Asymmetry: Korean-American Relations to 1910. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990. Dennett, Tyler. Americans in Eastern Asia: A Critical Study of the Policy of the United States with Reference to China,

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Japan and Korea in the 19th Century. New York: Macmillan, 1922. Dudden, Arthur Power. The American Paczjk From the Old China Trade to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Gyory, Andrew. Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Hart, Robert A. The Eccentric Tradition: American Diplomacy in the Far East. New York: Scribner, 1976. Henning, Joseph M. Outposts of Civilization: Race, Religion, and the Formative Years of American-Japanese Relations. New York: New York University Press, 2000. Henson, Curtis T., Jr. Commissioners and Commodores: The East India Squadron and American Diplomacy in China. University: University of Alabama Press, 1982. Hunt, Michael H. The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. Iriye, Akira. Across the Pacz~5c:An Inner History of AmericanEast Asian Relations. Chicago: Imprint Publications, 1992. Johnson, Robert Erwin. Far China State: The U S . Navy in Asian Waters, 1800-I 898. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1979. Lee, Yur-Bok. Diplomatic Relations between the United States and Korea, 1866-1887. New York: Humanities Press, 1970. McCormick, Thomas J. China Market: America's Quest for Informal Empire, l839-l9Ol. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1967. Neils, Patricia, ed. United States Attitudes and Policies toward China: The Impact of American Missionaries. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1990. Paulsen, George E. "The Gresham-Yang Treaty." Paczjk Historical Review 37 (August 1968): 28 1-297. Treat, Payson J. Diplomatic Relations between the United States and Japan, 1853-1905. 3 vols. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1932-1938.

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Hoganson, Kristin L. Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American War. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998. Long, John Davis. America of Yesterday. As Reflected in the Journal of John Davis Long, ed. Lawrence Shaw Mayo. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1923. . Papers of John Davis Long, 1879-1904, ed. Gardner Weld Allen. Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1939. Mahan, Alfred Thayer. From Sail to Steam. Recollections of Navy Life. New York: Harper, 1906; reprint of 1907 edition, New York: DaCapo Press, 1968. . Lessons of the War with Spain: And Other Articles. Boston: Little, Brown, 1899. May, Ernest R. Imperial Democracy; the Emergence of America as a Great Power. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961. Miller, Richard H., ed. American Imperialism in 1898: The Quest for National FulJillment. New York: John Wiley, 1970. Millis, Walter. The Martial Spirit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931. Morgan, H. Wayne. America's Road to Empire: The War with Spain and Overseas Expansion. New York: Wiley, 1965. Mugridge, Ian. The View from Xanadu: William Randolph Hearst and United States Foreign Policy. Montreal: McGillQueen's University Press, 1995. Musicant, Ivan. Empire by Default: The Spanish-American War and the Dawn of the American Century. New York: Holt, 1998. Offner, John L. An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895-1898. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. PCrez, Louis A., Jr. The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Pratt, Julius William. Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands. Baltimore, Md.: Johns

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Wisan, Joseph E. The Cuban Crisis as Reflected in the New York Press (1895-1898). New York: Columbia University Press, 1934.

Articles Auxier, George W. "The Propaganda Activities of the Cuban Junta in Precipitating the Spanish-American War." Hispanic American Historical Review 19 (August 1939): 286-305. Holbo, Paul S. "The Convergence of Moods and the Cuban Bond 'Conspiracy' of 1898." Journal of American History 55 (June 1968): 54-72. . "Presidential Leadership in Foreign Affairs: William McKinley and the Turpie-Foraker Amendment." American Historical Review 72 (August 1867): 1321-1335. McCormick, Thomas J. "The 1890s as a Watershed Decade." In Safeguarding the Republic: Essays and Documents in American Foreign Relations, 1890-1891, ed. Howard Jones, 1-18. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992. Ofher, John L. "The Philippine Settlement: The United States, Spain, and Great Britain in 1898." In 1898: Enfoques y perspectives, ed. Luis E. GonzSles Vales, 353-370. San Juan: Academia Puertoriquefia de la Historia, 1997. . "President McKinley's Final Attempt to Avoid War with Spain." Ohio History 94 (Summer-Autumn 1985): 125138. Pratt, Julius W. "The 'Large Policy' of 1898." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 19 (September 1032): 2 19-242. Smith, Ephraim K. "'A Question from Which We Could Not Escape': William McKinley and the Decision to Acquire the Philippine Islands." Diplomatic History 9 (Fall 1985): 363375. Smith, Joseph. "The American Image of the Cuban Insurgents in 1898." Zeitschrift fur Anglistik und Amerikanistik 40 (1992): 3 19-329. . "The 'Splendid Little War' of 1898: A Reappraisal." History 80 (February 1995): 22-37.

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Welch, Richard E., Jr. "William McKinley: Reluctant Warrior, Cautious Imperialist." In Traditions and Values: American Diplomacy 1864-1914. Vol. 8: American Values Projected Abroad, ed. Norman A. Graebner, 29-52. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1985.

American Diplomacy from the Spanish-American War to World War I General Works Baker, Ray Stannard. Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, 8 vols. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1927-1939. Beale, Howard K. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1956. Becker, William H. The Dynamics of Business-Government Relations: Industry & Exports, 1893-1921. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Brands, H.W. TR: The Last Romantic New York: Basic Books, 1997. . Woodrow Wilson. New York: Times Books 1 Henry Holt, 2003. Burton, David H. Theodore Roosevelt: Conjdent Imperialist. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1868. Campbell, Charles S., Jr. Special Business Interests and the Open Door Policy. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1951. Coletta, Paolo E. William Jennings Bryan. 3 vols. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1964-1969. Colin, Richard H. Theodore Roosevelt, Culture, Diplomacy, and Expansion: A New View of American Imperialism. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985. Dalton, Kathleen. Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life. New York: Knopf, 200 1. Duncan, Bingham. Whitelaw Reid: Journalist, Politician, Diplomat. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1975.

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Esthus, Raymond. Theodore Roosevelt and the International Rivalries. Claremont, Calif: Regina Books, 1970. Koenig, Louis W. Bryan: A Political Biography of William Jennings Bryan. New York: Putnam, 1971. Lane, Jack C. Armed Progressive: General Leonard Wood. San Rafael, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1978. Leuchtenburg, William E. "Progressivism and Imperialism: The Progressive Movement and American Foreign Policy, 18981916." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 39 (December 1952): 483-504. Marks, Frederick W., Ill. Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979. McKee, Delber L. Chinese Exclusion versus the Open Door Policy 1900-1906. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1977. Minger, Ralph Eldin. William Howard Tuft and United States Foreign Policy: The Apprenticeship Years, 1900-1908. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975. Ninkovich, Frank. "Theodore Roosevelt: Civilization as Ideology." Diplomatic History 10 (Summer 1986): 22 1-245. Papachristou, Judith. "American Women and Foreign Policy, 1898-1905: Exploring Gender in Diplomatic History." Diplomatic History 14 (Fall 1990): 493-509. Prisco, Salvatore, III. John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1887-1920. University: University of Alabama Press, 1973. Rosenberg, Emily S. "Foundations of United States International Financial Power: Gold Standard Diplomacy, 1900-1905." Business History Review 59 (Summer 1985): 169-202. . "Revisiting Dollar Diplomacy: Narratives of Money and Manliness." Diplomatic Histoy 22 (Spring 1998): 155176. . Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945. New York: Hill & Wang, 1982.

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Europe Burton, David H. "Theodore Roosevelt and the 'Special Relationship' with Great Britain." History Today 23 (August 1973): 527-535. Campbell, Alexander Elmslie. Great Britain and the United States, 1895-1903. London: Longmans, 1960; reprinted Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974. Campbell, Charles S. Anglo-American Understanding, 18981903. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1957. . From Revolution to Rapprochement: The United States and Great Britain, 1783-1900. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974. Coogan, John W. The End of Neutrality: The United States, Britain, and Maritime Rights, 1899-1915. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981. Field, James A., Jr. America and the Mediterranean World, 1776-1882. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Mowat, Robert Balmain. The Diplomatic Relations of Great Britain and the United States. London: Edward Arnold, 1925. Neale, R. G. Great Britain and United States Expansion: 18981900. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1966. Perkins, Bradford. The Great Rapprochement. England and the United States, 1895-1914. New York: Atheneum, 1968.

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Still, William N., Jr. American Sea Power in the Old World: The United States Navy in European and Near Eastern Waters, 1865-191 7. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980. Tilchin, William N. "Theodore Roosevelt, Anglo-American Relations, and the Jamaica Incident of 1907." Diplomatic History 19,3 (Summer 1995): 385-405. . Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire: A Study in Presidential Statecraft. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.

Latin America and the Caribbean Berbusse, Edward J. The United States in Puerto Rico, 18981900. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966. Bemis, Samuel Flagg. The Latin American Policy of the United States. An Historical Interpretation. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1943. Benjamin, Jules. The United States and Cuba: Hegemony and Dependent Development, 1880-1934. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977. Bums, E. Bradford. The Unwritten Alliance: Rio Branco and Brazilian-American Relations. New York: Columbia University Press, 1966. Callcott, Wilfred Hardy. The Caribbean Policy of the United States, I89O-l92O. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1942. Caneras, Charles. United States Economic Penetration of Venezuela and Its Effects on Diplomacy, 1895-1906. New York: Garland, 1987. Clayton, Lawrence A. Grace: W O R. Grace & Co., The Formative Years, 1850-1930. Ottawa, Ill. Jameson Books, 1985. Cleveland, Grover. The Venezuelan Boundary Controversy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1913. Coker, William S. "The Panama Canal Atolls Controversy: A Different Perspective." Journal of American History 55 (December 1968): 555-564.

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Coletta, Paolol E. "William Jennings Bryan and the United States-Colombian Impasse, 1903-1921." Hispanic American Historical Review 47 (November 1967): 486-501. Collin, Richard H. Theodore Roosevelt 's Caribbean: The Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Latin American Context. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990. Cosmas, Graham A. "Securing the Fruits of Victory: The United States Army Occupies Cuba, 1898-1899." Military Affairs 38 (July 1974): 85-91. Dosal, Paul J. Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala, 1899-1944. Wilmington, Del.: SR Books, 1993. Ealy, Lawrence 0. Yanqui Politics and the Isthmian Canal. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1971. Healy, David F. Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-191 7. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988. . The United States in Cuba, 1898-1902. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963. Hendrickson, Embert J. "Roosevelt's Second Venezuelan Controversy." Hispanic American Historical Review 50 (August 1970): 482-498. Hill, Lawrence Francis. Diplomatic Relations between the United States and Brazil. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1932. Joseph, Gilbert M., Catherine C. Legrand, and Ricardo D. Salvatore, eds. Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of U S .-Latin American Relations. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998. Kames, Thomas L. Tropical Enterprise: The Standard Fruit & Steamship Company in Latin America. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978. Kepner, Charles David, and Jay Soothill. The Banana Empire: A Case Study of Economic Imperialism. New York: Russell & Russell 1967; originally published 1935.

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Lael, Richard L. Arrogant Diplomacy: U S . Policy toward Colombia, 1903-1922. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1987. LaFeber, Walter. The Panama Canal. The Crisis in Historical Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. Langley, Lester D. The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898-193. Rev. ed. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1985. . Struggle for the America Mediterranean. United States-European Rivalry in the Gulf-Caribbean, 1776-1904. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1976. . The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1982. Langley, Lester, and Thomas Schoonover. The Banana Men: American Mercenaries and Entrepreneurs in Central America, 1880-1930. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1995. Mack, Gerstle. The Land Divided: A History of the Panama Canal and Other Isthmian Canal Projects. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1944. Major, John. Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal, 1903-1979. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. McCullough, David. The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977. Mellander, G. A. The United States in Panamanian Politics, the Intriguing Formative Years. Danville, Ill.: Interstate, 1967. Millett, Allan Reed. The Politics of Intervention: The Military Occupation of Cuba 1906-1909. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1968. Munro, Dana. Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean, I9OO-192I. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1964. Parks, E. Taylor. Colombia and the United States, 1765-1934. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1935; reprinted Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1968.

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Parnaby, O.W. Britain and the Labor Trade in the Southwest Paczjk Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1964. PCrez, Luis A., Jr. Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990. Pike, Frederick B. Chile and the United States, 1890-1962. Notre Dame, Ind.: Notre Dame University Press, 1963. Plummer, Brenda Gayle. Haiti and the Great Powers, 19021915. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988. Ricard, Serge. "Theodore Roosevelt et l'affaire du canal de Panama (190 1-19O3)." Revue d 'histoire diplomatique 99, 12 (1985): 69-86. Sater, William F. Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990. Schoonover, Thomas D. "A United States Dilemma: Economic Opportunity and Anti-Americanism in El Salvador, 19011911." Pacific Historical Review 58 (November 1989): 403428. Sheinin, David. Searching for Authority: Pan Americanism, Diplomacy and Politics in United States-Argentine Relations, 1910-1930. New Orleans: University Press of the South, 1998. Simon, Maron J. The Panama Affair. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 197 1. Smith, Joseph. Unequal Giants: Diplomatic Relations between the United States and Brazil, 1889-1930. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991. Smith, Robert Freeman, ed. The United States and the Latin American Sphere of Influence. Vol. I: Era of Caribbean Intervention: 1890-1930. Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Publishing, 1981. Tulchin, Joseph. Argentina and the United States: A Conflicted Relationship. Boston: Twayne, 1990. Williams, Alfred. The Inter-oceanic Canal and the Monroe Doctrine. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1880. Williams, Mary Wilhelmine. Anglo-American Isthmian Diplomacy, 1815-1915. Washington, D.C.: American Historical Association, 1916; reprinted Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1965.

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Mexico Buchenau, Jiirgen. "Counter-Intervention against Uncle Sam: Mexico's Support for Nicaraguan Nationalism, 1903-19 10." Americas 50 (October 1993):207-232. Calvert, Peter. The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1914: The Diplomacy of Anglo-American ConJict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson's Mexican Policy, 1913-1915."Diplomatic History 4 (Spring 1980): 113-136. Clendenen, Clarence C. The United States and Pancho Villa: A Study in Unconventional Diplomacy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 196 1. Cline, Howard F. The United States and Mexico. Rev. ed. New York: Atheneum, 1963. Gilderhus, Mark T. Diplomacy and Revolution: US.-Mexican Relations under Wilson and Carranza. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977. Grieb, Kenneth J. The United States and Huerta. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1969. Haley, P. Edward. Revolution and Intervention: The diplomacy of Tuft and Wilson with Mexico, 1910-191 7. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1970. Katz, Friedrich. The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution. Trans. Loren Goldner. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 198 1. Knight, Alan. US-Mexican Relations, 1910-1940: An Interpretation. La Jolla: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California, San Diego, 1987. Quirk, Robert E. An Affair of Honor: Woodrow Wilson and the Occupation of Veracruz. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1962. Raat, W. Dirk. Revoltosos: Mexico's Rebels in the United States, 1903-1923. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1981.

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Ryden, George Herbert. The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1933. Skinner, Elliott. African Americans and U S . Policy toward Africa, 1850-1924. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1992. Stevens, Sylvester Kirby. American Expansion in Hawaii, 18421898. Harrisburg: Archives Publishing Co. of Pennsylvania, 1945; reprinted New York: Russell & Russell, 1968. Still, William N., Jr. American Sea Power in the Old World: The United States Navy in European and Near Eastern Waters, 1865-191 7. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980. Story, Richard. Japan and the Decline of the West in Asia, 18941943. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979. Ward, John M. British Policy in the South PaciJic (1 786-1893). Sydney: Australasian Publishing Co., 1948. Young, Marilyn B. The Rhetoric of Empire: American China Policy 1895-1901. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968.

United States and World War I Buehrig, Edward H. Woodrow Wilson and the Balance of Power. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1955. Cooper, John Milton, Jr. The Vanity of Power: American Isolationism and the First World War, 1914-191 7. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1969. Devlin, Patrick: Too Proud to Fight: Woodrow Wilson's Neutrality. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. Evans, Laurence. United States Policy and the Partition of Turkey, 1914-1924. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1965. Finnegan, John P. Against the Specter of a Dragon: The Campaign for American Military Preparedness, 1914-191 7. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974. Gelfand, Lawrence E. "The Mystique of Wilsonian Statecraft." Diplomatic History 7 (Spring 1983): 87-101.

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Levin, N. Gordon, Jr. Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Link, Arthur S. Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1957. . Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality, l9I 4-19I 5. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960. May, Ernest R. The World War and American Isolation, 1914I91 7. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1959. Safford, Jeffrey J. Wilsonian Maritime Diplomacy, 1913-1921. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1978. Schofield, John McMaster. Forty-Six Years in the Army. New York, 1897. Smith, Daniel M. "Robert Lansing and the Formulation of American Neutrality Policies, 19 14-19 15 ." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 43 (June 1956): 59-8 1.

About the Author Kenneth J. Blume (B.A., Hamilton College; M.A., St. John's University; Ph.D., SUNY-Binghamton) is professor of history and chair of the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at Albany College of Pharmacy. He is a specialist in 19thcentury U.S. maritime, diplomatic, and naval history. He has published articles in a wide variety of professional journals, including The American Neptune, Civil War Histo ry, Shipmate, and Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Newsletter, and in Historical Dictionary of Oceania (1981), Biographical Dictionary of Internationalists (1983), American National Biography (1999), Reader's Guide to American History (1997), Encyclopedia of the American Civil War (2000), New Interpretations of Naval History (2001), African-American National Biography (forthcoming), and The Encyclopedia of New York State (2005). His biography of Rear Admiral Richard W. Meade (1837-1897) is soon to be published. His current projects include Sable Diplomats: African Americans in U S . Diplomacy, 1865-1914 and Painful Cases: The Antebellum Navy and Its Eficiency Boards of 1855-1857.

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